Paul Constantin Meyer, Account of the Origin and Organisation of ...

M A P S.────The races of the Western Sudan--The greatest States of theWestern Sudan--Trade and Commerce of the Western Sudan--TheState Organisations of the Western Sudan--Scale 110,000,000.────────────────────────────ABBREVIATIONS.─────C.R.S...........Comptes rendus des séances de la Soc., géogr.,Paris.G.M.............Geographische Mitteilungen Gotha.M.A.G...........Mitteilungen der Afrikanischen Gesellschaft.M.D.S...........Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten.Proc............Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,London.────────────────────────────TABLE OF LITERATURE CONSULTED 1──────Alis, Nos Africains. Paris, 1894.Ancelle, Les explorations au Sénégal et dans les contréesvoisines. Paris, 1886.Annales sénégalaises de 1854 à 1885. Paris, 1885.1 The reports of the various travellers have been includedunder their names in the history of the exploration of the WesternSoudan (omitted in this translation--Tr.).4

" Völkerkunde, 3 Vols. Leipzig, 1885-1888. (2. Auflage,2 Vols., 1894).Rechis, Nouvelle Géographie universelle, Vol. XII Paris, 1887.Ritter, Allgemeine Erdkunde. 1 Vol. Afrika. 2. Ausgabe.Berlin, 1822.Rolland, Le Transsaharien. Paris, 1891.Roskoschny, Westafrika vom Senegal zum Kamerun. Leipzig, 1885.Schauenburg, Reisen in Zentralafrika von Park bis Vogel.Lahr.1859.Schirmer, Le Sahara. Paris, 1893.Schurz, Die Wurfmesser der Neger, Diss. Leipzig (Internat. Archivfür Ethnographie 1889).Sébillot, Le Transafricain. Paris, 1893.Seehausen, Siedelungen in der Sahara. Diss. Bremen, 1890.Sénégal et Niger, La France dans L'Afrique occidentale 1879-1883(Ministr. mar. et col.). Paris, 1884.Sievers, Afrika. Leipzig und Wien, 1891.Soudrille, Le Transsaharien, &c. Oran, 1890.Steger, Mungo Park's Reisen in Afrika. Leipzig, 1856.Stein und Hörschelmann. Handbuch der Geogr. und Stat.7. Auflage. Leipzig, 1866. (4 Bd., bearbeitel vomGumprecht und Delitsch.)Steinthal, Die Mandenegesprachen. Berlin, 1867.Stuck, Verzeichnis von Reisebeschreibungen. Hull, 1787.Tarry, Le chemin de fer transsaharien. Paris, 1893 (mit Litt).Ternaux-Compans, Bibl. asiat. et afr. Paris, 1841.7

Vierkandt, Die Volksdichte im Westlichen Zentral-afrika.Diss.Leipzig, 1895 (Wissensch Veröffentl.d Vereins f. Erdkunde zuLeipzig, herausg. von Ratzel. 2 Vols., p. 63 et seq.Vivien de Saint-Martin, Nouveau Dict. Paris, 1879 et seq.Wagner, Reisen und Entdeckungen Vogels. Leipzig, 1860.Wappaeus, Unterschungen über die Negerländer der Aräber.Göttingen, 1842.Wasner, Ueber Siedelungen der Neger. Diss. Insterburg, 1891.Wauwermans, Libéria.Histoire de la fondation d'un état nègrelibre. Bruxelles, 1885.────────────────────────────Barth, Baikie's Thätigkeit am untern Niger, &c.(Zeitschr-fallg.Erdk. Berlin, 1863, 3. H.)Blanc. Les routes de l'Afrique sept. au Soudan (C.R.S. 1889).Busson, Le régime du Niger (Ann. de géogr. 15, January, 1895,p. 202, et seq.)v. Danckelman, Klima von Togo, &c., M.D.S., III., 1 et seq.Eichwaldt, Über die Fulbe (Journ. Soc. Ethnologique, 1841).Gudgeon, Liberia. (Journ. Manchester, 1888).Hertz, Die Kauriemuschel. (G.M., 1882, 36 et seq.).Johnston, The Commercial Prospect of tropical Africa.(Journ.Manchester, 1885.)Van Leyk, Die nordafrikanischen Handels-und Karawanenstrassen.(Export, 1885-86).Mann, Das Zahlensystem von Jóruba. (Journ. Anthropol. Institute,1886, I., 61 et seq.).8

Maunoir, Anteil der Franzosen an der Afrikaforschung diesesJahres. (Journ. offic., 1890).Ratzel, Entwurf einer neuen politischen Karte von Afrika. (G.M.1885, 245 et seq.)." Das Waldland Innerafrikas. (G.M., 1890, 281 et seq.)." Über allgemeine Eigenschaften der geographischen Grenzenund über die politische Grenze.(Berichte d. Kgl. Sächs.Ges. d. Wissensch, 1892, 53 et seq.), und Der Staat und seinBoden. (Do. 1896)." Studien über politische Räume. (Geogr. Zeitschr., 1895,163 et seq., 286 et seq.).Rohlfs, Geld in Afrika. (G.M., 1889, 187 et seq.).Rouire, La colonie de Lagos et les annexions récents del'Angleterre. Ann. de géogr., 15 Jan., 1815, 190 et seq.).De Slane, Conquête du Soudan par les Marocains. (RevueAfricaine, vol. I.).Supan, Eine Jahrhundert der Afrikaforschung. (2 Jug. d. LondonerGes. G.M., 1888, 161 et seq).────────────────────────────Abhandlungen d. Bayr. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hist. u.philos.-philol. Klasse). München.Annales de géogr.Annales de la Propagande de la Foi.Annuaire du Sénégal et Dépendances. Saint-Louis.Ausland.Bulletin Soc. Royale Belge, Bruxelles.9

" " géogr. comm., Bordeaux." " " Lyon." " " Marseille." " " Paris.Comptes rendus des séances Soc. géogr. Paris.Deutsches Kolonialblatt.Deutsche Kolonialzeitung.Ephemeriden, Allg. géogr. (herausgegeben von Gaspari und Bertuch)und Desgl., Neue géogr. Weimar, 1798 et seq.Export.Geogr. Jahrbuch (Behm-Wagner). Gotha, 1866 et seq.Geogr. Zeitschr. (Hettner).Globus.Journ. American Geogr. Soc. New York." Royal Geogr. Soc. London." Asiatique. Paris." Soc. géogr. Paris.Missions cathol.Mitteilungen d. Afrikan.Gesellsch in Deutschl, herausgegebenvon Erman, 1878-89.Mitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, herausgegeben vonFreihrn. v. Dankelman, 1888 et seq.Mitt., Geographische, Gotha, 1855 et seq.; nebst Ergänzungsb. undLitteraturbericht (Petermanns Mitt.).Mitt. d. Geogr Ges. zu Bern." " " Hamburg; desgl. d. Jenenser Geogr Ges.10

" Vereins f. Erdk. zu Leipzig.Mitt. d. K. K. Geogr. Ges. zu Wien.Proceedings Roy Geogr. Soc. London.Revue maritime et coloniale.Verhandl. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Berlin.Zeitschrift f. Allgem. Erdk. Berlin." d. Deutschen Geol. Ges." d. " Morgenländ. Ges.────────────────────────────11

ORIGIN AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STATES OFTHE WESTERN SUDAN.────────────────────────────THE existence of purely Negro Empires 2 to the east and southeastof Lake Chad indicates that the political conditions of theWestern Sudan have already reached a high degree of development.These purely Negro Empires--visited, in the eleventh hourof their existence as such, by travellers, mostly of Germanorigin--"afford, by their condition, an insight into the originof political life, which furnishes a politico-geographicalpaloeontology that cannot fail to be of the deepest interestboth to sociologists and historians"--(Ratzel). The absence of3rivers capable of hindering intercourse, as also of mountainsand of extensive forests, 4 the plain-like nature of the country, 5the transition from the greatest physical antitheses, which mustnecessarily influence the inhabitants of a country, 6 allfacilitated easy communication between the races. With this areassociated a favourable economical condition of existence--thekola-nut, cotton, sorghum, and gold, creating an extensivecommerce between various tribes, as, for instance, between theHaussas and Mande Jula--also the institution of slavery and,finally, that of Islam, which ever since the eleventh centuryhas incessantly pushed on towards the south, until it reached 7the Gulf of Guinea at Lagos 8 and the Sierra Leone coast. 92 Müller. The political organizations of the States of theUpper Uelle, and of the territory between the Lakes. Diss.Leipziz, 1896.3 With the exception of the Niger, which is, however,fordable at low water below its Bend. Barth V., 197.4 Only to the east of the Niger, and south and west of Kano,are such to be found, where they at once affect both politicsand commerce.5 Hence the slow migration of the population from north tosouth, and vice versâ. Passarge, 517.6 "The earth--the Fatherland of the races in its manifoldinfluence on the bodily and spiritual development of mankind."--Ritter, Preface to "Universal Geography."7 Slavery and Islam were the cause of two movements: one,of a material nature, towards the north--as proved by records ofthe continual increase of the negroid element in the BarbarianStates--the other, that of Islam, of a spiritual and culturednature, towards the south.8From 10,000 to 20,000 mahomedans went thither.--Staudinger, "Haussaländer," 13 and 533. Also in Porto Novo,Dahomey, there is a mahomedan community. Barret, "Afrique12

Nature and civilization thus joined hands in imparting tothe Western Sudan the impress of variety and of intermixture:the native of Ashanti, fierce and taciturn, spoilt by theluxuriance of the vegetation surrounding him and by thepossession of gold; the naive Bambara or Sonrhay of the Lateriteterritory, (quite content with tobacco and with the pleasures ofthe dance,) the subtle and fanatically-energetic Fulbe herd,brooding in his solitude, and the superficial, cunning, andover-lascivious Haussa trader from the large towns, are allunited together by a thousand bonds. 10 Now and again we comeupon a trait which points to primary political conditions, butonly an isolated one, and the possibly aboriginal peoples in thewest of the territory, for instance, the Kómono, Dokhosie andTiëfo, have already fallen under the levelling influence ofKong; others, such as the hill-peoples on the borders of Borguand Gurma, (hastily visited by Gruner, 11 ) are engaged in a warwith the mahomedans, in which they must finally be conquered, aswill also be the heathens, who have fled before the Fulbes intothe inaccessible forests and mountains to the east of the Niger.Only two territories have, up to now, been inaccessible both tonative conquerors and to Europeans, viz.: the Hinterland of theIvory Coast, Worodugu, and the space between the Lower Benue andthe Biafra Coast. The last remains of primitive political lifewill shortly have disappeared, destroyed by the "wonderful andmysterious movement of the peoples of the Western Sudan" 12 --(Barth).To the favourable attributes of the country mentioned abovemay be added the following:--The uniform altitude of between 50013and 600 metres (from 1,650 to 2,000 ft.) of the Sudan plateau;occidentale" I., 178. Morgen, Kamerun, 320.9 Gudgeon, "Liberia." Journ. Manchester, 1888. "MahomedanMissions in the Coast Plain," von François, M.D.S. I., 146.10 "Ce peuple est mélangé à l'infini," Binger; vide Passarge,413, 417 et seq.11 Lecture before the Geographical Society at Leipzig,6th November, 1895.12 Compare Staudinger, "Haussaländer," 491. Barth's view asto "The historical connection between mankind and the varyingcharacter of the earth's surface" (I., XVII.), as also that ofRitter (vide Note 5, p. 1), develops and extends modernanthropogeography.13 The most important heights are at the sources in Wegu(Monteil, 150) and Natinian-Sikasso in the Bend of the Niger(Binger I., 238, 359; Bull. Lyon 1890, 688; numerous sectionsare given in Binger II., app.), the hill country of Bauchi withits continuations to the east and west (to the Gora mountains,important as a water-parting and as the limit of vegetation,13

the suitability of the plain for the cultivation of cereals andfor raising cattle; the smallness of altitude of the sources ofits rivers, which are only fed by the regular rains 14 , and thesharp climatic division into a rainy season of about five and adry season of about seven months.These are, taking them all round, the most favourable15conditions for a well-developed 16 race of men:--"Negroes whoRohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 62; Ausland, 1870, 1201 et seq.) and"das zentral-afrikanische Alpenland," Adamaua (v. Stetten, Kol.Bl., 1895, 183), excellent descriptions of the orography andgeology of which are given by Passarge, 370 et seq.14Consequently there are great floods in the rainy seasonand numerous backwaters of the Niger--"Dayas" (Lenz=ponds)."Marigots" (a Jolof word perverted by Caillié, and meaningshallow arms; Barth V, 148) and "Dalluls" (Barth; "Dalhols,"Monteil), which Monteil considers to be, not river beds, but theeffects and remains of some former African inland sea (p. 199 etseq.). The problem of the bed of the Niger was first seriouslystudied by Barth (tables in the Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1863); Bussontreated of the same recently in an excellent article (Le régimedu Niger; Ann. de géogr, Jan. 1895, 202 et seq.), in which hemakes out the Niger to be a double river, the upper, with anoverflow into the tributary arms, and the lower, both of whichare united in the Niger of the Sahara, which is nothing morethan "un simple canal de jonction." Compare also Jaime 172, "Lacrue du Niger" and 183 (table). The largest lagoon formation isLake Debu. Reports on this are furnished by Park, Reisen 191;Caillié II., 256 et seq.; Barth V., 475; Caron, 219 et seq.;Jaime, 172 et seq., and Müller, Hydrographie der Senegal- undoberen Nigerländer.15 Monteil, 244. Adamaua is the most favourably situated asregards climate; for meteorological observations vide BingerII., app. 3; Anhang to Barth and Rohlfs; M.D.S., III., 1 et seq.(von Danckelman). The inhabitants divide the year into six (7)seasons--according to the sowing, reaping, grass-burning, andtemperature, vide Binger II., 118 et seq. 359; compare Rohlfs,G.M., Ergb. VII., 29 et seq. Notes as to Flora and Fauna of thecountry are given in Binger II., 346 and app. 4; Staudinger, 626et seq.; Hösel, Die Getreidearten Nord- und Mittelafrikas;Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of W. Africa; compare Ratzel,Vk. I., 10 et seq., III., 268 et seq.; Anthropogeographie I.,333 et seq.16 "The characteristic of the races which people the Sudan isto present from the point of view of physique, the finest typesof the black race and, from the intellectual and moral point ofview, to contain the highest elements in the scale ofcivilization of the blacks." (Monteil, 244, Note.) The mannersand customs are as a rule fairly civilized, but human sacrificeexists in the whole strip of country bordering the entire14

now by their prevailing noble characteristics, now by theirrecorded proofs of culture, give evidence of the efforts offoreign influence." 17If we now consider specially the framework of their Stateswe find that it is doubly erroneous to apply the European modelto "the case of Africa, where the circumstances are quitedissimilar and where the political conditions change so rapidlythat in Negro countries great empires suddenly spring up undergifted rulers only to fall to pieces again 18 equally rapidlyunder incapable successors. One has to consider that which isconstant and durable, and which, in the everchanging aspect ofpolitics, lies at the root of things, and not the short-livedstate fabrics themselves--not the countries but theirinhabitants, not Empires but the state of their civilisation,are what we must first of all consider; not the 'has been' butthe active factors." 19 That, however, means for the purposes ofHinterland of the Guinea Coast, as for instance, amongst the Tonin N.W. Ashanti, who, on the death of persons of importance,hold orgies which, by squandering all means of sustenance, arethe cause of famine (Binger II, 184 et seq.)--this occurs alsoto a lesser degree in Yóruba and Onicha (Staudinger), 475).(Binger compares the Negroes to the Gauls of 2,000 years ago,II., 347.) Binger (II., 327) does not believe in cannibalism,holding it to be excluded from economical motives on account ofthe great value of slaves who, in the Sudan, constitute thecapital; it was however vouched to by Monteil in Diondio (inMiniankala, south of Segu), where the consumption of the bodiesis looked upon as a sort of burial of the dead (Monteil, 43);furthermore, Vogel (Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 482 et seq.)describes the Tangale, living to the north of the Bend of theNiger, as cannibals, as already related by Clapperton and Landerunder the collective names of Nyem-Nyem (Yam-Yams); they aresaid to devour their fallen enemies (compare Rohlfs, Qu. d. A.II., 165); Flegel states the same (see M.A.G. V., Map, Pl. II.)about the Jebjeb, Pire and Habe in the same neighbourhood, andBurdo (Niger-Benue, 88-97), also of the Ibo living to the eastof the Lower Niger and Maistre (C.R.S., 1893, 277), of theManjia south-east of Chad. Hübbe-Schleiden's view in absolutedenial ("Ethiopien") is not tenable.17 Ratzel, Vk., I., 632. Compare Monteil, 244: "The stateof society is well balanced. One finds the entire gamut of thevarious forms of occupation of mankind from the humble shepherdto the statesman," Reclus says, (Afrique occid., 229), "thenegro of to-day depicts European society of a thousand yearsago," also Ratzel, Vk., I., 127 et seq.18 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdk., 2 Aufl., 126.19Ratzel--"Project for a new political map of Africa," G.M.,1885, 245 et seq.15

this work a special study of the nomad peoples, of the centresof power, of the boundaries and of the colonies, as also ofIslam, 20 and of the typical forms of the States themselves.Before commencing the study of the individual Stateorganisationsfrom the standpoint of their historical past, asalso of the political arena and of the general nature of localpolitics we have here inserted a preliminary survey of thepeoples of the Western Sudan.The origin of all political life consisted of small andinfinitesimal states formed out of the numerous heathen tribesspread over the whole territory. In very early days two ofthese tribes came into marked prominence, viz.: the Mandingo inthe west, and the Haussa in the east; the former was stronglyrepresented in the ancient Empires of Ghanata and Sonrhay, butmore especially in Melle; while the latter founded the Statesnamed after it (according to the fable twice 7).Between the Mandingo and Haussa are wedged in a number ofdifferent tribes, of whom the Tómbo, Mossi, Gurma 21 and Sonrhayare the most important. The influence of the Berbers (Tuáregs)with the three principal groups of the Western Sudanese, moreespecially with the Haussas, is considerable, but is small withrespect to the Arabs and the peoples settled in the south. TheMandingo separated into western tribes (Mande) and easterntribes (Wangara 22 ), and still later again, like the Haussas, intoheathen and mahomedan tribes.A new factor was added to these in the Fulbes, who, comingfrom the basin of the Senegal, overran the whole Western Sudan;it was only however at the beginning of the present century thatthey began to form states therein and, quickly interminglingwith the races conquered by them, completed the change in thepopulation. Independent pagan tribes, infected however withmahomedanism and on the decline, still exist, but are to befound more in the western than in the eastern half of theterritory, owing to the shelterings forests and mountains.From the historical point of view there are four periods.1st. That of the numerous small pagan kingdoms.2nd. That of the great States in the north--Ghánata,Melle, Sonrhay.3rd. That of the growth of the Haussa States.4th. That of the Fulbe dominion.The first lasted up to the 11th century (the spread ofIslam on the Middle Niger), the second up to the end of the16th, the third till the close of the 18th century, and thefourth from the beginning of the 19th century.The migration of the races 23 clearly indicates the south and20 Ratzel, Vk., III., 113 et seq.21 Barth IV., 567.22Barth IV., and II., 94.23The following is a table of the main groups:--16

east as the principal directions; thus the Mandingo went southand east, the Mossi in an easterly direction, the Haussassouthwards, and the Fulbes in various streams towards the east;a secondary movement of the two latter peoples took anotherdirection; the kola-trade diverted the Haussas to thesouthwest, 24 whilst the Fulbes, on the formation of the Empire ofMássina, retraced their steps from Gando towards the west andnorth-west.The Western Sudan may be considered as being divided intotwo meridonally separated politico-geographical halves--the25eastern (to the east of the Niger ) and the western (theterritory of the Bend of the Niger)--the division occurring bothas regards the difference between the inhabitants and thevarying economical conditions of the soil. Agriculturepredominates in the west, where consequently the settlements areof medium and small extent; while in the east, where industrialpursuits preponderate, we find a brisk trade, transit, commerce,and large settlements--the division also occurring in connectionwith the state organization itself. Whilst in the west we havea number of medium- and small-sized States, in the east we haveonly a single large one, that of the Fulbe-Haussa.group.West group. Lesser pagan tribes. EastYolof. Mandingo. Mossi, &c.Haussas.Western. Eastern. Mahomedans.Pagans.Mahomedans. Pagans. Berbers,Kanuri, Arabs.Fulbes.24 This placed the Haussas in direct contact with theMandingo; in any case they wandered into Dagomba in 1802 (BingerI., 188), in consequence of the Fulbe war.25 The Niger forms absolutely no well-defined boundary; thusYóruba which lies on the west of it, must, together with itslarge towns, be included in the eastern half; in the same wayPassarge draws, as the western boundary of the Central Sudan, aline from Bussa towards the south.--Page 370.17

1. PUL-HAUSSA.The representatives of the most ancient inhabitants ofHaussaland, so far as we are concerned in the present inquiry,are pagan tribes of the most diverse magnitude, who livedalongside each other but were politically independent (a termusually synonymous with being hostile) and who were separated byboundary zones, forests and rivers of more or less magnitude.Several of these exist even in the present day. In the north,where two powerful sets of invaders had sought to obtainingress, it was only the Sonrhay of Saberma, supported by themass of their kinsmen living to the north-west, 26 who succeededin maintaining their foothold. In the interior the aboriginesare to be found, more especially in the wooded and mountainouscountry between Saria, Bauchi and the Benue; there we find thetribes of the Koto (at Anassárawa), Yesko or Yasko (north ofKeffi), Koro (south-west of Lafia-Berebere), Arago (south of L-B), Daróro and Bolo (north of L-B), Kadarra (south of Saria),Kado (S.E. of Saria), Gbari (S.W. of Saria), Shaba (S.S.E. ofSaria), Kache and Kagore (south-west of Bauchi), Basa (west ofthe Yesko); besides these there are other unknown isolated pagantribes in the interior. 27In the west are the pagan Sonrhay, Gurma, Borgu and Kámbarion the borderland and, on the west bank of the Niger, going downstream, the Gudu, Egbon, Tsekpon, Agba, Bonu, Akoko and Basa(westward of the confluence of the Benue), Igbira-Shima (orIgbira-Hima), and finally, close to the Niger delta, the Ado orEdu. 28 To the east, on the Bornu border, are the large tribes ofthe Marghi, Wándala or Mándara, and the Mussgu.Most of the old tribes are in the south, in the part mostdistant from the great wave of peoples--the basin of the Benue.Here, on the north bank of the Benue, going up stream, wefind the Igbira, 29 Bassa (Basakomo), Afo (Aho) or Ekpe, Doma,26 Monteil 227; Barth IV., 233.27 Staudinger 530.28 Compare herewith the reports and maps of Clapperton andDenham (Rennell's map), Lander (Journal London, 1830), Baikie(Journal London, 1855), Barth (Petermann's maps and JournalLondon, 1860), Rohlfs (G.M., Ergb. VII., and Qu. d. A. II.),Flegel (three-sheet map by Kiepert, M.A.G. V.), Staudinger (K.v. Erman), Burdo, Ferryman, Zintgraff, Morgen, v. Stetten,Passarge; the latter mentions, on an ethnographical map, goingup the Benue from Ibi, the following pagan peoples; Jikum,Baibai, Dekka, Chamba, Yelu, Kolla, Batta, Bassama and Bula,Tangale, Margi, Mattafall, Mosugoi, Wándala, Falli, Mundáng,Dama, Bokko, Namji, Durru, Mbum, Lakka, Deek, Yangere, Káka.29Ferryman (136) divides the Igbira into Bush and HomeIgbiras (I-Sima and I-Panda), and the latter again into Kakanda18

Jebjeb, Bassama (Bachama), Pire and Habe, Batta, Sena and Demsa.On the south bank of the Benue--also going from west to east--are the Ibo or Igbo (north-east of the Niger delta), l'gara(north of Onicha) and A'kpoto (in the south-east angle of theconfluence 30 ), Michi or Muchi, Kuana, Gonda, Palava, Juku (aboutBeli), Wenka (south-east of Beli), Ndorro, Nakani, Kambo,Kamkam, Koka and Mabari (south of Beli), Darra and Kotofo (eastof Beli); also the Mbana, Fali, Dama, Bere and Batta (on theUpper Benue and Faro), Lakka and Deek to the east; Kento andChamba (driven away from Faro towards the south-west), Bokko(Flegel; ? identical with Barth's Moko), Durru, Ndaren, Baya,Bati, Mbum (these round about Ngáumdere); eastward of these theYangere, to the south the Tikar, Shambano, Shengel, Gagi,Girrgirr, and on the southern border the Kapullah, Mandiongolo,Wuté (Bute), and Dome.During the course of a long period of time there was pouredforth over the remains of the old races, as represented to-dayby the above tribes, firstly, the wave of the Haussa nation--ifthe word nation may be applied to the imperfect relationshipswhich exist among the peoples of the interior of Africa--andsecondly, that of the Fulbe.The HAUSSAS 31 are a large mixed negro race, differingaccording to the locality whence they come, but all having agood deal of the old Berber blood. 32 They are the most typicalrace of the Sudan, and possess as their main characteristic thefaculty in a high degree of enforcing their language and customsupon the peoples with whom they come in contact, and, by meansof this property, of blending the most varied elements; 33 it isclassed by Barth "among the Ethiopian or rather sub-Libyanraces" which, owing to oppression by the Arabs, was driven bythe formerly Christian Berbers out of the southern desert landsin a southerly direction to the Sudan. "That remarkable mixedrace which, always expanding further, swallows up all races withwhich it comes in contact, and to which the entire Central(the boatmen of the Lower Niger before the arrival of Europeans,Lander), Woro-Igbira, Igu-Igbira (the cleanest), and Koto-Igbira(already almost merged in the Haussas).30 Ferryman (143) mentions, as small tribes at theconfluence, the Akoko, Gbede, and Kukuku or Kukuruku; betweenYóruba and the confluence, the Woro, Efon, Kakanda (Habeh),Bunu, and Yagba; on the Middle Niger and to the north of Nupe,the Kámbari, and to the west of Nupe the Borgu; the tribes ofthe Yóruba, 171.31 Barth II., 78 et seq., Ratzel Vk. 1, 648; III., 195.32 Barth II., 247 et seq.; Journal London, 1860, 120.33Staudinger, Haussaländer, 156, 211, 550.19

Sudan, from the desert to the sea, will one day belong, 34 variesas regards its external appearance (due to its mixed origin)between the plump inhabitant of the tropics and the spare man ofthe desert; traces of Semitic origin, betraying an admixture ofArab blood, are also not uncommon. But nowhere does one find adecided type--everywhere there are crosses. Probably theHaussas will develop into a uniform race, but, by the absorptionof the numberless negro races, will fall into decay, 35 for whichpreparation has already been made by the change from a warliketo a trading nation.36The origin of the Haussas cannot, in the great raceminglingof the Western Sudan, with its obliterating tendency,be easily determined: certain it is, however, that they camefrom the north, as evinced by the character of their language 3734Pass., 61 et seq.35 Pass., 518, 564.36 The statement of the Fulbe Sultan Bello that the Haussasare descended from a Bornu slave merely portrays the contemptentertained for them by the Fulbes; another statement ofBarth's, in his work on the conquests of the Fulbes (App. toDenham and Clapperton), in which the Goberaua Haussas aredescribed as Copts, is considered by himself (II., 369) to be"by no means an absurd statement;" see also Ba. II., 45, Note.37 Compare Prietze and Passarge, 414 et seq., on thelanguage-grouping of the Sudan; according to these the Haussalanguage belongs to the southern group, which makes the changesby forming prefixes; works on this subject have been written bySchön, Barth, Leroux, Faidherbe, Toutain, &c. Haussa, rankingby importance, is the English of the Sudan; it is very rich invowels, "sweet and insinuating, as well as easily learnt"(Krause, Ausland, 1883, 455) . . . "the prettiest, mostmelodious, richest, and most spirited of all the languages ofthe negro country, but, as regards the verbs, deficient intenses. (Barth, Journal London, passim); the system of numeralsis very perfect, and shows that foreign influence has been atwork (Staudinger, 735). Barth found the limit of the Haussalanguage, towards the north, to be at Asben (1, 374; the Kelowispeak it as fluently as their own language which is, moreover,sprinkled with Haussa expressions); to the west the limit isfound in the salt valley of Fogha (Barth IV., 233) and theColony of Gárbo in West Kebbi (Barth, 236; see also map, Bd.IV.), and Egga on the Niger (Ferryman, 165); to the south it isat Idda, on the Niger (Burdo, 123, Staudinger, 46 et seq.,Ferryman, 30, 221), Wukari (Flegel, M.A.G. III., 257), andS. Muri (Passarge, 339, et seq.); to the eastward Bauchi (RohlfsQu. d. A. II., 155), and Gabesáua, where Kanuri makes a greatbend to the west (Barth II., 177, 182). It is, however, thelanguage of intercourse in a far larger area, which may bedefined somewhat as follows:--Kong, Mossi, Ghat, Mursuk,20

as also by their anthropological characteristics; 38 their namemay perhaps also be connected with the term "Aussa," used by thewestern Tuaregs and in Timbuktu to signify the country to thenorth, in contradistinction to Gurma, the country to the southof the Niger. 39 The purest remains of the race are equally to befound in the north of the present Haussa countries, on thefringe of the desert, especially in Gober (where, however,formerly only the noblest family, that of the Bacheraua, waslooked upon as of foreign origin 40 ), Kebbi and Maradi; by thefirst-named Haussa State Barth refers to the country lying farmore to the northward, where he was formerly imprisoned, theneighbourhood of Ghat and Aïr. 41 In the present day Haussas areto be found on the Gold and Slave Coasts, as also in the basinof the Sanga, a tributary of the Congo. They, more especiallythe princes and chiefs and the inhabitants of the large towns,had accepted Islam long before the advent of the Fulbes on thefield of politics and, though they only accepted it in itsoutward form, they did so just as zealously as though they hadaccepted it in its entirety. 42The Haussas, with their manifold crosses and combinations,and in form and cast of features 43 so very much of a mixturebetween the types of the inhabitants of the Sahara and of theWest Coast, are light-hearted, always cheerful, intelligent andvery industrious, but have no idea of political organisation,and were never capable of forming a large united empire. InTripoli, Lake Chad, the Sanga (Congo), Sánnaga (Kamerun), Lagos(excluding the Niger delta), Accrá (Gold Coast); in other words,from the Gulf of Guinea to the Syrt. The Haussa language isthus continually spreading, though in a markedly reduced form,as is the case with the Malay language of intercourse in Asia(Passarge, 518). The purest Haussa is spoken in Kátsena(Staudinger, 387; Barth II., 91).38 Passarge, 512.39 Krause considers the name to be that of the country; theoriginal form is Habassa (Ausland, 1883, passim). Meyer,Erforschungsgeschichte und Staatenbildungen des Westsudan.40 Barth I., 369.41 Barth I., 248. The women of the Imrhad, the tribe nowliving there, appear to approach more closely to the negro type(Barth, 255); this circumstance may also be an indication of theancient population; the names of Gober and Tassaua are to befound in Fezzan and in the Sudan (Barth, 157. Note.)42 This explains the destruction by the zealot Fulbes of mostof the documents bearing on the history of the Haussas.43Passarge, 421.21

conjunction with the qualities of industry, readiness to oblige,and sedateness, one meets also with drunkenness 44 ; theirchildishness of character distinguishes them from the energeticYóruba; 45 they are indolent, frivolous, and passionately devotedto games of chance. 46 In addition to the capacity for swallowingup other nations, referred to on page 7, the Haussas show agreat spirit of enterprise, as also the spirit of commerce in amarked degree; "they are born merchants" (Gruner): Haussatraders are to be found from Mekka and Cairo as far as the UpperNiger and from Constantinople to the forest of the Congo. "TheHaussa is like a gipsy, who is found everywhere but is never athome, and who traverses the entire Sudan, as a porter as long ashe owns nothing, as a trader as soon as he has made a littlemoney 47 ; in time of war he is the most active plunderer; aselephant hunter, as founder of towns, as a tolerant banker--heeverywhere maintains his advantage. When armed the Haussas, inspite of their small amount of personal courage, will even visitthe pagan robbers (for instance, on the route from Yola toMárrua), and in order to barter for their plunder and to do agood trade they will place themselves in the greatest danger andallow themselves "to be treated like dogs by them." 48In their commerce amongst themselves they evince greatesprit d'association, 49 and from the colony they maintain a brisktrade with the mother country. 50Politically the Fulbes are, it is true, the rulers, thoughmuch of the actual power is in the hands of the Haussas; for asherds and peasants the Fulbes, though in a majority, are poor,and their rulers and chiefs are in various degrees dependentupon the great Haussa traders, who at the same time are thebankers at the several courts. From Sókoto to Ngáumdere 51 their44 Binger I., 370.45 Passarge, 61 et seq., 509 et seq.46 See Staudinger, 142.47 Passarge, 31.48 Passarge, 206.49 Binger II., 143.50 For instance, from Kete-Krachi, the flourishing commercialstation on the Volta in German Togoland. Döring, Kol. Bl.,1894, 426. Here are to be found traders, provision dealers,agents, and dyers. The English Haussa soldiers are of the mostvaried extraction.51 Passarge, 269; also in Muri: see Passarge, 339, et seq.Passarge (520, et seq.), expects considerable advantages for theGerman Colony of Kamerun if they can succeed in attractingHaussa traders to it; they are already not far off, at Ngila, to22

influence appears to have increased considerably in recenttimes.As a national hero common to them all the Haussas worshipBanu or Bao (nephew of Biram, and son of Karbágari, thedestroyer of towns), a personification of their consciousness ofexistence as a tribe. To his mythical figure is traceable thefoundation of the "Haussa-Union" (Barth) which embraced thecountries east of the Niger from Egga as far as Say, a tract ofcountry extending from about 8° to 15° N. Lat. (Greenwich).Corresponding to the number of the sons of Banu, the old HaussaStates were divided into: seven legitimate haussa bókeu, theHaussa seven, the legitimate, who were recognized as the legalsons of Banu by a Berber wife of the tribe of the Deggara; andthe bastard seven, bansa bókeu, the unrecognized seven, whocorrespond to bastard sons of the parent stem. The names of theStates are identical with those of the sons. The value of theabove lies therein that it points out to us the ancestral homeof the Haussa tribes at an historically earlier date, viz.:--thewestern portion of the plateau between the Niger and Lake Chad. 52Among the legitimate Haussa States the (word State beingused with the necessary modification so as to mean what mayfrequently be described rather as towns, tribes, or tracts ofcountry) Barth 53 includes Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano,Kátsena, and Ségseg (=Saria or Soso). Flegel 54 includes Katsena,Daura, Biram, Kano (from the male descendants of Banu) andSamfara, Saria, Kano 55 (from the female). Ferryman, in "the oldHaussa States proper," 56 includes Gober, Daura, Biram, Kano,Katshena, Bautshi, and Zaria or Zozo. Leo Africanus, 57 at thebeginning of the 16th century, describes quindecim Nigritarumregna, which he visited; among these he mentions the HaussaStates of Guber, Cano, Casena, Zegzeg and Zanfara, which at thattime were certainly the most important; he, however, does notknow the name of Haussa.Kátsena and Segseg, as well as Kano and Rano, arethe south of Tibati.52 The haussa bókeu (Barth; Haussa bokoi, Staudinger)occupied about the space of the present true Empire of Sókoto(excluding Gando and Adamaua) whilst the bansa bókeu occupiedthe greater part of Gando.53 Barth, II., 80 et seq.54 Staudinger, 516 et seq.55 Probably a printer's error for Rano.56 Ferryman, 53, Note.57Descr. Afr. 11, 648 et seq.23

epresented in the fable as twins; characteristic of theircivilisation is the distribution of the principal offices amongthe sons 58 : thus Gober became sserki-n-yaki or war minister,Kano and Rano were ssáraki-n-baba, or ministers for the dyetrade, Katsena and Daura ssáraki-n-ká-ssua or ministers fortrade and commerce, while Segseg had to provide his brotherswith slaves.59The bastard Haussa States, "in which the Haussa languagewas used to a great extent, although not the language of thenatives," are, according to Barth: Sánfara, Kébbi, Nupe orNyff, Guari, Yauri, Yoruba or Yaruba ("called by others Bauchi")and Korórofa; 60 according to Flegel: Bauchi, Hadija, Nupe,Gombe, Ilorin (and two that he could not identify); Ferryman("the Bastard Haussa States"): Zanfara, Kebbi, Guari, Yauri, apart of Yoruba and Adamaua, as well as Gurma and Zaberma. 61The origin of these States, 62 "by the formation anddismemberment of the Haussa race," must have occurred inconnection with a great irruption of Islam from theMediterranean towards the South. It took place amidst fiercebattles, in which the individual states either fought againsteach other, or against their powerful neighbours, Sonrhay to theWest and Bornu to the East. In these combats individual statesdegenerated into towns without any territory. 63 Their most58 Barth, passim.59 Passarge considers their population to consist of racesdriven out of Gobir, p. 513.60 In the valley of the Benue the Haussas have either notformed states at all or have only done so to a very limitedextent; here their power was broken by the powerful tribes ofthe Igbira, Mitchi, &c.61 Special stress is laid above upon the spread of the Haussalanguage beyond the original limits, even after the rise of theFulbes, indicating, as it does, the great vitality of the race;the rise of the Fulbes even assisted it, for instance, inAdamaua, where Fulbe conquerors and Haussa traders go hand inhand. Compare von Stetten, K.Bl., 1895, 136.62 None of them bears the name of the Maradi, a pagan tribe,driven down from the north of Kátsena, and whose chief is stillcalled Lord of Kátsena (Barth. II., 91); this may be explainedby the fact that, throughout the Sudan, in the case where theybear different names, the town and country are of greaterimportance than the tribe itself.63 At the beginning of the century Kebbi fought victoriouslyagainst Sonrhay (Barth, IV., 633); in 1513 Kátsena came underSonrhay (Barth, II., 84 et seq.); in 1600 Edriss, King of Bornu,conquered the Empire of Kano (Barth, II., 335).24

flourishing period was from the beginning of the 16th up tillthe end of the 18th century; they are now provinces of the FulbeEmpire.When at the commencement of this century one single man setthe whole of Europe in a blaze, the same thing occurred also inthe Western Sudan, where the Fulbes, who had long settled northof the chaos of Pagan and Haussa States, arose as a germinatingpower. Incited and led by the fanatical Mallem 64 Othman (Rohlfs:Osman) dan Fodie, their Jehadi or Reformer, who was born atFuta Toro, on the Senegal, 65 they formed a religious andpolitical union, the Jemaa, (pronounce Jemmara) for shaking offthe Haussa yoke. 66 Not only did they achieve this object, butalso, what was far more important, the union of the Fulbes underone ruler. The movement commenced about 1800 (1804) in Gobir, 67in north-west Haussaland, against whose prince Baua 68 it was thatOthman rose. The latter conquered Kebbi, where he establishedhis first "residence," in Gando, which, however, he soonexchanged for the newly-built Sókoto.At this point it will be necessary to interrupt the courseof historical events by a study of that much talked of nomad69race, the FULBES.The name, which the people give to themselves, is in thesingular "Pul" (French, Peul or Poulh), "Pulo" (o=the personalpronoun he), and in the plural "Fulbe" (be=the personal pronounyou). 70 By the peoples and tribes coming into contact with themthey were given the most varied names, most of which, however,had the fundamental signification of "fair" or "light"; Krause 7164 Also Malam or Marabu; respectable mahomedan priests andlearned men, who for the most part play a political rôle andwho, among the Fulbes, (with whom the rank of chief demandsreligious training), perform the part of founders of states.65 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.66 Barth, II., 92 et seq.67 Clapperton, 2; Reise, 278 et seq.; Barth, IV., 669 et seq;Monteil, 247.68 Krause, Mitt. d. Riebeckschen Niger-Expedition, I., 19.,writes it Bawu.69 Ratzel, Vk. III., 186 et seq., 270.70 Krause, Riebeckschen Niger-Expedition, I., 5.71 Krause, Do. 6; compare Lenz., Timbuktu, II., 258. ForGermans to call the people by any of these foreign names must beconsidered to be quite unnecessary and confusing; the onlyproper transliteration is--singular, Pul; plural, Fulbe; theword, "fulisch," employed by Krause, should be replaced by"pulisch" (French "poular").25

enumerates over one hundred of them, of which the most importantare: Féllani (by the Haussas), Fullan (Arabs), Fula (Mandingo),Fellata (Kanuri), I'fellan (Tuaregs), Chilmigo (Mossi). Theroot "pul" or "ful" signifies, according to Barth, 72 light-brownor red, and according to Kölle 73 yellow or brown.74Fulfúlde, which is the language of the Fulbes, has apassive character, in antithesis to the epidemic and aggressiveHaussa language; it is rich, harmonious, and flexible; 75according to Friedrich Müller 76 it does not belong to the negrotongues. Its Hamitic core has developed itself spontaneouslyand independently, or else has become permeated by foreigntongues; 77 "it is specially noticeable in that it does notrecognize the signs of grammatic gender whilst it boldly givesexpression to psychic and apsychic categories in grammar. 78In Adamaua Fulfulde is the principal language ofintercourse, in Muri it is far less used, whilst in the Haussacountries it is quite in the background as compared with Haussa.The consonants, more especially in contradistinction to thelanguage of the coast tribes, are uttered with wonderfulclearness, particularly the letter r, like the East Prussianlingual r. Similarly the accent is always very distinct. Thelanguage has, in consequence of this, a hard but sonorous andpleasant ring, and is full of character. 79 Many Fulbe tribeshave quite forgotten their mother tongue, as, for instance, theGabero, under the rule of the Sonrhay, below Gogo on the Niger 80and also numerous groups east of the Upper Niger; 81 others use72 Sammlung und Bearbeitung zentralafrikanischerVokabularien. Gotha, 1862 et seq.73 Polyglotta Africana, London, 1851.74 Barth, Rohlfs. Passarge, on the contrary, places theaccent thus, Fúlfulde.75 Rohlfs, Qu. d., A. II., 131.76 In Passarge (167, 416, 560) we find the followingstatements by Prietze: it is erroneously held, by Lepsius, tobe a Bantu language and is treated, along with Nuba, as aseparate group by Fr. Müller; it is now known for certain to beof Semitic origin and to be related to Somali (Schleicher,Afrikan. Petrefacten, 1891).77 Rohlfs denies the existence of Semitic sounds.78 Krause, passim, 11 et seq.79 Passarge, 416.80Barth, IV., 151.81Binger, II., 391.26

theirs only for trade purposes amongst themselves, not being ina position to force subject, and mentally inferior, negroes toaccept it, the latter also refraining from using it throughpride.The written Fulbe language is only used in Sókoto andGando, 82 whilst in Sókoto also is the only school where it istaught, 83 the grammar, Náhan Fulfúlde, having been compiled bySaidu, son of Bello, the second sultan of Sókoto. The lettersare similar to those of Arabic.The Fulbes are spread over the three great basins of theSenegal, Niger and Chad, a tract of country which extends acrosssome 35 degrees of longitude, lying between 5° and 19° of N.Lat., and which is more than half the size of Europe. They arethe true race of the Niger basin from the source of the Niger tothat of the Benue. In the whole of this territory, with theexception of their eastern colonies in Bornu, Baghirmi, Wadaiand Darfur, they are the rulers. Barth estimates their numberas about the same as that of the Mandingo, or from six to eight84millions. In none of the countries occupied by them do theyentirely populate it as a large body, but everywhere constituteonly a portion of the inhabitants. The territory over which theFulbes spread extends towards the east as far as Darfur, 85 whileisolated groups dwell in the basin of the Shari and in Wadai. 86In the north they are to be found as far as Timbuktu; theirpresence in Tuat is now denied by Rohlfs, 87 whilst formerly theywere settled there. To the north-west there are Fulbe villagesat Nioro 88 in Kaarta, while westwards the Fulbes extend right upto the Atlantic Ocean (Saint-Louis). In a southerly directionthey extend in the western half as far as 10° of N. Lat., and inthe eastern half they are already beyond 5° of N. Lat. Theboundary of the free Fulbes to the south of their last greatcolony in Dafina is defined by the following places: Kotedugu,Koroma, Satere, Bomduquoi, Wakara, Yaho and Duki within the Bend82 Lenz, Timb., II., 259.83 M.A.G. V., 108; Staudinger, 342.84 Journal, London, 1860, 119.85 Krause passim, 18, G.M. 1880, 380.86 Monteil, 243; Passarge, 167.87 Compare Ratzel, Vk. III., 186, and Barth, Journal, London,1860, 118.88Peopled by prisoners of war of Haji Omar, Lenz, Timb. II.,271 et seq.27

of the Niger. 89 It appeared to Binger as though these, so tospeak, advanced guards--four to 14 families in one village--hadmade no progress for 60 years, but had, on the contrary, beenkept back by the advancing Mande Jula of Kong; Monteil, on theother hand, who found them in Bussura, on the other side of theVolta, reports that they are advancing towards the south, andquickly obtain influence over the timorous, simple Bobo. 90 Fulbeprisoners and black cross-breeds are to be met still further tothe south in Follona, Kong, and amongst the Dokhosie andKomono. 91 A line drawn between Ilorin and Ibadan shows theirboundary in Yóruba. To the south-east they have penetrated thewhole of Adamaua, and have advanced south of Tibati as far asNgila, and south of Ngáumdere to the Sanga, 92 and thus into thebasin of the Congo. The seats of the densest Fulbe populationare in the western half: Futa Jallon, Bondu (Upper Senegal),Futa Toro (Lower Senegal) and Mássina; in the eastern half ofour (the German) territory: Sókoto with Wurno, Kátsena, Kano,Gando, Saria, Bida, Ilorin, Keffi, Anassárawa, Bauchi, Muri,Wukari, Bakúndi, Yola, Konja, Rei Buba, Gashka, Banyo, Tibati,and Ngáumdere. The eastern and western groups are united byonly a narrow strip of Fulbe settlements which extends fromSouth Massina through Dafina, North Mossi and Libtako to theneighbourhood of Say, 93 and forms the main line of communicationbetween Mássina and Haussa. 94In considering the present Fulbe nation--as also theHaussa--it is necessary to bear in mind in the first place theimportance of the Sudan as the "wide zone of contact of the twogreatest African groups of peoples, namely, the Hamo-Semitic andthe Negroid," 95 in which we find "only relative settlers and noaborigines." The Sudan has always been one of the openestcountries in the world, and here we must expect more absorptionof races than the short period of the historical record willadmit of; in a territory whose confusion of tongues is89Binger, I., 389 et seq.90Monteil, 247; he states on p. 243 that the Fulbes extendsouthwards a little beyond 9° of N. Lat.; Binger (Bull. Lyon,1890, 684), that they do not go beyond 11°; here we must allowfor intermixture of races, as also for the interval of some 4years between the two journeys.91 Binger, I., 380; compare map, II., app.92 Monteil, 244.93 Monteil, 247.94 Barth, IV., 262.95vide Ratzel, Vk., III., 271.28

suggestive of the "detritus and rubbish of nations, thetransitions are more noticeable than the boundaries." TheFulbes present two easily distinguishable types: the pure andthe mixed. 96The pure Fulbes are reddish-brown to yellow in colour; 97 itis not, however, this light colour, but the slender, supple,elegant, fine-boned, very thin, and yet muscular and powerfulbodies ("apparently emaciated, consumptive, greyhound-likefigures"--Passarge) which is the principal anthropologicalcharacteristic that distinguishes them from the more plump mixedraces and negroes. Many of them endure incredibly long marches,exactly as do the desert tribes. The long, narrow, finely-cutfaces show pleasing traces of the Caucasian race; the point ofthe long nose is never turned upwards; the eyes 98 are very brightand full of expression; the fine black hair is not woolly, butlong and wavy; the women have not the strongly-markedBeckenneigung of negro women; the skull is usually of mediumlength, or dolichocephalous. "Many of the Fulbes would, asbusts, be taken for a Hermes rather than for an African"(Passarge); "the Fulbes are by far the finest stamp of humanbeings of Central Africa" (Rohlfs), and also at the same time"the most intelligent" (Barth); they are clear- and activeminded,polite in manners and speech, hospitable (Monteil;whilst other traveilers affirm the contrary), tenacious of anidea, capable of enduring fatigue and hardship, extraordinarilymoderate and sober, 99 upright, very religious, considerably more96 Ratzel, 190. This refutes Waitz' view that there are nolonger any pure Fulbes. Jaime (De Koulikoro à Tombouctou, 158,Note) distinguishes Peuhls (the mixed) and Foulbé (the pure).97 "Rhubarb-colour," Barth; "The yellow of dull bronze,"Rohlfs; "from dark brown to the colour of light yellow leather,but always with a dash of red; the fairest being as pale as caféau lait, or as the sunburnt tint of our peasants (Passarge).See Monteil, 255 et seq; Passarge, 167, 206, 217, 425 et seq;Staudinger, 540 et seq; Krause Nig-Exp, I.; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A.II., 130 et seq.; Barth and others.98 Morgen's statements as to the Pul having blue eyes (DurchKamerun, 295) is endorsed by Binger as occurring principallyamongst the Fulbes of Futa-Jallon and Massina and is traced backby him to an intermixture with the Tuaregs (1, 392); Baikierelates the same of Muri (Expl. voy., 160; vide Passarge, 426);Staudinger (güt, Mitt), and Passarge (passim) refer to them; thelatter remembers having seen albinos. Compare Ratzel, Vk. III.206. Only individual variations are, of course, spoken of.99 The Fulbes of Kotedugu (within the Bend of the Niger) forma remarkable exception; "they are nearly pure bred and almostwhite. All, without exception, are mussulmans, but drunkards inevery sense of the word. By five o'clock in the evening it isimpossible to hold serious intercourse with them; young people,29

earnest and quiet, but less garrulous and frivolous than thenegroes, and undoubtedly possess more self-control and energy,and more pride and sense of honour than the latter. Work andtrade are not their proper sphere of action, their favouriteoccupations, on the contrary, being hunting, making war, andcattle-rearing. 100In each small community schools are to be found, and thestudy of the Koran is diligently pursued. 101 One of their mostimportant maxims is: Never do unto others that which you do notwish them to do unto you. 102 The impulse to rule shows itselfeven in their smallest actions, yet they can look humble toattain an object. Where they do not live under a Sovereign oftheir own blood they have still their separate chief. They arein a great measure violent, governed by the spirit of caste,covetous and thieving, cunning 103 and, as "warlike missionariesof Islam, fanatical and intolerant;" from a political point ofview they, like the Haussas, are deficient of the capacity fororganisation. 104 According to anthropological characteristicsand character the Fulbes are more closely allied to theinhabitants of the desert than to the negroes--theirs is "on thewhole a softened-down Berber character." 105The pure Fulbes are almost all herds; families that havebecome settled can only as a great exception have remainedunmixed, while in the large towns this was impossible. Theyprocure their stuffs and cereals by the produce of theirflocks. 106 One is struck by the similarity between individualsthose of middle age, and the aged are all drunk." (Binger, I.,382.)100 Passarge, 508; "Fulla no work, he sit down," said hisinterpreter. The mixed races also do not easily accustomthemselves to work. Passarge, 163, 208.101 Park, Reisen, p. 50. Caillié, I., 330. Lenz, II., 260.102 Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII., 45 et seq.103 Staudinger, passim. Compare Passarge, 310.104 Barth, Journal, London, 1860, 119; compare the same, II.,610, et seq., "On the banks of the Benuë ànd Faro they dream ofthe holy temple at Mecca." The Fulbes of Mássina areparticularly fanatical (p. 72).105 Passarge, 508.106 "Vagabond by nature, he is everywhere and nowhere; he isnot attached to the soil, since he does not cultivate it"(Monteil). There is, however, a certain amount of grain-andvegetable-growing, which they probably learnt from the Haussas,though in this, as in other matters, they surpassed theirinstructors; they make good butter, but no cheese (Rohlfs).30

of this singular race: in all social positions the Pul is thesame, whether as a man of the wilderness or when seated on theimperial throne. It is almost incredible, for these countries,how well instructed the Fulbes are on all matters, especiallythose of a political or religious nature. Their customs arepatriarchal; their organisation is that of the tribe. Familylife is pure and chaste; often they have only one wife, nevermore than three; in their marriages they adhere scrupulously topurity of race. The women are pretty, 107Compare Barth, II., 251; Park, Reisen, 51.verycoquettish,passionate, gaze with large enquiring eyes, and are oftenmocking and quarrelsome. The negroes say of the Fulbes: "Thereis no fool among them," and of their women: "When a Fulbe womanis brought a prisoner into the house she is mistress of it thenext day." The Pul despises the negro as a low class of being,and places himself even above the European.The pure Fulbes cover the Sudan like a network of meshes,now large and now small, forming their settlements with thecharacteristic beehive huts--in contrast to the round mud hutswith conical straw roofs, or the oblong buildings with flatroofs, of the Sudanese negroes. They are bound down in thechoice of their dwelling place, which they vary within wide108limits, by their flocks; and are forced to select highplateaus, rich in pasture land and free from insects, and with achalk soil, or some other substitute for the deficiency of saltin the Sudan. To the east, therefore, the pure Fulbes are foundin Adamaua, 109 Sókoto and Gando, in the unwooded andunmountainous parts; to the west in Jilgodi, about Timbuktu, inMássina, Bághena, Futa-Jallon, Ferlo, Bunun, Firdu and at thesources of the Niger. 110The far greater majority of the race is formed by the darkcolouredmixed Fulbes 111 "whose various subdivisions have a verymanifold and somewhat indeterminate character." In the courseof their wanderings, and by spreading over a large tract ofcountry, they have acquired numerous national traits,107 Compare Passarge, 202, 206, 346, 425; the old women looklike gipsies.108 For instance between Kano and Pánda (Lower Benuë).Staudinger, 423; and from Kásena to the Niger. Barth, IV., 565.109 Especially in the smaller villages and towns of CentralAdamaua--Passarge, 68.110 Binger, I., 391.111 The anthropological process of intermingling is describedby Passarge, p. 426; the parts to change first are the softparts, the hair, and the colour of the skin; the skeleton isthat which longest retains its originality.31

(altogether differing from one another,) about which, however,we have, at present, but scanty information; several mixed typesmay, however, be referred to. The most important of these isthe Tórobe (singular Torode), a tribe arising from theintermixture of the Fulbes with the Yolof (Jolof, Wolof) "inwhich, numerically, the Yolof had the great preponderance."Their pasture-ground is at Toro (Fouta in Senegalese). Theyare, both physically and psychically, an impovement and anennoblement of the pure Fulbes: the Tórobe are "as a rule tallin stature and powerfully built, and have large features and aperfectly black skin--quite the opposite of the other sectionsof the great Pullo race": 112 they are considered by the entireFulbe race to be their aristocracy and constitute, by theirreligious erudition, a sort of theocracy. The fact is that theyhave actual claims to rulership, which the timid herd has becomeaccustomed to respect. 113 They are spread over Futa, 114 Mássina,Yagha and Torodi (west of Say), and form the ruling class in theEastern Fulbe Empire, in which they have their seat ofgovernment at Wurno, 115 (which is consequently the true"residence,") in addition to the nominal and official one--Sókoto. The Tukulör race, whose home is also the Senegal basin,likewise owes its origin to an intermixture of the Fulbes andYolof, with the addition of the Mandingo; 116 Ahmed Baba lookedupon the Yolof as only a branch of the Fulbes. 117 The characterof the Tukulör does not--as does that of all the other followingvarieties--rise to the level of that of the pure Fulbes. To besure this warlike and fanatical race possesses common sense,discipline, fondness for agriculture, "whilst at the same timecombining the faults of both Yolof and Pul: the swaggeringmanner of the Yolof, (without however having his courage,) in112 Barth, IV., 147.113 Monteil, 247.114 Under the name of Futa the Fulbes include, in addition tothe country between the sources of the Gambia and the AtlanticOcean (Futa Jallon), and on the lower Senegal (Futa-Toro), alsoall the Fulbe States on the right bank of the Niger. Binger,I., 381.115 Barth, IV., 178.116 Compare Ratzel, Vk., I., 645; Binger, I., 393. Monteil(passim) identifies Tukulör and Tórobe, which would agree with astatement by Sultan Bello that the Tórobe are allied to theWakore (Mandingo) (Barth, IV., 146, Note); most explorershowever understand by the Tukulör the people of later origin whotook part in the foundation of the Empires of Segu and Mássinaunder Haji Omar.117Barth, IV., 146.32

conjunction with the often roguish cunning of the Pul. 118 TheFulbes live at enmity with the Tukulör and have driven them fromSenegal-Futa; this, as well as Segu and Mássina, is the countrywhere they are to be found in the largest numbers.Two of the races sucked up and carried along by the Fulbesin their great migration to the East are the Ssissilbe, as theyare called by themselves, (or Ssyllebáua, as they are called inHaussa,) and the Soghoran, called Jauámbe by the Fulbes, and119Soromáua by the Haussas. The former are of an earlierMandingo stock, whose descendants now occupy the neighbourhoodof Sókoto and who are often in political opposition to theTórobe. Here they have altogether forgotten their own dialectand speak Fulfulde and Haussa; in the Province of Sabérma,however, which lies westward of Sókoto, they use their ownlanguage almost entirely. The latter 120 were only absorbed andcarried away by the Fulbes after the close of the 16th century,at which time they were quite separate from the Sonrhay, (withwhom they were engaged in a bloody war,) and were settled on theUpper Niger where it enters Mássina; the greater part of themare now "agents" in Haussa.Barth recognises "subject tribes" in the following castelikesubdivisions: the Laúbe (joiners) on the Senegal, the121Mábube (weavers), Gergassabe (shoemakers), Waílube (tailors),Wambaibe (singers), Waúlube (beggars), "all of whom can betraced back in the accepted genealogical tree of the Pullo raceto one common ancestor named Sso". 122 Binger mentions, as Fulbecross-breeds in the west, the Kassonke, most of the Sidibe, theMalinke of Fuladugu and Gangaran, most of the Diallo, theDiakhite, the Sankare, the black Fulbes of Wassulu, theBanimonotie, the Bondu, and a few colonies of these in Furu,Wahabu and Boromo. They have only preserved the family namesand types of their race but have otherwise altogetherassimilated themselves to the peoples to whom they came; theyhave forgotten their own language and become fetish-worshippers,and even where they are numerous they do not form separateStates. 123The most modern group of cross-bred races comprises those118 Monteil, passim.119 Barth, IV., 145, 178.--Journal, London, 1860, 119.120 Barth, IV., 147 (according to Ahmed Baba).121 Binger, I., 39; Caillié, I., 126.122 Barth, 148. Possibly also the "guilds" described byRohlfs, including, amongst others, those of the smiths, butchersand dyers with their "kings," point to ancient tribaltraditions?123Binger, I., 391.33

ising from the great expansion towards the east--the Fellani-n-Haussa, the Fulbe-Haussa; these appear, anthropologically, to bemore closely related to the Haussas than to the Fulbes; moreoverthey habitually speak, not Fulfulde, but Haussa. 124The Fulbes have for a long time entered into connectionwith the Arabs both in Adrar, 125 west of Timbuktu, and inBaghirmi and northern Adamaua (with the Shua). 126 They are,however, at open hostilities with the Tuaregs (which foundexpression particularly in the fighting round Timbuktu) and withthe Kanuri, whilst in Bornu it is forbidden to utter the name ofPul. 127 The colonisation of the Fulbes has a double character,viz.: a peaceful and a warlike one; the former appears to havebeen, as a rule, preparatory to the latter, as for instance inHaussa 128 and Adamaua, 129 but is now apparently omitted. It isnot political ascendancy that the Pul seeks to obtain thereby,but pastureland (Binger "infiltration"); he appears in thecapacity of a harmless cattle herd (Barth: berroroji, Passarge:borroro), 130 who has preserved the old nomad life, but whoreturns from time to time to the home of his ancestors. Thenegroes are always suspicious of these Fulbes both on account oftheir occupation and of the light colour of their skin; armedwith bow and lance 131 they guard their herds. One seldom seesthe men, but principally the women and girls who sell milk andbutter in the villages and towns. Simple grass huts suffice tohouse them for the very short time that they stay at one spot.Epidemics among the cattle, 132 and raids, 133 may deprive them of124 Barth, IV., 565; compare Monteil, 250.125 Binger, I., 392.126 Barth, III., 326; II., 717; Passarge, 169.--In Bornu theArabs have dark skins, it is true, but have otherwise remainedpure (Nachtigal); in Adamaua, on the contrary, they are nowbeginning to lose their nationality. Passarge, 427.127 Monteil, 309; Clapperton I. and II., (passim).--InAdamaua, especially in the north and east, the Kanuri aretolerated by the Fulbes as traders, and even have their ownsettlements. Passarge, 55, 239, 275.128 Barth, IV., 151, 622.129 Passarge, 90, 515.130 Passarge, 167 et seq. 202.131 Passarge, 289; Passarge (436) did not see the battle-axewhich Staudinger (178) describes as being characteristic.132"It destroys the largest and finest herds in a few hours"(1891); Monteil, 155 et seq.; the same plague traversed the34

liberty; sometimes also, owing to difficulties in obtainingpasture-land and water, they come in too small numbers, 134 orelse no more groups follow the first one, in which case theybecome submerged in the black element. 135When the Fulbes appear in their warlike character theyfirst seek to obtain possession of the main positions of acountry with a view to utilising them as supporting-points fortheir gradual further advance; 136 these supporting-points areconnected together it is true but, owing to their relativelysmall numbers, the Fulbes have not succeeded in occupying thewhole of the intervening country: "the Fulbes hold no more thanthe communications between the individual centres" 137 ; in theforest- and mountain-regions they even assume the rôle of beingoppressed by the free Pagans. 138 Their sway is not complete anduniform over any territory whatsoever but may rather bearcomparison with a net, with meshes of the most varieddimensions.By choice the Fulbes fight pitched battles in the open:the cavalry press forward, followed by the infantry in dense139masses. They seldom surround a place when besieging it butrather employ the method, in common use in the whole of thewhole of Africa (Passarge, Gruner); compare Barth, IV., 229.133 Only by other tribes; in contrast to the Pagans theFulbes do not fight among themselves--(it happens exceptionallyon the boundary to the southeast amongst the powerful and almostindependent border States of Adamaua, which lie at a greatdistance from Sókoto (Passarge, 494))--a fact which constitutesone of the chief reasons of their political ascendancy; in thecountries over which they rule moreover people of the same tribeare not allowed to be sold as slaves. Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII.,45.134 Binger, I., 390 et seq.135 "Degenerate" Fulbes were found by Barth in Adamaua: astunted race of men, not of the rhubarb colour of the Futa-Pullo, nor of the dark black of the Torode, but of a dirty greyblack; deficient both in expressive features and in proudbearing, IV., 476 et seq.136 As to the nature of this advance and the despairingcombats by the heathen, vide Passarge, 297, 310 et seq.137 Passarge, 515.138 Thus the Fulbes and Haussas are compelled by the Dekka inthe Chebchi Mountains to remain for several days at appointedtoll-stations and to pay high duties in kind. Passarge, 317.139Passarge, 135.35

Western Sudan, of Sansérni 140 (Sansánne), or fortified camps,which they often erect for a number of years in the immediateneighbourhood of the enemy's place. One important reason fortheir success lies in the great moral superiority conferred bytheir uniformity of leadership as compared with that of thescattered pagan tribes, who are moreover frequently hostile toeach other. 141If no large settlements exist they make them (as Sókoto,Yola); these usually collect around the farm of the localchieftain, which is surrounded by a high mud-wall. This doesnot point to a systematic, regular and deliberate advance, butrather to one that has not been thought out and is meteor-likein character; not the well-planned attack, but the bold leap farbeyond the surroundings right out into the unknown--somewhatresembling, in greater as in minor respects, the action of abeast of prey. 142 Barth distinguishes four classes of Fulbesettlements 143 : 1. Localities where the Fulbes, as intruders,have built around a powerful chieftain; 2. Private possessionsbranching off from these, country seats of high officials(ribago) 144 or residences of minor chiefs (joro) which as a ruleexpand into largish places; 3. Agricultural villages, in whichboth freemen and slaves reside--uro; 4. Slave villages, in whichreside only slaves, who till the soil under the supervision of ahead-slave--rúmde. In all the principal places in the Sudan theFulbes dwell in the suburbs, solely with the view of satisfyingtheir need of milk. 145At present they are developing their full power throughoutthe basin of the Benue; their line of offence is indicated bythe following places: Anassárawa (Loko)--Wukári--Bakúndi(Beli)--Tibati (Ngila)--Ngáumdere (Gása).140 v. Stetten, Kol. Bl. 1885, 137; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II.,244, 251, &c.141 v. Stetten, ibid 111.142 Founding of Massina and Adamaua; Yola was founded fromKano (Barth II., 142), possibly also Anassárawa (BaikieJ. Lond., 1867, 97); in the valley of the Benuë is the Nupecolony of Lafia Nufawa (Flegel, Map, Sheet 1). The town ofMuri, even after the occupation of the dependencies of Jibu andIbi, had no territory around it. In the valley of the BenuëDoya was colonized from Kano, Kanoje from Samfara, Awoi mostlyfrom Kátsena. (Flegel, M.A.G. III., 257.)143 Barth II., 609 et seq.; compare Mizon, Tour d. m., 1892,II., 272.144 As regards the root Haussa synonyms "leinde" and "linyi,"see Passarge, 87, 552.145Barth, III., 119; v. 330.36

In considering the resultant effect produced by the Fulbeson the territory occupied by them, we meet with three principalfactors: in bygone days they deserved great credit for havingwrested the countries to the south of the Desert from thedevastating clutches of the Desert tribes 146 ; further, they areindefatigable propagators of the doctrines 147 and civilisation 148of Islam; their great mission, however, among the people ofAfrica is summed up in the following words 149 : "It is not thedesire to become founders of States that constitutes the aim andobject which specially lays down for them their present mode ofexistence, but rather it is the fact of their present mode ofexistence, but rather it is the fact of their ever mergingthemselves in the people whom they have overcome, a process inwhich they represent the fermenting substance, which slowlyraises up a higher development both bodily and spiritual"(Ratzel). 150In its whole procedure this people seems to be enshroudedin a mysterious sacred veil, more especially with regard to itsorigin and more remote past. 151 If in this difficult butinteresting research excellent connoisseurs of the Sudanese146 Barth, IV., 503.147 Pagan Fulbes are mentioned by Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII.,45 et seq. and Qu. d. A. II., 161; Krause, Ausld, 1883, 456 (imHerzen von Sókoto!); Binger, I., 391 (cross-breeds who gave upIslam in the Diaspora); Passarge (501) holds such statements tobe erroneous: "The Fulbes were mohamedans even when theymigrated there and were always supporters of Islam, even in thebasin of the Shari" (Nachtigal).148 Between the opinion which recognizes their influence onthe negroes (Monteil, 165 et seq.; Passarge, 520 et seq.) andthat which absolutely denies it (Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 163;Lenz II., 266 et seq.) there are a number of intermediateopinions (Barth, Binger); certain it is that Islam "has onlyspread a gloss over the negro-like foundation existing in thenational spirit of the Sudanese" (Ratzel, Vk. III., 274).149 Ratzel, Vk III., 191.150 Compare with this the pessimism of Passarge (517):"Foreign races introduce civilisation and life into the sluggishmass of the blacks, but the inertness of the latter soon arrestsall progress and all development. This process, which has beengoing on for thousands of years, represents the most importantfactor in the history of tropical Africa."151 "The Foulbé race, whose origin is as obscure in the pastas its destiny in the future is difficult to define." Monteil,175.37

aces, such as Barth 152 and Faidherbe, 153 only give vaguesuggestions, it will here only be possible to treat of the mostrecent migrations of the Fulbes. 154Krause describes the Fulbes as Proto-Hamites anddescendants of the Kel Yeru or Jabbar, the people met with bythe Tuáregs in their migration from the East and whose mummiesare still found in the old tombs. 155 According to FriedrichMüller 156 they are the western group of the Nuba, who comebetween the Negroes and the Hamites of the interior, the latterhowever being the nearer to them; Burdo also attributes to theman Abyssinian origin. 157 Barth considers the Fulbes to be amixed race, formed by the Arabs and Berbers on the one hand, andby the Negroes on the other, and that they do not correspond tothe Leucaethiopes of Ptolemy but to his Pyrrhi Aethiopes; 158according to Clapperton and Richardson they originated from anintermixture between the Arabs and the Negroes. 159 Certain it is152 The origin of the Fulbes must be sought for in the farEast, though this refers to a time which for us is enveloped inimpenetrable darkness; it is moreover impossible to explain howthey came to the Senegal. Vide Passarge, 514.153 They are of Asiatic descent, since they alone possess intheir herds hump-backed cattle and the variety of sheep à nezbusqué both of which are indigenous to the Central AsiaticPlateau (Preface to "Uber die Idiome Senegambiens").154 Eichwaldt (Journ. Soc. Ethnol, 1841, I.) seeks to ascribetheir origin "to the Malays, or rather to the Polynesian tribesresiding in Java and Sumatra," with whom he places them incommunication by means of the Meroë; this view is refuted byBarth, IV., 148, Note.--In answer to this question, the Fulbesthemselves have confused traditions, in which they endeavour,from religious vanity, to ascribe their origin to the Arabs(vide Krause and Lenz) or give out that they are descended fromthe Jews (Rohlfs. Qu. d. Afr. II., 162), in fact from Fut, agrandson of Noah, adding that they had formerly lived on theBerber coast (Ferryman, 53 et seq.) or else, speaking in generalterms, simply that they are descended from the Whites (Monteil,246).155 Krause passim, 11 et seq.156 Vide Lenz, II., 161 et seq.--Lenz assumes that the Desertwas formerly far more densely populated.157 Niger-Benuë, 39.158 Barth, II., 505; IV., 600; IV., 150; and, disagreeingwith this, V., 511.159Rohlfs, passim.38

that the people have had great migrations, interrupted by longperiods of rest, which latter may have been passed either in theNile Valley 160 or in the Western Desert. 161 Whether, however, theimmigration occurred in several phases, or as one single greatone which split up at the Bend of the Niger at Burrum, cannotnow be determined 162 ; the Fulbes themselves maintain that theyoriginate from two different families. Without doubt, however,the area of their last great movement--which was borne on ademoniacal national spirit, aiming at some great unknown goal,and which consequently became a secular procession of victory--was the country of the Senegal, whether it be Futa Toro on itslower course, 163 or Fuladugu, the country to the north-east ofKita. 164A final summary of the historical records bearing on theFulbes will bring us back to the point at which we left off,viz., the conquest of Haussa.About 300 years after the birth of Christ the Fulbes wereapparently in Bághena (Bakunu), as the ruling race of theancient Empire of Ghanata 165 ; in the 7th century they were inTuat(?) 166 and about 1300(?) in Kanem. 167 About the same time wehear of the embassy of two spiritual chiefs of the Fulbes ofMelle to Buri, King of Bornu. 168 In the 15th century (1492) theywere already numerous on the Eastern Niger to the south of160 Rohlfs, passim, 131; Passarge, 439.161 Krause; compare Ratzel, Vk. III., 190.--"Possibly thesimilarity of their name to that of the Egyptian Fellah is nomere chance." Passarge, 167.--"This race must have onceinhabited either the Desert or at least the regular steppe landson its border, or else must have expanded into them. Theirspareness and slightness of build are race-peculiarities inbredby their desert life. Baikie also compares them in this respectto the Bedawin." Passarge, 426.--The Fulbes are possibly theGaramantes of the ancients. Binger, I., 392.162 Binger, I., 393.163 Barth, Faidherbe and others.164 Monteil, 246.391.165 Barth, IV., 600 (according to El Bekri): Binger, I.,166 Krause, 17.; Barth, however, considers that the migrationmay possibly have occurred much later. Jour. Lond., 1860, 118.Compare I., 275, and Passarge, 514.167 Krause, passim.168Barth, II., 314; IV., 150.39

Sonrhay, but were not under any ruler; 169 at the end of thiscentury (1499), after the fall of the Empire of Ghanata-Melle,the Fulbes poured into the Valley of the Niger and foundednumerous colonies, many of which still bear the name of ghana. 170In 1534 we hear of a rey dos Fullos being engaged in warfare onthe Senegal with the mandi manssa or King of the WesternMandingo, 171 and it was at about this period that the Fulbesestablished themselves firmly in Futa-Toro, whence theygradually subdued the whole basin of the Senegal. 172 The firstaccounts of Fulbe settlements in Bornu date from the reign ofKing Dála (1564-1570). 173 In the 16th century Fulbes are to befound in Baghirmi, where they had founded miserable shepherdsettlements in place of the later capital of Másenya, 174 while atthe beginning of the 17th century Fulbe tribes had settled invarious places. 175 They were in Haussa either at the beginningof, or during, the 16th century, 176 and by the end of it inSonrhay itself, 177 being kept in subjection by its rulers. Fromthis time forward they occupied the great military road fromHaussa to Mássina: 178 thus already in the 17th century we findthem within the Bend of the Niger in Dáfina. 179 About 1760,under the leadership of Abd-el-Kader ( 1770?), and starting fromFuta-Toro, 180 they pushed forward Empire of Melle. They alsoturned southwards, establishing themselves among the Jalonke andunder their leader Seri, founded Futa-Jallon with the capitals169 Barth, 622, 626 (according to Ahmed Baba).170 Binger, I., 392. About 1500 they were already on theUpper Gambia. Krause, Ausld, 1883, 454.171 Barth, IV., 636 (according to De Barros and Ahmed Baba).172 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.173 Barth, II., 331, 339.174 Jour. Lond., passim; Barth, III., 386.175 Barth, IV., 151.176 Barth, IV., 151.177 Barth, IV., 654.178 Barth, IV., 568.179 Binger, I., 418 to the same period--i.e. some 200 yearsago--Passarge defers the migration of the Fulbe herds, theBorroro, to Adamaua; see p. 106.180Faidherbe passim.--Barth, V., 512. For the history ofSenegambia compare Ritter, Afrika, 410 et seq.40

of Timbo and Labe; in 1785 Sory Ibrahim assumed the title of analmany. 181By the rising of Othman, 182 referred to on page 11, thecentre of gravity of the political influence of the Fulbes wastransferred from Senegal to Haussa, and at the same time therewas given to the latter a dynasty acknowledged by all. After anunfortunate beginning in Gober, Othman, with the assistance ofhis brother Abd-Allahi, and more especially of his son Bello,was victorious over the Haussas, added to his spiritual dignitythe title of Sheikh and, with the help of his fanaticised hosts,conquered not only Gober but also the remaining Haussacountries, namely: Kebbi, Sánfara, Kátsena, (which bravelydefended itself for seven years against Mallem Romaro, and wasonly subdued by starvation,) Saria, Kano, (which shamefully andalmost without resistance surrendered to Othman's Commander-in-Chief Silman,) and Bauchi, where Othman received a splendidreception from the Negro Prince Yakoba, who had gone over toIslam. 183These early conquests occurred between 1802 and 1808, inwhich latter year the Fulbes pushed forward into Bornu, drivingSultan Ahmed from his capital Ghaser-Eggomo, but were in turndriven back by Sheikh El Kanemi, of Fezzan, who had founded afresh dynasty in the newly-built town of Kuka; in vain theFulbes sought, in the course of a bloody war extending overdecades, to reach the Chad basin. 184 From Bornu and Bauchi theFulbes turned towards Fumbina, 185 the country on the Upper Benue,which, under the leadership of the Malim Adama they conqueredand named Adamaua after him. The left portion of the Fulbeinundation, starting from Gando, flowed in a southerly directioninto the valley of the Niger; whereas in Borgu the Fulbes couldobtain no foothold, Malim Dodo, in the latter half of thecentury, 186 took possession of Nupe, 187 at that time cursed withcivil war. The most southerly Fulbe State in the west is181 According to Vivien de St. Martin.182 Clapperton, 2. Reise, Appendix; Barth, IV., 152 et seq.;Monteil, 247.--Othman formerly dwelt in the village of Daghel inKoni (near Wurno): he was for a long time besieged in Gando.183 Rohlfs, Qu. d. Afr. II., 151 et seq.184 Denham speaks of the ruins of 30 towns destroyed by theFulbes (p. 242).185 Between 1815 and 1825; compare Mizon, Toundu m. 1892,II., 266 and v. Stetten, Kol. Bl. 1895, 180.186 Rohlfs, Qu. d. Afr. II., 247 et seq.; Ferryman, 148.187Clapperton, II., 75.41

Ilorin, in Northern Yóruba, 188 which already at the beginning ofthe century had been conquered by Malim Alimi, and which foughtobstinately against the heathen Ibadan and has continued to doso almost up to the present date. In 1816 Malim Lebbo led abody of Fulbes from Gando towards the North-West and founded, onthe Niger above Timbuktu, the independent Empire of Mássina. 189Othman died in 1817; he was the greatest poet of his race, 190 andended his life "in an act of fanatical ecstasy or species ofmental aberration"; his grave in Sókoto is the subject of greatveneration and is visited by numbers of pilgrims. Before hisdeath he subdivided his empire in such a manner that his sonBello received the ancestral country of Sókoto with the rank ofOverlord (or suzerain) whilst his brother Abd Allahi receivedGando.Now follows a period during which the Fulbes sought tomaintain their conquests, a task in which they were successful,excepting as regards the western territories of Gando andMássina, which were lost in 1862 to the Tukulör under Haji Omar;the Fulbes then continued to spread over Adamaua withoutinterruption, and, after crossing the fifth degree of NorthLatitude, reached the basin of the Congo. In the central Benuevalley the Fulbes started a new movement by founding, about1911870, on the south bank, the "governments" of Bakúndi (underBurba, the exiled ruler of Muri) and of Wukari 192 (which, up till1879, had withstood all their attacks). They first reached theBenue in 1881 at Loko, 193 from Anassárawa, 194 which was founded atthe end of the sixties and was not even mentioned by Rohlfs. 195A successful campaign by the Fulbes in 1891-92 once more settledthe disputed possession of the countries between Sókoto and the188 Clapperton, II., 58; Ferryman, 172 et seq.189 Barth, IV., 484, Note; 670 (1241--1262 of the Hejra);Krause I., 28.190 Barth gives a song of Othman's in Fulfulde, withtranslation. IV., Appendix 3.191 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 259; Ferryman 124.--Flegel writes"Fulde" to express the Fulbes, that being the pronunciation ofthe word in the valley of the Benuë.192 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 224 and M.A.G., III., 257.193 Flegel, "Briefe," 40; M.A.G., 255. The Fulbe advancedpost in this neighbourhood was, for 50 years, the Keffi Abd-es-Senga, which was founded by Malim Abd-es-Senga in 1819 andbelongs to Saria; compare Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 189.194Flegel, passim; Staudinger, 133.195The date of Rohlfs' journey was 1865-67.--Tr.42

Niger. 196 A descendant of Othman (?), El Ayatu, recentlyattempted, with the aid of the adventurer Rabeh, to form anempire to the south of Lake Chad. 197According to Monteil 198 the chain of succession of therulers of Sókoto is as follows:--1802-1817 ... Othman, the son of Fodie.1817-1832 ... (according to Barth, 1837) MohammedBello, son of Othman.1832-1837 ... (according to Barth 1837-1843) Atiku,son of Othman.1837-1855 ... Aliu, son of Bello.1855-1862 ... Hamadu, son of Atiku.1862-1863 ... Aliu-Karami, son of Bello.1863-1868 ... Abubakar, son of Bello.1868-1873 ... Amadu-Rafai, son of Sheikh Osman,the son of Bello.1871-1879 ... Madiu-bun-Diabolu, son of Bello.1879-1891 ... Omar, son of Bello.since 1891 ... Abdherraman, son of Abubakar.196 Monteil, 197, 210, 235 et seq.197 C.R.S., 1894, 265 et seq.--Three great lines of expansionof varying character proceed in a southerly direction fromSókoto: the first, imbued with the most life (and which alsoreaches furthest to the south), in the east (Adamaua): thesecond, which pressed rapidly forward at first, but which waslong since checked, in the west (Yóruba); and the third, whichhung back at first, but in which new life has arisen, in themiddle. Passarge gives the history of "Hayatu" in detail(p. 189 et seq.); 200; also that of Rabba (Rabbeh Arábi) up tothe conquest of Kuka; p. 194 et seq., 519; compare Monteil245.--G.M., 1894, 167; Mitt. Wien. 1894, 191.198 Monteil, 248; the points of difference with otheraccounts are not inconsiderable; compare Barth, IV., 152 etseq., and App. 2; Krause I., 20; Lenz II., 265.43

THE POLITICAL ARENA AND CHIEF CENTRES OF THEEASTERN FULBE EMPIRE.The eastern Fulbe Empire or Fulbe-Haussa (the most correctname is Pul-Haussa) lies between 5° and 14° N. Lat. and betweenthe meridian of Greenwich and the 15th degree of East Longitude,with its longer axis from Dore in Libtako (N.W.) to Gasa inAdamaua (S.E.), and its shorter axis from Ilorin (S.W.) toKátsena (N.E.). It is subdivided into the larger originalEmpire of Sókoto to the east and the smaller Empire of Gando tothe west, though properly speaking the latter forms only one ofthe provinces of the former with the younger branch of thereigning family as hereditary rulers. (N.B.--The use of theword Sókoto to signify the whole empire is incorrect.)THE EMPIRE OF SOKOTO.The Empire of Sókoto takes as its basis, though in agreatly modified form, the old Haussa partition (vide pp. 10,11) and includes a number of tracts of country of very variedsize and political importance; these "provinces" are asfollows: 199 KEBBI, SANFARA, ADAR, GOBER, MARADI, KATSENA,TESSAUA, DAURA, KASSAURE, KANO, HADEJA, KATAGUM, MESSAU, KALAM,(MARGHI, MANDARA, MUSSGU), SARIA, BAUCHI, MURI, KOROROFA,ADAMAUA.200The Province of KEBBI (formerly spelt Kabi) is dividedinto a south-eastern portion, completely subject to the Fulbes,and a north-western portion, inhabited by independent Haussapagans; the former portion is again shared by Gando and Sókoto.A frontier province such as the above may--characteristicallyof the entire Empire--be considered to have been the originalseat of the whole Eastern Fulbe Empire; in it are situated theofficial capital and "residence"--Sókoto.SOKOTO201 , according to Barth, has a population of 20,000 to22,000. Its remarkable situation, in the north-west corner ofthe Empire, is sufficiently explained by history. Sókoto waspreserved and maintained, from religious motives, as being theholy and learned city of the Fulbes. The town, the name ofwhich, according to Clapperton, means "place of rest," issituated at an altitude of 270 metres 202 (886 feet) at the199 Compare Barth, IV., 156; Staudinger, 516 et seq.;Monteil, 248.--Aïr or Asben lies entirely beyond the sphere ofinfluence of Sókoto; its inhabitants only pay duty when theyvisit the Fulbes as traders.200 Barth, IV., 165, Note--Monteil writes it Kabbi.201 Clapperton, I., 585 et seq.; II., 267 et seq.; Barth,IV., 174 et seq. Staudinger 338 et seq.; Monteil, 240 et seq.;C.R.S., 1893, 63 et seq.--Plan; Barth, IV., 183.202 Staudinger 495.44

junction of the Gulbi-n-Gandi with the Gulbi-n-Rimi (anunimportant eastern tributary of the Niger, which howeverbecomes much swollen in the rainy season 203 ) and is in fact "notfar from the point where the three provinces or territories ofKebbi, Gober and Adar meet." On the occasion of his secondvisit Clapperton found the town, which was built about 1810 andconsiderably enlarged in 1818, two-thirds reduced to ashes bythe Haussas. It forms a large rectangle and is surrounded by abadly-repaired wall from 5 to 6 metres (16 to 20 feet) high, thevery narrow entrances through which--as everywhere else in theSudan--are closed at sunset.Sókoto, in contrast to other large Haussa towns, is thicklyinhabited, but built altogether without symmetry; the huts arerough and untidy; to both Barth and Monteil it conveyed theimpression of poverty. Many of the open spaces in the interiorof the town, from which mud has been taken for neighbouringbuildings, become in the rainy season evil-smelling sewers; thedwellings of the Sultans and chiefs, built in the Arab style andsurrounded by high walls, are in a sad state owing to the Courtbeing seldom there, in fact only once a year. A mosque built inClapperton's time on the Egyptian model was found by Barth to bealready in ruins. In front of the rampart is a sort of suburb,204Bado. The surrounding country is well cultivated and yieldsplenty of rice and onions; irrigation-canals lead out from therivers--which is seldom the case in Negro countries. Sókoto isin no sense a commercial town; all large transactions arecarried out at Kano. In addition to the points referred toabove its importance lies in the fact that it is a strongbulwark against the heathen races.In the southern half of the ancient Haussa country ofGober, which is likewise shared by heathens and mahomedans, liesWurno.WURNO 205 (population about 15,000) is the second residenceof the Empire and is a short day's journey to the north-west(sic.? N.E. Tr.) of Sókoto, and was built at the beginning ofthe twentieth century under Sultan Bello. Since 1831 it hasbeen the favourite residence of the Sultans, from the monkishand ascetic Aliu, who selected it as the capital of the Tórobe,to the one now reigning. At Wurno the Court feels itself moresecure from the heathen, whilst its continued presence in Sókoto203 Barth, V., 332.204 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 56.--Barth, in IV., App. 4 gives atopographical sketch of Kebbi, which place strictly speakingbelongs to Sókoto.205 Barth, IV., 143, 157 et seq.; Staudinger, 361 et seq.;Monteil, 249--Plan: Barth, IV., 163.--The important places inthe neighbourhood are residences of Fulbe princes, for instanceYassaura (Staudinger, 374) where the heirapparent resides, andGandi (Monteil, 254), where another brother of the Sultan lives.45

would induce attacks. The town, (which is formed of roundstraw-covered mud huts, scattered about amongst which atintervals are shops made of clay,) in which the Fulbes passtheir time as far as possible in contemplative seclusion, is,like Sókoto, pretty thickly populated right up to the walls,but, in spite of its genteel inhabitants, is very dirty; wateris fetched from a neighbouring valley and sold for cowries. Thestreets are only two or three metres (6½--10 ft.) in width.Industry and commerce are of small account; the market-place,which is situated on a natural terrace in front of the northwestgate, and where a market is held every Monday and Friday,is surrounded with a ditch and fortified as, owing to thepolitical weakness of the Fulbes, it is always exposed to suddenattack by the enemy. The neighbourhood is well-cultivated andbesprinkled with granaries.To the south and east of Sókoto is the province of Sánfara.KAURA 206 (Clapperton's Quarra), the present capital ofSANFARA, has greatly developed since Barth's time; it is herethat caravans going to Kano unite in order to traverse theForest of Gundumi in sufficient strength. The Gobiri have herestill remained tolerably pure, and the Haussa language is spokenjust as correctly as in Kátsena; it is the burial place ofSultan Omar.207In Clapperton's time the residential town was Sürmi(12,000 inhabitants; according to Barth 5000), which is situatedon a peninsula, overlooking the high and steep banks of a river,and which forms a place of refuge for runaway prisoners from allparts of Haussa, and is the centre of a profitable trade inDodoa-cakes (prepared from the Parkia biglobosa, a spice muchappreciated throughout the Sudan).208A former capital, Birni-n-Sanfara, was destroyed in 1764,and the old residence Kiaua is also in ruins, 209 proofs of the206 Clapperton, I., 580; Barth, IV., 535 (Guára); Staudinger,311, 385 et seq.; M.A.G. V., 105; Monteil, 260.207 Clapperton, I., 570, 633; Barth, IV., 123. Sürmi stillrules over a portion of the province. In this neighbourhood onefirst meets (coming from the west) with the rudu or sleepingplatforms, about 3 metres (10 feet) high, mounted by means of aladder, and which afford protection against the countlessinsects. Barth, IV., 130, 212. Towards the west the fertilearea is utilized to such an extraordinary extent that oftenthere is no room to pitch tents between the walls of the townand the standing sorghum crop, which grows luxuriantly to aheight of from 5 to 9 metres (17 to 30 feet).Barth, V., 304, 349 et seq.208 Barth, IV., 533; together with the Fulbe and heathenplaces.209Monteil, 263; Barth, IV., 535.46

factions and dissensions of the Haussas and of the incompletesubjection of the country by the Fulbe.The northern halves of KEBBI and SANFARA, the countries ofADAR, GOBER, and MARADI (Marodi) are the dwelling-places of theindependent pagan Haussa tribes of like name. These frontierdistricts are the scenes of desperate guerilla warfare and veryfrequently change hands. By a successful attack of the Fulbe onthe territories lying to the west of Sókoto the greater part ofthese came under their sway in 1891/92. 210KEBBI 211 had its prosperous time as a Haussa State at thebeginning of the 16th century "when the whole of Gurma, with allthe Sonrhay localities as far as Tera, were under its sway";under its brave prince Kanta it maintained its independenceagainst the powerful States of Sonrhay and Bornu. In 1544 agreat battle took place between the armies of Kebbi and Bornu;in 1591 the King of Kebbi declined to give the last King ofSonrhay the protection he craved. Wars of succession and civilwars shattered the country. The capital of the independentKebbi, "the real bulwark of resistance" against Sókoto, was thetown of Argungu, since destroyed.212ARGUNGU (20,000 inhabitants--Monteil) was the residenceof the rebel chieftain Sserki-n-Kebbi, and the centre of theheathen worship of the sacred tunka tree (a species oftamarind); it had a tata (rampart) 6 kilometres (4 miles) inextent and had no open spaces within it. Monteil calls Argungua lion's den and at the same time says it is the dirtiest negrodwelling-place that he ever saw--a superlative which is somewhatdifficult to arrive at; hundreds of swine bear evidence to theheathenish character of the spot. It enjoyed a peculiarly safeposition, being separated on the east from Fulbe territory bybroad frontier deserts, whilst from the west it was alwayssupplied with both provisions and warriors. Sassagua, Gulma andSaua 213 are also represented as being strong, well-populated andwell-provisioned localities in heathen Kebbi.214Barth mentions Anka, the seat of the Sserki-n-Sánfara, asthe "residence" of the independent portion of Sánfara.210 The possession of Mayo (Gulbi-n-) Kebbi is of specialimportance on account of the extensive rice crops in its lowlyingland.211 Barth, V., 319; IV., 215, 633 et seq.; II., 86.212 Barth, IV., 551; Monteil, 224 et seq.; C.R.S. 1893, 63--Argungu has been described as above because it appears again inanother place and under a different name; Barth suggests Augiand Mera as being former capitals of Kebbi, since destroyed;IV., 548, Note.213 Monteil, passim.214Barth, IV., 534.47

The capital of the pasture-land territory of Adar, whichlies N.W. of Wurno and which is likewise separated by a frontierzone 60 kilometres (38 miles) in breadth and is but looselyconnected with the Fulbe rule, is KONNI 215(Koni). The Moors ofAdar and the inhabitants of Kebbi, Mauri and Sabèrma rob oneanother alternately, the former however always having the bestof it.Gober (to the north of Sanfara and east of Adar), whichboasts of dry and good pasturage, ("the most important andnoblest of the old Haussa States,") was already in the middle ofthe 14th century cited by Ibn Batuta as the export country for216the copper of Takedda. At the end of the 17th century it wasso powerful that its King, Ssoba, crossed the Niger andundertook campaigns to the west of it; in the middle of the 18thcentury (about 1757) it was ruled over by the powerful KingBabari. 217 Leo speaks of a capital called Guber which must havebeen of considerable importance; artifices atque telae textoresinfiniti 218 ; Barth mentions the earlier capital, Alkalaua 219 ,founded by Babari in 1764.The heathen Haussa race of the Maradi, who are settled220north of Kátsena, has or had a capital of the same name.A province which formerly flourished, but has very muchretrograded since its conquest by the Fulbes, is Kátsena.KATSENA is admirably situated on the water-parting betweenthe Chad and Niger basins, and has a capital of the same name 221(Leo: Casena, Cassena 222 ; Clapperton Kaschna (? from Geschna--bushes or underwood); Staudinger: Kátschena; Passarge,Katsínna). It was founded as a unified State by Komayo, about1200; in 1513 Haji Mohammed A'skia, King of Sonrhay, brought itfor a short time under his rule, after which it became partlyindependent and partly a dependency of Kebbi or Bornu.The town of Kátsena (7000 to 8000 inhabitants) is, asregards its rise and fall, typical of all the large towns of theSudan. It was formerly quite unimportant and, from a few215 Barth, I., 529; IV., 543; Monteil, 234, 247.216 Trad. M. de Slane, Jour. asiat., 1842, 234.217 Barth, I., 244 et seq.; II., 79; IV., 539 et seq.218 Descr. Afr., 649.219 Barth, IV., 539.220 Barth, I., 530; compare Petermann's map in vol. V.221 Clapperton, I., 635 et seq.; Barth, II., 84 et seq.; IV.,96 et seq.; Staudinger, 292, 387.--Plan: Barth, II., 90.222Descr. Afr., 652; he lays stress on the miserabledwellings in regnum Casena.48

scattered villages, developed--after the capture of Gogo, theSonrhay capital on the Niger, by the people of Morocco--into animportant town (end of the 16th and beginning of the 17thcentury) and received the name of the country (or State). "Inall probability Kátsena was, during the 17th and 18th centuries,the most important town both commercially and politically of thewhole of this portion of the Sudan"; even if only half theenormous space which it occupied had been populated, and thatbut sparsely, it is certain that at this period it must have had100,000 inhabitants (in Barth's description two pages areoccupied in enumerating the districts into which the town ofKátsena was formerly divided). Its downfall was effected underthe dynasty of the Habe by a fierce battle with the Fulbes in1807. Since Kátsena came into the possession of the Fulbes, andowing also to its exposed position with regard to theirreconcilable pagan Haussas, the latter have not permitted anylarge amount of commerce to reach either it or Sókoto; thoughKátsena is far healthier and is situated on a main road to Nupe,passable even by camels, trade nevertheless flowed towards Kanoas being the more secure route. At the present day only thenorth-western quarter, or only one-tenth of the space includedwithin the great town-wall (of some 13 to 14 English miles inextent,) is inhabited, and even this is partly deserted--a hugewithered exotic growth.A market is held each day in two places; in the northernpart, where mostly Asbins 223 are to be found, and in the southernpart, where the merchants are mostly from Ghadames and Tuat, asthis forms the eastern limit of the eastern Mandingos, whosedescendants live here as traders. 224 Kátsena is up to thepresent day the most famous town in the whole Sudan for theancient native art of tanning; 225 in this, as well as in thepreservation of the purest Haussa dialect (vide ante), it standsforth as being that one of the centres of the Fulbe Empire whichhas most thoroughly preserved the old Haussa character. (Seep. 11, Note 4.)North-east, east and south-east of Kátsena are the frontier223 The Asbins (Asbens or Asbenaua), the black Tuareg crossbreedsof Asben (Aïr) and Adar (Aden), not only travel hither assalt merchants but have also settled as landowners (Barth, II.,100, 108; Monteil, 259; compare Barth, I., 371 et seq.). Theyare also to be found in large numbers in Kano, and wander roundthe town as camel-thieves, luring the animals at night bywhistling to them (Monteil, 299). By the opening up of theNiger Benuë to Europeans however the whole desert trade has beendislocated and diminished, and a new era has begun for theStates of the Sudan (compare Passarge, 481, 518 et seq.).224 Barth, J. Lond. 1860, 118.seq.225As regards leatherware in Kuka vide Nachtigal, I., 676 et49

districts towards Bornu, viz.:--Tessaua, 226 Daura, Kassaure(north of Kano), Hadeja and Katagum (east of Kano), Messau andKalam (south of the latter), Marghi, Mándara and Mussgu (betweenAdamaua and Bornu).227The now very degenerate town of Daura (east north-east ofKátsena) was apparently the oldest of the Haussa States and thecentre of the old heathen cult in which the pagan god dodo wasfirst of all worshipped, and then, later on, destroyed. 228 Theother remnants of Haussa States, no longer provinces ordistricts of Sókoto but mere townships, are Biram and Rano.Biram lies between Kano and Hadeja, but is close to the latter."Biram, the personification of this town, is said to have been,(through his grandson, Banu, son of Karbágari), the ancestor ofthe personifications of the six other Haussa States". 229 Rano,east of Saria, south-west of Kano, "at present at a very lowebb, (although always a place of considerable importance withexcellent dye-works,) was originally the chief town of its ownindependent territory, just as much as any of the others, thoughnot mentioned in the earlier accounts." 230The large province of Kano is separated from Bornu byforests; its frontier place is Gerki, with 15,000 inhabitants. 231The capital of Hadeja is Birni-n-Hadeja, 232 a large placewith a well-kept wall on one of the sources of the Komádugu,which flows into Lake Chad.233Katagum (7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants) was found byClapperton to be surrounded by two parallel walls and threeditches, and to be the boundary between the spheres of currencyof cotton-strips in the east and cowries in the west, whichlatter have been introduced into Bornu since 1850.234Gombe, the capital of Kalam, is a large town of huts,226 Barth, II., 18 et seq.227 Barth, II., 81.228 The worship of dodo appears to be very much disseminatedthroughout Haussa, but in different forms. Compare Barth, I.,622; Vogel Z, f. allg. Erdk. 1856, 484; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II.,199; Passarge 124, 497 et seq.229 Barth II., 80.230 Barth II., 82.231 Vide map, Barth II., sheet 7.232 Birni means "a town surrounded by a rampart"; Monteil,302: Birni-Hadéidjia.233 Clapperton, I., 512 et seq; Barth, II., 161.234Barth, II., 709; Vogel, Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 483;Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 134.50

surrounded by a well-kept wall and ditch, and having some 20,000inhabitants (Fulbe, Kanuri, and Haussa). 235Barth mentions Mora 236 as the capital of chachúndala,Mándara, or Wándala.237The frontier territories belonging to Bornu are: Sinder,235Rohlfs here first met with the clay fire-beds, capable ofbeing warmed, already described by Leo in his "province ofSaria" (Zegzeg regnum) "in mediis aedibus focum extruntluculentissimum, prunas deinde sub lecticis eminentioribuslocant, atque hoc modo se somno componunt." (Descr. Afr., 653):recently again Staudinger (171); Barth speaks of strong woodenplatforms covered with clay as bedsteads, but says nothing abouttheir being heated (II., 526); compare Passarge, 71.236Barth, II., 709, with statements by Vogel.237 The following is an extract from the history of this, themost important of the border States of Haussa, with specialreference to its relations with the latter (according to Denhamand Clapperton, Barth [II., 307 et seq], Rohlfs, Nachtigal andMonteil); Bornu had its origin in the Empire of Kanem, to thenorth and east of Lake Chad; the princes and notables acceptedIslam as early as 1090; Bornu became independent at the end ofthe 14th century. Wars of succession between the Ssäfua andBulala dynasties at one time caused the greatest misery;powerful rulers, however, undertook campaigns against Kanem andHaussa (Afno), as far as the Kuara (Niger), where, already in1392, there arose a state of dependence upon Bornu; about 1500Mai Ali Ghajidemi put an end to the civil war and turned againstHaji Mohamed Askia, of Sonrhay. At the beginning of the 16thcentury the mother country, Kanem, became a dependency of Bornu,which had now reached its greatest territorial expansion and theheight of its power. About 1544 a great battle took placebetween Mohamed of Bornu and a King of Kebbi (Haussa); about1600 the victorious Haji Edriss Alaoma extended the power ofBornu as far as the Shari; on the other hand (1645 1684) SultanAli was besieged in his capital of Ghasr-Eggomo simultaneouslyby the Köana (a tribe from Korórofa, in the Benuë valley, whichhad long been subject to Bornu) and by the Tuaregs from Aïr.About 1808 the Fulbes entered Bornu with the view of drivingSultan Ahmed from the ancient capital; Faki Mohamed el Kanemi,however, a native of Fezzan, drove them back and, contentinghimself with the title of shiekh, founded, along with the olddynasty, a new one, and built the new capital, Kuka, in place ofGhasr Eggomo, which had been destroyed by the Fulbes. He diedin 1835 (1838), after fierce wars with Sókoto, Baghirmi andWadai. He was succeeded by his son Mai Omar, the prince who wasso friendlily disposed towards European travellers, but who wasdevoid of energy and an ascetic. In 1846 Mohamed Ssaleh ofWadai plundered Kuka, which was rebuilt by Omar as a doubletown. In that same year the old dynasty of Ssäfua died out.The successes of Barth, Rohlfs and Nachtigal are due in a great51

Gummel, Máshena, Bedde or Badde, Ngussum, Gujiba (Marghi,Mándara, Mussgu).The best cultivated province of the Empire, "one of themost fortunate spots in Africa (Massari), and in the world"(Barth) is Kano.KANO, however, derives its position of importance in theEmpire, not from the above, but from its capital of the samename, which is the centre of a large caravan trade.Kano has often, in relation to the ancient Empire of Ghanaor Ghánata, been erroneously located at the knee of the Niger(vide p. 60); as a Haussa State 238 it was at one timeindependent, at another under the suzerainty of Bornu andKátsena, and for a short time also of Korórofa; about 1423 239 itwas the place of refuge of a Bornu prince and was conqueredabout 1600 by the Bornu king Edriss 240 ; at the beginning of the17th century the population accepted Islam.241Clapperton puts down the population of the town of Kanoat from 30,000 to 40,000; Barth estimates it at 30,000residents, mostly Haussas, Kanuri, Tappa (from Nupe), Arabs, afew Wangaraua, and about 4,000 Fulbes; in addition, some 60,000strangers in the busy commercial season from January to April.Massari gives it at "over 50,000 for certain"; Staudinger atfrom 60,000 to 80,000; Monteil at from 50,000 to 60,000; "thenumbers of the floating-population cannot even be approximatelydetermined, but cannot be under two millions, all of whom in thecourse of the year have to come into Kano for a short time onbusiness matters." This metropolis of a carefully cultivatedterritory extending over hundreds of kilometres has developedfrom a small rocky spot, Dala, in the north. It is divided inthe rainy season into a northern and a southern half by a lake-measure to Sheikh Omar, who died in 1881. He was succeeded bySheikhs Bubakar and Birahim, who reigned, the former 3½ yearsand the latter under a year. On the occasion of Monteil's visitSheikh Ashim had reigned some 9 years; the Empire was clearly ina state of decline; in the west the Prince of Sinder hadobtained his independence, whilst from the west it wasthreatened by Wadai and by the bands of the adventurer Rabeh,who, from Dar Banda and Dar Fertit conquered Baghirmi, and fromthe latter conquered Bornu and took possession of Kuka, whencehe threatened the Empire of Sókoto.238 Barth, II., 136 et seq.239 Barth, II., 319.240 Barth, II., 335.241 Clapperton, I., 530 et seq.; Barth, II., 113 et seq.; V.,359 et seq.; Massari, Ausld. 1882, 796 et seq.; Staudinger, 241et seq.; Monteil, 266 et seq.--Plans of the town: Clapperton,I., 552; Barth, II., 126; Monteil, 281.52

like swamp; it is consequently unhealthy, and was found byClapperton to be very dirty, but by Monteil very clean, thefilth having been removed into the fields with the aid ofdonkeys. The town has 14 gates; the imposing main gate is about20 metres (66 ft.) high. Its extremely well-preserved wall,seven to eight metres (23 ft. to 26 ft.) in height, has anextent of some 15 English miles. The nearest houses are all ata distance of half-an-hour from a second inner wall. With aview to having fields available in the event of a siege, theenclosed land is only partially built over. 242 The royalresidence is to the east of the town and is surrounded by a highwall, thus forming a little town in itself.In the northern portion the residents are mostly Haussas,243Arabs, and Berber cross-breeds, Asbins, (whose place ofassembly for non-residents, Rini Asbenaua, is to the westwardand beyond the wall,) while in the southern portion are Fulbes;the Moorish class of house 244 consequently predominates in thenorthern portion, while the straw-roofed hut predominates in thesouthern. The extraordinarily large number of blind people livein a special quarter in the north-west. A few kilometres northeastof Kano is Fanisao, the country residence of the Court.Kano is beyond dispute the chief commercial town of theSudan, and forms its "great central market"; all the races ofthe Sudan and of the Sahara meet here, where the general245civilization reaches its maximum. "In the inner town theamount of business done is enormous, there are hardly anyunemployed." The people of Kano are still locked upon as themost intelligent and most educated in all Haussa, and at theCourt here there is more ceremony than in Sókoto. There is amarket every day. On the enormous market square are to be foundall sorts of animals, and the products of the soil and of theindustry of the Sudan, as well as many European goods; there aredaily some 30,000 people attending it. The monetary standard isthe cowrie, although most articles are exchanged direct; silveris rare; the trade is supervised by a sort of market-police; anybusiness on a large scale is carried out by agents, who are paidby the vendors and who are usually their inn-keepers.In reviewing the trade and commerce of Kano the first place242 In Clapperton's time only one fourth was built over;relatively speaking the western and north-western portions areempty; the town has already expanded on one occasion. Barth'smap still shows a portion of the old wall.243 Called Turanke--they are mostly agents of Arab firms inGhadames; from 60-80 of them are permanent, while in the dryseason there are from 400 to 500.244 Vide Barth's sketch of Dala, II., Table 13.245Thus Leo (passim, 652) Inhabitatores sunt mercatoresditissimi, civilitatis amantissimi.53

must be awarded to cotton goods; 246 Tobe (shirt-like garments formen), and Túrkedis (aprons for women), are made out of narrowstrips; "a special advantage in this manufacture, from a socialpoint of view, is that their production is the result not ofwork in a factory but of work done at home by the family"(Barth).The dyeworks of Kano are the most famous in the whole247Sudan. Artistic embroidery is worked upon the clothing of theupper classes, as also on a good deal of leather-work, which isexported in large quantities, (more especially sandals,satchels, water-bottles and morocco leather), to Tripoli andMorocco.A large trade--but how large it is, it is difficult tocalculate--is done in kola nuts; these are brought from Gonja(Northern Ashanti) by large caravans (vide p. 102), part beingsold in the country, while the rest are sent on at once by thetrade routes to Kuka, Wadaï, and Khartum.European goods are brought from Tripoli, more cheaply thanthey can be delivered from the English factories, by the Arabs,who travel at less expense, even by this long route.In Barth's time about 5,000 slaves were exported.Salt 248 is exchanged by the Asbins of the north "for anabsolute equivalent of their requirements" in cotton goods andcorn; Kano is also the place of transit for the saltpetre whichis sent from Bornu (Gummel) to Nupe.As regards the ivory-trade Kano is of but small importance,as ivory is no longer sent viá the Desert to Tripoli, but goesdown the valley of the Benue.As regards provisions it deserves to be brought prominentlyto notice that these are sold by women everywhere along the busythoroughfare.Kano's greatness was brought about by the conjunction of anumber of causes and conditions, the first of which, bothpolitically and historically, was the downfall of Kátsena (1807)owing to its obstinate defence against the Fulbes; Kano soon246 Kano clothes two thirds of the Sudan, and almost thewhole Central and Eastern Sahara; its textures go as far asTimbuktu (not direct, on account of the belt of forest and ofwarfare, but by Ghat and Ghadames, an extraordinarily circuitousroute), and to the Atlantic Ocean, Tripoli, Lake Chad, SouthernAdamaua and Ashanti.247 Over 2,000 indigo factories are in operation.248 The bitter salt from Bilma is brought to Kano by thelarge caravans of the Asbins (Kel-owi), which Barth (II., 50)estimates at 3,500 camel-loads. Salt is also brought into theSudan from Taudeni (north of Timbuktu), from the sebcha Ijil(west of Timbuktu), from the dallul Fogha (in Gando) and fromseveral sebchas in Bauchi and Muri; it is also obtained in someplaces by washing out the ashes of grasses.54

ecame the great south-western market of the Arabs, who wish toreach Haussa though not to penetrate it. Its greater distancefrom the warlike Haussa pagans to the north was also in itsfavour, as it lies considerably south of Kátsena; it was,moreover, admirably situated, from a geographical point of view,midway between the basins of the Nile and of Lake Chad in theeast, and the Kola-territory (Gonja, Worodugu) in the west; andbetween Timbuktu and Tripoli in the north, and Nupe and Adamauain the south. Besides this it was in the vicinity of the socharacteristically life-producing fringe of the desert, (whichit turned into an emporium for the salt-trade,) as also of amighty river, and finally on a pilgrim-route from the WesternSudan to Mekka. We must also bear in mind the fertility of theprovince which, under the conditions incident to African trade,can permit of the assemblage of so many human beings; also itsown highly-developed industry (weaving, dyeing, tanning andleatherworking), and finally the insatiable desire for tradepossessed by the Haussas.The Kano of to-day represents the zenith of a civilisationwhich has passed in great waves from west to east ever since thecommencement of the Christian era, and which is indicated by thetrade centres of Ghánata, Timbuktu, Gogo, Kátsena, and Kano,which flourished successively, and which comprise the materialand spiritual wealth of the stream of population. This streamturned at the Pillars of Hercules in a south-easterly direction,and in its tracks there followed later on the spring-tide ofIslam, direct from which, even at the Mediterranean, rivuletstrickled down in a southerly direction.The starting point for the conquest of the Lower Benuevalley, rendered difficult by the intervening wooded mountains,was formed by SARIA, which has a central situation to the northof the angle formed by the junction of the Benue with the Niger.Saria is also called Ségseg (Leo: Zegzeg regnum) thoughapparently only in documents. Another name for it is Soso.This province forms the thoroughfare from the valley of theNiger and Benue to the political centres to the north and to thecommercial centres to the east, and also (by road) from theNiger, viá Bauchi to Yola and Yer, "the point of expansion" inSouth Adamaua.The town of Saria 249 (Baikie: Zariya, Vogel: Salia) had,in the days of its prosperity, possibly from 80,000 to 100,000inhabitants, but has now not more than the half of that number;the new Fulbe town lies two English miles to the south-east ofthe old heathen town, 250 of which only the walls are now249 Clapperton, II., 220 et seq.; Barth, II., 672; Vogel,passim, 483; Baikie, J., Lond., 1867, 94 et seq.; Rohlfs, Qu. d.A., II., 148; Massari, Ausld. 1882, 797; Flegel, M.A.G. V., 103;Staudinger, 197 et seq., 511, 602.250It is a singular fact that the Fulbes have settled mostlyin the southern part of the great place, as if, afterpenetrating the conquered settlement they had at once made55

ecognisable. Numerous millet-fields are to be found within thewalls of this unhealthy spot which, like Kano, harbours a numberof blind people. The principal wealth of the market of Sariaconsists now, as from time immemorial, of slaves, as it lies inthe midst of numerous heathen territories which still maintainthemselves in the dense forests on the slopes of the universallymountainous country; some 300 are brought daily into the market;all large payments are made in slaves. Here we meet with saltfrom the Tuaregs and from Bauchi; tobe from Kano, Nupe andIlorin; isolated Arab merchants also penetrate as far as thiswith their wares. There is but little in the way of industrialwork, though excellent smith's work is done in the manufactureof superior articles.KEFFI is a well-cultivated Vassal-State of Saria and liesto the south of it. It was founded in 1819, by the Malim Abdes-Senga.The capital of Keffi is Keffi Abd-es-Senga 251 (shortlyKeffi). For the first fifty years the town made but littleprogress, but since the decline of the carrying trade an ivoryfrom Adamaua viá Kuka to Tripoli, and the transfer to this placeof the land route from Yola to the middle Niger, (which formerlypassed viá Bauchi,) it has become a flourishing ivory market,with from 20,000 to 30,000 Mahomedan and heathen inhabitants.The ivory-caravans proceeding from east to west are met atKeffi by others going in a direction north and south, for it isthe point of intersection of the trade-routes coming from theMediterranean and from the Atlantic Ocean; one here meets with252European goods brought both from the Guinea Coast and fromTripoli. English silver is current as far as Keffi; here onealready finds, besides the circular huts, also the square hutswhich are so common on the Lower Niger. Finally, Keffi is alsoimportant by reason of its manufacture of excellent bronzedpottery, and of its being the centre for the Haussa porters, whoare recruited from poor and youngish men 253 .Between Keffi and the Benue is the recently created Emiratepreparation for a further advance southwards.251 Barth, II., 673 et seq.; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II. 189 etseq., and G.M. Ergb. VII., 67 et seq.; Flegel, M.A.G., III.,139; Staudinger, 139 et seq.; Ferryman, 133 et seq.252 The unloading station on the Benue is Odeni, which isdefended by a rampart with watch-towers. From here the Emir ofKeffi makes slave-raids to the south across the Benue.Ferryman, 134.253 Abúja, west of Keffi, whither the ancient rulers of Sariarepaired when driven away by the Fulbes, is an independent Stateand a place of refuge for the heathens. Flegel, M.A.G., III.,139; Flegel mentions Bagaji as an Arab colony to the N.W. ofKano.56

of ANASSARAWA 254 (Nassarawa) which, together with its capital ofthe same name on the Kogi-n-Anassárawa, belongs to Saria. Thetown was built at the end of 1860. The Kogi-n-Anassárawa can,during the period of high water, when it rises some 8 metres (26feet), be navigated from the Benue right up to Anassárawa. Theruler of Anassárawa undertakes numerous raids towards the south,especially against the A'Kpoto. 255The communication between Sókoto and Adamaua on the onehand, and between Lake Chad and the confluence of the Benue andNiger on the other--the former principally a political and thelatter more a commercial route--is controlled by the province ofBAUCHI, which is for the most part a wild and much intersectedmountainous tract of country still occupied by pagans, but whichis of importance from an economical point of view owing to thepresence of salt-works (sebcha, whence the salt is obtained fromthe incrustations on marshy land), in the valley of the Benue.The capital, Bauchi, 256 named after the old heathenpopulation (properly speaking Garo-n-Bauchi, or "fortified townof Bauchi,") is also called Yákoba, a name derived, according toVogel, from the tribe of Yako, which dwells in theneighbourhood, but, according to Rohlfs, from its founder, MalimYakub, who died in 1844, when Sultan of Bauchi. Rohlfsestimated the population at 150,000 inhabitants, mostly Haussas;Vogel found it thinly populated, owing to the long-continued254 Staudinger, 131 et seq., 470; Flegel, passim, 255;Ferryman, 70.255 The port of Anassárawa on the Benue, and the terminus ofan important trade-route to Saria, Kano and Sókoto, is theflourishing town of Loko (4,000 inhabitants), a much used ferrystationon the Benue, formerly situated on an island but now onthe north bank. The energetic Fulbes of Anassárawa have crossedthe river at this place and are pushing forwards towards thesouth. It was owing to the hostility of the Emir of Anassárawathat the English had to abandon their station at Loko. Flegelstates that Uje or Usha, on the south bank, and capital of theBassa negroes, has been destroyed and, along with it (1883), asansánne of the King of Anassárawa. Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 217et seq.; Flegel, G.M., 1880, 222; M.A.G., III., 255; the same,map V., Sheet 1; Staudinger, 64 et seq.; Ferryman, 71; Passarge,15. South-west of Anassárawa, between the Niger and Benue, arethe ruins of the old Igbira capital, Panda or Funda, destroyedin about 1850 (Baikie, J. Lond., 1855, 112). To the west of itand on the Niger itself is the former Igbira residence, Igu(Ferryman, 138). North-east of Loko is Doma, the capital ofArago, where a Madaki from Saria rules, together with the nativeking. Flegel, M.A.G., III., 257; Ferryman, 132.256 Barth, II., 685 et seq.; Vogel, passim, 481 et seq.;Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 48 et seq., and Qu. d. A. II., 144 etseq.57

absence of the Court. The reigning family is not of Fulbe, butof native origin.The town of Bauchi lies at an altitude of 800 metres (2,625feet), and forms an irregular-shaped quadrilateral, whichencloses huts, fields, gardens, stony hills and water-holes, allmixed up together and which is surrounded by a wall 3½ hourslong (sic-Tr) and which has 9 gates. The soil is uncultivatedover a circumference of 20 miles. The granite plateau iscovered with enormous blocks of stone and with rocks of the mostwonderful shapes, and falls in all directions towards the town,which is consequently surrounded by a large swamp in the rainyseason, and is notorious throughout the Sudan for itsunhealthiness.As an ivory-market for the traders of Ghadames it has lostconsiderably in importance by the removal (vide p. 37) of thecaravan-route. At the market are sold slaves, (who, owing tothe political state of the country are very cheap,) cottongoods, 257 bronzed earthen crockery-ware, made by women, anddelicate basket-work, made by men. Bauchi, like Keffi, lies onthe borderland between the European wares brought from theMediterranean and those brought from the Guinea coast.The most important vassal of Bauchi is the Ruler of258Wasse, or Wósse, a large town in southern Bauchi, close to thenorth bank of the Benue.The centre of the salt-industry in the valley of the Benue259is Lafia-Berebere, a town of some 15,000 inhabitants in thesouth-west of Saria, close to the border. Berebere, as the nameimplies, was founded by the Kanuri (Berebere) about 1800; thesewere, at a later date, driven out by the Shoa.South-east of Bauchi is the country of MURI, which lies onboth sides of the Benue valley, from the Kátsinna river as faras the territory of the wild independent heathen tribe of theBassama,260 the Hamárua of Barth and Baikie. 261Muri is the process of converting itself into an importantprovince of Sókoto. "Unsettled conditions" still, however,exist. In Flegel's time it had no superficial area, but,characteristically of the Fulbes, possessed only a few isolated257 The collecting of rags, from which they are here able tomake stuffs, and the testing of milk by the authorities, remindone of European towns.258 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 156; Passarge, 341.259 Barth, II., 673; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 187, 207;Flegel, M.A.G., III., 257.260 Passarge, 337. The Benue valley is here equallyinteresting from the picturesque, geological and ethnographicalpoints of view.261J., Lond., 1855, 117 et passim.58

spots, dependent upon the capital of the same name.The town of Muri, 262 which was first visited by Vogel in1855, the chief Fulbe centre on the Middle Benue, and situatedsome 15 English miles to the N.W. of it, is not surrounded by arampart, is friendly, cleanly, and free from the parfumd'Afrique of most Negro towns.On the left bank of the Benue, and Dependencies of Muri,263are:--the strongly fortified town of Jibu (Jibbu, Zhibu,Shebu) at the mouth of the River Donga; Ibi, 264 which is theheadquarters of the Royal Niger Company, and finally Korórofa,possibly an old Haussa province and which is historicallyconnected with Bornu 265 (vide p. 33, Note 2). The capital,Wukari, 266 (Allen: Okare, Vogel: Okale, Zintgraff: Okari),with some 60,000 inhabitants, and lying about 45 English miles(2 days' journey) south of the Benue, between the Kátsinna andDonga rivers, and one of the principal places and supportingpointsof the Juku or Jikum, 267 had, up till 1879, resisted theattacks of the Fulbes; in 1882, however, Flegel found the townalready overrun by Haussas, who have recently been only too gladto settle in Southern Muri and found cities. 268262 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 148, 226; Briefe 22; Staudinger, 374;Ferryman, 86; Mizon, passim, 232.263 Baikie, Journ., Lond., 1855, 115; Flegel, G.M., 1880,224; Ferryman, 130; Morgen, 312; Passarge, 341, 489.264 Ferryman, 77, et seq.; Mizon, passim; v. Stetten, K.,Bl., 1895, 186; Passarge, 15, 347, et seq.; Muri alsoparticipates in the production of salt in the Benue basin nearBománda. Barth, II., 599, Note; Vogel (letter to Ehrenberg)Wagner, p. 283; Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 485.265 Barth, II., 137. The eastern district appears to havebeen long tributary to Bornu, while the western portion on theother hand is independent; in the middle of the 17th century anarmy of the Jikum, or Köana, even advanced into Bornu andbesieged its capital.266 Barth II., 691, et seq.; Baikie, passim, 115; Flegel,G.M., 1880, 224; Briefe, 21; Ferryman, 79, et seq.; Zintgraff,M.D.S., III., 81; Passarge, 16, 342.267 The old capital Koróra was destroyed by the Kanuri(Passarge, 342) and Kwóna, on the other hand, recently by theFrench (Vogel, passim, 483; Passarge, 18, 319, 325).268 A preponderating Haussa population exists also in thelarge town of Yola, in Muri, some kilometres to the east of theTarábba river, a rapidly flourishing settlement, which must notbe confused with the capital of Adamaua of the same name, towhich it scarcely seems to be inferior in size; it is once moreunder the suzerainty of the King of Gassol, a town lying some59

In the beginning of the seventies the town of Bakúndi 269(Kundi) was founded from Muri by an Emir who had been drivenfrom there. It is situated to the south of the Benue on theTarábba, and is "the capital of a newly-formed government," andis at the same time an important ivory-centre.The impress of variety and intermixture, so characteristicof the whole Sudan, is borne in a remarkable degree by thegreatest, and in many respects the most important, province ofthe Empire of Sókoto, viz., Adamaua.ADAMAUA is situated on the Upper Benuë 270 and Faro. "Withits wealth of natural variety it is a land of contrasts; onemeets them here at every step: barrenness and the mostluxuriant fertility 271 , extreme drought and the most plentifulwater supply are here found side by side . . . .; the samecontrasts are to be found in the lives of the inhabitants. Herethe territories of the north and south African peoples overlapin the most diversified manner, while in addition there is theremarkable struggle between Islam and paganism, which here goeson uninterruptedly. 272Adamaua, geographically speaking, is divided into asouthern, a central, and a northern portion.Southern Adamaua, with Bányo, Tibati and Ngáumdere,belongs, not to the Sudan, but to the great South Africanplateau.hours to the north of it, on the Tarábba.seq.Passarge, 339, et269 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 259, et seq.; Ferryman, 81, 120, etseq.; Zintgraff, M.D.S., III., 82; Morgen, 301, et seq. A Fulbeadvanced post, which has again already been pushed forward tothe south from Bakundi, is Beli, where, besides the Juku King, aGaladima from Bakundi also rules.--Flegel, G.M., 1882, 431.270 Here the Benuë makes its "truly African horse-shoe bend";from the example first set by Landers, who considered it to bean outflow from Lake Chad, it was erroneously called Chadda,until Baikie came and called it "the Chadda or Benuë"; Be-nuë,in the Batta language, signifies "Mother of waters," (thenegroes look upon the tributaries as wives of the main stream),hence the French are correct in saying "la Bénoué"; by theHaussa it is called, from its colour, the black river; theNiger, on the other hand, being called the white river: whilstthe water of the Niger is drinkable, that of the Benuë is veryunhealthy, both for man and beast; vide Baikie, J. Lond., 1855,112, 116; Barth, II., 556, 559, Note; and Z. f. allg. Erdk.,1863, S.A. 8; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 216.271 There is no land in France better cultivated than theimmense plain of Yola--Mizon, passim.272Barth, II., 449, 663.60

Central Adamaua is the country between the southern edge ofthe plateau and the northern edge of the Shari and Yola Mountainmass, together with Bubanjídda; this and Northern Adamaua,belong to the Central Sudan, the two forming one orographicalentity, viz., the Schollenland of Adamaua. 273 Its importancelies in its position as the connecting land between the Nigerand Chad basins on the one side, and the extensive Congoterritory on the other, as well as between lake Chad and thedeepest indentation of the Gulf of Guinea. By the German treatywith England and France the greater part of it falls within theGerman sphere of influence. By the same treaty, however, theformer country obtains the capital and the latter the southeasternportion, which is rich in ivory and copper.274Adamaua, "that Mohomedan Kingdom which is propped up by aseries of heathen tribes" (Barth) was, before the appearance ofthe Fulbes on the scene (vide p. 24), called Fumbina. The mostimportant Negro Empire was that of the Batta, with the capitalat Kókomi, 275 while the principal place of the great Fali tribewas Basuma. 276 The lord of the country is the Sultan of Yola,although his power is not everywhere equally great. Apparentlythere are three political gradations:--1--Yola, with a wideenvironment, directly under the influence of the Sultan; 2--theterritories of Márrua, Bebene, Konja, Gashka and Bányo, whichalready enjoy greater freedom; 3--the great States of Tibati,Ngáumdere and Bubanjídda, which, lying within the periphery, areincluded in the province, but "are only morally dependent."277YOLA, lying, like Sókoto, on the northern borderline, isthe "residence" of Adamaua, and is named after the princelyquarter of the town of Kano. It was founded by Loël, the son ofA'dama, in the first third of this century, and is a large openplace, with a population of, according to Barth, 12,000,Passarge, from 12,000 to 15,000, Morgen and von Stetten, 20,000inhabitants, and in the period from 185! to 1879 has three times273 Passarge, 369, et seq.274 Monteil (175) draws the same picture of the Fulbes in thenorth-west: "On the aboriginal race . . . a conquering race,that of the Fulbe, has grafted itself." The name Adamauaoriginates in the conqueror Adama (vide p. 25), or from him andfrom his wife of the same name (Haussa plural)--Barth II., 598.73.275 Barth II., 613, 714; it is now a small village--Passarge,276 Barth, ibid.277 Barth II., 142, 578, et seq.; Flegel, passim; Ferryman,89, et seq., 116, et seq.; Mizon, Tour d. m. 1892, II., 236,255; Morgen, Durch Kamerun, 299; Maistre, C.R.S., 1893, 285(compare Alis. Nos Africains); von Stetten, K.Bl., 1895, 184, etseq.; Passarge, 26, et seq.61

changed its position. 278The present Yola lies some 3 kilometres (about 2 Englishmiles) to the south of the Benue, on a dead arm of the river,from which latter it is separated by folds of the ground. Thisdead arm is fordable in the dry season, but in September putsthe whole plain of Yola under water. The streets of the townare wide. The farmyards round the huts are everywhere fencedin, and are sown in the rainy season and converted into fieldsof sorghum. 279At the time of Barth's visit there were no industrieswhatever; now, however, thanks to the more go-ahead Haussas andKanuri, it has its own manufactures, including weaving, dyeing,tanning and manufacture of leather goods, so that it has becomesomewhat more independent of the northern Haussa markets. As amarket it is of some importance; the export trade is principallyin slaves, (who are to be found here in large numbers, many awealthy man having a thousand of them), and ivory. A largegrazing-ground divides the town into two quarters, the Fulbe andthe Haussa; on the far side of a strip of cultivation, from aquarter of an English mile to a mile in width, and to the eastof it, is a special Arab quarter 280 which is under an almostindependent galadima ("King of the Arabs"). Caravans fromSókoto, Kano, Kátsena, Kuka and the Lower Benue (Nupe) here meetwith travellers from Alexandria and Khartum. The English havenot yet received permission to erect a factory, but are onlyallowed to have a hulk on the Benue. 281North of the Benue is Gire, 282 the summer residence of theSultan, a large closed town in a hilly and far healthierposition than Yola; it is not of recent construction but is aBatta town. The first Fulbe capital was Gurin, 283 which wasfounded by Adama, and was mentioned by Denham. It lies a little278 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 150; compare Kiepert's map, M.A.G.V., Sheet 3.(Mizon).279 "The town itself is nothing but a large kitchen-garden"280 Besides this three Arab villages are known of in Adamaua;Shuari, near Gárua, with from 300 to 400 Shoa from Bornu(Passarge, 79, 88, 216); Belem, north-east of Yola, also foundedby the same (Barth II., 545), and Soráuiel balaraba, betweenGárua and Márrua (Passarge, 169).281 Ferryman mentions the English stations on the Benue (66);they export ivory, rubber, and sesame.282 Von Stetten, passim; Passarge, 50. Passarge speaks of asecond town of Gire, on the borderland between the currency ofcowries and of feri (strips of cotton), pp. 51, Note 6, 71.283Barth II., 715; Von Stetten, passim, 180.62

to the east of Yola, close to the place where the Faro flowsinto the Benue. 284Adamaua attains its furthest extension to the north-east inthe Sultanate of MARRUA, which is situated on the northern-mostportion of the water-parting between Lake Chad (Logone-Shari)and is the Benue, and is the Border-State towards Baghirmi, "theAfrican Mesopotamia." Barth speaks of a dense Fulbe populationin the territory between Mándara and the Mussgu country, andalso of a province which was referred to by the general name ofJemmara, 285 and Passarge found Márrua to be actually verypopulous and exceedingly well-cultivated, but separated fromYola by a number of independent pagan States. The capitalMárrua, 286 with a population of between 60,000 and 70,000 verymixed and uncivilized inhabitants, is situated close to thatMount Mendif so much spoken of since Denham's time. 287 Until theadvent of the German expedition its importance was unknown; itis--independently of its political situation--a horse-breedingcentre and the principal gum-producing place in Adamaua.288A day's journey north of Márrua is Bálda, the residenceof the usurper Hayatu, which has blossomed forth in a very shorttime from an insignificant village into a large town.Eastwards of Yola, in the neighbourhood of the Mayo Kebbi,is the dominion of BEBENE (Bibene), with capital of the same289name. To it belongs also the commercial town of Adumre, 290situated half a day's journey to the S.W. of it, with apopulation of from 12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and from whichstart the important routes--(1) viâ Lere to the Mussgu countries284 Barth found Alba, which was just then in process offormation, to be the most northerly Fulbe and frontier town; therocky summits in its immediate neighbourhood were inhabited bypagans. Barth II., 497, et seq., 638.285 Barth II., 602, 732.286 Passarge, 183, et seq., 464, 483; Barth II., 609, 710.287 Vide p. 331, et seq.288 Barth II., 721; Passarge, 171, 189.--The communicationbetween the Benue and Lake Chad, mentioned by Barth and Vogel,through the Mayo Kebbi and the Tuburi swamp (Barth III., 180) isof little importance as a trade-route, since the cataracts atKacho are impassable at all seasons of the year. "The Kebbi ispractically useless as a route to Lake Chad" (Ferryman, 114;Mizon, passim, 276). The eastern boundary of the Fulbes ofAdamaua is at Kacho (Ferryman, 108); Barth gives Pedde or Fetteas its most northerly point (II., 609, 710).289 Passarge, 154.290Passarge, 113, 153, et seq.63

(N.E.); (2) viâ Lame to Lakka 291 and the basin of the Shari (E.);and (3) the main road to Bubanjídda (S. and S.E.).292The Haussas and Kanuri mostly inhabit the trading placesand the Fulbes the seats of government, which are usually atsome distance off.Between Yola and Bebene is the important commercial town of293Gárua, at the point where the road from Lake Chad to the Congocrosses the Benue.294South of Yola the territory of KONJA indicates thecommencement of the Sudan country proper. The capital bears thesame name, has over 15,000 inhabitants, and is divided intothree quarters--those of the Kanuri, Fulbes, and heathens(Barth). It is an open place with an important market, at whichroads meet from Yola, Chamba, Bakundi, Gashka, Banyo, Tibati,and Ngáumdere, and forms the central crossroad junction ofAdamaua.295To Konja belong the two Fulbe centres Láro and Chámba 296which lie between Yola and Konja, and are of the same size asthe latter. In 1850 and 1851 the Sultan of Chamba undertookexpeditions against the savage Ibo or Igbo, "whereby not onlythe influence, but even the dominion, of the conquerors wasextended to a certain extent up to the Gulf of Benin." With alldue deference, however, the opinion may be expressed that Barthascribes too great an extent and importance to theseexpeditions. The direct influence of the Fulbes does not by anymeans extend to the sea.297The dominion of GASHKA (Gasseka, Gashaka, Gasska), to the291 Lere and Lame (Lakka) are the powerful heathen States tothe east of Adamaua who, possessed of cavalry to a certainextent, have offered a successful resistance to the advance ofthe Fulbes to the Shari. Barth II., 727, 731; Passarge, 156, etseq., 486. In Adamaua itself, a free heathen State, that ofGalim, has arisen on the northern border of the South Africanplateau, in the Gendero Mountains. Von Stetten, passim, 189;Passarge, 496, 516.292 There are also in Adamaua places which are altogetheroccupied by Kanuri, as for instance the village of Diginnu.Passarge, 55.293 Barth II., 713; Ferryman, 96, et seq.; Mizon, passim,273, et seq.; von Stetten, passim, 184; Passarge, 74, et seq.,210, 525, 553.294 Barth II., 706 (with sketch); Morgen, 299; von Stetten,passim, 183; Passarge, 375.295 Barth II., 707; Passarge, 308.296Barth II., 606, 737; Morgen, 299; Passarge, 299, 376.297Flegel (map, M.A.G., V., 7); Zintgraff, M.D.S., II., 200;64

S.W. of Konja, has as its capital the Fulbe town of the samename, whose inhabitants, from 5,000 to 6,000 in number accordingto Flegel, and about 15,000 according to Morgen, live scatteredover a large area; it is rich in cattle and provisions.Of more importance than Konja and Gashka, (which formerlywere in a sort of state of dependency upon it) is BANYO 298(Bagnio) which lies somewhat to the south of Gashka, and is theFulbe frontier State of Adamaua towards the S.W.Banyo is surrounded by a rampart eight kilometres (5 miles)in length, with a 3 metre (10 ft.) ditch, and is very closelybuilt, the fenced-in farms being so packed as to form a numberof streets of greater or less magnitude; here, also, there is"an incredible superabundance of cattle."The market is one of the most important in Adamaua, as atthis place two great routes from the S.E. and S.W. intersecteach other, and then proceed to the Benuë, to Ibi and Yola. Thecurrency consists of cowries and iron shovels. 299When the chieftain is absent on a campaign, his place istaken by one of his wives (a daughter of the Sultan of Yola).Banyo, with the large town of Bafut 300 with its 8,000 to10,000 inhabitants, which lies to the west of it, is the key ofthe heathen territory on the Old Calabar (Cross River).301Close to Banyo is Tibati which, as the summer residenceof the former Lámido (Prince) of Banyo, was the principal townin the country but, as his burial place, is now half forsaken.In the district of Tikar, which lies to the south of Banyo, andis tributary to it, there is a brisk trade in ivory. The centrefor this is Mahalba, 302 a large open place, whose chief is calledsserkia-n-hauri, i.e., "the ivory king." The Haussas occupy aseparate quarter.Under the energetic rule of the Fulbes, the central of the303three border states, TIBATI --in contrast with Banyo, which ishemmed in to the south and west--is now in full process ofdevelopment and, by its extension towards the south, alreadythreatens the safety of Kamerun (The Cameroons).The capital, Tibati, is surrounded by walls, and is anMorgen, 299; Passarge, 373.298 Flegel, M.A.G., IV., 28; Morgen, 294 et seq., and M.D.S.,IV., 151; von Stetten, passim, 181 et seq.; Passarge, 372.299 Barth relates the same (II., 694) of Wukari, where thevalue of a slave is 40 shovels.300 Zintgraff, M.D.S., III., 79.301 von Stetten, passim, 181.302 The same, 161 et seq.303Barth, II, 608, 743; Morgen, 260 et seq.65

ancient heathen settlement, of the size of Banyo.During the visit of Morgen and von Stetten, and indeedyears before that, the ephemeral capital of the Empire and mostimportant trade-centre was at Sansérni Tibati, 304 four days'march to the south-west of Tibati. It was surrounded by farms,and was an enormous war-camp of the Lámido, laid out like atown, and with a population of from 10,000 to 12,000inhabitants. In the highest portion was built the king'sstronghold. Scarcely a kilometre (1,100 yards) away from theoutermost huts lay the threatened, but strongly fortified, pagansettlement Ngambe. 305Yokó, 306 the most southerly place in the Tibati Empire, isat the same time a watch-post of the Fulbes; any new arrivalmust first be reported to the Sultan of Tibati, and receive hispermission to enter the country. The Haussas already surpassthe Fulbes in point of numbers. Tibati is tributary to one ofthe most important ivory markets of southern Adamaua, calledafter its chief, Ngila 307 (Kaiser Wilhelms-Burg). Ngila is inthe territory of the Wute, who were recently conquered by theFulbes, and is not far from the Sánaga, which separates thenorthern from the southern races. It has some 8,000inhabitants. The extremely low price of ivory and of slaves hasattracted a number of Haussas, 308who have their village close tothat of the Wute; they remain here from one to two years, andthen receive as payment for the goods brought to the Sultan ashare of the ivory delivered to him. They also cultivate farmsand their women sell provisions.Also included within the area, and consequently only to bedefined inaccurately, is the richest and most powerful State ofAdamaua, the bulwark of the Fulbes on their way to the Congo,and forming, with Tibati, the most southerly halting place ofIslam, viz.: NGAUMDERE, the country of the Mbum in the southeast,situated at the sources of the Benue and of severalbranches of the Logone, and which, in spite of its greatdistance from Sókoto, and of its apparent independence, is309visited and watched by envoys of the supreme Overlord.139.304 Morgen, 265, and M.D.S. IV., 150; von Stetten, passim,305 von Stetten, passim, 160.306 Morgen, 259 et seq; von Stetten, passim, 136.307 Tappenbeck, M.D.S. II., 115 ("Ngirangs Stadt"); Morgen,81 et seq. 209, and M.D.S. III., 113; von Stetten, passim, 112.Barth (II. 745) gives an itinerary from Tibati to the Ibocountry through unexplored territory.308 "To become rich one must go five times to Tibati, but toNgila only once."309Mostly princes, who freely accept large presents--"Beggar66

The capital, Ngáumdere 310 (Ngáundere, Ngámdére, Gámdere),with its 30,000 inhabitants, is the biggest town in Adamaua, andthe metropolis of German Adamaua. It is situated on anundulating elevated plateau, from which stand out twopicturesque chains of granite mountains running N.N.W. and S.The town is very closely built, and has no open spaces. Itis one kilometre (1,100 yards) in length and half a kilometre inwidth, and is surrounded by a high crenelated wall of red mud,with a ditch 3 metres (10 feet) in depth and of the same width.It is pierced by two fortified gates, one in the north, theother in the south, these being the directions whence comes thetraffic. The royal palace is again surrounded by a mud wallfrom 6 to 8 metres (20 to 27 feet) in height, and contains the1,200 wives of the Sultan and many slaves, of whom there are3,000 on his farms. In the immediate vicinity of the town liethousands of skeletons of dead slaves, and of criminals who havebeen executed. In the market are sold ivory and slaves;Ngáumdere and Tibati supply the latter to the whole CentralSudan. At the Fulbe court the Haussas exercise great influence,while the Kanuri remain in the background.The most important halting-places between Ngáumdere and theSanga (Congo) are Kunde 311 , (the last Fulbe village towards thesouth, and an important ivory market,) and Gása, 312 the lastmarket and frontier-town of Adamaua in the direction of thepagan territories to the south-east, and which is situated in adistrict rich in ivory and copper.The frontier State of Adamaua, which juts out in aneasterly direction into the pagan countries, goes by the name of313BUBANJIDDA, so called after the Fulbe conqueror Buba and hismother Jídda. This State became powerful at an early date, andprinces."310 Barth, II., 6'5, 736. (On map V., sheet 16, described asRumde Ngaundere, and consequently originating from a Fulbeslave-village): Flegel, G.M., 1883, 245, and M.A.G. II., 250;Mizon, passim, 284 et seq. (compare Alis, Nos Africains);Passarge, 195, 261, et seq. 557. This Ngaumdere must not beconfused with the village of the same name which lies S.W. of itand close to Ngila; Morgen, 234 et seq.311 Mizon, passim, 287.312 Flegel, Verh. Ges. f. Erdk. Berlin, 1884, 385;Staudinger, 612; Morgen, 200; Mizon, 200; Bull. Marseille, 1894,287 et seq.; von Stetten, passim, 180; Passarge, 195, 255;Monteil, 244.313 Barth, II., 458, 607, 723; Ferryman, 65, 102; vonStetten, passim, 180; Passarge, 99 et seq. 127, 134, 151 (oncemore in closer relationship with Yola through the arrival of theGerman expedition).67

in Barth's time was dependent upon Yola "to a very undefinedextent," being often engaged in hostilities with it, and evenbeing at variance with Sókoto. It is the country of the heathentribe of the Dama and is a dreaded Robber-State. WhilstBubanjídda disturbs the great trade route from Yola to Ngáumdereto the west, if has also ever since the forties sent expeditionsfar into the heathen countries to the east. 314 In 1866 theEnglish vainly sought to establish a station here. The provinceyields excellent iron. The capital is Rei Buba, which on theoccasion of the Fulbe invasion into Adamaua was already found tobe a walled town. The distrustful and despotic king 315 livesmostly in his "castles" in the neighbouring Hossére (mountains)Rei.Since a continuous increase of the Fulbe Empire isprecluded by reason of their comparatively small numbers, therecannot fail to be a reaction in the north resulting from thepartial gravitation of the Fulbes towards the south, inconjunction with the increase of their power in the basin of theBenue. Hence, hand-in-hand with the struggle of Adamaua forpolitical independence and for a considerable addition, (Tibati,Ngáumdere, Bubanjídda), we find in the north cessation of power,(if not crumbling to pieces,) and undefined relationships; therewe find fanaticism, energy, reconstruction; here lethargy,indifference, periods of decay and of tedious recovery, a stateof affairs which is most clearly imprinted upon theEMPIRE OF GANDO.This includes the smaller, western portion of Pul-Haussa,between Say and the confluence, and is about comprised by theseven bastard Haussa states. Although by origin (see p. 25) andruling family the equal of the Sókoto Empire, Gando is, by thepatriarchal constitution of the state, a dependency of theSultan of Sókoto. 316 It is composed of the following provincialStates, 317 which vary in size and degree of dependency, thelatter depending upon their individual strength and theirdistance from Gando; S.W. Kebbi, Sabérma, Mauri, Déndina,Galajo, Toróde, Yagha, Libtako, Yauri, Guari, Nupe, and NorthYóruba.314 Barth, II., 625.315 Barth gives (II., 613 et seq.) an account of the pagantribes of Adamaua and of their most important settlements and,in II., 606 et seq., of the most powerful Fulbe chieftains; agreat deal has changed since then.316 The extent of the power and civilization of the provinceswill be well illustrated by the amount of etiquette observed attheir courts: whilst in Kano it even surpasses that of Sókoto(Barth and others), it is altogether absent in Gando(Staudinger, 355). The Sultan lived, in Barth's time, inmonklike seclusion and the whole empire was in a state ofanarchy. Staudinger found it to be the same (520). It would,68

The province of KEBBI, 318 in which is situated Sókoto, thecapital of the whole empire, and which is admirably adapted forthe cultivation of rice by reason of its fertile marshy valleys,contains also the capital, Gando 319 (Gandu, Gwandu), about twodays' march south-west of Sókoto, with a population of from10,000 to 15,000. Gando, like all the larger Fulbe capitals, issituated on the northern fringe of its territory; in other wordsthe political centre of gravity remained, whilst the powerpushed on southwards."The whole situation of the town of Gando, which iscompletely commanded by the chain of hills surrounding it, is inconsonance with the character of its rulers, that is to say,deficient of the power to rule, and does not in the smallestdegree possess the capacity of holding together that large groupof provinces of most varied character, which have arrangedthemselves around the centre." The wall, with its many gates,is so badly kept in repair that in the northern and westernportions the Kebbi can creep in and steal horses. As all thefarmsteads are surrounded by gardens the town produces a very320pleasing impression.The cotton goods manufactured in Gando are, it is true, ofthe first quality, but they do not understand how to give themthe gloss of those of Nupe and Kano, which is done by beatingthem with wooden sticks. The old Haussa capital of Kebbi isBirni-n-Kebbi, 321 with 20,000 inhabitants, which belongs tohowever, be erroneous to expect a cessation of the Fulbedominion here before long: according to European ideas, indeed,the "State" must shortly collapse, but in Africa it quietlyvegetates on; its political heart-beats are very slow and weak,although it has only African rivals. Political life in Africaand in Europe are two very different things, and are not to bemeasured by the same standard.Adamaua enjoys the same political freedom as Gando,without, however, possessing its now historical advantages, forwhich it makes up, however, by its distance from Sókoto.317 Compare Barth, IV., 205, and appendix Vb. (Barth alsoincludes a small portion of Borgu in Gando); Staudinger, 516 etseq.318 As regards the subdivision of Kebbi and the townsbelonging to Gando, vide Barth, IV., 551.319 Barth, IV., 197, et seq. (with sketch); V., 327, et seq.;Flegel, M.A.G. III., 55; Staudinger, 347, et seq., 495; Gruner,Kol-Z, 1895, 195.320 Barth, on the occasion of his second visit, found thetown half destroyed by fire. The frequent large fires inSudanese towns are of little economical importance.321Barth, IV., 215; Flegel, M.A.G., 54. It is said that the69

Gando, and lies to the westward of it. Until its conquest bythe Fulbes in 1806 it was important on account of its trade ingold.Titular provinces of Gando are Sabérma, Mauri, and Déndina,which are under feeble princelings, who, according tocircumstances, acknowledge the suzerainty of the Sultans ofGando and Sókoto or of the Serky-n-Kebbi, 322 the prince of theindependent Kebbi.The ancient province of MAURI (Fulfulde) A'sewa (Haussa),west of Gando and south of Sabérma, with a Haussa population,323has Gíwaye or Giuaë as its present capital; it was formerlycalled Lokoye. A certain amount of value lies in the possessionof the great Fogha 324 salt-valley (Dallu', Barth; Dalhol,Monteil), a large sebcha which supplies the whole of thecaravan-route to Gonja with salt, and forms the boundary betweenthe Haussa and Sonrhay nations.325The province of SABERMA (Sonrhay) Serma, or Jerma(Fulfulde) lies between Kebbi and Say (N.E. of the Niger), has avery undefined boundary towards the north, and is inhabited bySonrhay, (to which former great empire it belonged,) and bycross-bred Tuaregs.Saberma is extraordinarily fertile. The dense populationlives on the fruit of the soil and by the most accomplishedthieving. On the arrival of a Haussa caravan the whole thievesgang of the neighbourhood has a rendezvous; thieving is in thislocality a veritable social institution. The open town ofDosso, in Barth's time independent, is now the capital.The capital of DENDINA, 326 or Dendi, which is inhabited byfollowing were also former "residences," viz.: Támbauel (Barth,IV., 551) and Jega, an emporium for raw silk, which is muchsought after for embroidery-work (Barth, IV., 204; V., 312;Flegel, M.A.G. III., 56).322 Monteil, 197. It is hard to gather from Monteil's wordswhether, after the last successful campaign of Abdherraman ofSókoto, these territories once more belong to Gando, or aredirectly under Sókoto: "Les régions comprises entre Sókoto etle Niger sont rentrées sous l'autorité de l'Empereur haoussa, àla suite de la prise d'Argoungou." (210, Note.)323 Barth, IV., 565 et seq.; Monteil, 221 et seq. and C.R.S.1893, 62.324 There is no such spot as Fogha. It merely represents thebroad marshy valley in which, amongst others, is the Fulbe townof Kalliul; another one, similar and running parallel to it, isDallul Bosso (Barth, IV., 236; Monteil, 200 et seq.).325 Barth IV., 426, 563, et seq.; Monteil, 203, et seq., 227,and C.R.S., passim.326Barth, IV., 232, 553, et seq.; Monteil, 196.70

Sonrhay, and lies to the south of Sabérma, is said, by Barth, tobe Yelo; the seat of a rebel chieftain. Monteil, however, saysthat Bunsa is the capital.On the far side of the Niger, the right bank, Gando doesnot extend so far to the west at the present day as was made outin Barth's reports. The last place in the empire in a southwesterlydirection from Say is Boti 327327 Gruner, Kol. Z., 1895, 195.or Botu, which lies closeto the Niger and is a combination of a number of scatteredvillages inhabited by Gurma. The King's village, with themarket place, in which there is daily a brisk trade, is, likeall the principal places on the Niger, surrounded by a wall.Also under the authority of the Fulbes are the countries ofGalajo, Toróde, Yagha and Libtako, which extend far to the N.W.of Say into the Bend of the Niger, and which, with the exceptionof Galaijo, which was founded at a later date, must have comeinto this relationship through Lebbo's expedition to Mássina in1816.GALAJO 328 is the colony of a chieftain of like name who,about the year 1833, set out in an easterly direction to escapefrom the persecution of the puritanical Fulbes, who up till thenhad been in alliance with him. Here he was allotted extensivetracts of country to the west of the Niger near Say by theSultan of Gando, who was at enmity with Mássina. The"residence," which had been first of all at Shirgu, wastransferred, on account of the dryness, to the more westerlyChampagore (Barth). Monteil gives, as the capital, Uro Gelajio,situated 40 to 45 kilometres (25--28 miles) westwards of Say,with some 3,000 inhabitants (Fulbes and Bambara slaves: theplace is called in the neighbourhood "the great Bambaravillage").Barth received a very good impression of old Galajo; hisinfluence has increased considerably on the right bank of theNiger, whilst that of his son, the present ruler, has increasedstill more, owing to his energetic participation in the campaignof Sókoto against the pagan Kebbi, and has extended to the left329bank. At the present time Say, 330 with its environs, is alsounder the suzerainty of Galajo, though the latter are deserted,the result of the great cattle-plague of 1891; "the villageslook as though they had been deserted but yesterday." Say, the328 Barth, IV., 254 et seq.; Monteil, 185 et seq., andC.R.S., 1893, 59.329 Monteil: "The undisputed chief of the country betweenSay and the Liptako, compared with whom the Kings of Say, ofTorodi, and of Yagha are mere puppets, is Ibrahim, son ofGuéladgio, King of Ouro Guéladjio." Compare Monteil, 236.330Barth, IV., 244 et seq.; V., 296 et seq.; Monteil, 189 etseq.; Gruner Kel Z passim; von Carnap, Kol. Z., 1895, 204.71

famous ferry-station of the Niger, has almost entirely lost itspolitical 331 and commercial importance owing to war andpestilence--"a fever-fostering sick-bed." It is the startingpoint of the dividing line between the French and Englishspheres of influence, 332 which goes from here to Barrua on LakeChad (north of Kuka).Galajo has raised itself to its present importance fromhaving been at first a weak territory within the State of333TORODE (Torodi), the "downfallen dominion of the Tórobe"(Barth) 334 . The "residence" of the chieftain, Champaláuel, byits throughly desolate condition, made an uncomfortableimpression upon the German explorer; Monteil mentions another,Nadiango. 335Westward of Toróde, and separated from it by an undefinedboundary, is YAGHA, 336 the capital of which, Zebba, lies in athick forest and consists of some 200 huts, but "resembles anenclosed and purposely nurtured wilderness rather than a town."The Toróde of these parts very much "look down upon" the Fulbeherds--(tarka, common people); the subject tribes (Sonrhay) arecalled kado by both.The most western province of Gando and the frontier State337towards Mássina is LIBTAKO (Liptako), which is flat, andadmirably adapted for horse-breeding.Barth and Monteil found both this and the frontier province331 "The Governor of Say is said to visit Sinder and Gogoeach year in a boat to collect the taxes of the Fulbes settledthere." Barth, Note to Ahmed Baba, vide A. d. Z. d. Morgenl.Gesellsch., 1855, p. 44.332 Scott-Keltie: The Partition of Africa; vide C.R.S.,1893, 296.333 Barth, IV., 264 et seq.; Monteil, 184 et seq.334 "The power of the King is nil, and his country iscertainly that one of all the Fulbe countries on the right bankof the Niger the decadence of which is the most marked"(Monteil).335 Barth here came across iron melting-furnaces six feet inheight and 1½ feet in diameter.336 Barth, IV., 278 et seq.; Monteil, 178 et seq., 249,Note.--From here on to Timbuktu Barth found the currency to bestrips of cotton: cowries would pass but, on account of theirweight were seldom used at this great distance from the Gulf ofGuinea.337Barth, IV., 290 et seq.; Monteil, 124, 165, 175 et seq.;and C.R.S., 1893, 58.72

of Massina, Aribínda, 338 (with capital at Lamórde), in completeanarchy. In spite of this the capital of Libtako, Dore (Dori),a Sonrhay town under Fulbe rule, with some 4,000 inhabitants, isof no small importance as a market, where Mossi (and a fewMandingo) barter 339 fabrics, millet, gold and kola-nuts for thebeautiful Taudéni crystalline salt of the Arabs of Timbuktu.Fetish-worship extends from the south right up to the vicinityof the last named province of Gando, which stretches up fromSay, like an arm, in a N.W. direction, and whose boundary withIslam is at the same time the dividing line between "civilisedand barbarian Africa."Down the Niger from Say--where the last unknown stretch ofthe river was explored by the German expedition--Gando, with a340few exceptions, never extends as far as the left bank. Hereit is only in the larger trading towns on the river, which areat the same time mostly points of passage for the kola-nutcaravans proceeding from Kano to Gonja, that the mahomedans canhold their own.Besides the Kinglets of Say and Boti, Gruner mentions thefollowing as being also tributary to Gando, viz.: Kirotashi(left bank), Bikini (right), Karmamma (right), Kompa (right),341Garu (right), Ilo (right and a little way off).YAURI, 342 the country of the heathen Kámbari, is situated atthe commencement of the Rapids of the Niger, and is thicklypopulated, more especially as regards the islands in the river.Although Yauri pays tribute to Gando, the influence of thelatter is insufficient to suppress the frequent civil wars. Thebrothers Lander found a large and populous town of the same nameon the left bank, to which the trade on the Middle Nigerextended: the merchants, however, who had come there in a largeboat from Timbuktu, returned to land again owing to thedifficulty of the journey into the mountains. (It was here thatthe unfortunate termination of Mungo Park's second adventurousjourney occurred.)Among the least-known portions of Haussa are the eastern338 Barth, IV., 310.339 Dori is called Jemmare by the people of Mossi (Monteil,152). Jemmare is the Fulbe word for politico-religious unionand for a country in process of development--a new land.340 A provisional map (on view in the Verein für Erdkunde,Leipzig) shows it, however, with a narrow strip on the rightbank.341 Gruner and von. Carnap, Kol. Z. 1895, 195, 202 et seq.,210; compare Barth, IV., 553, Note 2; Flegel, M.A.G. III., 50,63; Monteil, 189, 210.342Landers, Journ. Lond., 1830, 182; Barth, IV., 561 etseq.; Flegel, M.A.G. III., 47.73

part of Yauri, which is inhabited by Fulbe herds and heathens,and the country lying to the east of it, namely, Guari.GUARI 343 (Gbari) is situated to the north-east of Nupe. Thecapital, Guari (Birni-n-Gbari) lies between Yauri and Saria(between the Niger and Kano), and is surrounded by wooded andmountainous districts, in which many heathens still takeshelter.By far the most important and most powerful country in the344Empire of Gando is the Kingdom of Nupe or Nyfe (Clapperton:Nyffee) which controls the shortest land route from the MiddleNiger 345 to the Gulf of Guinea, which here bend in towards eachother.Nupe does not stand in friendly relationship with Gando and346Sókoto; owing to its power it pays tribute with reluctance(1000 tobe and 300 slaves, Barth), and is not infrequently inalliance with their enemies. The people of Nupe call themselvesTapa or Tappa. Barth 347 reckons them at a million and a half.Their language has many nasals and348gutturals and isremarkably rich in words, more especially as regards the methodof counting: there is even a word for million. 349 The languageappears to be related to that of the Yóruba.The men of Nupe have the reputation of being the bestweavers in the Sudan, and the women of being the best spinners350and carriers. Nupe sends the best guineafowl-tobe to Kuka; 351a quantity of tobe are also sent to Lagos. They make splendidplaited-work, as for instance, mats; also excellent pottery.Even a glass industry has been started.343 Barth, passim, and V., Petermann's map; Baikie, Journ.Lond., 1867, 93; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II. (map); Massari, Ausld,1882, 597.344 Barth, passim; Flegel, M.A.G., III., 137 et seq.;Staudinger, 353, 534.345 The route fortunately follows the course of the MiddleNiger as far as the confluence of the Benue.346 Rohlfs estimated that in the war-camp of the King of Nupeat Beggi there were 20,000 huts, occupied by 100,000 warriors,women, children and slaves; the war-fleet on the Niger he putdown at 500 canoes, each of which held from 30 to 100 men.--Qu.d. A. II., 240, 244.347 Journ. Lond., 1860, 122.348 Staudinger, 728.349 Rohlfs, passim, 248.350Clapperton, I., 628; Barth, II., 104.351Nachtigal, I., 645.74

"The inhabitants of Nupe have, since time immemorial, doneremarkable industrial work and rival the inhabitants of Kano inthe arts of weaving and dyeing; intercourse with Europeans hashad a very favourable influence on the industry of the country,and might have had even more but for the baneful influence ofthe flourishing slave-trade; the land is excessively fertile, 352and assisted by its favourable situation with regard to theNiger and Benue, as well as to the great territories of theinterior, should have a very prosperous future" (Rohlfs).The old capital of Nupe, and fifty years ago the most353important place "on the Upper River" was Rabba, 354 situated atthe lower end of the cataracts of the Niger, on the left bank ofthe stream, and one of the most important ferry-stations betweenOld Haussa and Yóruba, and which in the days of the slave-tradewas a rich and flourishing town. The extensive remains of thetown walls and the miles of ruins and of land formerly undercultivation all bear witness to its greatness. The Landersspeak of it as having 40,000 inhabitants, Burdo even as having70,000. Rabba was, however, destroyed in 1845 by the insurgentDasaba (May, passim), and Rohlfs found scarcely 500 men amoungthe ruins.In place of Rabba, Bida became at a later date the capitalof Nupe. Bida is situated on the left bank of the Niger, belowRabba, and 16 English miles to the north of the river. It wasfounded in the beginning of the sixties by Umoru, whosubsequently became Sultan, and already has "rather over thanunder 50,000 inhabitants, not counting the innumerable crowds ofstrangers who come and go" (von Puttkammer). It is "almost asthickly populated as Kano" (Massari).The town, which is surrounded by a rampart, is a rectanglesome 2 English miles in length by 1 in breadth, and gives apleasing impression by reason of its gigantic shady trees. Itsbroad streets are cleansed only by the vulture, the "scavengerof Africa." A large number of mosques are scattered through thetown. The wants of the town are provided for by large Fulbeherds of cattle and by the numerous farms in the neighbourhood.The market is divided up in accordance with the various classes352 "A future cotton-field" (Baikie).353 The Niger goes by two names South and North of the townof Ida, (which is just below the confluence,) in accordance withthe varying products of the country; thus below (South of) Idait is called the Lower River, in the "Palm Oil District," whileabove (North of) Ida it is called the Upper River, in the"Sheabutter and Ivory District," which extends along the Nigeras far as Rabba and also far up the Benue.--Flegel, Briefe 48.354 Clapperton, II., 174; Landers, Journ. Lond., 1830, 184:Barth, V., 235; May, Journ. Lond., 1860, 228 et seq.; Rohlfs,G.M. Ergb., VII., 86 et seq., and Qu. d. A. II., 240 et seq.;Burdo, passim, 153; Ferryman, 165 et seq.75

of goods exposed for sale and is supervised, as is the case inall the larger Haussa towns, by a sort of market-police. Thetextile industry governs the market, but both leather-work andiron-work are also excellent; "the inhabitants are more skilfuland more hard-working than in Kano" (Massari). "The eveningmarket is splendidly lighted up by means of thousands of littleoil-lamps placed upon the ground" (Ferryman). An interestingprocess is the conversion of European glass bottles into ringsof from 7 to 10 centimetres (23/4 to 4 inches) in diameter, athriving industry which appears to be confined to some twentyfamilies of Màssaga from Bida. 355The port of Bida is Wanangi 356 (Wonangi), on the river ofthe same name and situated at a distance of some 35 Englishmiles from the Niger. An English factory, founded at thisplace, was abandoned again on account of the inconveniencescaused by the proximity of Bida (compare Yola and Bubanjídda).Below Bida, on the west bank of the Niger, is Egga, animportant point of assembly for the traders from the Niger andBenue and also an important ivory-market, with an estimatedpopulation of from 6,000 to 12,000, of whom half are mahomedansand half heathens.In an advantageous position on the right bank, opposite theconfluence of the Benue, lies the town of Lokója, 357 togetherwith the ruins of an old market-place, founded in 1841 by theEnglish Niger Expedition as a "model farm." It is the mostsoutherly point of Nupe. Permanently occupied since 1805, ithas become, by the instrumentality of Crowther, a famousmission-station, and is now one of the most important stationsof the English Niger Company, with a permanent population offrom 5,000 to 8,000 inhabitants, and up to which steamercommunication with the Coast is open throughout the year.An important frontier town in the direction of Yóruba is358Saráki (Sarayi), with some 40,000 inhabitants, which, on theoccasion of slave raids, is treated as neutral. It is situateupon a number of hills, the outlines of which are followed bythe high town-walls, and is divided into the Nupe town with neatround huts, and the Yóruba town, with half-ruined dwellings ofmatting.355 It is not known how long this has been in existence, andwhether they formerly prepared their own raw material.--Rohlfs,G.M. Ergb. VII., 76; Staudinger, 597; Ferryman, 166; Mizon,passim, 272; Passarge, 470 et seq.356 Flegel, Briefe 54; Ferryman, 154.357 Allen and Thomson, Niger Expedition I., 338 et seq;Baikie, Journ. Lond., 1855, 112, passim; Rohlfs, G.M. Ergb.VII., 88 and Qu d.A.II, 230 et seq.; Burdo, 129 et seq.;Staudinger, 49; Ferryman, 49 et seq.; Passarge, 9.358Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 253 et seq.; Ferryman, 177 etseq.;? the Charági of Barth (II., 561).76

East of the Niger, Clapperton touched the important centresof Kulfu 359 and Womba. 360Jutting out from Gando into Nupe, and thus forming anenclave, are the State and town of Shonga, 361 on the right bankof the river of the same name, and some 8 English miles abovethe spot where it flows into the Niger. It is three days'journey from Ilorin and is inhabited by about 5,000 Tapa. It isfamous for its textures and contains a factory of the RoyalNiger Company. Although situated in the heart of Nupe, Shongais nevertheless dependent only upon Gando; and its ruler isappointed by the Sultan of Gando.The following places in the Nupe territory stand in a362similar relationship to Gando: Agaie 363 (north of Egga), whichproduces a great deal of cotton, Lafai (on the way from Egga toKeffi) and Lafiagie (near Shonga).The last possession of Gando towards the south-west isNorthern YORUBA.Yóruba, the land of passage between Nupe and the Bight ofBenin, is a country of closely-packed large towns whoseprincipal occupation consists in facilitating the brisk tradebetween the Niger and the Coast and causing it to pass througheither one or other of them. For the enemy (Fulbes, Borgu orDahome) to either besiege or gain access to them is almostimpossible. The highly-developed industry, which increases inintensity from the Ocean to the Niger; the profitable transittrade,which, however, was far more important in the days of theslave-trade than it is now (since this was one of its principaloutlets); and lastly the richness of the neighbourhood, whichsupplies the necessaries of life (impossible to obtain from adistance), all help to further the development of these NegroUrban States. If in the north it was the fringe of the desert,here it is the fringe of the sea and of the primeval forest thathas been the cause of this trade and of this human hurly-burly.The Yóruba 364 are noted as being of an extremely strikingtype. Their skin is almost of a light yellow-brown colour. The359 Clapperton, II., 184 et seq.360 Ibid, 210.361 Flegel, M.A.G. III., 67 et seq.; von Puttkammer, M.D.S.,II., 102; Ferryman, 123, 167 (he states the case somewhatdifferently, making one half of the town belong to Nupe);Mattei, Bas-Niger, 142 et seq.362 Flegel, passim.363 Barth (II., 682) speaks of Agaia as a large townsurrounded by a mud wall, which is dependent on the Governor ofSaria, but is inhabited by people of Nupe.364According to Passarge, 59 et seq., 422 et seq.77

cheek bones are, it is true, very wide, but the face is sharpand the nose not particularly fleshy. On the other hand thelips often project like a snout. They have decidedly finerfeatures than the Coast tribes. The tribal marks 365 are alsomostly all tattooed alike. They are distinguished by a certainamount of coarseness and heaviness, but also by energy andindependence. Barth 366 estimates their numbers at from two tothree millions. Krause 367 holds Iba to be the more correct name,since Yóruba signifies the chief, or royal, Iba. Probably theymigrated here from the North 368 or else mingled with races fromthe North; the people most nearly related to them are in theNorth, the Nupe, and in the South the Yebu 369 . The Yórubalanguage, like the Nupe, to which it is very similar, possessesa very perfect system of enumeration 370 ; according to the latestinformation 371 the dialects of the Igara, Igbira, Arago and Jikumare all closely allied to it, whence it would follow that thisfamily extends right into Central Benue valley. American andGerman missionaries have worked zealously in Yóruba; Islam is,however, firmly established in its northern and southernportions.The most northerly of the Urban States of Yóruba is372Ilorin (Elori, Elorny, Alorie, with nasal sound), whichbelongs to Gando, of which it forms the S.W. corner. It issituated on both banks of the Asa, which flows into the Niger,and has a population of some 100,000 inhabitants (according toRohlfs 60,000 to 70,000 residents, without counting a number ofstrangers; according to Delany 120,000); the Fulbes rule overthe Borgu, Haussas and Nago (a Yóruba tribe), who, however, havetheir own chiefs. They are skilled workmen and prepare fineleather- and wicker-work, carving, and pottery. The town formsan almost regular polygon, enclosed by high and badly-kept wallsextending for four hours; in the interior are four large market-365 The Yóruba tribes. Ferryman, 171.366 J. Lond. 1860, 122.367 M.A.G., IV., 342.368 Passarge, 513.369 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 171 et seq.370 Described in detail by Mann, Journal Anthropol.Institute, 1886, I., 61 et seq.371 Prietze, in Passarge, 416.372 Barth, II., 189; May, J. Lond. 1860, 212; Delany, G.M.,1862, 399; Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII., 95 and Qu. d. A. II., 257et seq.; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl., 1, 6; Staudinger, 353;Ferryman, 185 et seq.; Rouire Ann. de. éogr., jan. 1895, 201.78

places. Notwithstanding the large number of mosques and placesof worship many of the inhabitants are still heathen, and thetown by no means deserves the name of the "Mecca of West Africa"(Ferryman.)Ilorin, which is in the prolongation of the line Bauchi-Keffi (q. v.) towards the west is the southernmost place towhich the Haussas bring goods from the interior, European waresfrom Tripoli and Egyptian articles of clothing.Over the remaining portions of the ancient Kingdom ofYóruba, which at the beginning of this century extended from theCoast to the Niger, the Fulbes have no influence; here they wererepulsed during long years of strife, 373 the reason being thathere, as in the east at Lere and Lame, they chanced, not upon achaos of small disunited states, but upon larger pagan statefabrics,exhibiting a certain amount of organisation.It was on account of these feuds that the old capital, in374the north, Katunga, the walls of which extended for 15 Englishmiles, was abandoned. The present capital of Yóruba, from whichhowever the ruler on exercises "moral Influence," is Oyo, 375 withfrom 60,000 to 75,000 inhabitants, mostly Nago.The most powerful and most important Yóruba State, the376leader and champion in the contest with the Fulbes, is Ibadan,the centre of a number of lesser state-organisations. The townof Ibadan is peopled by Nago and Egba whose numbers areestimated at from 50,000 to 150,000; in its centre, from whichit spreads out in all directions like an amphitheatre, are themission buildings. Under the direct influence of Ibadan are thethickly-settled districts and centres ("agglomérationsurbaines"), Ogbó-mosho 377 (30,000 to 70,000 inhabitants),Osógbo 378 , Eyigbo, Ede, Iwa, 379 Isehin, 380 Ilésha (Iyésha, Iresa). 381373 South of Ilorin is the standing camp (which, however,frequently changes its position), in opposition to that ofIbadan; between the two is an open space 20 English miles ormore in width. Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 91; Ferryman, 199 etseq.374 Clapperton, II., 97; Lander, Diary (Clapperton, II.,)416; Rohlfs, passim, 99.375 Delany, G.M., 1862, 399; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 271;Rouire, passim, 200; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl., 1, 6, suggests AgoOya, also named Oyo, after the ancient capital.376 May, J. Lond., 1866, 214 ("ranks unquestionably first inactual power"); Delany, passim; Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 99 andQu. d. A. II., 269 et seq.; Krause, M.A.G. IV., 322; Rouire,passim, 201; Ferryman, 171 (Places over 50,000 inhabitants.)377 May, passim, 212; Delany, passim.378May, passim, 219.79

Of great political importance, beside Ilorin and Ibadan, isthe great "republican colony" of "confederation" Abbeokúta, 382S.W. of Ibadan on the Ogun river in the Egba territory, with anestimated population of from 60,000 to 200,000, of whom part aremussulmans, part heathens, and one half slaves. Abbeokúta issaid to have formerly paid tribute to the Sultan of Gando; 383 if,however, this were ever the case it is now quite out of thequestion.Abbeokúta was founded in 1820 (or 1825), as a place ofrefuge for the inhabitants of Yoruba from the Fulbes and fromthe King of Dahome. It stands on a large space studded withnumerous granite masses, some of which are as much as 80 metres(265 feet) high; the name Abbeokúta signifies, moreover, "underthe rock." The place grew very quickly; since 1861, whenCrowther, (at a later date black bishop of Abbeokúta), droveback Geso (Guézo), King of Dahomey, Christianity made rapidstrides until, in 1867, the people having become suspicious,drove out the missionaries.Abbeokúta is more a collection of villages within a rampartcommon to all, than a town: groups of huts, large markets,masses of rock and cultivation give an appearance of variety tothe general panorama of the vast settlement. There are,according to Grundemann 130, according to Barret 140, different"Komplexe," which, within a circumference of 30 kilometres (20miles), are again arranged in seven districts, which are calledafter the various races resident in them, who each retain theirindividual customs, speech and rights. The administrators ofthe districts have the title of king and acknowledge thesupremacy of one of their number, who gives the casting vote in379 May, passim, 213; Grundemann, passim; Delany suggests75,000 inhabitants; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 269, writes Juoh.380 ?May's Eshon (passim, 224 et seq.)? the eastern border ormarch of Ibadan.381 An important, warlike and fairly independent town in thevicinity of the water-parting between the Niger and the Ocean;May, passim, 217; Rohlfs, G.M., passim, 97; Grundemann:Yara=Iresa. With the districts of Yóruba compare also May,passim, 231.382 Tucker, "Abbeokuta or sunrise within the tropics," with amap (p. 40), which shows many of the rocks and the missionstations; Bowen, "The Interior of Africa" 108; Delany, passim,Burton, Abeokuta, &c., 225; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl. passim;Barret, L'Afrique occ. I., 179 et seq., from reports of themissionaries Borghero, Holley and Chautard in the "Annales de laProp." 1867, 1881, 1882; Rouire, Ann. de géogr, 1895, 200(Report on a journey of the English Governor of Lagos, Carter).383Staudinger, 353.80

matters affecting the general welfare of the town (community).The chief magistrate and the commander-in-chief of the army, thelatter of whom is always surrounded by a bodyguard of Amazons,have great influence.Abbeokúta is in the spiritual power of the ogboni or fetishpriests, who also have a sort of police force. They are lessopposed to Christianity than to Islam, which was imported intoAbbéokuta by the traders. Travellers come here from Timbuktuand Bornu, and quite a number of natives now begin to travelthemselves, after the example of the mussulmans. 384In a southerly direction the two States of the Yebu (Yabu),with capital Ode, and most important place Epe, 385 extend as faras the lagoon of Lagos.East of the Lower Niger, and of political importance as theplace of pilgrimage of the pagans between that river and theCross River, is the sacred town of Aro,the wild Ibo and some 25 miles from the left bank of the Niger);where religious influence has formed a sort of centre or nucleusfor the otherwise so disrupted nationality.In order to make a complete sketch of the politicalcondition of New-Haussa it only remains for us to name thepartly-surrounded and weak, and the partly-remote but strongPagan States; the most important, which have almost all beenmentioned already, in connection with the Fulbe possessions intheir vicinity, are as follows: in the north Kebbi, Gober,Máradi; in the east Lere, Lame, Lakka; in the south Galím,Ibadan; in the west Borgu, Gurma; in the interior enclosed386(in the territory of384 The progress of civilization in these localities isevinced by the spontaneous and energetic move, made byChristians, mussulmans and heathen alike, against the liquortrafficwhich is forcing its way in Abbeokúta, Lagos, Ibadan,Oyo and Ogbo-mosho; vide Leipz Zeitg. of 7th March 1896.385 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., 271 et seq.; Rouire, passim. Lagos,situated on an island in the large lagoon, which continues rightup to the mouth of the Niger ("Stadt der Seen," town of thelakes) was, till 1852, when it was stormed by the English, astronghold of the slave-trade. Coming by the trade route fromthe Niger, Islam has here already traversed North Africa and iszealously issuing propaganda: each year there are pilgrimagesto Mecca. Lagos, where German trade is taking up anadvantageous position, is most flourishing, and its importance,as the most important town in West Africa, should be greatlyincreased by the proposed construction by the English of arailway to Rabba on the Niger. Wilson, "West Africa" 143;Barret, passim, I., 178; Krause, M.A.G. IV., 340 et seq.;Staudinger, 13 et seq.; Morgen, 320 et seq.; Rouire, passim, 190et seq.386Baikie, Journ. Lond., 1855, 111; Grundemann, I., 1, 7;Burdo, passim 95 et seq.81

territories (or enclaves) such as Abuja, and Engaski, 387 a smallindependent mountainous country on the left bank of the Niger,quite independent of Gando; these should be amplified by theaddition of the territories of the pagan tribes mentioned onpages 6 and 7, the political independence of which is more orless on the decline, depending on the extent to which they comein contact with the supporters of the faith of Islam.2. THE ORGANISATION OF THE STATES OF THE GREATBEND OF THE NIGER.Whilst the political centre of gravity of the Western Sudanis at present located in its eastern half it was, at theearliest date at which researches were possible in the westernhalf. 388 We are, however, thanks to its former connection withthe Arabs of Morocco, better informed on the subject of the pasthistory of the western than of the eastern half; so that--principally owing to the explorations of Barth--some attempt mayat least be made to represent in their main outlines theoriginal extent and subsequent development of the extensive andancient empires on the Bend of the Niger. They were calledGhana or Ghánata, Melle and Sonrhay. 389GHANA, or GHANATA, the most westerly of these, theconfusion of which with Kano prior to the time of Barth 390gaverise to so many mistakes, had its origin to the west of theNiger, in the country now called Bághena, or Bakunu, somewhereabout midway between Timbuktu and the Senegal.The original inhabitants of the country according to ElBekri, were Mandingo ("Wakore" and, in fact, Assuanek) who wereunder the dominion of Whites, as reported by Ahmed Baba. It is391possible that these were Fulbes, since the first ruler--Wakayamagha, Wakayamangha, or Wákajamangha (mangha means "the387 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 46.388 According to Barth, this might be described by the Fulbeword Futa, although here the Fulbes are not of such generalimportance as in the east.389 The main sources of supply from which are derived thehistories of Ghánata and Melle are the works of Ibn Khaldun andEl Bekri, whilst the history of Sonrhay was obtained from thatof Ahmed Baba, from which work Barth made extracts when inGando.390 Leo Africanus, D'Anville, Rennell.391 Barth, IV., 150, 600; V., 511; according to Faidherbe,however, they were not Fulbes, but Soninke, G.M., 1866, 441.--Bakunu is, even at the present day, still peopled by Assuanek.Lenz, Timbuktu, II., 253; compare Binger, App. V., 382, Note 1(as far as Duéntsa?).82

great")--bore a Fulbe title. 392 He founded the Empire of Ghànaabout the year 300 A.D., or about three centuries before theHejra, at the beginning of which 22 pagan Kings had alreadyreigned.The capital, Ghánata, was either the present Walata itself393or was situated quite close to it; it was also called Biru.That it already, about 680 A.D. (60 of the Hejra), possessed "anextensive mahomedan quarter, which contained 12 mosques" isscarcely to be accepted, although this information bears witnessto the importance of the town 394 which had already ee n describedby Ibn Haukal. 395 Edrisi 396 speaks of terra et urbs Gana; in anycase Mandingo were already in his day settled on the right orinner Niger bank, and Ghana extended thence 397 to the Ocean, 398which is its extreme limit.399Ibn Batuta calls the capital Iwalaten; this is the firsttown, starting from the north, which belongs to the Sudan; afarba represents the Sultan; most of the inhabitants are Messufa(Berbers) who already wear Egyptian clothing; pilgrims fromMecca are also to be seen in the town. In the 15th century wehear, from Portuguesè sources, 400 of the salt trade between392 Barth, passim; compare Binger, I., 391.393 In the old accounts it is impossible to distinguishbetween the description of the town and that of the country.394 According to El Bekri and Ahmed Baba; compare Barth, IV.,430, 603, 620; V., 495. Petermann's map (Barth, V.) showsGhánata and Walata as identically the same; De Slane's view (IbnKhaldun; II., 109, Note 4), that "Ghana appears to have occupiedthe site of Kabra, near Timbuktu," is not tenable. Schirmertransfers the site of the town to Baghena, close to Ras-el-Ma,the most northerly branch of the backwaters of the Niger (LéSabara, 333).395 Journ. Asiat. 1842, 240 et seq.396 Comm, Hartmann, 28 et seq.; incolas huius urbis cymbisvalidissimaé structuroe in Nilo (Niger) vehi, p. 37; probably asfar-travelling merchants, like the merchants of Jenne on theNiger, or of Ghadames on land.397 Urbes habet Vankarac terra (i.e., Mandingoland) plures,sed sunt sub dilione regis Ganae. Edrisi, passim, 41.398 According to Khaldun; vide Ahmed Baba, Tarich-es-Sudan,Ztschr, d. D. Morgenl. Ges IX., 1855; S.A. 47 (Barth and Ralfs)sic.399 Voyage dans le Soudan (Trad. p. MacGuckin de Slane);Journ. Asiat. 1843, 193 et seq.400Abh. Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss., Hist. Kl., VI. Bd., 1 Abt., 189.83

"Oualete" and Tambucutu (Timbuktu). Leo's 401 remark that Sonrhaywas spoken in Walate shows the great extent of Sonrhay. Owingto the rise of Timbuktu Walata began to decay in the 15thcentury. 402 Mungo Park 403 mentions Walet the capital of Biru, aswell as the salt of Biru. Aliun Sal 404 visited Walata at thebeginning of the sixties; it is even at the present time a greatexchange-market between Morocco and the Sudan. The Moors bringEuropean goods, which they barter for gold and ostrich-feathers,the people of Tishit salt, which they give for millet, withwhich Walata is richly provided by its connections with Barna,Segu and Mássina. From Tuat come woollen goods, clothes andsilks, whilst dark Haussa robes come viâ Arauan (north ofTimbuktu). White stuffs are used as currency in most of thesetransactions.Provisions are brought in from outside as the neighbourhoodof the town is dry, and only retains the carrying-trade as beingthe centre of a circle on the circumference of which placesdiametrically opposite to each other also have goods andrequirements of different characters. The merchants pay tributeto the Moorish princes of the country in order to secure their405trade. Lenz speaks also of an interesting leather-industry inWalata. Near the town are a number of ruins.406About 960 Ibn Haukal visited the flourishing commercialtown of Aúdaghost, which carried on a lively trade withSiljilméssa 407 and was also situated in an unfertile locality 408Kunstmann, "Die Handelsverbindung der Portugiesen mit Timbuktuin 15 Jahrhundert."401 Descr. Afr. 633 et seq.; Gualatae Regni descriptio;compare Barth, IV., 624.402 Ahmed Baba, passim, 12.403 Reisen 121, 182.--The inhabitants are a mixture betweenblacks (Assuanek) and whites (Berbers and Arabs), who oppressedthe former, whose language however predominates; the unhealthytown has the nick-name of the "snake's throat." Barth, V. 493et seq.404 According to Ancelle, "Les Explorations, &c." 206 et seq.405 Timb II., 104, 148.406 Trad. M. de Slane, Journ. Asiat. 1842, 239 et seq.407 An important trading place in Southern Morocco; Edrisi(passim, 88): Segelmesa, viatorum euntium atque redeuntiumquasi centrum; Haukal (passim, 252) speaks of its rich andcapable inhabitants; Brügge as early as the 13th centuryprocured dates and white alum from Sijilmessa. (Kunstmann,"Afrika vor der Entdeckung der Portugiesen," p. 7).84

somewhat to the south of line of communication Walata--Wadan,and in the vicinity of Kasr-el Barka and Tejija; 409 its ruler wasthe Berber chieftain Tin-Yerútan, of the tribe of the Sénagha orSsenhája 410 who were at that time in power in Ghánata. Thewestern Berbers, Lemtuna and Massufa, had already, in the 9thcentury (i.e., about the middle of the 3rd century of the Hejra)pushed southwards, accepted Islam and obtained the supremacyover the negro races. It was from the neighbourhood of thecentral maghreb (i.e., "the west" in Arabic) that the migrationof the Berbers took place, in consequence of the incursion ofthe Arabs at the instigation of the Egyptian minister Ahmed benAli el Jerjerani, who died in the year 436 of the Hejra 411 (1044-1045 A.D.). At the beginning of the 11th century the faith ofIslam was spread abroad in Tekrur. 412 In 1052 the fanaticalMerábeti from Morocco, the Almoravide of the Spaniards,plundered Aúdaghost. In El Bekri's time (1067 A.D.) Islamcontinued to spread yet further under the influence of thepowerful Ssenhája; the latter conquered Ghánata in 1076 A.D.which henceforward became completely mahomedan and the cause ofstrife between the Berbers of the north and the negroes of thesouth and east. In 1203-1204 Ghánata ceased to exist as anindependent Empire owing to its conquest by the Susu, a Mandingotribe, 413 although the western portion, with Walata or Biru,408 Edrisi, passim, 28 et seq; Audogast, in deserto aquacarenti.409 15 days' journey from Walate, two months from Sus andSijilmessa; Peschel's note (Gesch d. Erdk, 2 Auflage, 127, Note1), that it is probably synonymous with Teghasa is not tenable.Augaghost lay to the west, Teghása to the north, of Timbuktu.Haukal (passim, 253) gives a lucid account of the magnitude ofthe commerce: "I have myself seen, at Audeghoscht, a paperwherein a native of Sédjelmessa acknowledged to be indebted, toa person of the same town, in a sum of forty thousand dinars"(Mitkals, at from 10 to 12 francs, i.e., 8 to 10 shillings).Vide also Barth, IV., 603 and Journ. Lond., 1860, 125.410 Ibn Khaldun (Trad de Slane) II., 1 et seq.; Faidherbe:Senata (G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.); the tribe which gave its nameto the Senegal. Peschel, passim, 129, Note 2; compare Jannequin(p. 7 "Sénéga") and Schirmer, 237.411 Barth, I., 245.412 A province of Ghánata, possibly also meant to indicatethe entire mahomedan West Sudan; Edrisi, 39: regnum et urbsTocrur; Makusi, Not. et extr. XII., 638 (according to Barth);Ahmed Baba, 46: Stadt und Reich Takrur (=Sudan); comparePeschel, passim, 128; the name Tekrur also occurs in Kebbi,Barth, IV., 609; Binger, II., 382: Tekrur-Melle. Tekrur means"converted country" (Quintin).85

appears to have kept tolerably free for some time longer.While Fulbes or Berbers were the rulers in Ghánata thelords of Melle 414 (Melli, Meli, Mali) were the Mandingo, who,however, probably merely succeeded old reigning in Berberfamilies, just as these had originally reigned in Sonrhay andBornu. 415 Melle appears to have come into existence, or at leastdeveloped into importance, as a result of a rising of the"Mandingo or Juli," directed against Ghánata. It was situatedin the basin of the Niger, 416 more to the south-east thanGhánata, with its political centre of gravity 417 above Timbuktuat Melle, 418 on an arm of the Upper Niger. The first mahomedan413The Berber were driven out in the 13th century by Mali,chief of the Mandingo. Faidherbe, passim; compare Barth, IV.,608.414Melle means "free or noble" and denotes the rulingpopulation in contradistinction to the subject Mandingo, theAssuanek; Barth, V., 511 et seq.415 Barth, IV., 503. According to a note of Clapperton's(vide Staudinger, 544) the race was descended from the remnantsof the ancient Copts. All this information goes to show thatthe impulse for state-organisation originally came from theHamo-semitic side but, as a result of intermixture, was alsoinfluenced by the negroid element which followed it.416 According to Cooley ("Negroland") it is the later BambaraEmpire, as it is shown on Petermann's map (Barth, V.,); Barthalso makes it out to be the Mássina of the present day (IV.,258); it appears doubtful whether it is Edrisi's terra Lamlamwith the town of Malel; it is certain that it was a portion ofthe terra Vancara (p. 39); Nilus (i.e., the Niger) ambit hancterram.417 This is constituted first of all by the settlement of theruling family at one or at several places, and secondly by theattachment of a tribe to a particular piece of ground which,moreover, belongs to it. The foreign provinces resemble, bytheir changes, the shifting scenery of the stage, which isfrequently altogether removed.418 Cooley, "Negroland," 79 (according to Barth); the Nigeris here called the Jóliba, signifying "river of the Juli."Batuta describes it as the "Capital of the Sudan," 25 long days'march from Walata; justice was sternly administered; the Kadi(chief magistrate) had made the great pilgrimage. About 1375the town of Melle appears on Pizigani's map and on theCatalonian map of the world (vide Kiepert, Beitr. J. Heft). Leo(p. 641) estimates that Melle contained 6,000 families; Nigritesomnes ingenio, civilitate alque industria antecedunt. Accordingto Barth (II, 290) it is identical with Park's Jara. DeSlaneplaces it (Ibn Khaldun I., XCIV) from 150 to 160 miles to the86

King of Melle is mentioned in 1813. The greater part of Ghánatawas conquered by Mari-Játah (1235 to 1260). 419 Between 1288 and1306 an embassy comprising two of the religious dignitaries ofthe Fulbes was sent from Melle to Bornu, to its King, Biri orIbrahim. The empire attained to its greatest extent andimportance at the beginning of the 14th century under Mansa(i.e., Sultan) Mussa, 420 the greatest of the Princes of Melle,who ruled 1311--1331, and was in friendly relationship withMorocco.It included "first of all Bághena, formed out of theremains of the kingdom of Ghánata, and which included the whole421of the inhabited country of Tagánet and A'derer; secondlySágha 422 or Western Tekrur with Ssilla; 423 then Timbuktu, still atthat time, as it appears, independent of Gogo, and finallySonrhay with its capital Gogo." Jénne, "probably on account ofits isolated position," appears not to have belonged to Mélle atthat time.In 1326 Mansa Mussa, with a large following, made a grandpilgrimage to Mecca, on returning from which he built a palaceand the great mosque at Timbuktu and also a mosque at Gogo.Melle was divided, politically, into two halves, a northern anda southern, which were separated by the Niger; from a national424point of view, however, it was divided into three provinces:Kala, Bennendúgu and Sabardúgu, each with 12 governorships.Walata ("the frontier province of Melle and an important425commercial town,") and the capital Melle were visited in 1352S.E. instead of to the S.W. of Timbuktu, but this is probably aprinter's error. Binger (I., 57) locates its ruins in thevicinity of Nyámina, on the left bank of the Niger, as Niani-Mádugu; it was destroyed in 1540 or 1750; vide also Barth, V.,499.419 Compare Batuta, passim, 219.420 Batuta, passim, 204 et seq.; Barth, IV., 610 et seq.;Schirmer, Sah, 237.421 Desert tracts to the N.W. of Timbuktu.422 Ságha is probably the present Mopti, situated at thepoint where the Baule or Mayel Baleve! flows into the Niger, theIsaca of Caillié (Journ. &c., II., 239), and which the Bozostill call Saga (Caron, "De Saint-Louis au port de Tombouctou,"142).423 Close to Jenne on the Niger. Park, Reisen, 188. The"Sala, a town in Tocrur," of Edrisi? (p. 30).424 Lenz, II., 225; compare Barth, V., 497; IV., 612; Binger,II., 371.425"Monteil, 246: "What we know from history, however, is87

y Ibn Batuta. In 1464-65 the power of Melle was broken bySsoni 'Ali, the founder of the great Sonrhay Empire; it wasonly, however, in 1501 that Melle was made completely tributary,by the Sonrhay King A'skia, and so reduced as to consist only ofits former western provinces. The Prince of Melle was nowstyled mandi-mansa (King of the Mandingo).From the end of the 15th century fresh movements took placein these localities as a result of the advance of the Arabs fromSouthern Morocco and Algeria against the Berbers. 426 About 1540Melle ceased to be an empire, and was split up into 5 parts,corresponding to the five families of the Mandingo, viz., theBammana (Bámbara), Mali-nke, Susu, Soani-nke and Jula; 427 in 1545Sonrhay warriors again marched against the tributary country.When, later on, the Sonrhay Empire was overthrown by the Moors,"Melle came so completely to grief that it was split up into anumber of small kingdoms." 428 Binger fixes the date of thecomplete break-up of the great empire at the end of the 17thcentury. 429 A number of the Mandingo migrated from the interiorof the Bend of the Niger as far as Dáfina. The downfall of thelast remains of Melle took place in the middle of the 18thcentury, at which time the Bámbara took possession of the south(Segu), and the Arabs of the north (Bághena, El Hodh). The lastruler no longer had the title of mansa, but the lesser one offeréngh. The civil war between his sons Dabo and Sagone, setall the tribes in a commotion and is, even at the present day,the theme of the songs of the Griots (ballad-singers). 430The leadership on the Bend of the Niger was taken over fromMelle by SONRHAY or Songhay, 431 the third one among the Empiresthat had branched off as a politico-civilised side-stream fromthe main course of western civilisation, and which had itsprincipal seat S.E. of Timbuktu, but which, in its greatestthat towards the end of the fourteenth century the Fulbespossessed a large empire, of which the capital was Melle."--Inany case at that time there were already Fulbes on the UpperNiger, but not, however, as the rulers of Melle; this is onlythe birth-place of the embassy to Bornu, mentioned on theprevious page, and is not a Fulbe, but a Mandingo Empire, BarthII. 314, Note; IV., 150, 153; V., 511 et seq.426 Barth, IV., 540.427 Binger, II., App. V., 372 et seq.428 Barth, IV., 258.429 Binger, I., 418.430 Barth, V., 512; Binger, II., 385.431Barth, IV., 600 st seq.; for the pronunciation of theletter "ghain" in this name compare Barth, I., 238, Note.88

extent, embraced almost the whole of Melle and Ghánata. Alreadyfrom the commencement of the 7th century there were kings, ofthe dynasty of Sa, 432 --a dynasty expressly stated by Leo to beLibyan--who resided in the ancient capital Kukia, 433 the King ofwhich, even in Haukal's time, is said to have been verypowerful. In 1009 Sa Kassi, the fifteenth prince of the dynastyof Sa, accepted Islam. In 1067 the new capital, Gogo, 434 wasdescribed by El Bekri. From 1153 onwards the Mandingo werepowerful in the east; Binger 435 states that the majority of theSonrhay Kings were Mandingo. As a result of Mansa Mussa's greatpilgrimage to Mecca with a large military force (see opposite)Sonrhay fell under the dominion of Melle in 1326. In 1330(1335) Prince Ali Kilnu, who had been held as a hostage at thecourt of Melle, escaped and founded in Gogo the new dynasty ofthe Ssonni. 436 In 1352 Batuta visited the capital. In 1464-65Ssonni Ali of Sonrhay conquered the Empire of Melle (see p. 64),and also obtained possession of Jénne, which had always resistedMelle in the west, whilst in the east he built A'gades (?); 437432 Ahmed Baba (Barth,--Ralfs), passim; Binger II., 366 etseq., 373 (foreigners who had immigrated).433 The site of Kukia is not known (? in the vicinity ofGhánata or to the north of Gogo); in all probability in thesecond half of the 11th century it was an important gold-market,at which salt and mussels were the currency.--Barth, IV., 436,606; V., 213.434 Gogo or Gangan (Tuareg), Gao (Sonrhay), Gá-rho (Arabic),in old accounts also called Kaukau, Kuku, Koko and Gago, was, uptill the time of its discovery by Barth, frequently confoundedwith the ancient Kukia, the former capital of Sonrhay, and withthe ancient Kuku on Lake Fittri (Barth, IV., 608, Note 1); itwas an open town on the Niger, just below its bend, and alreadyin the 9th century an important place of commerce in gold,slaves and salt, being "just at the commencement of the Egyptiancaravan-route." The double town was principally composed ofreed-huts, the pagans inhabiting the west Niger bank and themussulmans the east bank. Barth II., 84, Note (destruction bythe Moors), 87; IV., 441; V., 216 et seq.; Ahmed Baba, passim,44; Edrisi, 43: Cucu, metropolis terrae Nigrorum et magnitudinepraestans; Batuta, 230: "The town of Kuka, one of the largestand most beautiful towns in the Sudan"; Leo, 646 et seq: Gagooppidum umplissimum . . . quindecim annorum iuvenis sex aureisvendi solet . . . omnium denique carissimu sal est.435 Binger, II., 369, 383.436 His followers: the Sonninke.437Barth, I., 435 et seq. 512 et seq.; IV., 618; Binger,II., 384. In the 16th century A'gades displaced Taddemékket,which lay to the north of Gogo, as a commercial place; it89

Timbuktu also belonged to Sonrhay and had its own specialgovernor, Túmbutukoy. At that time the Portuguese (under JohnII.) had a factory in Wadan. 438 Ssonni Ali died while on acampaign against Gurma, which lies to the south. His son wasconquered in 1492 by the Sonrhay Haji Mohammed A'skia 439 whoagain founded a new dynasty and extended the Empire. In 1495the latter undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, with a following ofover 3,000 persons, of whom 500 were cavalry, and which costabout 450,000 mitkal 440 (£225,000).Sonrhay was now a powerful Empire of which Timbuktu wasapproximately the centre, and which extended round the Bend ofthe Niger, from Kaarta in the west to Kebbi and Aïr in the east,441and from Benendugu in the south to Teghasa in the north.In 1529 Haji Mohammed A'skia abdicated in favour of his sonA'skia Mussa. In the 16th century frequent civil wars-ofsuccessiontook place in Sonrhay. Harem-intrigues442alsoflourished as long as Gogo lasted and then the importance ofboth was transferred to Kátsena; vide also Barth, V., 184;Journ. Lond., 1860, 126.438 Wadan (Ouaden), towards which the trade-routes make agreat bend inwards, so as to reach the Portuguese, was visitedby Marmol and Leo, and recently by the mulatto Panet (G.M.,1859, 106). It is the capital of Adrar (Aderer), 7 days'journey from Tishit and 8 more on to Ovalete (Walata), and thenagain 15 more to "the capital Timbuktu on the river Ennyll"; ithas from 2,000 to 4,000 inhabitants but was formerly larger, andis an emporium for the salt from Ijil (Ygild), the inhabitantsof which sell a load here for 1½ mitkal (some 10 to 15shillings), which even in Wadan costs from 2½ to 3 mitkal, butwhich costs 7 mitkal at Tishit, to which the traders of Walatabring the salt. The place is supplied with provisions from theSouth, more especially from Nyamina on the Niger. Schmeller,Valentim Fernandez Alemao, Abh, Bayr. Ak. d. W., Phil. Kl., Bd.IV., Abt. 3, 46. Kunstmann, D°, Hist. Kl., Bd. VI., Abt. 1.187 et seq., 217. Barth V., 553 et seq.439Barth, IV., 623, et seq.; II., 503.440 Ahmed Baba, passim, 15.441 Teghasa in the second half of the 15th century furnishedthe whole of Sonrhay with salt (Barth, IV., 644); Batuta(passim, 187) mentions houses and a mosque there made of rocksalt; pieces of salt pass for currency. Caillié (II., 128, 417)visited the springs of "Trasas or Trarzas"; since theirdestruction by the Moors the mines have not been drained again.As regards the names for Teghasa compare Hist. Kl. d. Bayr. Ak.Bd. VIII., Abt., 1, 274.442 Barth, IV., 433 et seq.90

contributed greatly towards lessening the power of the State, somuch so that it was unable to resist a powerful foe coming fromthe north; at the close of this century, between 1580 and 1590,the Moors commence to take a share in the destiny of Sonrhay; itis true they could not as yet conquer it, though they hadalready obtained possession of the important salt-mines ofTeghása. In 1589 Pasha Jódar, a commander of Sultan MúlaiHamed-el-Dhébebi, appeared in Sonrhay at the head of 3,600Moors, armed with fire-arms, and conquered the capital Gogo (seep. 64). His successor, Pasha Mahmud defeated, in 1591, KingA'skia Isshák, who was put to death by the pagans, to whom hehad fled. Henceforth Sonrhay became a province of Morocco. Itsdownfall had been greatly contributed to by the Soghoran, atribe which later became completely merged in the Fulbes, butwhich had been settled on the Niger in Mássina and had conqueredthe fertile provinces of Kúrmina and Bara. 443 Whilst greatdisorders occurred, in consequence of various new pillagingincursions by the Moors into the Sudan (from which the author ofthe history of Sonrhay had also to suffer greatly), theconquerors gradually established themselves in the towns andbecame intermixed with the population, forming a new race, theRuma, who remained masters of the towns. 444 When the immigrationfrom Morocco ceased they were reduced to a sort of officialclass, limited in power by the Tuaregs, a large tribe of whom,the Auelímmide, conquered Gogo in 1770, and in 1780 founded agreat Empire--Aussa--on the northern bank of the Niger. TheTuaregs everywhere either occupied the important commercialcentres, or else appeared unexpectedly in the settlements toraise tribute, a point upon which Caillié, Barth and Lenz reportvery clearly.No independent State was organised to take the placevacated by Sonrhay: Fulbes, Tuaregs and Sonrhay jostled oneanother, living alternately in peace and at war with each other;in the south the Fulbes had the preponderating power, while inthe north on the other hand the power of the Tuaregs was sogreat as to lead to the oppression of the Sonrhay, who onlyenjoyed liberty in geographically favourably situated places, as445for instance, in the rugged Hómbori Mountains. Descendants ofthe royal family of A'skia or Ssíkkia are said to have lived 446even as late as Barth's time in Darghol, the principal seat ofthe free Sonrhay.In a survey of the existing political situation on theGreat Bend of the Niger we find the largest and most important443 Barth, IV., 148.444 As judges, harbour masters, &c. they still have influencein the north of Mássina.445 Barth, IV., 341; Monteil, 39.446Barth V., 279.91

States to be as follows: MASSINA, SEGU (both of which arecompletely in the hands of the French since the opening ofnavigation by them on the Niger), SAMORY'S EMPIRE, KONG, TIEBASEMPIRE, MOSSI, GURMA and BORGU. Between these there are a wholecrowd of smaller, and more or less independent territories. TheSudan States are separated from the Gulf of Guinea by theunknown territory between the Ivory Coast and Worodugu, and byAshanti, Togo and Dahomey, a strip of country which extends fromLiberia to Yóruba and Benin.As "the cradle of the mahomedan civilisation of the WesternSudan" 447 MASSINA, 448 formerly the chief province of Melle, thecountry on the great lagoon of the Upper Niger (Lake Debu),takes a prominent place. This Empire, so interesting by reasonof its historical vicissitudes, was founded by the Má-ssina, asection of the Assuanek 449 of Tishit, 450 which lies to the N.W.; atribe which, like most of those on the fringe of the desert, wascomposed of a fairer and of a darker race, and was probablyoppressed by the Berbers. El Bekri already speaks of it in the11th century. 451 As a portion of each of the three former greatEmpires it nominally came to the Moors after the fall ofSonrhay. They, however, troubled themselves but little aboutthese remote regions, which for the want of a strong grasp sankinto political insignificance.A powerful revulsion took place on the appearance on thescene of the Malim Ahmed Lébbo who, about 1816, led anenthusiastic and fanatical horde of Fulbes under the sacred452banner from Ssifaua in Gando towards the West. Here theyfounded an Empire in Mássina after severe and protractedstruggles against the Fulbes of Bághena 453 (who were anxious447 Binger, II., 393.448 Lenz only heard it pronounced Moássina and wrote it so;vide II., 121, Note.--The Fulbes only call the States on theleft bank of the Niger Mássina; those on the right bank theycall Futa, Binger I., 382.449 Or Aser, Mandingo, Barth, V., 517 et seq.450 Tishit, which itself produces nothing but dates; is anemporium for the salt from "the great sebcha," Ijil, situatedbetween this place and Wadan; it was originally called Shetu.Panet, G.M., 1859, 104 et seq.; Barth, V., 517, 553; Vincent inAncelle, 127.451 Barth, IV., 429.452 Compare Barth, IV., 259 and 484, Note; Krause NigerExped. I., 28.453Barth, V., 514; one of the few cases in which Fulbesfought against Fulbes, also in this case occurring on thefrontier (vide p. 19, Note 10); the contest began in 1821.92

about their liberty, and who had already settled here before),and also against the Arabs in the N.W., the Bambara in the S.W.,the Tómbo to the East and the Tuaregs in the North. The lattergave to the Fulbe Empire of Mássina greater unity than ispossessed by the great Eastern State, with which it no longermaintained connections on the lines of communication, but atonce assumed a hostile attitude, from a religious and reformingstand-point, as well as from a political.In 1826 the Fulbes of Mássina occupied the town ofTimbuktu, whither they proceeded in greater strength in 1831,but were driven back by the Tuaregs in 1844. 454 About 1823,Mohammed Galaijo, after fruitless contests against Lebbo, hisformer ally, migrated eastwards from Mássina, and founded, as avassal of Gando, a flourishing colony (vide p. 50). Lebbo diedin 1846; his son Sseko (sheikh) Ahmedu succeeded to therulership, in which he again was succeeded in 1852-53 by hisyouthful son A'hmadu-A'hmadu, an "ascetic and a red-hotmussulman," like his ancestors. He undertook severalexpeditions against Timbuktu somewhere about 1855. A'hmadu-A'hmadu, who was the last Fulbe Prince of the family of Sisse,was overcome by treachery 455 in 1862, and taken prisoner by HajiOmar, the founder of the Tukulör Empire, who thereupon annexedMássina. After Omar's death (vide p. 87) his successor in therulership of Mássina was his nephew Tidiani, who succeeded tothe throne about 1864, and reigned for about 30 years. 456 He didnot acknowledge the suzerainty of Segu and, so long as theTukulör rule lasted on the Niger, Mássina and Segu maintainedtowards each other a sort of armed peace. Tidiani only oncecame in contact with the French, on the occasion of Caron'svisit in 1887. He was succeeded as Sheikh by Moniru, a brotherof A'hmadu, who, owing to the discontent of the Tukulör party,had only a very insecure rule. 457 At the present time the Frenchhave installed as ruler their protégé Agibu, who conquered thePul-Marabout Alikali, who was peaching the holy war. 458Beyond its great historical importance Mássina has alsoBinger gives 1790 as the date of the foundation of the FulbeEmpire of Mássina (II. App. V., 388).454 Barth, IV., 671.--Mage wrote a detailed history ofMássina; vide also Caron, chap. XIV., History and description ofMássina.455 G.M. 1864, 69 et seq.456 Caron, chap. XII.; Monteil, 39 et seq.457 Ahmadu, the Tukulör prince of Segu, who had beenconquered by the French, had been wanted as ruler in Mássina;compare Monteil, 114.458Bull. Marseille, 1894, 386 et seq.93

special politico-geographical importance in that, being one ofthe principal seats of the Tukulör and western Fulbes, itcontrols that part of the Upper Niger which is navigable 459 bythe large native trading-canoes between the two important depôtsJenne and Timbuktu, and thereby also the route by which thelatter (and along with it the W., N. and N.E., which aredependent upon it,) are provided with cereals and partly alsowith wool-stuffs.The principal place of the Assuanek is Tenénku, which is460enclosed between two arms of the Niger and which even inBarth's time was a market-place of some importance. 461 Thecapital of Galajo's ancestors was Konari in northern Mássina.By far the most important place in Mássina, both by reason ofits past history and by its situation, is JENNE (Fr.), Dschénne(Ger.), Jenne, Jenni (Assuanek), Jinne (Bambara), Sennie orSinne (Sonrhay) 462 at the confluence of the Baule (Mayel-Balevel)with the Niger. It was founded in 1043/44 (435 of the Hejra). 463About 1200 the ruling class of the inhabitants accepted thefaith of Islam. In the middle of the 13th century it was almostentirely inhabited and visited by Mandingo 464 as it had alwaysbeen one of the principal residences of the Mande-Jula. It wasnever conquered by the kings of Melle, although situated withintheir territory; on the contrary it rather enjoyed a certainamount of independence until, in 1407, it was conquered and laidwaste by the Sonrhay King Sonni Ali. Under weak rulers it againbecame tolerably autonomous, whilst under strong ones it sharedin the general fortunes of Mássina. The town, the inhabitantsof which were estimated by Caillié at from 8,000 to 10,000, 465 isnot, as was formerly supposed, situated upon an island, but isonly periodically transformed into one, at the time of highwater of the marigot of Jafarébe, and of the Baule (Bakhoy,Bagoé or Mayel-Balevel). 466 Transit-goods from Timbuktu, which459 Caillié (II., 240 et seq.) describes this navigation indetail; he mentions fleets of vessels 60, 80 and 100 feet long.The lack of timber along the banks is an inconvenience forsteam navigation.460 Barth, V., 517; Binger, II., 389.461 Barth, IV., 259 et seq.; Monteil, 186.462 Barth, IV., 479 Note; the Gyna or Gyni of the Portugueseaccounts.463 Barth, IV., 604; compare Binger, I., 386.464 Binger, I., 482.465 Caillié, II., 206.466Ahmed Baba states definitely that it is only from Augustto February that it is an island; compare Leo (641, Gineae regni94

during the rainy season can be forwarded direct, have in the dryseason to be several times transhipped. 467 Caillié saw the townat the period of high water and consequently describes it asbeing on an island, in whose harbours lay many canoes partlyunder repair. 468 The town wall is badly kept and has a number ofsmall gates. There is a mosque in the interior. The streetsare fairly wide for a country quite innocent of wheeled traffic.The navigation to the Niger proper occupies 4½ hours, and iscarried out in small boats; in the Niger itself are the greattransport-canoes. The market is provided with roofed shelters.To Timbuktu are principally sent kola-nuts, gold from Bure andKong, 469 stuffs, slaves, millet and rice, whilst salt 470 isbrought back from it. Since Caillié's time the trade hasexperienced a crisis owing to the incessant wars; the numeroustradesmen, who under A'hmadu A'hmadu did not wish to becomesoldiers, had each to pay a fine of 2,500 cowries. Theneighbourhood "Jenneri" is more or less fertile, depending uponthe inundation in the rainy season. 471 Close to Jenne wasdescr.): Remanet autem haec regio tribus anni mensibus, Julio,Augusto, atque Septembri, Nigri inundationibus ad insulae modumcincta: quo tempore Tumbuti mercatores lignis quibusdam adscaphae instar cavatis huc suas merces convehere solent,interdiu navigantes, sub noctem vero lintrem littori alligant,ac in terra pernoctunt.467 Binger, I., 385 et seq. Renseignements sur Djenné.468 Caillié, II., 183 et seq.469 Bure, between the upper Senegal and the Niger. AhmedBaba mentions the gold of Bitu (Bouduku, N. Ashanti).Portuguese sources affirm that the Ungaro (Wangara, Mandingo)come as far as "Gyni" and arrange the salt trade between thatplace and the 7 kingdoms to the south, in which are the goldmines.Each merchant brings from 100-200 slaves with him, whocarry the salt on their heads to the gold-producing countries.They transport from 10,000 to 60,000 mitkals, and only come oncea year to Gyni; they are given a year's credit. Kuntsmann, Abh.d. Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss. passim, 191 et seq; Schmeller, Ibid.passim, 46.470 Ahmed Baba (p. 11) ascribes the wealth of Jenne to thetrade in gold and salt; the latter was at first obtained fromTeghása and latterly from Taudéni. Wood for fuel is fetchedfrom miles off. The Moors do not sell at the stalls but wait atthe gates, where they expose tablets of salt for sale to thefirst bidder; they have agents in Timbuktu. South of JenneCaillié found a village principally inhabited by rope-makers,who prepare ropes for binding together the parts of the largecanoes. Caillié, II., 173.471Caron, 138 et seq. Renseignements sur Djenné.95

Ssilla, the last place in Park's first journey, and formerly aplace of some importance (vide p. 64), which was destroyed 472during the wars between the Bambara and the Fulbes.473Mopti (Isaka, Sagha) is the place of toll for vessels onthe Niger, for which it is admirably suited owing to itsposition at the mouth of the Baule; one in 10 is the toll onslaves, sacks of millet (on the valley route) or bars of salt(on the return journey). From Mopti onwards, where a great manysettlements become islands of the Niger at the time of highestwater, the cultivation of rice increases in importance. Herealso is to be found the ancient seat of mussulmancivilisation. 474Jafarébe, 475 which lies up stream, and whence a marigutleads to Jenné during the rainy season, is the place oftranshipment (from donkeys to boats or vice versâ) for goodsgoing to or coming from Sansánding, and is at the same time themost southerly point of Mássina.476Below Jenne lies Yóaru (Yówaru), which during theinundation is on the extreme western border of Lake Débu, and inthe dry season is about a mile distant from the small arm, andis situated in a country inhabited by Fulbes and extremely richin cattle. Lower down stream are Dar Salam, 477 the capital ofthe province of Sankara, in the midst of a number of ruins;Tindírma, 478 the former capital of Kurmina, which is consideredby many to be the original seat of the Sonrhay; and Dire 479 alsoone of the most ancient Sonrhay settlements on the Niger. Themost northerly point of Mássina is Timbuktu. Towards the westMássina extends as far as Bassikúnu 480 on the northern boundary472 Barth, V., 495.473 Caillié, II., 239; Barth, V., 479; Caron, 129, 142;Jaime, "De Koulikoro à Tombouctou, 225.474 Vide p. 60 et seq., "From Silla and Zágha Islam spreadgradually further and further over the negro country; it wasbrought by the Berber tribe of the Zenágha (Ssenhaja) under theleadership of Abu-Bekr-ben-Omar." Barth, Journ. Lond., 1860,127 (according to Barth, V., 475, also from Sinso)--Jáka, Park'sJára, is placed by Barth, S.W. of Mopti. (Barth, V., Map 15.)129.475 Barth, IV., 496; V., 26, 279; Binger, I., 385; Caron,476 Barth, V., 471.477 A son of Lebbo's lived here, Barth, IV., 383, 483.478 Barth, IV., 428; V., 473.479Barth, IV., 428; V., 473.480Barth, V., 489, 496; Lenz, II., 191 et seq.; Aliun Sal96

of the characteristic Laterite territory, the point ofintersection of the important routes Walata--Sansanding andTimbuktu--Medina 481 , which are made insecure by robber nomads, asfor instance the dreaded Ulad-el-Alush. Extensive cultivationof sorghum furnishes the grain for barter with the inhabitantsof the desert, most of whose salt however goes further to thesouth. In the town, which contains about 200 houses and amosque without a minaret, the Negroes and Arabs live apart; theformer till the soil, the latter are engaged in commerce. Thetown is fortified in a curious manner by raising the backs ofthe houses, which are themselves built on the extreme boundary;in advance of these are the encampments of the nomads. FromBassikúnu onwards camels are no longer used either for riding orfor transport of goods, but asses and oxen. The water-supply ofthe whole neighbourhood is provided from stagnant backwaters ofthe Niger, so-called dayas (Barth "dhaie"), somewhat resemblingponds.On the right bank of the Niger, to the south of Mássina, is482the small independent State of SARO (Sarro), a buffer statebetween the two great and mutually suspicious neighbours Seguand Mássina; Barth's map also shows "independent Aswanek" atthis spot.North of this, 4½ kilometres (about 3 miles) from theBaule, was the former capital of Mássina, Hamdalláhi483 (properlyspeaking et lamdu lillahi, "Praise be to God") which was foundedat the beginning of this century by the Fulbe ruler SheikhAhmedu, a zealous mussulman, who, in the more busy commercialtown of Jenne--which was also unsuitable as a headquarters owingto its being shut in by water for months together, a state ofaffairs to which the Fulbes had never been accustomed in thewhole of their past history--found that both he and the truebelievers were disturbed in their religious devotions andprevented from preserving due humility. The Fulbes of Mássinaare the most fanatical branch of the whole race. They live "inpuritanical vain-glory" as compared with the Fulbes of Sókotoand Gando, and detest tobacco-smoking, 484 dancing, andintoxicating drinks; but, on the contrary, insist on arigorously prescribed attire and, in place of four wives as(who was here held captive by Haji Omar of Segu) in Ancelle, 214et seq.481 The caravan-route from Timbuktu passes viâ Walata andTishit through the Desert to the Lower Senegal.482 Binger, I., 387 Note, 416; Monteil, 28; Barth, V., 516.483 Caillié, II., 207; Binger, I., 387; Caron, 138.484The once flourishing tobacco-culture (Caillié, II., 168)has been ruined thereby.97

allowed by Muhammed, they allow only two. 485 All live in thegreatest simplicity, inclusive of the royal family, the membersof which all live in one and the same court of a circularbuilding, the Sheikh in the middle and the relations along thewalls. 486 Hamdalláhi was destroyed by Haji Omar in 1863, and atthe present day lies in ruins; in its neighbourhood has sprungup a village with a population of Bobo. 487 Many of the ruins ofthe country 488 also bear witness to Tidiani's wars.489The present capital of Mássina is BANDIAGARA, situated tothe east of the Niger, on an eminence about 180 metres (about600 feet) above the river and close to a marigot. It has amixed population of some 5,000 inhabitants, Bobo, Tombo, Mossi,Bambara, Fulbes, Takulör, Moors and Sonrhay. It is fortified bymeans of a tata (mud wall); the streets are clean and fairlywide, but irregular, and all the houses are of mud. Althoughthere is a slave-market, Bandiágara, like all Fulbe towns, isnot a commercial town, but rather a sort of "couvent retranché,"in which, besides the Fulbe chief, a chief of the Tombo alsoresides. At the present time Bandiágara, like all the importantplaces on the Niger, is occupied by French troops; to the N.E.of Bandiágara is Duéntsa 490 (Duensa, Doventza) a mountainouscountry with a town of the same name. This is an important saltdepôt, and also furnishes a number of ostrich-feathers which areforwarded viâ Timbuktu to Mogador, which is the principal portfor these articles. In the mountains there are still freeinhabitants, probably Tombo. 491Further to the north the country presents a progressivelygreater contrast to the industrial pursuits and commerce of thesouth. Thus, in Ssarayamo, 492 the capital of the province of Kisso,with a population of some 5,000, Barth found, it is true, anumber of horses, but no manufactures; even the locally-producedcotton was not made use of. For the water-journey to Timbuktuvarious backwaters of the Niger are used, depending upon thetime of year. The same traveller also found small settlements485 Barth, IV., 190, 259; Lenz, II., 161.486 Barth, IV., 484, Note.487 Caron, 201.488 Caron, 233.489 Binger, I., 382, 387; Caron, 185 et seq.; Jaime, 47;Bull. Marseille, 1894, 386 et seq.490 Barth, V., 469; G.M., 1886, L.B., 368; Krause,Kreuzzeitung of 16th Nov. 1897, and G.M., 1887, 217; Caron, 202.491 Barth, V., 468.492Barth, IV., 378, 383.98

occupied in common by the Fulbes and Tuaregs, 493 two races thatare so hostile to each other. With the first sand-dunes, theprecursors of the desert, appear the temporary encampments ofthe Tuaregs "who, in the present state of political degenerationof the native races, control the whole country, including thesouthern bank of the great river and the enormous tangledconglomeration of its backwaters, for a considerable distance."To the east of Duéntsa is the province of Dalla 494 (formerlyruled over by a Fulbe governor), with the capital of the samename, 495 which is inhabited by Tombo and by a small proportion ofSonrhay. A Fulbe chieftain of Dalla had, at the beginning ofthis century, risen in rebellion against Sheikh Ahmed and hadfled to Mossi, whence he made inroads into the territory ofMássina.496The country of Jilgodi (Gilgoji) with the capital Jíbo, 497is the southernmost province of Mássina. The country was takesfrom the Tombo by the Fulbes, whereby the former sacrificedtheir independence as a nation. The Tombo appear to be relatedto the Mossi and "to have been formerly very powerful, havingprobably extended as far as the shore of the Niger at Timbuktu.The Portuguese knew of them at the end of the 16th century."Although, also, in the second half of the 18th century theystill represented an important political power, yet they hadsuffered considerably from the continued successful attacks ofthe Fulbes from both sides, east and west. 498 They have aseparate chieftain at Bandiágara (vide p. 73). Barth mentionsA'rre 499 as the principal place in the still independent Empireof the Tombo (Tombokho, Binger). The Tombo language, which isrelated to that of the Mossi and Aser (Assuanek), shows a493 Barth, IV., 391.--The low clay magazines of this part ofthe country form sort of money-chests in which are kept thecurrency of the land, i.e., tari, strips of cotton two handsbreadthin width and which are tied up in thick bundles for fearof fire; the flat roofs also serve as sleeping-places in the hotweather. Barth, IV., 361.--As regards the Tuaregs (Imosharh,"the free ones") vide Barth, V., Anh. 3, 573 et seq.; Ratzel,Vk. III., 176 et seq.; Schirmer "Le Sahara," 218 et seq.494 Barth, IV., 317, 322.495 Barth, V., 460.496 Barth, IV., 313, 569.497 Barth, IV., 580.498 Barth, IV., 469.499 Barth, IV., 570.--Petermann's map (Barth, V.) undoubtedlygives much too large an independent Tombo Empire, whilstBinger's gives only a small "territoire des Tombo" aroundHamdalláhi and Bandiágara; vide also Barth, IV., 662.99

wonderful resemblance in sounds to that of the Fali (betweenLake Chad and the Upper Benue). 500 North of Dalla, and probablybelonging to it, is the town of Hómbori, 501 situated in agrotesque mountainous district and one of the most ancientplaces in the Sudan; at the end of the 16th century a specialSonrhay governor was appointed to Hómbori, and called theHómborikoy. 502The borderland between the Empires of Mássina and Gando isARIBINDA, 503 which appears to have once been the most importantof all the districts lying to the south of the Niger. Nominallyit is assigned to Mássina, whose governor often undertakes freebootingraids into it; as a matter of fact, however, it is notaggregated to any State but, on the contrary, complete anarchyprevails in this country, so far removed from great politicalcentres; it is without a master through having so many masters.The inhabitants are Sonrhay, under the rule of Fulbes andTuaregs, or rather Tuareg cross-breeds, who here, as along thewhole line, in Bornu, Haussa, and on the Niger, are in the actof pressing forward, 504 a process which is being all the moreaccelerated by the opening up of the Niger-Benue to Europeantrade, and by the consequent decline of the desert trade, whichis their principal source of revenue: an effect of thisintensifying of the struggle for existence which is of farreachingimportance. In the west, however, the French, by theirpresence at Timbuktu, have undoubtedly placed a powerfulobstacle in the way of the movement. At places where the Fulbesare small in numbers they have almost entirely changed theirnational character, and only speak Sonrhay. 505 Barth found atAribínda, with its vacillating political conditions, slaves("natural linguists of the wilderness") who spoke threelanguages, Temashirht (the language of the Tuaregs), Sonrhay andFulfulde. 506 The residence of the Fulbe chieftain, Lamórde 507(i.e. capital) consisted of groups on the maintain slope and inthe plain; the huts of the latter were connected for defensivepurposes by salient and re-entering walls.500 Prietze, in Passarge, 415.501 Barth, IV., 324, 326, 339 et seq.502 Barth, IV., 648, 662.503 Barth, IV., 307 et seq.504 "From the beginning of history there is a constant flowand ebb of races into the desert"; Schirmer, "Sahara," 239.505 Barth, IV., 314.506 Barth, IV., 303.507Barth, IV., 310 et seq.100

To the Fulbe Empire of Mássina belonged TIMBUKTU, the mythenshrouded"Queen of the desert," the "African Athens," 508 towhich, in the accounts, the most varied names have been given,all signifying the pasture-ground of the Buktu, a hollow or adune; 509 the name is in Sonrhay (probably the original form),Túmbutu; in Arabic Tim(n)buktu; in Tuáreg Tumbütku or Tumbuktu;in Portuguese (Valentin) Tambucutu and Tabucuto; in BarrosTungubutu; the old Portulane called it Tenbuch or Timbutsch; Leocalls it To(u)mbutum; on the Middle Niger it is Timbutu. 510Timbuktu, this political chameleon, was never the capital of anindependent Empire. 511 It is true that as a town it at timesenjoyed a certain amount of independence, though its prominentlycentral position proved more to its disadvantage than otherwisesince, though the apple of discord between powerful conquerorsfrom east and west, north and south, it was not itself strongenough to take up a commanding position, the principal reasonsfor which were the poorness of the surrounding country and themotley and disunited character of its population.Timbuktu was founded about 1100 by the Imosharh; it wasused by them as a camping-ground and was frequently againforsaken. At first it had only a few scattered buildings,connected rows of houses being first erected in the second thirdof the 10th century of the Flight, more especially as a result512of the decline of Walata. Edrisi (about 1150) makes nomention of it. At the beginning of the 14th century, on theoccasion of the pilgrimage of Mansa Mussa of Melle (1326),Timbuktu became a dependency of the latter Empire and, shortlyafter, about 1329, was plundered by the pagan King of Mossi; 513he however could not hold the town and, from 1336 on, itcontinued for some time to belong to Melle. Even at the time ofhis visit Ibn Batuta found a special Overlord of the Tuáregs.About 1370 Timbuktu was first known of in Europe, and508 The learned Ahmed Baba had a library of 1,600manuscripts. Barth, IV., 436.509 Barth, IV., 419, Note; C.R.S., 1894, 65.510 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 63, Note; French: Tenboctou,Tombouctou; English, Timbuctoo.511 Leo, in his Tumbutum regnum (p. 642 et seq.) describesthe country as a province of Sonrhay.512 Ahmed Baba, passim, 12, 62; Caron, 254 et seq.; Timbuktuwas not founded by the Sonrhay King Mansa Sliman, as reported byLeo, but was only restored by him after it had been destroyed bythe Mossi.--Barth, IV., Anh. 9, is the authority for the historyof the town.--Murray, 1817 (account, &c.) accepts several placesas being Timbuktu.513Compare with this Binger, I., 481.101

thenceforward was for centuries food for phantasy and for thespirit of enterprise. In 1433 it was finally wrested from theEmpire of Melle by the Tuáregs, who placed a governor here.About 1469 the Sonrhay King, Sonni Ali, conquered Timbuktu aftergreat bloodshed, and the town was consequently involved in thewars of succession for the throne of Sonrhay. At the end of the16th century, about 1590, the Moors under Pasha Jódar (videp. 66) established themselves in the town, in the quarteroccupied by the merchants of Ghadames. They guarded the tradeby closing all the gates with the exception of the one leadingto the south (Kábara), and their successors the Ruma have greatinfluence over the administrations of the town up to the presentday. Inroads by the Moors occurred at the end of the 17th andin the 18th centuries; notably under Sultan Muley Ismael (1672-1727). 514 In 1680 Timbuktu is said to have been conquered by theMandingo. The direct influence of Morocco was considerable upto the death of Sultan Sidi Muhamed in 1795. Whether Timbuktuat the beginning of this century (1803) was really conquered byMansong, King of the Bambara, or became a "free town," cannot bedetermined with accuracy. 515 In 1826 the Fulbes of Mássinaoccupied the town 516 in which, besides the factions of the Fulbesand the Tuáregs, there has been formed since 1831 that of themerchants of Ghadames. In 1841, in consequence of a victoryover the Fulbes, the Tuáregs obtained the supremacy, which wasagain abolished in 1848 by Sheikh El Bakay, the head of theShereefian family of the Kuutsa (Kunta). 517 In 1863 Haji Omar,the Ruler of the Tukulör State of Segu-Mássina, conqueredTimbuktu--and the Tuáregs apparently retired; they however fellupon the plunderers and inflicted such slaughter that Omar hadto withdraw with the greatest haste. Hostilities between theFulbes and the Tuáregs constitute the earliest history ofTimbuktu. Caron found it in 1887 in complete anarchy; theTuáregs, Tidiani of Mássina (the nephew of Omar) and Abiddin(the head of the Kuntsa) were fighting for possession of it,whilst in the interior the Arma, 518 the traders and the Moors215.514 Matthews, Journ. Americ. Geogr. Soc., New York, 1881,515 Park. Reisen, p. 90; Ritter, Afr., 446; Barth, IV., 669.516 Barth, IV., 468.517 The same that Barth generously protected.518 The Arama of Raffenel (Nouveau voy., II.), the abovementioned Ruma, or Erma (plural of rami, a "rifleman"), thesuccessors of the Moorish conquerors, who took native (Sonrhay)wives and formed a sort of aristocracy in the towns. Theirprincipal places were Jenne, Timbuktu, Bámba, Gogo, and Kalna inDendi. Barth, IV., 440, 662; Lenz, II., 126.102

made war upon each other. 519 In January 1894 Timbuktu wasoccupied by the French, who have concentrated a considerableforce there, a force which has been largely increased since theattack upon Tacubao near Gundam (West of Timbuktu, by theTuáregs, their principal enemies). 520Timbuktu is 245 metres (about 800 feet) above-sea level andsome 15 kilometres (10 miles) to the north of the Niger, "wherethe great river of West Africa approaches most closely to thefar-projecting and extensive Oasis of Tuat, with itsprolongation in a north-westerly direction, Téfilelet" (theSijilmessa of the middle ages). Timbuktu is at the same timethe centre of a sort of peninsula, on whose circumference Kukaand St. Louis, Sahara and the Guinea Coast are diametricallyopposite to each other; it is also the most northerly point ofthe territory inundated by the Niger 521 . The size of the town,which in former days depended upon political circumstances, hasvaried greatly; the population was between 5,000 and 20,000. 522The greater portion are Arabs of Morocco, most of whom howeverhave a strain of negro blood, and a number of descendants of theancient Sonrhay negroes; there are also however the offspring ofall the principal tribes of the Western Sudan, as well as someJewish families from Wad Nun, who have bought themselves the519 Caron, 258.520 Bull. Marseille, 1894, 385 et seq.521 Vide Bluzet, Bull. Paris 1896, H. 3; Geogr. Zeitschr,1896, 172. The ports on the Niger are Kábara and Koriume; inyears of plentiful water, however, as in 1853 and 1894, it mayhappen that one can travel on the Rasel-ma right up to the town;it is said that in 1640 the whole Bagindi quarter was inundated(Barth, IV., 526; V., 10; C.R.S., 1894, 210). Formerly thecanal from Kábara to Timbuktu was much deeper; vessels couldnavigate up to the town the whole year round (Barth, IV., 427).For plans, vide Barth, IV., 488; C.R.S., 1894, 211, 242;Vuillot, Map of Timbuktu.Batuta even in his day gives the correct position(J. Asiat. passim, 226 et seq.); Jomard has collated (Caillié,III., 230 et seq.) the data as to the longitudes and latitudesof Timbuktu from 1720 to 1830 (Delile--Caillié). Even at thecommencement of this century Walckenaer sought to fix theposition of Timbuktu "as the point of intersection of severallines all intersecting in one and the same point"--(N. Geogr.Ephem, 1821, 262 et seq).522 Caillié (II., 312), including the Moorish traders,estimates it at from 10,000 to 12,000; Barth (IV., 494): about13,000 residents, and, at the time of the greatest trade, from5,000 to 10,000 strangers; Lenz (II., 143): about 20,000; Caron(272): 5,000; Jaime (227): 3,500 (!); C.R.S., 1894, 210:10,000 to 12,000.103

ight to live and trade in Timbuktu. 523 In addition to theordinary Sonrhay language, Fulfulde and Temashirht are also inuse. 524 Timbuktu was formerly surrounded by a wall 525 but since1826, when it was destroyed by the Fulbes, 526 it has been aperfectly open town, forming a triangle some 2½ to 3 Englishmiles in circumference. It is more thickly populated in thesouthern part, close to the Niger, than in the northern, nearthe desert. It formerly extended 2,000 paces further towardsthe north, where now are the remains of buildings and the"extensive ruins of centuries"; 527 adjoining these is a ring ofreed huts, and it is only in the interior that one findsconnected rows of well-kept mud houses, with terraces and flatroofs, between which the streets are so narrow that two horsemencould scarcely pass each other. In 1853 the town had some 980clay dwellings and several hundred circular reed-huts; itconsisted of 7 separately named quarters and contained 3mosques, 528 viz: Jingere-ber, the great mosque, built by MansaMussa of Melle, with 9 naves in the old portion and 3 in thenew, and with a high mud tower which gives a touch of characterto the view of the town; Ssan-Kore with 5 naves, built at theexpense of a rich and pious Sonrhay lady 529 and the little SsídiYáhia built at the expense of a Kadi (magistrate--Tr.) of thetown. The old palace was built by an architect from Granada. 530A few tombs of celebrated men constitute objects ofveneration. 531 The environs of the town are arid; consequently523 Lenz, II., 147 et seq.524 Compare Caillié, II., 326. Even if this traveller isresponsible for certain inaccuracies, still justice andgratitude demand that he should be praised as being an acuteobserver and truthful reporter, in spite of the sharp attacksmade upon him by the English, and also bearing in mind hisprevious training and the difficulty of making notes.525 Kunstmann and Schmeller, Abh. d. Bayr. Akad. d. Wiss.passim; Kunstmann, "Afrika," p. 40.526 Barth, IV., 490.527 Leo, even in his day, speaks of great conflagrations here(p. 645).528 Barth, IV., 450, 486; Caillié, II., 56, 311, 333 et seq.;the latter mentions 7.529 Ahmed Baba, passim, 14.530 Leo, 642; a quodam Granata viro artificissimo. Binger,I., 481.531Batuta mentions the tomb of the celebrated and much-104

water and fuel are scarce; most of the provisions have to bebrought from Jenne and Sansanding. 532Timbuktu is in no sense a self-producing place as is, to acertain extent, Kano. The only tradesmen are blacksmiths andleather-workers; pretty articles in leather are also made by theTuáreg women. 533 "Timbuktu, properly speaking, belongs to noparticular State. It is an entrepôt, and the Tuáregs and Fulbesare always struggling for the right to raise taxes, withoutgoverning the town." 534 In Barth's time the Fulbes exacted atribute of 2000 cowries for each slave, as also from every adultwho failed to perform the customary worship in the mosque onFriday. Then there were the extortions of the Tuáregs, who, ifthe gates were not opened to them, climbed over the walls, andthen had to be quartered and fed, along with their horses, untilpayment had been made. 535 Finally there were the presents to bemade to the Sheikh of the Arab Kabyle, of the Kuntsa, who hadbeen summoned to Timbuktu by the Ghadamese.The administration of this "neglected town, which was ruledby so many lords and yet had no ruler," was, in Barth's time, inthe hands of two Sonrhay officials with the title of Emir, whosought to maintain their position by playing the three factorsof power one against the other. In Lenz's time it was in thehands of the Kahia (a sort of burgomaster, who was thedescendant of an Andalusian Arab family which had immigratedfrom Morocco), and of the Sheikhs of the Kuntsa and of the536Tuáregs.travelled poet Abu Ishac el Toweijin (died 1346), and of therich Alexandrian Ibn-el-Koweik, as well as of several pilgrimsto Mecca.532 Caillié, II., 317; Barth, V., 18; on the other hand Leosays (643): Regio est frumentis, peculibus, lacte atque butyrocopiosissima; Caillié (II., 313), speaks of magazines withstores of provisions, so that the town should not be entirelywithout supplies in the event of the trade with the S.W. beingsuddenly cut off by the Tuáregs, who control it.533 Leo, (642): frequentissimac hic sunt artificium,mercatorum, praccipue autem telac atque gossypii textorumofficinae is either an incorrect report or else thecircumstances have completely changed. "The market of Timbuktusurpasses that of Kano not as regards the quantity, but asregards the quality of the goods" (Barth).534 Lenz, II., 147; compare Caillié: "the principal entrepôtfor this part of Africa," II., 309.535 Caillié, II., 324; Barth, IV., 441, et seq.; V., 41, 33.536Lenz, II., 126 et seq.105

From this purely commercial town, 537 Timbuktu, trade-routesradiate towards north, west and south, the most important beingthose going to Ghadames, Morocco, and up the Niger; whilst thoseto St. Louis, Kong and Mossi are also of importance. Timbuktuis not in direct communication with the Haussa States; there areno routes of any size going to them. 538 In this century inparticular the town had to suffer from uninterrupted alarms ofwar, and Caillié found its commerce to be less than that ofJenne. 539 The exchange of the gold of the Sudan for the salt ofthe Sahara dates from time immemorial. 540 The gold is brought toTimbuktu from Bambuk and Bure (on the Upper Senegal and Niger),as well as from the gold-district of Northern Ashanti, Bondukuand Lobi, and is brought more in the form of rings and platesthan in that of gold-dust. 541The proper standard of measure of gold in the whole of theWestern Sudan is the mitkal, the weight of which varies,depending upon the locality, but averages about 4 grammes (62grains Troy), the value being somewhere about ten shillings. Itis worked up into ornaments, mostly in Walata. 542 The salt 543537 Caillié: "which the needs of commerce have made into afrightful desert"; compare Ratzel, Anthropogeogr, II., 464 etseq.538 At the period when Sonrhay and the Haussa States wereflourishing a brisk trade must also have gone on from Timbuktuto the East and South-east. Communication with Haussa isrendered difficult by the unfavourable character of the Nigerbelow Timbuktu (vide p. 2, Note 5; p. 35, Note 2; pp. 51, 52),as also by the Tuáregs and more especially, by the pagan Haussasin the North of Sókoto, the Gobir, Kebbi, and Maradi; vide alsoCaillié, II., 316.539 Caillié, II., 299 et seq.540 Herodotus (I., IV., 196) mentions a speechless exchangeof goods between the Carthaginians and the natives who paid forthe wares in gold. The territory described by him----must be conceived to be the Western Sudan.541 "Tibber" or "Tibbar"; vide Matthew's Journ., New York,1881, 216; Ritter, Afr., 1038.--Recently the gold from Bambukand Bure has mostly been taken to Saint Louis (Arabic Ndar);Lenz, II., 149.542 Barth, V., 23, 70.543 From the 11th Century up to 1596 salt was brought fromTeghása, 70 miles to the north of Timbuktu, the houses of whichare said to have been built of rock-salt just as Herodotuscharacteristically depicted salt-works to the south of MountAtlas (I., IV., 185); "106

comes into the trade in blocks of, on the average, about a yardin length, which weigh about 60 lbs. and are worth about onemitkal, which is represented by black strokes and rhomboids; itreaches its highest price in the spring when, on account of thegad-flies close to the river, the salt-caravans seldom come;besides being bartered for gold it is exchanged for the cottonstuffsof Sansanding and Kano, which latter reach Timbuktu viâGhadames. 544 A not unimportant trade is carried on in kola-nuts,rice, maize, 545 vegetable-butter (for burning in lamps), and acertain quantity of wheat and spice for the Arabs. Cowriesstill serve for currency, but reach their northernmost limit atTimbuktu, where, on account of their weight, they are notcarried across the desert. 546 Slaves, ostrich feathers and ivorygo to the North and gum and wax to Saint-Louis 547 ; on the other.--Salt also formerly came to Timbuktu from the great Sebcha(salt-pan) Ijil in Adrar (north-west of Timbuktu, not far fromthe ocean), which yields annually about 20,000 camel-loads of200 kilogrammes (about 440 lbs.) each. Barth, V., 562; Panet,G.M., 1859, 105; Vincent in Ancelle passim, 127. The exchangeof this salt from Walata is said to take place in silence andoutside the closed gates of Timbuktu; it is brought to Jenne(Gyni) on canoes, pulled by ropes. Kunstmann, Abh. d. Bayr.Akad. d. Wiss. passim, 189, 280; Schmeller, Do. 46.--Since 1596,Timbuktu has been supplied with salt from Taudeni, which is alsosituated in the north at the spot where the great caravan-routeseparates, going east and west, in the country of El Jof. Thebed, which is of great thickness, supplies the Sudan with thebest salt. Caillié, II., 304, 402; Barth, V., 24; Lenz, II., 69et seq., 151; Binger, I., 375.544 Timbuktu also supplies the Southern Atlas with theseexcellent textures.545 The prices of corn fall from the beginning of January,when grain is brought in canoes; the rice-crop is gathered insmall boats, as only the tops of the stalks stick out of thewater; the harvest takes place in the middle of December.546 Cyprea moneta, or the money-cowry, is a gasteropodousmollusc, of a small and much-prized species, which is obtainedfrom the Maldive Islands. Leo mentions as coin aurea, nullisfiguris insignita, of the value of 400 Persian cowries, or 62/3ounces. Between the dates of Barth's and Lenz's visits, 1854-1880, the price of cowries fell considerably, whilst that ofgold rose enormously, because it found a better sale at Saint-Louis.547Caillié relates that in his day elephants were still107

hand from the North, chiefly from Wad Nun, come tobacco, (whichis contraband to the Fulbes, in consequence of which there arehouse-to-house visitations), dates and European goods. 548Somewhere about November of each year the great caravan from theNorth, Kafla-el-Kebir or Akabar, 549 enters Timbuktu in largedetachments, and by degrees swells to a size of 1000 camels ormore. The return journey takes place (depending upon the courseof business,) in the course of one or of several months and,indeed, in a number of small detachments which are again dividedup by their owners. The pole-star shows the way to the olderand more experienced leaders; a rock, a sand-dune, a thin beltof bushes, or the changing colour of the sand all serve asindications of the route.The trade of the town, which has altogether lost its formergreatness, appears to be again rather on the increase since itsoccupation by the French, who are already busy with a project550for a railway from Algiers to Timbuktu.The port of Timbuktu at the season of low water is Koriume(Korome) 551 ; at the commencement of October the marigot routestill does not reach up to Kábara. Barth saw at this place acaptured in the river. The Arabs collect the gum from acacias.548 Principally hardware-goods, mirrors, knives, red clothand calico. Most of the merchants of Timbuktu do not trade ontheir own account but are agents or commissioners for the greatArab firms at Ghadames, Mógador, Morocco, Fez, Tuat, and evenTripoli.549 Olliver, G.M., 1880, 275 (value 775,000 francs, or£31,000); Caillié, II., 359 et seq.; Barth, V., 32 et seq.;Lenz, II., 37; Matthew's Journ., New York, passim, 211 et seq.The size of the caravan depends equally upon the political stateof affairs, and upon the security, with which it is intimatelyconnected, both in the north and in the south of the Desert.Tenduf is an important collecting-station in the North (Lenz,II., 31 et seq., 360), whilst the most important place beforeTimbuktu is called Arauan. Caillié, II., 370 et seq.; AliunSal, in Ancelle, 212 et seq.; Lenz, II., 81 et seq.550 The distance of 2,282 kilometres (about 1,430 miles) willbe traversed by a line 2,700 kilometres (about 1,670 miles) inlength; it will start from Algiers and go viâ El Golea throughthe Desert of Amguiden and the Oasis of Tuat to Insalah Nesalah,and thence almost in a straight line to Timbuktu. C.R.S., 1894,64 et seq.551 Barth, IV., 386, 399 et seq.; Caron, 239; Jaime, 214,217. The luxuriant Niger grass, byrgu, is the chief fodder forhorses and cattle, but in many places makes the use of therudder impossible; vessels are then, as usual, propelled bymeans of long poles.108

wharf, for the repair of the large cabin-boats. The boatmen areslaves, in whose songs the Sonrhay King Askia, "perhaps thegreatest sovereign that ever ruled over the Negro country,"still lives; the greater portion of the slaves now come fromSamory's and Tiéba's Empires. Kábara, 552 the port of Timbuktu atthe time of high flood, on the continuation of the marigot ofKoriume, was in Barth's time inhabited by 2,000 Sonrhay underFulbe officials. The office of harbour-master at Kábara (Kábra)has been from ancient times up to the present date of greatimportance. The goods of the foreign merchants are stored inclay magazines; the Sonrhay live in reed huts.Timbuktu is situated at about the centre of the territoryover which is spread the tribe of the SONRHAY (Songhay), whosettled in the country from the point where the Niger entersMássina, and from Walata in the west, to Saberma and A'gades in553the east. Barth estimates their number at two millions. 554Their language, Ki-sson-rhay, 555 is very poor and undeveloped.At the present time they are mostly under the yoke of theTuáregs and Fulbes; "both as regards race and civilisation theyno longer offer any typical characteristics, and have moreoverbecome very much intermixed with their conquerors, and haveaccepted Islam." 556 In Barth's time there were still freeSonrhay settled in the mountainous districts, as, for instance,the Hómbori 557 ; others lived under the sheltering protection ofthe Chalébleb (a large lake-like backwater of the Niger, withmany ramifications,) or of castle-like villages (Kasr) such asDárghol, 558 their capital, where are the remains of the oncepowerful royal family of the Askia; and finally they were to be552 Caillié, II., 293 et seq.; Barth, IV., 403 et seq., 427,484; Lenz, II., 132. Leo, 645: Cabra oppidum . . . "Hicmercatores ad Gineae aut Melli regnum navigare cupientes navesconscendunt; huc Nigritae navigio undique confluere solent. Inhac civitate Tumbuti rex iudicem quendam constituit, qui litesinter cos componerct.553 Barth, I., 435 et seq.; Krause, Niger-Expedition, I.,17;--The original seats of the race were perhaps in Mássina;Barth, V., 473; IV., 259 et seq.; Staudinger, 579. Comparep. 71.554 Journ. Lond., 1860, 120.555 Caillié calls the people "Kissour," II., 306, andelsewhere.556 Monteil, 176; he calls them "Sourhaïs."557 Barth, 185, 198.558Barth, IV., 317; V., 279; for the other settlements ofthe free Sonrhay vide Barth, V., 732 et seq.109

found in Kulman and Tera, whose inhabitants were very warlikebut not in unity with each other. 559 Protection from the Tuáregsis often afforded by insulation in the Niger, a state of affairswhich here frequently recurs, as, for instance, at the littletown of Rhergo or Ghergo. 560 The "river territory of Burrum, 561with its numerous islands," at the great bend which the Nigertakes to the S.E., is also of importance. Whilst the ancientkingdoms of Ghánata and Melle received their civilisation fromthe North, especially from Sijilmessa, Sonrhay entered into veryearly communication with Egypt 562 "through the enterprisinginhabitants of Aujila" who reached the Niger at Burrum, as alsodid the Arabs, who already at the beginning of the 11th centuryintroduced Islam and the forms of royalty into Sonrhay. Burrumhas recently become of importance as being the southern terminusof the projected French railway across the Sahara. 563 Lower downthe Niger, in the Sonrhay territory, is the former capital ofthe Empire, Gogo (vide p. 65, Note 5), now in ruins, incomparison with which the polished and vigorous Timbuktu wasalways merely a provincial town. A large ruined tower, theremains of the great principal mosque, 564 is all that remains ofits former greatness; Barth found in the vicinity a wretchedvillage of some 300 huts. This is the southern boundary of theGreat Desert on the Niger, on both banks of which the sanddunes559 Compare Monteil, 184: "people of gentle manners whoendure the Fulbé yoke against their will; but who, more attachedto their native soil than to their independence, submit withoutcomplaining to the law of the stronger."560 The Niger reaches its most northerly point at the hamletof E'gedesh (Barth, V., 171) below Ghergo (Hourst: Gheîrago;G.M., 1895, 175; Barth, V., 152) and has then, at the narrows ofTóssaie or Tó--sse, which have certainly some effect upon thebed of the river, only a width of from 200 to 250 paces (Barth,V., 191).561 Barth, V., 194 et seq. In 1843-44 the Fulbes of Mássinatransplanted the population of three villages from Burrum toGundam, near Timbuktu, in all some 4,000 souls.562 Compare Barth, V., 183.563 Vide "Le Transsaharien," in list of works referred to inthis summary. Schirmer takes a pessimistic view of the scheme;Ferk takes the opposite view in the C.R.S., 1894, 36 et seq.564 It is the sepulchre of the great ruler Haji MohammedAskia; Barth was "deeply moved by the spectacle in this halfopenedcorner of the world of the wonderful and mysterious wavesof people which incessantly follow one another, and are thenswallowed up, leaving behind scarcely a trace of theirexistence."110

now cease. 565 The corn-market for the country between Say andTimbuktu is the island-town of Sinder 566 (which with Garu, whichis close to it, has from 16,000 to 18,000 inhabitants). TheTuáregs still render these places insecure; a little lower downthe Niger, however, we meet with the architecture and languageof the Haussa, 567 whilst from Birni 568 onwards the Fulbespredominate and the Empire of Gando commences.The Empire of SEGU, which lies up the Niger from Mássina,569is the outcome of the efforts of the Mandingo to found a newState on the ruins of the ancient Melle. This great mixed negrorace of the West was formerly settled from Tishit and Walata(vide ante) to Kátsena, 570 but was carried away towards the southin the great migration of races. Its domain lies to-day betweenthe Middle Senegal and the Volta, though isolated families andcolonies are to be met with from Timbuktu to the Guinea Coast.As regards the name of the people there is considerableuncertainty; 571 at one time they are called Wakore, Wangara(plural Wangaraua), at another Sakhersi, Mandingo, Malinke orpars pro toto Juli. The oldest name, and probably the only oneused to designate the entire people, would appear to beWakore; 572 whilst Wangara, the Haussa name, appears to designate565 To the East of Gogo lay Takédda or Tekádda (5 days'journey W.S.W. of A'gades, the capital of Aïr), whence an oldcaravan-route went northwards, with a branch to the westwards toTuat, and one to the eastwards via Ghat to Egypt; it furnishesgood salt. According to Batuta (Jour. Asiat., 1843, 232 etseq.) there were copper-mines there.--Barth, I., 418, 510.--Northwards of Gogo is Ssuk, the site of Tademékket or Tademékka,the ancient commercial town of the Berbers, which was destroyedby Sonni Ali in the middle of the 15th century, when itsimportance was transferred to A'gades. Barth, IV., 510, 605;V., 184, 459.566 Barth, V., 197, 275 et seq.567 Barth, V., 282.568 Barth, V., 288 et seq.569 Ratzel, Vk.I., 632 et seq.570 Barth, II., 94; Journ. Lond., 1860, 117.571 Compare Barth, IV., 145 and 292 (Wakore or Wangaraua),573 (Wangara-Melle), 583 (Mandingo or Wangara); Lenz, II., 12(the ancient race of the Wakore, belonging to the Mandingofamily), 147 (Wangaraua. [Mandingo] -negroes), 253 (Wakore,related to the Mandingo or Juli).572Binger, II., 382: "Ouakoré est aussi, de nos jours,employé un peu partout."111

more the eastern tribes (Barth), and Mandingo more thewestern. 573 Barth estimates their number at from 6 to 8millions. 574 The Mandingo comprise both fair- and dark-skinnedpeople. They are very intelligent and pliable; some tribes havemore proclivity for agricultural pursuits, others for commerce(Bambara--Jula). The gold-trade has been in their hands fromtime immemorial. They are distinguished from the Haussa bytheir peaceful mode of life and by their capacity for politicalorganisation. 575 They acquired for the Bend of the Niger aspecial importance, from a cultured and political point of view,by the very early acceptance of Islam by several of the tribes,as, for instance, the Malinke and Mande-Jula. Barth 576 includesamong them the Aser, Assuanek or Suaninki (the Sebe of theFulbes and the Serracolets of the French, principally in Bághenaand along the Upper Senegal), the Bámbara ("at present the mostpowerful, but of "ignoble origin," probably a cross with theTombo"), the Mandingo of Bondu, Kaarta and Bambuk; the Juli onthe Upper Niger (who are of importance as kola-nut traders), theWangara proper, extending from eastwards of the Juli settlementsas far as Borgu (for instance, in Kong and Sansánne-Mangu asgold-traders and workmen); whilst he considers the Kru andTimmáni to be related to them. Binger does not call them"Mandingues" 577 but "Mandé." 578 According to him their originalcountry was divided up into the portions on the Niger and on itsgreat tributaries (ma-ndé) and those lying to the south thereofand at a distance from the river (ndé), in consequence of whichthe people split up into the Nde and the Mande. The universalsymbol of the race, which in any case was scattered abroad fromthe Niger, was ma 579 ; Mandingo therefore means "worshipper of573 Barth, Journ. Lond., passim: "Mandi is the name of asection of the whole tribe."574 Barth, Journ. Lond., 118.575 In the same Barth draws attention to the fact that theydiffer very much among themselves, but are "a fine race, and arecapable of a high degree of civilisation and intelligence, welldisposedto trading, and great travellers--even the principaltraders in Katsena being Wangarawa--and capable of politicalorganisation."576 Vide Barth.577 As do most French authors: Caillié portrays them in II.,37 et seq. and passim.578 Binger, II., 373 et seq.; Steinthal wrote on "Mande"-negro dialects.579The "Ayu," French lamantin, Manatus senegalensis (videVogelii, or manatee, an animal which long remained a mystery, isa sort of sea-cow which, from Lake Debu onwards, has been112

ma." Each tribe, again, has its own symbol, which at the sametime is its divinity (tenné, idol, fetish). Historically, andin accordance with this tenné, Binger 580 again subdivides thewhole race, classed together by us under the name of Mandingo,into five great sections:I. MANDE.1. Bammana (Bambara); tenné: the alligator (p. 86).(a) Royal families; (b) families of the smiths (each againwith a different tenné). To this tribe are allied the Samokho(tenné: the snake) and the Samanke (tenné: the elephant).2. Malinke (tenné: the hippopotamus) (vide p. 86. Note6.).(a) Royal families; (b) other families; (c) griots (balladsingers).In addition the sub-divisions of the Kaporo andTaguara.II. NDE.3. Susu or Soso (p. 93. Note 4).4. Sonninke (p. 91).5. Mande Jula (p. 105).After this follow portions very difficult to classify, as,for instance, the Fofana, 581 groups of families, "who live mixedup among the other Mande and constitute a sort of caste," aspagans and mussulmans, without any pronounced character; also,in the south, allied races, as, for instance, amongst others,the Wei (Liguy).observed in the Niger, Benuë and Shari: vide Barth, II., 605;III., 289; V., 104, 476, and Wagner, Vogels Reisen, 277 et seq.580 Binger speaks throughout of the difficulty of research;there was no written language, tradition is young andunreliable, whilst each branch has its own history; added tothis there are the superposition and displacement of races,marriage, intermingling with slaves, the changes in tatooing andof language (for a list of languages see Binger, II., 378);conquered and conquerors each take over something from theother. The Mande of Kong have the tattooing of the Komono andDokhosie, the Mande of Mossi have partly that of the Mossi, theDagomba a mixture between the Mande and the Haussa, while theFulbes of Wássulu, Ganadugu, Furu and Wahabu have that of thepeople with whom they live; these Fulbes have also forgottentheir Fulfulde and speak Mande, just as the Senagha forgot theBerber language and speak Arabic. Even the simplest numberschange in commerce. Binger obtained the best ethnologicalresults by observing the family names or d.amu, although thesealone are not determinative, since slaves or people included intheir civilisation assumed the names of their masters of theirsuperior neighbours.581Binger, II., App. V., 377.113

The five principal groups were all represented in theancient empires round Timbuktu, whose history is also theirs; 582at first, consequently, easily followed, it is, after the fallof the latter, often involved, and the further it becomesremoved from the centre of mahomedan culture the darker and moresilent become the Arab sources of information. They formedthemselves into separate groups on the fall of Melle, in about1540, 583 from which empire other tribes, such as the Siën-re, theTagua, Bobo-Jula, and Gonja also detached themselves. 584The BAMMANA, 585 as they call themselves, or Bámbara (i.e.,"unbelievers"), as they are falsely but universally called, arethe Mandingo who have remained pagans, and who, in order toescape from the chicanery of their mahomedan fellow-tribesmen,the Malinke and Mande Jula, and to form a separate empire on theruins of Melle, established themselves in its southern remains,under Kaladian Kurubari, about 1650 and founded the Empire ofSegu. In 1680 his six sons succeeded him as rulers; theoligarchical form of government lessened the power of theBámbara to the advantage of the Sonninke. In the middle of the18th century there existed a sort of Praetorian administrationby the most influential chiefs. The flames of war spread overthe whole country in consequence of the struggle between the twomost powerful of them, Dabo (or Ngolo) and Sagone (or Sange), astruggle which lasted from 1748 to 1754. Dabo's 586 partyconsisted of the Bámbara, the Uëlad Masuk, the noblest portionof the Uëlad Mebarek, the A'hel Ssemboru, a section of theFulbes of Bakunu, and important fractions of the SonninkeDiawara; the party of Sagone, on the other hand, consisted ofthe Ruma or Erma, the Moorish cross-breeds who had settled inthis neighbourhood, the Senagha, the Uëlad Alush, the warliketribe of the Uëlad Mebarek, the A'hel Massa or Saro, a sectionof the Sonninke and the MALINKE. 587 Sagone was conquered and582 Both in Ghanata and Melle, as well as in Sonrhay,Mandingo and Sonrhay formed the population, "who alternatelycoming into power, whether by right or by usurpation, changedthe denomination of the kingdom"; "important fractions of Mandéhave always played an important rôle there" (i.e., in Sonrhay);Binger, II., App. V., 381.583 Binger, II., App. V., 372.584 Binger, II., App. V., 386.585 Binger, II., App. V., 385 et seq.; Monteil, 39 et seq.586 Binger, II., App. V., 387, Note; compare Barth, V.,Anhang L., 512 et seq.587 Binger, II., 392:--The Mali-nke gave its name to theEmpire of Melle, and were predominant there in point of numbers(possibly "Malinke" denotes the whole west wing of the Wakore?);on the fall of Melle they withdrew in a northerly direction to114

killed, and Dabo reigned till 1787 at Segu-Sikoro. The BámbaraEmpire finally consisted of two States, for the most partseparated, Kaarta in the west and Segu in the east, ruled bywidely-dreaded despots with standing armies, which, includingtheir commanders, consisted of slaves. 588 At the end of the 18thcentury the powerful Bámbara King, Mansong, 589 devasted Kaartaand Beledugu; the reported conquest of Timbuktu (vide p. 76)appears to have been an invention. After him nine or ten of hisnephews ruled over the country. The dominion of the Bámbara wasseriously threatened by the formation by Lebbo of the FulbeEmpire of Mássina (Binger: 1790, Barth: 1816); in consequencethere was once more a marked movement of the Bámbara towards thesouth, which continued for a long while. In 1845 they hadreached Tiongi. 590 About 1850 began Sheikh Haji Omar's 591agitation amongst the easily-moved and fanatical Tukulör. Heproclaimed a holy war (jehad-Tr) on the borders of Futa-Jallon,but was driven back by the watchful and energetic Faidherbe fromthe navigable portion of the Senegal; on his march he devastatedKaarta, and in 1857 in vain laid siege to Fort Médine on theSenegal, which was heroically defended by Hall. 592 In 1861 heconquered Segu, the ancient capital of the Fama of Bámbara, onthe Niger, and, in place of the annihilated Bámbara State,founded the Tukulör Empire of Segu, making his son Ahmadu, (whowas the enemy of the French, and had made prisoners of Mage andQuintin,) Sultan. Haji Omar himself turned north-east,conquered the Fulbe of Mássina, which then became a Tukulörthe Upper Niger. Only a few of the fractions settled in Segutook part in that battle. Mansong, of Segu, at the end of the18th century, could not conquer their strong capital, Bangassi,in Fuladugu. In the first half of the 19th century they appearon the scene in the fights between Kankan Mahmady and the Siënreof Tengrela.588 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.589 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 443; Park, Reisen, 90; he callsthe empire "Manding"; Binger, II., 389.590 Binger, I., 183.591 Haji Omar was born about 1804, and was a Torodo from theneighbourhood of Podor on the Lower Senegal. He made thepilgrimage to Mecca, at which period he spent 16 years in theEast. His idea was to found a great mahomedan Empire on theUpper Niger.--G.M., 1864, 69 et seq., and 1866, 443; Gaffarel,"Sénégal et Soudan franc.," chap. VII.; Soleillet, "Voy. àSégou," III., 317 et seq.; Frey, "Campagne, &c.," 493 et seq.;Faidherbe, Sénégal, 158 et seq.592Carrère, Le Siège de Médine (Rev. col.): Lenz, II., 292et seq.; Faidherbe passim, 182 et seq.115

State with his nephew Tidiani as ruler, and in 1863 593 evenconquered Timbuktu. Haji Omar was, however, driven back by theTuaregs with much loss and retired to Mássina, where he met hisdeath at Bandiágara at the end of 1863 or beginning of 1864during a rebellion, in the course of which he was probablymurdered. With a view to still making use of his mighty anddreaded name his death was long kept secret. Ahmadu of Segubecame well known through his wars with the French. In 1881-82Gallièni's first mission to him took place. In 1890 Archinardconquered the town of Segu, at which lived Madane, a son ofAhmadu. He himself had sought refuge in Nioro (Kaarta), whichwas taken by Archinard on the 1st January, 1891. The presentruler of Segu, who still bears the ancient title of Fama iscompletely dependent on the French. The ancient dynasties ofthe Kurbari and Diara still continue to struggle for thesupremacy. 594The Bámbara Empire and, later, the Tukulör Empire of Seguconsisted of Segu proper, and of the provinces of Beledugu,Bakunu, and Kaarta; their connection was often a loose andindefinite one. The capital, SEGU, 595 an ancient settlement onthe Niger, which has had various names, is now called Segu-Sikoro. Batuta speaks of it as Karsekhu. It has at presentfrom 6,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. Park represents it asconsisting of four towns surrounded by high walls, containingfour-cornered, flat-roofed mud houses, and mosques, andinhabited by some 30,000 people. Apparently it has not alwaysbeen situated exactly on this spot. The market is very brisk;Gallieni mentions the average prices. The inhabitants aremostly Bámbara, who are divided up, as it were, into castes:the highest place is taken by the warriors; then follow insuccession the peasants, smiths, wood-workers, leather-workers,merchants, the Somono (fishermen of the Niger), and finally thegriots (ballad-singers). Segu has a French garrison withbarracks and an arsenal; it is the port of the French Nigerflotilla.596Nyámina (Yamina), admirably situated above Segu on theNiger, with easy communication with the Senegal basin and withthe salt-producing districts of the Desert, though frequentlydestroyed has always risen again from the ruins. Park found it593 Lenz, II., 167.594 Monteil, 18 et seq., 28, 39, 188.595 Batuta, Journ. Asiat., 1843, 201; Park, "Reisen," 175 etseq.; Barth, IV., 479; Mage "Voyage dans le Soudan occ," 210:Gallieni "Voyage au Soudan français," 436; Binger, II., 387;Jaime, passim, 152; Monteil, I., 17 et seq., C.R.S., 1894, 113et seq.596Park, "Reisen," 206; Barth, V., 503; Mage, passim, 185;Soleillet, passim, 303; Caron, 111.116

half in ruins, Mage three-fourths uninhabited; Soleillet found aresident population of some 4,000 to 5,000 and an equal numberof floating-population, while Caron again found only 2,000Sonniuke merchants, a number of huts in ruins and the tata, ormud wall, fallen to pieces. Nyámina is of importance in that itsupplies a great proportion of the inhabitants of the WesternDesert with provisions, in which respect Sansánding, below Seguon the Niger, is also of importance.Sansánding 597(Sansándi, Sansandig; ssan-ssándi(Sonrhay)=ssan-ssáne [Mande], or "Camp," Barth), according toBarth, had a population of 11,000. Owing to the Bámbara wars itis now almost completely in ruins; scarcely one-third of thehuts in the place, which is a kilometre in length (about 1,100yards), are inhabited. The two mosques mentioned by Park stillexist, as also the tomb of a marabout from the Oasis of Tuat.Sansánding, as the great provision-market for the desert,exports a quantity of maize, rice and vegetable-butter, as alsovery durable and richly ornamented (especially with green silkembroidery) tobe of excellent quality, to Timbuktu. It is598famous for its indigo dye-works. Accounts and calculations incowries are here made with the number 80 as unit ("the Bámbarahundred") 599 , whilst in Timbuktu and Sonrhay the full hundred isused. The boundary of the Empire of Segu on the Niger isJafarébe (vide p. 71), where it adjoins Mássina.Murdia,600 whose inhabitants already partly speak Arabic, isan important place in BELEDUGU, some 7 days' journey fromSansánding and on the left bank of the Niger. Sokolo, 601 (ArabicKala), inhabited by some 6,000 Futa (western Fulbes), Bámbara,Assuanek and by a small colony of Arabs, has not at present theimportance which it possessed formerly as the provincial capitalof the Empire of Melle (vide pp. 64 and 86). All parts of this597 Park, "Journal of a Mission, etc.," 158 et seq.; Caillié,II., 376, et passim; Barth, V., 20, 31, 238, 481; Ancelle, 312;Caron, 121, 316.--Close to Sama, which consists of threevillages and which is an old centre of the weaving industry, forwhich its inhabitants were already famous in the 11th century.Barth, J. Lond., 1860, 124; Caron, 117.598 At the beginning of this century Sansándi must have beenof even greater importance as a market both for native andEuropean goods, as evinced by the precise table of prices givenby Park (fire-arms, powder, tools, slaves, ivory, cattle, &c.;one horse was equivalent to from two to ten slaves). It isinteresting to compare these prices with those given by Caron.599 Described in detail in Mage, 191.389.600 Park, "Reisen," 169; Barth, V., 509; Binger, II., 386,601Barth, IV., 612; V., 497; Lenz, II., 212 et seq., 225.117

fertile territory are surrounded for miles and miles by milletandmaize-plantations.The most northerly point of the Bámbara--Tukulör Empire isthe little Bámbara town of Farabugu, 602 at the head of which Lenzfound two brothers, one of whom was a mussulman and the other apagan. The sole occupation of the inhabitants is dealing inslaves.603To the westward of this town is Gumbu (Gombo--the "Kumba"of Barth), the principal town of BAGHENA or BAKUNU, with from15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. It is divided into two parts,each with a separate wall and a separate Sheikh. Besides thelow Moorish mud-houses there are also a few tents and reed-huts.Gumbu is on the route from the Hodh (the land of passage to theSahara) to the Senegal, along which the Arabs convey gum toMedina or Bakel. 604 Lenz found the excessively devoutinhabitants, (almost all of whom could read and write,) ofMedinet-Bakuinet 605 (i.e., the town of Bakunu),--a place situatedon an extensive daya, and half the size of Gumbu,--in temporarycamps and huts in front of the town, with a view to commencingharvesting operations.The Fulbes of Bághena have their own Emir, who in Barth'stime lived in the Kasr El Imbédie,606 whilst the chieftain of theAssuanek of Bághena had his residence in Ershan, 607 both of thesebeing, politically speaking, stars of the second magnitude ascompared with the Ruler of Segu.The Fulbe villages of KAARTA, which lies to the west ofBakunu, were, at the time of Lenz's visit, in a flourishingcondition; agriculture (the growing of pea-nuts) and cattlerearingwere diligently pursued. Almost everyone can read andwrite Arabic.The ancient capital of the Bámbara State of Kaarta, which,after its conquest by Haji Omar, became the provincial capitalof the Tukulör Empire, is Nioro 608 (Arabic Rhab), with anuncultured Futa population. It is a fairly large town which,with its stone-built citadel (quasbah), reminds one of Moorishtowns. Its favourable situation was utilised for extorting high602 Lenz, II., 209.603 Barth, V., 508, 509; Lenz, II., 235 et seq.604 Besides the gum arabic of the acacia horrida the Arabsexport large quantities of araschides to the Senegal and Saint-Louis; Hübbe-Schleiden, "Ethiopien," 22.605 Lenz, II., 244.606 Barth, V., 514.607 Barth, V., 516.608G.M., 1866, 443; Lenz, II., 275 et seq.; Ancelle, 317.118

tolls from passing traders. By its capture the French put anend to the Tukulör dominion (vide p. 87).The large Futa town Kuniakari, 609 which lies S.W. of Nioro,is no longer on the plateau, at an elevation of some 300 metres(about 1,000 feet), but in the damp-heat of the basin of theSenegal; here in 1880 resided, as also at Nioro, a son of Omar,in a quasbah surrounded by four high stone walls.To the N.E., Segu extends as far as the independent610territory of Saro (vide p. 72; the frontier town is Fatene ),whilst to the east at Baninko 611 (which is still tributary toSegu), it adjoins the territory of San. Here the boundary isundefined and confused; this becomes still more apparent towardsthe south, where the northern portion of the excellentlycultivatedcountry of Miniankala is included in Segu. 612 Even ifthe Empire of Segu formerly extended much further to the S.E.,as far as the neighbourhood of Tengrela, 613 yet it still had thegreater part of it on the left, and never on the right, bank ofthe Niger.The Empire of Segu defines in a westerly direction the truearable land lying between the primeval forest and the desert,and which begins at 10° of North Latitude. Cereals are grown in614large quantities. Several species of trees are also peculiarto it: the butter-tree or Shea 615 which yields from its fruit a609 Lenz, II., 284.610 Monteil, 29.611 Binger, I., 133 and 136.612 Monteil, 40: "Northern Miniankala was a dependency ofSégou . . . but it must be remembered that these politicalconnections are very vague, and one must look upon them inreality as a series of villages which are often in a state ofhostility one against the other."613 Binger, I., 134.614 Hösel, Die geogr. Verbreitung der Getreidearten Nord- undMittelafrikas.615 Bassia Parkii s. butyracca, s. Butyrospermum Purkii(Shea-butter, beurre de cé, karité, Haussa: kadefia;Clapperton's Micadania), named after Bassi, the curator of theBotanical Garden at Bologna, and Park. Its price--for instancefrom £5 to £610s. per puncheon of 230 gallons at Nupe--dependsupon that of palm-oil.--Park, "Reisen," 181; Clapperton, I.,644; Allen and Thomson, Expedition, II., 104; Barth, II., 97,100 (Kátsena); IV., 109, 392, 470, 493, 521 (Adamaua); V., 283;Binger, I., 48, 118; Staudinger, 643; Ferryman, 150; Kling,M.D.S., VI., 107.119

green vegetable fat which plays an important part both in thelife of the native and as an article of export for thefactories; the nette or nere, the fruit of which is a favouritespice and the principal ingredient of the sauces with whichalmost all negro dishes are eaten; the bombax or bentang 616(Eriodendron Guineense s. anfractuosum, Haussa: rimi), thefavourite shade-tree of the villages, the sacred tree of thepagans, from which individual groups of huts take the name ofbentang. The characteristic tree, however, of the wholecountry, from the Senegal to the Nile, is the monkey-bread tree(Adansonia digitata) the leaves, fruit and wood of which are allinvaluable in the household economy of the natives, who call itthe baobab. The bentang and baobab are met with as a rule assolitary giants of the wilderness: they form a valuablelandmark to the traveller, but to the explorer are melancholyevidences of vanished settlements and generations. Spaceunfortunately forbids a closer investigation of the extensivecultivation of cotton and indigo as the foundation of a vastindustry for this neighbourhood, as well as of the culture anduse of tobacco, or of the consumption of dolo (beer made frommillet, which corresponds to the plam-wine of the southernterritories)--the last two being the means of estimating theextent to which Islam and its attendant civilisation have beenaccepted.From an ethnological point of view the district of Segu maybe considered as approximately the centre of the sphere ofextension of the SONNINKE,617 who dwell between Timbuktu and CapePalmas, now ruling as the larger proportion of the population,now scattered about as peaceful traders and agriculturalists inindividual villages, most of which are under a foreign rule.They call themselves Serekholle, or "the white people," 618 whichhas been corrupted into Serewule, Serecolle, Saracollet. Barth,Leo Africanus and others hold them to be identical with theAssuanek 619 (who have their headquarters in Bakunu, and who arealso called Aser, Marka and Suaninki), with which view, however,Binger does not agree. 620 Their language, 621 according to the616 Binger, I., 497; Barth, I., 609; II., 17; IV., 125;Staudinger, 649; vide also map of the limit of vegetation inBinger, II., 402.617 Binger, II., App. V., 380 et seq.618 Binger, II., App. V., 382, Note 3.619 Barth, V., 494, 511; Caillié (I, 217) does not considerthem to be a nation, but a corporation of merchants.620 Binger, passim, Note 2.621Compare Faidherbe, "Langues sénégalaises," a work inwhich he was assisted by Binger; he agrees mostly with Quintin(Bull. Paris, Sept., 1881).120

latter, is a Mande dialect with 25 per cent. of Arabic andFulfulde words; the mixing probably took place in Bakunu. Thename Sonni-nke probably originated in Sonni Ali Kilnu, whoseparty they espoused on his mounting the throne of Sonrhay, about1331: they are the people of Sonni. On the accession of thenew reigning family of the Askia at the end of the 15th centurytheir wanderings in a southwesterly direction commenced. Thesewere associated with an ever-increasing scattering of the tribeand its dissemination over wide tracts of country, which werestill further extended by the wars of Haji Omar, even though thedistricts of these traders, who wisely submitted to him, werefar less devastated than were those of the Bámbara. 622 ASonninke, who, by stirring up a revolt against the French causedthe latter to undertake two campaigns, was Mahmadu Lamin, theprophet of Gudiuru. 623The French, with a view to maintaining their rule, and toensuring the safety more especially of the telegraph, and of thelines of communication for their provision columns, haveconnected the Upper Niger with the Senegal by means of a chainof fortifications, which are connected with the ancient negrosettlements, but which form additional protective zones, thelatter amounting to as many as 14. 624 Up the Senegal fromBakel, 625 the great military post built in 1820, is Kayes, 626 theprincipal place of the French Sudan, and the starting point ofthe Senegal railway, which has been completed as far asBafulabe, but the working of which leaves much to be desired. 627622 Lenz, II., 256.623 Mahmadu Lamin, a marabout, undertook the pilgrimage toMecca, and on his return remained seven years in Uro Galaijo,where he married and raised a family. From there he went toSegu to Sheikh Ahmadu, who kept him as a rival in a sort ofcaptivity, after which he went to Kita and to his native villageof Gudiuru in Medina. He soon proclaimed the holy war (Jehad--Tr.), and advanced to Bakel, was conquered by Gallieni (1881-82)and by Frey (1885-86) after severe fighting in the Faleme basin,and in December, 1887, was defeated and killed not far from theGambia.--Gallieni, "Deux campagnes, etc.," passim; Péroz, "AuSoudan français," 55 et seq.; Faidherbe, "Sénégal," 408 et seq.;Monteil, 188.624 Vierkandt, "Volksdichte in westlichen Zentralafrika," 80.625 Lenz, 298.626 Gallieni, passim, 374 et seq.; Monteil, 14 et seq. It ishere that the French have one of their "disciplinaryestablishments."627Jaime, passim, 54 et seq.121

Next comes Médine (Medina), 628 built in 1855, at the end of thenavigable portion of the Senegal, the most important marketplacebetween Saint-Louis and Kong; then Bafulabe, at theconfluence of the two main sources of the Senegal, the Bakhoyand the Bafing; then Badumbe and Kita, whose central position,between the basins of the Senegal and Niger and between Mássinaand the Ocean, proved fatal to it in consequence of the numerouswars which made it, like Timbuktu, a "centre of depopulation." 629A military road leads from there viâ Kundu to Bamako 630 on theNiger, the fortifications of which were erected in 1883; whilstanother goes south by Niagassola to Sigiri, at the point wherethe Tankisso joins the Upper Niger (Joliba), close to the goldbearingcountry of Bure, which lies towards the west. A linethrough Futa-Jallon, with its capitals of Labi and Timbo, 631connects these districts with the Rivières du Sud, theDependency of Senegambia, on the Atlantic. 632The State-organisations of the Western Sudan bear someresemblance to the volcanic bottom of the ocean: in the onecase we find sudden and great changes of depth in a very shortdistance; in the other very old States, (the continuations ofStates which even from the European standpoint are veryancient,) side by side with great political organizations, whoseage can only be reckoned by a few lustres (i.e., periods of 5years): thus alongside of Segu and Mossi we find Sámory'sEmpire.SAMORY'S EMPIRE, which has been established on the southernremnants of Segu and of the territories lying to the south of628 Lenz, II., 292.629 Vierkandt, passim, 78; compare Monteil, 17.630 Bamako had formerly great commercial importance; videPiétri, Bull. Soc. Géogr. comm. Bordeaux (1881, 572; Park,"Reisen," 213; Valière in Gallieni, "Deux campagnes," 587 etseq.; Binger, I., 10, 46).631 Watt and Winterbottom in Leyden-Murray, III., 174 etseq.; Mollien, "Découverte, &c.," 245 et seq.632 Here are at present, between Futa-Jallon and the Ocean,south of the Rio Pongo, the seats of the Susu or Soso ("one ofthe parent tribes of the Wakoré"). From the old historic centreat the Bend of the Niger they went up the Niger and as far asthe Upper Senegal (in the course of the 13th century): a groupremained in Sankaran. They were driven away from the Senegaland Niger about 1,500 by the Denianke (Fulbe slaves with astrain of Mandingo) on to the Upper Gambia and the Kasamanka;the Jallonke are possibly allied to them. The Griots (balladsingers)still sing of the battles of the 16th century. It wasonly during the last century that the Fulbes of Futa-Jallon wereconquered by the Susa. Binger, II., 391 et seq.122

it, is typical of the new political organisations of the WesternSudan, and furnishes an example of how easy it is for thesimple-minded negroes to be led by a superior, intelligent, andenergetic leader, whose mere name often suffices to inspirethousands with dread or with enthusiasm. Sámory, 633 a Mande-Jula, was born about 1835; his father was a poor trader in kolanutsat Sanankoro or Bissandugu. Sámory, together with hismother, was captured in a slave-raid, but luckily for himescaped and reached the marabout Sori Ibrahim, Chief of theWorocoro (S.E. of the Upper Niger), where he acquired a certainamount of mahomedan lore. He then entered into possession ofthe inheritance of old Bitike Suane, Chief of Torong. At firstonly a local chieftain, he soon succeeded in conquering hisneighbours; nor did he spare his benefactor, Sori Ibrahim.About 1874 he entered upon the office of almamy 634 of the UpperNiger, from which time he extended his territory, by means ofcruel plundering- and devastating-expeditions, on both sides ofthe river, as far as Sierra Leone. Since 1882 he has been atperpetual war with the French (always renewed in spite ofdefeats and of treaties,) in the course of which he has beendriven away from the left bank of the Niger. In 1883 BorgnisDesbordes led an expedition against him; in 1884-85 Coombes,1885-86 Frey, and 1886-87 Gallieni others. A visit to Paris byhis son Karamokho, who was received with extravagant honours,only brought about a transitory friendship. In 1887-88 the"Alexander of the Sudan" in vain sought to extend his empire tothe N.E.; after experiencing great losses he had to again raisethe siege of Sikasso, the capital of Tiéba of Kenedngu. In 1890he was defeated by Archinard, who took Kankan and, in 1891-92,by Humbert, between Bissandugu and Sanankoro. In 1893 Monteilendeavoured, but without success, to break his power. Sámorywithdrew from the devastated West to the richer East, where heis said to have threatened Kong and taken Bonduku. Theboundaries of Sámory's empire 635 are as follows: to the northSegu; to the west the Upper Niger (a French possession) andSierra Leone; to the south the Hinterland of Liberia and of theIvory Coast (the Kru; Suamle, Tiassale; tribes of Lahu); while633 Described fully in Gallieni's "Deux compagnes au Soudanfrançais"; Péroz, "Au Soudan français"; "Sénégal et Niger," anexhaustive work published by authority of the French Admiralty;Faidherbe, "Sénégal" Frey, "Campagne dans le Haut-Sénégal, &c.";Binger, I., 144, et seq.634 Almamy is a mutilated form of Imam or Emir-el-Mummeninand is, on the Upper Niger, principally the title of such chiefsas are at the same time possessed of religious qualifications,i.e., can read and write Arabic ("musulmans lettrés"), Binger,I., 4, Note: Monteil, 35.635Compare Binger, I., 121. Since 1887 Sámory's empire hasbeen nominally a French Protectorate.123

to the east the boundary in Binger's time was somewhere aboutthe Bagoë; it has, however, now advanced far to the eastwards ofthis, but is difficult to define accurately owing to thescantiness of the information available. Binger estimated thecountry under military occupation by Sámory at 160,000 squarekilometres (about 62,500 square miles--Tr.), with some 280,000inhabitants: three-fourths of the country was devastated, with,at the most, one man to the square kilometre (about 2½ to thesquare mile--Tr.), whilst one-fourth had some 4 men to thesquare kilometre (about 10 to the square mile--Tr.). Inaddition, some 140,000 square kilometres (about 55,000 squaremiles--Tr.), were under the protection of Sámory but notoccupied by Sofas. 636 The territory east of the Niger wasformerly particularly well-populated. This is evidenced by thenumerous ruins; from having had a population of from 10 to 12 tothe square kilometre (39 to 47 to the square mile--Tr.) in theeighties, it has, within 8 years, sunk to 7 (27 to the squaremile--Tr.): along 400 kilometres (about 250 miles--Tr.) ofroute Binger came across 36 ruins and 36 inhabited villages, ofwhich 3 had from 500 to 800 inhabitants, 7 from 150 to 300, 5from 60 to 100, 17 from 20 to 50, while 4 had under 20inhabitants. Many of the provinces are nothing but "oneenormous ruin." In places which have been particularly hard hitone may travel for from two to three days without coming acrossa soul. There are, moreover, no direct routes through theseterritories, which are avoided by commerce; for instance theroad from Wássulu through Yorobadugu and Ganadugu to Maninia orTime.The principal means by which Sámory raised his empire wasby spreading abroad fear and terror, whilst he at the same timepossessed all the physical and moral qualifications for carryingaway with him and fanaticising the credulous and superstitiouspopulace. Throughout the entire country his name is neverallowed to be mentioned; anyone who spoke of him otherwise than636 The armed strength of Sámory is composed of the followingcategories:--(1.) bilakoro, or "wearer of the blouse," who arecaptured children. They look after the horses, and, on reachingthe age of from 14 to 15, receive muskets from their masters.(2.) kurusitigi, old, married warriors who only serveoccasionally. (3.) sofa, or "father of the horse," who arearmed with muskets. They are recruited from the bilakoro, whohave distinguished themselves in several expeditions, and arethen allowed to wear trousers. They are the flower of Sámory'sarmy. If they have gained the confidence of their chief theyare placed as garrisons in the villages, which they completelysqueeze out. (4.) sofakong, the commanders of several sofa.(5.) keletigi, or kongtigi are the rulers of a district in peacetime, who place the whole of their forces at the disposal of thealmamy in time of war; brothers, sons, or specially trustedpersons, frequently former griots (ballad-singers). Binger, I.,103, et seq.124

as almamy would be beheaded. "It is despotism in every sense ofthe word." Haji Omar had, at any rate, as object, thefoundation of a great mahomedan Empire on the Upper Niger;Sámory's only object is to find the means of maintaining himselfas ruler, Islam being merely an incident. The only religiousprohibition which is strictly watched is dolo-drinking, whichalso is punished with death, because Sámory requires the milletfor his magazines, for feeding his wives and slaves, and forsupplying his (field-) columns. Each village has to cultivate afield for the almamy, the size of which is fixed by hisrepresentative. Should the harvest be insufficient the poorBámbara and the inhabitants of the new provinces have to give uptheirs. The maintenance of Sámory's household and court, thereward of faithful servants, the expenses in connection with thearmy, and the purchase of horses, 637 ammunition and arms, are allprovided for by everyone being allowed to secretly plunder androb, and also by the sale of the slaves of war. One half of thebooty belongs to the almamy, the other half to the chiefs andwarriors. 638 Men who are captured are either beheaded or sold.Women and girls are either kept as slaves or sold, while theboys become bilakoro, or recruits. "Sámory is nothing else thana great slave-dealer, who is the source of supply for theMoorish merchants of the Sahara;" 639 in time of need he evensells his own people.In connection with the administration of the country an640extensive spy-service is maintained both in the interior and,more particularly, on the frontiers. Specially-appointedofficials 641 immediately report on important events to the almamyby means of carriers, and receive his decision. Guards 642 arestationed over the horses and cattle of the almamy as well asover plundered crops; in all the larger places emissaries of thealmamy 643 represent him, settle the differences of the traders,recruit, send back deserters and organize provision-columns,cultivate the almamy's fields and fetch the produce into themagazines, and keep Sámory informed of every thing.637 The exchange of horses for slaves (from 15 to 20 for ahorse) is described by Leo (657 et seq.), as well as the longyears that the traders had to wait for payment.638 Binger, I., 103.639 Compare Jaime, 309 et seq.640 Binger, I., 19, 23.641 siratigi, Binger, I., 274.642 kokisi, Binger, I., 74, 83.643dugu-kunasigi, Binger, I., 19, 33, et passim.125

Under Sámory are the chiefs of provinces, 644 territories, ordistricts--corresponding to the former division of the countryinto "confederations"--who are brothers, sons, or militarycommanders of the almamy, and under these again are the villagechiefsand delegates of the almamy, the dugu-kunasigi, the mostinfluential among whom represent the former when they go to waraccompanied by their escort of professional warriors, the sofa.645The centre of the country is WASSULU, which lies to theeast of the sources of the Niger, and was formerly very fertileand well-populated, since in its market-places the kola-nuts andslaves of the south were exchanged for the salt and the horsesof the north; 646 they are now wretched plots of ground with from300 to 500 inhabitants. In Sámory's empire, which is for everstirred by incessant warfare, there can naturally be no questionof a capital, forming a true centre of development. Accordingto Binger, it did not contain a single place of over 2,000inhabitants. The theatre of war, and with it the politicalcentre of gravity, is first north, then south, east or west.Sanankoro, Kankan, Bissandugu were all residences in turn,without however retaining the fixed character appertainingthereto. Of great political importance are the large magazinesof provisions, such as at Dara, near Faraba, 647 as also thesafely-situated residences or depôts of women, such as Kussan,Nioko, and Sanankoro. 648The capital of the country between the Niger and the Milois Falaba, 649 in the Hinterland of Sierra Leone, which hasfrequently been destroyed by the sofa.The territories to the north of Wássulu are important byreason of their having the shortest route between the westernkola-nut country and the Niger. The most important places are650Faraba, where a brother and a son of Sámory's resided, and644 Binger, I., 70, et passim.645 Barth, IV., 292; Wássulo; Binger, I., 129, et seq.646 The price increases with the distance from the place oforigin: a horse, which is only worth from 2 to 3 slaves to theMoors in the north, fetches from 6 to 10 in Kaarta and Beledugu,from 10 to 15 in Wolosebugu, and from 15 to 20 in Wássulu.647 Binger, I., 34. The inhabitants of Wássulu have a verystrong strain of Fulbe blood; Timbuktu, Adrar and Morocco musthave whole colonies of them, who had been sold there as slaves,whilst others emigrated to the French Sudan and there populatevillages. Binger, I., 130, 131.648 Binger, I., 159.649 Binger, 125; Garrett, Proc. London, 1892, 446 ("To theupper waters of the Niger").650Binger, I., 126, 140.126

Wolosebugu, 651 formerly a frequented market-place, consisting ofseveral groups. Tenetu, 652 an excellent intersecting-point ofmany routes, which has easy communication in all directions, hasaltogether sunk away as the result of war. A picture of theterrible devastation of war was offered by the village of Tula,lying close by, which Binger had quitted, but found again withthe corpses of 100 people who had died of starvation, whilenumbers more lay around in all directions,--among the mines, atthe river-crossings (ferries and fords) and by the wayside.To the west of Wássulu, at the point where the Milo joinsthe Niger, lies the market-town of Sansando and, on the route653from Kurussa on the Niger to Wássulu, the town of Kandan.Caillié here found a lively industry: weaving, smith's-work,pottery-making (the latter being done by women), as well as athriving trade, in the one direction with Jenne, in the otherwith Sierra Leone, to which an important kola-route leads, whichhowever has now been transferred to the north to more populousdistricts.654The provinces to the south of Wássulu, which are stillcalled after the ancient political organisations or countries,are closely bound up with the history of Sámory, for it is herethat he developed into a ruler from being an unknown kola-nuttrader. In Torong lies Bissandugu, 655 Sámory's periodicalcapital, "an unfenced town or series of towns," with a mosque,and estimated by Garrett to contain over 2,700 huts and from7,000 to 9,000 inhabitants. The previously-mentioned town ofSanankoro (pp. 93, 94, 96) is in Konia. In Worokoro (i.e.,alongside the kola nut trees) one comes across the first kolatrees,which are however still sterile.656To the N.E. of Wássulu lies Ganadugu, which formerlybelonged to Segu and then became an independent confederationunder the sovereignty of Dansenu, with its capital at Kunian.Ganadugu is plundered alternately by Sámory and by his rivalTiëba. To the east are several Siën-re-provinces, as well astracts of country, which are completely devastated; for instancethe district of Yorobadugu, 657 by the sale of whose population651 Binger, 19, et seq.652 Binger, 52, et seq; another traveller calls Tenetu "acharnel-house, with 3,000 corpses."653 Binger, 128. Caillié, I., 376, et seq, 430, et seq.654 Binger, I., 131, et seq.655 Péroz, passim, 371, et seq; Gallieni, "Deux campagnes,"295, et passim; Garrett, Proc. 1894, 450, et seq.656 Binger, I., 133, et seq.657Binger, 131, 134.127

Sámory purchased horses--the principal result of the victory.To traverse them is scarcely possible: provisions are wantingand most of the paths have been covered up with vegetation;there is nothing but ruins. Besides this the whole tract ismade unsafe by robbers, as already reported by Caillié.To the south of Wássulu are provinces under theprotectorate of Sámory; they pay no tribute, but in case of needsupply him with contingents for his army. Among these, andclose to the Ocean, is Modiuledugu, in the Hinterland ofLiberia, with the capital, Mussardu, 658 visited by Anderson in1868. By far the most important of these territories is thelarge district of Worodugu, which is composed, politically, of awhole series of provinces or village confederations, whichextend as far as Sierra Leone and Liberia. Worodugu (i.e.,"kola-country"), together with all the strips of country in thesame latitude as far as the Volta (Northern Ashanti), is ofextraordinary importance, both economically and politically, notonly to the neighbouring countries, but also to the whole Sudan,as being the principal kola-nut producing territory. In thevicinity of 10° N. Lat. the effect of the sea makes itself feltupon the vegetation by its becoming uniformly dense. 659 It is tothis so to speak transition-territory that the kola-tree ispeculiar, the fruit of which is the chief article of trade inthe Sudan, and which causes a stir, which is well described byBarth as follows:--"The extensive market-life in thesedistricts, where the European usually imagines there is nothingbut seclusion and rude barbarism, contains within it somethingthat is exciting."660The kola, Sterculia cola, called guru or goro 661 by theHaussas and Kanuri, uru by the Mandingo, and also termed Sudancoffee662 by the Arabs, occurs in two principal varieties; the658 Binger, I., 132, 137.659 Here cereals disappear (the northern limit of sorghum isalso that of the horse) and are replaced by root-crops, forinstance yams. Instead of the fruit-trees of the arable countrywe find palms. Thus it is that the northern limit of the oilpalmand the southern limit of the butter-tree are identical;compare von François, M.D.S.I., 170 et seq.; Staudinger, 626 etseq.; Binger, II., App. IV., 362 et seq.660 Abb.; Binger, I., 143.661 According to Rohlfs (Qu. d. Afr., II., 266 et seq.) it isonly the fresh fruit that is called goro, while the dried fruitis called kola.662 Clapperton, I., 502; Nachtigal, I., 667; Monteil, 285.Lenz (II., 155) holds this to be erroneous and applies this nameto the fruit of the Inga biglobosa.128

white, Sterculia macrocarpa, and the red, Sterculia acuminata.The former is mostly cultivated in Anno on the Komoë (the bestcoming from Sakala in Worodugu) 663 and is larger than the redkola of Maninian or Gonja. 664 Medium white or red fruits comefrom Kani, Siana, and Tute in Worodugu. Besides these two truespecies there are also varieties of kola of less value. 665 Thekola-tree, which somewhat resembles our chestnut, flowers twicea year, and in ten years gives a rich harvest. The fruit whichis some 10 centimetres (four inches) in length, has a shellsimilar to that of the walnut, and contains five or morechestnut-shaped nuts of various sizes, which can be easilydivided along a black line. The nut has an extraordinarilybitter taste, and "without doubt is a good tonic and appetiser,"which is very good for the stomach; it represses the feelings ofhunger and fatigue, 666 and is of special value in theselocalities, since after eating it the worst water is drinkableand apparently does one no harm. As an article of luxury whichhas become indispensable to even the poorest, "the mostfavourite and most wide-spread means of enjoyment" in the wholeSudan (but more especially as regards its western half), it"takes the place there of our coffee, and at the same time of663 Binger, I., 309 et seq., 141 et seq.664 It is not so fine but lasts longer, and on this accountis bought by the caravans in preference to the kola ofWorodugu.--Monteil, 92, 284.665 Dybowski, on his march from the Congo to the Shari,found, above the mouth of the Ubangi, a variety, kola baleyi("La route du Tchad," 136); Nachtigal (passim) mentions a slimyinsipid variety from Adamaua; von Stetten mentions several sortsas being there; the kola-nut which grows in Bali is much betterthan that of Mbamkin (to the north of it: Kol. Bl., 1895, 182);Staudinger (651 et seq.), which is less palatable and is not sofavourite a fruit on the Niger, and is sold in quantities atOnitsha and in Adamaua, but which is used less for eatingpurposes than for staining the teeth red; Lenz (passim) mentionsa false kola, Garcinia Kola, which has not the stimulatingproperties of the true kola nut; Schweinfurth speaks of aSterculia in East Africa (Lenz II., 153); Passarge, 89.666 The enjoyment of it gives a "suractivité trèsappréciable" (Gallieni; "Deux campagnes," 424); it contains aquantity of tannin and of alkaloids; Liebig found a largerquantity of caffeine in one dried nut than in a similar quantityof coffee-beans (Rohlfs, passim); according to Heckel, whostudied it botanically, chemically and therapeutically ("DesKolas africains, etc." Bull. Marseille, 1883), 2,348 ofcaffeine. A nut sent home by Rohlfs germinated in the botanicalgarden at Munich and developed, up till 1869, into a fairly highshrub.129

the pinch of snuff 667 of our grandfathers, of the betel-nut ofthe Annamites and Hindoos, and of the opium of the Chinese"(Monteil). A man who has anything at all upon him must alwayshave kola. The natives chew it all day long. 668 By means of ityou can win over a negro, body and soul: "in presence of a kolanut one sees difficulties, which have up till then been proofagainst every effort or presents, disappear of themselves; a manmakes it up with his leader if the latter has been annoyed athis having gone away too early; it pacifies unruly believers;valuable information is wheedled out of one by means of it; itwill silence a noisy fellow; by means of it one may win thesmile of a pretty woman; one may even flatter a eunuch intothanking one" 669 (Monteil). As in private- so also in publiclifethe nut plays a great part; as a symbol in treaties,visits, marriage, declarations of war, submission, judicialtrials, sorcery, 670 also as alms, medicine, love-potions, &c.,"it is the universal panacea," and consequently "the key-stoneof the commercial movement in the Sudan" (Monteil).The kola-trade appears to have first developed during thiscentury. At the beginning of it the nuts were far dearer andmore scarce, and at that time only the chiefs and priests were671allowed to eat it; but even Bowdich, 672 Clapperton, 673 andCaillié 674 speak of a brisk kola-trade. At the present day the667 Hovelacque (in Jaime, 100, Note): "the kola is passedfrom hand to hand, each one having chewed it as he wishes andfor as long as he likes."668 Morgen, "Durch Kamerun," 296. The nut is only chewed,not swallowed.669 Dybowski's tirailleurs expressed themselves drasticallyon coming across kola: "Quand sénégalais trouver kola, lui pasdormir toute la nuit." (passim).670 In this respect the kola-nut plays a great rôle inpolitics, in the Bambara countries in particular, whereimportance is placed upon its colour--all shades from white tored--and on its size. As regards the sorcerers or keniëlala,compare Binger I., 42 et seq, 252, 385, Note. For opening thenuts wrought-iron crackers are used, and are carried in a case,together with other instruments.--Staudinger, passim.671 Lenz II., 153.672 Mission, &c., 438 et seq. (Gooroo or Boosee).673 Clapperton I., 487: in Fezzan, Tripoli (two dollars for20), in Sókoto: ditto 628.674II., 5, 17, 120, 144, 201, et passim.130

trade appears to be on the increase. 675 It is of great localimportance, since at all large daily and weekly markets kolanutsare exposed for sale. Besides this the kola-trade, throughthe transit-trade, gave their dominating position 676 to the bigcentres, such as Kano. Even the shipping-trade has takenpossession of it: for the cost-trade Lagos and Freetown are thechief ports, 677 whilst for export to Brazil the chief ports arePorto Novo (Dahomey) and Ambrizette (south of the mouth of theCongo). 678 The kola-nut is to be found in the damp and hotcoastland from Sierra Leone to the mouth of the Congo; it is notmet with at more than from 150 to 200 nautical miles from thecoast, nor at a higher elevation than 300 metres (about 1,000feet).The zone of greatest yield appears to lie between 6° and 8°N. Lat., both in Worodugu and Anno (Binger), as well as inAshanti (according to Mählys and the Basle missionaries); as a679sterile plant it extends as far as 10° N. Lat. One comesacross the trees from Kintampo onwards; but they first bearfruit some 40 kilometres (25 miles) further to the south atKoranza. Binger saw the first kola-plantations at Kamelinsu, inAnno 680 (7° 50' N. Lat.), where women gathered in the fruit andsorted it according to size and quality. He first saw extensiveplantations, with the trees planted, alternately with palm-oiltrees, in regular squares, at Babraso, 681 whilst the last fruitbearingtrees were met with at Attakru 682 (7° N. Lat.). Theharvest takes place in February, June and October. The latefruit is better than the earlier.675Wolf (M.D.S, II., 83) met a full-blooded Arab in Salagawho had come from Suakin, through the Empire of the Mahdi,Wadai, Bornu, and Sókoto, in order to buy ko'a-nuts.676Barth II., 150 et seq.; Monteil, 286; Timbuktu: BarthV., 27; Dore in Libtako (from Wássulo and Miniana): Barth V.,292.677In Sierra Leone 45 kilogrammes (100 lb.) cost from 50 to150 francs (£2 to £6), according to the season and the demand;at Gorre (Cape Verd) they already cost some 50 per cent. mo e.--Lenz II., 153.678 Lenz II., 153. As regards the export of kola, videMoloney, "Sketch of the forestry of West Africa," 158 et seq.679 According to Monteil, as far as 12° N. Lat.680 Binger II., 218.681Binger II., 244.682Binger II., 311.131

Kola-nuts require very careful handling in transport, whichdemands a certain amount of moisture and of keeping away theair; every 4 or 5 days they must be unpacked and the soiled onesremoved. The carrying-baskets for the caravans from Kano aremade at that place from withes, 683 in the shape of four-sidedtruncated pyramids, lined inside with leather; two of these,each of which holds from 3,000 to 4,000 kolas, form an ass'sload, while one is that for a porter. 684 The nuts last longestif packed between layers of the leaves of a special plant. 685When dried they can be sent long distances, and will keep goodfor a long time; they, however, then lose a great deal of theirvalue. 686 The price depends upon quality, durability, and thedistance from the place where they are grown. Binger found thatthe cheapest were at Kong, Kintampo and Grumania. In Salaga akola costs from 1 to 7 cowries, in Kong from 2 to 12, in Mossifrom 40 to 50, at Say from 70 to 80, at Sókoto 100, at Kano from120 to 140, at Kuka from 200 to 300 and even up to 1,000cowries. 687The districts where they are produced must not even beentered by the Mandingo, Mossi and Haussas, who purchase them;they are several days' journey to the south of the marketplaces,and the Lo, 688 a sort of caste of organised Mande Jula,who envelop the material gain in a veil of religious mystery,bring the nuts to secluded and little-known spots, whence theyare conveyed, mostly by women, to the proper kola-markets. Thefirst zone 689 of these kola-markets comprises those of Worodugu,viz.: Odienne, Tute, 690 Kani, 691 Siana and Sakala, each with from1,500 to 3,000 inhabitants (kola-traders of Jula or Siën-reorigin). A second zone, the preparatory one to that of the683 Nachtigal: from dum-matting.684 Monteil; Caillié II, 5; they are carried on the head.Caillié could scarcely lift them.685 According to Monteil, 284, they are those of the buttertree;on the other hand compare Binger I., 314; II., 135.686 Monteil and Rohlfs, passim. Nachtigal furnishes acapital report on the treatment and diseases of the guro, whichis bought with such avidity by the Kanuri (I., 668).687 Monteil, 285; Binger, I., 312 et seq, et passim.688 Binger I., 142 et seq.; the "lous" of Caillié (II., 118)?689 Compare Binger I., 141.690 Caillié II., 17; Barth V., 27; Teute, inhabited by thekola middle-men.691Caillié II., 17.132

north, is formed in the west by the districts of Tiongi,Tengrela, Maninian 692 and Sambatijila, 693 where the traders fromthe north divide their bars of salt each into 12 pieces, kokotlaof three fingers' breadth, and where they buy travelling-basketsand blankets, which the merchants from Kano bring with themthemselves. One kokotla is worth from 200 to 600 kolas. Thefirst large unit is here 100 ("the kola hundred"), as opposed tothe 80 ("Bambara hundred") in Samory's Empire. The principalkola-routes are: that to Sierra Leone; that to the Upper Niger,and further on to Jenne--Timbuktu (via Maninian to the west, orKong to the east); as well as that via Mossi and Dore, leadingto Timbuktu, and, lastly, the great Haussa caravan-route which,depending upon political conditions, goes by the most variedroutes to the east and north-east, and crosses the Niger betweenRabba and Say. Along the first two passes the kola ofWorodugu, 694 whilst along the two last passes that from Ashanti(Gonja).The great trade of the Western Sudan, which has so muchincreased in our century--which, by its degree of culture, mustbe highly valued as spontaneous proof of human intelligence andenergy, carrying along with it life and blessing from afar--isevinced by the number of the caravans, by means of which, insuch a country and with such inhabitants, trade is alonerendered possible. Such caravans are those of the Haussas,695Mandingo, Mossi, 696 Arabs and Moors, 697 and of the Asbens (Kelowi).698 The first place is taken by the Haussa caravans, and692 Caillié I., 452; Barth's Miniana?693 Caillié I., 456 et seq.694 Marchand considers that the best and quickest way fromthe Coast to this part of the Sudan is by the Bandama (or Lahu),because it is very convenient, the belt of primeval forest isonly 73 kilometres (45 miles) wide, the stream itself isnavigable for 106 kilometres (66 miles), up as far as Thiassale,and then there only remain 30 kilometres (20 miles) to reach theSudan. Bull. Marseille. 1894, 63.695 Caillié II., 64 et seq., 116 et seq. (from 500 to 600people); Binger I., 275 et seq., 357 et seq., and map of thetrade-routes, II., 401.696 Binger II., 52 et seq, et passim.697 Their domain is the Desert as far as the mouth of theSenegal; Frey ("Campagne, &c," 437) saw at Bakel a caravan with400 animals; camels, pack-oxen, and asses.698 Barth (II., 49 et seq) estimates the aïri, the greatsalt-caravan of these Berber cross-breeds from Bilma to theSudan at 3,500 camel-loads, of the value of 150 million cowriesor 60,000 Spanish dollars; compare p. 36.133

amongst these again by the kola-caravans, which trade betweenKano and Gonja and which enrich the places through which theypass and give them a higher civilisation. Between March and Maytwenty caravans set out annually from Kano alone for Gonja, thefirst of which return about the middle of October. 699Clapperton 700 states that the caravans consist of almost 1,000men and women, with the same number of beasts of burden; Kling 701speaks of 1,000 and even of 2,000 people. This magnitude isreached by the banding together of several groups of from 200 to300 people when traversing dangerous localities--such as forestcountry,or country inhabited by warlike and thieving tribes--asfor instance Kebbi, Gurma, and Borgu. 702 Wolf reports that inthe latter a caravan of 300 Haussas was completelyexterminated. 703 In other places, such as between Salaga andKintampo, higher duties are levied, it is true, but then thereis security. 704 From the kola-markets a number of Haussas godown to the Coast, mostly to Accra, to buy European goods. 705The merchants 706 who wish to travel together select amongsttheir number a leader, who is given the title of madúgu. 707699 Monteil, 209; they are "milch-cows" for the territoriesthrough which they pass, as also for the riff-raff.--Monteil,205.700 Clapperton II., 109.701 M.D.S, VI., 133; III., 148.702 Binger II., 80. In Adamaua, on the contrary, which iscomparatively a safe country, trains of 500 people with 40 assesmove from 5 to 6 days apart from each other. von Stetten, Kol.Bl., 1895, 184. For the routes of the Haussas in Adamaua, videPassarge's small map.703 M.D.S., IV., 9, 11.704 Binger II., 122.705 Kling, passim.706 What follows here is principally from Monteil's excellentdescription (209 et seq.).707 Vide also Staudinger, 89; Kling, M.D.S., VI., 133;Flegel, passim. In advance are the men who have to prepare thequarters (Kling, passim, III., 148); on starting on a journey amarabout delivers an inspiriting prayer; in the same way heoffers up a prayer before entering dangerous tracts, accompaniedby antics on all hands (Monteil, 263). Griots (minstrels) withbells and musical-instruments, incite by extempore speeches, andsing the praise of the Ruler who is being visited, calling outas though they were heralds.134

During the journey he has a much power as the King of Kanohimself, that is to say absolute authority. He selects thequarters for the night (which are mostly determined by thewater-supply), patches up quarrels, and deals with the "localauthorities" with a view to purchasing the passage of thecaravans; he also allots the tolls to be levied on the caravan,in accordance with the value of the respective loads. The largemerchants, who arrange the caravans, with their porters, 708slaves, hired asses, pack-oxen, mules, and horses, are joined bysmall traders--pataki or fataki--whose whole possessions areconstituted by the load which they carry on their heads. Thecaravan advances slowly, but in close order, with several camelsat the head, which have been hired for special northern stages;they each carry four loads of kola. Next come the heavily-ladenwomen, 709 who, in addition to their load of from 50 to 60kilogrammes (110 to 132 lbs.), carry the necessary householdutensilsand often a child as well. Behind these march theporters, in Indian file 710 like the women, or else alone, ordriving the heavily-loaded animals. On either side are thearmed owners of the goods, part being mounted. The rear isbrought up by the chief of the caravan, the madúgu, followed bya gang of importunate camp-followers, beggars and riff-raff. Onleaving Kano the following are carried in the baskets ultimatelyintended for the reception of the kola: ordinary and heavilyembroideredtrousers, ordinary smocks, and the much-prizedtúrkedis (for women), which are deeply-dyed with indigo and madeshiny by blows from a wooden pin; leather, in which Kano does animportant trade, is also taken. Haussa caravans seldom havetheir night-quarters in inhabited places. At large places,708 These carry astonishing burdens: light ones weigh from40 to 60 lbs., average loads are from 60 to 80 lbs., whilst big,well-seasoned porters carry up to 125 lbs. Staudinger, 107;Kling, passim; compare Passarge, 66. They march for 5 to 6hours every day, whilst they rest during the great heat; compareWolf, M.D.S., IV., 14. In consequence of their passion forgames of chance, (which is psychologically connected with theirgreat physical efforts), they have often to go hungry, borrowand fall into debt, more especially in the towns. Staudinger,142.709 The women are cheaper than the men (Passarge, 255). Thebest women-porters are the Tappa women from Nupe (q.v.). On thejourney they spin cotton, and, if there is a long halt, deal inprovisions; whilst the men work pretty mats, with black and reddesigns on them, out of palm-fibres (Binger II., 143, Note).710 The paths are narrow runs, in which one porter treads inthe footsteps of the other. Morgen reports (M.D.S., IV., 151)that on the route Banyo-Tibati (Adamaua) there were as many as12 foot-tracks side by side. As regards South Adamaua, comparevon Stetten, K. Bl., 1895, 112.135

where they halt for some time, there are specially preparedcaravanserais. In the "savanna," however, they encamp, as arule close to a stream which runs the whole year round, on aflat space, as open as possible, and beneath the shade of largetrees. These songo or zango are the indications of all greatHaussa routes. 711 They consist of a number of, often severalhundred, small huts, or only of semi-circular wind-shelters madeof branches with the leaves on, which are either found on thespot and simply erected or else are quickly made. Each songohas its own name, at one time being called after a river, atanother after the high trees near which it is, or else aftersome other characteristic. The progress of the caravans isprincipally delayed by the everlasting exaction of tolls. Incountries which are agitated by war they have far greaterdifficulties to overcome, and are either dispersed ordestroyed. 712 The route, when this is possible, is the same both711 Büttner, M.D.S., IV., 190; Staudinger, 168; von Stetten,passim, 135; Passarge, 153, 229. Now and again, too, one comesacross a tomb surrounded by stones along the route, which, bythe way, changes considerably according to the time of year andphysical and political obstacles. In the quieter countrieswomen are to be found everywhere by the sides of the routeselling provisions.712 In Siberma (Jerma), for example, the through journey is"a concatenation of worries and robberies of every description";a trader once significantly remarked to Monteil: "we buy ournecks every day." Monteil (210) describes the endless fatiguesand dangers that are encountered: when the caravan arrives atthe encampment, fixed upon beforehand, the loads are taken offalways in the same regular order; the slaves then water theanimals and load them to the pasture-ground. The women preparethe meal. All men not told off to guard the loads fetchbranches to build the leafy huts, or else to repair them. Thecamp is then surrounded with a continuous fence as protectionagainst nocturnal robbers. Meanwhile the madugu is engaged intreating, either in the village or in the camp, with thechieftain and principal people of the place as to how much dutyis to be paid in kola, stuffs or other currency. The discussionlasts a long time, because, to the demands of the local seigneurhave to be added those of chiefs who have come from greatdistances (which are based upon the claim "that one mightequally have gone through their country"). Never does it happenthat the negociations are terminated before nightfall. Shouldit eventually happen that both sides are satisfied, then one ofthe griots (minstrel-herald) of the madugu announces the fact ina loud voice; also that no one must approach the camp during thenight or cross the enclosing fence or he will be shot if he doesso. In spite of this the villagers attempt to steal. On thefollowing day there ensue fresh demands and fresh negociationswhich, perhaps, deprive the caravan of a whole day.136

on going and returning. Monteil mentions the following route:from Kano viâ Gando, Sókoto, Argungu, Giuae and Dosso to Say; 713from here there is a stage down the valley of the Niger which isusually crossed at Kirtassi (Kirotashi); the caravan then entersGurma, reaches Sudu M'Bjio (also called Fad N'Gurma and Nungu),the capital of Gurma, follows the boundary of Mossi and thenpasses through Gurunsi (Grussi), Mamprusi and Dagomba to Sálaga,the capital of Gonja.KONG is a town which Binger, as the first European to visitit, describes, together with its territory, in his excellentwork. It owes its importance to its proximity to the koladistrict. The Empire or country of Kong is situated to theeastward of Sámory's Empire, and is of importance as being thecapital of the Mande Jula, one of the five principal branches of714the Mandingo which, according to Binger, was formed about1350, on the advent of the Sonni dynasty, into Sonrhay, 715 as aconservative support to the ancient dynasty, and as an enemy ofthe Sonni-nke, and which at first only consisted of the fivegreat families of the Dau, Wattara, Keru, Baru and Ture. TheJula were of great importance, in that they were the first ofthe Mandingo in the vicinity of Jenne to accept the faith ofIslam, where they also by degrees became the most importantcommercial people 716 on the Upper Niger. 717 About 1500, in713 The woods and wildernesses between Kano and Say, whichare rendered unsafe and dangerous by robbers, notably the Kebbi,are traversed by forced-marches and without a halt, in thecourse of which people even succumb to fatigue, which latter ismuch increased by the silence which has to be observed, andwhich is unbearable to a negro, who is able to endure thegreatest hardships if only he is allowed to sing. Barth (IV.,95, 133, 225; V., 317, 353) frequently depicts such forcedmarches,which have previously been described by Clapperton, andrecently, again, by Monteil.714 Binger mentions seven great races within the Bend of theNiger; the Mande, Siën-re, Gurunga, Mo, Dagomba, Ashanti andallied-races, Fulbe, and in addition some 60 smaller tribes andisolated Haussa. Bull. Lyon, 1890, 694.715 Binger, II, 376, 384, 393 et seq.: "couche, souche dutrône" (this throne of Sonrhay is said to have been gained by aforeigner, according to Binger a Mandingo, by killing a bigsnake; Binger, 373); Barth's Juli.716 Most French authors (Caillié, II, 82, 160, and morerecently Monteil) understand, by the word Jula, simplymerchants. Binger (I., 30), on the other hand, declaresexplicitly that they are a separate tribe. He classifies themerchants in the Bend of the Niger as follows: (1) Thetemporary merchant, who trades for the occasion, with a view toprocuring a wife or slave, and then becomes a peasant again.(2) The small traders, who are mostly smiths of Wássulu and137

consequence of the victories of Mohammed Askia, they moved outof Sonrhay, and at the end of the 16th century, after thearrival of the Moors upon the scene, they moved yet further tothe south. In the great Bambara war of 1748-54 they sided withSagone, after whose death, from fear of Bendugu, they migratedto Dafina and as far as Mossi. At the present day the MandeJula form (among the Mandingo) a people separate in themselves.All pagan Mandingo are to them Bambara or unbelievers. Outsideof Kong they are scattered all over the Bend of the Niger innumerous colonies, as in Jenneri, Massina, Mossi, Mianka,Bendugu, Kenedugu, Follona, Jemmara, Taguano, Kurudugu, andWorodugu. They are to be found at all trade-centres as far asthe Ocean, so that with Mande, Haussa and Arabic one can travelfrom Cape Verde to Egypt. The Jula occupies himself with trade,industry (weaving) and agriculture. He only wages war fordefensive purposes or out of revenge, and seldom to obtainslaves. The institution of the tenne (family fetish) has becomesomewhat lost with him; in the same way he has freed himselffrom the rough tyranny of the griots "in which is evinced amarked superiority over the other branches of the Mande family."Kong is said to have been founded 718 at the same time asJenne, viz., 1043-44. This is not impossible, but is plainlyvery doubtful. It is first mentioned by Park and Bowdich, 719 andWorokoro, who barter goods of their own make of clay, iron orwood for small quantities of salt and kola, but who do nottravel far (korokoro); frequently also sorcerers (kenielala).(3) Mando Jula, and Haussas. These undertake protractedjourneys, and deal with the greater and lesser chieftains, fromwhom they purchase the prisoners of war in exchange for arms,ammunition, stuffs, &c. They often have to wait years forpayment; they then start family life; "ils ont des femmes un peupartout." Many settle down in the great trading-places and maketheir sons and slaves travel; others again become kola tradersin Worodugu. Their property is usually at stake. (4) Moorishtraders who go to Segu, Nyamina and Bamako.717 Passarge (564) considers this step to be a decadencethrough intermixture with inferior races; it was, however,directly required by the country, as it gave it, by the greatgateway of the Niger valley, gold and slaves from the south, andsalt and cattle from the north.The Jula gave its name to the Upper Niger. Each favourednation here has its "river," and, if it is too large to possessin its entirety, is satisfied with a portion of it; thus theNiger is the Juli-ba of the Mandingo, and, further down itscourse, the Mayo of the Fulbes, the Eghírrëu of the Tuáregs, theI-'ssa or Ssai of the Sonrhay, the Kuára (probably) of theKómbori and the Baki-n-rua of the Haussas. Barth, IV., 243.718Binger, I., 323 et seq.; II., 394.719"Mission, etc," 263; compare Ritter, "Afrika," 377 et138

as a town first by Barth. The ancient inhabitants were theFallafalla, a tribe related to the Taguano, at present settledon the right bank of the Komoë, and also the Nabe and Zazere,close to the Pakhalla on the left bank of the Komoë, and theMioru on both banks of the Upper Komoë. 720 Kong existed as anunimportant place before the arrival of the Jula, which,however, the latter did not dare to occupy, much less two smallplaces in its vicinity. They came from the north (from thedirection of Jenne-Segu) and west (Tengrela-Worodugu), and didnot appear in great numbers, but, like the Fulbes, in smalldetachments and by degrees. More intelligent and active thanthe old residents, they gradually attained, thanks to mahomedancivilization, to greater influence at the end of the 17thcentury, and from the middle of the 18th century, to still moreunder the leadership of the Wáttara family. About 1790, underSeku Wáttara, they became, after conquering the Fallafalla,masters of the town of Kong itself. Upon his death his 12 sonsdivided the power between them and settled down in the places onthe great routes leading to Kong. One of them, usually theeldest, was supreme. Since the end of the forties KaramokhoUle 721 Wáttara has been "King" of Kong, and resides in that town.All the numerous members of the Wáttara family, 722 spread insmall lordships over the country, recognize the absoluteauthority of the "King" and of the jemmaa of Kong, a sort of"council of the elders." For the defence of the country, forthe chastisement of rebellious villages, and for the occupationof the more important and more threatened trade-routes, as forinstance that to Jenne, the Jula make use of the ancientinhabitants conquered by them--their vassals. 723 Their mode ofseq. (Kong=Gonja).720 Kipirri (Siën-re) and Wei (Mandingo) adjoin it on thesouth; Binger, Bull. Lyon, 1890, 683, and II., 213.721 Ule, or "the red," was the name given to him on accountof his pale complexion, which also always indicates nobledescent. His elder brother was excluded from the succession onaccount of his dissolute life.722 A genealogical table of the Wáttara family will befounded in Binger, I., 325.723 As vassals, Binger (I., 376) cites the Bobo Jula,Dokhosie, and Tiëfo. In the centre of the Bend of the Niger hedescribes also the "savage" Mbuing (I., 267 et seq.), thePallaga (I., 273 et seq.), the Komono (I., 338, et seq.), andthe almost extinct Karaboro (I., 277). As regards the somangior armed captives, remnants of ancient races, vide Binger, II.,209. Partly robbers by profession, like the Pallaga, who,favoured by their thickly-wooded country, frequently interruptdirect communication, as for instance on the stretch Lera-Kong--partly as quite immoderate dolo-drinkers, like the Komono--these139

colonisation and conquest is by no means warlike, but peaceful,in which it resembles that of the Fulbe-Borroro. Whilst,however, the latter only infiltrated themselves under sufferanceas herds, and only obtained the rulership by force of arms, theJula reached the same goal by spiritual means. The paganKinglets ("roitelets fétichistes") when once they had enteredtheir country exacted exorbitant tolls. Slowly and cautiouslyone or two of their families settled in all the larger placesfrom Kong to Bobojilasu and, by degrees, as far as theneighbourhood of Jenne. These then organised mahomedan schoolsto which other settlers also sent their children; they madethemselves indispensable to the chieftians by their trade,sought to win their confidence and got mixed up, as advisers, ininternal affairs; the spiritual and political centre of gravitywas always Kong, so that by their wisdom, patience and tenacity,the occupied territories came under their protectorate quite ofthemselves. Agricultural villages (konkosu) were started andsettled by sending out slaves from the principal centres. Inaddition to being engaged in trade, everyone occupies himselfwith weaving, and dyeing, arts which must have been introducedby the Haussas. In contrast to the Fulbes and Tuaregs religiousfanaticism is not found among the far-travelling Mande Jula,which is likewise the case with the Haussas; the former are thepoorer and more orthodox, the latter the richer and moreliberally-inclined, representing trains of thought which herestand in direct connection with the residence, mode of life andearnings of the people.The political centre of a people in the Western Sudan isfirst of all dependent upon the personal ability of its rulerand of the chiefs upon its frontiers; hence there exists acontinuous state of unsettledness within it, and theimpossibility of defining a boundary according to Europeanideas. In Kong's palmiest days the influence of the chiefs ofthis town extended not only over the territory of Kong proper,but also over the whole of the Kenedugu and the Bobo countries,where members of the ruling family of Wáttara levied taxes asgovernors. They were followed by other families, notably by thetribes, equally incapable of being reached, either by thecivilisation of Mássina or Sonrhay, or of the Coast, are in thevery lowest stage of the civilisation of the Western Sudan;which category would also include the inhabitants of the forestsand mountains to the east of the Niger. They have their ownlanguages. Men and women go about either naked or provided withonly a narrow apron or tuft of leaves. In addition to theconquering foreigners they have also native rulers; thus Bingerfound a "shadow-king" of the Komono in Niambuambo (I., 344 etseq.). On the point of losing their ethnographicalindividuality and adopting civilisation are the Dokhosie (BingerI., 356); they do not get drunk as much as do the Komono;circumcision is universal; they are gradually forgetting theirown language and beginning to talk Mande.140

Dauda (Dau) and Senu. The Dauda became independent and formedTiëba's Empire, whilst the Senu obtained the supremacy over theBobo Jula. 724 Exactly corresponding to the north-and-southdirection taken by trade, the Empire of Kong, which is itselfbased upon trade and commerce, is a long zone-shaped stripstretching from Wandarama in the south (8° 30' N. Lat.) to some155 miles south of Jenne (some 12° N. Lat.) 725 where theinfluence becomes subdivided among a number of "confederations"of small tribes.726The town of Kong or Pong, one of the most importanttrade-centres within the Bend of the Niger is situated at anelevation of some 700 metres (some 2,300 ft.) on a broad plainto the west of the Komoë. According to Binger's estimate it hasa population of some 15,000, 727 and is divided into seven qbaïlaor quarters, which are named after their respective inhabitants,each having its own headman and a mosque, or else a simple houseof prayer. There are also suburbs in the north and south whichare separated from the town by plantations of maize, millet andtobacco. 728 Kong is an open town, irregularly built, and haswinding narrow streets. The houses are made of mud and haveflat roofs. The population are almost entirely mahomedan 729 and724 Monteil, 74.725 Binger, II., 210 et seq.; I., 387; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 681.726 Barth, IV., 575; Binger, I., 294 et seq.; II., 200 etseq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 684 et seq. As regards the fabulousMountains of Kong, which were, however, accepted by De Lanoye,the myth with reference thereto has been exploded by Binger'sjourney--that traveller says on the subject, "one does not evenperceive a ridge of hills; the chain of mountains of Kong neverexisted except in the imagination of certain ill-informedtravellers." Binger, I., 285. Baikie had, moreover, alreadydenied the existence of the Mountains of Kong; vide Barth,Baikie's Thätigkeit am untern Niger, &c, S.A. d. Z. f. Allg.Erdk., Berlin, 1863, p. 21. A compilation on this subject isgiven by Duveyrier in the C.R.S., 1889, 390 et seq. Whilstcommunication with the west is at present cut off by Sámory Kongstill remains connected with the Coast vià Bonduku--Kumassi orSalaga--Krachi; the main routes to the north pass vià Bobojilasuto Jenne in the west and Wagadugu in the east, and farther on toTimbuktu.727 From 12,000 to 20,000; compare Binger, I., 298; Bull.Lyon, passim, and Mitt. Wien. 1893, 442.728 Sketch in Binger, I., 294.729Binger divides them up into: erudite Mussulmans, therecognised ruling class; non-erudite Mussulmans, but strictfollowers of the doctrines of the Koran; lastly Mussulmans who141

only speak Mande; they live partly in a certain amount ofaffluence. Agriculture is in the hands of the slaves who livein the konkosu, or agricultural villages, and work under thesupervision of the masters or of the members of their families.There is but little cattle-raising. Horse-breeding, anoccupation of wealthy traders, who no longer travel themselves,is here of small account owing to the proximity of the densevegetation, which is inimical to horses; in any case it reaches,at Kong, one of its most southerly limits. The chief industryis the preparation of very durable cotton-stuffs, which have asale throughout the whole Bend of the Niger, and the fame ofwhich extends as far as Timbuktu (Barth). The cleansing andspinning of the cotton is looked after mostly by women. On allthe open spaces in the town looms are erected in which are woventhe narrow strips which, when bound together, make garments.The merchants never travel without taking their loom with themas a resource, for all, without exception, know how to weave.The indigo-dyeing industry is conducted mostly by Haussas in theDaura quarter, and at Marrabasu, 730 where Binger counted 150 vatsfrom 1⋅8 to 2 metres (6 to 7 ft.) in depth, and 1⋅2 metres(4 ft.) in diameter. The trade is carried on principally by theable-bodied men, with the help of the entire family. Theprincipal article of trade is kola; after this follow salt,stuffs, gold, slaves, horses, vegetable-butter, European goods(cheap stuffs, arms and ammunition), food-supplies and spices.Whilst one can buy the ordinary necessaries of life every day,the real market takes place once every five days on the largesquare in the middle of the town, which is "une véritablefoire." On the northern side, (the market for the men,) stuffs,clothes, European hardware, &c. are exposed for sale, whilst onthe south side, (the women's market,) are cotton, indigo, wood,meat, provisions of all sorts and delicacies, and also palm oil;dolo is drunk at a little distance off. 731 Credit is allowedfrom one market day to the next. Cowries and gold-dustconstitute the currency. In counting the unit is not the ba(80) of the Bambara, but the sira (200).The political head of Kong is the chief of the Wáttarafamily, who is assisted by the jemaa. The next highest rank istaken by the "mayor" of the town, the most powerful among thedrink dolo.730 Marraba is the Mande name for the Haussas and marrabadugu that of the country from the east of Kong to the Niger,which is traversed by the Haussas and in part also settled bythem.731 Butchers, itinerant barbers, a few tailors and goldweighersare also there; singing beggar-boys and even a speciesof street-policemen, the du, complete the picture of publiclife.142

principal men of the qbaïla. The almamy, the religious chief,at the time of Binger's visit played no very important politicalpart, but rather that of "minister for religion andinstruction;" he held religious discourses with the leading menand superintended the schools. As there are some 20 of thelatter in Kong, there are but very few persons who cannot readand write Arabic. Pilgrimages to Mecca take place about every20 years and under the influence of religion it not infrequentlyoccurs that the slaves are liberated. 732The gold-bearing country of BONDUKU, 733 which lies S.E. ofKong on the route to Ashanti and to the Coast has an importantmediatory position with regard to the Hinterland. Its capitalof the same name (also called Bontuku and Bitugu) 734 has, fromtime immemorial, carried on a gold-trade with Jenne as reportedby Ahmad Baba, who calls it Bit or Bitu. It is said to havebeen founded even before Jenne (1043) [?]; the mound of rubbish,several metres in height, which lies within the town of Bondukupoints to its being one of the oldest towns in the Sudan, whilstnumerous ruins show that it was either formerly very much largeror has been several times destroyed; at present it has 3,000inhabitants. The local market is of minor importance, and evenprovisions are often deficient; on the other hand, Bonduku isvery important as an emporium in the transit-trade of gold, 735732 The slaves represent the accumulated wealth; it is notmagnanimity which causes them to be liberated, but it is done asa penance. Asses, which have been allowed to go loose, wanderthrough the streets, and are looked upon as sacred animals whichbring luck. Binger, I., 385, Note 1. Liberation of this natureof this nature is also reported from the Benuë, where it takesplace on production of a written document to the local chief inpresence of seven witnesses, and on taking a new name.Staudinger, 467, 574; Ferryman, 41.733 In consequence of the number of languages spoken herethere is a regular confusion in names. Bonduku is called Gamanor Diamman by the Ashantis and kindred tribes, Bottogo orGottogo by the Mandingo, and Bitugu by the Haussas.734 Ahmed Baba, passim, 11; Bowdich, 215, 250; Binger, II.,161 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 678; Mitt. Wien, 1893, 442;Barth, IV., 575.735 The gold of the Western Sudan is found in two localities,viz., on the Upper Senegal and in Ashanti, with its western andnorthern frontier strips. In the Senegal district are includedthe countries of Bondu (on the left bank of the Faleme), Bambuk(between the Faleme and the Bafing), and Bure (between Bakhoy-Senegal and Tankisso-Niger). In the district of Ashanti (Takwaor Tarquah, Abosu, Wassa, etc.) are the goldfields of Anno andBonduki in the west, and Bole, Lobi, Grussi, Niëniëge in thenorth on the Volta and its tributaries, where they reach143

furthest north at about 11° 30' N. Lat. The gold is found inquartz-veins or else as alluvial gold in beds of blue clay orgravel. The natives do not understand the use of the stulm, butonly dig shafts for the workmen, some 3 feet in diameter but ofconsiderable depth (15 and even 25 metres, i.e., from 50 ft. to80 ft. deep), and which are lighted by lamps of palm-oil. Themines are often so close together that the place is "regularlyhoneycombed." The digging is done by men, while the women andchildren attend to the washing out in calabashes. In this waymuch is lost. The largest pieces belong to the chieftain; agreat quantity of gold is either buried in the huts or placed inthe grave with persons of rank. In the dry season work is onlycarried on at the mines near water-courses, in which workstrangers are also allowed to participate on payment; in therainy season, however, the more profitable but more distantquartz-mines can be worked. In the former, or alluvial works,fine gold-dust is mostly obtained, whilst in the latter, nuggetsare frequently found up to four ounces av. (128 grammes).Melted-down gold is also to be met with; it is the so-calledfetish-gold and always represents figures. The day's outputamounts in Bure to some 4 grammes (15 francs or 12 shillings).Gold is here the one product which is exchanged in alldirections, in the first place for provisions, which are broughtby the Jula, Starvation is of frequent occurrence. Theprincipal place in Bure is Didi, whose lofty mountain, about 817metres (some 2700 ft.) in height, is always a landmark for thetrader, being easily seen from a distance. From a politicalpoint of view, Bure is "a sort of republic in which the rulersare the four most powerful families." Whilst gold is here foundin open localities, the principal gold-bearing districts ofAshanti are to be found in the dense vegetation. The gold isusually carried to market in quills, which for safety's sake areworn as grisgris, or amulets. At many places almost everynative has a gold-balance; in Kong, on the other hand, there areofficial gold-weighers in each quarter. For weights, grains ofseed are principally employed, but teeth, etc., are also used.The normal unit of weight for the whole Sudan is the mitkal,which weighs about 4 grammes (61⋅73 gr.), though it is subject togreat variation in the different gold-markets; besides this, inthe weighing-out the trader has great opportunities forobtaining an advantage, the buying-weights being greater thanthe selling-weights. In the factories the mitkal is no longerused, but the ounce Troy (32 grammes).Gold finding and the gold-trade of the Western Sudan haveexisted from time immemorial. Herodotus' remark on this subjecthas been already quoted. Edrisi describes the gold-country asan island, flooded by the "Nile"--which calls to mind Jenne andthe whole northern portion of the Bend of the Niger--and namesWargla as the principal market. The first European settlementon the Guinea Coast was at a mine, Elmina. The gold- and salttradesof the Ungaros (Wangara, Mandingo), between Gyni (Jenne)144

kola, stuffs from Kong, Baule and Grussi, slaves, and German andEnglish goods.Payment for the latter is made exclusively in gold. Thegreat market-place lies to the westward of the town, which isdivided up into numerous groups, corresponding to the differentnationalities. There is also a small market in the centre,which is occupied by the Mandingo, who have migrated from thenorth. The northern portion of the town is occupied by theHaussas, who, as is the case everywhere, carry on the native artof dyeing; in the western part are the Pakhalla, a race alliedto the Ashantis. The "King" does not reside in Bonduku, but ata little place called Amenvi; 736 his successor on the throne is,and the seven kingdoms to the south of it, were well known tothe Portuguese. Park saw precious jewels in Manding, andBowdich speaks of an astonishing wealth of gold in Ashanti.--Herodotus, I., IV., 195, 196. (According to his version, girlsdrew out gold from the mud by means of birds' feathers smearedwith pitch; he, of course, refers to the quills used forpurposes of transport. The island spoken of by him as being onthe Libyan coast may with tolerable certainty be put down asArguin, which, on account of its excellent situation, hasfrequently attained to both historical and commercialimportance, notably for us (Germans) owing to its having beenoccupied by the Great Elector); Edrisi, 40; Schmeller undKunstmann, Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss, passim; Ahmed Baba, passim; forfurther information as to the gold in Bondu vide Raffenel, "Voy.dans l'A. occ." and "Nouveau voyage," I., 129 et seq.--Asregards Bure and Manding vide: Park, "Reisen," 268 et seq.;Caillié, I., 391; Hecquard, "Reisen, etc.," 241; Reade, G. M.,1870, 302 et seq.; Gallieni, "Voy." 290 et seq. and "Deux camp."599 et seq.; Péroz, "Au Soudan fr.," 427 et seq.--As regardsBambuk vide: "History of the mines from 1716 on," in the"Annuaire du Sénégal," Saint-Louis, 1864, 198 et seq.; Leyden-Murray, éd. fr., III., 62; Park, "Journal of a Mission, etc.,"53 et seq.; Lenz, II., 344; Gallieni, "Deux camp." 298 et seq.;Noirot, "A travers le Fouta-Djallon et le Bambouk," 296 et seq.As regards Ashanti and neighbouring countries, vide: Bossman,"Reyse nach Guinea," 99 et seq.; Bowdich, 45, 72, 178, 345;Caillié, II., 144; Barth, I., 512, 524; IV., 574; V., 23; Burtonand Cameron, "To the Gold Coast for Gold," 286 et seq., 338 etseq.; Glover, Proc. Lond., 1874, 217; Barret, L'A occ. I., 106;Ramseyer und Kühne, Tageb., 272 et seq.; G.M, 1880, 175 and1886, 30; Binger, I., 308 et seq., 415, 430; II., 103, 164 etseq., 198 et seq., 241 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 680.736 The place possesses no cultivations; these are herehidden in the dense vegetation in order to protect them, frombeing robbed by their own fellow tribesmen on the occasion ofgreat orgies, and against enemies. The men when engaged incultivation are absent for long periods from their villages,which are then only inhabited by women. Binger, II., 170, 187,197.145

as is the case with all the Agni-Ashantis, his sister's son.The ruler of Anno, which lies to the west of Bonduku, and thechief product of which is white kola, equally does not live inthe many-named capital Grumania, 737 but in Awabu, which containsonly 30 huts; the little place vouchsafes a greater amount ofauthority than it is possible to obtain in the disturbedcommercial-life, and amongst the different race-groups, of thelarger place. An important tribe in the vicinity of Bonduku arethe Liguy, a branch of the Wei, one of the most intelligentsections of the Mandingo. They have probably immigrated fromLiberia, work the gold-fields of their territory, and produce aquantity of woven-stuffs; they are also the only middle-menbetween the kola-producers of Northern Ashanti and the traders,but are of special interest from the fact of their havingthemselves made a written language. 738 The Ton, 739 who alsoreside in the neighbourhood of Bonduku, are allied to theAshantis.The real chief-market for kola, which is brought in from740all directions, is Kintampo (Kirby: Quantampoh, Krause:Kintumfo, Bowdich and Dupuis; Kantano; one also meets withKintempo and Kuntampo), which is situated between Bonduku andSalaga. The place consists of a market-place surrounded by thequarters of the Mande and Liguy, Haussas and Dandawa or Kotokole(mostly from Yóruba), Ashantis, 741 Dagomba and Mossi--a motleyassortment of peoples who have been brought together by trade."So many quarters, so many villages," each of which preservesits national type of huts, as also of grouping them together.The advantageous situation of Kintampo is impaired by thecupidity of the kabosiere (chiefs) of the Ashantis, who eitherdemand too high toll or else entirely suppress the trade with737 Binger, II., 219 et seq.738 Forbes first brought this to notice. Koelle, grammar ofthe Vei language. Binger, II., 109 et seq., 151.739 The Ton are, according to Binger (II., 180 et seq.),"excessively clean." The use of soap is known throughout thewhole of the Western Sudan. It is made of all sorts of fats;the best is that made from Carapa guineensis.740 Kirby Proc., 1884, 449; Krause, Kreuz-Ztg, 16th November,1887; Wolf, M.D.S., II., 83; Kling, M.D.S., VI., 136 et seq.;Binger, II., 135 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 676. Thepopulation is put down at from 3,000 to 40,000; this greatdiscrepancy is explained by the fact that in the first figurethe floating-population (which is very difficult to determine),and the slaves, are not included.741As regards the Galli, who are privileged Ashantimerchants, compare Binger, II., 169.146

the Coast. Besides kola 742 the following are also articles oftrade: slaves, native stuffs, gold, spices (pepper), sheabutter,cattle, tobacco and European goods. The prices varywith the season of the year. In the rainy season, for instance,when communication with Salaga is interrupted by the marshes ofKonkronsu, salt, which comes from the Volta, is dear. Cowriesare scarce; for cash one only receives half as much in the wayof goods as if one gives the same amount in cowries.At a distance of seven days' journey to the east--and more743quickly reached by the Haussa than Kintampo--is Salaga, thecapital of the country of GONJA (Inta of Bowdich), situated afew hours to the east of the Volta, just below the union of itsthree sources, and pretty well in the centre of the powerfulNiger semicircle, from the circumference of which routes radiatein all directions: viâ Kong and Tengrela to Segu and Jenne-Bandiagara; viâ Bobojilasu or Wagadugu to Timbuktu and Dori-Say;viâ Sansanne-Mangu to Kirotashi; viâ Wangara and Nikki to Gomba,Bussa, or Rabba. 744 Besides this there is the proximity to thesea, to which the valley of the Volta is a natural route, and towhich the main routes from the interior continue in a straightline to the Togo and Gold Coasts, as, for instance, fromAtakpame to Klein-Popo, Krachi to Lome, or from Krachi on bysteam-launches, or from Adafu on by steamers down the Volta toits mouth at Ada; and lastly, viâ Ateobu and Kumasi to Accra orCape Coast Castle; routes which have all, from time immemorial,served a lively trade between the narrow strip along the coastand the elevated plateau. "Salaga is the key of the valley ofthe Volta and of the mountain-passes." Its importance is basedupon the variety of the goods, a fact arising from itsfavourable central position. These goods are all purchaseableat very moderate prices, but the trade has very much fallen offsince the beginning of the century, as the inhabitants neglectedto share in the transit-trade, or to introduce weaving ordyeing. Consequently the bare trade-commissions, which theyreceived for business concluded through their mediation, wereinsufficient to bring them into a state of prosperity. The742 A brisk trade in kola-nuts is also carried on at Ateobu(English station S.E. of Kintampo; M.D.S. II., 88; Kol. Bl.,1895, 297), Koranza (which itself produces them; Bowdich, 251;Kirby, Proc., passim), and Takla (West of Kintampo; Binger, II.,146).743 Bowdich, 131, 254, 451; Barth IV., 575; Binger, II., 86et seq. (sketch 95); Monteil, 209 et seq.; Von François, M.D.S.I., 88, 157 et seq.; Wolf, M.D.S. II., 82 et seq.; Kling,M.D.S., III., 147 et seq.; VI., 137.744 The first named route, as also the second viâ Bobojilasu,are the main commercial arteries of the Mandingo, the secondeastern-half of the route is that of the Mossi, while the thirdand fourth are Haussa and Yóruba routes.147

population of the town, formerly estimated at from 50,000 to60,000, was put down by Binger at 3,000 (residents only, andduring the rainy season), and by Kling at 20,000; a third ofthem are strangers, for whom there are sufficient empty housesin the caravan-quarter (West). There are people of Gonja(cross-bred Mandingo, who had immigrated some time back), MandeJula, Haussas, and representatives of the various neighbouringtribes, viz.: Dagomba, Yórubas, Ashantis, Barba (Borgu),Pakhalla and Ton; even Fulbes 745 are not lacking. All the racesof the basin of the Niger meet here. Most of them profess thefaith of Islam, 746 even though only in appearance, andaccompanied by many fetish rites. The slaves attend toagriculture under the supervision of the owner's family in thetown. 747 The town is composed of eight groups. 748"The streetsand open spaces abound in dirt, and exhale terrible odours."The conditions of the water-supply are most unfavourable, andsmall-pox always rages.The principal trade takes place in the dry season, fromDecember to April, but more especially in January and February,when the great Haussa and Mossi caravans are there. The traderssit everywhere, in the open spaces and in the narrow alleys,beneath their umbrellas and sun-shades, with their wares spreadout before them on the ground. In spite of the large number ofvisitors, which has been estimated at as many as 10,000, perfectorder reigns throughout the whole place, which is then convertedinto one huge market. Amongst other things which are bartered749are slaves, kola, European goods, 750 salt, 751 leather articles,745 Binger, II., 95; Wolf, M.D.S. II., 83; in any case theyare cross-breeds.746 Binger saw, in Salaga, three men who had done thepilgrimage to Mecca. These pilgrimages are made either viâKuka, Khartum, and Suakin, or viâ Timbuktu, Ghadames, andTripoli; the journey, there and back, requires at least sevenyears, and the pilgrims have to work frequently en route inorder to obtain the means of subsistence. Salaga contains fivemosques, of which one, however, is in ruins.747 Such settlements are called by the owner's name, with thesuffixes, iri, su, pe, or kade (meaning "village"), according asDagomsa, Mande, or Gonja is spoken.748 The organisation in groups ensures more freedom ofmovement on market-days, when the traffic gets blocked, and alsoseparates the tribes; while the intervals between them furnishthe materials for the construction of the mud huts.749 Salaga was, at the end of the eighties, the greatestslave-market of the Western Sudan (the position of these variesin accordance with the great theatres of war); some 15,000slaves were sold annually.148

native straw-hats, hardware, calabashes, very beautiful basketwork,cotton-stuffs, 752 pottery, horses, asses (from Mossi), andhump-backed cattle, provisions of all sorts, soap, palm-oil,wood, water and shea-butter. Gold-dust is alone traded in. Theprincipal currency consists of cowries, which here have alreadyfour times the value that they had at the Coast (1,000=oneshilling).Political life seems almost to disappear in the stirringbusiness life. Gonja formerly belonged to Ashanti, but already753at the beginning of this century was separated from it bybroad desert zones, the results of war. Political power makesso little impression that Binger could scarcely find out who wasthe real "Sultan." The latter had fled from Salaga and settledin the village of Pembi 754 (Pambi), some four kilometres (2½miles) to the south-east. On account of the taxes, which heused formerly to levy on each load of kola, he was called the"kola King." 755An important halting-stage on the way to the sea is the750 Mostly English goods; the Haussas, however, also bringgoods from Tripoli which here meet with those brought fromGuinea; in this respect Salaga forms the continuation of theroute Bauchi, Keffi, Ilorin. The short journey to Tripoli, andthe cheap mode of travelling of the Arabs, in spite of the longdesert and land route, make up for the longer sea journey roundCape Palmas and the costly European mode of transport. Thefollowing articles are in demand: arms, powder, gin, glassware,cloths, brass, paper, bead-rosaries, antimony. Much comes fromthe factories on the lower Niger.751 Salt comes from the Coast (Accra) up the Volta; thesmall-grained sea-salt from Grand Bassam is not liked. Asregards salt, compare p. 31, Note 1; 36, Note 1; 38, 39, 49, 66Notes 2 and 5; 68 Note 4; 70 Note 6; 73, 79, 80 Note 4; 83 Note4; 125 Note 1.752 Here the strips from Mossi and Haussa enter intoconcurrence with those from Jimini and Anno.753 According to Bowdich and Dupuis; compare Barth, IV., 265,and Binger, II., 114, History of Gonja.754 Von François, M.D.S., I., 88, 159; Kling, M.D.S., III.,147; Binger II., 94.755 Salaga was recently destroyed in a war between the Kingsof Yendi and Pembi (Kol. Bl., 1895, 297). If the efforts of theGermans to draw the trade to the favourably-situated town ofKrachi are successful, the prospect of favourably developingTogoland will be thereby considerably enhanced. The territoryof Salaga, by an Anglo-German Agreement, is at present in aNeutral Zone.149

double town of Kette-Krachi, 756 situated on the Volta, anemporium for Haussa and Mossi calicoes and salt, and which isflourishing under German Government. Krachi, which is situateddirectly on the Volta, is the "residence," and has dirty narrowlanes and is only inhabited by natives. It lies half an hour'sdistance from the new and friendly caravan-town of Kette, whichis occupied only by foreign merchants, mostly Haussas, whotravel to Kano, Yola and Ngáumdere; traders even from Timbuktu,Tripoli, Bornu and Baghirmi are represented. In a few years thepopulation has risen from 6,000 to between 25,000 and 30,000; itincreases by double this amount at caravan time. On account ofits importance it has taken the place of Bismarckburg as theGerman station. As a place of passage, Kpandu, 757 which issituated on the Volta, close to the coast and to the westward ofMisahöhe, is, with its numerous lodging-places andcaravanserais, of importance.On all the trade-routes Islam is in process of advancingtowards the sea, which, however, it has not yet reached. It,however, penetrates with difficulty into Northern Ashanti, Togoand Dahomey, because trade, along with which it is brought bythe Mande Jula and Haussas, avoids the difficult, dangerous,thinly-peopled, and therefore less profitable, forests andmountains. In these districts, the supreme political power isin the hands of an organised fetish-priesthood,758 represented bypriests and priestesses, to whose influence the chieftains have,in a great measure, to submit. Along the whole line, however,Islam zealously makes propaganda. 759Whilst Samory controls the right bank of the Upper Niger,and Kong the territory of the Upper Komoë and partly that of theVolta, TIEBA'S EMPIRE 760is well placed on the Sikasso mountainmass--important as being the point whence flow several rivers,and from which also the only route of any importance going fromwest to east, i.e., that from Jenne viâ San, Bobojilasu andWagadugu to Say, can be interrupted.Some of the leading Mande-Jula families were sent out fromKong to raise tribute in the Protectorates to the north. Thesewarlike tax-collectors settled by degrees in the country, andthe Dauda became so powerful that they elevated themselves tothe dignity of a royal family and became independent; this took756 v. François, Kling and Doering in the M.D.S., passim;Kol. Bl., 1894, 426, 451; Gruner, Mitt., Leipzig, 1895, XXVIII.757 Kling, M.D.S., III., 142, et passim.758 Binger, II., 189; v. François, M.D.S., I., 149: Wolf,M.D.S., I., 183; Kling, M.D.S., II., 195; III, 49; d'Albéca,Ann. de Géogr., 15, 183.759 Büttner reports as to this, M.D.S., VI., 199.760Binger, I, 231 et seq., 505; Monteil, 28, 51 et seq., 74.150

place after severe wars, which were waged by Daula, Tiëba'sfather, and of which many ruins in the hitherto populous countrybear witness. From this time onwards the Dauda were alwaysviolent enemies of the Wattara of Kong, who retained the Bobocountries on the Volta. The present fama 761 of Kenedugu, Tiëba,is dreaded because up to now he has never been defeated, and isalso personally able, and a man of proverbial generosity. Hisfirst wife exercises great influence over him. He does not, asdoes Sámory, convert his country into a desert, but himselfinstitutes agricultural-villages. "No country is as wellcultivated as his." The soil is dug up to a depth of 40centimetres (16 inches) or even 50 centimetres (20 inches). Thelougans (cultivation) extend for a great distance around thevillages, two or three times as far as elsewhere. In eachvillage there is a lougan belonging to the fama, the produce ofwhich belongs to him; in addition, his own slave-villages givehim their whole produce, whilst places founded by him give himone-half of theirs. Tiëba takes care of trade, the value ofwhich he recognises, and especially looks after the safety ofthe caravans; for instance, he destroyed some villages inMiniankala which had attacked his salt-caravans, and killed thefree-booting Fama Sabari, of Kimberi, who extorted paymentswhich it was impossible to raise. Furthermore, unlike Sámory,he does not kill the grown-up prisoners, but takes them first ofall to his capital, and then to the farms in the neighbourhoodbelonging to him, and finally allows them to found villages inremote districts, all of which, looked at from his point ofview, is a sort of process of civilisation and education.Tiëba's warriors are given a good many of the prisoners, whilstthose who are sold are mostly children. 762As his rule is purely despotic Tiëba is compelled tomaintain agents and spies at all the larger places, especiallyon the frontier; his successor and commander-in-chief is hisbrother Damba. The boundaries of Tiëba's Empire are veryconfused and variable, especially in the south and west.Between Sámory's and Tiëba's Empires Binger found a broad zonein which the inhabitants did not know to whom they belonged;they were robbed by both sides. Neutrality does not exist inthese regions, 763 which resemble the ancient "marches" of Europe.In the north, the southern part of the district of Miniankalabelongs to Tiëba's Empire, 764 whilst to the east, Suro onlybelongs to it in name. 765 It consists, like the Empire of761 An old Bambara title.762 Jaime characterises both Tiëba and Samory as great slavedealersfor the Moors.763 Binger, I., 220.764Monteil, 40; the Mienka of Binger.765Monteil, 68. The great neighbours of Kenedugu are Segu,151

Sámory, of both fully-occupied territories and of mere spheresof influence; the political power graduates little by littlefrom the centre, and then becomes quite dispersed. The centreof the various greater or lesser districts or provinces, or meregroups of villages with the land adjoining them, is Kenedugu,with its capital Sikasso, 766 which is well-situated from both astrategical and commercial point of view, and is surrounded by atata from 7 to 8 metres (23 to 27 ft.) in height. Tiëba'sresidence in the interior is surrounded by another such tata.Sikasso is noted for its favourable conditions of water-supply,and has most successfully developed since it was unsuccessfullybesieged by Samory 767 in 1888; Binger estimated its population atfrom 4,000 to 5,000, Monteil at from 18,000 to 20,000. InBinger's time a sister of Tiëba's, resident in the ancientcapital, Daulabugu, administered the province from that place, 768whilst Tiëba's mother lives in the village of Bugula. 769 Thecapital of Bendugu (North), which is a Protectorate of Tiëba's,is the great salt-market Bla, 770 which receives salt from Ijil(viâ Tishit-Segu), as also from Taudeni (viâ Jenne). Thecountries to the south, of which the centre is Tengrela, 771situated on a formerly frequented salt- and kola-route, stand inthe same state of dependency; as also does the territory ofFollona, where Pege, a vassal of Tiëba's, rules of Niële, 772which formerly stood in another place. The country was laidwaste in the time of Tiëba's father, who died in 1877; "as faras the eye can reach, one sees nothing but ruins, which areindicated by the presence of gigantic baobab trees." BingerDafina, Kong and Sámory.766 Binger, I., 95 et seq., 232; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 658;Monteil, 63 et seq.767 The siege was carried out, not from the customary largesansanne, but from a number of small ones, surrounded bypalisades (diassa); it cost Sámory about 10,000 men, in additionto which Binger calculates the value of the powder expended inthe course of 18 months (72,000 kilogrammes or 10 tons 11 cwt.),at 14,400 slaves.768 Binger, I., 232.769 Monteil, 66.770 Binger, I., 136, 139, 233.771 Caillié, II., 87 et seq. (Tangrera); Barth, IV., 577(Tanéra); Binger, I., 182.772 Binger, I., 235 et seq. The identity of Ngokho, which issituated in the neighbourhood, with the "Gago" of Leo Africanus(p. 237) appears open to question; compare p. 65, Note 5.152

gives an interesting account of the life on Pege's farms 773 aswell as of the smith's work at the blast-furnaces, 774 as, forinstance, at Umalokho, which consists of three groups, viz.:that of the smiths, Mande-Jula and Siën-re. Tiëba's Empire isthe chief seat of these Siën-re or Senufo; 775 the former is theirown name, the latter that given to them by the Mandingo; theyare agriculturalists, and to a certain extent cattle-rearers.Their manners are easy according to European ideas. Most ofthem are pagans; like the Bambara and Malinke, they have sacredplaces, trees and fetish-huts. The women are tattooed all overtheir bodies. The Siën-re are not Mandingo, although they haveassumed the family names of the latter--probably since thedownfall of the Empire of Melle. They appear to be an oldsettledrace, having only the word "salt country" to express thenorth, and "kola country" to express the south. Their languageis still almost monosyllabic; the words most required in tradeare borrowed from Mande.North of Tiëba's Empire an independent political position776is occupied by the small state of SAN, situated betweenBaninko on the west (which belongs to Segu), and Massina to theeast. At the head of the State of San is an almamy. San, whichis situated on the only great route running east and westthrough the Bend of the Niger, at which place also routesrunning north and south from Timbuktu and Massina to Kong andGonja intersect, is a thriving commercial-place because thecommerce--as in Kano and Salaga--pays absolutely no duty, and iscarried on in perfect security. San is frequented by Ruma 777from Timbuktu who bring salt, 778 Jula from Massina and Haussas 779with stuffs and embroidered-clothes, the people of Kong, theBobo with excellent copper- and ironware, and Fulbes with theproduce of their herds.To the north-east of Tiëba's Empire, between it and Mossi,are the districts or countries of the Bobo and Dafing, i.e.,773 Binger, I., 246, et seq.774 Binger, I., 259 et seq.775 Binger, I., 212 et seq. Senufo, or Siënufo, means "thosewho say Siën (French Siène) when they wish to signify a man."776 Binger, I., 386, et passim; Monteil, 35 et seq., andC.R.S., 1893, 56; Barth, Ssa (V., 481)?777 Vide p. 77, Note 1; Monteil writes it "Armat;" they havebecome black.778 Besides this salt from Taudeni other salt comes fromIjil.779This is the easternmost place which the peace-lovingtrading race have reached.153

BOBOLAND and DAFINA, which are aggregations of Village-States,which have the most varied political organizations within thetribes themselves. As in Miniankala, 780 which lies more to thewestward, one finds, in the midst of the wilderness, numerousclearings of several kilometres in diameter, which have beencultivated, and contain from 7 to 15 villages, each of which iffortified. This species of Village-State (confédération), orrather Confederation of Village-States, has its elected chief,who bears the title of fama. The village of the fama gives itsname to the group, and the individual villages which go tocompose it are called sukhala, or "dependencies." The sameorganization is very wide-spread on the left bank of the Niger,as, for instance, in Beledugu 781 and on the Senegal; forinstance, at Bambuk. 782 From Bondukhoy onwards in Boboland therule of the fama ceases; 783 the villages are independent of eachother and often at enmity, so that intercourse is rendereddifficult. Boboland is the heart of the fetish countries, fromthe Bambara territory in the west to Dore in Libtako in theeast, where Islamism begins to take the ascendancy. 784 TheBobo 785 belong to the motley intermixed races who occupy theinterior of the Bend of the Niger, which is, at present,comparatively speaking, but little penetrated by the greatnations of the Fulbe, Mandingo, and Haussa which surround it,notwithstanding which they are a mixed race. They may bedivided up into the two classes, 786 viz., the civilized Bobo Julaand the Bobo ule (i.e., the red or fair), and the lower placedBobo niëniëge and Bobo fing (i.e., the black). The Bobo areagriculturalists, hunters, and good smiths. 787 Rude but honest,like the Bambara, shy and timid, they cling fast to their nativesoil, and contemplate philosophically the energy of theiroppressors. They cannot endure captivity; nowhere did Monteilsee Bobo slaves. All are completely in the power of thesorcerers; "no important transaction, either on a large or small780 Monteil, 43.781 Binger, I., 407.782 Gallieni, "Deux campagnes, &c.," 300.783 Monteil, 99.784 Monteil, 160, 165.785 Barth, IV., 585.786 Binger, I., 399.787 Monteil, 36. Smith's work, judging from this, appears tobe the most ancient art of the Western Sudan, whilst that ofweaving was imported from the Mandingo and Haussas, and dyeingfrom the latter.154

scale, is undertaken without consulting these men, whoseinfluence is much enhanced by their knowledge of poisons." 788Both men and women are passionate smokers. The great majoritygo about naked; 789 amongst the Niëniëge the chiefs aredistinguishable from the rest by a sort of plaid. 790 Thedwellings of the Bobo are remarkable in that they are providedwith basements 791 (Binger ascribes this fact to their havingformerly been cave-dwellers). 792At one time the groups of hutsare separated from each other, and the villages are composed ofsmall sections of huts, which, as a rule, belong to one family;whilst at another time they form groups with such narrow lanesthat one can step from the flat roof of one house on to that ofanother.Boboland includes the region of the Upper Volta, and isdivided into three parts, one belonging to Kong, another toTiëba's Empire, while the third is independent. The seat of the793Fama of the independent Bobo is Bussura, under whose dominionis also Bobojilasu, 794 formerly a dependency of Kong. Bussura,20 days' journey to the north of Bobojilasu, and nearly as farfrom Jenne and Wagadugu, is an important road-junction at thecentre of this triangle. Binger estimates the population of thetown, which is also called "Sia," at from 3,000 to 3,500residents, with a floating population of from 1,000 to 1,500.He calls the former, Bobofing, who go unclothed; Bobó Jula, whoclothe themselves and do a little trading; Dafing, who alsotrade; Mande Jula, from Kong, who are the principal traders, andfinally a few Haussas and Sonninke, merchants and dyers. Theplace consequently consists of five separate villages, of whichthe principal are those of the Bobo chieftain and of the Imam.The principal trade is in gold, kola, salt, and stuffs.Celebrated calicoes of very fine thread and of great durabilityare woven here. There is a market once every five days. 795788 Monteil, 88 et seq., 97.789 The "braves" wear a bila (a very narrow apron whichterminates in a tail-like tassel).790 Binger, I., 424.791 Monteil, 68. "The construction of his dwelling betrayshis somewhat timorous nature, and also his lack of sociability."792 Binger, I., 403.793 Monteil, 93.794 Binger, I., 366 et seq. (with sketch), and Bull. Lyon,1890, 668 et seq.; Monteil, 85 et seq.795Binger estimates the profits of a man trading in salt andkola between Bobojilasu and Kintampo at 1.10 francs per diem. Agreat deal of trade is carried out in the huts through the155

Equally undetermined and unsettled, depending upon thecapabilities of the village chieftains, is political life inDafina, 796 on the Upper Black Volta, which has been independentfor 50 years. The native population, the Dafing, is a verymixed one, owing to the several waves of Mande who have sweptover it--as for instance on the downfall of Melle towards theend of the 17th century, and again as a result of the wars ofthe Tukulör Haji Omar, 1850-1862; they came from Senegal, Futa,and from the Upper Niger. Whilst Binger mentions Wahabu, 797founded by a Mecca pilgrim, as being the most important of theminiature States, Monteil names as the true capital Lanfiëra 798 ,which from being a small village was raised to this dignity byits Almamy, and which possesses one of the finest mosques in theWestern Sudan. Several influential Mecca pilgrims enter intorivalry with the Almamy of Lanfiëra. Of importance to Dafina,which lies in the centre of the Bend of the Niger, is a Fulbe-"enclave" of 20 villages, the principal place of which, Bareni,is the residence of a distinguished chieftain. To thesouthwards thereof the advanced guards of the Fulbes liescattered about in small colonies (as far as Duki and Kotedugu,vide p. 14), whilst they are to be found as prisoners or crossbreedsin a strip of territory as far as Kong. A number ofvillages have also been made by the Marka, 799 Bambara crossbreeds(?), who carry on trade--"the Jews of the black race"--and rule over the Sommo, a branch of the Bobo.Still more favourably situated by its central positionwithin the area of the Niger, is MOSSI,800 a land having an areaof at least 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 square miles), andsituated on a high plateau at an elevation of over 900 metres(3,000 feet). Throughout all the attacks which devastated theSudan, it, as a bulwark of paganism, preserved both itsindependence and the quite individual character of itscivilisation. To the north it borders on Libtako, 801 to the eastinstrumentality of intermediaries; the imports to Kong alongthis route alone is estimated by Binger at 1,200,000 francs(£48,000).796 Binger, I., 389 et seq.797 Binger, I., 415.798 Monteil, 111.799 Monteil, 108; Binger, II., 40; Barth, IV., 568.800 Binger, I., 449 et seq.; Monteil, 121 et seq.; Barth,Wolf and King also write it Muschi; Bowdich, 262; Mosee.--Crozat, Rapport sur la mission du Mossi.801From Libtako Fulbes come each year with their herds inorder to visit the districts of Northern Mossi, which are richin grasses and water; they at the same time rob the villages.156

on Gurma and Pama, to the south on Mamprusi (Mangu), and to thewest on Gurunsi and Massina (Yátenga). Formerly it was possiblyof greater extent. Tradition carries back the origin of thefamily to the beginning of the world. According to this thefirst naba had 333 children, amongst whom he divided his empireat his death--even in the present day the Naba of Wagaduguboasts that he causes his land to be administered by 333 Nabas.Mossi is divided up into a series of dominions whose inert andworn-out chiefs undoubtedly recognise the authority of the "Nabaof Nabas," but only out of mutual distrust; his prestige ismaintained automatically by means of a political "passion forlevelling up," because each attempt of a vassal to raise himselfto power is at once suppressed by all the others. By this meansMossi has been spared wars of any magnitude, and, thanks to along period of peace, has attained to prosperity. Already atthe beginning of the 14th century it was an important Empire, 802whose prince took part in the conquest of Timbuktu in 1326 or1329. In the 15th century the Mossi again withdrew to the southbefore the Inmsharh, but have preserved the influence of thelatter in their clothing and weapons (a sabre with cross-hilt).The Jolof Prince Bemoy, who visited Lisbon in 1488, describedMossi in such a way that it was taken to be the land of themuch-sought-after Priest Johannes. In 1498-1499 it was laidwaste by Haji Mohammed Askia of Sonrhay. In 1533 the Portuguesesent an embassy to Mossi, which, according to Ahmed Baba'saccount, was, about 1584, a powerful empire.The immigration of the Mandingo in consequence of the greatBambara war of 1754-1760 is of great importance to the country,as it was by this that Islam first began to obtain a footing.At present a vehement struggle is silently going on betweenfetishism and Islamism, which is concentrated in the person ofthe Naba, who is surrounded by a wall of the adherents of bothsides, each of which lays claim to him. Owing to the perfectflatness of the soil and to the long period of peace thescattering of the settlements attains to its highest degree inMossi; "there are no villages, but districts, in which thegroups of huts are from 50 to 100 metres (55 to 110 yards)apart, clustered round those of the chieftains." There are nofortifications. The soil produces millet, beans, cotton, andindigo, whilst very fine horses and asses, which are much soughtafter, are reared; there are industries in metal-leather andcotton-goods; the latter being excellently made by the Mossi,who ornament them with homemade silk. Mossi merchants are to be803met with in all large market-towns between Timbuktu and theMonteil, 144.802 Barth, IV., 613, 621; Binger, I., 481 et seq.--Bingerbelieves the conquest of Timbuktu to have been effected inconjunction with the Mandingo, or else under their leadership.803Jaime, 63, 230.157

Coast. Being the best archers in the Western Sudan they alwaystravel armed, frequently in caravans of up to 500 men 804 ; theyare famous for the length of their marches. Protected, as on anisland, by a circle of races of lower civilisation, the Mossiare in a position to develop independently, although race-typesare rare even here; they call themselves Mo or Morho; theirlanguage, the Mor, 805 is allied to Tombo, Aser, and the dialectof the Tengelin (or the Fali group, on the Benuë). Bingerdepicts the race as in full process of decline, 806 while Monteiltakes a more favourable view.807The capital of Mossi is Wagadugu, the population of whichis estimated by Binger at 5,000. It contains the residence ofthe Naba and the groups of the mussulmans of Mande descent, andthose of the Sonrhay, Haussas, and Fulbes; in addition there areseven villages round the town, each of which has its own Naba.The huts are circular, and made of clay or mats, according asthe people are mussulmans or fetish-worshippers. The residenceof the Naba, the mosques and the dwelling of the Imam orAlmamy 808 are of Arab form. Between the huts there are swampydepressions from whose edges the natives draw water, which isladen with organisms and communicates the guinea-worm, 809 whichis here very common, to the people. There is a market everythird day at which, besides the necessaries of life, thefollowing are sold, viz.: salt, kola, asses, horses, slaves andMossi- and Haussa-stuffs, the latter even cheaper than atSalaga; dolo is drunk there in large quantities, and griotscrack their sorry jokes. The great kola-route coming from thesouth leads to the N.W. via Yatenga and Massina to variousemporiums for the salt of Taudeni (Sofurula, Duentsa, Timbuktu),and to the N.E., in the direction of Haussa, to Dore, the804 Wolf, M.D.S., II., 83; Kling, III., 148.805 Binger, I., 482; Prietze, in Passarge, 415, 554; itcontains a few words of Mande origin.806 "Everybody lives poorly."807 Barth, IV., 266, Note (Wógho-dogho) and 577 et seq.;Binger, I., 458 et seq. (Waghadugu or Worhodorho, i.e., manyhuts); Sketch in Binger, II., 397; Monteil, 132 et seq.--Krauseunfortunately made no report.808 The Almamy is here not the prince but has only indirect,though ever-increasing, political influence; his son has alreadymade the great pilgrimage.809 As regards this land-scourge of the travelling people ofthe Sudan, called in Haussa ngidui or misery, compare Barth,II., 660; Staudinger, 513; Barret, "L'Afr. occ.," I., 220; Lota,"Deux ans etc." 58 et seq. (La filaire de Médine); Béchet, "Cinqans etc" 236 et seq.; Kling, M.D.S., III., 148.158

principal place in Libtako, and one much visited by the Mossi.Whilst the main direction of these routes remains always thesame, they vary considerably in particular sections; forinstance, in a southerly direction the traders, to avoid thecupidity of the poor population of Gurunsi, make the principalstages "one after the other, as on the squares of a chess-board,whilst they continually protect themselves" (Binger). Centresof some importance and residences of Nabas are Yako, 810 Mani, 811Kaye, 812 Pensa, Bussomo, 813 and Kupela, 814 all Village-States, eachof from 10 to 50 groups, and with some 3,000 inhabitants.815N.W. of Mossi, between it and Mássina, lies YATENGA, sowell-suited for horse-breeding, and which, with its savannahlikecharacter, is a sort of preparation for the desert.Yátenga stands in a sort of doubtful relationship of dependencyin regard to Mossi, and, like it, is, politically speaking,organised in a number of Village-States, whose Nabas in Binger'stime acknowledged the authority of the Naba of Wadiuge, whilstMonteil mentions another capital, Sissamba. The parent stem ofthe population is formed by the Mossi, with whom are associatedthe Sonrhay, Tombo, Fulbes, and Bobo Ule.Individuality in a marked degree is possessed by the Bimba,816a race allied to the Mossi, who inhabit GURMA, which lies tothe eastward, on the Niger, and which has been preserved inspite of, or rather in consequence of, its long contests againstSonrhay, Haussas, and Fulbes, for which reason also itspolitical institutions appear to be fewer in number but greaterin extent than in the more peaceful Mossi. Gurma is probably aSonrhay name, and means "the land to the south of the river;" inany case its northern half was colonised by Sonrhay. Already in1429 we hear of an expedition against Gurma by the Sonrhay King810 The ceremonial at the court of this kinglet is mostcomplicated and has very humiliating forms (Monteil). Binger,I., 479, 502; Monteil, 124.811 Binger declares that this, and not Wagadugu, is the mostimportant market in the country; I., 467.812 Monteil, 150. Close by is the water-knot of Wegu.813 Barth, IV., 581, and Journal London, 1860, 122.814 Barth, IV., 293, 578, 583; it has a Fulbe resident, andis known for its cheap calicoes; Barth calls it Kulfela.815 Barth, IV., 570, 581 (Yádega, coinciding with the TomboEmpire on the map in Vol. V.); Binger, I., 465, Note; 505 etseq.; Monteil, 121.816 Clapperton, II., 116, and Appendix; Barth, IV., 261 etseq., 568, 622; Binger, I., 481; II., 58; Gruner, Kol. Z., 1895,194, and Mitt. Leipzig, 1895, XXIX.159

Sonni Ali, which was followed by many more, undertaken by otherrulers, to which fact desert tracts of country still bearwitness. According to Clapperton's account, the Fulbesendeavoured at the beginning of this century to occupy thecountry, but were only able to keep the connecting-route betweenMássina and Haussa, and did not at all interfere with theindependence of the chieftains. Their influence here is slowlyon the wane, as is confirmed both by Barth and Gruner, thelatter of whom drew the empire into the German sphere ofinfluence. The Over-king rules in Machakuale, 817 but had to besought out in his entrenched-camp against the Fulbes; he is amussulman, and can read and write Arabic; at the residence hewas represented by the Queen-Mother; the most powerfulprovincial-kings, who "are naturally fairly independent," arethe rules of Bissúggu and Fada Gurma. 818The space between Gurma and the coast-strip of Ashanti asfar as Yóruba is filled up by the State-organisations ofGurunsi, Mamprusi--Mangu--Pama, Dagomba, and Borgu, whereseveral sub-kings, who rule the village-chiefs, themselvesacknowledge the authority of the most powerful in each country.The lowest place in political life is occupied by GRUSSI 819(Binger: Gurunsi), which lies to the south of Mossi, and iswatered by three arms of the Volta. The relatively densepopulation, as professional robbers and waylayers, are dreadedby the caravans. At the sound of a whistle they hasten upready-armed 820 and bar the way to the travellers, of whoseapproach the nearest inhabitants are warned by mounted men.Their poverty and greed, mistrust and fear of slave-raids ("thefish-pond of Mossi"--Binger), are the causes of their hostility.The people is composed of heterogeneous elements, is stillentirely given up to fetish-worship, and, according as they arecloser to or further away from them, show resemblances to theMossi, Bimba, Mampurga-Dagomba, Gonja, and even to the Ashantis,by whom they appear to have been hunted away into their817 Myakuali or Nando, Barth's Nungu or Benába (IV., 577).On account of the warlike character of the population there wasvery little traffic with Mossi.818 fada=residence in Haussa; the Over-lords are said to haveonce upon a time ruled here, but to have destroyed it; Monteil,210; Fada Gurma=Nungu=Sudu M'Bojio; Kol. Z., passim. In anycase these residences are subject to great changes; vide Barth,IV., 262.819 v. François, M.D.S., I., 143 et seq.; Binger, II., 34 etseq.--One here comes across three kings of salt; that fromTaudeni, sea-salt (viâ Salaga), and that from the small sebchaof Daboya on the White Volta.--Bowdich, 251; Binger, I., 315,375; II, 51, 100.820Like the Mossi they mostly carry poisoned arrows.160

wildernesses. The Gurunga still go quite naked: "when theycome to Gambaga they are pointed at, because neither have theyanything on, nor have they brought anything of value toexchange." At the places along the trade-routes, the trafficand Islam combined have by degrees begun to exercise acivilising influence, though the routes through a country ofthis description are but little used, and are therefore hard tofind and easily missed. The slave-hunters from all sides,however, exploit it with great eagerness; as the farmsteads arenot united into communities, 821 there is no head-chieftain; infact often many of the communities and groups have not even achieftain at all.The Gurunga feed on beans, tamarind-meal, millet, andgroundnuts; they also rear small brown cattle.On the occasion of Binger's visit the country had been muchexhausted by the predatory raids of an adventurer, Gandiári,from Saberma, and of his successor, Babotu, 822 who ruled thecountry to the south and south-west of Mossi. The scene ofthese raids had been Sati, three days' journey to the south ofLadio, in addition to which Baporo and Pura 823 are also mentionedas settlements; there are no places of any importance whateverin the country. The two last-named indicate the northern limitsof the gold industry, whilst the Red Volta is here anotherimportant line of demarcation: to its east Haussa, and to itswest Mande, is the principal language of commerce. 824To the north of Gurunsi are the little-known territories ofthe wild Kipirsi and of the Sommo; to the west is the goldcountry Lobi and that of the Niëniëge; to the south are Gonjaand the States of Wa; whilst to the east are Dagomba andMamprusi.MAMPRUSI, 825 a small State situated on the left bank of theWhite Volta, was 200 years ago much larger and extended as faras Sansanne-Mangu and westwards to the Red Volta. It is inpossession of the direct route between Mossi and Gonja, on which821 Where this is, however, the case the huts, from motivesof security, are placed so close together that one can step fromone flat roof on to another, as in some of the Bobo villages.Binger, I., 434. Many of the huts have basements: "It is thetransition-dwelling from the cave to the hut, and the people arein fact semi-troglodytes." Bull. Lyon, passim, 673.822 Binger, I., 503 et seq.823 Binger, II., 35.824 Binger, I., 479.825 Binger, II., 37 et seq. The language of the countryclosely approaches that of Mossi, but has also borrowed numerousexpressions from Wolof Mande and Haussa.161

have been formed the places of Wal-Wale 826 and Gambaga, 827 eachwith from 2,500 to 3,000 inhabitants. These--the Mampurga--areaborigines closely allied to the Mossi, or are rather therecognised oldest race, to which Mande and Haussa immigrantshave been added. The ruler, mampurga naba, resides in a littleplace called Nalirugu.The most precise political organisation, thanks to theenergy of its ruler, is, at the present time, possessed byDAGOMBA, which lies somewhere midway between the Niger at Gurmaand the Coast at Ashanti. The inhabitants are coated with asuperficial varnish of mahomedanism, but are nevertheless arrantdrunkards. They are, however, diligent and manure their fields.828The most important settlement is Yendi, favourably situatedon the caravan-route which runs from the kola country towardsthe north and east. The traffic, however, avoids Yendi as faras possible, as the Over-King exacts extraordinarily high tolls,whilst his brother also robs the traders as much as he can. Thetown is healthy, and has from 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants,distributed over eight quarters. The King, who is surrounded bygreat ceremonial and pomp, is a tyrannical despot, who has thecountry on his borders very sharply watched, and relies in thefirst instance upon his well-disciplined calvalry. Hisrepresentative and prime-minister is the galadima, next to whomthe most important personage is the executioner; the chiefs ofthe quarters, the minister for foreign affairs, and the limamalso exercise considerable influence. The progress of Islam ishere also based upon economical grounds: the traders, mostlyHaussa, are at the same time the bankers, who have the principalmen in their hands; they are often resident, as dyers and ownersof tobacco-plantations, and fulfil the office of school-master.Political centres of second rank in Dagomba are Karga 829 andBimbillo. 830The organisation of MANGU, the State to the north ofDagomba, is on the same lines as is the latter, i.e., with anOver-king, prime minister, and chief for foreign affairs, but isnot of quite so formal a character. The capital is the ancient826 Barth, IV., 266 (Wola-Wola, dependent upon Yendi);Binger, II. 46 et seq. Binger here saw twenty-one indigo-vatsin operation.--The principal food from here southwards consistsof yams.827 Barth, IV., 569; Binger, II., 58; v. François, M.D.S.I.,passim.828 Bowdich, 259 (Yahndi, capital of Dagwumba); Barth, IV.,266, 574; Binger, II., 78; v. François, passim; Gruner, Kol. Z.and Mitt. Leipzig, 1895.829 Binger, II., 65; v. François and Gruner, passim.830Kling, M.D.S., III., 149.162

Mandingo settlement of Sansanne-Mangu, 831 a former encampment (asits name signifies), close to the water-parting between theNiger and the Ocean, and an important route-junction, from whichroutes lead to Kuande, Pama, Yanga, Gambaga and, viâ Yendi, toKrachi. It is built upon one of the numerous ridges of hillswhich stretch out over the country from Salaga. In olden daysit transmitted the gold-trade from the south to Sonrhay. Itspossession is of special importance to Germany. Gambaga (videsupra), which Binger puts down as belonging to Mamprusi, ismentioned by Gruner as the residence of an Under-king of Mangu.Mangu has good relations with Gurma.832The little State of PAMA, the king of which lives atGreat Pama, is also of importance for the development ofTogoland, which naturally tends towards Mossi and Gurma.Between Pama and Gurma there extends an arid wilderness fivedays' journey in width, in which no trace of mankind is visible;for years it has not been crossed by a caravan, but passed roundon the west. It is certainly the result of human devastation.The EMPIRE OF BORGU (Burgho, Barbar, Bariba--the last twoappear to be the names of the people--and pars pro totoBussangsi) shares with Gurma the possession of the land ofpassage between Pul-Haussa and the kola-district. In 1501, asthe result of war, it was taken by Haji Mohammed Askia, of833Sonrhay. Since the beginning of this century its warlikeinhabitants have been fighting against the Fulbes, whom theybave successfully opposed. They are cowardly, cringing, cruel,and the most dangerous waylayers of the Haussa caravans, many ofwhich are exterminated by them; they are also keen slavehunters.834 Every place is surrounded by parapet and ditch. Onthe borderland towards Gurma Gruner found, in tracklessmountains, some still independent remains of the ancientpopulation, whilst at the foot of them the upper layers havealready been mahomedanized. Their independence is assisted bytheir mode of settlement; only one family occupies a farmstead,a sort of mediaeval castle, within which is a miniatureembankment of earth. Baulks notched together serve as astaircase to the terreplein.Borgu is subdivided into a number of States, of which the835most important is Bussa, with its capital of the same name.831 Barth, IV., 574 (Sansanne-Mangu means "camp ofMohammed"); Binger, II., 55, 232 (Sansanne-Mangu means "camp ofMango or Grumania, the capital of Anno"); Gruner, Kol.-Z., 1895,194; Doering, Kol.-Z., 1895, 210 et seq.; Mitt. Leipzig, passim.832 Gruner; passim.833 Barth, IV., 628.834 Clapperton, II., 64; Binger, II, 54 et seq.; Wolf,M.D.S., IV., 9 et seq.; Ferryman, 144; Gruner, Lecture, Leipzig.835Clapperton, II., 145 et seq.; Landers, Journ. Lond. 1830,163

Clapperton found it to be on an island in the Niger, the Landerbrothers and Flegel, on the other hand, found it on the rightbank of the river; the latter found it of less importance thanhe had expected, but quite independent of Gando. Up till justbefore this time passage across it had been altogetherforbidden. Bussa is well known in the whole neighbourhood asthe meeting place of all the riff-raff from Nupe and the North,who here find protection. There is no legitimate trade but,rather, an extensive system of robbery. These conditions shouldbe altered by the establishment of a French fort at Bussa, asthe terminus of the route from Dahomey to the Niger. At Bussabegin the Rapids of the Niger, which extend as far as Rabba;they can, it is true, be navigated in canoes, though the nativesprefer to go round by land. Besides Bussa, Clapperton, 836mentions Wawa, Kiama and Nikki 837 as important towns in Borgu.The latter is even at the present day an important and wellsituatedpoint of junction of routes in the centre of thecountry, and was the goal almost reached by Wolf. The kingrules at Perere. Gruner mentions Kuande as being the last placein Borgu. Wangára, the capital of the district of Sugu,consists of a residential-quarter, and of a trade-quarter; inthe latter, markets are held every four days, of which Wolfgives a detailed scale of prices. Sugu is tributary to Borgu.Semere, which belongs to it, "is a place composed of 15villages, containing in all 4,000 huts, together with fields andlarge open spaces with shady trees, all enclosed within onecommon ring-wall," and is an important slave-market. Theimportance of all these places consists in their being situatedon the great kola-route to Haussa, as also are Dadaura, Paratau,the capital of Chaucho (or Sogode), Fasugu, Wu (Bo), Yerrepá andNapárri. 838 To the south of this district, in which the kolatreegrows, and whose traffic consequently gravitates towards180; Barth, IV., 249; V. 235; Flegel, M.A.G., II., 250; III., 43et seq.; Ferryman, 144, 167; v. Carnap, Kol.-Z, 1895, 210(formerly commonly written "Bussa"; within the walls there isplenty of open space between the "clusters of scattered huts";Clapperton estimated the population of the town at from 10,000to 12,000; already in 1584 Ahmed Baba mentions it as being verypowerful).et seq.836 Clapperton, II., 66, 106, 169.837 Wolf, M.D.S., IV., 15; d'Albéca, Ann. de géogr. 15, 166838 Wolf, passim, 3 et seq.; Kling, M.D.S., III., 149 etseq.; VI., 107; Büttner, M.D.S., IV., 190 et seq.; d'Albéca andRouire, passim. These settlements are all of considerable size(from 3,000 to 5,000 resident inhabitants) and the scene oflively moslem propaganda; in Dadaura Büttner met with two limamsone being for the natives, and the other for mahomedans passingthrough, while in Fasugu there were three hajis.164

the Interior is the country of the oil-palm, in the zoneextending from Liberia to the Oil Rivers, 839 in which the trafficis with Europeans, and which consequently gravitates towards theCoast. Palm-oil and palm-nuts are exported. Black middlemenbuy the oil, (the price of which varies with the supply anddemand,) in all the large places, whilst in Dahomey this is doneon behalf of the King. The principal ports of export are GrandBassam, Accra, Porto Novo, Lagos, Brass and Akassa.Amongst the countries of Africa the Western Sudan has itsown complete geographical individuality, in which, owing to thelie of the country and the general characteristics of the soil,the natural zones of particular forms of vegetable growth extendunfettered in an easterly and westerly direction: thus wehave:--the fringe of the desert; the frontier-belt of cerealsand root-crops; the zones of the butter-tree, of the oil-palm ofthe kola-tree and of dense vegetation. It followed thatintercourse and commerce between the zones--thanks to the wealthof the produce and to the intelligence of great tribes--has forlong ages been in course of development in a northerly andsoutherly direction. The great waterway of the Niger, acting asa route in both directions, only plays a subordinate part, asillustrating the roadless character of Africa; in many placeseven it was formerly used much more than it is now. Once everyyear in the dry season a great wave of traffic flows over thecountry and reaches its highest point in January. Besides thissmall but ever-operating factor the intermixture of races ispromoted by the migrations of the Mandingo, Haussas and Fulbesbetween whose places of residence the remnants of earliersettledtribes form the groundwork of a great "Magma."The starting-point of the State-organisations of theWestern Sudan is the village and not the tribe. Theconsciousness of a tribal entity only develops gradually.Everywhere one sees the tribe degenerate into Village-States,839The northern limit of the oi-palm coincides with thesouthern limit of the butter-tree (v. François, M.D.S., I.,170); Rohlfs found it even to the north of the Benuë (Qu. d. A.,201), Kling in the back-country of Togo as far as 9° 40'N. Lat.(M.D.S., VI., 107), v. Puttkamer at Bida (M.D.S., II., 102;compare Flegel, Briefe, 48). According to the "Journal officieldu Dahomey et Dépendances" there are annually exported fromDahomey alone some 10,000 casks (puncheons of some 500 to 600kilogrammes, or 1,100 to 1,300 lbs.) of oil, and 20,000 casks ofnuts. D'Albéca reckons the average produce of a palm at 10⋅8francs (8s. 8d.). The natives obtain from it a wine which isbetter than that of the real wine-palm. Accounts as to thepreparation of oil are given by Bouche, "La côte des esclaves etDahomey," 196; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., 220; Moloney, "Forestry ofWest Africa"; Binger, II., 250 et seq.; d'Albéca, passim, 173 etseq.; Ferryman, 16 et seq.; Staudinger, 636.165

which either live apathetically alongside each other or elsemake war upon each other; never by their own initiative do theyunite into one harmonious whole. The village is a sort of"State-cell" complete in itself and capable of existence, andconstitutes the primitive State. Under gifted individuals orunder hostile pressure several "State-cells" become united andassume another form, on a higher scale, and become a "cellState," which may be of the most varied extent, from three orfour settlements up to hundreds. It is the political formusually to be met with in the Sudan, and may be eitherhomogeneous--with all the cells grouped in an equal manneraround the chief--or heterogeneous when it is divided up intogroups which are dependent upon subordinate chieftains, who areeither members of some great family or are strangers. Thehighest standard of political being has been reached by theFulbes. Being herds, they avoid the mountains and forests, anddo not occupy the whole extent of the country; they, however,possess large centres and the routes connecting them, so thatthe Fulbe State, in its entirety, gives one the impression of anetwork, composed of a number of meshes of varied dimensions--i.e., the settlements. The extent of country into which it hasthus hastily entered is, however, far too large for it. Theimprovement of the "mesh State" over the "cell State," consistsin its bringing, (owing to the number and similarity of itssystems of government, 840 ) all the various tribes, as well as agreat tract of country, under the sway, even if incompletely, ofone single Over-lord. The Mandingo and Haussas have not broughtit to that pitch of perfection, the highest degree having beenattained to by Kong. Weak spots in the State exist wherecommunication with the centres is interrupted, as, for instance,on the Benuë, by the Bassama between Bauchi and Yola, and againbetween Yola and Marrua, or in Kebbi and Gober. The mostimportant factor in the future of the Fulbe State is thepreservation of the genuine herds, the Borroro, the patriarchalelement upon which it is founded. Pul-Haussa is no puretheocracy, as was believed on many sides. To be sure, theFulbes are a pious race, but their political institutions arethose of all mahomedan peoples, and are borrowed from the koran;titles, administration and ceremonial are modelled in generalupon those of Bornu. The cohesion of the Empire is provided forin the first place by the patriarchal conception, which may sinkinto lethargy, but can also burst out in fanatical enthusiasm.The lamdiulbe of Sókoto is the Father of the entire pastoralpeople,as also is each sultan in his own empire, and, in thefourth or fifth degree, each chieftain in his own village.Personal ability, historical preeminence, wealth, amount oftribute and distance from the centre, all determine the rank ofthe vassals. A well-ordered system of supervision by princes840Only the ruling family of the Bauchi is not of Fulbedescent; it has however become completely assimilated to it.166

and officials 841 keeps them within bounds. Those who arerefractory are punished by having their tributes increased, bysending claimants to the throne into their countries, or byapplying to neighbouring States, and, finally, by arrest anddeposition. The lamidos come each year to Kaura or Wurno, withmuch pomp and with a military escort, to pay tribute. This isnecessary on account of the dangerous character of many woodedand mountainous places inhabited by hostile pagans, which onemay term the interior boundaries of the State, and whichencircle the greater and lesser Pagan Village-States within theFulbe meshes. The outer limits of Pul-Haussa have a verydifferent character. The district near Borgu was, at thebeginning of this century, subjected to great disturbances,which were, however, gradually quieted down. When, in Barth'stime, the governor of Hadeja had made himself independent, theFulbes did not send another governor to this district, butappointed the rulers of the walled-places to act as theirfunctionaries. The frontier district to the west and northwest,that adjoining the Maradi, Gobiri and Kebbi, and which isprotected by dense forests and by desert-tracts extending up to40 kilometres (25 miles) in width (just as the Fulbes areprotected by the walls of their large towns) has been the sceneof desperate battles; this district also constitutes a secondaryboundary with respect to the Tuaregs. The same character ofhaving been the scene of uninterrupted strife lasting overcenturies is possessed by the strip of frontier between Ilorinand Ibadan. In the west the boundary of the lethargic State ofGando has been altered to the advantage of the warlikeinhabitants of Gurma and Borgu. Finally in the south the Fulbesare in process of advancing along the whole line, Tibati andNgáumdere projecting far into the chaos of the Pagan VillageStates. Frontier-zones ("barriers" is the term used by Binger,and "frontier-marches" that employed by Monteil) are universalalso in the Bend of the Niger. They are either entirely desert(as is the zone 5 days' journey in width between Gurma and Pama,the land of former struggles (Sonrhay) and of present peace, andas are also numerous tracts where war is still going on) or arein process of becoming so. Where still inhabited they areattacked either from one (as in Tibati) or from both sides, andare devastated; as is the case with the zone, some 40 to 50kilometres (25 to 30 miles) in width, between Tiëba's andSamory's Empires, the latter of which is nothing more nor lessthan a State formed out of the plundered marchlands. 842 Anancient and valuable testimony as to the existence of frontierstripsis Leo's remark as to the States separated aliquo desertoar,noso. Between the smaller States these tracts are narrow,between the larger ones they are wide; though here other factors841 Thus the osiri, the prime minister, controls the King ofKano by annual tours of inspection.842The opposite is the case with Kong, which is a kola-routeraised to the dignity of a State.167

come into operation, as, for instance, proximity to densevegetation or to the Sahara; Monteil mentions the astoundingdistance of 70 kilometres (45 miles) between Libtako and Yagha.The age of the various zones can be determined as follows,viz.: by their having no ruins at all, these being the mostancient; by their having old ruins; lastly by their having newruins; in this connection the vegetation also affords a clue.That their lack of water or provisions, or the fact of theirbeing frequented by desperate robbers, should have caused thetraffic to have avoided them, is only natural. A foreshadowingof the modern boundary is to be found on frequented routeswhere, in the midst of the frontier zone between two countries,a boundary-mark is in existence, as, for instance, a stream, amarsh, a tree, or the edge of the forest. Saráki is a frontiertown belonging to both Nupe and Yoruba.The chief difference between the Negro State and theEuropean State consists in the dependence of the former upon therise and fall of individuals; politics are of a more personalnature, while the personality is more political than is the casewith us, where it is limited and confined by laws andinstitutions. The individual almost has the choice of beingeither a political nonentity or an absolute autocrat. Hence thegreat quantity of adventurers and of Mecca pilgrims who, thanksto personal qualifications, or to their spiritual horizon havingbeen elevated as a result of their journey, come to the fore asfounders of new States; hence, however, also the oscillation andlittleness, and the total disappearance, of States foundedoriginally upon a short-lived personality, and upon an oftenincompletely-developed consciousness of existence as a separaterace. If one may compare the European States to a mosaicpavement of which the pieces are, it is true, of various sizes,but which all fit into one another, then the Western Sudan maybe compared to a political sea studded with countless islands.The object of this work, rendered possible by journeysextending over a century, has been to give a picture of theconstant change and intermingling going on throughout this massof human beings, who constantly pass and repass between theOcean and the Desert, and who are divided up betweenmahomedanism and fetish-worship. Quite unknown a century ago,and fifty years ago only known in its main outlines, the WesternSudan now belongs to the best-explored portions of Africa,thanks to the devoted self-sacrificing energy of a number oftravellers, but more especially of the greatest among them, whosucceeded in grasping the most minute connections between theliving and the dead, with a glance just as keen and tender ashis character was great and noble, and whose work must everremain the foundation for the description of this portion of theearth, an imperishable monument to German spirit and Germanconscientiousness, and which will for ever cause the name ofBARTH to shine forth in letters of gold.168

I N D E XA.Abbeokuta--confederation--58. Ec.Abuja--territory--59. Fc.Accra--town--114. DEc.Ada--114.Adafu--114.Adamaua--country--41. Gc.Adar--country of a pagan tribe ofsame name--29, 30. EFb.Adrar (or Aderer)--country--66,Note 2.Adumre--town--44. Gc.A'gades--town--82. Fa.Agaie--town--55. Fc.Aïr--country--66. Fa.Akassa--town--129. Fd.A'kpoto--race--37.Almamy--title, used by Samory, &c.,24, 94, 110, 119.Alorie (see Ilorin).Ambrizette--town--100.Amenvi--town--112. Dc.Anassárawa--state and town--38. Fc.Anka--town--30. Fb.Anno--district--100, 112. Dc.Argungu--town--29, 105. Eb.Aribinda--district--74. Db.Aro--town--59.A'rre--town--74. Db.Asa--river--56.Asbens--race--102. Fa.Aser--tribe--84.A'sewa (see Mauri).Assuanek--race--60, 84.Asses--34, 72, 101, 103, 115, 122,123.Atakpame--114.Ateobu--town--114. Dc.Attakru--town--101.Auellimmide--branch of the Tuàregtribe--67.Awabu--village--112. Dc.B.Ba--the Bámbara hundred--the number"80"--89.Badde (or Bedde)--territory--33.Bado--suburb of Sókoto--28. Fb.Badumbe--town--92.Bafing--river--92. Bb.169

Bafulabe--town--92. Bb.Bafut--town--45.Bághena--country--60, 63, 65, 89.Baghirmi--country--117. Hb.Bagoë--river--94 (see Baule).Bakel--town--89, 92. Bb.Bakhoy--river--92 (see Baule).Bakúndi--town--40. Gc.Bakunu--country and town--60 (seeBághena). 89.Bálda--town--43. Gb.Bamako--town--93. Gb.Bámbara--race--65, 84, 85, 86.Bambàra hundred--102.Bambuk--country--80, 119. Bb.Bammana--race (see Bámbara).Bandama--river--CDc.Bandiagara--town--73, 113. Db.Baninko--state--90, 119. Cb.Banyo--state and town--41, 45. Gc.Baobab--tree--91.Baporo--settlement--125.Bara--province--67.Barba--people of Borgu--114.Bareni--village--121.Basikúnu--town--71. Ca.Bassama--pagan tribe--39. Gc.Bauchi--province and tow--38. FGbc.Baule--country--110. CDc.Baule, or Mayel Balevel--river--69,70.Bebene--state and town--44. Gc.Bedde--town--33.Beledugu--country--89, 119. Cb.Bendugu--district--106, 118. Cb.Benenduga--66.Bentang--tree--91.Benuë--river--41, Note 1. FGc.Berebere (or Kanuri)--race--39.Berebere (Lafia)--town--39.Bibene (or Bibena)--44.Bida--town--54. Fc.Bikini--52.Bilakoro--94, Note 3, 95.Bimba--race inhabiting Gurma--124.Bimbillo--town--127.Biram--town--32.Birni--a town surrounded by arampart--32, Note, 7.Birni--town--83.Birni-n-Gbari (see Guari). Fb.Birni-n-Hadeja--town--32. Fb.Birni-n-Kebbi--town--49. Eb.170

Bissandugu--district--94, 97. Cbc.Bisuggu--town--124. Eb.Bitugu (see Bonduku).Bla--town--118. Cb.Bobo--country and race--119. Db.Bobo-Jula--tribe--86.Bobo-Jilasu--town--107. Db.Bole--town--Cb and Dc.Bondu--country--84. Bb.Bondukoy--town--119. Db.Bonduku--gold-district and town--80,110. Dc.Borgu--empire--59, 27. Ebc.Bornu--country--32, 33. Gb.Boti (or Botu)--town, &c.--50, 52.Eb.Bubanjidda--state--42, 47. Gc.Bugula--town--118.Bunsa--town--50.Bure--gold-bearing district--70, Note 2, 80, 93. Cb.Burrum--territory--82.Bussa--state and town--113, 128.Eb.Bussura--town--120. Db.Bussomo--town--124. Db.Butter-tree--91.C.Camels--72, 103.Cattle--45, 90, 109, 113, 115, 118,125.Cavalry--20, 41, Note 3.Chad--lake--41.Chalebleb--lake--82.Chamba--town--44. Gc.Champalauel--town--51.Chaucho--state--128. Ec.Congo--river--69.Corn--80, 83, 90, 109, 115.Cotton--35, 39, 49, 73, 80, 89, 91,109, 113, 115, 121, 122.Cotton--strips--32, 43, Note 2, 51,Note 6, 73, Note 6.Cowries--28, 32, 35, 43, 45, 71, 79,80, 89, 101, 110, 113, 115.Cross--river--59.171

D.Dadaura--town--128.Dafina--country--119, 121. Db.Dafing--people of Dafina--119, 121.Dagomba--people and state--105, 114,126. DEbc.Dalla--province and town--73. Db.Dallul--a dry nullah--2, Note 5, 49,Note 5.Dar Salam--town--71.Dara--provision store--96.Dárghol--town--67, 82.Dates--81.Daulabugu--town--118. Cb.Daura--district and town--32. Fb.Dayas--backwaters of the Niger--2,Note 5, 72, 89.Debu--lake--2, Note 5, 68, 71.Déndina (or Dendi)--state--50. Eb.Dhaic (see Dayas).Dire--town--71.Dodo--a heathen god--32.Dokhosie--race--2. Db.Dolo--beer made from millet--91, 95,110, 123.Doma--town--38, Note 4. Fc.Donga--river--40.Dore (or Dori)--town--51, 119. Eb.Dorghol (see Darghol).Dosso--town--50, 105.Doventza (see Duentsa).Duensa--town--73. Db.Dugu-Kunasigi--96.Duki--121.Dyeing and dye-works--32, 35, 42,53, 89, 109, 111, 127.E.Ede--district--58. Ec.Egba--territory--58.Egga--town--54. Fc.Ejigbo--district--58.El Hodh--country--65, 89.Elorie or Elorny (see Ilorin).Engaski--territory--59. Eb.Epe--town--59. Ec.Ershan--town--90.172

F.Fada-n-Gurma (see Nungu).Falaba--town--97.Fali--tribe--74.Fama--the ruler of Segu, Kenedugu,&c.--87, 116, 119.Faraba--96, 97. Cb.Farabugu town--89.Faro--river--41, 43.Fataki--small traders--103.Fatene--town--90.Feri--cotton-strips, used ascurrency--32, 43, Note 2, 51,Note 6.Fetish, &c.--18, 51, 59, 85, 106,114, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123,125.Fofana--85.Fogha--salt valley--8, Note 1, 36,Note 1, 49, Note 5. Fb.Follona--country--106, 118.Fuladugu--country. Cb.Fulbe--race--12." history of the--23.Fulfúlde--the language of the Fulbes--12.Futa--the western Fulbe--89. Bab.Futa-Jallon--country--93. Bb.G.Galajo--country and town--50. Eb.Galadina--prime minister in Gambaga--126 (see also 42, 43).Galim--heathen state--41, Note 3.Gambaga--town--126. DEb.Ganadugu--confederation--95--97.Gando--empire and town--48. EFbc.Gárua--town--44. Gc.Gasa--district and town. Hd.Gashka--state and town--42, 44. Gc.Gassol--town--40, Note 7. Gc.Gendero--mountains--41, Note 3.Gerki--town--32.Ghánata--empire and town--60. Insetmap.Gire--town--13.Giuae--105.Gober--country--30. Fb.Gobin--vale--28.Gold--51, 61, 70, 79, 80, 84, 109,110 and Note 5, 113, 115, 121,125, 126.173

Gomba--town--113. Eb.Gombe-town--32. Gb.Gonja--country--113. DEc.Goro--Haussa and Kanuri for thekola-nut--98.Griots--ballad singers or minstrels--65, 85, 88, 106, 123.Grumania--town--101, 112.Grussi (see Gurunsi).Guari--country and town--52. Fbc.Guber--town--30. Fb.Gulbi-n-Gandi--river--27. Fb.Gulbi-n-Rimi--river--27. Fb.Gum (Arabic)--43, 81, 89.Gumbu--town--89. Cb.Gummel--province--33. FGb.Gundumi--forest--28.Gurin--town--43.Gurma--country--124. Eb.Guru--Haussa and Kanuri for thekola-nut--98.Gururga--inhabitants of Gurunsi--125.Gurunsi--country--105, 125. Db.H.Hadeja--province--32. FGb.Hamárua (or Bassama)--pagan tribe--39.Haussa states--legitimate 10--bastard 11.Haussas--race--7.Hodh (El)--country--65, 89.Hómbori--tribe and mountains--67,82--town 74.Horses--43, 73, 79, 98, Note 3, 109,115, 122, 123, 124.I.Ibadan--state and town--57. Ec.Ibi--town--40. Fc.Ibo--tribe--3, Note 2, 44.Igbo (or Ibo. which see).Ijil--salt⋅pan--118.Ilesha--district--58. Fc.Ilo--town--52. Eb.Ilorin--town--56. EFc.Indian-corn (see maize).Indigo--35, Note 3, 89, 91, 109,122.Iresha (see Ilesha).Iron--17, 54, 78, Note 4.174

Isaka (see Mopti).Isehin--district--58. Ec.Ivory--10, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 81.Iwa--district--58. Ec.Iyesha (see Ilesha).J.Jafarébe--town--71, 89.Jemaa--a council--110.Jemmara--province--13, 51, Note 9,106.Jenne--town--69. Db.Jenneri--neighbourhood of Jenne--71.Db.Jerma--the Fulfulde name forSaberma, which see.Jibo--town--74. Db.Jibu (or Shebu)--town--40. Fc.Jikum (or Juku) tribe--40.Jilgodi--country--74.Jinne--Bambara for Jenne, which see.Johba--river--93.Juku--tribe--10.Jula (Mande-- ).Juli--race--see Wakore.K.Kaarta--country, &c.--66, 90. BCb.Kábara--town--81-82.Kab siere--Ashanti chiefs--113.Kado--subject tribes--51.Kaiser Wilhelms-burg (or Ngila)--town--46. Gd.Kala--Arabic name for Sokolo, whichsee.Kalam, province--32. Gb.Kalliul--town--Fb.Kámbari--tribe--52.Kameliusu--town--100.Kamerun--German colony--15. FGcd.Kani--town--99, 101. Cc.Kankan--town--96-97. Cb.Kano--province and town--33-80. Fb.Kanuri--race--39.Karga--town--127.Karamama--town--52. Eb.Kasr--fortified village--82.Kassaure--province--32. Fb.Katagum--province and town--32. Gb.Kátsena--province and town--30. Fb.Katsínna--river--39, 40.Kaura--town--28. Fb.Kaye--town--123.175

Kayes--town--92. Bb.Kebbi--province--27, 29, 48. Eb.Keffi--state and town--37. Fc.Keletigi--94, Note 3.Kenedugu--district--106, 116. CDb.Kette--Krachi--town--115. Ec.Kiama--town--128.Kintampo--town--100, 113. Dc.Kipirsi--tribe--126.Kirotashi (or Kirtassi)--town--52,105. Eb.Ki-sso--province--73.Ki-sson-rhay--the language of theSonrhay--82.Kita--town--92. Cb.Klein-Popo--town. 114.Kogi-n-Anassarawa--river--37.Kokotla--bar of salt--102.Kola-nut trade, &c.--35, 51, 70, 80,84, 97, 98, 113, 115, 121, 123.Komadugu--river--32.Kompa--town--52. Eb.Kong--country and town--105. Dbc.Kongtigi--94, Note 3.Komoë--river--106. CDbc.Komono--race--2. Dc.Koma--district--97.Konja--state and town--44. Gc.Konkosu--agricultural slavevillages--108,109.Konkronsu--marshes--113.Konni--town--30. Fb.Kontsha (see Konja).Koranza--town--100.Koriume (or Korome)--part ofTimbuktu--81.Korórofa--province--10. FGc.Kotedugu--121.Kpandu--town--116.Krachi (see Kette).Kru--race--84.Kuande District and town--127, 128.Ebc.Kuka--town--101. Gb.Kulfu--55.Kunde--town--47. Gc.Kundi (or Bakúndi--town--10. Gc.Kundu--town--93. Cb.Kunian--town--97.Kumakari--town--90. Bb.Kupela--town--124.Kúrmina--province--67.Kurudugu--106.176

Kurusa, town--97. Cb.Kurusitigi--94, Note 3.Kussan--town--96. Cb.L.Labe--town--93. Bb.Labu--country--94.Ladio--settlement--125.Lafai--town--55. Fc.Lafia (--Bereberg)--town--39. Fc.Lafiagie--town--55.Lagos--town--129. Ec.Lakka--44-59.Lame--town--44, 59. Gc.Lamido--prince--45.Lamórde--town, Fulbe for "capital"--75. Db.Lanfiera--town--121. Db.Laro--town--44. Gc.Laube--caste of the "joiners" on theSenegal--18.Lere--town--44, 59. Gc.Libtako (or Liptako) province--51.DEb.Liguy--tribe--112.Lo--a caste--101.Lobi--gold-district--80, 126.Logore--river--46.Loko--town--38, Note 4. Fc.Lokója--town--54. Fc.Lome--town--114.Lougan--cultivation--117.M.Ma--race symbol--85 and Note 1.Mábube--caste of the "weavers"--18.Machakuale--town--124. Eb.Mahalba--town--45.Maize--80, 89, 109.Malinke--race--(see Wakore).Mamprusi--country--105. DEb.Mampurga--inhabitants of Mamprusi--126.Mándara--province--32, 33. Gb.Mande--race (see Wakore) also 85.Mande--Jula-race--85.Mandingo--race (see Wakore).Mangu--state--127 (see Mamprusi).Mani--town--123. Db.Maninia--95.Maninian--district--101. Cc.Marabout--11, Note 6, 93.Maradi--land of a pagan tribe of177

same name--29, 30.Marghi--province--32, 33. Gb.Marigot--2, Note 5, 70, 71, 73, 81.Marka--91; and see Assuanek--121.Marrabasu--109.Márrua--state and town--43. Gb.Máshena--province and town--33.FGb.Mássina--country--68. CDab.Mauri--state--49. Eb.Mayel-Balevel (or Baule) river--69,70.Mayo-Kebbi--river--43, Note 8, 44.Mbum--state and tribe--46. Gc.Medina--town--71, 92.Melle--ancient empire--60, 63.Inset map.Mendif--mountain--43.Messau--province--32. FGb.Mianka--106.Milo--river--96, 97. Cbc.Miniankala--district--3, Note 2,117, 119.Mioru--tribe--106.Mitkal--standard measure of gold66, 80, 110, Note 5.Mo--people of Mossi--123.Modiuledugu--country--98.Mopti--town--70.Mor--the language of Mossi--123.Mora--town--33. Gb.Morho--people of Mossi--123.Mossi--country and tribe--119, 121.Db.Murdia--town--89.Muri--country and town--39. Gc.Mussardu--town--98. Cc.Mussgu--province--32, 33. GHb.N.Naba--chief of Mossi--122.Nabe--tribe--106.Nadiango--town--51.Nago--tribe--57.Nalirugu--town--126.Nassarawa (or Anassarawa)--state andtown--38.Ndé--race--85.Ngámdere (see Ngaumdere).Ngáumdere--state and town--42, 46.Gc.Ngila (or Kaiser-Wilhelmsburg)--town--46. Gd.178

Ngussum--province--33.Niagassola--town--93.Niako--town--96.Niële--town--118.Niëniëge--tribe--120, 126.Nikki--town--128. Ec.Nioro--district and town--90. BCa.Nkoranza--town. Dc.Nungu--town--105, 124. Eb.Nupe--kingdom--52. EFbc.Nyámina--town--88. Cb.Nyfe (see Nupe). EFbc.O.Odienne--town--101. Cc.Ogbo-Mosho--district--58. Ec.Ogboni--fetish-priests--59.Ogun--river--58.Osogbo--district--58.Ostrich--feathers--61, 66, 73, 81.Oxen--72, 103.Oyo--town--57. Ec.P.Pakhalla--river--106, 111, 112.Palm-oil--110, 115, 129.Pama--state and town--121, 127.DEb.Pambi (see Pembi). Dc.Paratau--town--128. Ec.Pataki--small traders--103.Pembi--village--115. Dc.Pensa--town--124. Db.Perere--town--128. Ec.Pong (see Kong).Porto Novo--town--100. Ec.Pura--settlement--125.Q.Qbaïla--quarters of a town--109.Quasbah--a citadel--90.R.Rabba--town--53, 102, 128. Fbc.Rano--town--32. Fb.Rei Buba--town--47. Gc.Rhab--Arab name for Nioro, whichsee.Rhergo--town--82.Rice--70, 71, 80, 89.Rimi--Haussa name for the bentangtree--91.Rivières du Sud--dependency of179

Sene-gambia--93.Rudu--sleeping-platform--29, Note 1.Rukhala--a dependency--119.Ruma--race--67.S.Saberma--state--49. Eb.Sagha (see Mopti).Sakala--town--101. Cc.Sakhersi--race (see Wakore).Salaga--town--101, 113. Dc.Salia (or Saria)--37.Salt--8, Note 1, 31, Note 1, 36, 37,38, 39, 49, 51, 61, 66, 70, 71,72, 73, 79, 80, 102, 109, 113,115, 118, 119, 121, 123.Saltpetre--36.Samanke--tribe--85.Samere--district--128.Sambatijila--district--101.Samfara (see Sánfara).Samokho--tribe--85.Samory's Empire--93. Cbc.San--state and town--90, 112. Db.Sanaga--river--46. FGcd.Sanankoro--93, 94, 96, 97.Sánfara--province--28. Fb.Sanga (or Congo)--river--8, 47. Hd.Sankara--province--71. Da.Sansanding--town--71, 80, 88. Cb.Sansando--town--97.Sansanne--camp--38, Note 4.Sansanne-Mango--town--84, 127. Eb.Saráki (or Sarayi)--town--55. EFc.Sarayamo--town--73. Da.Saria--province--Fbc.Saria--town--36, 37. Fb.Saro--state and town--72, 90. CDb.Sati--town--125. Db.Say--town--18, 52, 101. Eb.Sebcha--a salt-pan--38, 49.Sebe, Fulbe name for the Assuaneks,which see.Segu--empire--65, 83. Cb.Segu (or Segu-Sikoro)--town--88.BCab.Senegal--river--ABab.Senufo (see Siën-re).Serekholle--the Sonninke tribe--which see.Serracolets--French name for theAssuaneks--which see.Shari--river--Hb.180

Shea-butter, or vegetable-butter--80, 89, 91, 109, 113, 115.Shebu (or Jibu)--town--40. Fc.Shonga--state and town--55. Fc.Sia (or Bussura), which see.Siana--town--99, 101.Siën-re--tribe--86, 97, 118.Sigiri--town--93. Cb.Sikasso--town--116, 117. Cb.Sijilmessa--town--83.Sinder--town--83. Eb.Sira--the unit "200"--110.Sissamba--town--124. Db.Slaves--35, 37, 39, 42, 46, 47, 53,70, 71, 73, 75, 79, 81, 87, 89,95, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 123,128.Sofakong--94 and Note 3, 96.Sofas--94 and Note 3.Sofurula--123.Soghoran--tribe--67.Sokolo--town--89. Cb.Sókoto--the provinces of--27." --town--27. Fb.Somono--fisherfolk of the Niger--88.Sommo--tribe--121, 126.Songo--halting place for caravans--104.Sonninke--race--85, 91.Sonrhay--ancient empire--60, 65;race--82. Inset map.Sorro (see Saro).Soso (or Saria)--town--37.Soso (see Susu)--race.Spices--80, 91, 109, 113.Ssarki-n-hauri--chief of Mahalba inTibati--45.Suamle--tribe--94.Suaninki--race--(see Assuanek).Sudu M'Bjio (see Nungu).Sugu--district--128.Sürmi--town--29. Fb.Susu--race--85.T.Taguano--district and race--106.Tangrela--district--101, 118. Cb.Tappa--race--inhabitants of Nupe--53.Tarábba--river--40. Gc.Tari--cotton-strips used ascurrency--73, Note 6.Tata--a mud wall--30, 73, 88, 117,181

118.Temashirht--language of theTuaregs--75, 78.Tenenku--town--69. CDb.Tenne--fetish or idol--85, 106.Tessaua--district--32. Fb.Tibati--country and town--41, 95.Gc.Tiéba's Empire--116. CDbc.Tikar--district--45. Gc.Timbo--town--98. Bb.Timbuktu--town--Da.Tiongi--district--101.Tobacco--81, 91, 109, 113, 127.Tobe--native clothing--35, 37, 53,89.Togoland--German colony--116.Toróde--state and town--51. Eb.Ton--tribe--112, 114.Turkédi--native clothing for women--35, 104.Tute--town--99, 101. Cc.U.Ulad-el-Alush--robber nomad tribe--72.Umalokho--town--118.Uru--Mandingo name for the kola-nut--98.V.Vegetable-butter--80, 89, 91, 109,113, 115.Volta--river--98. DEbc.W.Wa--states--126. Dbc.Wadan--town--56 and Note 2.Wadiuge--town--124.Wagadugu--town--113, 123. Do.Wahabu--small state--121.Waílube--caste of the "tailors"--18.Wakore--race inhabiting Segu--60,84.Wal-Wale--town--126. Db.Walata--town--60. Ca.Wambaibe--caste of the "singers"--18.Wanangi (or Wonangi)--town--54.Wanangi--river--54.Wandarama--108.Wangara (plural Wangaraua) seeWakore.182

Wangára--113, 128.Wasse--town--39. Fc.Wássulu--district--94, 96. Cc.Waúlube--caste of the "beggars"--18.Wawa, town--127.Wax--81.Weaving--36, 42, 53, 97, 121.Wei--race--85.Wheat--80.Wolosebugu--town--97.Womba--55.Worodugu--district--67, 98.Worokoro--97.Wósse (or Wasse)--town--39. Fc.Wukari--town--40. Fc.Wurno--town--28. Fb.Wute--state and tribe--46. Gcd.Y.Yabu (see Yebu).Yagha--state--51.Yako--town--123. Db., tribe--39.Yakoba (or Bauchi)--town--39. Fb.Yamina--town (see Nyámina).Yanga--town--127.Yátenga--district--122, 124.Yauri--country--52. EFb.Yebu--tribe--59.Yelu--town--50. Eb.Yendi--town--126. Dc.Yoaru--town--71. Da.Yoko--town--46.Yola--town in Adamaua--42. Gc.Yola--town in Muri--40, Note 7. Gc.Yorobadugu--district--94.Yóruba--country--55. Ec." race and language--56, 114.Z.Zango--halting-place for caravans--104.Zaria (or Saria)--37.Zezere--tribe--106.Zebba--town--51. Eb.Zhebu (or Jibu)--town--40.Zinder--province of Bornu--33. Fb.183