Chronicle of the Grand Pacification

Chapter 9 Asia 285To hear one's servants making merry. This isequally annoying if one is on a journey and stayingin cramped quarters or at home and hears theservants in a neighboring room.Parents, convinced that their ugly child isadorable, pet him and repeat the things he hassaid, imitating his voice.An ignoramus who in the presence of somelearned person puts on a knowing air and conversesaboutmen of old.A man recites his own poems (not especiallygood ones) and tells one about the praise theyhave received- most embarrassing.Lying awake at night, one says something toone's companion, who simply goes on sleeping.In the presence of a skilled musician, someoneplays a zither just for his own pleasure and withouttuning it.A son-in-law who his long since stopped visitinghis wife runs into his father-in-law in a publicplace.The Ideal Samurai67 .•.CHRONICLE OF THE GRAND PACIFICATIONWhile imperial court women at Kyoto devoted their talents to crafting new formsof literature, Japan's warlords engaged their energies in carving out independentprincipalities backed by the might of their private armies of samurai (they whoserve). Between 1180 and 1185 a conflict known as the Gempei War devastated theheartland of the main island of Honshu as the mighty Taira and Minimoto clansfought for control of the imperial family and its court. In 1185 the Minimoto housedestroyed the Taira faction, thereby becoming the supreme military power inJapan.Rather than seizing the imperial office for himself, the leader of the victoriousMinimoto family accepted the title of shogun, or imperial commander in chief, andelected to rule over a number of military governors from his remote base at Kamakura,while a puppet emperor reigned at Kyoto. This feudal system, known asthe bakufu (tent headquarters), shaped the politics and culture of Japan for centuriesto come.Toward the early fourteenth century the Kamakura Shogunate began to showsigns of weakening, which in turn encouraged Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318-1336) tolead a coup in an attempt to destroy the shogunate and re-establish the primacy ofthe emperor. This rebel emperor became the nucleus of a full-scale feudal uprisingby a wide number of dissatisfied warlords, samurai, and warrior-monks. Thewarrior-monks were members of great landholding Buddhist monasteries, whichalready for many centuries had been centers of independent political, economic,and military power. The rebellion resulted in the destruction of Kamakura and thedeath of its last shogun.Go-Daigo's victory was brief, however. Within a few years he was deposed by anotherwarlord, who installed his own emperor and received back from him the titleof shogun, thereby establishing the Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573). Japanese governmentand society, therefore, continued to be dominated by its feudal warriors.

286 Continuity,Change, and InterchangeThe story of the last several years of the Kamakura Shogunate is recorded in thepages of the Taiheiki, or Chronicle of the Grand Pacification. Composed by a numberof largely anonymous Buddhist monks between about 1333 and maybe as lateas 1370, this chronicle recounts the battles and intrigues of the period 1318-1333.Its title refers to Go-Daigo's momentarily successful attempt to destroy, or "pacify,"the shogunate.Our excerpt tells the story of the defense in 1331 of Akasaka castle by KusunokiMasashige, one of the emperor's most fervent supporters. This was a dark momentfor the imperial forces. The emperor, along with many followers, had recently beencaptured at Kasagi, a fortified monastic temple. The imperial cause needed a victory,even a moral one, and this heretofore obscure warrior was about to provide newhope with his inspired defense of this stronghold.Killed in 1333 in a battle he knew he could not win, Masashige has been reveredthrough the centuries as a paragon of samurai virtues. The kamikaze (divine wind)suicide pilots whom Japan launched against the U.S. Navy in 1945 were called"chrysanthemum warriors" in reference to the Kusunoki family's flower~d crest.QUESTIONSFOR ANALYSIS1. Why do the warriors assaulting Akasaka hope that Kusunoki will be able tohold out for at least one day? What does your answer suggest?2. Bravery is naturally expected of all warriors, but which other samurai virtuesdoes Kusunoki Masashige exemplify?3. Which samurai virtues do his foes exhibit? In what ways did they showthemselves to be less than ideal warriors?4. Thinking their enemy dead, the shogun's warriors pause to rememberKusunoki Masashige. What does this suggest?5. Based on this account, what picture emerges of the ideals and realities offourteenth-century Japanese feudal warfare?No man of the mighty host from the distant easternlands was willing to enter the capital, so sorelywere their spirits mortified because Kasagicastle had fallen. 1 ••• All took their way insteadtoward Akasaka castle, where Kusunoki HyoeMasashige was shut up. . . .'When these had passed beyond the Ishi River,they beheld the castle. Surely this was a strongholdof hasty devising! The ditch was not a properditch, and there was but a single wooden wall,plastered over with mud. Likewise in size thecastle was not more than one hundred or twohundred yards around, with but twenty or thirtytowers within, made ready in haste. Of those whosaw it, not one but thought:"Ah, what a pitiable spectacle the enemy presents!Even if we were to hold this castle in onehand and throw, we would be able to throw it!Let us hope that in some strange manner Kusunokiwill endure for at least a day, that by takingbooty and winning honor we may obtain futurerewards."'This force of Kamakura supporters from the east was dispiritedbecause it had arrived roo late ro participate in the captureof Kasagi.

Chapter 9 Asia 287Drawing near, the three hundred thousandriders? got down from their horses, one after another,jumped into the ditch, stood below thetowers, and competed to be the first to enter thecastle.Now by nature Masashige was a man whowould "scheme in his tent to defeat an enemy athousand leagues distant," one whose counselswere as subtle as though sprung from the brain ofChenping or Zhang Liang." Wherefore had hekept two hundred mighty archers within the castle,and had given three hundred riders to hisbrother Shichiro and Wada Goro Masato outsidein the mountains. Yet the attackers, all unwitting,rushed forward together to the banks of the .ditch on the four sides, resolved to bring downthe castle in a single assault.Then from tower tops and windows the archersshot furiously with arrowheads aligned together,smiting more than a thousand men in an instant.And greatly amazed, the eastern warriors said:"No, no! From the look of things at this castle,it will never fall in a day or two. Let us take timebefore going against it, that we may establishcamps and battle-offices and form separateparties."They drew back from the attack a little, tookoff their horses' saddles, cast aside their armor,and rested in their camps.In the mountains Kusunoki Shichiro andWada Goro said, "The time is right." They madetwo parties of the three hundred horsemen, cameout from the shelter of the trees on the easternand western slopes with two fluttering banners,whereon were depicted the chrysanthemum andwater crest of the Kusunoki house, and advancedquietly toward the enemy, urging their horsesforward in the swirling mist.The attackers hesitated doubtfully."Are they enemies or friends?" they thought.Then suddenly from both sides the three hundredattacked, shouting, in wedge-shaped formations.They smote the center of the three hundredthousand horsemen spread out like clouds ormist, broke into them in all directions, and curthem down on every side. And the attackers'hosts were powerless to form to give battle, sogreat was their bewilderment.Next within the castle three gates opened alltogether, wherefrom two hundred horsemen gallopedforth side by side to let fly a multitude ofarrows from bows pulled back to the utmost limits.Although the attackers were a mighty host,they were confounded utterly by these few enemies,so that they clamored aloud. Some mountedtethered horses and beat them with theirstirrups, seeking to advance; others fixed arrowsto unstrung bows and tried vainly to shoot. Twoor three men took up a single piece of armor anddisputed it, pulling against each other. Though alord was killed, his vassals knew nothing of it;though a father was killed, his sons aided himnot, but like scattered spiders they retreated tothe Ishi River. For half a league along their waythere was no space where a foot might tread, byreason of their abandoned horses and arms. To besure, great gains came suddenly to the commonfolk of Tojo district!"Perhaps the proud eastern warriors thought intheir hearts that Kusunoki's strategy could notbe despised, since blundering unexpectedly theyhad been defeated in the first battle. For thoughthey went forth against Handa and Narahara,"they did not seek to attack the castle again quickly,but consulted together and made a resolution,saying:"Let us remain awhile in this place, that led bymen acquainted with the home provinces wemay cut down trees on the mountains, burnhouses, and guard thereby against warriors wait-2The Taiheiki grossly exaggerates the number of pro-Kamakura fighters.3Two ministers of the first Han emperor of China. The quotationis from Ban Gu and Ban Zhao's History of the FormerHan Dynasty."Commoners scavenged battlefields.5Settlements near Akasaka.

288 Continuity; Change, and Interchangeing in reserve to fall upon us. Then may we attackthe castle with tranquil spirits."But there were many ... who had lost fathersand sons in the fighting. These roused themselvesup, saying:"What is the use of living? Though we goalone, let us gallop forth to die in battle!"And thereupon all the others took heart aswell, and galloped forward eagerly.Now Akasaka castle might not be attackedeasily on the east, where terraced rice fields extendedfar up the mountainside. But on threesides the land was flat; likewise there was but asingle ditch and wall. All the attackers were contemptuous,thinking, "No matter what demonsmay be inside, it cannot be much of an affair."When they drew near again, they went forwardquickly into the ditch to the opposite bank,pulled away the obstacles and made ready toenter. Yet within the castle there was no sound.Then the attackers thought in their hearts:"As it was yesterday, so will it be today. Afterwounding many men with arrows to confuse us,they will send other warriors to fight in ourmidst."They counted out a hundred thousand riders togo to the mountains in the rear, while the remainingtwo hundred thousand compassed thecastle round about like thickly growing rice,hemp, bamboo, or reeds. Yet from within thecastle not an arrow was released, nor was any manseen.At last the attackers laid hold of the wall onthe four sides to climb over it, filled with excitement.But thereupon men within the castle cutthe ropes supporting that wall, all at the sametime, for it was a double wall, built to let the outsidefall down. More than a thousand of the attackersbecame as though crushed by a weight, sothat only their eyes moved as the defenders threwdown logs and boulders onto them. And in thisday's fighting more than seven hundred of themwere slain.Unwilling to attack again because of the bitternessof the first two days of fighting, for fouror five days the eastern hosts merely besieged thecastle from camps hard by. Truly were they withoutpride, to watch thus idly from a nearby place!How mortifying it was that men of the futurewould make a mock of them, saying, "Althoughthe enemy were no more than four or five hundredpersons shut up in a flatland castle not fivehundred yards around, the hosts of the eighteastern provinces would not attack them, butshamefully laid down a siege from a distance!"At last the attackers spoke among themselves,saying:"Previously we attacked in the fierceness of ourvalor, not carrying shields or preparing weaponsof assault, wherefore we suffered unforeseen injury.Let us go against them now with a differentmethod."All commanded the making of shields withtoughened hide on their faces, such as might notbe smashed through easily, and with these upheldthey went against the castle once more,saying:"There can be no difficulty about jumpingacross to the wall, since the banks are not high,nor is the ditch deep. Yet will not this wall alsodrop down upon us?"They spoke with fearful hearts, reluctant toseize upon the wall lightly. All went down intothe water of the ditch, laid hold upon the wallwith grapnels, and pulled at it. But when thewall was about to fall, those within the castletook ladles with handles ten or twenty feet long,dipped up boiling water, and poured it ontothem. The hot water passed through the holes intheir helmet tops, ran down from the edges oftheir shoulder-guards, and burned their bodies soI grievously that they fled panic-stricken, throwingdown their shields and grapnels. Howshameful it was! Although no man of them wasslain, there were as many as two or three hundredpersons who could not stand up from the burnson their hands and feet, or who lay down withsick bodies.So it was that whenever the attackers advancedwith new devisings, those within the castle defendedagainst them with changed stratagems.Wherefore in consultation together the attackers

Chapter 9 Asia 289said, "From this time on, let us starve them, forwe can do no other." They forbore utterly to dobattle, but only built towers in their camps, linedup obstacles, and laid down a siege.Soon the warriors in the castle grew weary ofspirit, since there was no diversion for them. Norwas their food sufficient, since Kusunoki hadbuilt the castle in haste. The battle having begunand the siege commenced, within twenty daysthe stores were eaten up; nor did food remain formore than four or five days.Then Masashige spoke a word to his men,saying:"In various battles of late have we overreachedthe foe, whose slain are beyond counting, butthese things are as nothing in the eyes of somighty a host. Moreover, the castle's food is eatenup, and no other warriors will come to deliver us."Assuredly I will not cherish life in the hour ofneed, from the beginning having been steadfastfor His Majesty's sake .... But the true man ofcourage 'is cautious in the face of difficulties, anddeliberates before acting." I will flee this castlefor a time, causing the enemy to believe that Ihave taken my life, so that they may go away rejoicing.When they are gone I will come forwardto fight; and if they rerum I will go deep into themountains. When I have harassed the easternhosts four or five times in this manner, will theynot grow weary? This is a plan for destroying theenemy in safety. What are your views?"All agreed, "It ought to be so."Then quickly within the castle they dug amighty hole seven feet deep, filling it with twentyor thirty bodies of the slain (who were fallendown dead into the ditch in great numbers),whereon they piled up charcoal and firewood.And they awaited a night of pouting rain anddriving wind.Perhaps because Masashige had found favor inthe sight of Heaven, suddenly a harsh wind cameraising the sand, accompanied by a rain violentenough to pierce bamboo. The night was exceedinglydark, and all the enemy in their camps weresheltered behind curtains. This indeed was theawaited night!Leaving a man in the castle to light a blazewhen they were fled away safely five or six hundredyards, the defenders cast off their armor, assumedthe guise of attackers, and fled awaycalmly by threes and fives, passing in front of theenemy battle-offices and beside enemy sleepingplaces.It came about that the eyes of an enemy fellupon Masashige, where he passed before the stablesof Nagasaki. The man challenged him, saying,"What person passes before this battle-officein stealth, not announcing himself?"In haste Masashige passed beyond that place,calling back, "I am a follower of the grand marshalwho has taken the wrong road.""A suspicious fellow indeed!" thought theman. "Assuredly he is a stealer of horses! I shallshoot him down."He ran up close and shot Masashige full in thebody. But although the arrow looked to havedriven deep at the height of the elbow-joint, itrurned over and flew back again without touchingthe naked flesh.Later, when that arrow's track was observed,men saw that it had struck an amulet whereinwas preserved the Kannon Sutra,' which Masashigehad trusted and read for many years. Its arrowheadhad stopped in the two-line poem,"Wholeheartedly praising the narne.:" Howstrange it was!When in this manner Masashige had escapeddeath from a certain-death arrowhead, he fled toa safe place more than half a league distant. Andlooking back he saw that the warrior had lightedfires in the castle's battle-offices, faithful to hiscovenant.6A quotation from Confucius' Analects.7Known in its Chinese original as the Guanshiyin Sutra, thisBuddhist holy book was dedicated to the BodhisattvaGuanyin (sources 39 and 40), who in Japan was known asKannon.BCompare this with the miracle stories in the Tales of Guanshiyin(source 39).

290 Continuitv, Change, and InterchangeThe hosts of the attackers were seized withamazement at the sight of the flames."Aha!The castlehas fallen!"they shouted exultantly."Let no man be spared!Let none escape!"When the flamesdied away,they saw a mightyhole inside the castle, piled up with charcoal,wherein lay the burned bodies of many men. Andthen not a man of them but spoke words ofpraise, saying:"How pitiful! Masashige had ended his life!Though he was an enemy, his was a gloriousdeath, well befitting a warrior."•••••••••China: The Ages of Tang and SongThe period from 500 to 1500 witnessed a variety of momentous developments inChina: renewed imperial greatness, philosophical and technological innovation,economic expansion and a rapidly growing population, new modes of artistic expression,rebellions, invasions by various nomadic peoples, conquest by Mongolinvaders, and recovery and retrenchment. Through it all, Chinese civilization managedto retain intact its basic institutions and way of life.The Time of Troubles that followed the fall of the House of Han was over by theend of the sixth century, and under the Tang Dynasty (618-907) China was again agreat imperial power, with a restored Confucian civil service firmly in power. Atthe end of the seventh century China's borders reached to Korea and Manchuria inthe northeast, to Vietnam in the south, and to the Aral Sea in the western regionsof Central Asia, where China met and was checked by the new Islamic Empire atthe Battle of the Talas River in 751. The almost simultaneous creation of these twomassive empires, which together once again connected the Atlantic with the Pacific,resulted in a dramatic increase of traffic along the Silk Road and through thewaters of South Asia. Foreign goods, precious metals, peoples, and ideas flowedinto China's cities. As a consequence, Tang China enjoyed the richest, most cosmopolitanculture on the face of the Earth, until its empire began to deteriorateafter the mid eighth century. Between 755 and 763 China was torn apart by a rebellioninitiated by An Lushan, a military governor of Turkic descent. In the wakeof the devastation, Tang imperial strength rapidly disintegrated, and with it wentan earlier openness of spirit to outside influences. Fifty-three years of disunity followedTang's official collapse in 907, but, in fact, the previous half century of nominalTang rule had been equally anarchic.In 960 the Song Dynasty (960-1279) reunited most of China, which it ruled overfrom its northern capital at Kaifeng. In 1126, however, Kaifeng, along with all ofNorth China, fell to invaders from the steppes. A younger brother to the formerSong emperor escaped to the south, where he re-established a truncated Song Empirecentered on the so-called temporary capital of Hangzhou.For almost one half of its more than 300-year-long reign the Song Dynasty wascut off from the Yellow River. Despite this, Song Era China reached and main-