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• Specifications – to describe in detail how the softwarewill be created• Design – to define in conceptual terms how the softwarewill run• Implementation – to translate the design to code thatruns the design• Testing – to verify the quality of the software• Documentation – to address maintenance and futureenhancementsThese software development phases focus on creatingsoftware that meets performance requirements for theuser, while the ISD model phases focus on creating instructionthat supports the user in meeting performanceor learning requirements.In real world application, some ISD phases may beabbreviated or ignored completely due to a lack of accessto resources, or to meet time and budget requirements, orto appease upper level decision-makers who may not havean appreciation or understanding of the value offered byeach phase (Rossett, 1987). Despite that each phase maynot be fully applied, if at all, in an instructional design,instructional developers have managed to create instructionalexperiences with measurable, intended learningoutcomes.Instructional Design in an Online or VirtualLearning EnvironmentWith the escalation of changes in technology and access,instructional design, like many other disciplines, findsitself at a juncture with past methodology and a call foradaptation to align with changes in distance education,user expectations, and the potential of further technologicaland social innovation (Arbaugh (2007). Others, suchas Ilrbeck et al (2006) maintain that the challenge forthose involved in instructional development is to be ableto recognize what will continue to be pertinent in terms ofwhat we know about distance education (Ibid) and toidentify opportunities for pedagogical and systems-basedadaptation – or perhaps even complete reinvention (Ibid).In face of the perceived inadequacy of the current ISDprocess, coupled with the challenges of designing instructionfor VLEs, Ilrbeck, Kays, Jones, and Sims (2006) developedan Emergence Theory of Instructional Design. Ilrbecket al. point out that the current instructional designmodels are two-dimensional, adequate for print and video,for instance, but fall short for the more holistic andthree-dimensional VLEs. They contend that current instructionaldesign models provide a foundation for creatinginstruction, particularly for emerging delivery systems,but are not relevant to the complexity and dynamicsof online learning (Ibid).Ilrbeck et al. suggest that a continuous instructionaldesign and development for a VLE should be maintainedby the participants within the learning environment onan iterative and collaborative basis. Within this EmergenceTheory, the role of the instructional designer is toframe the instruction in a way that allows for spontaneousresponses and unexpected outcomes, and hopefully,higher learning. As a result, every design would becomeunique and discrete, the result of ongoing participantinteraction.Within this framework the role of the instructor movesfrom providing content to• Providing feedback;• Building rapport;• Influencing the culmination of activities that appearmore successful in moving toward the intended courseoutcomes; and• Amplifying or extinguishing student behaviors.The instructional design process for Emergence Theoryis based on a Three-Phase design (3PD) Model, whichwould involve setting learner baselines, rapid prototypingand adaptation, and ongoing maintenance. Withinthese three phases, one might see the importance for activitiesin the current ISD model, particularly the needsassessment to set learner baselines, before moving into aprocess that seems to fold design, development, implementation,and evaluation into one ongoing phase. However,the only data to support their theory is based onresearch using their own course in computer programming,which may have involved content and learninggoals inherently suited for an ILS. Ideally, this approachneeds to be validated through application to other contentdomains. Similarly, it would appear the ISD processcould use similar validation through research on its applicationin the creation of VLEs.To address the decision-making that informs instructionaldesign choices, Clark (2005) offers a new model forcreating effective online instruction. Her DVEP modelincludes the following sequential phases:• Define – clarifying business goals and the knowledgeskills needed to achieve them• Visualize - choosing the instructional methods appropriateto achieve the stated learning objectives• Engage – selecting the delivery methods to mediate theinstructional methods identified• Package – manage the preceding elements and thosethat follow in the virtual classroom event, supportparticipants with technical issues, state course objectivesand assignments, and establish social presence inthe early stages of the virtual environment.These phases resonate with the ISD model in terms ofAnalysis, Design, Development, and Implementation, aswell as the earlier discussed virtual learning elements ofcommunity and social presence. Interestingly, Clark’s focusis on “Package,” which is closely related to the ADDIEImplementation phase, characterized by an oscillatingcommunication interaction between the instructor/developerand the learner, but it does not include a formativeevaluation or summative evaluation to measure learningoutcomes.It is worth comparing the research in the instructionaldesign of VLEs with the processes advocated by thoseinvolved in virtual game design. Virtual game designsJOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENT 21 (2) p. 27
already have proven successful and widely received bytheir intended audience as reflected by sales and proliferationof user communities that develop around them. Duringa threaded mailing list discussion on the design of agame-based learning simulation, Clark Aldrich, an establishedgame designer and author, posted the followingdescription of what he considers critical steps (Aldrich,2007):I have two:Audience Technology Survey: The step of identifying,of the target audience, the most powerful common technologyplatform and distribution process to which at least80% have (or can easily get) access.Piloting: The step before a major roll-out of takingeither 10% or 30 sample and representative participantmembers (whichever is smaller), and running the programexactly as you intend the full program, but with agreater rigor in measuring the results at the end of theprogram. The results of a pilot can be used either tosupport a “go”/”no go” decision if an organization isevaluating a sim, or to calibrate the sim before the full rollout. If calibrating the sim, and significant changes aremade, another pilot deployment is suggested before a majorroll-out. When piloting a sim, it is critical not to tellthe audience “we are piloting this program, what do youthink?” Instead, it should be positioned similarly to themajor roll-out, such as “this is a required program. Doyour best.”Aldrich’s steps may not reflect instructional design,but they do speak to similar audience considerations addressedin the ADDIE Analysis phase, and usability testingthat would fall within the Evaluation phase – processesthat Aldrich’s model does not incorporate.Each of the models discussed endeavors to address thetechnical dimensions of the creation and operation of aVLE, as well as the role of the user or participants inproviding feedback to improve the performance of theenvironment technically and instructionally. Some models,including those of Ilbeck, and Brown and Voltz, aremore organic and flexible in allowing users to set theboundaries and terms of the learning. Others, such asAldrich, rely on establishing terms of engagement in aVLE through stated learning goals that drive the directionof the learning experience, outcomes, and meaning-making.Elements of Instruction in Distance Learningand Virtual Learning EnvironmentsAs a term, distance learning is used to describe distanceeducation, distributed learning, open learning, flexiblelearning, networked learning, online instruction, or connectedlearning spaces. However, distance learning notonly addresses geographic dispersion, but how and whenlearning takes place (Holmberg, 1989), especially in thatthrough the use of an LMS or ILS, a VLE has become moredistinctly a learning space distinguished by deliberate establishmentof a place and community to meet instructionalpurposes (Livingston & Kemp, 2006). Consequently,although online learning was initially developed as adistance learning solution, given the convenience and flexibilityan online learning environment offers its participants,and the rich opportunities it supports for collaborativelearning and knowledge building, the virtual onlinelearning environment has become more of an instructionalsolution rather than a distance mediator. For thesereasons, VLEs are considered tools for distance learning.What follows is an examination of how elements ofdistance learning characterize the learning and synthesisthat take place in VLEs. These same elements will informthe instructional design of a VLE.Initial research in distance education and learning focusedon media comparison studies, and as was discussedearlier, attrition rates, which have tended to be high fordistance education courses, and the cost effectiveness andappropriateness of specific technologies for delivery ofinstruction (Yang & Lui, 2004).Comparisons studies on the effectiveness of differentmedia did not identify significant differences in learning(Beta-Jones & Avery, 2004; Boswell, Mocker, & Hamlin,1968; Chen & Jones, 2005; Chu & Schramm, 1967; Hoyt &Frye, 1972; Kruh, 1983). In fact, these comparative mediastudies for distance learning continue to supportSchramm’s view that “learning seems to be affected moreby what is delivered than by the delivery medium” (Yang& Lui, 2004), and Clark’s analogy of how media does nothave an effect on learning “any more than the truck thatdelivers groceries influences the nutrition of a community”(1984). However, as technologies have become morecomplex, interactive, and requiring extensive upfront financialand training investment, research continues tofocus on delivery system selection, as well as the processfor doing so (Wagner, 1990).Current research in distance learning identified in thisstudy focused on the following:• Learner Factors, including• Transactional distance• Community and the socio-cultural context of knowledge• Social presence• Learning Factors, which include• Feedback• Interactivity• Human Computer Interface (HCI) design and cognitiveloadTransactional DistanceTransactional distance is not a geographical measure,but rather a pedagogical phenomenon. It describes theamount of dialog that occurs between the learner andinstructor, and the amount of structure within the designof the course (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). More structure inthe course design will lead to less student-teacher dialogue(Moore, 1991). With less course structure and morep. 28 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENT 21 (2)
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