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<strong>When</strong> <strong>Congress</strong> <strong>Comes</strong> <strong>Calling</strong>: A Primer on the Principles, Practices, and Pragmatics of Legislative Inquiry<br />

Table of Contents<br />

Preface<br />

vii<br />

I. Introduction: The Challenges to Effective Investigative Oversight 1<br />

A. The Purposes and Powers of <strong>Congress</strong>ional Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1<br />

B. The Power of <strong>Congress</strong> Over Executive Branch Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2<br />

C. Barriers to Effective Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3<br />

D. How to Conduct Effective Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<br />

II. The Powers and Tools Available to <strong>Congress</strong> for Conducting Investigative Oversight 7<br />

A. <strong>Congress</strong>’ Power to Investigate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7<br />

1. The Breadth of the Investigatory Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7<br />

2. The Limits of the Investigatory Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />

B. <strong>Congress</strong>’ Ability to Obtain Documents and Witness Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />

1. The Subpoena Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />

a. The Power to Issue a Subpoena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />

b. The Permissible Scope of a Subpoena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9<br />

c. The Necessary Legislative Purpose for a Subpoena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10<br />

d. The Pertinency of the Subpoena to the Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10<br />

2. Staff Deposition Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11<br />

a. Express Authorization of Deposition Authority is Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11<br />

b. The Utility of Staff Depositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11<br />

3. <strong>Congress</strong>ional Grants of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12<br />

a. A Committee May Override a Witness’ Claim of Self-Incrimination Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12<br />

b. How a Committee Grants Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12<br />

c. Scope of the Immunity Granted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12<br />

d. Impact of Immunity Grants on Future Prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13<br />

e. Frequency of Issuance of Immunity Grants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13<br />

4. Special Investigatory Powers Authorized in Extraordinary Inquiries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

C. Enforcement of the Investigation Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

1. Courts Have Recognized the Need for Effective Enforcement Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

2. The Inherent Contempt Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

a. The Source, Nature, and Objectives of Inherent Contempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

b. Rights of a Person Cited for Contempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />

c. Fines as an Alternative to Imprisonment for Inherent Contempt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />

d. Inherent Contempt Does Not Require Judicial Enforcement Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />

e. The Perceived Limitations of the Inherent Contempt Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />

3. Statutory Criminal Contempt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />

a. The Origin and Nature of the Criminal Contempt Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />

b. <strong>Congress</strong>ional Use of Criminal Contempt Against Executive Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />

c. The Uncertainty Whether Executive Officials Are Subject to Inherent or Criminal Contempt Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />

4. Civil Contempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />

a. In the Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />

i. The Origins, Purposes, and Procedures of the Senate Civil Contempt Statute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />

ii. The Benefits of a Civil Contempt Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17<br />

iii. The Senate Civil Contempt Mechanism Cannot be Used Against Executive Branch Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17<br />

The Constitution Project<br />

| iii

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