Commercial Marine Shipping Accidents Understanding Risks Canada

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40 Commercial Marine Shipping Accidents: Understanding the Risks in Canada 4.1.4 Spills of Dry Bulk and Container Cargo Typically Have Limited Environmental Impacts, Though Some Seemingly Benign Substances Can Cause Significant Damage The behaviour of dry bulk and containers in the marine environment is also highly variable. In general, spills of these cargo types are relatively benign. However, as with HNS, the impacts are dependent on the exact type of cargo. Even substances that might be presumed innocuous can actually be hazardous, making it challenging and misleading to draw a clear line between HNS and dry bulk and containers. For example, in 1996, the cargo ship Fenes grounded on the Lavezzi Islands in France and spilled 2,600 tonnes of wheat (Marchand, 2002; Mamaca et al., 2009). As the wheat decomposed, it created conditions that favoured sulphatereducing microbes, which fermented the wheat to produce hydrogen sulphide, a toxic gas. As a result, response crews were required to wear protective respiratory equipment (Marchand, 2002; Mamaca et al., 2009). When container cargo is not recovered it can contribute to marine debris, which can negatively impact wildlife through entanglement, ingestion, habitat destruction, and other pathways (Sheavly & Register, 2007). Indeed, plastic pollution in the ocean is a major problem for many marine organisms (Sheavly & Register, 2007). 4.1.5 Invasive Species Introduced by Ships Have Caused Substantial Damage to Canadian Marine Ecosystems Introduction of invasive species is not related to a particular cargo type, but workshop participants still viewed this as a significant environmental impact of shipping accidents. Most aquatic invasive species originated from ballast water exposure (voluntary or not), and most of the close to 200 invasive species in the Great Lakes came via marine shipping along the St. Lawrence River (Ricciardi, 2006). Efforts to control the spread of invasive species have been ongoing since the 1980s, and include federal regulations for ballast water management established in 2011 (Bailey et al., 2011; GOC, 2011). Bailey et al. (2011) demonstrate the efficacy of these policy reforms, with declining Great Lakes invasion rates since the early 1990s and no new invasive species introduced between 2006 and 2011. As a result, current invasive species introduction is more likely to occur due to an accident or illegal activity rather than routine shipping activity. Invasive species can cause extensive ecosystem disruption by altering habitats, competing with native species for food, or directly feeding on native species. This may subsequently cause large impacts on fisheries and other local economies. For example, zebra mussels introduced to the Great Lakes in the 1980s are filtering out large amounts of phytoplankton and therefore increasing water clarity and moving nutrients from the water column to the bottom substrates (Hecky et al., 2004). This shift caused changes in algal and bacterial growth, impacts on species relying on plankton as a food source, and changes in lake heat, among others (Hecky et al., 2004; Higgins & Vander Zanden, 2010). In addition to threatening native species, the introduction of zebra mussels to the Great Lakes has led to increased algae growth and diminished enjoyment of the Great Lakes (e.g., by cutting swimmers’ feet and causing a foul odour when decaying onshore). 4.1.6 The Quality of Evidence on the Environmental Impacts of Spills Is Highly Variable, and Is Largely a Function of the Events That Have Been Experienced to Date Workshop participants developed a matrix to summarize the degree to which each type of cargo would impact various aspects of the environment. The extent and level of certainty of impacts for six different categories of cargo were reviewed. Table 4.1 reflects the current understanding of workshop participants, who were informed by their research, experience, reading of the literature, and analysis of survey results. The greatest impacts tend to arise from oil spills and there is significant research in this area. At the other end of the spectrum are dry bulk and container cargo types, which are unlikely to cause significant impacts. The survey revealed consistent views on the cargo types that would be most likely to have a high vs. low environmental impact. Respondents across all of Canada felt that crude oil would have the highest impact, followed by HNS and refined hydrocarbons. The impact from LNG was expected to be moderate. Dry bulk and, lastly, containers were rated as low-impact cargo types.
Chapter 4 Impacts 41 Table 4.1 Type and Degree of Environmental Impact for Various Cargo Types Environmental Impacts Crude Oil Refined Hydrocarbons Cargo Types LNG HNS Dry Bulk Container Decrease in air quality *** *** *** * *** *** Decrease in water quality *** *** ** * ** *** Alteration of physical habitat *** *** ** * ** *** Impact on ecosystem structure and function + * ** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on plants ** ** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on invertebrates *** ** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on fish *** ** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on birds *** *** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on marine mammals *** *** *** *** *** *** Acute and chronic effects on marine reptiles and amphibians *** *** *** *** *** *** + E.g., impact on predator-prey relationships, changes in thresholds and tipping points ■ High Impact ■ Medium Impact ■ Low Impact ***High Certainty **Medium Certainty *Low Certainty Workshop participants developed this table to summarize the evidence of how spills of various cargo types create different environmental impacts. The colour of each cell represents the level of impact on the environment (high, medium, or low) and the star rating indicates the degree of certainty in assigning each impact rating, with one or two stars as evidence that this analysis could be further enhanced through additional research. Although LNG, crude oil, and refined hydrocarbons are technically HNS, they were considered separately, while all remaining HNS were grouped together. To deal with the diversity of HNS, all of the environmental impacts in Table 4.1 were assigned a moderate rating. In reality, each substance would need to be dealt with separately, and its impacts would range from low to high. 4.2 SOCIAL, CULTURAL, HEALTH, AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS Marine shipping accidents can create a range of social, cultural, health, and economic impacts. These impacts can arise directly, such as injury from a collision or economic loss from supply chain disruptions, or indirectly as a result of environmental impacts. For example, an oil spill can have impacts that reach beyond the environment, and may include economic impacts (e.g., loss of tourism revenue), social impacts (e.g., disruption in community relationships), and health impacts (e.g., illness from exposure to chemicals during clean-up efforts). Workshop participants noted the importance of separating human health and socio-economic impacts, but recognized that in some cases, the two may be intimately related. For example, closure of fisheries will result in lost income for communities that rely on fishing and lost revenue for the fishing industry, potentially leading to psychological stress for those who are financially affected. 4.2.1 Spills Can Contaminate Not Only the Physical Environment but Also the Social and Cultural Environment Studies conducted in the wake of the Exxon Valdez spill provide insights into the potential social and cultural impacts of large-scale shipping accidents in which pollutants are released into the environment. Palinkas et al. (1993b) eloquently observe “[w]hen the Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, it spilled oil into a social as well as a natural environment.” Shaw (1992) catalogues some of the social impacts of the Exxon Valdez spill: a widespread loss of social licence for the oil industry at large as public trust was undermined; economic and social dislocation stemming from an influx of clean-up workers and availability of short-term, high-paying employment; and a temporary interruption of two of the region’s key economic industries — tourism and commercial fishing. A population-based survey provides further insights into the social and cultural impacts of the spill (Palinkas et al., 1993a). Respondents reported reductions in traditional social relations, reduced subsistence activities,
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Page 73 and 74: References 61 Ricciardi, A. (2006).
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