KVPT’s Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign - Work to Date - September 2016

Nepal 

Patan Darbar 

Earthquake Response Campaign 

D o c u m e n t a t i o n of Work to Date 

S e p t e m b e r 2016 

K a t h m a n d u Valley Preservation Trust

This volume is dedicated to KVPT founding chairman 

Eduard F. Sekler 

for his pioneering efforts in Patan Darbar, 

a place he has always loved.

In acknowledgment of the sincere efforts of the 

Government of Nepal Department of Archaeology to 

meet their monumental task.

Nepal 

Patan Darbar 


D o c u m e n t a t i o n of Work to Date 

S e p t e m b e r 2016 

K a t h m a n d u Valley Preservation Trust

Plan of Patan Darbar (Royal Palace and Square) showing 

current KVPT Earthquake Response Campaign projects. 

1) Sundari Cok East Wing 

2) Char Narayana Temple 

3) Harishankara Temple. 

4) Vishveshvara Temple 

5) Krishna Mandir 

6) South Mandapa 

7) North Manimandapa 

8) Taleju Agam South (South wing of Mul Cok) 

9) Taleju Agam North, (North wing of Mul Cok) 

10) Bahadur Shah wing (North) of palace 

11) Mul Cok 

12) Yoganarendra Pillar 

13) Nasal Cok 

14) Keshav Narayana Chowk 

15) Taleju Bell 

16) Muche Agam 

Front cover: 

One of sixteen medallions featuring 

the kneeling Vishnu in anthropomorphic 

form at Harishankara 

temple. 

Back cover photo: 

A tympanum (toraṇa) from Harishankara 

temple, above the arcaded 

ground floor ambulatory. 

Photographs by Ashesh Rajbansh, 

August 4, 2016

Contents 

7 Overview 

11 Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign 

25 Authenticity in Heritage Preservation 

Niels Gutschow 

53 Typical Seismic Issues in Newar Architecture 

Rohit Ranjitkar and Evan Speer 

63 Seismic Strengthening of Historic Newar Buildings 

Rohit Ranjitkar, Erich Theophile and Liz Newman with contribution by Evan Speer 

99 Char Narayana Temple 

Niels Gutschow and Raju Roka 

143 Harishankara Temple 


226 Restoration of the Harishankara idol 

Gabriela Krist, Martina Haselberger, Marija Milchin 

233 Vishveshvara Temple 

Katharina Weiler 

255 Manimandapa South 


315 Manimandapa North 


341 Krishna Temple 

Neeta Das 

355 Sundari Cok East Wing 


381 Taleju Agam North 

Liz Newman 

403 Taleju Agam South 

Liz Newman 

421 Bhimsen Temple’s Lion Pillar 

Raju Roka 

Appendices 

429 Monument Preservation and Rebuilding Manual in response to the 25 April 2015 Gorkha Earthquake 

453 Basic guidelines for the Preservation and Rebuilding of Monuments damaged by the earthquake, 2072 (2016) 

465 Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust, Patan Darbār Earthquake Campaign Donors

6

Overview 

This volume is the product of the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust (KVPT) Review Mission (20 August-16 

September 2016) documenting ongoing repair 

and restoration projects by the KVPT launched immediately 

after the 2015 earthquake, as well as KVPT’s 

ongoing development of a comprehensive earthquake 

response campaign/masterplan for the Patan Darbar 

Square Unesco World Heritage Site. Now 16 months 

after the quake, this presentation is informed by local 

developments in policy and activism as well as KVPT’s 

extensive and successful rescue operations, a rare beacon 

of hope in still difficult times. 

Diverse contents here reflect KVPT’s diverse activities 

—including rescue operations, historical research, local 

and international lobbying, documentation, fundraising, 

public relations, seismic design, as well as theoretical 

writing gathered from KVPT’s 25 year history as the 

only international charity with a permanent presence in 

the Kathmandu Valley. 

We document and share our own working process to offer 

direction and case studies for the actors and agencies 

likely to join expanded reconstruction and repair efforts, 

but possibly new both to this valley’s unique architectural 

language and working environment. With some 

45 building and restoration projects completed, KVPT 

has had a chance to develop and assess a wide variety of 

solutions and techniques to safeguard Newar architecture, 

often using approaches which can be understood as 

a “balancing” of Nepalese and international [Western] 

conservation norms. In addition to a project-by-project 

overview of work in progress, this volume includes 

examinations of KVPT’s working philosophy/practice 

of the two key preservation issues raised by post-earthquake 

work. The first,“authenticity”, although a muchused 

term in preservation, serves to focus in on varying 

attitudes toward the replacement of lost decorative 

woodcarvings and architectural/iconographic detail. The 

second focus is, of course, state-of-the-art techniques 

for the seismic strengthening of this local architecture, 

Newar architecture. 

This volume is intended as an invitation to stimulate local 

and global discourse, and continues in the spirit of 

KVPT’s 1992 international symposium and subsequent 

publication “The Sulima Pagoda: East meets West in the 

restoration of a Nepalese Temple.” 

Dr. Rohit Ranjitkar, Nepal Programme Director 

with 

Dr. Niels Gutschow 

Erich Theophile 

Opposite 

Aerial view of Patan Darbār 

Square. The photo shows the 

architectural ensemble before the 

earthquake completely destroyed or 

partly damaged major temples and 

parts of the palace. 

Source: Mukunda Bista, August 2004 

7

Map of Patan- 

World Heritage Site shown 

in green 

8

Review and Documentation Mission 

August 20 - September 15, 2016 

Anil Basukala, Site Supervisor, KVPT 

Bijay Basukala, Documentarist, Site Supervisor, KVPT 

Neeta Das, Conservation Consultant 

Niels Gutschow, Architectural Historian, Senior Advisor 

Pranam Hora, Junior Structural Engineer 

Liz Newman, Conservation Architect, KVPT 

Rohit Ranjitkar, Nepal Programme Director, KVPT 

Raju Roka, Programme Manager, KVPT 

Evan Speer, Seismic Engineering Consultant 

Erich Theophile, Executive Director, Co-founder KVPT 

Katharina Weiler, Art Historian 

9

Patan Darbar Earthquake 

Response Campaign 

By Erich Theophile and Liz Newman 

The Kathmandu Valley heritage that we know and celebrate 

is [that] of the Newar community, who were the original 

inhabitants of Kathmandu. [In Newar architecture], 

there is the Narayan, there is the Shiva, there are Krishnas, 

of course. All the pantheon of the Kathmandu Valley’s deities 

are there. When we do consider them to be Hindu deities, 

we must keep in mind that there is not a sharp, hard 

line between [Hinduism and Buddhism]…. These same 

deities can be also worshipped by people of the other faith. 

Nobody is saying, oh, that’s a Hindu temple, or oh, that’s 

a Buddhist shrine. The same Hindu will circumambulate 

the so-called Buddhist shrine, and the Buddhist will also 

circumambulate the so-called Hindu shrine. To me, that is 

the value of humanity that I inherit. 

I’m an agnostic, so often people ask me, why are you going 

about rebuilding temples when you don’t even believe in the 

deities in the first place? What I trust and what I believe in 

is the belief and faith of the people that I live amongst. So if 

they believe, to me, that is what is important…. 

Within that context, the first thing that you need to do is 

to make sure that the physical attributes of your history remain, 

in this roller coaster that we have been in, in which 

is included conflict and economic globalization, and loss of 

so much living and non-living—tangible and intangible— 

heritage. But within that context, I would say that we must 

keep in mind we are not only talking about rebuilding of 

the brick, mortar, and wood; we are talking about living 

heritage. 

This is what makes Kathmandu Valley different from most 

other heritage sites of this kind, because here, when you have 

a temple, it is a temple that is venerated even today, because 

there are people who come to pray to that deity in there…. 

And if my current compatriots in Kathmandu Valley appreciate 

and believe, then I respect that, and I feel that their 

subject of obeisance, and the place of their obeisance,—the 

temples,—must be preserved, because that adds value and 

texture to our lives. 

Kanak Mani Dixit, August 2016 

Journalist, writer and preservation 

advocate in Kathmandu, 

Honorary Chairman of the 

Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust 

11

glected after the monarchy ended, has now become a 

source of local pride and interest, not to mention jobs; 

and contributes meaningfully to the economy. 

The Genesis of KVPT’s Earthquake 

Response Campaign 

Introduction 

The Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust was created 

in 1991 in response to conditions in Nepal since the 

1950’s that had left many of its finest centuries-old historic 

structures in decline, and it has worked ever since 

to protect and restore the architectural heritage of the 

Kathmandu Valley. Our working model is a collaboration 

of our local director, Patan office staff, and Nepalese 

artisans and builders with an international team supporting 

planning, research, fund raising, administration, 

and technical expertise. In the past quarter century, the 

Trust has funded and implemented the preservation and 

restoration of over 55 significant historic structures, and 

is today uniquely positioned in the Kathmandu Valley 

to succeed at this type of work and to share our experience 

with others arriving to help with heritage earthquake 

response. 

By early 2015, the Patan Royal Palace Complex, the 

Trust’s most ambitious project to date, had been restored 

and opened as a national museum of Newari architecture. 

The palace complex and royal square, perhaps 

South Asia’s finest intact historic urban architectural ensemble, 

are the museum’s major exhibit. The last major 

component of the palace project, the East Wing of 

the Sundari Cok,—poorly rebuilt after collapsing in the 

1934 earthquake,—was under construction and awaiting 

funding for completion. The museum is the most 

visited tourist site in Nepal, welcoming Nepalese and international 

tourists, as well as many local school groups. 

While the temples of the royal square have always been 

part of daily life, the architecture of the palace, long ne- 

The earthquake 

On April 25, 2015 a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck 

central Nepal, leaving widespread destruction in its 

wake. Its impact on the Kathmandu Valley was devastating, 

particularly to the built heritage of the urban centers 

of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, Sanku, Bungamati, 

Khokana, and other historic settlements. 

The earthquake had a major impact on the ancient buildings 

in the historic town squares of Kathmandu, Patan, 

and Bhaktapur—all UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 

Patan Darbār Square, which was inscribed on the World 

Heritage List in October 1979, the Patan Royal Palace 

Complex sits to the northeast of the historic street crossing 

which forms the basis of the urban fabric. Prior to 

April 2015, the central space of the square was occupied 

by a number of temples and two small, ancient, open air 

arcades (maṇḍapa). One of the very few early temples 

of Nepal predating the 1580s, Charnarayana (1565), 

ranked among the most significant temples of Newar 

architectural history. The two mandapas, located north 

of the palace complex, date to the 16th or even 15th century 

(South Maṇḍapa) and early 17th century (North 

Manimaṇḍapa) and mark a much older sacred site. The 

construction in 1706 of the Harishankara temple, to the 

south of the Charnarayana, followed the two typological 

and artistic highlights of the first half of the 17th century 

(the Vishveshvara temple b. 1627, and the Krishna 

temple, b. 1637), and marked the last great architectural 

achievement on the Royal Square. 

In the April 25, 2015 earthquake, the Charnarayana 

temple, the Harishankara temple, and the two mandapas 

collapsed completely, leaving only their plinths more or 

less intact. In order to protect the historic building elements 

from theft and weather, the KathmanduValley 

12

Preservation Trust moved rapidly to coordinate security 

and clean-up efforts in Patan in the days after the earthquake. 

Remnants of the fallen temples in Patan Darbar 

Square, - thousands of carved timber elements as well 

as bricks and roof tiles,- were secured with the help of 

hundreds of volunteers and the Nepal Army, Armed 

Police Force, and Police. All valuable historic building 

elements were securely stored in the Patan Museum 

and the walled garden of the Royal Palace complex and 

were gradually cleaned, documented, and inventoried in 

preparation for the restoration and rebuilding which is 

now underway. 

The loss of this unique architectural heritage has disfigured 

and diminished Patan’s townscape and religious 

and social life, and left its deities unsheltered. Our campaign 

seeks to restore the urban landscape and again 

shelter the deities for whom the temples were built. 

Pre-earthquake documentation of recent years provides 

a good basis for rebuilding and restoring the temples on 

the square. There is a lack of detailed documentation of 

the mandapas, but a good amount of forensic evidence 

survives in the plinths and other recovered building elements. 

Using the many salvaged fragments, the temples 

and mandapas will be returned as closely as possible to 

their original configuration. The projects follow international 

norms in using a maximum of historical material 

and creating careful and extensive documentation that 

will enable future generations to track the design and 

construction processes. 

The planning and building processes are based on local 

expertise, with designs for in situ repairs as well as rebuilding 

based on traditional technology and materials. 

One of the landmarks in this local collaboration process 

is the assembly of master carpenters (Newari Silpakār), 

wood carvers (Kijyami), and masons (Avaḥ) from Bhaktapur, 

as well as stone carvers (Lvahakahmi) and metal 

workers from Patan. These craftsmen from the ethnic 

group of Newars bring to bear the experience and skills 

handed down through many generations. 

The April 28, 2015 earthquake also changed the course 

of the Trust. The fact that our Nepal Director Rohit 

Ranjitkar and local staff had been active at Patan Darbar 

for many years allowed them to hit the ground running 

immediately after the earthquake. In the larger context, 

Rohit Ranjitkar took on the role of a sort of modern-day 

royal architect; the team’s senior advisor Niels Gutschow, 

the foremost authority on Newar architecture, advised at 

every step; Kanak Mani Dixit stepped ua as preservation 

advocate, writer, and KVPT Honorary Chairman; and 

KVPT New York helped to coordinate as well as work 

on international PR and fundraising. Rohit Ranjitkar 

rapidly coordinated the salvage of historic building elements; 

began assessing damage to the historic buildings 

(only three of KVPT’s more than 55 projects suffered 

significantly); shored up unstable structures; and established 

the workshop in the palace gardens to store, study, 

and repair architectural pieces rescued from the rubble. 

With this garden access, existing open permits on restoration 

projects, and liquid funds, local KVPT staff were 

able in the midst of crisis and earthquake aftershocks to 

achieve a great deal in a short time. KVPT received a 

worldwide outpouring of offers of help. The Trust announced 

plans within a week of the earthquake to reconstruct 

the Char Narayan temple, creating a symbol 

of hope in a difficult time. The damaged Lion Pillar 

was soon restored and reinstalled - a first project already 

complete. The new Patan Royal Workshop has now 

identified, sorted, cleaned, repaired, and/or replicated 

hundreds of historic carved timber and stone pieces and 

other salvaged building elements. KVPT has moreover 

been essentially the only agency able to make significant 

progress since the earthquake. 

The campaign takes shape 

Over the past year and a half, we have assessed damage 

and rescued historic elements for reuse at many of 

the important sites in the Kathmandu Valley, and communicated 

with potential donors, partners, and imple- 

13

menting agencies. We decided that a focus on the Patan 

Darbar World Heritage Site would be the most effective 

use of our resources and could serve as a sort of model. 

To implement this, we envisioned a five-year Patan 

Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign (now already 

entering its second year). The Patan Darbar - palace and 

square - are recognized as the most intact of Nepal’s historic 

urban spaces and are architecturally outstanding in 

context of the entire South Asian subcontinent. KVPT 

has worked as part of this community for 25 years, and 

this allows us to focus on five of Nepal’s most significant 

structures, (Sundari Cok Palace, Char Narayana Temple, 

Harishankara Temple, Vishveshvara temple, and 

Krishna Mandir), as well as the manimandapas,—all of 

which collapsed or were heavily damaged in the earthquake 

and demand the highest level of restoration and 

conservation, which no other agency is in a position to 

deliver. 

KVPT as model 

Just as our building rescue efforts in May 2015 were an 

example followed by others, KVPT’s post-earthquake 

work can be developed and documented as a model for 

other agencies and sites. As we work to restore Nepal’s 

most important urban site, we are collaborating already 

with Nepalese and other partners, including the municipality 

and the Nepal Government Department of Archaeology, 

which is planning several projects in Patan 

Darbar, and the Austrian Government, who will restore 

the Patan (art) Museum with KVPT in a coordinating 

role. UNESCO was in touch early on for advice and 

help with their work in Kathmandu. We feel this collaborative 

approach is especially critical given rapidly 

developing plans for new partners and projects, —notably 

Chinese and Japanese partners at Kathmandu Royal 

Square. KVPT’s 10-year project to bring up the Patan 

Royal Palace Complex up as an architecture museum 

now provides a natural venue to show this work to others 

who may be interested. 

Evolving conditions 

Since the earthquake, in working to get the funding and 

planning for a number of significant restoration and reconstruction 

projects underway, the Trust has had to 

navigate a new, still-shifting human landscape. Thirdworld 

bureaucracy issues have multiplied as billions in 

foreign aid suddenly pour into the world’s tenth-poorest 

country. Nepal had a very hard time establishing a new 

Reconstruction Authority. The Department of Archaeology’s 

response to the loss of historic monuments has 

been tortuous, with monument zone guidelines appearing 

only in March 2016. The months-long Indian 

blockade in 2015-16 wreaked havoc on materials cost 

and availability. The widespread fear that traditional 

buildings are unstable and should be replaced with new 

construction continues to be a critical existential threat 

to an enormous number of buildings that withstood the 

earthquake. Addressing this larger, more complex situation 

is a less obvious need than restoring buildings but 

is integral to the work. In part simply because working 

in this context is so complex and difficult, we consider 

it part of our job, given our unique position, to gather 

resources, document and circulate information, and develop 

strategies that can be shared with other agencies 

working in the Valley. 

Strategy 

Meanwhile, the situation in Nepal continues to evolve, 

requiring us to adapt to and assess the ongoing political 

and economic aftershocks. As there is no national institution 

with specialized technical capacity in seismic-related 

preservation issues, KVPT—the only international 

agency registered in the field—considers it our role 

to share information, promote dialogue, and provide 

model projects. We believe that with the overwhelming 

scope of restoration projects ahead, we should take a 

two-pronged approach: 1) focus strategically on a group 

of preservation projects we can successfully manage; and 

2) broaden our impact by better documenting, analyzing, 

and making available information on our long and 

unique experience in Kathmandu Valley preservation, in 

14

order to help the many local and international groups 

now taking on other preservation projects. 

Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust’s 

Patan Darbar earthquake response campaign 

Overview 

The Trust’s work continued for over a year at a ‘fire 

drill’ pace to meet emergency conditions created by the 

earthquake. With a number of rebuilding and restoration 

projects and many fundraising efforts by necessity 

already underway, we only more recently could take 

stock and look ahead to the next few years, to create a 

master plan. 

The Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign is 

taking shape. The five-year campaign will consist of 20 

to 25 brick and mortar restoration and reconstruction 

projects which we are expanding with initiatives for documenting 

and sharing our work. At present, the Trust 

has begun to develop planning and funding for 12-14 of 

our own Phase I brick and mortar projects, and is providing 

technical assistance for one of three other projects 

initiated by the Nepal Government as well as coordinating 

with the Austrian Government’s project at the Royal 

Palace’s Keshav Narayana Cok. Nearly all projects are 

in the central Patan Darbar ensemble, and the rest are 

key sites nearby. Several projects address earlier KVPT 

restorations damaged in the earthquake; most are iconic 

structures where we are working for the first time due to 

earthquake damage. These and perhaps ten more potential 

Phase II projects which are under review are listed in 

the Appendix, with a key plan and thumbnail photos. 

This list, shown as of June, 2016, is evolving. 

Documenting the preservation process and 

the historical moment 

The initiatives to plan and better support our project 

work, and to share knowledge, begin with our 2016 review 

mission and the publication of the present volume. 

As there are insufficient resources on the national level, 

or other expert entity to do it, KPVT considers it important 

to our mission and contribution to the future of 

Nepalese architecture to address the pressing and changing 

needs in the Kathmandu Valley on an ongoing basis 

by providing documentation of our work and hosting a 

local and international dialog. Much work is in progress 

and many design decisions have been made, but there 

has been insufficient documentation in the past due to 

the lack of manpower. There is a need to assess and analyze 

the preservation process as well as techniques and 

design. What is the level of authenticity of craftsmanship? 

What are the varied perspectives on the issue of authenticity? 

What preservation decisions are being made, 

and how? What has been the interaction of craftsmen 

and conservation architects and professionals? This work 

is also a natural extension of our work over the past 25 

years of keeping contact and exchanging project information 

and techniques, as we have with past Japanese, 

German, French, and Austrian project collaborations. 

There has likewise been little analysis of the post-earthquake 

situation on the ground, which has been chaotic 

and extremely complex, with the Indian embargo, 

no official permissions, local lobbying against seismic 

strengthening, the complex political situation, scarcity 

augmented by the blockade, the challenges of sourcing 

materials, labor transport, fuel, etc. 

On a positive note, a new sort of Royal Workshop of 

Patan is alive, with historic building elements being sorted 

and repaired by KVPT in the gardens of the palace. 

With the multi-nation players involved, the controversies, 

the byzantine official processes, these constitute an 

extraordinary moment in the Kathmandu Valley’s architectural 

history, when the documentation itself of the 

times and the post-earthquake process (in the tradition 

15

of organizations such as Human Rights Watch) can be 

a significant contribution to the preservation of historic 

structures. 

KVPT, a known locus of expertise and experience, is 

providing a number of local jobs and is spreading its information 

through press releases, briefings, and expanding 

exhibits at the Architecture Galleries of the Patan 

Museum. The Trust has offered over 90 guided tours 

for the Department of Archaeology, Patan municipality, 

educational institutions, local and international donors, 

international ambassadors and princes. It has engaged 

around 45 carpenters and skilled woodcarvers, two stone 

masons, eight brick workers, four metalsmiths, and forty 

laborers working on site. In the years 2014 and 2015, 

the Patan Museum counted 72,670 visitors and employed 

37 museum staff. 

Seismic strengthening models—recording, 

developing and promoting sensitive 

techniques 

Over its quarter century of work, the Trust has always 

incorporated designs for seismic strengthening in its 

projects. This section lays out our thoughts on seismic 

design as of May 2016, as design for new projects was 

getting underway. These ideas are updated and explored 

in more detail in the following chapters on seismic 

strengthening. 

To address the range of unique issues presented in the 

various building types, we have designed and executed a 

variety of seismic reinforcement schemes, with our local 

staff collaborating wtih leading engineers from U.S and 

Europe. (Historic structures are typically not a focus of 

local engineers.) As a result, very few of our past projects 

(3 of 55) suffered major damage in last year’s earthquake, 

while so many others around them collapsed. With new 

groups now planning preservation projects in the Kathmandu 

Valley,there is a need to better organize, develop, 

and share our knowledge on seismic strengthening. 

Outputs for seismic initiatives will include, most importantly, 

the best possible results for our projects and 

improved durability, safety, and preservation design sensitivity 

in others’ projects. Other outputs will include 

reports that 

• assemble and present existing documentation 

KVPT’s and others’ relevant seismic design and 

techniques; 

• document selected local case studies that are as yet 

undocumented; 

• assess seismic strategies (our senior advisors assess 

our engineers’ proposed strategies and review them 

relative to larger context); 

• present techniques for assessing and strengthening 

other traditional structures that did not collapse in 

the earthquake; 

• present model seismic designs and techniques 

responding to a range of typical construction types 

and post-earthquake conditions in the Kathmandu 

Valley today. 

In addition to sharing this technical knowledge, we 

will share experience in dealing with guidelines of the 

Department of Archeology and the new Reconstruction 

Authority; and working with the Nepal Society for 

Earthquake Technology (NSET). 

Typical to historic Newari buildings was a design of 

great artistic significance, often together with very poor 

building fabric. Typical problems today are the lack of 

vertical connections; a lack of information about foundations; 

building materials quality and supply issues— 

cement, brick, mud mortar, timbers. Layered on to these 

over time are decreased seismic resistance due to multiple 

post-earthquake reconstructions; shoddiness and 

incorrect historical details/configurations of past repairs; 

and low-quality structural replacement timber. The rebuilding 

process has sometimes spurred on artistic developments, 

but without prioritizing structural connections 

or internal structure; with design that responds to cul- 

16

tural and climatic considerations but not earthquake activity. 

The iconic multi-tiered temple type, with its very 

wide overhanging roofs and timber structure but little 

or no positive connections of inside to outside, or of the 

main edifice to the base, is a classic example. 

Erratic maintenance has long been an issue, especially 

since the end of the monarchy in the 1950’s and the subsequent 

decline of land trusts charged with maintaining 

temples and shrines. Traditional structures have heavy 

clay tile roofs set in mud; horizontal timbers embedded 

in rubble walls with mud mortar; and bases unprotected 

from the cyclical rising damp of ground water and 

monsoons. Together with significant declines in quality 

of replacement wood, these issues leave structures vulnerable 

to plant growth on roofs, rotting timber ends, 

top loading, and poor connections that—without proper 

maintenance and reinforcement—can easily lead to 

earthquake damage. The probability of poor future 

maintenance, the certainty of future earthquakes, and 

life safety concerns support the case for more durable 

interventions today than in the past. 

We have identified several seismic model projects in 

Patan Darbar. In the course of design and restoration or 

rebuilding of these projects, we will continue to develop 

a range of seismic strengthening strategies and techniques, 

which can then serve as models for addressing 

common types of structural earthquake damage in other 

traditional structures. For key model projects, we have 

1) rebuilding schemes for collapsed multi-tiered temple 

type structures (Char Narayana, Hari Shankara); 2) in-situ 

repairs of the multi-tiered temple type (Vishveshvara); 

and 3) rebuilding of the open arcade type—mandapa/ 

sattal structures (Manimandapas),—which is inherently 

challenging given their timber column structure without 

ground floor walls for bracing and connection. 

The two general kinds of structural challenges we face 

are 1) rebuilding collapsed structures—where modeling 

will be possible, but implementation quality is difficult 

to predict; and 2) reinforcement of existing buildings, 

some of which are significantly weakened. Structural 

design for rebuilding is more straightforward, mainly 

because new structural characteristics can theoretically 

be specified/quantified. Goals are to develop a range of 

solutions which vary with each building’s importance, 

specific construction, and risk of collapse; to develop a 

safety assessment guide for our team’s field use, also collaborating 

with local engineers; and to refine our range 

of strengthening techniques. 

The biggest challenge for these cases will be in the tradeoffs 

between new and old methods: To what extent 

should structurally inadequate historical building details 

be retained? Which details are so inherently weak that 

alternatives must be sought? Which characteristics are so 

key to the buildings’ history or aesthetics that new ways 

to maintain them must be sought? What determines the 

choice between a safer modern—say—steel—structure 

inserted (whether visible or not) within an exterior of 

historical details, versus a less safe rebuilding of the historical 

building with less intrusive reinforcement measures? 

Another significant challenge will be to develop a methodology 

to analyse historic buildings which survived the 

2015 earthquake with or without damage, to determine 

appropriate strengthening interventions. For these, alternative 

methods of structural modeling need to be developed 

to allow quantitative analysis; and many of the 

same questions will apply. 

Past KVPT projects illustrate many points along the 

continuum from minimal intervention to maximum 

sensitive seismic strengthening. Structural solutions of 

interest includes Patukva Agamchhen (1994, no damage 

in 2015), Jagannath Temple (2003, moderate cracks at 

upper level), Ayaguthi Sattal (1999, no damage), Vabaha 

(1994, very minor damage), and Radha Krishna 

(1991, collapsed). We have already analyzed some of our 

other projects fairly extensively in the past (e.g., Sundari 

Cok). It will be instructive to better analyze how and 

17

why those buildings survived or failed, and to understand 

causes of failure in other traditional structures we 

have not worked on before,—to refine our understanding 

of the historic building systems. 

In the process, we need to research whatever exists already—collecting 

materials related to seismic strengthening 

by others in Nepal, reviewing the approaches, 

to the extent possible,—to do a technical assessment. 

Questions include what is being proposed or allowed; 

what is buildable under current conditions; and hybridized 

approaches past and present. This work needs to 

be assessed in an international context to consider how 

to balance the known weaknesses of the traditional construction 

against, for example, the dictates of the Charter 

of Venice or the Nara Document on Authenticity; 

and to judge what would be the justification, if any, for 

introducing modern materials when traditional practice 

fails. 

Campaign funding 

The Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign has 

many major and repeat donors as well as new supporters. 

Major project partners and funding are noted at the end 

of this document. 

Engineers new to the problem will need time to get up to 

speed in this exercise. We need to first review and refine 

our existing methods with a senior first-world consultant 

to advise on issues of cement quality testing; pine vs sal 

wood choices; the significance of various safety factors, 

strength comparisons of steel and reinforced concrete 

interventions; non-destructive radar scanning of inaccessible 

foundations. We need engineering expertise to 

back up our investigative work, troubleshoot our decision-making 

process, and help develop alternative designs, 

including professional (ideally, quantitative) strategies 

for balancing safety and historical fabric. As local 

projects by others develop, given KVPT’s leadership role 

with historical buildings, we need to work alongside a 

local engineering team to help train these engineers, who 

focus on modern work and tend to be less familiar with 

this architecture. The result will be specialized methodologies 

reflecting the anomalies of the building fabric 

and the current situation. To be relevant, for example, 

models that could be replicated locally will have to be 

streamlined to be feasible despite the limited resources. 

18

This overview of Campaign Project 

buildings as of June 2016 presents a 

mix of new, old, pre- and post-earthquake 

views. 

Following Pages 

Inside the various storage rooms, 

set up by KVPT shortly after the 

earthquake, for rescued historical 

building elements from Patan 

Darbar and details of some of the 

carved wooden elements salvaged. 

Photos by Ashesh Rajbansh,, Oct. 2015 

19

20

21

22

23

Authenticity in Heritage Preservation 

Recapturing Lost Elements—Thoughts About Restoration and Replacement of 

Damaged or Missing Parts in Architectural Heritage Conservation. 

A dialogue between the West and Nepal in the wake of the 2015 earthquake 

(Niels Gutschow)

Recapturing Lost Elements 

— Thoughts About Restoration and 

Replacement of Damaged or Missing Parts 

in Architectural Heritage Conservation. 

A dialogue between the West and Nepal in 

the wake of the 2015 earthquake 

By Niels Gutschow 

Once one accepts the idea that the philosophy of 

Enlightenment was only one among others to establish the 

principles of an acceptable social coexistence, then one should 

also admit that there are no absolute and scientifically 

justified criteria on the substratum on which universally 

valid values could be based in the context of the protection 

of natural and cultural resources. 

Philippe Descola, French anthropologist, in a lecture on 

16 December 2015 in Paris 

Part I 

Introduction 

The European obsession with patina 

The debate about conservation of buildings entertained 

in Europe at the end of the 19th century very much 

shaped the idea of what makes a “monument” and the 

way the state and/or society should take care of it. This 

debate was so powerful that its shock-waves keep rocking 

through the ongoing debates at the beginning of the 

21st century. 

The issue of patina—literally (It.) a thin layer, the surface 

of objects and buildings, produced by the process of 

ageing—is probably the most controversial one among 

the many aspects of authenticity. Theoretically, at least 

in Europe, the surface of a historic structure has to be 

consolidated to prevent further decay. The actual practice, 

however, is far from following this powerful principle. 

Private and institutional owners try their best to find 

or even create good reasons to renew surfaces in order to 

recall the original splendor if not glory of a façade, an 

interior or even an entire building. As the debate started 

in Europe, it mirrored the anxiety of countries which 

had entered the process of industrialization and does not 

have much meaning for the ongoing discourse in South 

Asia. 

In contrast, beautification is an all-pervasive impulse 

in the care for historic structures in South Asia. Even 

the Archaeological Survey of India, which was explicitly 

founded by British Colonial rule in 1861 to preserve 

prominent archaeological remains, did not refrain from 

beautifications and up to this day spends a large proportion, 

if not the majority of its funds for gardening to 

“improve” the environment of ruins. 

A short episode regarding the value of patina demonstrates 

that the West has many voices and that there is 

no such thing as uniformity of thought and practice. 

When fire gutted Uppark, a seventeenth-century house 

in West Sussex (England) in 1989, it was restored in the 

style of the period in which it was built. The process 

of restoration initiated a re-engagement with many forgotten 

crafts. However, scorch marks were left on the 

woodwork and ragged bits of carpet were left to preserve 

the interior from the accusation of inauthenticity. With 

his usual aplomb, the New York-born (1923) historian 

and geographer David Lowenthal commented, with reference 

to this example, in 2011 that heritage stewardship 

is not “merely preservative: it is ongoing and creative. 

Many cry havoc at the loss of our precious irreplaceable 

legacy. But that legacy is neither dwindling nor irreplaceable. 

It has an organic life of its own, its make-up 

and lineaments re-evaluated by every succeeding generation.” 

Lowenthal was wise enough to pass on the debate 

to future generations and to avoid rigid precepts. 

Theory and Values, conceptualized by European 

art historians and conservationists (1849–1916) 

For more than 150 years, a controversy has raged be- 

Opposite 

Inside one of the storage rooms, 

set up by KVPT shortly after the 

earthquake, for rescued historical 

building elements from Patan 

Darbar. 

Photo by Ashesh Rajbansh, Oct. 2015 

27

tween those art historians, architects, and conservation 

officers who consider material authenticity the ultima 

ratio and those who not only acknowledge or apologetically 

concede, but self-confidently assert that the restoration 

(definition by Fitch 1982: “the process of returning 

the artifact to the physical condition in which it would 

have been at some previous stage of its morphological 

development”) of an historic structure is a valid aim in 

the workaday world of conservation (definition by Fitch 

1982: “physical intervention in the actual fabric of the 

building to ensure its continued structural integrity”) and 

preservation (definition by Fitch 1982: “maintenance of 

the artifact in the same physical condition as when it was 

received by the curatorial agency”). At times, this controversy 

has assumed the proportions of an out-and-out 

“war of words” in which those engaged in restoration 

work are regularly lambasted as “traitors” or insulted as 

“counterfeiters.” The following account is but a short introduction 

to a wide range of actors and thoughts. 

John Ruskin’s mid-nineteenth century legacy: 

The “impossibility” to restore (1849) 

One powerful voice in this whole debate was that of 

the British writer and antiquarian John Ruskin (1819– 

1900), who in the 1840s raised his voice against any kind 

of restoration. His pugnacious, not to say militant, arguments 

were rooted in a romantic predisposition and the 

desire to preserve patina and the traces of history. At all 

events, he contended, the present physical condition of 

a building should be retained. A romantic feature of this 

conviction is the acknowledgement of the fact that “curatorial 

agencies” (or simply the owners) usually start to act 

when it is too late, i.e. when the physical condition of a 

building calls for an intervention “to ensure its continued 

structural integrity” (Fitch 1982). 

As good a place as any to begin an engagement with 

Ruskin’s ideas is a famous quote from his Seven Lamps 

of Architecture, first published in 1849, which figures in 

many disquisitions on the origins of the conservation 

movement. On the subject of “memory”, Ruskin makes 

the following contention that has been drawn upon ever 

since in the skirmishes between those who take the term 

conservation literally and those who set out to transcend 

mere maintenance and to restore a building. 

“Neither by the public, nor by those who have the care of 

public monuments, is the true meaning of the word restoration 

understood. It means the most total destruction 

which a building can suffer: a destruction out of which 

no remnants can be gathered: a destruction accompanied 

with false description of the thing destroyed. Do 

not let us deceive ourselves in this important matter; it is 

impossible, as impossible as to raise the dead, to restore 

anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture. 

[…] Another spirit may be given by another time, 

and it is then a new building […]” (Ruskin 1849, 179). 

Alois Riegl and the postulation of “age value” 

(1903) 

Half a century after Ruskin, another major authority, the 

Austrian art historian Alois Riegl (1858–1905) of Vienna, 

made an influential contribution to the theory of art 

and especially to the field of conservation. Der moderne 

Denkmalkultus was published in 1903, but it took eighty 

years to attract the attention of the broader conservation 

community of the Austrian Empire. It has recently been 

translated into English (The Modern Cult of Monuments: 

its Character and Origin, 1982), French (1984, 2003), 

Italian (1985), Spanish (1987, 1999, 2007, 2008), and 

Czech (2003). After its publication, Riegl served as 

general conservator of the Central Commission for the 

Research and Conservation of Monuments of Art and 

History in Austria. 

Riegl’s main argument was that an architectural monument 

is characterized by “age value,” by which he meant 

the scars, gaps, crevices, scratches, wrinkles that cover the 

surface and embody a variety of messages. “Age value” revolves 

essentially around what nature does to a building, 

28

notably the weathering that causes decay. This view implies 

that although a building may be well looked after, 

nothing can prevent weathering, so the surface is bound 

to develop patina. The more common case, however, is 

that the curatorial agency has to deal with neglect (often 

wilful), mechanical damage, and partial or wide-ranging 

destruction in the wake of natural calamities and war. 

The “Modern Cult of Monuments” says that there must 

be no interference with the natural process of decay, an 

approach that rules out conservation of any kind. In 

short, it is the patina that establishes and guarantees authenticity. 

In contrast, Ruskin valued the “age”, that 

is, the antiquity of a building: “Its glory is in its Age, 

and in that deep sense of voicefulness, of stern watching, 

of mysterious sympathy, nay, even of approval or condemnation, 

which we feel in walls that have long been 

washed by the passion waves of humanity”. The emphasis 

here is not on the tangible, visually perceptible surface 

but on immaterial messages — whatever one may understand 

by “passion waves of humanity.” 

Ideological constraints: Conservation as a belief 

system 

In 1916, Riegl’s successor in office, Max Dvořák (1874– 

1921), published a Catechism for Preservation of Monuments 

(Katechismus der Denkmalpflege) designed to 

communicate the idea of preservation to a wider public. 

Both titles, Riegl’s The Modern Cult of Monuments and 

Dvořák’s Catechism suggest that preservation is not so 

much a rational attitude as a belief. According to The 

American Heritage Dictionary (2006), a cult is an “obsessive 

devotion to or veneration for a person, principle 

or ideal” and a catechism “a brief summary of the basic 

principles of religion,” namely Christianity. In our context, 

both definitions may seem a little extreme and do 

scant justice to the authors. But the definitions rightly 

indicate that, in sum, conservation principles are not 

based on science but on a system of belief, this being 

the very reason why the conservation issue all too often 

degenerates into a “slanging match” in which the differences 

between the adversaries involved are often grossly 

exaggerated. 

This belligerence had already become apparent in Ruskin’s 

day. In 1854, the French architect Viollet-le- 

Duc was of quite a different opinion than Ruskin and 

maintained that restoration is a “means to re-establish 

[a building] to a finished state, which may in fact never 

have actually existed at any given time”. This early debate 

demonstrates in fact the wide range of values the 

term “restoration” incorporates. In any case, it is never 

linear but always rich in ambivalence. 

It is exactly this ambivalence, the diversity of approaches 

to which we want to draw attention in the context of the 

Nepalese debate about the rebuilding of lost monuments 

in the wake of the 2015 earthquake. Conservation and 

restoration are based on specific experiences in a specific 

historical, social and even political context. 

Riegl and his German colleagues, like the architect Cornelius 

Gurlitt (1850–1938) and the art historian Georg 

Dehio (1850–1932), shared the same appreciation of 

“age value”. In 1900 Gurlitt maintained “that the aim 

of any restoration is the preservation; one should spare 

what is decayed from further degradation. One should 

restore in such a way that it remains obvious what in a 

building is old and what is new, and one should mark 

what is added stylistically as new.” Dehio followed suit in 

1901, asserting in the context of the controversy regarding 

the restoration of Heidelberg Castle that “it is a psychologically 

deep-rooted longing” that “the old should 

look old, with all its experiences, such as wrinkles, cracks 

and wounds.” 

From the Venice Charter (1964) to the Nara 

Document on Authenticity (1994) 

Gurlitt and his colleagues established a cult based on 

a system of belief that among conservationists has re- 

29

1 

“Wounds of memory”. World War 

Two bullet holes kept visible and 

covered by glass. 

Berlin, Sigismundstrasse. 

Photograph N. Gutschow, 2009 

mained valid to this day. His insistence on dividing the 

new from the old resurfaced again in 1964 when the students 

of Riegl, Dehio and Gurlitt convened in Venice to 

write down a Charter, which is still widely understood 

as a binding document. It is especially article 12 of the 

Charter that at present draws our attention: it says “replacements 

of missing parts must integrate harmoniously 

with the whole, but at the same time must be distinguishable 

from the original so that restoration does not 

falsify the artistic or historic evidence.” 

The earthquake in April 2015 did in fact produce a lot 

of damage to the architectural heritage of the Kathmandu 

Valley, so that replacements have become the challenge 

of the day. The descendants of those carpenters 

who once created the temples and palaces would never 

give in to making their work distinguishable from the 

original. Their work rivals the quality of the original. 

The Venice Charter is even more explicit in article 9. To 

postulate that “the aim [of restoration] is to preserve and 

reveal the aesthetic and historic value of the monument” 

is absolutely valid and not questioned anywhere in the 

world. But to put “a contemporary stamp” on “any extra 

work” is regarded by me and the Newar craftsmen 

as dogmatic interference in a well-established practice. 

It never occurred to the authors of the Charter (all of 

them Europeans except two representatives from Peru 

and Mexico and a US-born Japanese representative of 

UNESCO) that attitudes and longings might in fact be a 

product of specific cultural processes. We will come back 

to this point later. 

Let me repeat: around 1900, Riegl, Gurlitt, and Dehio 

established a cult based on a system of belief that among 

conservationists has remained valid to this day. So it is 

hardly surprising that many of their principles should 

have resurfaced in the Venice Charter of 1964. Before 

the formulation of the Nara Document on Authenticity 

of 1994 these principles claimed universal validity. 

Riegl went even further with his claim that age value 

has the unique advantage of being valid for all, i.e. transcending 

confessional differences, the divide between the 

educated and the uneducated, and between those who 

love and understand art and those who do not. Until 

today, this claim of universal validity gives the supporters 

of “age value” an immense self-assurance, making 

them rather “conquering and intolerant”, as Riegl 

proudly postulated already in 1903. The “psychologically 

deep-rooted longing” for patina was even claimed to 

be part of human nature. The intolerance of the early 

“heroes” of the conservation movement tends to spread 

a shroud of mistrust on conservation sites. 

It is the claim to universal validity for certain aspects of 

conservation that has poisoned the debate, leaving little 

room for consideration of specific contexts. By contrast, 

Herb Stovel referred in 2008 to the “emerging conviction 

that authenticity resided in what a selection of attributes 

rooted in the particular place- and circumstances-specific 

values of a historic place might reveal.” 

One has to bear in mind that everything quoted in the 

preceding passages comes from a stoutly academic background. 

More often than not, principles are defined by 

the academic guardians of architectural heritage. The 

freezing of a structure in time is associated with wishful 

thinking, the idea that, well maintained, a structure 

would exist forever. But this is to ignore the fact that in 

most cases conservation is concerned with ill-kept, dilapidated, 

or simply neglected structures. In these cases, 

conservation inevitably turns into restoration, be it 

abruptly or even unexpectedly. 

To return to the value of patina: the West seems to be obsessed 

with replacing objects lost in war or in the course 

of progress. Reconstructed objects satisfy the hunger of 

consumerism on the one hand, while respecting traces 

of decay on the other. This may be especially true of 

German society after the loss of historical monuments in 

war and in the post-war developments undertaken in the 

name of progress and efficiency. 

30

The debate has been presented here at length in order 

to understand or even appreciate the mind-set of conservationists 

from the West who engage in the ongoing 

discourse on conservation principles appropriate for a 

country such as Nepal. 

Part II 

The 20th-century experience in Europe: 

War and iconoclasm 

Scars and decay: Berlin and Auschwitz 

In most of Europe’s cities, small scars, wounds or even 

ruins turned into memorials are there for all to witness. 

In quite a few places, scars on the surface of stone are 

highlighted in order to turn a wall, a building, or a site 

into a memorial of wars and uprisings. 

Probably in no other city in the world does the Second 

World War remain as visually apparent as in Germany’s 

capital, Berlin. Bullet holes are ubiquitous, recalling the 

extensive street warfare in April 1945. One building, 

which now houses the administrative offices of the Art 

Gallery, is studded with such bullet holes. No attempt 

has been made to cover the scars up. Instead, a sheet of 

glass has been attached to the wall, leaving a slight gap 

between itself and the stone surface. It bears the inscription 

“Wounds of Memory” (Fig. 1). The glass covers a 

small area of the façade and draws attention to the consequences 

of war. In this case the initiative has come from 

the nation that brought suffering, death, and destruction 

to large areas of Europe. The visibility of the wounds on 

the building is an avowal of guilt. 

The buildings opposite the Budapest Parliament Building 

in Hungary, for example, are pockmarked with 

holes into which large balls of iron have been inserted, 

symbolizing the bullets used in the autumn of 1956 to 

disperse the masses that had assembled in the wake of 

the uprising against communist rule. The scars were 

made visible after 1990 to commemorate the fight for 

freedom, which for Hungary was a painful experience, 

ushering in thirty-four years of oppression. 

German cities like Berlin have been showered by millions 

of bombs, bullets, and artillery shells. The scars 

left on stone and plaster are near-ubiquitous. Efforts to 

cover up the evidence of war have intensified since the 

reunification of the country in 1990. In 2008, Berlin’s 

famous Brandenburg Gate re-emerged from the scaffolding 

that had covered it for many years. Its surface 

was immaculately smooth. Irrespective of size, all the 

scars on the structure have been covered up (Fig. 2). But 

they remain visible to the tutored eye because the mortar 

differs slightly in color from the original grey stone. It 

will need decades before the “additions” develop their 

own patina to be eventually identified as such only with 

a magnifying glass. 

Not far from the Brandenburg Gate, the restorers of the 

arcade of the New Museum (built in 1855, bombed in 

1944, restored in 2009) opted for a different approach. 

Scars longer than three centimeters were covered up with 

special mortar, while smaller holes were left as they were 

to avoid the impression of seamless restoration (Fig. 3). 

In this case, the effects of war had to be kept alive somehow 

to achieve at least a modicum of memory and authenticity. 

National Socialist Germany (1933–45) created a heinous 

infrastructure of its own across Europe. Concentration 

camps were established to imprison enemies of 

state, Roma, homosexuals. Russian prisoners of war, and 

Jews. The most abominable was the one at the city of 

Auschwitz (Oświęcim) near Kraków in Poland, which 

had been annexed by the German Reich in November 

1939. More than one million people were annihilated 

in the gas chambers there. The German command tried 

to destroy the crematoria of the Birkenau camp before 

fleeing but did not succeed. Today, one crematorium is 

preserved and the ruins of a second one were stabilized in 

2 and 3 

Scars covered up: gaps being closed 

by stone of filled with mortar. 

The Brandenburger Tor and the 

colonnade of the Neues Museum at 

Berlin after restoration. 

Photographs N. Gutschow, 2008 

31

4 

Oświęcim / Auschwitz, Poland: A 

corroded fencing pole of reinforced 

concrete in the Concentration 

Camp of Birkenau, erected in 

1942, has not been replaced but 

carefully restored to ensure the 

material authenticity. 

Photograph N. Gustchow, 2002 

5 

Berlin, Altes Stadthaus (Town 

Hall), built in 1902, the eared 

stone architrave of the doorway was 

chipped away in 1956 and partly 

restored in 1996. 


the early 1950s when the material evidence of the Holocaust 

was turned into a memorial. The site, covering 191 

hectares with 155 built structures and 300 ruins, was 

declared a World Heritage Site in 1979—incidentally at 

the same convention when the seven sites of the Kathmandu 

Valley were declared a World Heritage. 

With a growing flow of pilgrims and tourists, an extensive 

scheme was launched in 2000 to present the site 

with an information system, to preserve dilapidated and 

endangered objects and to reconstruct a few structures in 

order to make the former “order” of the camp, which at 

times housed 20,0000 detainees, more understandable. 

Very critical was the restoration of the reinforced concrete 

poles of the electrified fence (Fig. 4). These poles 

were not replaced but carefully reinstated. To preserve 

the authentic concrete was important to avoid the aesthetics 

and ambience of an educative theme park. Many 

victims lost their life at this fence, which was impossible 

to surmount. 

In 2009 an Auschwitz Foundation was set up to ensure 

the continued preservation of the site and in 2012 the 

implementation of a detailed master plan was initiated. 

An example of recent iconoclasm 

Rare are the cases in which architecture is mutilated by 

acts of iconoclasm. The town hall (Altes Stadthaus) in 

Berlin, completed in 1911 as a pretentious, not to say 

downright tub-thumping, demonstration of municipal 

pride, was uniformly disliked and even condemned by 

art historians of the following generation, while conservationists 

took no interest in it at all until the 1980s. 

This general feeling of distaste was instrumental in paving 

the way for the reshaping of the interior hall to fit 

the requirements of modern-style representation by the 

German Democratic Republic in 1956. This required 

chipping off all the projections on the eared architrave 

in stone that frame the doorways and covering all surfaces 

with plywood. The restoration efforts in 1994–2002 

placed conservationists (Berlin’s office of conservation 

had moved to the same building) in a quandary. One 

door frame was restored with its original moldings, others 

were partially restored, and the rest retained the scars 

of history, which were valued as authentic (Fig. 5). Restoration 

became a term of invective in Berlin because 

it was accused of constituting a practice that outrightly 

“falsifies” history. 

The following two cases recall debates from the late 

1960s and mid1990s, which demonstrate that the impulse 

to retain and display wounds of war has always 

been contested. With a hiatus of a generation or two, the 

emotional impact of the experience of violence seems to 

fade away. What has been an authentic material witness 

at one time often turns into a banal commemoration a 

generation later. 

Cologne Cathedral — Healing a wound, 

regaining “heavenly perfection” 

Background 

Cologne Cathedral constitutes the heart of the city, 

which was founded by the Romans two thousand years 

ago. The Cathedral is its undisputed major landmark. 

In 1248 the foundations of the present cathedral were 

laid. There followed a 300-year building period based 

on inspiring examples of Gothic architecture in France. 

Three hundred years later again, the Romantic period 

with its veneration for “the great German Middle Ages” 

created new interest in the oldest and largest building 

site in Cologne. As a symbol of newly emerging national 

awareness, the cathedral was finally completed between 

1842 and 1880. 

After completion, the workshop of the cathedral (Ger. 

Dombauhütte) remained active to ensure ongoing repair 

work. Ever since, a staff of more than sixty people, 

among them thirty specialized craftsmen, have been entrusted 

with the job of conserving the cathedral. Sixty 

percent of the annual costs are covered by the Central 

Cathedral Construction Society, which was founded in 

1842 and today has almost 13,000 members worldwide. 

32

In the summer, more than 20,000 tourists visit the cathedral 

daily. In 1996 the cathedral was included in the 

World Heritage List. 

Healing a wound, regaining “heavenly perfection” 

On 3 November 1943 a bomb hit an abutment of the 

cathedral’s northern tower. By the end of the year, the 

site was cleared and 27,500 bricks used to fill the gap 

torn by the impact of the bomb (Fig. 6. 7). The brickwork 

was nicknamed “die Plombe”, the German word 

for a tooth filling. Involved in the work of filling the 

gap were army personnel, ten prisoners of war, and 20 

“convicts”, a euphemism for inmates of an outpost of 

the Buchenwald concentration camp. Remarkably, two 

fragments of the abutment were retrieved from the rubble 

and incorporated into the brickwork as spolia. 

For the next half century, this “emergency repair” was 

the subject of heated debate. One party insisted on the 

maintenance and preservation of the “filling” in memory 

of the “inferno of the Second World War”, while the other 

side demanded that “the venerable face” of the edifice 

be restored. This discussion came to an end in the mid- 

1990s when the lower end of the abutment was consolidated 

and the master builder of the cathedral announced 

his intention to remove the filling. Historians argued 

that this “evidence” of the Second World War was still 

needed as “a monument and memorial.” In 1995, the 

master builder, Arnold Wolff, was of a different opinion 

and finally resolved to submit a formal application for 

permission to act in accordance with the conservation 

law. He argued that the cathedral is first of all a church, 

“a house of God and a place of worship”, which should 

not be misappropriated for alien purposes. In his view, 

the march of time would ultimately make it impossible 

for uninformed visitors to understand why there should 

be brickwork on a sandstone church. More importantly, 

the totality of the cathedral, regarded as a “work of art” 

(Gesamtkunstwerk), would lose “an important part of its 

identity” if “traces of its history are valued higher than 

the meaning invested in the edifice by the original builders.” 

According to Wolff, the wholeness and integrity of 

the cathedral constitute its “inner essence”. 

The master builder also emphasized that the builders 

of Gothic cathedrals aimed at the highest possible perfection. 

Taking into account the inadequacies of earthly 

life, at least the building of a church should mirror 

“heavenly perfection”. Criticizing the cathedral building 

for attempting to create the illusion of a perfect world 

was considered an unsubstantiated accusation. 

In March 1996 building permission was granted; actual 

work on the site started in 2004 and was completed 

by August 2005 (Fig. 8). 103 cubic meters of sandstone 

were built into the structure. 823 stones were cut to size, 

and 124 sophisticated sculptural elements such as capitals, 

finials, and crabs were fashioned. 

6,7,8 

Cologne Cathedral. In November 

1943 the abutment of the northern 

tower was hit by a bomb; the gap 

was filled with bricks. In 2008 

the “tooth filling” (Plombe) was 

removed to restore the abutment 

in Gothic style in order to regain 

“heavenly perfection”. 

Source: Postcard Ziethen-Verlag, ca. 

1995, and Schock-Werner, 2005 

33

11 

Nara, Horyu-ji temple, the inner 

columns of the 7th century hall 

were charred by fire in 1949 and 

removed to a shrine-like storage to 

preserve the authentic elements. 


34 

Conservation principles in change 

Altogether fourteen bombs hit the Cologne Cathedral 

during the Second World War. By 1956 most of the 

damage had been remedied. The first master builder of 

the cathedral after the war had favored “creative conservation”, 

designing lost details anew rather than copying 

the originals. He shared the widespread contempt 

for Gothic revivalism and in 1972 designed the crossing 

tower in a contemporary, stylized Gothic mode. 

Under the guidance of his successor, conservation practice 

changed dramatically in the wake of a new appreciation 

for the nineteenth-century Gothic revival. As 

of the 1980s at the latest, the replacement of sculptural 

elements adhered strictly to the prototypes that had 

been preserved. Details and even whole sculptures that 

had been weather-damaged out of all recognition were 

removed from their original location and replaced by 

copies. This policy has continued under the leadership 

of Arnold Wolff’s successor, Barbara Schock-Werner, 

from 1998 to 2012 the first female master builder of the 

site. Large sculptures are constantly being removed for 

repair or replacement. Weather-damaged parts are faithfully 

copied from existing nineteenth-century design 

drawings and models in gesso, 700 of which have been 

preserved. If there is no model to work from, missing 

parts are added in gesso on the basis of photographs and 

in analogy with similar sculptures. The archive of the 

workshop houses, as it were, the “true” elements of the 

cathedral. It would sound overly provocative to call this 

treasure the “authentic” core of the cathedral. 

The master builder refers to the final product not as a 

copy but as a re-creation, with an emphasis on “creation”. 

In 2004, 7,262 cubic meters of stone (sandstone, 

limestone, basalt, and trachyte) from five locations in 

Europe were used for this purpose, in 2005 a total of 

15,525 cubic meters. These figures suggest large-scale 

renewal, but in fact all the work of this nature is confined 

to the surface of the monumental cathedral. Ninety-eight 

percent of the entire building material is original, 

mainly dating back to the period when the edifice 

was completed in the nineteenth century. 

The master builder concedes that the approach adopted 

in Cologne cannot be generalized. For instance, Freiburg 

Cathedral (built 1200–1513) is an “original” or 

“authentic” Gothic cathedral, so copies or re-creations 

are out of the question. Since 1889 the workshop of the 

cathedral has strictly adhered to the principle “conservation, 

not restoration,” vehemently advocated by German 

conservationists in 1901. 

The case of Cologne Cathedral indicates that in actual 

practice powerful principles do not in fact withstand 

the “test of authenticity.” Gothic revivalism was first abhorred, 

later rehabilitated. But some value judgements 

have prevailed: true or “authentic” medieval architecture 

cannot be copied, but its nineteenth-century revival is 

obviously less “authentic” and hence admits of copying 

and even re-creation. 

Part III 

Japan 

The Japanese Practice in the aftermath of fire, 

1949 and 1952 

Enshrining identity—the preservation of fragments of the 

hall of the Hōryū-ji temple after fire in 1949 in Japan 

Throughout history, fire has caused an inevitable loss 

of the Japan’s building heritage. Subsequent rebuilding 

has always led to more or less fundamental changes in 

construction methods, in shape and scale. The charred 

fragments of the Hōryū-ji were treated in a completely 

different fashion after the temple was gutted by fire in 

1949. Dating back to 679 and dismantled three times in 

the early twelfth century and again in 1374 and 1603, 

the hall (Kon-dō) of the extended temple complex nevertheless 

is said to have preserved the original configuration, 

with the original timber elements. As it was one

of the iconic monuments of the country, said to be the 

oldest extant wooden structure on earth, it was dismantled 

for repair in 1934. On 26 January 1949 the core 

structure with its 28 columns, brackets and cross beams 

were exposed to fire for a few hours, charring the surface 

to a depth of three centimeters. The preservation of the 

seventh-century building components was considered 

so important that they were consolidated with synthetic 

resin and moved to a fire-proof shelter, while the hall 

received replacements. The storehouse preserves these 

columns in their original configuration as if this profane 

building were a shrine. The charred fragments obviously 

constituted the identity of the much revered monument 

and as such they are kept in close proximity to the replacements. 

They are not displayed for the public, but 

kept enshrined as if representing the priceless grail, the 

origin of the country’s built heritage. Only on rare occasions 

are professionals granted access to them in an act of 

guarded secrecy (Fig. 9). 

Rebuilding after dismantling (1898–1908) and 

reconstruction after loss in fire (1952–1953) of 

the Kinkaku-ji temple in Kyoto, Japan 

A prominent example of contested identity discusses 

the reconstructions of the Kinkaku-ji (“Golden Pavilion 

Temple,” officially called Rokuon-ji, “Deer Garden 

Temple”)—widely recognized as the expression of something 

quintessentially Japanese. Built in the fourteenth 

century, the temple constitutes one of the first national 

treasures (Jap. kokuhō) according to the Law for the 

Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples of 1897. It 

was totally dismantled in 1908 and painstakingly reassembled. 

The temple was gutted by fire in 1952 (Fig. 10) 

and subsequently reconstructed, based on the detailed 

measurements of every timber element done in 1908. 

Having lost its material authenticity, the new structure 

(Jap. saiken) was no longer considered a national treasure 

and subsequently delisted (Fig. 11). 

When thirteen sites in Kyoto were inscribed in the World 

Heritage list in 1994 as a collective entry, the Rokuon-ji 

garden was included, but without the Kinkaku-ji, the 

prominent landmark of the garden. As a replica of the 

lost temple, the forty-year-old structure was considered 

inauthentic in terms of the World Heritage Conservation 

Guidelines. The Japanese authorities elected not to 

enter into a debate about the values inherent in the basically 

occidental term of “Authenticity”. 

Thoughts about the originality of the present temple, 

or rather the authenticity of its reconstruction, were put 

forward by the author Douglas Adams (1952–2001). 

Adams must have visited the Kinkaku-ji in the early 

1990s, because in 1992 he recalls his visit in Last Chance 

to See and presents an anecdote that illustrates Theseus’ 

paradox in a Japanese context. 

Adams recalls how he was “mildly surprised at quite how 

well it had weathered the passage of time since it was 

first built in the fourteenth century.” He was told “it 

hadn’t weathered well at all, and had in fact been burnt 

to the ground twice in this century.” He realized that it 

was not “the original building,” but his guide, not being 

acquainted with the doctrine of conservation, insisted 

that it would always be “the same building.” The author 

continues: “I had to admit to myself that this was 

in fact a perfectly rational point of view, it merely started 

from an unexpected premise. The idea of the building, 

the intention of it, its design, are all immutable and are 

the essence of the building. The intention of the original 

builders is what survives. The wood of which the design 

is constructed decays and is replaced when necessary. To 

be overly concerned with the original materials, which 

are merely sentimental souvenirs of the past, is to fail to 

see the living building itself.” 

Adams’ words pinpoint the issue of material authenticity 

better than any essay by a conservation professional 

aiming at a denial of the identity of the temple. Adams 

does stretch his point somewhat by qualifying “original 

material” as a “sentimental souvenir of the past.” But in 

9, 10 

Kyoto, Kinkaku-ji. Revered as a 

priceless symbol of Japaneseness, 

the temple was lost to fire in 1952 

and faithfully reconstructed in the 

following year. The garden was 

listed as World Heritage but the 

temple excluded as an inauthentic 

replica. 

Photographs public domain and N. 

Gutschow, 1997 

35

12, 13 

Khajuraho, Lakshmana temple, 

completed in 954 CE. Uncarved 

stone indicates the location of a 

former niche, following the rules 

set by John Marshall in 1923 by 

avoiding any recapturing of carved 

details. 


14 

Aihole, Ravana Phadi Cave, 6th 

century CE. Three pillars were replicated, 

complete with their crossshaped 

capitals, carved in shallow 

relief after an unknown example to 

present the small temple as part of 

a complex site. 


so doing he clarifies the fact that material is but one aspect 

of authenticity and in a cultural context that differs 

considerably from that of, say, Germany where reconstruction 

issues are invariably highly controversial. 

PART IV 

The South Asian Experience: 

India and Nepal 

The legacy of the Archaeological Survey of India 

and the Conservation Manual by John Marshall 

(1923) 

With the establishment of the Archaeological Survey 

of India at the end of the 19th century and its institutionalization 

within the bureaucracy of colonial rule 

in the early 20th century, protection and conservation 

became a major concern. The restoration of the gateway 

of Akbar’s Tomb (built 1605–13) in Agra was one of 

the first undertakings that included the completion of 

the lost minarets on the basis “of an understanding of 

Mughal architecture”, as Ratish Nanda, projects director 

of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture recently wrote. As 

viceroy of India, Lord Curzon appointed John Marshall 

as Director General in 1902. Marshall, who served until 

1928, established general principles for the maintenance 

of “antiquarian relics”, which in most cases were found 

in a ruinous state. Devoid of any contemporary use, protected 

monuments are, still today, taken care of by the 

state. Marshall’s Conservation Manual, first published in 

1923, set the standards for any intervention. 

Paragraph 23 of the manual says that “preservation 

should be primarily aimed at, and repair attempted only 

in cases where its advisability is undoubted”. Paragraph 

25 explains: “Although there are many ancient buildings 

whose state of disrepair suggests at first sight a renewal, 

it should never be forgotten that their historical value is 

gone when their authenticity is destroyed, and that our 

first duty is not to renew them but to preserve them” 

(italics in the original). This statement is in line with the 

European 19th century romantic view of ruins and the 

dogma of “age value”, which is based on the preference 

of material authenticity. 

Repair was confined to the use of “any carved stones or 

bricks or any pieces of tilework that are found lying in 

the débris on old sites” to be “restored, if possible, to 

their former positions, provided always that no doubt 

exists as to what those positions were” (§ 85). The utmost 

concession was granted to “living monuments of 

the Muhamadan epoch”, for which “the reproduction of 

geometric design is sometimes admissible” (§ 84). 

The most far-reaching prescription pertained to sculptural 

work: “The repair of divine or human figures is 

never to be attempted and that of free floral designs only 

36

in very exceptional cases. Empty niches should remain 

empty if their images are lost; and the spaces occupied by 

images in friezes and string courses should, in repaired 

portions, be left blank” (§83). 

A lot of a debate had been going on in what way this 

distanced view of an archaeologist in colonial service 

conflicted with practices of renewal in India down to 

the present day. Ironically, the Archaeological Survey of 

India broke these rules at many sites (Figs. 12, 13 and 

14) with the result that budget constraints resulted in 

dubious works. 

The tragedy is that Nepal’s Ancient Monument Preservation 

Act, promulgated in 1956 and amended a couple 

of times, copied the Indian example. Nepal has quite a 

few ruins in the far western districts; these escaped the 

attention of the central administration until very recently. 

The Newar architectural heritage of the Kathmandu 

Valley, however, has no ruins, because temples, palaces 

and monastic buildings had been maintained from the 

earliest times, and in cases of neglect or loss repaired, 

rebuilt or replaced. All of these structures are embedded 

in living religious and cultural traditions. 

To keep empty niches empty and parts of friezes blank, 

as the Conservation Manual prescribes, would not only 

demonstrate utter neglect and carelessness, but would 

be felt as an insult. The Department of Archaeology of 

Nepal, in fact, has never abided by these rules, but felt 

repeatedly impelled to justify local practices and the demands 

of the communities. However, in disregard of the 

local practices, even the recently “Basic Guidelines for 

the Preservation and Rebuilding of Monuments damaged 

in the Earthquake, 2072 (2016)”, phrased by the 

Department of Archaeology, prescribes under paragraph 

32 c the use of “uncarved elements resembling the original 

size, type and quality” in case evidence is lacking. 

Moreover, “no gods and goddesses, or other images may 

be carved based on conjecture”. It will probably be left 

to the demands of the “local residents” as mentioned in 

§13 of the Guidelines to avoid blank surfaces and to replicate 

deities, the iconographical details of which in most 

cases is common knowledge. 

Practices in India, between conservation 

and beautification 

Ruins and memorials — the memorial at Jallianwala 

Bagh in Amritsar 

Memorials to violence are not only found in Europe. A 

memorial recalling colonial terror is found at Amritsar, 

India, where at the Jallianwala Bagh, a large walled garden 

in the heart of the city, troops were given free rein 

to gun down the people assembling for an unauthorized 

public meeting on 13 April 1919, the date commemorating 

the founding of the Sikh religion. More than 

15 

Amritsar, India. Built in 1961, 

the Jallianwala Bagh Memorial 

is dedicated to the massacre of 

1919. Bullet holes in the wall are 

indicated. 

Source: public domain 

16, 17 

Satrunjaya in Gujarat, India. The 

surface of Jain temples is cyclically 

removed and restored to achieve 

perfection. 


37

18, 19 

Delhi, Humayun’s Tomb. The restoration 

in 2009 aimed at reviving 

the original intentions of the builder. 

Decorative plaster has been renewed 

and latticework of windows 

in red sandstone has been replicated 

in analogy to preserved patterns. 

The repair of stonework follows 

the spirit of the architecture. View 

from the south and window of the 

western gate in November 2009. 


1,000 people were killed. A trust was set up in memory 

of this atrocity and a memorial built in 1961, designed 

by the Kolkata-based American architect Benjamin 

Polk. Bullet holes in preserved parts of the walls have 

been marked with metal plates and the Martyrs’ Well, 

in which frightened victims took refuge, is a protected 

monument (Fig. 14). 

The preference for perfect, even beautified surfaces: Jain 

temples 

South Asian societies do not share with Westerners the 

predilection for patina, for scars and scratches. The cyclic 

renewal of the plaster of the Jain temples on the sacred 

mountain of Satrunjaya in Gujarat, India, serves as a 

good example, to document the preference for immaculate 

surfaces. The mountain, located near the south-eastern 

shore of Saurashtra, rises about 600 meters above the 

plains and is topped by a complex of temples with 863 

buildings. The hill is held sacred by the followers of Jainism. 

Despite the emphasis on monastic discipline, the 

Jains developed into a wealthy mercantile community 

and have figured as patrons of temple architecture to the 

present day. The earliest temples on Satrunjaya Hill date 

back to the sixteenth century, but most of them were 

constructed in the nineteenth century, owing their existence 

to donations from rich merchants of Ahmedabad 

(Fig. 16). “The relatively unadorned outer walls (no 

sculptures), the clustered elegant profiles of the towers 

and the double-storey porches are all”, as George Mitchell 

writes, “characteristic of the final phase of western 

Indian temple architecture.” 

Almost all the temples have been constructed with stone 

from Dranghadra, a material that displays a rough surface 

when shaped or transformed into sculptures. This 

surface was coated with layers of plaster. Exposed to 

sun and rain, this surface develops hair-line cracks and 

changes in color. Within a decade, the temples take on a 

dirty grey appearance instrumental in prompting donors 

to renew the coat of plaster (Fig. 17). Under the guidance 

of local masters, the sompura, craftsmen recreate 

the sculptured struts and pilasters at irregular intervals 

every thirty to forty years. In contrast to the European 

doctrine, which propagates patina and excludes any intervention, 

the renewal of the plaster surface is an exercise 

in reverence. 

Appreciation is bestowed not on the “age value” of a 

temple, but on the splendor of a renewed coat of plaster, 

radiant in the bright sun. The quality of the work 

is assured, with funds provided by trusts. The Jain temples 

at Satrunjaya are not listed as protected monuments 

because they are managed by private trusts and are still 

in active religious use. The trusts are invested with the 

full authority required for preservation of the temples by 

means of cyclical restoration. 

The restoration of Humayun’s Tomb, 2007 to 2012 

The building of Emperor Humayun’s (1508–56 CE) 

tomb was initiated by his son Akbar, the third of the 

great Mughal rulers in 1566. It was constructed under 

the supervision of Mirak Mirza Ghiyas from Persia; it 

was the first of the great Mughal tombs on the Indian 

subcontinent and the precursor of the famed Taj Mahal, 

built eighty years later. The tomb was designated a 

World Heritage Site in 1993, and in 1997 the Aga Khan 

Trust for Culture offered to join forces with the Archae- 

38

ological Survey of India to restore the gardens, based 

on miniatures, paintings and photographs dating as far 

back as 1849. This implied removing earlier attempts at 

restoration, and in 2003 water was brought back to the 

garden after an interim of 400 years. 

The restoration of the Tomb started in 2007 with the 

removal of millions of kilos of cement concrete from 

the roof of the structure, including the latest layer added 

by the Archaeological Survey of India in 2004 (Fig. 

19). Similarly, the plinth of the tomb, paved with large 

stone blocks, was covered with cement concrete in the 

late 1950s to level the ground. The project decided to 

restore the original level; missing grey quartzite stone 

blocks were replaced by those used as kerbstones on 

Delhi roads. After much debate, including objections 

by the Archaeological Survey of India which considered 

the 20th century layer of concrete as authentic, 4,200 

square meters of paving were restored. To “restore material 

integrity”, the project removed all cement from walls 

and floors and restored these with lime plaster and lime 

concrete. 

A major challenge was the restoration of the tilework of 

the canopies. Four years of research and collaboration 

with craftsmen from Uzbekistan in 2010 cleared the way 

for the much contested restoration, which the project 

considered equivalent to “a prominent intention of the 

original builders”. There was no need to resort to conjecture 

as the preserved tiles provided the necessary information 

regarding size and color for the reproduction 

of the missing tiles, which at one time had been replaced 

by cement mortar. 

In a recent summary the project architect Ratish Nanda 

wrote: “In an attempt to overcome the inappropriate 

attitudes evinced in preceding colonial and postcolonial 

conservation efforts, recent restoration works aim 

at reviving the original intentions of the builders, the 

authenticity of the materials and crafts techniques used, 

and the architectural integrity of the mausoleum. With a 

special focus on analogy and material integrity, architectural 

patterns have been restored on the basis of extant 

sixteenth-century prototypes.” (Fig. 18) 

Practices in Nepal: Maintenance, repair, 

replacement and restoration (jirnoddhara) 

A general review of replacement and rebuilding, 15th to 

19th centuries 

Almost nothing is known about the history of repairs, 

restoration and replacement because serious research just 

started little more than a generation ago. Take, for example, 

the ongoing discussion about the origin and history 

of the Kasthamandapa. Based on inscriptions and chronicles, 

the large pillared hall-cum-shrine is often presented 

as a 13th or 15th century building, but many repair 

schemes, the most recent one carried out in 1966 as the 

first major project guided by the Department of Archaeology, 

have replaced and added a number of architectural 

elements. Just recently, the American anthropologist and 

art historian Mary Slusser dated the carved frieze of the 

lower level balcony to the early 18th century, based on 

stylistic comparisons. Similarly, the shape of the portals 

of Kathmandu’s Taleju temple suggests a replacement in 

the early 19th century, although to this day all cultural 

historians date the temple to 1564. The great and most 

ancient temples of Cangu Narayana and Pashupatinatha 

were totally replaced in 1696 and 1708, leaving no 

evidence of the previous structures. In all probability, 

the thresholds of the Cangu temple were shortened to 

allow rebuilding on a smaller scale. The carvings of that 

temple demonstrate inferior craftsmanship and obviously 

do not incorporate any element of the previous temple. 

The collapse of the Kumbheshvara temple in 1808 

represents an even more complex situation. Only a few 

architectural elements date to the renewal of the temple 

in the 1680s. For whatever reason, the thresholds in the 

east-west direction were shortened and the lintels of the 

portals simply cut to fit into the new configuration. 

39

20 

Patan, the 16th century Manicaitya 

at the northern end of the Darbar 

Square: beautification in 2015 by 

a flimsy enclosure of flimsy rods, 

with prayer wheels in the corners, a 

canopy and a frill of fabric. 

Photograph N. Gutschow, 2015. 

21 

Kathmandu, Tripureshvara temple, 

built in 1818, collapsed in the 1934 

earthquake and rebuilt in the following 

years with a cornice molded 

in concrete and dispensing with the 

latticed screens between the struts. 


The most complex story, however, is told by the development 

of the Yakseshvara temple in Bhaktapur. Only 

the southern portal dates to the early 15th century, a 

date based on radiocarbon testing. A stylistic analysis 

of the three remaining portals suggests a 16th, 17th 

and even 19th century origin. For whatever reasons— 

lack of resources, fading interest in a changed political 

landscape, pressure of time—the eastern portal is barely 

carved. Even the wall brackets were left uncarved. The 

design ofthe portal was not changed or “modernized”, 

but the surface remained blank. This had happened already 

a few centuries earlier, when the northern, eastern 

and southern portals of the Indreshvara temple in 

Panauti were installed in a rudimentary fashion, with the 

lintel ends, the quarter round panels, the wall brackets 

and the blocks above the threshold ends left uncarved. 

It is also worth mentioning that almost all of the two 

hundred Buddhist votive structures of the Licchavi period 

(5th–9th centuries), known as Caityas or Stupas, 

were reconfigured and even relocated in the first half of 

the 17th century. Very few of these are preserved in their 

original configuration. Pedestal, lower storeys, drum, 

dome and pinnacle have often been reassembled or incorporated 

into a 17th or 18th century Caitya to gain a 

“new life”. 

The most intrusive change occurred when, after the 

earthquakes of 1808, 1833 and 1934, tiered temples 

were replaced by domed ones to comply with Anglo-Indian 

architectural norms, which were mainly imported 

from Lucknow, the flourishing center of North India at 

the end of the 18th and early 19th century. The following 

suggestions are not well established, but most probably 

the Jagannatha temple at Kathmandu’s Tundikhel 

field was replaced by the first domed structure in the 

valley in 1809, and after 1833 the tiered temple of Matsyendranath 

in Bungamati was replaced by a Shikhara 

temple. After the 1934 earthquake, quite a number of 

tiered temples or temples with a Shikhara tower were 

renewed with a dome on top; to name only a couple, 

the Vishveshvara temple (Bhaidegah) on Patan’s Darbār 

Square or the Silumahadyah on Bhaktapur Darbar 

Square which subsequently was named “Pumpkin 

Temple” (Phasidegah). Many of the Shikhara temples, 

heavily damaged in the 1934 earthquake (Vatsala and 

Siddhilakshmi temples in Bhaktapur, Krishna temple in 

Patan), were hastily rebuilt, causing their collapse or critical 

condition in 2015. 

The impulse to beautify and simplify 

Since the earliest time, the impulse to beautify has had a 

number of consequences. From the thirteenth century, 

the chronicles refer to the replacement of tiled roofs with 

gilt copper roofing. The same is true for the covering up 

of tympana and entire door frames with gilt repoussé 

work in copper or even silver. The Pashupatinath temple 

serves as a good example: Amar Singh had the northern 

portal covered by gilt copper in 1814, and Kulananda 

Jha covered the western portal in 1818. Prime Minister 

Ranaodip Singh donated the marble flooring in 1880, 

Chanda Shumsher Rana repaired the gilt roofs in 1925, 

and King Mahendra had the gilt roofs renewed on the 

occasion of his coronation in 1956. King Birendra followed 

suit in 1975, donating the ceiling in silver. 

With sheet copper imported from Japan easily available 

40

at present, the replacement of tile roofs by rich merchants 

or local communities became a pervasive practice, while 

the ever increasing price of gold leads to the gilding being 

replaced by gold bronze or yellow enamel paint. As 

steward of conservation, the authorized Department of 

Archaeology has no control whatsoever. 

To the disgust of conservationists, donations from devotees 

have resulted in additions such as canopies, railings, 

and large-scale iron grids of very inferior craftsmanship. 

Obviously, contemporary donors have become stingy. 

Examples of such dubious donations can be seen at 

Vambaha in Patan, where the most precious 6th-century 

Caitya was encircled by a railing in 2010, and the Manicaitya 

on Patan’s Darbar Square in 2014 (Fig. 20). To 

beautify or to add to a religious structure is a meritorious 

act which cannot be channeled by an agency. In the 

context of living traditions, it just happens. Worth mentioning 

in this context is the covering of the outstanding 

15th century lintel ends of the principal entrance of the 

Ibahabahi with gold bronze in October 2013 on the occasion 

of the Dasain festival. 

Tradition and change 

Beautification and the desire to accumulate merit have 

to be considered as traditional attitudes. In contrast, 

conservation has rather to be understood as an intellectual 

and educational attitude adopted by a society that is 

alienated from its past. The context is lost. It is the material 

evidence, the artistic accomplishment that is worshipped 

and identified with. This identification can even 

lead to emotional attachment, albeit based on education 

or even agitation. In Nepal, an alienation of this kind began 

only very recently with the schooling of all children, 

the increasing loss of historical fabric in the wake of an 

aggressive urban development, real estate business, and 

the 2015 earthquake. 

Almost all of a sudden, ethnicity and customs became 

a concern, and advocates of vegetarianism are fighting 

animal sacrifice in the name of Ahimsa (the precept of 

non-violence). Among Newars, the age-old funeral associations 

are about to dissolve as they are unable to cope 

with inter-caste and inter-ethnic marriages. But the Supernaturals 

remain powerful: almost every household 

continues to pacify the deities and spirits of the neighborhood 

in the early morning and on the occasion of the 

annual worship of the ancestors (Sorashraddha), even 

King Birendra or the famous Malla kings such as Bhupatindra 

receiving their share in the shape of a dumpling 

of wheat flour. 

The coming generation will inevitably enter into a never-ending 

process of re-evaluation of the legacy of the 

past and reconcile traditional religious practices with 

values that have gradually evolved with the modernization 

of society and the advent of global aesthetic norms 

in connection with work and leisure, education and science. 

Fundamental changes in rebuilding: The example of the 

Tripureśvara temple in Kathmandu after the 1934 

earthquake 

The Tripureshvara temple was established in 1818 in the 

center of a large quadrangle along the Bagmati River in 

Kathmandu. The donor, Queen Lalita Tripurasundari, 

who initiated the construction in memory of her spouse, 

King Rana Bahadur Shah (1755–1806), completed the 

building within 14 months. Acting as Regent, she used 

her position and the financial resources of the country 

to construct a powerful memorial, rivalling in size 

Kathmandu’s Taleju temple. The design incorporated 

mid-18th century innovations, but followed largely the 

prototype of the triple-tiered temple, established by the 

Gokarneshvara temple at the end of the 16th century. 

Photographs have not been found, but recent research 

suggests a dismantling and total reconstruction after the 

1934 earthquake. Most striking is the incorporation of 

exposed latticed windows in the first level, because the 

22 

Chauni, earthquake memorial, 

displaying a twisted double-T-girder 

beside Juddha Shamsher Rana 

at the premises of the National 

Museum, erected ca. 1938. 


23 

Bhaktapur, Nyatapvala temple. In 

1962 the Public Works Department 

carried out an extensive beautification 

scheme which included 

filling cracks on columns – which 

occurred at the time of construction 

in 1702 – with cement and 

covering all woodwork with paint. 


41

24 

Patan, Sundari Cok. Replacement 

of Ganesha, one of the 18 protective 

deities flanking the principal 

doorway of the south wing, carved 

by Indra Kaji Shilpakar in 2013. 

Photograph Ashesh Rajbansh, 2015 

original latticework, once filling the gaps between the 

struts, had not been replaced. Equally striking is the use 

of casting molds to reproduce the stepped cornice above 

the ground floor in concrete (Fig. 21). This probably 

constitutes the first introduction of modern material in 

the context of an extensive repair and rebuilding scheme. 

Lime mortar made its way into the architecture of the 

Kathmandu Valley in the 1820s, when Bhimsen Thapa 

developed the ambition to emulate the artistic splendor 

of Lucknow. Italian marble arrived through Calcutta 

only a little later, and cast iron pillars and steel girders 

were being imported from Sheffield from the 1880s. 

These innovations did not prevent the collapse of many 

of the Rana palaces in the 1934 earthquake. Twisted 

double T-girders can be seen at the National Museum 

in Chauni, incorporated into an Earthquake Memorial 

(Fig. 22). 

In many ways, the rebuilding of the Tripureshvara 

temple stands for a project that largely failed to reorganize 

the iconographical details. It is not known what 

happened to the original thresholds. The short replacements 

in stone resulted in the abrupt ending of the outer 

stepped frame (puratva) above brickwork. A few of the 

Mother Goddesses of the quarter round panels and the 

wall brackets have clumsily been replaced and installed 

in a wrong sequence and many decorative details have 

been simplified. Obviously, there was no ambition to 

replicate the missing elements in analogy to the preserved 

ones. Cursory supervision and lack of funds must 

have led to a blatant loss of quality. 

Beautification of the Nyatapvala temple in Bhaktapur by 

the Public Works Department in 1963 

The case of the “restoration” of the Nyatapvala temple 

(literally the “five-roofed”) in Bhaktapur in 1963 

documents the impulse to beautify in quite a different 

context. This temple is a good example of the Nepalese 

“pagoda” style of architecture. However, “pagoda” is an 

inappropriate, originally derogatory Portuguese term 

for heathen temples, and in a tourist context it is used 

for any towering “oriental” or simply picturesque structure 

between India and Japan. The temple was built in 

197 days and completed on 26 June 1702 to house Siddhilakshmi, 

the personal goddess of King Bhupatindra 

Malla. No one has access to the sanctum except a Tantric 

priest who serves the deity every morning. Accordingly, 

the building has little significance for the people of the 

city, who primarily worship chthonic, earthbound deities 

that demand blood sacrifices. 

Surprisingly, the temple stands intact on a terraced 

plinth, having survived the devastating earthquakes of 

1833, 1934, and the most recent one on 25 April 2015, 

which inflicted only minor damage to the top tier. In 

1963, King Mahendra had the temple restored, or rather 

beautified (the Sanskrit term jīrṇoddhāra refers to anything 

from maintenance and major renewal to total 

replacement) by the Public Works Department (Nep. 

bhawan bibag). An extensive beautification program included 

the renewal of the front layer of bricks on the 

plinths with red cement mortar, painting the sanctum 

walls red, with yellow lines to indicate the joints, and 

decking out all the woodwork in gay colors. Most revealing 

of all is the fact that all cracks in the woodwork 

(carving was always done on fresh hard wood of the Sal 

variety, which regularly developed cracks) were covered 

with cement mortar to create a smooth surface for the 

covering paint (Fig. 23). 

With no understanding of the values inherent in the historic 

architecture of the Newars, who created a unique 

urban culture in the Kathmandu Valley, the overseers of 

the Public Works Department, who were educated in 

the use of brick-dust plaster, whitewashing and enamel 

paints, ignored the surface of the original material – 

Newar craftsmen never colored brickwork or wood. The 

ultimate aim of the overseers was to beautify the temple 

in line with Indian color schemes. 

At the time of King Mahendra, the obligations of the 

42

Department of Archaeology were not yet well-defined. 

It was established simply as an administrative act in fulfilment 

of the requirements of a modern state. The example 

demonstrates that beyond maintenance and beautification, 

the western concept of conservation appeared 

to be alien to Nepal. 

Nepal’s Potemkin villages: hurried activities on special 

occasions 

The Department of Archaeology and the Public Works 

Department have repeatedly been allotted special funds 

on certain occasions such as the coronation of the king 

or the convention of SAARC (South Asian Association 

for Regional Cooperation) meetings. On the occasion of 

King Birendra’s coronation in February 1975, the traditional 

door leaves with simple, uncarved flat surfaces of 

Sundari Cok in Patan and the Fifty-Five-Window Palace 

in Bhaktapur were replaced by new ones with carved 

decorative elements, which at that time were already 

favored by the tourism industry. Moreover, the sixteen 

protective deities of the niches that flank the courtyard 

doors of Sundari Cok, which had got lost, were replaced 

by replicas of inferior quality. On the occasion of the 

restoration of Sundari Cok, these were removed and replaced 

in 2013 by new ones, created by master carver 

Indra Kaji Silpakar from Bhaktapur (Fig. 24). On the 

occasion of the third SAARC summit in Nepal in November 

1987, the pavement and the plinth around the 

courtyard of Patan’s Mulcok were renewed with tiles and 

incompatible modern-style bricks. These were taken out 

in 2011 to reveal the original brick pavement; the plinths 

were reshaped with traditional veneer bricks. Moreover, 

two tympana were replaced in 1975 on the courtyard’s 

south wing, as well as two struts and the bay window of 

the north wing. 

The beautification budget for the eighteenth summit 

in Nepal in November 2014 was released too late and 

ended in frantic activities with the slogan “face-lifting”, 

which had already largely replaced the term “restoration” 

as a term for state-of-the-art intervention. Most of the 

budget was spent on paint, but in Bhaktapur the plinth 

of the long L-shaped arcade (Laykuphalca) at the eastern 

end of the Darbar Square was dismantled, the original 

moulded bricks of the 1680s discarded and replaced by 

new brickwork. 

25, 26 

Bhaktapur, Yaksheshvara temple, 

portal east in 2008 with carved 

wall brackets, and detail of the 

northern end with an uncarved 

wall bracket in 1990. 

Photographs S. Klimek, 2008 and 

N. Gutschow 1990 

43

On the occasion of state visits, for example, the visit 

by Marshal Tito in 1974, the palace fronts were often 

painted red, with yellow lines indicating the joints of 

bricks. Until recently it was also common practice to 

cover the woodwork of palaces and temples with a thin 

black varnish on the occasion of Dasain, the great festival 

of renewal in autumn that heralds the beginning 

of harvest. At Mulcok and Sundari Cok, this coat of 

paint had painstakingly been removed since 2008. The 

carved and uncarved woodwork now radiates again with 

its original wooden surface. In contrast to many other 

wooden architectural traditions of the world, Newar architecture 

was never painted, but occasionally covered 

with gilt repoussé work in copper. 

Restoration of the Yaksheshvara temple in Bhaktapur in 

ca. 1999 

The development of the four portals of the temple over 

a period of probably five hundred years has already been 

presented above. In a stark deviation from the three 

portals in the south, west and north, the eastern portal 

remained practically uncarved (Fig. 25). The protective 

Bhairava figures in the blocks above the threshold ends 

have been reused from an earlier version of the portals, 

predating its renewal in the early 19th century. It is not 

known whether the Mother Goddesses of the quarter 

round panels date to an earlier period. Apart from the 

lintel ends, the wall brackets, too, remained uncarved till 

very recently. Likewise the quarter round panels of the 

western portal remained without any deity. 

An extensive repair and restoration scheme of the entire 

temple was initiated by the municipality in 1998, which 

mainly aimed at renewing the roofing and the stabilization 

of the struts by introducing additional narrow timber 

elements to add to the bearing capacity of the heavy 

roof load. At about the same time, the uncarved wall 

brackets were perceived as forbidding and decided to 

complete what had been left incomplete—probably two 

hundred years earlier (Fig. 26). In 2016 it appeared difficult 

to trace the initiating agency or individual donor. 

The impulse was similar to that of the architect of the 

cathedral in Cologne (see above), who wanted the cathedral 

in a perfect state of repair to be worthy as “a place 

of God and worship”. This latest incident of not only 

replacing a destroyed or stolen deity, but completing a 

well-known scheme of a pair of tree spirits demonstrates 

local practices and aspirations. The new wall brackets 

have been carved as replicas of the northern portal’s details. 

The present debate in Nepal about the justification of 

replicating figural details of temples that collapsed in the 

2015 earthquake mirrors an international controversy 

that was first brought up by the Venice Charter of 1964. 

It is based on the vision of universally valid objectives. 

The background in Nepal is decidedly different: based 

on age-old craftsmanship there has never been a gap in 

transmitting traditions. Carpenters as well as painters 

are well aware of the fact that their creations constitute 

simply dead material before the eyes of a deity is opened 

with the tip of a chisel or brush of the artist. This action, 

in fact, turns the craftsman into a para-priest. 

The intangible value of craftsmanship among 

Newar craftsmen 

Acknowledging indigenous knowledge systems 

The authenticity of specialized crafts has rarely attracted 

the attention of professionals in the field of conservation. 

Jukka Jokilehto mentioned “workmanship” in his 

deliberations on authenticities, but the creative hands 

behind such workmanship remain vaguely delineated. 

Lowenthal refers to the “personal and cultural milieu” 

of the creator as possibly adding to the “faithfulness of 

context”. In an industrialized country, the creator, be he 

a craftsman or craftswoman, has undergone an apprenticeship 

and has eventually become a restorer endowed 

with highly sophisticated skills, if not with a scientific 

background. In South Asia, a craftsman traditionally 

starts learning his trade from his father, beginning as 

soon as he can hold a tool. In a stratified society based 

44

on caste membership, he is born a carpenter or mason 

(there are no women carpenters or masons), stone carver 

or coppersmith, painter, gilder or dyer. This hereditary 

background possibly authenticates his creations, always 

provided that the financial resources available will enable 

him to invest as much time as is necessary in achieving 

the highest possible quality. 

In his seminal article published in 1989, A.G. Krishna 

Menon, the Indian architect and conservation activist, 

pointed out that by following the practices of the West, 

“we [in India] pay the price by alienating the objectives 

of conservation from the genius of the country”. For 

Menon, the “genius of the country” not only lies in the 

meaning of place and site but in the survival of intangible 

values such as craftsmanship: “The present emphasis on 

antiquity of objects marginalizes the remarkable survival 

of craftspeople, rituals and customs which are equally 

important in informing of the nature of our past”. Menon 

even goes so far as to claim that “in India, we have 

one of the few instances in the world, where genuine 

authenticity could still be created in a viable dialogue 

between the imperatives of tradition and modernity.” In 

his radical engagement with the concept of authenticity, 

Menon obviously acknowledges no time limit. Authenticity 

is not exclusively bound up with a cultural product 

of the past. Authenticity is a quality inherent in the 

hands that still create genuine products. 

Menon’s observations were shared by professionals of 

neighboring countries: a “Bangkok Charter” was discussed 

in Thailand in the late 1980s to justify the replacement 

of heads on mutilated Buddha statues. In 

May 1991 a conference in Kathmandu, convened by the 

Department of Archaeology in collaboration with the 

Goethe Institute, dared to phrase a few key assumptions 

which almost took the shape of a charter. It was said that 

“the existence of a living tradition ensures the survival 

of aesthetic values with an inherent quality of authenticity”. 

New “liberties” should not, Menon concedes, “be practiced 

on the exemplary monuments of our civilization, 

for they remain the authentic texts of a bygone era.” 

But he draws attention to the “thousands of lesser monuments 

and historic buildings, which still exist in our 

contemporary landscape.” In an effort to sting the professional 

functionaries of conservation worldwide into a 

response, Menon even propagates the “conjectural restoration 

of such buildings, with a view to return them 

to productive use.” Similarly, Gamini Wijesuriya, an architect 

and conservationist from Sri Lanka, pointed out 

at a conference in memory of Alois Riegl in Vienna in 

April 2008 that ruling out any “conjecture” necessarily 

alienates “the followers for whom that heritage was actually 

created”. 

In 2008, Menon made himself heard once again in the 

framework of a general questioning of the universal validity 

of the Venice Charter in the twenty-first century: 

“Its advocates […] have proselytized its message as an 

article of faith,” Menon maintains, to such an extent, 

that it “has displaced living cultural traditions”. 

Menon’s perspective is surely highly idealistic. Many 

craftsmen in India no longer learn their trades from their 

fathers. Many of them have been trained in workshops. 

In Nepal, by contrast, carpenters of the Newar sub-caste 

27 

Kathmandu, Svayambhucaitya. 

Repair, replacement and gilding 

of the tympanum crowning the 

eastern niche, housing Akshobhya. 

The project was implemented 

with funds from the Nyingma 

Meditation Center at Berkeley in 

2008–2010. 


45

28, 29 , 30 

Patan Ratneshvara temple. Replacement 

of a strut of the upper 

roof (left) in order to preserve 

the original in the Architecture 

Galleries of Patan Museum and 

recreation of lost struts on the basis 

of a photograph, 1998. 

Drawing by B. Basukala, 1998, 

photographs by R. Ranjitkar 

of Sikarmi (or Shilpakar) still inherit their trade. They 

take up and perpetuate an unbroken tradition. In the 

same way members of the community of Shakya continue 

to produce sculptures in the lost-wax technique. 

Their mastery enables them to perform on a high level. 

Documented below, two recent projects at Patan and 

Svayambhu demonstrate what Menon called the creation 

of “genuine authenticity”. Familiar iconographical 

details had been recreated with confidence. 

In his seminal contribution to a workshop in Bergen, 

organized in preparation and anticipation of the 1994 

conference in Nara addressing “criteria of authenticity,” 

David Lowenthal also refers to “authenticities of process 

and representation.” He suggests that we “honour fidelity 

of processes and skills and their transmission from 

generation to generation” as “an alternative response to 

authentic doubts”. Lowenthal refers to the “Living National 

Treasures and their consummate skills in Japan 

and Korea” as a unique way indeed of appreciating what 

Menon has called “indigenous knowledge systems”. 

Incidentally, in March 2011, The New York Times published 

an article titled “An Islamic Fantasia, Created by 

Authentic Craftsmen.” New York’s Metropolitan Museum 

of Art had decided to create a medieval Maghrebi-Andalusian-style 

courtyard, an “Islamic fantasia”, for 

which the creator installed a group of “living artists” in 

the museum. Fourteen craftsmen from Fez were summoned 

for the purpose. They were referred to as “living 

historians who have carried on patterns and designs preserved 

in practice for generations.” To call a craftsman 

a “historian” may be a little inappropriate, but as the 

milieu is preserved, the work demonstrates authenticity. 

Metal workers in the restoration of the Svayambhucaitya 

in 2010 

Since 1979, the Stupa (Nep. caitya) of Svayambhu, a 

Buddhist votive structure located on a hill near Kathmandu, 

has been one of the seven sites constituting the 

Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. The origins of 

the building are uncertain, but it dates back some 1,500 

years. It has had to be repaired at irregular intervals when 

lightning struck the tree in the center of the domical 

base from which a complex spire arises. Elaborate rituals 

accompanied the replacement of the tree and the 

spire. The structure roughly attained its present shape 

in the early eighteenth century, but the entire gilt copper 

repoussé work (using copper sheets imported from 

Germany) that covers the spire and the niches was newly 

designed in 1918. 

In 2008–2010, Tarthang Rinpoche from the Nyingma 

Meditation Center at Berkeley sponsored the repair of 

all copper work, the renewal of the gilding, and even 

the replacement of lost figures in the tympana above 

the niches. On 21 June 2010, the consecration rituals 

were performed by Trulshik Rinpoche from a helicopter 

that flew around the Stupa three times, dropping flowers 

from the sky. 

The restoration of the gilding and the replacement of 

lost sculptural elements followed an age-old tradition 

(Fig. 27). Preservation of its “age value” was not an option, 

as the significance of the building is inevitably ensured 

by pious acts of renewal. 

In Newar and also Tibetan Buddhism, worship takes 

place in the form of circumambulation of a stupa and 

offerings to the Transcendent Buddhas and their consorts 

in their respective nine niches. Important in this 

specific context is the conviction that a Stupa is not a 

mass of lifeless material, but an object imbued with life. 

In Sanskrit this is referred to as jivanyasa. All structural 

interventions are preceded by pacificatory rituals. Ideally, 

a rope fastened to the tail of a cow initiates the process 

of dismantling, and the tools of the craftsmen are tipped 

with gold. The completion of any intervention involves 

the return of “life” to the structure, again accompanied 

by elaborate rituals. 

46

Such a process of repair, replacement, and renewal is 

in the true sense a “restoration”, because the building 

is returned to the physical condition it was in prior to 

the intervention, “not at some previous stage of its morphological 

development”, as the term “restoration” is 

usually understood. The main aim was to achieve added 

value from renewing the surface—an action that in its 

essence sets out to ensure continuity not for the physical 

body of the Stupa, but for the transcendental body of the 

Buddha. In this process, the patina or “age value” of the 

surface had to be sacrificed and the missing figural décor 

recreated. Insistence on compliance with the passages 

in John Marshall’s Conservation Manual (1923) or the 

Charter of Venice (1964) that rule out the replacement 

of figural details and require a contemporary stamp on 

replacements that are decorative in nature would have 

been out of place. Authentic in this case was the craftsmanship, 

which was in line with traditions of fire gilding. 

It was, as it were, the grandsons of those craftsmen 

from the Buddhist community of Shakya who cast the 

figures and hammered the repoussé in 1918 who were 

engaged in the restoration and renewal. 

The example of the Svayambhu Stupa demonstrates that 

in a living religious context it is the donor’s wishes that 

guide the interventions. Curatorial agencies (in Nepal 

the Department of Archaeology) may be involved to ensure 

quality standards, but they are not in a position to 

insist on global principles that have no foundation in 

local cultural reality. The process of restoring and renewing 

the surface of the stupa must be regarded as authentic, 

because it is embedded in ritual and involves crafts 

based on generations of experience. Even the lime that is 

removed from the surface of the dome is not treated as 

waste, ready to be discarded. It has attained some kind 

of spiritual quality which is enshrined in a stupa that is 

newly constructed for that purpose. 

The art of copying by wood carvers—the Ratneshvara 

experience, 1996–99 

One of the only three temples of the Newar architectural 

heritage of the Kathmandu Valley predating the 14th 

century stands in the middle of a small square in Patan. 

It is dedicated to Shiva, manifested in his phallic form 

(linga), which is named Ratneshvara. With a host of other 

shrines, the square forms the center of the quarter of 

Sulima. 

After years of research, documentation and fund-raising, 

the restoration of the small, two-storeyed temple started 

in 1996 and was completed in 1999 by the Kathmandu 

Valley Preservation Trust. With parts of the roof collapsed 

and the roof struts missing, the temple was in a 

deplorable sate: Six of the eight roof struts supporting 

the lower roof had been stolen since the 1960s. They just 

disappeared, leaving no evidence in the catalogues of the 

auction houses in Geneva, London or New York. One 

strut was secured by a neighbor and one was salvaged 

from the ruin. 

Since the establishment of the Department of Archaeology 

in 1956, not a single roof strut of any temple had 

been replicated in good quality. In most cases financial 

constraints resulted in the installation of uncarved timber. 

In 1997, the Ratneshvara project initiated the copying 

of one of the surviving struts by Bhaktapur’s master 

carver Indra Kaji Silpakar (Figs. 28, 29, 30). To discuss 

alternatives, it was placed against an uncarved strut and 

a slightly molded strut. After two years of painful discussions 

all struts were finally re-carved, based on the initial 

experience. Two copies were based on photographs 

taken by the American anthropologist Mary Slusser in 

1968 and four were based on her short descriptions, the 

memory of the neighbors and the expertise of Brahmin 

priests who act as caretakers of the neighboring esoteric 

shrine. Likewise, the elaborate tympanum was recreated, 

based on a photograph. The eight miniature aedicules 

(small shrine-like niches with a pediment) of the ground 

31 

Patan, southern Manimandapa. 

Replicating a column which was 

damaged beyond repair in the 

April 2015 earthquake. 

Photograph: B. Basukala, 2015 

47

31, 32 

48 

level were repaired. The design process for the missing 

colonnettes (30 cm high) relied on the identification, 

study, and measured drawings of comparable colonnettes 

which survived as fragments in various temples 

in Patan. The process of making drawings afforded the 

opportunity to clarify details that could be missed if the 

carver simply worked from a photograph. 

The reproduction of meaningful iconographical details 

on the basis of photographs or even short descriptions 

has to be understood as an appreciation of the performance 

of Newar wood carvers whose ancestors created 

the originals—if at all a difference has to be made between 

the “original” and the “copy”. The local cultural 

context does not allow such a distinction. 

Uncarved struts are always despised and rejected by the 

local communities as an expression of disrespect and 

stinginess on behalf of the funding agency. In 1997, neither 

the Venice Charter nor any other charter or convention 

was guiding the process of restoring the Ratneshvara 

temple. The entire discussion was not directed against 

any national or international guidelines, charters or ideologies, 

but rather in favor of valuing what in the global 

discourse is termed an indigenous knowledge system. 

Beyond knowledge and skill, it is art that is patronized 

by conservation projects. 

After completion, the architects of the project claimed 

that “historic buildings have the right to emerge from 

the process of conservation in dignity”. In Nepal, they 

continue, “this dignity often rules out stabilizing a building 

as it is found, as this would mean freezing ruins”. 

The ultimate aim should be “a balance between creation 

and heritage conservation.” 

To avoid another theft, the two original roof struts 

have been exhibited at the Architecture Galleries of the 

Patan Museum since June 2013. Ironically, two of the 

replacements have already been stolen and have had to 

be replaced again. Obviously, the exceptional quality 

deceived the thieves. The new tympanum was also stolen, 

retrieved and is now on display at the Architecture 

Galleries. The temple withstood the earthquake in April 

2015, but the wall surface of the ground floor collapsed 

together with the aedicules; all of this was restored in the 

spring of 2016. 

Patan 2016: The ongoing process of repair and 

replacement at the Manimandapa, the Char 

Narayana and Harishankara temples 

The 2015 earthquake reduced two of the prominent 

temples on Patan’s Darbar Square to a heap of rubble. 

Within a few days following the earthquake, most of the 

wooden elements, including simple structural wooden 

elements such as rafters, were salvaged, first stored indiscriminately 

in the courtyard of the neighboring palace, 

in May 2015 roughly organized and stored and in June 

2016 professionally ordered and presented. It took a year 

of stock-taking to identify the constituent components 

of all portals, doorways, windows and cornices. The historic 

veneer bricks (daciapa) were also properly stored. 

All large bricks and molded cornice bricks were damaged 

to such an extent that replicas, produced by the only active 

traditional brickmaker (Aval) of Bhaktapur, will replace 

the original ones. Salvaged veneer bricks (daci apa) 

will be reused for the ground floor levels of the Char 

Narayana and Harishankara temples. Matching the size

of the old bricks, new bricks will be produced in November 

2016. 

Evidence of the details of all the portals, doorways 

(jambs, lintels, colonnettes, outer frames), columns, 

colonnettes of the two arcaded halls (mandapa), the arcaded 

ambulatory of the Harishankara temple and the 

two-tiered Char Narayana temple have been preserved. 

There will be no room for conjecture when replicating 

the general scheme of decorative details, such as bands 

of flowers, leaves or even lotus foliage (Fig. 31, 32). One 

should, however, never forget that Newar carpenters do 

not know geometrical patterns (as mentioned by the 

Conservation Manual by John Marshal, 1923) which 

can be extended ad infinitum. Rather, the individual 

carpenter enjoyed relative freedom in carving lotus foliage 

that occasionally turns into creepers and vine. The 

result is that no coiled lotus foliage equals the neighboring 

one and no column detail, such as the pot motif, the 

myrobalan or walnut pattern on one column is identical 

with the pattern of the neighboring column. There is 

ample freedom to realize the same program and meet the 

same proportions. Newar wood carving always followed 

a grammar which was interpreted by the carpenter in his 

own way. The scope for variation was, however, narrow, 

to such an extent that the carving of an entire doorway 

or, for example, the carving of the twelve columns of the 

northern Manimandapa conveys a wholeness which is 

absolutely coherent. No column equals any of the other 

ones, but all twelve columns make up a family, quite 

distinct from the contemporary columns and quite different 

from the twelve columns of the northern Manimandapa. 

The same is true for the columns and colonnettes 

of the Harishankara temple and the portals of 

the Char Narayana temple. The older a temple is, the 

more likely a deviance in style, for example of the pot 

motif. The northern portals, for example, differ from the 

southern portal of the Char Narayana temple in presenting 

the Kirtimukha motif on the jambs. 

33, 34 

Patan, Harishankara temple. 

Recreation by Indra Kaji Shilpakar 

of two Mother goddesses of the 

quarter round panels flanking the 

ground floor doorways, in analogy 

to the surviving ones, August 2016. 

Photographs B. Basukala, 2016 

The tympana and windows of the Harishankara temple 

49

are all marginally damaged, enabling the carpenters to 

carefully repair broken parts and replace the few missing 

parts. We are aware of the fact that such repairs were not 

carried out in earlier centuries, because for a generation 

the intervention remains visible, and in a way impairs 

the perfection a divine shelter would demand. In earlier 

centuries, the replacement of damaged elements would 

even have been mandatory. 

In the light of a scarcity of material—hardwood of the sal 

variety is no longer easily available and is costly—and a 

growing appreciation of the originality of cultural products, 

salvaged fragments are to be reused in the course of 

any rebuilding of a historical structure. We are aware of 

the fact that this attitude or approach mirrors an international 

debate that values the original more highly than 

the replica. We are also aware that this practice entered 

Nepal only in the 1970s and that it is not always appreciated 

by the local community. 

The tympana of the Char Narayana, dating back to 

1565, are much more badly affected by the total collapse 

of the temple, because the carving of the arched panel is 

not only more voluminous, but more transparent. This 

fact will be a major challenge. Some missing parts will be 

recreated on the basis of the photographic survey made 

in 2008, but at least in one case a complete replica will 

have to be made based on the surviving fragments. These 

fragments would be artfully put together to exhibit the 

tympanum at the Architecture Galleries of the museum 

to testify to the 16the century art of carving—when 

Newar craftsmanship reached its apex. The same is true 

for the much damaged columns of Harishankara temple 

and the Manimandapa arcade. 

Another issue is the recreation of replicas of lost elements. 

At the Harishankara temple, four quarter round 

panels (dyahkva) framing the doorways were lost to theft 

already in the 1970s. As the panels feature the Eight 

Mother Goddesses (Ashtamatrika), it is an easy task to 

recreate these in analogy to the existing ones. The lotus 

throne, the devotee to the side, the attributes of the 

goddess—everything can be identified beyond doubt. 

Therefore it is not conjecture, but following an age-old 

practice which allows a carpenter to realize and complete 

a well-known iconographical context (Fig. 33, 34). At 

no point in history would this have been done differently. 

The empty niche referred to by John Marshal in 

1923 would be an insult and hurt the religious feeling of 

the Newars. The empty niche establishes an antiquarian 

view, it documents loss. In the context of a living religious 

practice, the empty niche would demonstrate an 

imposition ordered by those who are guided by a rigid 

ideology that defends objectives that may be justified in 

a different cultural set-up. 

Even more challenging is the recreation of the Eight 

Mother Goddesses and Eight Bhairavas which were once 

supporting the roof the northern Manimandapa in the 

form of struts. The two surviving struts will, however, 

serve as examples which the recreated ones will refer to. 

The iconographical program is again verifiable beyond 

simple conjecture. Such iconographical schemes exists 

in the memory and experience of the people. They con 

thus be identified as an intangible heritage, a knowledge 

system that justifies replication. 

50

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The Venice Charter Revisited: Modernism, Conservation 

and Tradition in the 21st Century, Newcastle upon Tyne: 

Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008, 18. 

Michell, George: The Hindu Temple, 1989, 308. 

Weiler, Katharina, and Niels Gutschow (eds.): Authenticity 

in Architectural Heritage Conservation. Discourses, 

Opinions, Experiences in Europe, South and East Asia, 

Springer International Publishing, 2016. 

Wijesuriya, Gamini: “Conservation in context”, in: Falser 

et al. (eds.), 2010, 233–248. 

Wolff, Arnold, the master builder of the Cologne Cathedral, 

is quoted from: Dokumentation zur Diskussion 

um die Ziegelplombe am Nordturm des Kölner Domes 

(Pfeiler F 1 West) in den Jahren 1995 und 1996, Cologne, 

April 1996 (limited circulation). 

Nanda, Ratish: “Humayun’s Tomb: Conservation and 

Restoration”, in: Weiler and Gutschow, 2016, 93–114. 

Riegl, Alois: The Modern Cult of Monuments: its Character 

and Origin, 1982. 

Ruskin, John: Seven Lamps of Architecture, London: 

Smith, Elder, and Co., 1849 (see also John Unrau, Looking 

at Architecture with John Ruskin, Toronto 1979. 

Stovel, Herb: “Origins and Influence of the Nara Document 

of Authenticity”, in: The Association for Preservation 

Technology (ATP) Bulletin, 39.2, 2008, 12–13. 

Theophile, Erich, and Rohit Ranjitkar: “Timber Conservation 

Problems of the Nepalese Pagoda Temple”, in: 

Larsen/Marstein, 1994b, 85–124. 

Theophile, Erich, and Niels Gutschow: The Sulima 

Pagoda. East meets West in the Restoration of a Nepalese 

Temple, Trumbull: Weatherhill, 2002. 

Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène-Emmanuel: The Foundations 

of Architecture, New York: Braziller 1990, 195 (French 

original published in 1854). 

Slusser, Mary Shepherd: “On the Loss of Cultural Heritage 

in Quake-Ravaged Nepal”, July 04, 2016, in: Asian 

art.com. 

52

Typical Seismic Issues in Newar Architecture 

Seismic Issues Manual - In Development 

Rohit Ranjitkar and Evan Speer

54

Seismic Issues Manual - in Development 

By Rohit Ranjitkar and Evan Speer 

Introduction 

Over decades of experience in the preservation of Newar 

Architecture, the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust 

(KVPT) has identified several traditional building practices, 

construction methods and other architectural details 

that make these structures seismically vulnerable. 

This has never been more evident than in the wake of 

the devastating April 25, 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Since 

that time, Rohit Ranjitkar, Nepal director of KVPT, has 

worked to compile integral details and studies of seismic 

issues in historic Newari structures. This work has 

been developed to raise awareness of the vulnerabilities 

of these structures and to advocate for careful detailing 

and proper seismic strengthening in the rebuilding and 

renovation of these structures, including examples from 

lessons learned through KVPT’s project development 

through the years. Evan Speer, who has been consulting 

with KVPT since the 2015 earthquake provided further 

insight and development of these details and fact sheets, 

adding to the discussion with structural engineering 

concepts. 

The following pages include sample fact sheets for 

various issues that have been identified and developed 

through decades of work. Issues below include Threshold 

Base Stone Connections; Timber Column Base 

Connections; Brick Masonry Wall Composition; Wood 

Rot and Rising Damp; Roof Strut Connections; and 

Wall Plate Detailing. 

1 

3 

4 

6 

2 

5 

These fact sheets are a subset of a larger document still 

under development. Additional typical seismic issues include 

the following: Beam Holding Top Roof, Yellow 

Clay Mud Mortar, Floor-to-Wall Connections, Excessive 

Roof Weight, Lack of Floor Diaphragms, Foundation 

Wall Isolation, Wood Quality and Consistency. 

Harishankara Temple (above) 

Principal Elevation used as model to show location of typical 

seismic issues 

Source: Eduard Sekler, 1982 

All figures and photographs in this chapter were created by Rohit 

Ranjitkar unless otherwise noted. 

Opposite page: 

South and North Manimandapas 

after their collapse on 25 April 2015 

into the adjacent step well 

Photo by R. Ranjitkar, 28 April 2015 

55

Top 

Harishankara Temple partial elevation 

(l) and Section (r), showing 

location of base stones. 

Source: E. Sekler 1982 (l), 

Bijay Basukala 2015 (r) 

Middle 

Harishankara Temple northeast 

corner base stone after 2015 earthquake. 

An overturned corner stone 

has been observed on multiple 

collapsed tiered temples with outer 

timber column arcades. The corner 

base stone was not properly tied to 

the main structure and dislodged 

during the earthquake. Note the 

mortise visible on the corner stone. 

The column tenon was in this 

mortise, and when stone rolled out, 

it kicked the corner column base 

outward, contributing to collapse of 

the structure. 

Bottom 

Diagram showing minimal intervention 

in a typical tiered temple 

plinth. This involves a continuous 

reinforced concrete ring beam (F) 

placed behind the outer plinth/base 

stones (D). The ring beam is doweled 

(stainless steel rods) into the 

backside of the stones to provide 

continuity and prevent separation 

of the stone base. 

A. Timber column, B. Stone 

base (ilohan), C. Stone flooring, 

D. Plinth stone, E. Foundation, 

F. Reinforced concrete ring beam, 

G. Inner wall, H. Mud Brick infill 

mud mortar between walls 

G 

H 

C 

F 

E 

D 

A 

B 

1. Threshold Base Stone Connections 

Description 

In the typical tiered temple constructions, the threshold 

level, or topmost level of the raised plinth, includes 

an outer ring of carved base stone elements. These base 

stones are often simply set into place before placing the 

superstructure, either brick masonry walls or large timber 

columns. The base stones often have mortises to accept 

wooden tenons from above, or have small tenons to 

act as dowels into the structure above. This connection 

is where the load from the outer perimeter columns supporting 

the roof comes down into the foundation. 

Issues 

These base stones are largely just set into place and have 

no significant structural connection to the adjacent 

stones or to the structure above or below. These connections 

seem to have been conceived for compression forces 

but not for lateral seismic forces. This lack of direct 

connection allows these base stones to shift and move 

independently during an earthquake and often results in 

corner stones shifting such that corner columns kick out, 

accelerating progressive collapse of the building. 

Options for Seismic Strengthening 

To prevent independent movement or dislodgement of 

the base stones, direct structural connections should be 

introduced to provide continuity which will help the 

structure move as one unit instead of small, independent 

pieces. This continuity can be introduced through connecting 

each of the stones to adjacent stones via stainless 

steel pins, or doweling each of the stones (with a stainless 

steel rod) into a homogeneous interior structure such as 

a reinforced concrete ring beam. 

56

2. Timber Column Base Connections 

Description 

The sal (local hardwood) column is a prominent building 

element in Newar architecture. Sal columns are often 

used on the ground floor of temples and pātī structures 

to form open arcades, and often support brick masonry 

walls above. The columns bear either on base stones at 

the threshold level, or wooden perimeter beams (lakansi) 

that bear onto lower base stones. The connections 

between the columns and their base are usually made 

with a shallow (approx. 1 inch) square tenon protruding 

from the bottom of the column. This tenon is placed 

into a mortise within the base material. 

Issues 

These columns tend to support very high loads, including 

brick masonry walls. At the ground floor, the base 

connections are critical for the stability of the building. 

With the original undersized tenon joints, there is no 

positive connection that resists overturning forces at this 

connection. With the high loads of the upper structure 

displacing during an earthquake, these tenons often pull 

directly out of their fitting. Without the lateral shear resistance 

provided by the tenon, the column bases displace 

and can no longer support the weight of the structure 

above. This results in failure of the column and can 

lead to collapse of the structure above. 


To prevent the pullout and failure of these base connections, 

a structural connection should be introduced to 

connect the columns with the base material. This can be 

achieved with stainless steel dowels that extend into each 

material a depth of about 1/6th the unbraced length of 

the column. Added stiffness and tensile strength can be 

achieved by inserting a recessed stainless steel base plate 

at the interface between materials and using structural 

epoxies to secure the embedded dowels. 

Top 

South Manimandapa 

Columns rotated out of their connections 

to the lakansi beam during 

the April 25, 2015 earthquake. The 

tenons were undersized and had 

no direct connection to counteract 

the overturning induced by heavy 

masonry structure above. 

Middle Left 

Timber columns salvaged from 

collapsed temples. The base tenons 

were relatively intact on these columns, 

signifying that the columns 

had rotated out of their bases and 

not sheared off at the tenon. 

Middle Right 

Strengthening via two 25mm dia. 

stainless steel rods inserted into 

both the column and the base 

stone. 

Bottom Left and Right 

Various strengthening options 

using four stainless steel dowels 

provide added strength while leaving 

existing tenon intact. 

(Bottom Left diagram by Evan Speer) 

57

Top 

Wall section showing the composition 

of a typical Newar brick masonry 

wall. (Gutschow, 1987) Note 

the variance in brick types, infill 

between outer wythes of brick and 

the lack of structural connection 

between the different layers. 

Middle 

Bulging and separation of layers 

of typical brick masonry wall. The 

mud mortar erodes and the outer 

dāci apā layer has separated from 

inner wythes of brick. 

Bottom Left 

Improved detail for brick masonry 

wall, interlocking bricks of varying 

sizes to provide more structural 

continuity between the inner and 

outer faces of the wall. 

Bottom Center and Right 

Stainless steel rods with hooked 

ends that secure the outer wythe to 

the inner wythe of brick laid in the 

mortar bed to improve structural 

continuity. Stainless steel can also 

be laid in a bowtie pattern to help 

strengthen connection of outer 

wythes of walls. 

3. Brick Masonry Wall Composition 

Description 

Masonry walls made from mud mortar were built in 

three different layers that are not properly bonded together 

(like a cavity wall). The exterior layer is always 

dāci apā and the interior layer is mā-apā (or occasionally 

dāci apā) with rubble infill between the two. 

Issues 

There is no proper structural connection between layers. 

This causes bulging of the tapered dāci apā bricks when 

mud mortar dries and erodes. This deterioration is especially 

weak during an earthquake, where the exterior 

layer bulges further due to lack of connection within the 

wall, and was blown out on many such walls leading to 

collapse. 


If header bricks are not available to connect layers within 

the wall, it is recomended to (i) cut dāci apā to provide 

a proper overlap with daci apā layer, (ii) use a 6 mm 

stainless steel rod in with hooked ends to hook into and 

connect inner and outer brick layers (iii) make bowtie 

reinforcing with 2 mm dia. stainless steel wire to connect 

all layers. Any of these solutions can be applied at every 

30"-36" in every 4-5 brick layers. 

58

4. Wood Rot and Rising Damp 

Description 

Many typical Newar structures were either originally 

constructed using, or underwent alterations that resulted 

in, details that do not properly address issues of protecting 

superstructures from rot or rising damp. 

Issues 

In most traditional Newar structures, the lack of dampproof 

course, or vapor barrier, allows moisture to easily 

penetrate the lower portions of the building. This is 

one of the most problematic issue with these traditional 

structures. Due to this issue, the lower sections are deteriorated 

and weakened by rot and water damage. Deterioration 

of materials from moisture damage can significantly 

affect their ability to absorb lateral or seismic 

forces, with weakened brick crushing or crumbling and 

with weakened wood experiencing shear failure at a very 

premature stress level. 

In some cases, such as in various pātī structures, there 

was originally a void beneath wooden floors to allow 

ventilation and to reduce risk of rising damp in interior 

walls and columns. In some cases, these details were altered 

at some point and the voids were filled in, accelerating 

the deterioration of materials. 


To improve protection against water damage in collapsed 

structures, a damp proof course can be installed 

within the foundations to restrict rising damp from 

penetrating up into the structure. This method is variable 

in its implementation, and largely based on project- 

and site-specific conditions. The foundation conditions 

largely dictate where the damp proof course can be 

placed. Additional measures should also be taken within 

the superstructure, such as copper sheeting to provide a 

barrier where timber building elements are located adjacent 

to masonry walls. This aids in preventing water 

infiltration between building elements. 

Top 

A typical timber column experiencing 

wood rot at its base from a 

damp plinth. 

Middle 

Efflorescence, or salt formation, on 

the face of bricks that is caused by 

cyclical rising damp that permeates 

the porous bricks and evaporates, 

leaving any traces of salts and other 

minerals on the face of the brick. 

This movement of water through 

the masonry accelerates deterioration. 

The water running up 

through the brick breaks down the 

brick and erodes the clay mortar. 


Rotten wood at the plinth level, 

around the base of timber columns. 

This wood detail was likely implemented 

during an intervention. 

Improper detailing allowed standing 

water to collect and permeate 

the wood, resulting in extensive 

wood rot. 

59

Top 

Typical strut roof connection 

detail, with no direct structural 

connection between strut and the 

roof structure it supports. The strut 

is notched around the purlin, but 

is only held in place laterally by 

timber pegs (cukul). These timber 

pegs often lack proper maintenance 

and are either rotten, loose, or 

broken, thus providing no lateral 

resistance. Lack of proper restraint 

of the elements in this connection 

can lead to separation of strut from 

roof, and ultimately roof collapse. 

Middle 

Uma Maheshvara Temple, Patan. 

Strut roof connection detail after 

KVPT preservation in 1992, with 

concealed stainless steel bolts to 

create a direct structural connection 

between the roof elements. 

This provides added structural continuity 

to resist separation of these 

elements during an earthquake. 


KVPT detail adding steel reinforcing 

to top of corner strut to secure 

it to roof members. This connection 

not only secures strut in place, 

but adds tensile strength to the 

timber purlin corner connection. 

The combination of added tensile 

strength at the corner and load distribution 

through several fasteners 

allows better utilization of wood’s 

strength without localizing all lateral 

forces through the half-lap joint, 

where purlins have reduced section. 

5. Roof Strut Connections 

Description 

In typical Newar architecture, roofs have large overhangs, 

preventing rain from splashing on the sensitive 

brick masonry walls in mud mortar. The overhangs are 

supported by large timber struts, typically made of the 

strong sal hardwood. These struts are often very intricately 

and deeply carved on tiered temples and many 

other structures with religious functions. 

Issues 

The struts supporting roofs are often simply wedged 

into place, with no real connection at either end to resist 

sliding from lateral seismic forces. They are primarily 

held in place by the roof weight above and the frictional 

forces between the struts and the main structure, and 

rest mainly on small wooden or brick corbels built into 

the lower level of the brick masonry walls of the building. 

The struts are connected to purlins along the outer 

edge of the roofs via a notched end to set the strut under 

the plate. This weak connection often results in struts 

shaking loose during earthquakes, which can result in 

progressive collapse of the roof. As the struts, especially 

corner struts, provide support for the heavy roof, the 

quality and consistency of the load path they provide 

must also be ample for the high roof loads. The detailed 

carvings in the struts often go through the entire depth 

of the strut, weakening this load path. 


To improve the load path and stability of struts, it is 

important to provide direct structural connections to the 

roof structure. On typical struts, this can be achieved 

with concealed stainless steel rods connecting strut, purlin, 

rafters and planking. On corner struts, a bolted steel 

plate connection can also increase stiffness and tensile 

strength at the corner of the building. 

60

6. Wall Plate Detailing 

Description 

Brick masonry walls are typically topped with wall plates 

on both the inner and outer faces of the brick masonry 

walls. The wall plates form a ring around the wall 

with half-lap joints connecting the intersecting wooden 

members. Theys are also used to connect other wooden 

elements within the structure. 

Issues 

The wall plates in their original layout are very susceptible 

to dislodgement during an earthquake, as they are 

independent of one another and not properly tied back 

to the brick masonry wall itself. This means that during 

an earthquake, the two wall plates, resting on different 

areas of the brick masonry wall, may shake independently 

and contribute to the pulling apart of various timber 

connections within the structure. Thewall plates could 

be a vital element within the structure to tie the brick 

wall and timber structure together, but were traditionally 

not detailed to do this. 


To improve the seismic behavior, connection should be 

established through the brick wall to prevent dislodgement 

of the wall plates. If inner and outer wall plates are 

properly joined through the wall, they will act together 

as a stiffer frame element at the top of brick walls and 

will help the building to shake together as one unit at 

this location. This improved continuity can be established 

by extending the inner wall plates to the outer 

wall plate to create added stiffness in the corners, adding 

intermediary wooden ties through the walls to connect 

the wall plates along the wall, and bolting steel plate connections 

in the corners to increase the tensile strength of 

the joints and allow ring action. These interventions will 

both strengthen the timber frame and reduce bulging 

and blowouts within the masonry walls. 

C 

B 

D 

D 

A 

E 

F 

F 

Top 

Typical wall plate construction in 

Newari brick masonry walls. The 

inner and outer wall plates are very 

often not connected through the 

brick masonry. 

Middle 

Updated detail which extends inner 

wall plates to join to the outer 

wall plate, creating a stiffened ring 

beam. The outer wall plate is also 

reinforced with bolted steel angles 

at the corners to further strengthen 

the frame. 

A. Outer wall plate 

B. Inner wall plate 

C. Wall 

D. Dovetail connection or half lap 

joint between wall plates 

E. Metal corner plate to tie wall 

plates together 

F. Corner half lap joint 


Uma Maheswor Temple, Kwalkhu. 

Implementation of strengthening 

(1992). 

(Letters indicate same elements as in 

image above.) 

F 

B 

A 

C 

61

Seismic Strengthening of Historic 

Newar Buildings 

By 

Rohit Ranjitkar, Erich Theophile and Liz Newman, with contributions by Evan Speer

64

Seismic Strengthening of Historic 

Newar Buildings 

By Rohit Ranjitkar, Erich Theophile and Liz Newman, 

with contributions by Evan Speer 

Part I 

Introduction 

Architectural preservation work in post-earthquake Nepal 

brings to the forefront the two themes of this publication, 

both of which are inherent in KVPT’s ongoing 

development of techniques and working philosophy 

since 1991. The first -- how one repairs, replaces, recarves, 

or redesigns lost elements of this rich architectural/iconographic 

vocabulary-- engages questions of 

authenticity, and has been dealt with in earlier chapters. 

The second - how one determines the level or type of 

seismic reinforcements, i.e. strengthening measures to 

help protect the building in a future earthquake, is the 

subject of this chapter. 

KVPT 's founding mission - to safeguard the architecture 

of the Kathmandu Valley, - has involved numerous 

and continuous experimental and evolving techniques 

in developing appropriate strategies for conservation -- 

and seismic strengthening has always been a focus. The 

present goal is both to review this seismic work as an 

evolution of practice, looking at KVPT’s work before 

and after the earthquake, and to place it in the context of 

international practice and charters as well as local norms 

and developments, in addition to understanding the urgency 

of the post-earthquake context. 

Seen in a broader context, the design of modifications to 

a monument or historical building, which may be ahistorical 

but contribute to the building’s longer life, form a 

considerable part of international preservation practice. 

These interventions might involve the introduction of 

modern building systems - like heating and electricity - 

to make a structure habitable as part of adaptive reuse, 

or, in the case of seismically active zones, they might be 

modifications to the historical structural system or the 

introduction of new layers to help the structure meet 

building codes addressing human safety factors. 

Hybrid solutions 

The Trust, working in the local context but influenced 

by its Western co-founders and the international educational 

background of its Nepalese working professionals, 

explicitly prioritizes retaining and saving the historical 

layers and pieces of a structure and/or maintaining its 

historical configuration. This is decidedly a departure 

from many local or community approaches, in which 

one would generally not think twice about recarving a 

lost icon or dismantling a deteriorated historic structure 

to replace it with a new building in reinforced concrete 

frame construction. Discussions in 1992 between KVPT 

and the owners of a local dilapidated shrine in Patan, for 

example, could not persuade them even to consider repairing 

their rare early structure, Tyagah Chapa, with its 

13th century carved struts; they wanted a new structure. 

As this building stood outside of any Monument Zone 

with protective covenants, its demolition could not be 

stopped. Thus when KVPT engages in the design for 

seismic reinforcements which prioritize historical fabric, 

it must be stated that this is already a “hybridized” approach. 

Nepalese building materials, historical fabric, local 

craftsmen and worshippers-- these all mix with very 

recently “imported” ideas of architectural heritage conservation. 

It should be noted that at this point, issues of 

architectural conservation practice have begun filtering 

broadly into the upper and educated classes of Nepal, 

creating new discourses and collisions. 

One example illustrates the situation well. In order to 

consolidate the building and improve seismic strength- 

Above, Top 

Tyagha Chapa before demolition. 

Photograph by Mary Slusser, ca. 1970 

Above, Bottom 

After rebuiding in concrete frame 

structure in 1996. 

Photograph by Raju Roka, July 23, 2005 

Opposite 

Patan Darbar Square before and 

after earthquake. 

Photographs by Rohit Ranjitkar and Hari 

Maharjan, January 31, 2011 and April 

26, 2015 

65

ening, Programme Director Ranjitkar negotiated for 

many months to convince the community that the heavily-damaged 

Patukva Agam, a 17th c. towered shrine 

building, could be restored without dismantling or rebuilding 

its intact but weathered facade. Here, the Trust 

developed a novel, internal timber backup frame which 

preserved the towering, historical facade. Anyone else 

would have dismantled and rebuilt. 

Interventions which affect the historical configuration or 

surviving building materials of a structure are of course 

to be carefully considered. This article is an opportunity 

to explicate some of the considerations, working methods 

and solutions of completed and proposed projects 

in detail. It is especially important to point out that the 

diversity of solutions reflects not only the individual 

characteristics of the historic structures - which we study 

carefully - but also KVPT's commitment to developing 

new and appropriate solutions. KVPT's mission has never 

been focused on expanding to save every monument 

in the Valley, but rather has been to take advantage of 

its local expertise, the variety of international collaborators, 

and a global network of experts and researchers to 

explore creative and appropriate solutions which might 

“bridge” the differences between local and international 

norms in preservation. In addition, the history of the 

Trust can be seen as one of taking on projects of increasing 

scale and complexity as our organization, reputation, 

expertise, and fundraising base has grown. 

There are few places where so many different actors have 

worked in close proximity: Patan Darbar and environs is 

a virtual laboratory for international conservation work, 

with a wide variety of foreign experts, UN agencies, foreign 

governments, NGOs, INGOs, private citizens, local 

groups, local academics and government agencies at 

work. The theme of such “hybrid” solutions is central 

to an early publication of KVPT: “Sulima Pagoda: East 

Meets West in the Restoration of a Nepalese Temple.” 

A note on the term ‘seismic strengthening’ 

We use term the ‘seismic strengthening’ instead of ‘seismic 

reinforcement’ or ‘seismic retrofitting’ because the 

problem it denotes is so sensitive,- in these building 

types and this odd political context,- that rather than 

inserting a single rigid framework into a structure, one 

typically has to look to a myriad of smaller design measures 

that help strengthen buildings without destroying 

their historic integrity. This is generally a good challenge, 

one which we have prioritized since the inception 

of the Trust, but there are limits to its effectiveness in 

certain cases, and there, where they are imperative, the 

introduction of modern materials can mean the survival 

of the structure. The discussion below of the Manimandapa 

design process delves into this question of 

balancing the spectrum of seismic interventions and the 

resulting structural strength with preservation concerns. 

Relevant characteristics of Newar architecture 

As one surveys the range of historical building types and 

configurations in the Kathmandu Valley in light of seismic 

performance, some basic observations can be made 

on 1) how we now feel seismic design factored into their 

original construction; 2) the evolution of building materials; 

and 3) the history of maintenance - or the lack 

thereof. 

Building configurations seismically considered 

Typical to historic Newar buildings is a design of great 

artistic significance, often together with very poor building 

fabric. Typical problems are: lack of vertical connections; 

lack of information about foundations; building 

materials quality and supply issues – brick, mud mortar, 

timbers. Layered on to these over time are decreased seismic 

resistance due to multiple post-earthquake reconstructions; 

shoddiness and incorrect historical details/ 

configurations of past repairs; and low-quality structural 

replacement timber. The rebuilding process has sometimes 

spurred on artistic developments, but without 

prioritizing structural connections or internal structure; 

with design that responds to cultural and climatic con- 

66

siderations but not to earthquake activity. The iconic 

multi-tiered temple type, with its very wide overhanging 

roofs and timber structure but little or no positive connections 

inside to outside, or of the main edifice to the 

base, is a classic example. 

Materials - historical, evolving, confusing 

The materials used in historic Newar construction have 

changed over time in a way that is poorly understood 

today. The seismic story of the Kathmandu Valley, 

with its long history of buildings falling and being rebuilt 

multiple times, is an important factor in the virtual 

disappearance of many of the original materials used in 

their construction -but there are other factors at play as 

well. To explore this evolution, we need to distinguish 

three categories of materials, which we designate here 

as historic (meaning original, i.e. what was used during 

the Malla era when the buildings were first built); later 

(referring to materials that have been used for a while, 

perhaps even since the early 20th century, but were not 

original to Newar buildings of the Malla era); and modern 

(which has not been used consistently, as discussed 

below). 

Many, perhaps most, of the historic or original materials 

have to our knowledge disappeared from all structures 

remaining today. We are fortunate that Niels Gutschow 

definitively documented these materials, along with the 

related topics of historic construction assemblies, tools, 

and even rituals, in his 1988 book “ Newars Towns and 

Buildings.” In some cases this building dictionary may 

be the only record of a traditional construction method, 

such as a recipe for silay, a resin pointing used for stone 

and brick facades, now lost. Where we do find surviving 

original materials, such as the façade bricks, daci apa, or 

other specialty cornice tiles or unique historical sizes of 

common brick, the Trust tries to reuse wherever possible 

and custom-order new, matching pieces as necessary. It 

is important to note that the practice of using original 

materials for repairs or rebuilding was not the case in the 

Kathmandu Valley for most of the 20th century. New 

brick – whether the oversized bricks stamped with Prime 

Minister Juddha Shamsher’s seal that were popular in the 

post-1934 quake rebuildings or “machine made” brick 

–the mass-produced variety available in the 60’s, these 

were preferred for all building work, both historical and 

new, until the recent past. It was in the 1970’s with the 

arrival of international conservation teams at the Pujari 

Math and Hanuman Dhoka projects, that the idea of 

using original or historical materials arrived, as did commissions 

to revive long-closed small-scale production facilities. 

Interestingly, these replicas of the original daci 

apa and jhinghati tiles are experiencing a renaissance in 

current revival architecture, too, although the quality of 

the early materials has never been matched. 

The later materials are many, including all Rana-era improvements, 

and are sometimes imported from or influenced 

by Nepal’s neighbors, India and China. To take 

roof assemblies as an example, one highly visible later 

material is the large terra-cotta machine made roof tile 

that often replaces the traditional handmade terra-cotta 

jhinghati. These larger tiles were used extensively by the 

Rana rulers in the 20th c, for example, to refurbish the 

Patan Palace roofscape. They are installed over timber 

sleepers (eliminating the jhingati’s heavy mud bed) and 

require less maintenance. 

While some argue that these materials are themselves 

now traditional and should be retained where found, the 

Trust does not retain these replacement tiles where they 

are encountered on our project buildings because 

Maintenance, and strengthening vs. demolition 

Given the long history of neglect of Kathmandu Valley 

heritage, which has been chronicled in every traveler’s 

account since at least the early 19th century, one should 

assume little to no future maintenance of projects, and 

the historic moment of new construction of the type is 

long past, meaning each successive earthquake now takes 

its toll in vast numbers of weakened traditional buildings 

that will collapse or be demolished and will never 

67

Manimandapa south 

The rotten base beam for the pillars 

and timber pillars in storage. 

Photographs by Rohit Ranjitkar, July and 

August, 2015. 

68 

our priority is to return to the original materials and 

configuration of the historic structure, and provide improved 

performance as needed (where historic materials 

are not sufficient) through concealed, or unobtrusive, 

modern interventions. 

In roofing assemblies, this translates to achieving improved 

waterproofing and seismic bracing via the addition, 

concealed above the planking on the rafters, of 

marine grade plywood and a waterproofing membrane 

under the traditional mud setting bed and jhinghati roof 

tiles. The Mul Cok and Sundari Cok projects in Patan 

Palace are recent examples of this approach to roof assembly. 

The word “traditional” today is a confused term which 

is often unwittingly used in a way that conflates original 

and later materials. For example, in addition to the 

larger tiles and bricks mentioned above, later materials 

include wood planking over rafters. Most people in Nepal 

today consider this a traditional material and would 

be surprised to learn that the use of planking in this way 

dates back only to the Hanuman Dhoka and Bhaktapur 

Development Projects (1970’s-80’s). Where roofing 

materials of 85 years or more survive, one probably 

finds a mixture of reeds and lathe used to cover the rafters 

under the mud bed; and while this may have been 

conventional practice for centuries, there have also been 

found early surviving fragments of specialty tiles used to 

span the rafters, - possibly the earliest building practice, 

according to Gutschow. 

Certain clearly modern materials are such common and 

obvious improvements to the performance of traditional 

buildings that they have become de facto strategy for historic 

buildings. One of the most common examples is 

the waterproofing membrane under the mud bed of the 

roof. This ahistorical material is generally accepted as 

a modern intervention which the old buildings require 

to survive the monsoon cycle. There is no controversy 

over whether this modern innovation is the best way 

to waterproof roofs. One could consider that any such 

modification shifts the balance, subtly or less so, of historical 

and traditional assemblies, and with it, some not 

fully determinate factors in the structures’ durability and 

earthquake resistance - for better or for worse. But this 

membrane is concealed, it works, and it is rarely discussed. 

This is also important because of the existence of a vocal 

faction which argues today against the use of modern 

materials. Like everyone else, this group accepts such 

modern materials as the waterproof membrane, and it 

has even proposed the use of laminated timber - (wood, 

yes, but a very industrial, ahistorical material-arguably 

more modern than concrete). The ideology here of rejecting 

modern materials is restricted to concrete, as discussed 

elsewhere in this chapter. There has been some 

discussion about the use of timbers in ahistorical configurations 

- even a proposal for a timber ring beam in 

a foundation. Mention has even been made of substituting 

an enormous monolithic stone for our proposed 

concealed foundation slab on a project in order to avoid 

any use of concrete. 

It is our conclusion that these ideas are not practical in 

terms of implementation and durability, and they do not 

withstand scientific scrutiny or conform to international 

norms of preservation. It is worth reemphasizing that - 

with the rare exception of an historical change that was 

of a high quality of design and material, rather than a 

downgrading of materials - our priority is rather a return 

to the original historic configuration (form and dimensions) 

and materials wherever possible, with a carefully 

considered intervention using concealed or unobtrusive 

modern materials only when traditional materials 

cannot meet the need. This is Article 10 of the Venice 

Charter, painstakingly applied.

Maintenance 

Given the long history of neglect of Kathmandu Valley 

heritage, which has been chronicled in every traveler’s 

account since at least the early 19th century, one should 

assume little to no future maintenance of projects, and 

the historic moment of new construction of the type is 

long past, meaning each successive earthquake now takes 

its toll in vast numbers of weakened traditional buildings 

that will collapse or be demolished and will never 

be rebuilt. Likewise, the public attitude today toward 

old buildings in developing Kathmandu today is a belief 

that modern construction is better - and will better 

survive the next earthquake. Although the knowledge 

and techniques exist to do so, there is almost no understanding 

of - or interest in - the possibility of bringing 

older structures to a safe condition, rather than replacing 

them with concrete. This is part of the particular tragedy 

of the Kathmandu Valley’s modernization, and another 

reason to design for longevity. 

The unique characteristics of Newar architecture-beauty 

and symbolism - were privileged over seismic concerns; 

but there are also factors of flexibility built in - and aspects 

of traditional buildings, when well cared-for - that 

dissipate a certain amount of earthquake energy. Techniques 

to address the inherent weaknesses of the type 

have been the focus of study over time by KVPT and are 

detailed in the “seismic issues” and “earthquake manual” 

sections of this report. At the same time, and first, seismic 

strategies must work with and enhance the particular 

strengths of the traditional type wherever possible. 

Part II 

Evolution of KVPT’s practice and philosophy 

1991-2015 

As the following project histories are intended to illustrate, 

our work in “saving” a building in the Kathmandu 

Valley is an extremely creative and individual design process. 

It involves the classic elements of preservation work 

such as forensic work on the building to understand its 

construction history and historical layers, historical research, 

community negotiations, and accepting the limitations 

of local implementation; and the complex and 

delicate work of international collaboration in balancing 

local and international norms. This background has led 

to our unique position, and we document in Part II the 

evolution of diverse solutions that have grown from variations 

in: 1) extent of physical intervention; 2) materials 

and construction methods; and 3) engineering concepts. 

Our solutions to seismic strengthening are to a large extent 

a function of KVPT Program Director Rohit Ranjitkar’s 

keen understanding of and involvement with the 

actual construction process and methods. The development 

of our reinforcement solutions takes place largely 

on site due to both the irregularity of the medieval architecture 

and the three-dimensional complexity of the 

construction materials assembly. 

Recipe for restoration - context and early projects 

KVPT’s early projects took place against the backdrop 

of two massive, pioneering, and highly professional projects, 

Hanuman Dhoka (Kathmandu) and the Bhaktapur 

Development Project. Both had focused on introducing 

a number of best practices in preservation such 

as maximizing historical fabric retention and installing 

damp proof courses. In terms of seismic strengthening, 

there was a general consensus in the early 1990’s that a 

concealed ring beam under the wall plate level beneath 

the rafters should be considered for historic buildings 

69

A "Recipe for Restoration," 

published in the 1992 ICOMOS 

proceedings, describes how such 

seismic strengthening strategies 

were integrated into a program of 

repair and rebuilding which prioritized 

interventions using traditional 

mud mortar, brick, and timber, 

as well as the retention of historic 

building fabric. 

at risk, with rebuilding/new construction projects to receive 

ring beams at the foundation level as well. (See Dr. 

Walther Mann’s and John Sanday’s recommendations 

for concrete ring beams from manuals prepared as part 

of the Bhaktapur Development Programme and Hanuman 

Dhoka Restoration projects, respectively.) 

Such seismic design sensibility describes the early temple 

repairs of KVPT. A “Recipe for Restoration,” published 

in the 1992 ICOMOS proceedings, described how such 

seismic strengthening strategies were integrated into a 

repair and rebuilding program which prioritized the use 

of traditional mud mortar, brick, and timber and retaining 

historic building fabric. Adding waterproof membranes 

to historic roofing assemblies was unquestioned 

standard practice. As soon as water penetrated the roof, 

these structures deteriorated quickly with the monsoon 

rains- five years could take a building. It also went without 

saying that substituting of wood planking and bitumen 

tar felt for the historical lathe or tile underlayment 

to the roof mud followed from the Venice Charter’s justification 

of the use of modern materials. The Charter’s 

Article 10 reads: “Where traditional techniques prove 

inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be 

achieved by the use of any modern technique for conservation 

and construction, the efficacy of which has been 

shown by scientific data and proved by experience.” 

This early work of KVPT, including Uma Maheswor 

70

Left (Top and Bottom) 

Structural improvements to masonry 

walls created by tying the inner 

and outer wall plates together to 

introduce continuity and to hold 

walls together, at Radha Krishna 

temple project (upper and lower 

left). 

Right 

Upper right sketch shows stainless 

steel corner reinforcement between 

adjacent plates at Uma Mahesvara 

(upper right). 

Sketches by Rohit Ranjitkar, 1992 

the masons and carpenters to identify places to add unobtrusive 

or concealed strengthening. 

and Radha Krishna, was reviewed by the visiting Wood 

Conservation Mission of ICOMOS, who described it as 

exemplary of how high quality restoration and repair 

projects could be achieved in the the Kathmandu Valley. 

The development of additional and innovative ways to 

strengthen timber joints and make vertical connections 

was an important advance in the general measures to improve 

connections in repairs and rebuilding. Ranjitkar’s 

achievement, notably, followed from his having spent 

many hours on the building scaffolding working with 

Among these measures were the extension of inner wall 

plates, the inclusion of additional timber joints to connect 

the inner and outer wall plates, and steel reinforcing 

angles to add stiffness and continuity to the structure at 

the top of brick masonry walls (eg, at Uma Maheshvara 

temple). The addition of timber corner posts extending 

down from these stiffened wall plates also added vertical 

continuity to the timber framing, helping reinforce 

the brick masonry and increasing the adaptability of the 

structure by adding some redundancy to the load path. 

Innovative thinking, largely spurred by the difficulties of 

procuring lead and stainless steel in the Nepali market, 

also led to the use of copper sheeting as a damp proof 

course during preservation work at Ayuguthi Sattal. 

Since chemical treatment and reinforced concrete damp 

proof courses were unprecedented in Nepal at the time, 

the use of copper sheeting to separate timber elements 

from masonry elements to inhibit water flow was implemented. 

71

Patukva Agam 

Structural improvements include 

a timber backup frame within the 

structure and a two-layered system 

of perpendicular diagonal planking 

to increase stiffness and shear 

capacity. 

Photographs and sketch by Rohit Ranjitkar, 

1996. 

Timber reinforcement schemes in the 90’s: 

Patukva Agam backup frame, Yetkha, Vambaha 

The restoration of the Patukva Agam (restored 1994-8) 

presented a significant structural challenge as its massive 

rooftop and multi-tiered temple structure rested on a 

dilapidated three-story base structure which was about 

to collapse due to water damage. The Trust consulted 

with the UK’s pre-eminent conservationist, Sir Bernard 

Feilden, during his working visit with KVPT in 1994 regarding 

the Agam as well as strengthening techniques for 

the Ayuguthi. Eduard Sekler negotiated a consultancy 

from Guy Nordenson to pursue the engineering concept 

of a backup frame using massive timber members, an 

idea which had been initiated in consultation with Sir 

Bernard Feilden. Nordenson, a senior engineer at the 

international engineering firm of Ove Arup, advised on 

this innovative design. The solution can be described 

as a framework of interior scaffolding, - massive timber 

members carefully fit into the corners of the structure 

and spanning floor joists designed to "catch " the 

towering masonry and timber tower in case of failure. A 

structural membrane created by multiple layers of timber 

planking with staggered joints in 45 degree was introduced 

at the floor level to provide horizontal rigidity, 

replacing the historical thick mud floors. This backup 

structural frame allowed us to leave the slightly tilting 

facade masonry intact, without dismantling, so that the 

extraordinary patina and irregularity of the facade could 

be “frozen”. 

Timber was chosen over steel both for its aesthetic flavor, 

congruent with the medieval tiny crooked structure, 

and because it would be easier to fit and install in the 

tiny spaces, which allowed no extra room for machinery. 

Steel and a timber backup frame were employed for 

Patukva Agam, a dilapidated shrine building, in 1994- 

97. In 1995 KVPT worked with Walther Mann and 

the GTZ funded Patan Conservation and Development 

Programme to develop the Vambaha timber ring beam 

inserted at the roof plate and wall plate levels. 

72

Left 

Vambaha seismic reinforcement 

design with a multi-layered timber 

beam supporting the walls of the 

pinnacle. 

Designed by Prayag Joshi, 

February 1994 

Refurbishing palace and monastery: 

Itumbaha and Patan Darbar Complex projects 

2006-2015 

A number of palace and monastery projects followed 

whose building configuration, low center of gravity and 

two-story height invited minimal interventions for seismic 

strengthening. These types, with their massive and 

continuous masonry wall structure, stand in contrast to 

the more high risk temple structures sitting atop plinths, 

with their huge roof overhangs. Ayuguthi Sattal reconstruction, 

Itum Baha, and the quadrangles of the Patan 

Royal Palace are examples. 

The upgrading of foundations to include damp proof 

courses was considered critical not only for occupancy 

of the ground floor, but to protect against wet rot on 

the structural timber pillars in the ground floor. The 

timber pillars of Newar buildings vary in their level of 

development as an auxiliary timber framework or timber 

lacing. When it came to assessing different options for 

a damp proof course, for example, the efficacy and difficulty 

of installation and the amount of fabric destruction 

were among the factors considered. The low-tech 

solution of copper sheets was explored in conversations 

with Feilden. 

Above 

Mahadev Temple North 

Vertical up right post completely 

rotten due to rising damp, even 

sitting on the stone base. 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, 

Sept. 2016 

73

The Kathmandu Darbar Initiative (1998-2005): 

Strengthening schemes for Nepal’s iconic 

multi-tiered temples (degah) 

After a string of individual building projects of growing 

scale in Patan, the Trust proposed a major campaign in 

1997, an “ensemble group" for the Kathmandu Darbar 

Initiative project in collaboration with the World Monuments 

Fund and Nepalese businessmen. In this project, 

the Kathmandu Darbar Initiative, seismic strengthening 

was identified as a major research and development goal. 

Other project initiatives included the first study of the 

use of paint on historic temples. 

For this high-profile endeavor, whose launch was inaugurated 

by the Crown Prince, the Trust was fortunate 

to have as our technical advisor Robert Silman, a 

major figure in the preservation engineering of historic 

buildings around the world. During an expert mission 

in 1999 with Silman, Gutschow, Ranjitkar, Theophile, 

and Nepalese engineer Prayag Joshi, the group reviewed 

KVPT’s and others’ seismic strengthening examples as 

a basis for the development of model techniques at this 

cluster of temples in Kathmandu Darbar Square. 

It is important to point out that up until that time (and 

in fact even today), possibly as a holdover from conservative 

policies to prevent archaeological raids (and in 

defiance of international consensus), the Dept. of Archaeology 

had never allowed to excavation and study 

of foundations for heritage projects. Soil testing and 

analysis were also out of the question. In retrospect, and 

particularly after the earthquake of 2015, it seems untenable 

for a restoration project to be constrained by this 

convention (which historically derived from an Indian 

policy of the British Archaeological Survey of India intended 

only to address archaeological sites - ‘dead’ monuments). 

Because of this, project teams were (and are) 

forced to make unverifiable assumptions about the foundation 

and soil- the most critical features both for the 

assessment of seismic performance and for the potential 

reinforcement of foundations. Both were out of bounds. 

Silman’s office accepted the Department of Archaeology’s 

moratorium on soil testing and undertook the 

first-ever modeling of a Nepalese multi-tiered temple, 

to explore what strengths or weaknesses were inherent 

to the architectural style, the construction methods, and 

individual building configurations. Three major temples 

in need of restoration, in varying states of disrepair, were 

the focus. As with any structural retrofit design, we had 

to identify design criteria or goals. As the clients and local 

experts, KVPT insisted that the goal of the reinforcement 

was to prevent loss of life, not necessarily to prevent 

all damage, because a more “ambitious” restoration 

to a guaranteed level (i.e. compliant with international 

code) would mean losing the very historic buildings 

that required such great interventions. Furthermore, we 

asked that reinforcements be fully concealed from the 

exterior and that solutions should be possible to implement 

with locally-available technology and manpower. 

With these priorities and based on these characteristics, 

project strategies, concepts, and methods could be developed. 

Against all odds: 

Breaking the law to save Indrapur 

Silman’s proposal actually accomplished these goals in 

different ways, offering low-key interventions for one 

of the buildings, Jagannath, based on its apparently 

sound masonry structure, rebuilt in the 1930’s with 

high quality and well-bonded brick. The recommended 

reinforcement measures for the refurbishment of the 

damaged timber roof structure at Jagganath followed 

KVPT’s typical working solutions. For the Indrapur and 

Narayan temples, considered at-risk by the engineers, 

more highly developed and ambitious retrofit schemes 

were developed. The lack of soil information due to the 

ban on soil testing meant that the engineers had to assume 

worst case soil conditions, making the design of 

reinforcements even more conservative. Of the three 

temples, we decided to start with Indrapur - due to the 

comparatively high risk of its top-heavy structure and 

visibly poor existing structural conditions. The design 

74

proposal developed in the US proposed a fairly massive 

reinforced concrete frame inside of the temple, as 

an exercise exploring how close a retrofit might come to 

meeting International Building Code standards. There 

was some acknowledgement by the designers at the time 

that this frame was probably too radical an intervention, 

requiring substantial dismantling of the historical building 

to insert the rigid frame structure. Meanwhile, for 

the Narayan temple, strengthening measures along similar 

lines, an inserted rigid frame in steel with a massive 

foundation pad deep in the earth, were proposed. 

Review of the 18th c. Narayan temple by engineers revealed 

that the building was in critical need of reinforcement 

to improve performance in the next earthquake. 

In addition to the general issues of roof cover and timber 

structure deteriorated by the elements, this analysis 

focused on its vulnerability due to its top heavy tiered 

roofs and its high center of gravity relative to its slender 

proportions and raised plinth. In the wake of suspended 

discussions for the Indrapur Temple reinforcement 

scheme, this proposed reinforcement work was not accepted 

for implementation. The decision followed the 

conservative position of the Department of Archaeology, 

which both did not consider seismic reinforcement a 

desirable or critical component in conservation projects 

and enforced a blanket prohibition on the introduction 

of reinforced concrete and steel framing. The decision 

prevented the reinforcing that would have reduced damage 

to the temple, which suffered heavily in the 2015 

earthquake. (The new Guidelines, currently under review 

by the National Reconstruction Authority, offer a 

more moderate standard which, if adopted, would allow 

for a better outcome today.) 

Matthias Beckh, a structural engineer from Silman’s office, 

came to Nepal, volunteering to oversee the work on 

site, based on the knowledge that site supervision and attention 

to details for the reinforced concrete work were 

critical for such interventions (rebar layout and connections 

needed to be fastidious). He also came in order to 

try to ascertain on site through small scale probes more 

critical information about the existing foundations. This 

information would be necessary to assess Silman's proposed 

designs. 

While developing the proposals, KVPT held parallel 

discussions with the Dept. of Archaeology to secure 

their approval for the technical solutions proposed for 

Indrapur and Narayan. For purposes of presentation, a 

variant of the Indrapur design - simplified, smaller, and 

easier to retrofit - was developed by Ranjitkar for review 

by the Department. This downsized solution avoided 

the dismantling of the upper floor necessitated by the 

Silman scheme, and allowed the new structural members 

to be less intrusive in the sanctum. This process went 

on for three months. At each review by the Department 

and Steering Committee, the introduction of reinforced 

concrete - even though concealed - was flatly rejected. 

The justification by then Dept. Director General was 

explained on the basis of Unesco’s general prohibition 

of the use of cement mortar in the Monument Zones. 

This put us in a dilemma. Our international funding 

and donors expected a model project, and the time and 

research and money invested was already a large output. 

Moreover, the Trust was convinced the use of reinforced 

concrete in the foundation was the appropriate solution, 

based on thoughtful precedents. Our engineer developed 

a solution which could be implemented in the 

course of a weekend, and we planned a temporary fence 

and a continuous installation period over one weekend. 

The new scheme was essentially a reinforced concrete 

girdle to be developed around the perimeter trench of 

the plinth, - an improvised solution. We went ahead 

and implemented a variant of the scheme based on the 

limited time of the supervising engineer. This variant, a 

girdle-like ring beam wrapping the plinth foundation, 

was an intriguing solution because it provided protection 

with very little damage to or infringement of the 

building fabric. This underground perimeter girdle was 

complemented by the myriad of smaller scale solutions 

Indrapur and Narayana Temples 

Top to bottom: 

Ca. 1930, after 1934, 2000, 2002. 

75

Mahavishnu Temple 

As another component of the 

Kathmandu Darbar initiative, 

KVPT supported the Department 

of Archaeology's rebuilding of the 

ruined Mahavishnu Temple just 

opposite Indrapur. The dilapidated 

state of this multi-leveled pagoda 

had resulted from lack of maintenance 

and water damage to the roof 

and wall structures. The full reconstruction 

was undertaken by Department 

of Archaeology without 

the introduction of any structural 

improvements in 2002. The rebuilt 

temple masonry walls were erected 

using lime surkhi mortar with white 

cement. 

76 

which were typical of all KVPT projects- as discussed 

above at Uma Maheshvara and Radha Krishna Temple 

projects. 

The Department scolded KVPT but never pursued any 

serious action except requesting removal of the concrete. 

We apologetically explained that it was irreversible. 

Meanwhile, the projects that followed were less risky, 

and with those, we felt comfortable not pursuing more 

ambitious - and controversial - measures. The Indrapur 

survived the 2015 earthquakes intact. The importance 

of the case study would remain unrecognized until present. 

The 2011 earthquake: 

Emergency seismic strengthening of the North Taleju 

Temple at Patan Palace 

As we review current responses, it is important to document 

KVPT’s one critical intervention in response to 

earthquake damage before the 2015 incidents. On September 

18, 2011, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck in 

the state of Sikkim, India, near the border with Nepal. 

Although the earthquake’s epicenter was around 300 

kilometers away, this earthquake was felt in the Kathmandu 

Valley, and caused damage to the Patan Royal 

Palace Complex. The earthquake revealed weaknesses 

within the structure between Mul Cok and Nasal 

Cok (Cok, often transliterated as Chowk, refers to the 

typical Newar courtyard structure), which had been 

largely rebuilt after the 1934 earthquake. Major cracks 

had opened up in the brick masonry walls of the upper 

Gallery of the North wing of Mul Cok. One such large 

crack had existed prior to the earthquake, at the Southwest 

corner of the gallery, but the earthquake had caused 

the crack to widen visibly. This particular crack, likely 

caused by improper masonry wall joining techniques at 

the corner, had broken the out-of-plane stiffness that 

adjoining walls can provide. The Gallery functions as 

the entry to the sanctum of the North Taleju temple. 

Between the large crack breaking continuity around the 

SW corner, additional cracks caused by the 2011 earthquake 

within the gallery and the main masonry walls of 

the North Taleju tower itself, visible redistribution of 

loads within timber structural elements, and the precariously 

loose condition of roof struts, this portion of the 

Patan Royal Palace Complex required urgent attention. 

(Additional details, including photos and drawings regarding 

this project, can be found in the North Taleju 

chapter of this report.) 

Due to these conditions and their apparent urgency in 

the aftermath of the 2011 earthquake, KVPT applied for 

and received a grant from the Prince Claus Fund in the 

Netherlands for emergency repairs and strengthening 

measures on these structures. 

German structural engineer Matthias Beckh, who had 

consulted to KVPT on the Kathmandu Durbar Initiative 

and other projects, was brought on to assess the 

damage and provide a structural design for strengthening 

measures. In addition to various typical strengthening 

methods that had been implemented in previous 

KVPT projects, major structural strengthening systems 

were designed specifically for the North Taleju project. 

1. In the gallery of the Mul Cok North Wing, the roof 

trusses are widely spaced and not connected to one another. 

This lack of lateral strength increases earthquake 

risks and could lead to the collapse of the whole structure. 

This was a greater concern because of the large crack on 

the Southwest corner of the gallery; these discontinuities 

made the tower extremely vulnerable to seismic action. 

The new steel braces are joined to the original timber 

trusses with steel plates and bolts. After the introduction 

of these steel braces to create a horizontal truss, a 

rigid diaphragm is created which limits movement in an 

earthquake. The bracing that was implemented allows 

for significant stiffening of the structure and is a successful 

repair that helped the structure survive the 2015 

earthquake, but additional work is required to further 

strengthen the system by implementing the full truss at

Taleju Temple North 

Structural strengthening of the 

timber ceiling of the Mul Cok 

North Wing Gallery, adjacent to 

the temple 

Design by Matthias Beckh, 

May 2012 

the Western end, now that the rebuilding of the Western 

wall is complete. 

2. The third floor, or main sanctum level, received a new 

timber support system with extended and repositioned 

historic carved columns that joins the beams directly 

to the historic wooden cornice, providing a strong tie 

between inner sanctum walls and roof structure. These 

columns were strategically placed closer to the inner 

structure for maximum support; and the rafters were 

connected to the new timber cross beam, which is itself 

connected to the inner sanctum’s cornice, uniting the 

walls, roof and inner sanctum of the third level. The new 

timber framing stiffens and directly structurally connects 

to the roof system, providing vertical continuity and an 

alternate path for load distribution as well as connecting 

the upper roof structure down to the plinth level, which 

is solid brick masonry down to grade. This continuity 

helps the building move as a single unit. 

3. The fourth floor A-frame timber bracing was installed 

to strengthen the large timber members that bear the 

weight of the brick masonry walls from the upper levels 

of the temple. The bracing here was placed underneath 

the main timber members on all four sides of the 

structure. These triangular braces with top and bottom 

chords provide support for the timber beams should 

they fail due to shifted loads during an earthquake. They 

provide a route to connect the load of the upper tier 

masonry walls down to the sanctum walls and beyond 

to the masonry plinth. This continuity increases stiffness 

and provides a direct load path that relieves the load on 

the bearing points of the original timber members on the 

fourth floor walls. 

During the course of construction and implementation 

of this design, no positive structural connection was 

made between the bracing and the historic timber members. 

This may have been an on-site decision due to lack 

of proper materials or a wish to solely support vertical 

loads in the case that the historic timbers fail in bending 

due to gravity loads. During seismic activity, this lack of 

positive structural connection creates a risk of the braces 

tipping over and failing to fully perform their duties. 

This was apparent after the 2015 earthquake, when the 

tower survived thanks to the improvements, but there 

was some shift in the upper structure. This can be addressed 

either by joining the top chord of the four braces, 

or by doweling into the timber framing above. These 

installation issues and the damage they allowed point to 

the difficulty and importance of experienced site supervision 

of all structural details. 

77

Part III 

Current Model Projects after the 2015 Earthquake: 

Foundations- The New Battleground 

Since the earthquake, in working to get the funding and 

planning for a number of significant restoration and rebuilding 

projects underway, the Trust has had to navigate 

a new, still-shifting human landscape. Bureaucratic 

issues have multiplied as billions in foreign aid suddenly 

pour into the world's tenth-poorest economy. Nepal has 

faced much difficulty establishing and activating a new 

responsible agency, the National Reconstruction Authority 

(NRA). The Department of Archaeology’s ability 

to respond to the loss of historic monuments has been 

hampered by changes in government, political appointments 

and priorities, as well as a long-term, chronic paucity 

of professional manpower. A re-formulation of the 

Department’s Monument Zone Guidelines, their prescriptive 

document to guide all work on historic buildings, 

was developed over many months and finalized 

for review by the National Reconstruction Authority in 

summer, 2016. At the time of this writing (September, 

2016) the NRA had not yet accepted or revised this doc- 

Taleju Temple North 

The structural strengthening of the 

timber bracing. 

Above Top 

Building Section showing bracing 

supporting upper tiers of structure 

Above Bottom 

A-Frame timber bracing as installed. 

Left 

Design detail drawing of the 

A-frame timber bracing. 

Design by Matthias Beckh, 

May 2012 

78

Source: 

Orientations, Volume 27, Number 1, 

January 1996, Page 74 

79

ument. (See the July 2016 draft of these Guidelines, as 

well as the English translation and illustrated manual 

prepared by KVPT, in the appendix to this volume.) 

The months-long Indian blockade which followed the 

earthquakes and continued into early 2016 also wreaked 

havoc on any work plans related to construction, greatly 

affecting the cost and availability of building materials. 

Widespread fear that old buildings are unstable and 

should be replaced with new ones is a critical, existential 

threat to an enormous number of buildings that withstood 

the earthquake. Given the present stalemate and 

the diverse and significant challenges that face preservation 

work wherever one turns in Nepal, KVPT decided 

to document and share the current efforts to inspire, 

stimulate and catalyze more discussions and collaborations. 

Cement semantics 

The single desirable consequence or silver lining to be 

hoped for after such a tragedy as the 2015 earthquakes 

was that there would be an eagerness to pursue innovative 

and appropriate solutions to seismic strengthening. 

The reality today, though, is that struggles with the 

official agency and a handful of academics are not any 

different from the discussions of 1999 or 1994, and today’s 

work must be understood in this context. Solutions 

which would be standard fare in any first world 

country are here considered detrimental to heritage. Curiously, 

the term ‘traditional materials’ has become the 

war cry. Prohibitions against excavation to test or study 

foundations are still holding up work, the government 

authorities have not been able to clarify their position 

with respect to norms for reinforcement of structures, 

and there are constant mix-ups of vocabulary and terms 

- modern, traditional etc. Seventeen months after the 

earthquake, there has been no progress on reinforcement 

in rebuilding except at our project sites and a handful of 

others. The National Reconstruction Authority is just 

beginning to function. A widely publicized controversy 

plays out at a later monument, Rani Pokhari (last rebuilt 

in 1951). There is no agency which is not being held 

back. A historical misunderstanding of cement prohibition 

by UNESCO continues to be played on. Ongoing 

discussions about timber framed ring beam to strengthen 

foundations seems illogical for us after seeing failure 

of the Manimandapas and other structures due in part to 

wet rot of timber elements. 

Three new model projects for 

seismic strengthening in Nepal: 

After the earthquake, as we rescued the debris of fallen 

temples and palaces, established a workshop, worked 

with supporters worldwide, and began to shape the new 

campaign, our review of the last 25 yrs of work and our 

many new projects led to the identification of a few 

Earthquake Response projects as model seismic designs. 

These model projects were chosen so as to target the 

typical and key challenges Nepal would face in its forthcoming 

repair and rebuilding of historic structures. 

Each of the three model projects is a major structure in 

its own right within Newar Architecture, each is on the 

Patan Darbar Square, and each exemplifies certain issues 

common to many other historic structures which collapsed 

or suffered damage in the earthquake. And for 

each, we are exploring and developing a range of potential 

solutions to address the wide variety of conditions, 

concerns, and priorities. Of the three, the pātī type exemplified 

by the Manimandapas, with its open first floor 

level, is the most challenging type for providing an historically 

sensitive solution that also includes a code-compliant 

continuous seismic structure. 

Vishveshvara: 

Stabilizing one of Nepal’s greatest monuments without 

dismantling 

The Vishveshvara Temple in Patan Darbar, built by 

King Siddhinarasimha Malla in 1627, is one of the 

greatest works of Newar architecture and perhaps the 

most significant early example of intact Malla-era construction 

in the Kathmandu Valley. (See an extensive 

chapter focusing on the documentation of this building 

80

in later pages.) The temple is a rare survival and quite 

strong in its construction, which likely helped to save 

it from collapse in April 2015. While the inner structure 

of the sanctum remained intact, the exterior layer 

of veneer bricks collapsed, due to an inherent weakness 

of Newar building techniques. Even more serious, the 

tenons at the column bases of the outer ambulatory were 

dislodged. Three weeks after the first earthquake, minimal 

shoring was put in place by the municipality. KVPT 

then quickly added further timber shoring to prevent 

collapse. 

The Vishveshvara is still standing thanks to both rounds 

of emergency shoring, but damage from earlier earthquakes 

is also evident, although the fabric seems to have 

been compromised before the earthquake less than that 

of most Newar structures today. Further shoring still 

will allow safer access to assess up close the full extent 

of wood rot, displacement, and other damage inside the 

sanctum and at the upper levels. Replacement of emergency 

upper roofs installed in late 1989 will allow the 

implementation of a sophisticated seismic scheme, along 

with a return to the upper temple’s historic configuration. 

The restoration and strengthening project under development 

by the Trust for this temple exemplifies in-situ 

repairs to a multi-tiered temple that survived the earthquake 

but needs significant repairs. To stabilize and reinforce 

this structure in-situ is a valuable exercise and a rare 

exception to practice in Nepal, where building research 

is still in its infancy. To execute and publicize a high 

profile project is an important demonstration to encourage 

retrofitting as opposed to wholesale rebuilding. Lack 

of expertise in this still new field of work would make it 

otherwise mandatory to dismantle the endangered structure 

and rebuild it, a sadly pervasive trend in post-earthquake 

contexts. 

Investigations to date reveal several important things. 

The structure was selected for its artistic importance and 

level of damage, but ongoing investigations have now 

Above 

The southeast corner suffered the 

worst damage, wih the timber 

corner column pushed out in both 

direction and base stone crushed 

from altered loads. 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, May, 

2015 

Vishveshvara Temple Before the 

earthquake (far left) and after (near 

left), with emergency shoring. 

Photographs by Stanislaw Klimek (2008) 

and Rohit Ranjitkar,(July, 2015) 

81

established that the building is one of the rare examples 

of a major temple whose core structure appears to be surviving 

original construction. Having withstood the 1833 

and 1934 earthquakes, the core structure with its large 

scale timber frame has already served the building wel; 

based on its structural viability and venerable age, the 

temple is all the more worthy as a model project. 

Char Narayan Temple: 

Strategic rebuilding of Newar architecture’s iconic 

multi-tiered temple 

While the Vishveshvara Temple is a model and an extension 

of previous retrofit projects, it seemed most important 

after the devastation of 2015 to also identify 

a high-profile project for the rebuilding of a collapsed 

multi-tiered temple, in order to bring our experience to 

bear on the opportunities and challenges that would be 

unique to the rebuilding assignment. The selection of 

the Char Narayan temple as a model project was rather 

straightforward, as it was both the earliest remaining 

Malla-era multi-tiered temple in Patan Darbar Square, 

and had collapsed down to its plinth in the 2015 earthquake. 

In our rebuilding project, the exquisite carved 

timber elements of the temple, some of which are structural, 

were almost all salvaged, are being restored, and 

will be reused. 

This significant rebuilding project, which the Trust 

announced just weeks after the earthquake to create an 

atmosphere of hope, exemplifies seismic strategies and 

techniques to address many of the problems typical to 

the iconic multi-tiered temple type, with its characteristic 

top-heavy structure and classic Newar construction 

details. Notably, because of the building’s collapse and 

necessary rebuilding, we have the opportunity - and the 

obligation - to strengthen the foundation. Here, in contrast 

to in situ repair schemes such as the Vishveshvara 

design and the many retrofits we have executed over 

the years, we are working to develop a strategic design, 

ideally more cost-efficient and effective than difficult 

retrofits. An improved foundation structure is the one 

strengthening measure that can unify or tie together the 

structure from the foundation up. Including the foundation 

is an imperative that must become part of our 

de facto approach to this type. The significance of this 

approach in particular as a model is that it will be applicable 

to a large number of similar buildings. It is also 

an important example because so few rebuilding projects 

have been executed in the past. 

Similar is the nearby Harishankara temple, another collapsed 

multi-tiered temple, whose historic elements were 

rescued and whose reconstruction is envisaged as part 

Char Narayana Temple before (left) 

and after (right) the earthquake of 

25 April 2015. 

Photographs by Rohit Ranjitkar, 2013 

and April 27, 2015 

82

of KVPT’s Earthquake Response Campaign. Harishankara 

will receive many of the same considerations for 

reinforcement of plinth and foundations as the Char 

Narayan, while needing special attention to the open 

colonnade of timber pillars surrounding the sanctum at 

the plinth level and supporting the lowest roof. Work 

on the Harishankara will provide information on the 

additional challenges of the arcaded variation on the 

multi-tiered temple type, many of which collapsed in a 

similar way in 2015 and will need similar seismic work. 

Manimandapas: 

Small historic buildings posing great structural design 

challenges 

The open timber-pillared building type exemplified by 

the Manimandapas was identified as a critical design 

challenge for rebuilding because of the difficulty of inserting 

vertical reinforcement in an open plan with no 

walls to conceal it. This model project is treated extensively 

in the following section to describe in detail the 

multiple issues, the creative design process, and the specific 

conservation and aesthetic challenges. 

As it happens, the Manimandapas (or mandapa - in Nepali), 

a pair of small platforms supporting open, arcaded 

single-story pavilions flanking the entrance to the 

sunken hiti at the north end of the palace and facing 

the Vishveshvara - are an extraordinary and complex 

case study. Elements of the patis have been changed over 

the centuries, but the four central columns of the south 

Manimandapa appear to date as far back as the 14th or 

13th century. Both mandapa collapsed down to their 

plinths in the April 25 earthquake, falling toward the 

sunken stepwell to the east. The project is a restoration 

of their damaged columns and a complete rebuilding. 

Challenging, diminutive, and yet prominent because 

of their history and antiquity, the Manimandapas with 

their many timber pillars present important conservation 

issues. On the one hand, the strategy will have to 

include the modern foundation interventions that are 

now de facto/imperative (because responsible solutions 

require modern materials) and are the new frontier with 

the permitting agency, the Department of Archaeology. 

This is where our projects meet the biggest local political 

challenge - government resistance to soil testing and 

exploratory excavation (re: the unexplored palimpsest of 

archaeology, which to date has never been investigated 

in order to allow projects to proceed)- plus the “no new 

materials” mantra that precludes the all-important unified 

foundation. 

Manimandapas 

Manimandapas in 2008 (left) and 

after the earthquake on April 25 

2015 (right), both structures fully 

collapsed leaving damaged plinths 

behind after the earthquake. 

Photographs by Stanislaw Klimek and 

Suresh Lakhe, 2008 and April 25, 2015 

83

Opposite page 

Manimandapa analysis- 

Sample sheet from thought exercises 

on pati typologies, recognizing 

Manimandapa structures as unique 

and weak in the greater context of 

pati designs because of the massive 

masonry walls bearing only on an 

open timber column arcade. 

Sketch by Evan Speer 

On the other hand, the challenge will be to unify these 

particularly top-heavy patis in spite of the openness of 

their arcades (which leave no place to hide reinforcements) 

without destroying them architecturally. Here 

we meet our greatest preservation challenge in balancing 

historical and technical, authenticity and seismic integrity. 

The Manimandapas are coming to epitomize the post- 

2015-earthquake seismic challenges, just as the Indrapur 

Temple project of 1992 has for the Trust become emblematic 

of our seismic work before the earthquake. At 

the same time, because the two patis collapsed completely 

down to their plinths in the 2015 earthquake, they 

are among the rebuilding projects, where the international 

consensus would support our conclusion that the 

only responsible seismic solutions must include a unified 

foundation-for which the use of concealed reinforced 

concrete is the only known practical solution. It is because 

this consensus has until now been consistently rejected 

by the local authority, even since the earthquake, 

that we say that foundations are the new battleground. 

KVPT has over a dozen post-earthquake projects in the 

works as of September 2016, with a handful of other 

ongoing projects and a number of additional upcoming 

projects identified. All of these include or will include 

seismic strengthening design measures that are informed 

by our past experience and our post-earthquake seismic 

analysis. In the next section, we present the story of the 

design work to date for the Manimandapas as a detailed 

case study of the challenges, processes, and current seismic 

design conclusions of our new project work since 

April 25th of 2015. 

Part IV 

South Manimandapa - Seismic Design Case Study 

For the purposes of the current report, we will take 

the Manimandapa project - and specifically the South 

Manimandapa - as an example of our ongoing projects. 

Over the past few months, this project has proven to be 

a unique challenge and has encompassed many of the 

issues that have arisen on previous projects. We present 

here a detailed discussion of the progression of this 

project to date, in order to illustrate our seismic design 

process and the issues that arise along the way. 

The Manimandapa patis present a unique seismic dilemma 

because of the imposition of a heavy brick masonry 

perimeter wall bearing on an open arcade of timber columns, 

-all with no direct vertical connections other than 

weak traditional timber joints. During the earthquake, 

these top-heavy structures shifted enough to roll the column 

tenons out of their base connections and shear the 

wooden tenons off the tops of columns, leaving the majority 

of the timber columns intact. The design of this 

structure is perhaps unique in the Kathmandu Valley. 

Several other similar patis either have just a roof structure 

bearing on a timber arcade, or have a masonry structure 

above bearing on a partial timber arcade supplemented 

by at least one brick masonry wall. The comparison of 

different typologies of the pati structures, some surviving 

and some collapsing, was among the multiple thought 

exercises that have accompanied the design process for 

the rebuild of the Mani Mandapas. This combination of 

heavy upper structure with weak ground level structure, 

lack of stiff connections throughout, and the mediocre 

quality of the plinth construction below, resulted in a 

perfect recipe for failure in a large earthquake. 

The search for solutions for South Manimandapa drove 

us to consider the range of options for how stiff a seismic 

intervention should be in a given structure, and what the 

implications of these options might be. 

84

Early schematic design discussions for this project represent 

a structural philosophy of creating a very stiff core 

that inhibits movement of the superstructure (building 

above ground level). This core would be designed to absorb 

the lateral forces of the earthquake, creating a strong 

load path pulling the loads from the upper building elements 

down to the foundation, thus limiting movement 

of the building and providing a more stable structure. 

This would be considered an operational building performance 

level and would require strong materials like 

steel to create a moment-resistive or braced frame system. 

This first approach ended up raising what is inherently 

one of the first big questions in seismic preservation engineering: 

What level of building performance is desired, 

and how will that affect the fabric of the building? Prior 

to the earthquake, KVPT had typically designed to life 

safety performance, using a myriad of smaller measures 

that took into account how the seismic measures would 

affect the historic architecture. 

In the context of the Manimandapa, the engineer’s 

question becomes: Is a system desired that achieves an 

operational or occupiable level, meaning that the structure 

will be strong enough to suffer little to no structural 

damage during a major earthquake? This type of system 

would require more modern materials and more stringent, 

complicated structural details, and would change 

the historical fabric more. Or is a more subtle system 

desired that leaves the traditional architecture more intact, 

at the risk of having a structure that is stable enough 

to protect life safety but would suffer moderate to significant 

damage in a large earthquake? For the Manimandapa, 

introducing a stiff steel core and tying the 

structure to this core could achieve an operational level 

of building performance, but this would require steel 

columns or bracing that visibly modify the open timber 

arcade of the ground floor. 

85

Alternatively, life safety performance could be achieved 

using a series of smaller strengthening measures that 

incorporate wood structural elements with steel reinforcement 

at connections, resulting in a structure that 

would experience some damage in an earthquake but is 

less likely to collapse. The concept here is that a certain 

amount of movement and damage in the structure is acceptable, 

but that the structure would at least remain 

standing long enough for occupants to escape before any 

partial collapse of the structure. 

The original behavior of the traditional materials and 

methodology of the Newar Architecture allowed for 

ductility and movement within the structure, and the 

structural ductility actually helped to dissipate seismic 

forces throughout the building. This sometimes resulted 

in significant damage but no full collapse, so damage 

could be repaired after the earthquake. Lack of maintenance, 

however, has often weakened structures to the 

point where their original seismic resistance has been 

lessened or lost. 

Stiffer, operational performance system 

The choice of an operational or occupiable standard 

of performance would require a stiffer structural core 

that would in turn stiffen the entire structure and absorb 

the seismic loads, tracing them back down to the 

foundation. This would be some sort of steel assembly 

that would combat seismic forces by increasing stiffness 

such that the building would shake as minimally 

as possible, theoretically experiencing less damage from 

the earthquake. Unless, of course, the connections are 

not properly made, in which case the steel could poke 

through the existing (weaker) structure, similar to the 

way floor joists displace through the brick wall when 

the diaphragms shift. This steel system would be tied to 

the wood elements of the original superstructure layout 

(wall plates, beams, etc.). 

Flexible, life safety performance system 

The series of smaller interventions would mean superstructure 

strengthening measures only in wood, and 

could include a wall plate similar to that at Vambaha, 

adding a grid of timber beams above the fanning joists 

above the arcade and adding bracing at the top of wall 

level. These wooden elements would have more of the 

ductility of the original structures, helping much the way 

that the mud mortar with its lack of cohesion can help 

(to some extent) to dissipate seismic energy by allowing 

the bricks to slide against one another. The connections 

between wood elements, however, would be strengthened 

with steel to provide continuity and prevent popping 

of joints. Now, if this sliding is controlled, with 

a stiff and stable base to connect all the elements and 

allow them to shake, with a smaller magnitude/displacement, 

as one element, the chances that the upper structure 

would survive will be greater. There would be some 

damage, but collapse is less likely if the whole system is 

slightly ductile like this. For example, albeit displaced, 

the Vishveshvara remained standing in 2015. 

Mixed system 

We considered using a system that mixes the two approaches, 

but the risk could be that we essentially load a 

very stiff box on top of very weak wood columns. Since 

the stiffness of the core up above is much greater than 

the stiffness of the wood columns, this load would be 

absorbed by the steel and sent down to the wood to 

make its way to the foundations. That’s where the weak 

point in the load path would be - at the columns - and 

they would likely be the first thing to suffer. If instead of 

this hybrid approach we stick mainly to wood throughout, 

the upper structure would not absorb and transmit 

as much load, but rather would dissipate some of 

it through bending of the wood and movement of the 

building, sliding of brick, etc. So if the load path were 

all one type of material, and continuous (meaning, not 

patched together with additional hinges between new/ 

old material), the behavior would be more uniform than 

in a hybrid, and the structure could shake more while 

still standing. 

86

Either approach would need a more robust and homogeneous 

foundation able to hold everything in place. The 

decision of how to strengthen the superstructure is independent 

of the need to strengthen the foundation, and 

either system could be fastened down to the foundation 

to strengthen the column-to-base connections. 

Importance of foundations 

Foundations are the integral link between structure and 

the earth that is creating the seismic action. For this reason, 

foundations play a vital role in the seismic behavior 

of any building. A more general discussion here of the 

importance of foundations will precede the discussion of 

project-specific foundation issues. 

Buildings experience high stresses at the connection 

between the superstructure and the foundation during 

an earthquake, partly because of the drastic change of 

medium in which the structure is vibrating. Superstructure 

is typically unrestrained by outside elements, 

because the surrounding air does not resist horizontal 

movement and cannot restrain a freestanding building 

from displacement. Foundations, or substructure, are set 

within the earth where the restraint is largely determined 

by soil and bedrock conditions and the types of seismic 

waves travelling through the ground during an earthquake. 

This connection is vital, and is often a contributing 

factor in the failure of historic structures during 

earthquakes. 

One of the main points of seismic strengthening is to tie 

a structure together so that its connections do not burst. 

The act of tying the structure together creates a more 

robust load path which allows the building to transfer 

more of the energy from seismic movement up through 

the structure, then back down again to resolve itself in 

the foundations. This inherent strengthening of connections 

means that the structure may absorb more loads 

than previously, and thus stronger foundations will be 

needed to accept those loads and transfer them back out 

to the ground. The foundations in historic Newar architecture 

may have originally seen lesser stresses during an 

earthquake because much of the energy transferred to 

the building by the earthquake was dissipated in various 

ways, from the sliding of bricks against one another in 

the mud mortar (which has little cohesive or true bonding 

ability), to the shaking of loose timber joints, the 

inherent ductility of timber elements, or the partial collapse 

of the building. 

While we naturally pay more attention to strengthening 

parts of the superstructure that we can see, that are 

above our heads, to prevent them from collapsing, we 

must also remember that the system and cycle of seismic 

loads travelling through these buildings ultimately 

starts (and ends) underground. If we’re strengthening 

the superstructure, it is especially crucial to strengthen 

the foundations, as they will likely be seeing more stress 

than before. 

Homogeneity of foundations is critical in providing stability 

to the structure. In materials such as mud mortar 

brick masonry, if a heavy load is applied in one area, the 

connection between the bricks established by the mortar 

is often not strong enough to spread that load out across 

a large area. This lack of homogeneity can often result in 

local failures at loaded areas, even if the building has a 

massive brick masonry foundation. The inherent weaknesses 

of the medium and its inability to distribute forces 

throughout can result in failure mechanisms that could 

be easily avoided otherwise. Brick masonry using lime 

mortars as bonding agents slightly increases homogeneity 

as compared to mud mortars. But lime mortars chemically 

react with water and break down, losing that bond 

in foundation applications. There is still a significant 

heterogeneity between the brick and mortar elements 

(having different strength properties), and under high 

stresses, the materials fail at the interface between the 

two. Brick masonry with cement mortar is slightly better 

suited for foundation applications because of its reduced 

water solubility, but the heterogeneity of the material 

remains. 

87

Plan drawing of Manimandapas 

showing the proximity to the 

adjacent Manga Hiti public well. 

The north end of the South Manimandapa 

is highlighted, showing 

how it is bearing directly onto the 

wall of the well’s staircase. This 

is one of several unique boundary 

conditions to consider in this 

project. 

Base drawing from Becker-Ritterspach, 

1994 

Reinforced concrete is the main example of a highly homogeneous 

material, and that is one of the major factors 

resulting in its widespread use as the main foundation 

material in new structures and for rebuilding of historic 

structures. The application of a poured liquid medium 

that assumes its final shape and cures into a solid mass, 

when properly proportioned and mixed, can provide an 

extremely homogeneous mix of strong foundation material. 

Foundation development at South Manimandapa 

Foundation development took the forefront in the discussions 

for this project, more so than usual, because 

approval was needed before construction could begin, 

and this proved to be difficult to obtain. Schedules and 

funding deadlines, largely based on assumptions that 

the project should be straightforward due to the size of 

the structure, quickly began to fall behind due to development 

of several iterations of foundation options in 

search for a responsible solution that would be acceptable 

to the Deparment of Archaeology. Up to this point, 

the foundations have proven to be the most involved 

aspect of design and discussion for the structure. This 

was somewhat surprising as this structure is one of the 

smallest in Patan Darbar. 

The main technical boundary conditions on foundation 

design includes the limited footprint around the site due 

to the adjacent public well, limited materials and construction 

techniques available in Nepal, and the limited 

depth allowed for foundations due to the presence of 

water supply pipes running to the adjacent well. 

The main concept behind the foundations is that we 

need to tie together the building elements, such as base 

stones that were not properly tied back to the plinth 

structure. In addition to the typical idea of having a 

small concrete ring beam behind the base stones to allow 

for anchoring the base stones back to continuous structure 

(via stainless steel dowels), multiple concepts were 

developed for the foundations during the design process. 

One early concept was to implement a steel grillage 

beam foundation. Grillage foundations are steel wide 

flange sections assembled in grids and embedded into 

the ground. These are used in areas of weak soils and 

also to utilize a building’s self weight to combat the 

overturning forces of top-heavy structures such as the 

Manimandapa. This system would be best utilized if the 

structural system above included a stiff central core, as 

central steel columns could be run directly down to the 

grillage beams and provide a solid load path. Features of 

this solution include that it avoids extensive use of reinforced 

concrete, can be assembled and constructed more 

quickly, can provide substantial lever arm to combat 

overturning lateral forces, and if stainless steel beams are 

encased in concrete or cementitious mortar, the lifespan 

can be much higher than other foundation types. To obtain 

the proper counterbalance force against overturning 

in the case of the Manimandapas, however, the grillage 

beams need to be at least 4 feet below grade. This pre- 

88

Manimandapa 

Axonometric and elevation views 

showing the grillage beam concept 

with the plinth ghosted in for reference. 

Grillage foundations involve 

a grid of steel beams buried deep 

underneath the plinth and rely on 

the weight of foundations and soils 

above, including the brick masonry 

of the plinth, to counteract the 

overturning forces of the upper 

structure moving in an earthquake. 


89

Manimandpa 

Base isolation detail showing two 

layers of concrete foundation separated 

by elastomeric rubber isolator. 

This isolator essentially reduces 

the frequency of vibration of the 

structure by cutting the direct 

connection between the structure 

and the ground, allowing seismic 

forces to be transferred through the 

rubber isolator pads. 


sents issues at South Manimandapa because of the relatively 

shallow water utility pipes that supply the adjacent 

public well. The beams could be set shallower but would 

then need additional weight to act as counterbalance, 

which would involve using a thicker cementitious mortar 

encasement. This cementitious mortar encasement, 

being below grade, would likely have to be some sort of 

Portland cement. The use of steel below grade was more 

likely to gain approval, but the use of a Portland cement 

encasement could present issues. 

Another concept investigated was that of base isolation, 

to reduce the friction of the building atop the foundations. 

This approach seeks to reduce the shear forces 

transferred into the building structure by reducing the 

stiffness of the connection between the the structure and 

the ground. This is accomplished by using elastomeric 

rubber bearing pads to “isolate” the base of the structure 

from the ground. This strategy reduces acceleration of 

the structure and thus slows the frequency of its vibration. 

The building will still move but at a much slower 

rate, which the building elements and their connections 

are more likely to withstand. Advantages of this system 

include virtual invisibility after implementation, and the 

creation of a solid base from which to build up. Introduction 

of this system drastically reduces seismic risk on 

structures and allows for reduction in seismic strengthening 

in above-grade architectural spaces. This method, 

however, requires two layers of strong and homogeneous 

structure within foundation and can be initially 

expensive to implement. The new technology may also 

be difficult to obtain or regulate in Kathmandu Valley, 

and with the typical long-period of earthquakes in Nepal, 

with slower vibrations and longer displacements, the 

system did not seem to be worth the added cost and difficulty 

in the approval process. 

The most current and preferred iteration of foundation 

design is to introduce a slab with a shear key. This iteration 

developed from an earlier design with a mat slab 

foundation, involving a thick concrete slab that uses the 

weight of the concrete and plinth to counter the overturning 

of the structure. This option allows for the continuity 

and stability of a mat slab, but with a thinner and 

shallower slab that transfers the base shear of the building 

into the ground through a cruciform concrete “key” 

that goes deeper into the ground to essentially “lock” the 

foundation into the site. This system consolidates the 

foundation to make it less invasive than a mat slab or 

grillage, does not require as much concrete as a mat slab 

or as much overall depth as the grillage, and would still 

be hidden after construction. This design ends up being 

closer to the traditional configuration of the structure, as 

the columns would attach down to a flat surface, but the 

new consolidated plinth will stiffen the base, ultimately 

cutting down on displacements within the superstructure. 

This will also act as a solid base to anchor the plinth 

base stones, strengthening the load path coming down 

from the columns. 

This system still, however, utilizes as the main foundation 

system reinforced concrete, for which it has proven 

difficult thus far to obtain full permissions. Proper implementation 

of this system requires a great deal of care 

in detailing and placement of reinforcing steel, especially 

90

at the interface between the slab and shear key. Inadequate 

detailing could drastically affect the lifespan and 

effectiveness of the structure in an earthquake. 

Superstructure 

Above grade, the main challenge at the South Mani 

Mandapa structure is how to connect the heavy brick 

masonry and timber structure above the ground level 

arcade back down to the foundations while maintaining 

as much historic fabric and architectural integrity 

as possible. The top-heavy nature of the structures, the 

slender and delicate nature of the highly carved historic 

columns, the lack of tensile capacity in the connections 

and timber joinery, and a variety of other structural discontinuities 

and weaknesses make this connection vital 

to the success of the project. Adding to the structural 

complexity are the desire to retain the sound timber of 

the historic central core columns (mainly intact, with 

lowest 1-2 feet requiring replacement due to wet rot) 

and the discontinuities introduced by repairs at the perimeter 

columns. 

The outer columns of South Mani Mandapa have been 

repaired, with the exception of one replaced column, 

and these columns will be tied to the base stones beneath 

them via stainless steel dowels set in a structural epoxy. 

This will add tensile capacity to these connections so 

that the column tenons will not rock or pull out of their 

mortises as they did in 2015. 

Several design iterations were also developed and discussed 

for treating the 4 central columns as a core, as the 

discussion of whether to use a stiff core or a more flexible 

overall system progressed. The following concepts were 

just some of those considered, following on the concepts 

presented by structural engineer Evan Speer’s August 

2015 report. 

Option 1 

An initial concept was to simply replace the four central 

columns with new timber to provide continuous, 

stronger timber columns. These timber columns would 

bear on a steel base plate connection to the foundation 

system, be it a concrete slab or steel grillage. The columns 

would have doweled connections into the foundations 

to tie the columns down to the foundations. This 

concept would provide a continuous column with no 

exposed steel, which preserves the original architectural 

feel. It introduces new, continuous wood providing a 

more robust load path than historic timber joined with 

new timber at the base, and can keep the historic layout 

of the timber column. This concept however, would require 

the removal of original, historic timber columns 

Manimandpa conceptual diagrams 

of a stiff central steel column core 

for South Manimandapa, developed 

in August 2015 by Evan 

Speer. This concept sought to bring 

the structure up to an operational 

performance level, but required 

replacing the central historic timber 

columns with steel. This started the 

discussion about choosing between 

a stiff core and a flexible system. 

Sketch by Evan Speer, 2015 

91

Near right 

Manimandapa Concept showing 

development of layout of steel 

columns described in Option 2. 

Development of this idea between 

the architects and engineers on the 

team sought to find a strong and 

stable reinforcing structure with 

a layout that most respected the 

historical layout while minimizing 

amount of steel. 

Sketch by Liz Newman, June 2016 

Far right, above and below 

Conceptual model and section 

detail of the timber arcade at South 

Manimandapa to observe the effect 

of installing steel tension rods as 

cross bracing to strengthen the central 

core against lateral forces. This 

design sought to reinforce the historic 

carved columns by providing 

an extra tie to rout load from the 

masonry walls down to the plinth 

without removing the columns or 

reducing their visibility. 

3D study and sketch by Evan Speer, June 

2016 

from the structure - to be stored, ideally, in a museum 

exhibit. 

Option 2 

The next concept involved joining sound existing timber 

with new timber at the base to replace wood lost to 

rot. The columns would then be reinstalled in a similar 

fashion, supplemented by installing steel hollow section 

columns up from a steel grillage foundation (offset from 

the remaining timber columns) to provide a stiffer structural 

core. This system could consist of either four larger 

steel columns in the central core, or 4 smaller columns 

in the central core, with 4 small columns at the outer 

corners as well. This could provides a strong, continuous 

steel frame to stiffen the structure and provide a suitable 

load path to help prevent overturning and collapse (and 

perhaps even cosmetic damage) of the structure, while 

allowing the central timber columns to remain. The 

timber central columns would then be relieved of their 

duty as structural columns. This option would result in 

a consistent path through the steel elements. Consistent 

load paths are preferable, because if a load path consists 

of multiple materials such as steel and timber, the stiffer 

element may route more load into a element of lesser 

strength material than it could handle, resulting in failures 

at the interface between materials. Visibility and 

ambiance through the timber arcade would be disrupted 

by the newly introduced steel columns, but the verticality 

of the arcade would remain. This concept was also left 

92

aside for aesthetic reasons and because the introduction 

of a new structure woven through the traditional framework 

of the building would limit access to the central 

core and throughout the structure. 

Option 3 

This option investigated joining sound existing timber 

with new timber at its rotten base, and encase the timber 

columns with hollow steel section from just above the 

resulting timber joint down to a slab or grillage foundation. 

The structure above the ground floor arcade would 

then be reinforced with timber beams and steel collars 

at the intersections of the central core columns. Small 

solid steel tension rods would then act as cross bracing at 

the ground floor to connect the steel reinforcing on central 

core columns. This option would result in the potential 

to keep the historic timbers in the structure, and 

the visibility of these timbers would not be inhibited. 

There would, however, be steel tension rods installed to 

provide a secondary load path for lateral loads that pull 

against the building, allowing these loads to be pulled 

back down into the foundation.Visibility through the 

timber arcade would be slightly disrupted by the cross 

bracing, and access to the central core of the structure 

would be impeded. This option would not be viable at 

the Manimandapa North, because the central core of 

the structure is used for religious puja. Additionally, the 

historic timber elements would still be used for gravity 

loads, so it would be a composite system whose connections 

and geometry of cross bracing would be more 

difficult to determine and implement. The complexity, 

difficulty of implementation, and visibility of this system 

rendered it nonviable for the current situation. 

Option 4 

A later option involved joining sound existing timber 

with new timber at column bases, encased with a fitted 

steel shoe that slides onto the base of the timber column. 

This shoe would be either embedded into a slab or bolted/welded 

to a grillage foundation, and would allow for 

embedded dowels to secure the timber column. Ensuring 

that the shoe fully covers the timber joint, the wood 

would be routed at the edges to leave the timber column 

and the steel faces flush. The columns would then also 

be connected to a grid of horizontal timber beams just 

above the open arcade to stiffen them by shortening the 

span. The intersections of these beams would be reinforced 

with steel angles, and dowels would pin the columns 

at this point. This way, the main architectural feel 

and appearance remain intact, wood joinery and base 

connection are strengthened against lateral loads, and 

we are able to keep the historic timbers in the structure. 

This allows for a flexible system, utilizing mainly timber 

framing in the upper structure, with reinforced connections 

and a stable foundation to limit vibrations. This 

option would be a compromise structurally, but would 

still be a significant improvement in safety and stability 

over the original construction. 

The design compromise that was chosen evolved from 

Option 4 as described above. With a base foundation 

utilizing a reinforced concrete slab with cruciform shear 

key as its base, this would aid in the establishment of a 

damp proof course. The columns and base stones would 

have direct positive structural connections down to this 

concealed concrete slab. This would provide resistance 

against the pullout seen at these connections during the 

Above Left 

Development of a stainless steel 

shoe detail for the base connection 

of the central core timber columns 

to a concrete foundation. This 

involves a steel base plate recessed 

into the concrete with predrilled 

holes. Stainless steel rods would 

then be embedded into structural 

epoxy in drilled holes in both the 

timber column and the concrete 

foundation. A simplified construction 

method was developed to prefabricate 

the shoe and to use it as a 

template to ensure proper location 

and alignment of the anchor holes. 

Above Right 

Section detail (plan view) showing 

the connection of new horizontal 

timber beams atop the columns 

with reinforced joints and a dowel 

(embedded in structural epoxy) 

connecting the central core column 

to the beams to stiffen the system. 

Both sketches by Evan Speer, July 2016 

93

The main goals of this solution are to limit the weight of 

the structure and to strengthen the connection between 

all of its elements. The strategy is utilizing smart timber 

framing with steel connections to tighten connections 

between elements and reduce the movement caused by 

loose joints. This solution seeks to respect the historic 

fabric of the columns and the traditional architecture, 

but also to address key vulnerabilities in the original 

makeup by using localized strengthening measures to 

improve the resilience of the load path and allow the 

structure to remain flexible, so it can adapt to shifted 

load paths during an earthquake, seeking a life safety 

performance level with the added timber structure. This 

compromise was seen to be the best way forward in the 

unique situation presented by the current state of the 

industry and approvals process in Nepal. 

Manimandapa 

Design development axonometric 

sketch of timber bracing in the upper 

level of the structure to tie the 

upper and lower level together with 

a substantial timber frame, while 

stiffening the core and providing 

stronger connections throughout 

via steel reinforcing elements. 

Sketch by Evan Speer, August 16, 2016 

collapse of the Mani Mandapa structures in the earthquake. 

This and several other typical seismic strengthening 

details, as seen in the ‘seismic issues’ section of 

this report, will be adapted throughout. Stainless steel 

sleeves will be attached to the tops of the outer columns 

and their tenons to strengthen these connections 

against the shear failure of the tenons seen during the 

2015 earthquake. Stainless steel reinforcement will aid 

in strengthening the horizontal timber beams above the 

ground floor arcade. Steel angles will be placed around 

the perimeter at this level to connect the timber beams 

with the timber wall elements and to further stiffen the 

wall. Diagonal timber bracing and recessed timber frame 

will be added within masonry walls to provide redundant 

and adaptable load paths to allow the building to 

resolve loads if there are shifts in weight distribution or 

local failures in brick masonry. Multiple layered wooden 

wall plates will also be included to strengthen the timber 

frame within the structure. 

94

Part V 

Current thoughts on seismic strengthening 

As we continue to think and design, ideas evolve. Following 

are current thoughts, including lessons learned 

over the last 25 years - and since the earthquake: 

• Life safety is always a main priority 

So much discussion in the field of preservation of historic 

monuments delves deep into philosophies and priorities 

of the actual preservation of the monuments and 

buildings themselves, that sometimes this fundamental 

topic is lost in the details. It must always remain in the 

forefront of our minds that the buildings we work on are 

living heritage and are used daily to serve the people of 

the community. Without them, these buildings serve no 

purpose, and the safety of those using the buildings must 

always be considered at the forefront of any preservation 

project. 

• Foundations are the critical battleground 

Reinforcing foundations is the opportunity and obligation 

created by the need to rebuild collapsed structures 

after the earthquake! This is a new frontier because earlier 

projects have been in situ repairs, which do not lend 

themselves to foundation work. 

As the foundations are essentially the link between 

buildings and the ground, they are the first to experience 

seismic motion. If no investigation is allowed, or no 

foundation strengthening completed, then any rebuild 

runs the risk of damage because of this weak link. After 

the earthquake, we have the unique opportunity to easily 

access many foundations to study soil composition and 

introduce strengthening measures largely invisible upon 

completion of construction. Continuity of foundations 

to provide a stable base increases safety of the structures 

while helping to reduce visible strengthening measures. 

Local opposition to the use of concrete - even concealed 

in foundations, which is an international preservation 

norm - continues to prevent the official acceptance of 

this idea and the permitting of projects which include it, 

as it has for the last 25 years. After the loss of life and 

heritage of the 2015 earthquake, we renew the search 

for the way forward. 

• Critical distinctions between historic/original, later, 

"traditional," and modern materials 

So-called “traditional materials” are often misleading. 

While they may have been widely used for decades, 

many are not original to the historic structures. Our 

strategy is to reuse and to return to original materials and 

forms wherever possible. With rare exceptions, if traditional 

means and materials are not sufficient for durability 

and life safety goals, we retain the historic materials 

and forms where they are visible and add modern interventions, 

usually concealed, to achieve performance. 

• Modern materials are sometimes the only solution 

(and cement and concrete are not the same). 

In keeping with their philosophy, ICOMOS experts 

provided an early prohibition of lime-based mortars to 

replace traditional mud mortar. This conforms to international 

norms; we have removed Portland cement from 

traditional structures it has damaged (eg Bhandarkhal 

pavilion at Patan Palace). Lime surkhi, although in the 

lexicon of traditional materials in Newar architecture, 

is not a suitable ‘substitution’ for concrete. Lime mortar 

has a much lower compressive strength and much 

longer curing time than Portland cement, and is much 

more susceptible to water damage. Proposed by others as 

a traditional material to be used in foundations instead 

of concrete because it was used above grade in Newar 

construction for a time in the past, lime mortar is considerably 

stronger as a bonding agent than mud mortar, 

but is extremely weak in foundations because lime 

breaks down over time with exposure to water. Typical 

Western guidelines shy away from ever using more than 

10-30% lime in concrete mixes below grade, and that is 

in the driest, most ideal soil conditions. So soil conditions 

in the Kathmandu Valley, in a former lakebed with 

95

cyclical monsoon rains, would be extremely detrimental 

to lime mortar brick masonry foundations. 

Generalizing this prohibition of cement to all uses of 

concrete, even in a concealed, carefully considered, 

well-executed seismic strengthening measure in a rebuilt 

foundation, is a different matter. 

Wherever possible, we have used traditional materials, 

but...it bears repeating that this is where the Venice 

Charter and other international documents support the 

use of ‘modern material’: “ where traditional techniques 

prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument 

can be achieved by the use of any modern technique 

for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which 

has been shown by scientific data and proved by experience.” 

(Venice Charter, Section 10) Consolidation for 

reasons of life safety and survival of structures during future 

earthquakes is our justification for this use of modern 

techniques. 

• Authenticity/seismic balance 

It is critical to find a balance between historic and seismic 

demands. This - very importantly - also includes 

choices between stiff unified structural systems and 

flexible traditional systems with improvements. In-between/ 

hybrid solutions can be problematic in their 

seismic performance. The exposition on the Mani Mandapas 

demonstrates this, in finding that full life safety/ 

code compliance would have required an outsized full 

structural frame that would destroy the building’s architectural 

integrity. We thus had to back off to accept a 

reasonable level of safety, designing a system that would 

leave time for egress from these tiny, open pavilions 

without detracting excessively from their architecture. 

This is why the foundation design that makes this solution 

possible is so compelling, and traditional Newar 

materials provide no purely traditional option for unifying 

the structure below grade in this way. 

• Quality of implementation 

The best seismic scheme in the world isn’t worth much 

unless there is excellent and experienced site supervision 

and appropriate quality control inspections of the details. 

This implies that engineers and architects should 

be often on site and focused on the details of building 

safety. 

• East vs. West 

There are seismic implications to deliberately imposing 

the Western focus on retaining historic fabric (above 

ground) onto the Newar context where replacement is 

not only acceptable but preferred. Most of what we do 

increases earthquake resistance, but at the limit, some 

repaired elements that our carpenters would have preferred 

to recarve from scratch are not strong enough 

(Manimandapa columns). 

• Philosophy and priorities 

Repair and maximizing historical fabric retention - such 

as the original carved timber columns of the Manimandapas 

- and achieving historical configurations - are 

priorities. When rebuilding, KVPT’s preference is retaining 

or rebuilding the historical, Newar configuration 

while adding layers of strengthening. As discussions of 

the Manimandapas show, we have found this preferable 

to building a new hybrid system. 

• Solutions not slogans 

Our approach is a rigorous and detailed study and analysis 

of individual buildings to identify risk levels, the 

building history, possible levels of intervention, strategic 

engineering design options (eg Indrapur) and appropriate 

technology. Newar buildings have many special characteristics 

to be addressed - and we have been identifying 

them over the years. 

• Documentation and information sharing 

We have reviewed our quarter-century of experience 

addressing seismic strengthening of Newar architecture 

and are in the process of documenting it in detail. In 

addition to creating a record of the work, which opens 

a new field of study and practice in Nepal, our aim is 

96

to make it available to other agencies coming to the 

Kathmandu Valley to help with rebuilding heritage who 

might be interested. 

• Ideology vs science (politicization of technical issues) 

The local campaigns to avoid modern materials are worrisome 

and counterproductive-- essentially as they preclude 

doing seismic strengthening methods/technology 

in the foundations - where steel and reinforced concrete 

have been shown around the world to be the only feasible 

and durable solutions. These can have lifespans well 

in excess of 75 years if properly detailed and maintained, 

and these materials are used all over the world, including 

heritage sites. 

• Agreement on fundamentals 

Still, we are in agreement with most of what the local 

campaigners are saying and we share their ultimate goals 

of preserving. The difference is where a technical matter 

becomes an ideological sticking point. 

• Connections 

Newar Architecture has long been known for weak connections 

between building elements. Wood joints that 

have room to move, timber columns with tenons only 

1 inch long, chukul pegs at rafters that are meant to be 

tightened periodically but aren’t, struts that rely on roof 

loads to hold them in place with no direct connection, 

- the list goes on. The materials and the heavy use of 

strong timber should typically yield better seismic stability, 

but the weak point lies in the connections that 

easily pull apart during seismic motion. Meanwhile, the 

ends of timber elements rot in poorly maintained Newar 

structures. Reinforcing of connections between sound 

existing building elements with direct structural connections 

using stainless steel dowels and plates can go a long 

way to making these buildings safer. 

• Damp proofing 

This necessary protection is not in the lexicon of traditional 

Newar design and materials, but it is critical 

for palace courtyard structures and other residential 

buildings whose walls rise from grade, where materials 

in the zone of cyclical rising damp (between the dry upper 

walls and the damp foundations/lower walls) suffer. 

Without damp proofing, progressive rotting of timbers 

and deterioration of brick in this zone- roughly from 

knee-level to shoulder level - weaken the structure and 

reduce its seismic resistance. A damp proofing course (eg 

copper sheets) can be inserted in situ in a retrofit with 

some difficulty, but is worthwhile (eg Patan Museum; 

Sundari Cok). 

In the discussion of rebuilding projects with reinforced 

concrete ring beams in the foundations, concrete can 

economically play a dual role in damp proofing as well 

as unifying the structure. At the classic Newar temples, 

atop their high plinths, rising damp is less of an issue 

although still a factor to address when rebuilding. 

At the Manimandapas, damp proofing is a critical function 

of the proposed concrete slab below grade because 

it protects the wooden lakansi beams which hold the column 

bases with their vulnerable end grain cuts sitting 

less than a meter above grade. Protecting these column 

base connections from rot is a key to the survival of the 

structures in an earthquake. 

• A story set in stone at fallen temples 

A common pattern of failure appeared after the earthquake 

in the classic multi-tiered temples with an outer 

timber arcade of columns on the ground floor. As the 

earthquake shook the temple with a combination of 

vertical and lateral forces, large bearing loads were partially 

relieved from the base stones under the columns. 

Since there is no direct connection holding the stones 

back to the plinth, the outer corner of the top plinth 

(threshold) level was rotated out of place by the column 

resting on it. Telltale rotated stones are still visible today 

at plinths awaiting the rebuilding of temples-, eg at the 

northeast corner of the Harishankara. The column base 

97

kicked out at the same time, and this became part of 

the progressive collapse of the temple. Connecting the 

plinth stones to each other, to the foundation, and to the 

columns above is a major and critical step in protecting 

temples from future earthquakes. 

• Maintenance? What maintenance? 

Because of the centuries-long history of lack of maintenance 

of Newar structures (even our own Newar lead architect 

jokes that lack of maintenance is “in our blood”), 

we assume little to no long-term future maintenance 

of our projects and design accordingly, aiming for the 

greatest possible durability in the face of this reality. 

• Contending voices for authenticity 

Authenticity is a loaded term in preservation practice. 

We recognize that our assumptions about its meaning, 

however carefully conceived, are our own, and that others 

have contending views. These assumptions have a 

profound influence on seismic design solutions. 

98

Char Narayana Temple 

(Cārnārāyaṇa Temple) 

Assemblage and storage of four portals in June 2015 

Excavation of foundations in early August 2015 

Work resumed in early September 2015 

Inner doorways of sanctum completed in November 2015 

Repair / restoration of the eastern portal completed in early September 2016 

Work on southern portal in progress 

Work on western and northern portals taken up in mid September 2016

100

Cārnārāyaṇa Temple 

by Niels Gutschow 

The inscription at the eastern portal is dated to 1565, and 

mentions Purandarasiṃha as the donor. As a member of 

the Patan nobility (mahāpātra), his father Viṣṇusiṃha 

had already usurped power in 1546. His three sons took 

over and reigned until 1597 when Śivasiṃha wrested Patan 

back from the local dynasty and restored it to Malla 

rule. 

The mahāpatras built the first three of the extant temples 

on the city's Darbār Square, all of them dedicated 

to Viṣṇu, "following on the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa's 

commendation of a great temple to Viṣṇu as the completion 

of a King of Kings' accession to universal sovereign 

ty." The act itself had, as Bronwen Bledsoe (2004) says, 

"an operative quality, and the agent emerges as a yet 

more perfect version of the royal self. In one case, it is 

sovereignty (sāmrājya) which is said to arrive at the moment 

the gift is made; in another the extended ceremony 

of consecration is likened to rājasūya, the Vedic 'birth 

of a king'; in the last, the king becomes the deity itself." 

Purandarasiṃha built a copy of the Cārnārāyaṇa temple 

in Kathmandu (which is known as Jagannātha temple): 

one fifth smaller but ostensibly in the tradition of those 

monumental royal temples for which the Paśupatināth 

set the standards. Twenty-four years later he introduced 

a new architectural style to the square with the 

śikhara tower of the Narasimha temple, while his brother 

Udhavasiṃha established an Ādinārāyaṇa temple in 

1569 of which only the deity survives in a narrow provisional 

cell under a dome, erected after the 1934 earthquake. 

The temple's threshold of three blocks of stone, measuring 

altogether 581 centimetres and with separate corner 

stones featuring winged lions, documents the last effort 

to install a monumental base. The principal access from 

the east is guarded by a pair of lions on the lower level 

and a pair of guardians, possibly Yama and Kuber, on 

the upper level. With tripartite portals, flanked by aedicules 

dedicated to the eight guardians (dikpālas) of the 

regions, and with tympana surmounding the central 

opening, the four sides are identical except for the eastern 

threshold, which is moulded with a stepped outer 

frame. On the remaining sides the threshold stone is 

flush with the wall surface and is thus made to support 

the colonnettes. Devotees enter the temple for daily worship 

from the east, present offerings to the officiating 

Brahmin priest from the east, receive prasād, circumambulate 

the sanctum and leave the temple through the 

northern door. The sanctum holds a block of stone with 

the four manifestations (caturvyūha) of Viṣṇu in upright 

position: in the east Vāsudeva, in the south Saṅkarṣaṇa, 

in the west Pradyumna and in the north Āniruddha, that 

is, his elder brother, his son and his grandson. The central 

scene of the tympana reflects these manifestations: 

in the east Kṛṣṇa (Kāliyadamana), in the south Viṣṇu, 

in the west Mahālakṣmi, flanked by Maheśvarī and 

Vaiṣṇvī, and in the north Narasiṃha. 

Sixteen struts and four corner struts support the wide 

eaves of the lower roof. These were no longer carved 

from a single block of timber because four, six or eight 

arms have been added. Should the struts be contemporary 

with the portals and have not been replaced a hundred 

years later, they demonstrate a departure from earlier 

traditions. Inscriptions at the upper end of the struts 

allow an exact identification, although most of them are 

modelled to the inspiration of the builders to testify to 

the variety of forms Kṛṣṇa assumes. 

Following earlier prototypes, the struts are divided into 

three registers: small figures or scenes amidst rockery 

at the bottom, foliage on top, in the centre manifestations 

of Viṣṇu as slender figures, almost dancing with 

their legs crossed, complete with crown (mukuṭa), earrings 

(kuṇḍala) and necklaces (hāra). Twelve of these 

are dedicated to Viṣṇu's manifestation as the cowherd 

(gopāla) Kṛṣṇa. Beside these, Ādinārāyaṇa, the primeval 

Nārāyaṇa, guards the south eastern corner, and the 

copper-coloured boar (Tāmravarāha) and the flaming 

man-lion (Jvālānarasiṃha) the principal access. 

Opposite 


Photo by Stanislaw Klimek, 

August 2008 

101


Northern elevation: View from the southeast across the corner. 

The inscription testifies to the consecration of the temple by 

Purandarasiṃha in 1565. Corner stones with projecting lions 

bridge the gap between the thresholds on either side to ensure a 

continous base in stone. Only the threshold of the eastern portal 

has a triple-stepped outer frame, which requires a separate 

lion block for the colonnettes. 

Photo S. Klimek, August 31, 2008 

102


Elevation north: Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa 

(left), Umāmaheśvara (right), occupying 

the quarter-round panels, 

on the wall-brackets unidentified 

female deities carrying sacred water 

pots (kalaśa). 

Photograph by S. Klimek, 

August 31, 2008 

103


Plan scale 1:100. 

Source: Niels Gutschow, Architecture of 

the Newars, 2011, 420. 

104


Two deities (Yama and Kuber) 

flanking the 

stair leading to the platform on 

which the temples stands. 

Photograph by Jaroslav Poncar, 

August 9, 2014 

105


Tripartite eastern portal. 


August 31, 2008 

106

Cārnārāyaṇa Temple. 

Eastern portal, tympanum 

Photograph by J. Poncar, 

August 9, 2014 

107


Tripartite southern portal. 


August 31, 2008 

108


Tympanum (torana) of southern 

portal. 

Photograph by J. Poncar, August 9, 2014 

109


Tripartite western portal. 


August 31, 2008 

110


Tympanum (torana) above western 

portal. 


111


Tripartite northern portal. 


August 31, 2008 

112


Tympanum (torana) above northern 

portal. 


113


after earthquake 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, April 

27, 2015 

114


The clearing of the site began immediately after the total collapse 

of the structure during the earthquake of 25 April 2015, 

Timber elements were salvaged. 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, April 29, 2015 

115

Opposite 


Detail of a pencil drawing, made by Rajman 

Singh for Brian Houghton Hodgson, 

the former British Resident, ca. 1844. 

Hodgson had inscribed the drawing at the 

bottom in pencil, later in ink, indentifying 

the temple erroneously as “ Tou Deo or 

Maha Déva”. By the tripartite portal the 

temple is easily identifiable as the Char 

Narayana temple, of which the roofs obviously 

collapsed in the 1833 earthquake. 

The ruin was exposed to the rains for a 

period of more than eleven years, causing 

the collapse of the corners and some of 

the windows. This long period of neglect 

and poor maintenance was probably 

instrumental in the total collapse of the 

temple in 2015. 

Courtesy: Royal Asiatic Society, 022.013. 

Char Narayana 

After the temple collapsed on 25 April 2015, almost all 

architectural fragments could be salvaged and stored 

with the help of the army and police at the neighboring 

Keshav Narayan Chowk of the palace. 

In May the preserved constituent parts of the four portals 

were sorted out. In June the four portals were provisionally 

assembled and stored in low shelter structures, 

well protected against weather. The four ground floor 

tympana and the first and second floor windows were 

stored in storage shacks, and the struts were kept at the 

Keshav Narayan Chowk. 

In early May the South Asia Institute of Heidelberg University 

(Germany) initiated a fundraising campaign for 

the rebuilding of the temple which was overwhelmingly 

successful. In June the first installment was transferred 

and later in the year a second installment. In July the 

John Eskenazi Foundation (London) joined and a few 

weeks later the Bonham Auction House, New York. 

On June 2, 2015, a conciliatory puja was performed after 

the full clearance of the site to allow the devotees to 

worship in situ the Char Narayan stele, which remained 

unharmed and unmoved in the center of the temple’s 

sanctum. A canopy was added later. 

On 10 September 2016 another conciliatory ritual 

(kṣemapūjā) was performed to allow further interventions 

in the wake of the rebuilding of the temple. 

Foundations 

Soil tests were made in July 2015 and excavation of the 

brick foundations on the northern and western sides of 

the temple started on August 10. The Department of 

Archaeology had this work stopped after ten days with 

the argument that the touching of soil should be supervised 

by an archaeologist. 

Only on 5 September 2016 was the digging up of the 

foundations resumed in order to meet virgin soil. The 

aim is to strengthen the foundation by filling the gap 

between the brick foundation walls below the wall of the 

sanctum and the outer wall of the temple with regular 

bricks. 

The introduction of a grid of reinforced concrete - as 

proposed by Matthias Beckh in August 2015 - remained 

an issue of discussion in September. 

Ground floor 

The seed money received by the South Asia Institute 

enabled the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust to 

engage two carpenters in May to assemble the windows 

and portals. In July these carpenters started to replace 

the inner frames of the four doorways of the sanctum. 

This work was completed in January 2016. The eight 

door leaves of pine wood were not found in the debris 

and will be replaced by the end of 2016. 

Of the four portals, first the southern one was moved 

to the workshop in January, repair / restoration (see 

elevation drawing) of missing and damaged parts was 

completed in May. Work on the eastern portal started 

in June, work (see elevation drawing) will be completed 

by the end of September. The western portal was 

moved to the workshop on 27 August to be completely 

repaired by December. The northern portal, which requires 

comparatively small interventions, will be shifted 

to the workshop in November. Work on all portals will 

be complete by the end of 2016. Then each will be installed 

in an upright position, supported by a provisional 

threshold of wood, before being joined to the threshold 

in stone in its original position. 

The 24 door leaves in pine of the portals were not recovered 

from the debris. They will be produced in November 

and be in place when the portals are stored in an 

upright position. 

Seven of the eight aedicules flanking the portals and 

bearing the guardians of the universe will need only little 

repair. One aedicule (west-south) was lost to theft in 

2010 and will have to be replicated. 

The inner frames of the four portals are not fully preserved. 

Simple carpentry will replace the missing parts. 

116

117

The four-stepped cornice is heavily damaged. It will be 

repaired / replaced in January to March 2017. 15,000 

veneer bricks will be ordered in October. Taking into 

account the above tentative times frames, construction 

of the ground floor of the Char Narayan temple might 

start in April 2017. 

First level 

The twelve windows are not in very bad condition. 

About a quarter of the constitutive elements such as the 

cornices and the outer frames need replacement. Of the 

24 struts and four corner struts, only one corner strut 

is broken. This will be bolted and strengthened with a 

strap of steel on its back. The tympana are of secondary 

quality and must date to the repair of the temple in 

the 1840s. Not all tympana were preserved before the 

earthquake. 

Second level 

The four windows are not in very bad condition. One 

quarter to one fifth of the elements need repair. Eight 

plaques / aedicules on both sides of the windows need 

minor repair. The sixteen struts and four corner struts 

need minor repair. 

118


The four portals have been assembled 

and stored in a shelter in June 2015. 

Photograph by Niels Gutschow, 

August 12, 2015 

119


Tympanum (toraṇa) of the eastern 

portal. 

Photograph by Niels Gutschow, August 

12, 2015 

120


Tympanum (toraṇa) of the southern 

portal. 

Photograph by Niels Gutschow, 

August 12, 2015 

121

122


Conciliatory ritual (kṣemapūjā) 

after the clearance of the temple’s 

plinth to allow devotees to 

worship the deity. 

Photographs by Rohit Ranjitkar and 

Raju Roka, June 2, 2015 

123


Inspection of the trench between 

the wall of the sanctum and the 

outer wall to determine the level 

of virgin soil (left) on the northern 

side of the temple, and between 

the wall defining the edge of the 

lower and upper levels of the plinth 

(right). 

Photographs by Raju Roka, 

August 10, 2015 

124


Repair / restoration of the four doorways of the sanctum started 

in July 2015 and was completed in November. Minor parts of 

the stepped outer frame and the mediating quarter round U- 

shaped frame had to be replaced. 

Photograph by Raju Roka December 1, 2015 

125

Left 


East elevations, original and proposed 

construction - without roofs. 

Graphic by Evan Speer, July 2016 

Right 


Axons, original and proposed construction- 

without roofs. 


Left 


East-west sections, original and 

proposed construction. 


Right 


East elevation and east elevation 

exploded view, proposed construction. 


126


Structural Repair and Retrofit Concept 

Matthias Beckh, August 2015 

Existing condition 

The Char Narayana Temple completely collapsed during 

the earthquake on April 25, 2015. Many precious 

historical wooden elements with intricate carvings could 

be salvaged in the aftermath and stored for reuse in a 

possible reconstruction of the building. 

Proposed restoration and structural intervention 

· Replace the rubble infill between the foundations walls 

with properly laid brickwork placed in mud mortar to 

create a homogenous and solid foundation pad at plinth 

level 

· Install reinforced concrete ring beam above existing 

foundations wall. Create orthogonal grid of beams between 

inner and outer core. Ensure state of the art concrete 

work and curing for high quality and durability 

· Anchor the base stones tightly into the ring beam system 

· Use square stainless steel dowels to connects wooden 

pillars into the base stones 

· At the first floor level, a wooden diaphragm made of 

two layers of waterproof plywood panels will be installed 

create a rigid floor plane at this level. This will couple 

the outer masonry core to the inner one and prevent differential 

movement within the event of an earthquake 

· At the upper end of the outer masonry core, a wooden 

horizontal truss will be installed to tie the cores together 

at this elevation 

· All roof structures will be reconstructed with one layer 

of plywood panels on top on one layer of traditional sal 

wood planking 

· Connections between the wooden struts and the strut 

rails shall be strengthened with steel straps on the rear 

side 

127

Chār Nārāyaṇa Temple: 

Structural repair and retrofitting 

concept. All given sizes are 

indicative only (drawing based on 

Wolfgang Korn, 1976). 


128

Char Narayana Temple: 

Structural repair and retrofitting 

concept. All given sizes are 

indicative only (drawing based on 

Wolfgang Korn, 1976). 


129

Top 


Southern portal, scale 1:10. 

Sketch (of northern portal) by Bijay 

Basukala, June 2015. 

The southern portal was partially 

destroyed by the earthquake; all 

missing parts that are replaced by 

new carvings are shown in black. 

May 2016 



Eastern portal, scale 1:10. 

Sketch (of northern portal) by Bijay 

Basukala, June 2015 

The eastern portal was partially 

destroyed by the earthquake; all 

missing parts that are replaced by 

new carvings are shown in black 

May 2016. 

130


Repair / restoration of the southern 

portal. 

Top Left 

Master Carpenter Tirtha Ram and 

Rohit Ranjitkar discuss the extent 

of replecements. 

Top Right 

Replication of part of the cornice 

above the principal doorway. 


Replacement of parts of the 

outer stepped frame (Shyam Prasad 

Shilpakar at work). 

Bottom Right 

Replacement of tertiary jamb of the 

doorway to the left (Shyam Prasad 


Photographs Anil and Bijay Basukala, 

May 5 and 13, 2016 

131



portal. 


May 17, 24, 30 and June 1, 2016 

Top Left 

Repair of the bottom of the jamb 

of the side doorway (Shyam Prasad 


Top Right and Bottom Photos 

Replacement of the bottom end 

(with vase motif) of a primary jamb 

(Hari Prasad Shilpakar at work). 

132



portal. 


May 24, 26 and June 5 and 8, 2016 

Top Left 

Replacement of the threshold of the 

principal doorway. 


Partial replacement of the lower 

part of the cusped arch of the doorway 

to the left. 

133


Southern portal 

Photographs by Raju Roka, June 16 and 

July 5, 2016 

Top 

Repair / restoration of the stepped 

outer frame (purÁtva) above the 

lintel. 


Fixing the stepped outer frame to 

the lintel to frame the left lintel end 

with its carved surface. 


Repairing the stepped outer frame 

beside the left jamb. 

134


The southern portal in a partly disassembled state for identification 

of damaged parts for repair. Repair work on the southern 

portal will be completed by mid-October. 

Photograph by Niels Gutschow, September 12, 2016 

135

Char Narayan Temple 

The broken parts of the tympanum 

(toraṇa) of the southern portal 

are being assembled and screwed 

together by Tirtha Ram Shilpakar. 

Photograph by Bijay Basukala, 

September 12, 2016 

136


Hari Prasad Shilpakar carves the 

replacement of an arch of the 

southern portal. 

Photographs Bijay Basukala, 


Following Pages 

The western portal had been assembled 

at the workshop on 11 September 

to start repair / restoration. 

Photograph September 12, 2016 

137

138

139

140


Conciliatory ritual (kṣemapūjā) by 

Mohan Maya Jha (in blue sari) to 

allow construction to begin. 

Photographs Katharina Weiler, 


141

Harishankara Temple 

(Hariśaṅkara) 

January - August 2016 

Replicating two pillars of the ambulatory, repairing / restoring the remaining 18 pillars, 

repairing the 20 molded plates on top of the pillars, one beam, the 24 colonnettes, 

the southern and eastern doorways, repairing two of the 20 tympana, 

and the stepped cornices of all three levels 

(Niels Gutschow and Raju Roka)

144


Niels Gutschow and Raju Roka 

Historical Significance 

The Harishankara temple was consecrated in 1706. An 

early 19 th century chronicle mentions King Yoganarendra 

Malla's daughter Rudramati as the principal donor, 

but Adalbert Gail suggests on the basis of numismatic 

evidence, that it was his daughter Yogamati, who acted 

as the regent after the king's death in November 1705. 

Following the construction of the early Char Narayana 

and Narasimha temples in 1565 and 1589, the great 

achievements by Siddhinarasimha Malla who initiated 

the building of the Vishveshvara and Krishna temples 

in 1627 and 1937, the Bhimsen temples at the northern 

end of the square and another Vishveshvara temple 

(known as Bhaidegah) in 1680 and 1678 punctuated 

the square, leaving ample space in front of the Keshav 

Narayan Cok, with a pillar bearing Yoganarendra put 

up in 1693 in front of the imposing Degutale temple. 

Yogamati not only added the Harishankara temple, but 

also an octagonal Krishna temple in stone in 1723. With 

three roofs and raised on a three-stepped plinth, Harishankara 

was only slightly smaller than the Krishna and 

Bhimsen temples. In many details it was designed along 

the standards set by the Vishveshvara temple, which was 

the first temple of its style - based on a sanctum with an 

outer ambulatory and colonnettes placed in front of the 

20 pillars of the ambulatory. 

While Patan kings took the lead in the first half of the 

17 th century in presenting previously unknown temple 

types, Kathmandu followed in the second half of the 17 th 

century, and Bhaktapur at the end of the 17 th and early 

18 th century. Obviously, Yogamati had not the resources 

to compete with Bhaktapur's five-tiered Nyatapvala 

temple which was just completed when her father died. 

The impulse to compete resulted at a kind of copy at a 

reduced scale. 

The sanctum is thirty centimetres smaller than the Vishveshvara 

temple, but this small difference and the dimensions 

of the pillars created a new verticality, hitherto 

unknown in Patan. 

The eight-armed cult figure represents Shiva (Shankara) 

on its right side, equipped with pot, rosary, hour-glass, 

drum and trident, and Vishnu (Hari) on his left with his 

most common attributes, namely lotus, discus, conch 

shell and club. 

The pillars are highly decorated but devoid of iconographical 

details. The twenty tympana overarching the 

intercolumniations are crowned by forms of Vishnu on 

his mount Garuda, grasping the legs of a pair of anthropomorphized 

snakes. The bottom ends of the tympana 

are marked by Makaras, aquatic creatures spouting forth 

demon figures; in the centre - similar to the Vishveshvara 

temple - Kirtimukha with hybrid creatures (dragon 

and snake) or even a peacock flanked by dragons. The 

doorways are much simplified, with triple niches housing 

Ganesha, Mahalakshmi and Sarasvati on the lintel. 

The extended lintels feature the eight planetary deities, 

starting in the east with Candra (Moon) and Surya 

(Sun), and continuing with Bhauma (Mars ) and Budha 

(Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter) and Shura (Venus), Shanaiscara 

(Saturn) and Rahu (an invisible planet). The 

narrowing lintel ends feature the eight auspicious signs, 

four on each side, beginning with the endless knot, lotus, 

banner, and the vase of plenty and continuing with 

a pair of fly whisks, a pair of fish, a ceremonial umbrella 

and conch shell. The quarter-round panels next to the 

door jambs feature the Eight Mother Goddesses, of 

which four were already lost in the 1970’s. They are sixarmed, 

placed on pairs of their mounts: Maheshvari on 

peacocks (east-left), Vaishnavi (south, left) on a pair of 

Garudas, Mahakali on a pair of corpses (north, right) and 

Mahalaksmi on a pair of lions (north, left). The function 

of these Mother Goddesses is, as Gail has pointed out, to 

ensure the well-being of the living beings (jagat-kalyanakarinyah, 

according to the Devibhagavatapurana). The 

Opposite 


View from the south-east 

Photograph Stanisław Klimek, 

September 2008 

145

146

wall brackets feature seven male figures and one female. 

Ganesha is identifiable left of the southern doorway, Kumara 

left of the western doorway, and Nandikeshvara, 

Shiva's mount. As Gail has pointed out, the iconography 

of this and many other temples is based on sources that 

are known neither to us not to local priests or scholars. 

The blocks above the threshold ends represent Eight 

pseudo-Bhairavas, the fierce representations of Shiva, 

equipped with ten arms to act as guardians, Dvarapalas. 

Niches in the ground floor walls feature the four-armed 

Eight Guardians of the universe (Ashtadikpala): Indra, 

Agni, Yama, Nairriti, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Ishana, 

on their respective mounts. 

The 24 struts of the lower roof feature six- and eightarmed 

representations of Vishnu, Ganesha and Hanuman. 

Inscriptions at the bottom of these struts explain 

scenes that propagate papdharma, meaning it explains 

what happens to evil doers in hell. For example, those 

who commit adultery will be fried in oil and those who 

visit prostitutes will end up in the Krakasana hell. The 

sixteen struts of the second roof and the eight of the 

third roof feature representations of Shiva. 

Summary: The Harishankara temple does not mark the 

end of the building activities of Patan's Darbar Square 

but highlights the impulse to compete with the neighbouring 

kingdoms by installing a miniature version of a 

triple-tiered temple on a triple stepped plinth (294 cms 

to the base of the pillars). The carving is not comparable 

with the high standard of its prototype from 1627, and 

the iconographical programme replicates the prototype. 

Sources: 

Albert Gail, Tempel in Nepal, Vol. I, Graz 1984, pp. 44- 

61, 74-77 and pl.XXXIX-XLIII 

Carl Pruscha, Kathmandu Valley. The Preservation of 

Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage. A Protective 

Inventory, Vienna, 1975. Vol. II, p. 163. 

Mary Slusser, Nepal Mandala, Princeton University 

Press, 1982, p. 203. 

State of repair 

The temple collapsed in total on 25 April 2015. The 

thresholds of the sanctum are still in place, albeit damaged. 

Hundreds of wooden fragments were salvaged, 

and first stored in the Keshav Narayan Chowk. In June 

2015, a storage shack was constructed to store all the 

fragments which belong to the Harishankara temple. 

The pillars survived in full length; the tenons, however, 

are broken. The doorways are also intact. Seven of the 

20 colonnettes and the tympana which they had been 

supporting are broken. Most of the 44 struts and 12 

corner struts survived in full length. The same is true 

for the 20 symbolic windows of the first, second and 

third levels. Only minor damage occurred. The entire 

inner frames of the doorways and the secondary lintels 

of doors and windows cannot be retrieved from the large 

heap of fragments because they are not carved. 

Available documents 

The earliest document showing the Harishankara temple 

is a watercolour drawing by Henry Ambrose Oldfield, 

made ca. 1855. Oldfield was the physician at the British 

Residency who produced an early view of the square, 

which is valid till today. The earliest photographic evidence 

dates to February 1885, when the French traveller 

and psychologist Gustave Le Bon photographed the 

ground floor arcade, covering three intercolumniations. 

Transformed into a wood engraving, the image was published 

in the French magazine La Tour du Monde in Paris 

in 1886 and in the same year in the German magazine 

Globus. In December 1898, the German traveller Kurt 

Böck visited Patan. The photograph showing the Harishankara 

in the centre was published a couple of times in 

Germany after 1903. Also worth mentioning is a photograph 

by the firm Herzog & Higgins in 1902, which 

shows the stepped plinth and the pillared ambulatory. 

Opposite 


View from the northeast, the day 

after the earthquake. 

Photograph Rohit Ranjitkar, 

April 26, 2015 

147

The first site plan of the square that documents the 

plan of the temple was made by Eduard Sekler and his 

students from Harvard University in 1979. Sekler had 

been familiar with Nepal since 1962, and in 1977 had 

edited and published the Conservation Master Plan for 

the Kathmandu Valley. Neither the site plan nor the 

panorama elevation of the square looking west can be 

used for the plans, sections and elevations needed for the 

rebuilding of the temple. 

Adalbert Gail published the cult idol in 1982, and the 

four remaining quarter-round panels and three wall 

brackets in his first volume on Nepalese temples. More 

important, he drew our attention to the bottom ends of 

the 24 struts (including the corner struts) that support 

the lower roof. With the help of two eminent scholars 

of Newar language, Siegfried Lienhard and Thakur Lal 

Manandhar, he translated the inscriptions. The carved 

scenes above illustrate what happens in hell to those who 

do not follow the Dharma. 

Planning 

In the absence of any measured drawings, Wolfgang 

Korn initiated the survey of the plinth and the ground 

plan in October 2015 with the help of two Nepalese 

architects, Sabina Tandukar and Padma Maharjan. Bijay 

Basukala completed a simplified section drawing based 

on measurements of the salvaged fragments, scale 1:20, 

in November. On the basis of these drawings quantities 

were calculated as the basis of the cost estimate. 

Rebuilding 

Seismic strengthening will probably require a reinforced 

concrete slab below the sanctum; the jambs of the doorways 

and the pillars of the inner corners will be tied to 

that foundation by stainless steel pins. All these points 

will be part of a controversal debate for the coming six 

months. Seismic issues are, at present, not discussed rationally 

but under the impression of the 25 April earthquake. 

It is not well understood by the institutional 

partners that the point is not to change the foundations 

because to our findings they performed well. It is rather 

the connectivity of the upper structure to the plinths 

and the foundation we are concerned about. With the 

Harishankara temple it is evident that the building collapsed 

because the base stones of the outer ambulatory 

as well as the tenons of the pillars failed first, bringing it 

down. First, the triple stepped plinth has to be studied 

before final decisions can be taken. For this a team of 

archaeologists from the Department of Archaeology will 

have to join to dig a few critical areas up. Discussions 

with Dr. Purusottam Dangol, who completed a PhD in 

structural engineering, are ongoing to prepare future interventions. 

The uncertainty about future interventions 

presents a big variable for the cost estimate. We have 

chosen the middle path between a minimum and maximum 

of seismic interventions. 

The base stones below the pillars of the outer ambulatory 

had been in a bad state of repair already before the 

earthquake; sloppy repairs and the introduction of cement 

and flat stone pavement in 1975 contributed to 

the gradual deterioration. Seven of the intermediate 

carved stone elements have been replaced, bare of any 

carving. This entire level has to be reset, and uncarved 

elements and at least six base stones have to be replaced. 

Of the stone thresholds of the doorways, one has to be 

replaced, the remaining three repaired. 

A preliminary survey of the damage inflicted by the 

earthquake reveals a stunning capacity of all elements to 

be reused without major interventions. This does notmake 

the reconstruction easy but it facilitates the entire 

working process, beginning with the planning, that is 

the reconstruction of a detailed section drawing as the 

basis for any work. 

All rafters will have to be replicated in their original dimensions 

and spacing. Interventions of the second half 

of the 20th century have deviated from the original di- 

148

mensions and techniques in order to save money. The 

rebuilding of the temple aims at the regaining of the 

original, 18th-century design. 

Niels Gutschow, December 2015 


The pinnacles (gāju) of the Char 

Narayana (left) and Harishankara 

(right) were salvaged from the ruins 

and stored at the Keshav Narayan 

Chowk with the help of the Army. 

Photograph Rohit Ranjitkar, 

April 29, 2015 

149


View from the northeast 

Photograph Niels Gutschow, 

September 21, 2009 

Opposite 

Detail of the cornice above the arcaded ambulatory. The central 

myrobalan fruit motif (āmalaka) is slightly anthropomorphized 

by an incision of eyes and eyebrows. 

Photograph Katharina Weiler, April 8, 2016 

150

151

152


Section drawing east-west 

Survey by Bijay Basukala, November 

2015 

Opposite 

Harishankara Temple, Ground 

level plan 

Measured drawing, October 2015 

Survey by Sabina Tandukar and Padma 

Maharjan 

153


A hybrid deity, the ten-armed 

Vishnu, identifiable by his crown, 

with the attributes of Bhairava, 

and in the aggressive posture of 

Bhairava and carried by the mounts 

of Bhairava, occupies the blocks 

(dyakva) on both sides of the 

door jambs above the threshold. 

Adalbert Gail (1984) called these 

guardian figures pseudo-Bhairavas 

in order to overcome the obvious 

discrepancy which may reflect the 

fusion of Vishnu and Shiva in Harishankara. 

Usually, the cult figure 

is divided vertically; in this case the 

division is horizontal. 

Photographs Indra Shilpakar, April 2014 

Top 

Eastern doorway, from right to left: 

Vishnu / Krodha Bhairava on a pair 

of Garudas and Vishnu / Asitanga 

Bhairava on a pair of lions. 


Southern doorway, from right to 

left: Vishnu / Samhara Bhairava on 

a pair of Vetala and Vishnu / Ruru 

Bhairava on a pair of dogs. 

154


A hybrid deity, the ten-armed Vishnu, 

identifiable by his crown, with 

the attributes of Bhairava, in the 

aggressive posture of Bhairava and 

carried by the mounts of Bhairava, 

occupies the blocks (dyakva) on 

both sides of the door jambs above 

the threshold. 


Top 

Western doorway, from right to 

left: Vishnu / Kapala Bhairava (lost 

in the early 1970’s) presumably on a 

pair of deer, and Vishnu / Unmatta 

Bhairava on a pair of snakes. 


Northern doorway, from right to 

left: Vishnu / Krodha Bhairava 

on a pair of Garuda, and Vishnu 

/ Bhisana Bhairava on a pair of 

horses. 

155


The Eight Mother Goddesses 

(Ashtamatrika) guard the doorways 

on quarter round panels below the 

lintel. The deities are placed on a 

lotus throne; a devotee stands on a 

lotus throne at the outer side in the 

gesture of adoration. 


Top 

Eastern doorway, from right to left: 

Brahmayani on a pair of geese and 

Maheshvari on a pair of bulls (lost 

in the early 1970’s). 


Southern doorway, from right to 

left: Kaumari on a pair of peacocks 

and Bhadrakali (Vaishnavi) on a 

pair of Garudas (lost in the early 

1970’s). 

156


The Eight Mother Goddesses 

(Ashtamatrika) guard the doorways 

on quarter round panels below the 

lintel. The deities are placed on a 

lotus throne; a devotee stands on a 

lotus throne at the outer side in the 

gesture of adoration. 


Top 

Western doorway, from right to 

left: Varahi on a pair of bulls (lost 

in the 1970’s) and Indrayani on 

a pair of elephants (lost in the 

1970’s). 


Northern doorway, from right to 

left: Mahakali on a pair of corpses 

and the attendant figure mirroring 

Mahakali's emaciated appearance, 

and Mahalakshmi on a pair of 

lions. 

157


Architectural and decorative fragments salvaged from four collapsed 

temples and platforms and kept in immediate safety at 

the Keshav Narayan Chowk. 

Photograph Rohit Ranjitkar, April 29, 2015 

158


Carpenters from Bhaktapur, engaged by the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust, assemble fragments of a window from the 

level above the sanctum. 

Photograph Raju Roka, July 7, 2015 

159

160

Opposite 

Some 300 (of the original 314) stylized beam ends (dhalinkva) 

which form part of the cornice above the ground floor have 

been salvaged from the collapsed temple. It will be impossible 

to determine their original locations. 


Fragments of the temple stored in temporary store rooms, set up 

on the initiative of the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust in 

June 2015 behind the palace, within the former Archaeological 

Garden. 

Photographs Ashesh Rajbansh, October 6, 2015 

161


The remainder of the stepped 

plinth of the temple. 

Photographs Niels Gutschow, November 

18 and 23 November 2015 

Top 

View from the northwest across the 

threshold level of the sanctum. 


The plinth, fenced in preliminarily 

upon an initiative of the municipality. 

162


Details of the stones bearing the 

pillars of the ambulatory and their 

forward standing colonnettes, and 

the carved blocks of the intercolumniations 

featuring wisdom bearers. 

The details reveal a variety of 

inappropriate recent repairs which 

contributed considerably to the collapse 

of the temple. 

Photographs Niels Gutschow, 

November 23 and 30, 2015 

163


The process of repair, restoration and replacement 

Procedure 

Following an application submitted in June 2015, the 

Gerda Henkel Foundation decided in August to fund 

the rebuilding of the Laykuphalca in Bhaktapur. In 

order to concentrate on a single World Heritage Site, 

the Patan Darbar Square, this seed contribution was 

redirected towards the rebuilding of the Harishankara 

temple on that square in December. In mid-April 2016 

the Foundation decided to fund the rebuilding of the 

temple on the basis of a detailed cost estimate that came 

up to ca. 440.000 Euros. The project is expected to be 

completed in Spring 2019. 

In the first week of January 2016, two carpenters started 

to replicate two of the twenty pillars of the ambulatory 

which were damaged beyond repair and to assess the 

damage inflicted on the top ends of the remaining 18 

pillars and the four corner pillars of the sanctum. 

Conservation approach 

We understand that the temple, dated to 1706, survived 

the earthquakes of 1809, 1833 and 1934 largely intact. 

This assumption is based on the fact that all pillars, cornices, 

doorways and tympana originate from the period 

of the original construction. Not the slightest repairs 

or replacement can be observed similar to the damage 

inflicted upon the temple's wooden components in the 

2015 earthquake. 

The ultimate aim is to restore the temple to its 1706 

configuration. This necessitates countless major as well 

as minor repairs to "restore" the individual members to 

their original configuration. To date only two of the pillars 

and the lintel of the southern doorway have had to 

be replaced. In all cases, decorative elements were copied 

in analogy to preserved pattern on similar architectural 

components. This procedure is also followed on the 20 

tympana, on which missing parts of foliage or of hybrid 

creatures can be replicated following examples on the 

same or a similar tympanum. Loose parts are being fixed 

with the use of bamboo pegs. 

The overall guiding principle is to preserve as much of 

the original / historic fabric as possible. We are fully 

aware of the fact that this approach is alien to the traditional 

/ local practice of Newar craftsmanship. In earlier 

centuries the challenge would have been to replace the 

entire building destroyed by an earthquake, or to replace 

broken parts such as an entire doorway. The practice established 

by the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust 

reflects a global attitude which in the 21st century aims 

at preserving historic evidence "at any cost". The outcome 

is a hybrid mixture of types of repairs which on the 

Harishankara temple for the first time has introduced 

galvanized nuts and bolts to tie preserved elements to 

new timber. We understand this "antiquarian" approach 

as a tribute to the unique accomplishments of an endangered 

architectural tradition. 

We are leaving the well-accepted track of repair, restoration 

and replacement when it comes to the recreation of 

lost iconographic details. Four quarter-round panels and 

one threshold block were lost already before the earthquake, 

probably in the early 1970s. Although the general 

configuration and many decorative details and moldings 

can be recreated based on the preserved examples, the 

faces and the presentation of the mounts of the deities 

were carved without any evidence at hand. The usual 

discourse rules out such "conjectural" replacements, but 

the practice of the Newar carpenters and their specific 

cultural background require the completion of the iconographical 

programme in order to return the restored 

temple's dignity. 

164

Ground floor 

The pillars 

Two of the 20 pillars of the ambulatory had to be replaced 

as they were damaged lengthwise beyond repair. 

Of one more pillar the lower half was reused. Of the 

remaining 17 pillars, the top part had to be replaced in a 

variety of ways. The earthquake shocks made the bottom 

tenons simply slip from their supporting stone blocks, 

while the long tenons on top caused the breaking away 

of the molded top of the pillars. The original location of 

the pillars cannot be ascertained. This work was completed 

in July 2016. 

The colonnettes 

Of the 24 colonnettes, 13 were broken, three needed minor 

repairs, and seven are preserved - even the comparatively 

short tenons at the top and bottom are preserved. 

The original location of the colonnettes canot be ascertained. 

Repairs will be completed by early November. 

The plates 

The plate on top of each of the 20 pillars was torn apart 

by the twisting of the pillar's long tenon. The tearing 

apart of the four constituting parts of the plates did only 

little damage to the stepped kulan cornice. The repair 

followed the original technique of joining the constitutive 

parts with bamboo pegs. The original location of the 

plates cannot be ascentained. All plates were repaired by 

mid-September 2016. 

The tympana 

Of the twenty tympana five are fully preserved, two are 

severely damaged and 13 show minor damage. Of the 

latter 15 tympana, the top including the head of Vishnu-Narayana 

and the crowning umbrella could not be 

found in the debris of the collapsed temple. 

The 16 full and 8 half medallions featuring the sun-bird 

Garuda and a mirror, which frame the 20 tympana, are 

fully preserved. The four corner pieces feature Vishnu 

on Garuda; only one of these is damaged. The original 

location of the tympana cannot be ascertained. All tympana 

will be repaired by February 2017; the work will be 

done by Pushpa Shilpakar, who since June has been fully 

devoted to this kind of repair. 

The beams 

Of the four beams (nina) supported by the pillars, two 

were preserved but the end of one of these had been severely 

affected by termites. Half of this end is being replaced 

- an intervention that also requires the re-carving 

of the lotus frieze at the top of the beam. Two beams are 

slightly cracked. These will not be replaced but strengthened 

with galvanized steel plates. This work will be complete 

in November. 

The cornices 

Of the five constitutive elements of the stepped cornice 

above the pillars, all levels were broken on all four sides. 

This caused replacements in a range of 10 to 240 cm. 

The eight projecting ends of the dentilled level in the 

shape of a hand all broke away. Seven of these had to 

be replaced while one could be repaired. This work was 

completed in May 2016. 

The cornices on the inner side of the pillars - within the 

ambulatory - were broken and needed replacements of 

30 to 150 cm length. The three constituent parts of 

the cornice above the wall of the sanctum (lotus foliage, 

stylized beams ends and snake body) were broken on all 

four sides, making replacements necessary covering 10 

to 100 cm. 

The three constituent parts of the cornice above the 

doorways were also broken on all sides, needing replacements. 

Work on all four cornices on ground floor level was 

completed by May 2016. 

165

The aedicules 

The eight aedicules, niches with a stepped pediment 

housing the eight guardians of the universe (aṣṭadikpāla), 

are well preserved. 

The doorways 

The southern and eastern doorways required extensive 

repairs while the northern and western doorways exhibit 

only minor damage. The guiding rule was to retain as 

much of the original fabric as possible. The southern 

door required much care as the lintel was broken, with 

damage beyond repair. The carved surfaces above the 

door opening and on the extended lintel ends were removed 

from the old lintel to a depth of some five cm and 

joined to the new lintel using bamboo pegs. At all four 

doors, the lower parts of the Eight Planets (aṣṭagraha) on 

the lintel ends have broken away. Only one of these was 

found in the debris. The others will have to be replaced 

and recarved. Structural damages required replacements 

including the introduction of galvanized nuts and bolts: 

at the eastern doorway eight, and at the southern doorway 

four. 

As of mid-September, the southern and eastern doorways 

are almost completed. The repair of the northern 

and western doorways is in progress. All doorways will 

be completed by December 2016. 

The corner pillars of the sanctum 

The four corner pillars had their bottom tenons preserved 

while the breakaway of the tenon at the top caused 

loss of fabric on all four pillars. Replacement work was 

completed in April 2016. 

The inner frame of the doorways 

Work on the four inner frames will start in November 


The inner threshold of the four doorways 

The southern and western thresholds are broken; the remaining 

two need minor repairs. This damage has not 

yet been assessed in cooperation with stone masons. Replacements 

will be used until March 2017. 

Of the 20 base stones of the pillars of the ambulatory, 

featuring a lion bust, two will have to be replaced and 

seven are in need of repair. Of the 20 carved stones of 

the intercolumniations, six will have to be replaced, and 

the remaining ones repaired. The work will be complete 

in March 2016. 

Summary 

Most of the woodwork will be completed in November 

2016, and the stone work will be complete in March. 

Based on these assumptions, the ground floor will be in 

place in early May 2017, provided the foundation of reinforced 

concrete is installed in March 2017. 

First Level 

Twelve windows need minor repairs. One of 28 struts 

is broken but can be repaired. The entire level will be in 

place by the end of 2017. 

Second level 

Four windows, eight aedicules (niches) and 20 struts 

need minor repairs. 

Third Level 

Four windows, eight miniature aedicules and 12 struts 

need minor repair. 

The door leaves 

No trace of the latticed door leaves survives. Replacements 

will be made in November 2016. 

166

Other 

For the three eaves, 292 eaves bells will have to be procured. 

60,000 roof tiles from demolition sites in Bhaktapur 

were procured in May 2016. 

Some 2500 veneer bricks have been selected from the ruins. 

This will be enough for the wall of the sanctum. For 

the three upper levels, 14.000 veneer bricks (dāciāpa) 

and 25,000 regular bricks (māapa) will be ordered in 

October 2016. 

167

Construction of workshop in the palace gardens 

January 29, 2016 

168


Replication of one of the twenty pillars of the ground floor ambulatory. 

By April 2016, the two pillars that had been damaged 

beyond repair were replaced. 

Photograph Biay Basukala, January 3, 3016 

169


Repairing the four layers of the 

cornice above ground floor. Bottom 

left: replicating the projecting 

"hands" (lhakay), which very much 

characterize the corners of cornices 

in Newar architecture. Seven of 

the eight "hands" were damaged 

beyond repair. 


April 22, 25 and 27, 2016 

170

Top Left 

Cleaning the secondary jambs of a 

doorway. 

Top Right 

Cleaning a block featuring a hybrid 

Vishnu. 


Repairing the beam above the pillars 

of the ambulatory (Tirtha Ram 

and Sundar at work). 


May 5 2016 

171

Top Left 

Repair of the cornice (Gopal 

Sundar at work) and repair of the 

corner of the bearing beam above 

the pillared ambulatory. 

Top Right 

The replacement is connected to 

the old member by a galvanized 

steel plate (Sundar at Work) 


The kulan-cornice above the doorway 

of the sanctum (east) is being 

replaced. 


May 13, 2016 

172

Top Left 

Repair of the cornice above the 

south doorway to the sanctum 

(Maca Man at work). 

Top Right 

Repair of one of the corner pillars 

of the sanctum (Bal Krishna at 

work). 


Repair of one of the corner pillars 

of the sanctum (background, Sundar 

at work), and replacement of one 

of the two pillars of the ambulatory 

that were damaged beyond repair 

(Gopal Sundar at work). 



173


Top, replicating one of the two 

pillars of the ambulatory that were 

damaged beyond repair, right the 

two broken pillars, revealing their 

outer face with its beehive pattern 

(hāchen). Bottom, the lower level 

of the cornice with its characteristic 

tooth-pattern assembled on the lawn 

between the workshop and Mulcok, 

the "main" courtyard of the palace 

complex. 



174

Top Left 

Replication of two pillars which 

had been damaged beyond repair. 

Top Right 

Repair of a corner pillar of the 

sanctum. 


Two cornice levels from the top of 

the sanctum's wall, the centre and 

top parts of the cornice above the 

beam on top of the ambulatory 

pillars. 



175

Top 

Repairing the molded plates 

(cvakulan) on top of the ambulatory 

pillars. 


Replacing the top of a pillar 

(below), following the moldings of 

another pillar (above) which needs 

just a small replacement at its top. 


June 5 and 9, 2016 

176

Top Left 

Repair of the stepped outer frame 

(purātva) of the western doorway. 

Top Right 

replacement of the lintel of the 

southern doorway (Maca Man at 

work). The carved surfaces of the 

projecting lintel ends have been 

separated from the damaged lintel 

and will be fixed to the new lintel 

with bamboo pegs. 


Starting the repair on one of the 

20 tympana (toraṇa) that served as 

arches above the intercolumniation 

(Tirtha Ram at work). Eight battens 

have been nailed provisionally 

onto the back of the tympanum to 

allow him to precisely define the 

missing parts. 


June 19, 21, 26 and 28, 2016 

177

Top 

Plates on top of the pillars being 

repaired. 


Repair of the topmost molding of a 

pillar and insertion of a new tenon 

which will extend through the plate 

and the bearing beam. 


July 5 and 8, 2016 

178


Repairing the broken top parts of 

pillars, and repairing one of the 

eight blocks above the threshold 

featuring Vishnu as pseudo- 

Bhairava. 



179

Top Left 

Replacing missing parts of the cornice 

above the southern doorway. 

Top Right 

Repairing the first of twenty 

tympana. 


Repairing the molded plates on top 

of the pillars (left) 


Repairing the top of a pillar. In the 

background, the almost completely 

repaired southern doorway, without 

its threshold in stone. 


July 17, 19 and 24, 2016 

180

Top 

The surviving secondary jamb of 

the southern doorway is be adjusted 

to the replaced lintel with a miter 

joint before the preserved carved 

surface is being fixed to the lintel in 

three parts (above the door opening 

and on the projecting lintel ends). 


At one of the 20 tympana the top 

of the anthropomorphized snake 

king (nāgarāja) is being restored 

along with the attendant deity next 

to it (left), and replacement of the 

circular middle part of one of the 

colonnettes (toraṇthān) (right). 

Thirteen of the 24 colonnettes are 

broken; 11 need minor repairs. 


June 12, 2016 

181

Top Left 

The southern doorway, almost 

completely restored. 

Top Right and Bottom Photos 

Repair of the top parts of the pillars. 

None of the 20 pillars survived 

the earthquake undamaged. 



182

Top 

Replacement of the circular middle 

part of a colonnette. 


Repair of one of the 20 tympana. 

Broken parts are being fixed to 

the tympanum with bamboo pegs 

(right). 


August 15, 2016 

183

Eastern doorway, details of replacement 

of carvings on the primary 

jamb; right: on the lintel end the 

lower part of the representation of 

Sūrya has broken away and awaits 

recarving. 

Photograph Bijay Basukala, 


184

Top 

Eastern doorway, details of the 

replacement of carvings on the 

upper end of the jambs; bolts are 

concealed by a circular, fully carved 

inlay. 


Replacement of the bottom of the 

colonnette of the left side. 


Introduction of two subsidiary 

tenon in order to save us much of 

the original material as possible. 



185

Eastern doorway, top, details of 

the four constitutive elements 

(primary jamb, quarter round element, 

secondary jamb and stepped 

outer frame) of a doorway from the 

back, indicating to what extent the 

frontal elements are preserved. 



186

Indra Kaji Shilpakar from Bhaktapur 

replicates four of the Eight 

Mother Goddesses (aṣṭamātṛkā) 

which protect the doorways at the 

upper end of the doorway. Four of 

these were lost in the early 1970s. 

Indra Kaji first took measurements 

at the temple, studied repetitive 

elements such as the lotus throne, 

the attendant devotee figure, the 

crown, earrings, flower garland 

and dress. Based on this he made 

a drawing, glued it on top of the 

wood and recreated the required 

six-armed Matrika whose upper 

hands wield sword and shield, and 

whose lower right hand is based on 

the existing examples. The remaining 

attributes and the mounts 

follow a well-known formula. 

Top Left 

Maheshvari on a pair of bulls. 

Top Right 

Indra Kaji Shilpakar working on 

Varahi on a pair of buffalos 


Base drawing for Maheshvari 


Indrayani on a pair of elephants. 



187

The west-south quarter round panel 

(dyaḥkva) beside the jamb featuring 

Vārāhi, the protective Mother 

Goddess presiding over the western 

direction. 

Indra Kaji Shilpakar replicated this 

panel in analogy to the four preserved 

panels. The features of her 

face, her principal attributes and 

mount (a pair of bull) are familiar 

to him. 



188

The west-north block (bhailakva) 

above the threshold that should feature 

Vishnu in the form of Kapāla 

Bhairava on a pair of deer (mṛga), 

the guardian of the southwestern 

direction. In this case a misunderstanding 

led the carpenter to create 

the replica of an unknown figure, 

one foot resting on Garuda and one 

foot resting on a lotus flower, replicated 

and recreated in June 2016. 

Photograph, June 7 and 9, 2016 

189

190

The complete Harishankara pinnacle, 

provisionally assembled. 

Repairs caused a crack. Welding 

in fire will cause damage to the 

gilding. 

Photograph Katharina Weiler, 


Opposite 


In the storage shed: on the left, 

three of the four corner struts in the 

shape of a protective winged and 

horned leonine creature (kūnsala or 

śārdūla) with its paws raised. 

191

Above 

Three coppersmiths (Tarmrakār) 

installing their anvils (khalu), in 

discussion with Niels Gutschow. 

With a wide range of hammers, the 

shape of the five constitutive elements 

of the pinnacle is restored. 



Below 

Repair of the pinnacle (gāju), 

consisting of the bell-shaped bottom 

(ghaṇṭa), the ring of stylized 

fruits from the tree of immortality 

(āmalaka), the vase of plenty 

(kalaśa), and the emerging jewel 

(cintāmaṇi) on top. 



192

The deformations on the ring of 

āmalaka are worked with a wooden 

mallet and a wooden peg. 



193

Left 

First phase of production of the 

large corner bricks (lhakay) placed 

above the wooden cornices on all 

three levels. 

Right 

Storage of 60,000 roof tiles 

salvaged from demolition sites in 

Bhaktapur. 


July 14 and June 10, 2016 

194


Salvaged Architectural Fragments 

Twenty tympana above the ground floor cornice 

Four corner tympana 

Sixteen medallions located between the tympana 

Eight half medallion flanking the corner tympana 

Eight struts supporting the top roof 

Sixteen struts supporting the middle roof 

(documentation incomplete) 

Twenty-four struts supporting the lowest roof 

195

Four of the 20 tympana (toraṇa) above the arcaded ground floor ambulatory. 

Common to all tympana is Vishnu, seated on a throne against a mandorla, 

bearing his most common attributes (conch shell, lotus club and discus) in a 

variety of sequences. The throne is carried by Garuda, whose winged arms are 

raised, while his talons clutch the legs of a pair of anthropomorphized snakes 

(nāga /nāginī). Vishnu is crowned by a triple ceremonial umbrella with a jewel on 

top; Garuda is framed by a pair of female deities in medallions. 

A pair of Makara guards the bottom ends of the trefoil arch, their tails ending 

in a coiled lotus foliage. They are guarded by birdmen or wisdom bearers. In 

the center of the arch appears an auspicious guardian figure such as the face of 

Kīrtimukha (11 times), a peacock, an airborne musician or a supporting spirit. 

This scene is framed by pairs of dragons. 

Photographs by Ashesh Rajbansh, August 4, 2016 

196



bearing his most common attributes (conch shell, lotus club and discus) in various 

arrangements. The throne is carried by Garuda, whose winged arms are raised, 

while his talons clutch the legs of a pair of anthropomorphized snakes (nāga / 

nāginī). Vishnu is crowned by a triple ceremonial umbrella with a jewel on top; 

Garuda is framed by a pair of female deities in medallions. 







197












This scene is framed by pairs of dragons, and in one case (upper right) a pair of 

horses. 


198














199














200

The four corner tympana above the 

arcaded ambulatory. The curved 

elements combine the basic elements 

of the wide tympana. Vishnu 

rides on Garuda in four different 

postures: 

Top Left 

Seated on a throne. 

Top Right 

With raised knees. 


With his feet resting on the bird's 

arms. 


Lost. 

Garuda's talons firmly rest on the 

legs of the pair of anthropomorphized 

snakes. The U-shaped 

frame of the throne is guarded by a 

winged and horned leonine creature 

(sārdūla), while the arch is crowned 

by Kīrtimukha. With the hands of 

winged arms this "sky face" spouts 

forth water in the shape of snake 

bodies, the bottom ends are occupied 

by a pair of Makara whose 

tails end in coils of foliage. 

Photographs Ashesh Rajbansh, 


201

Sixteen medallions featuring the 

kneeling Vishnu in anthropomorphic 

form. These medallions are 

placed in between the tympana and 

fixed to the beam with nails. The 

framing of the medallions with foliage, 

beads or flames demonstrate 

the carvers’ freedom to create. 



202

Sixteen medallions featuring the 

kneeling Vishnu in anthropomorphic 

form. These medallions are 

placed in between the tympana and 

fixed to the beam with nails. The 

framing of the medallions with foliage, 

beads or flames demonstrate 

the carvers’ freedom to create. 



203

Half medallions in the form of stylized 

mirrors (jvālānhāykan), made 

to frame the corner tympana. The 

surface of each mirror features lotus 

foliage or fully opened flowers. A 

lotus stem rises at the bottom and 

pierces a ring of āmalaka fruits 

before opening up. 



204

Four of the eight struts supporting 

the top roof, their original locations 

not yet ascertained. 

Four-armed representations of 

Vishnu in tribhaṅga posture on 

a lotus throne occupy the central 

portion of the struts below four 

strands of leaves. The bottom is 

occupied by four-handed representations 

of Harishankara against 

rockery motifs, that is Vishnu with 

his usual crown and a garland of 

flowers, holding the attributes of 

Shiva. 



205

Four of the eight struts supporting 

the top roof, their original locations 

not yet ascertained. 

Four-armed representations of 

Vishnu in tribhaṅga posture on 

a lotus throne occupy the central 

portion of the strut below four 

strands of leaves. The bottom is 

occupied by four-handed representations 

of Harishankara against 

rockery motifs, that is Vishnu with 

his usual crown and a garland of 

flowers, holding the attributes of 

Shiva. 



206

Four of sixteen struts of the middle 

roof, their original locations not yet 

ascertained. 

Six-armed representations of Vishnu 

in tribhaṅga posture on a lotus 

throne occupy the central portion 

of the struts below four strands of 

leaves. The bottom is occupied 

by four-handed representations of 

Harishankara against rockery motifs, 

that is Vishnu with his usual 

crown and a garland of flowers, 

holding the attributes of Shiva. 



207



ascertained. 













208



ascertained. 













209

One of sixteen struts of the middle 

roof, its original location not yet 

ascertained. 




of the strut below four strands of 







The other three struts were not 

photographed. 



210


Twenty-four struts supporting the lowest roof 

All of these struts are inscribed, documenting scenes of pāpdharma, which 

illustrates what punishment will be due by Yama for unethical conduct. 

The iconography is highly complex and deserves further study. Besides 

Ganesha and Hanuman, twenty-two representations of Vishnu can for 

example be identified as Lakshmi-Narayana by Garuda and a tortoise 

framing the lotus throne on which the figure stands. 

211


Four of twenty-four struts supporting 

the lower roof. One- and tripleheaded 

representations of Vishnu 

reveal their Śaiva association by the 

depiction of the mounts of Bhairava 

which frame the lotus throne. 

The lower registers feature scenes 

that demonstrate what happens to 

evil-doers, sinners who will face 

punishment (pāpdharma). 

West, from south to north (right 

to left): (1) Yama's messenger fries 

in oil one who has committed 

adultery, (2) Yama's messenger bans 

to the forest Amipatra, one who in 

relations with persons constantly 

commits the five great crimes ; (3) 

Yama's messenger hangs the Brahmin 

from a tree upside down who 

sells varnish, torches, oil, poison 

and ghee and beats him with a belt 

of leather; (4) Yama's messenger 

sends one who visits prostitutes to 

the Krākasana hell. 



212





reveal their Śaiva association by the 

depiction of the mounts of Bhairava 

which frame the lotus throne. 

The lower registers feature scenes 

that demonstrate what happens to 

evil-doers, sinners who will face 

punishment (pāpdharma). 

West, from south to north (right to 

left): (5) Yama's messenger causes 

bee to bite the one who has left 

his practiced dharma; (6) Yama's 

messenger causes a snake to bite the 

one who damages ponds, dams and 

the like. 

Location of nos. 7 to 8 still to be 

ascertained 



213





in some cases reveal their shaivite 

association by the representations 

of mounts which frame the lotus 

throne. The lower registers feature 

scenes that demonstrate what happens 

to evil-doers, sinners who will 

face punishment (pāpdharma). 

Location of 9-12 still to be ascertained. 



214





reveal their shaivite association 

by the depiction of mounts which 

frame the lotus throne. The lower 

registers feature scenes that demonstrate 

what happens to evil-doer,s 

sinners who will face punishment 

(pāpdharma). 

Location of nos. 13 to 16 still to be 

ascertained. 



215






by the depiction of mounts which 

frame the lotus throne. The lower 

registers feature scenes that demonstrate 

what happens to evil-doers, 

sinners who will face punishment 

(pāpdharma). 

Location of nos. 17-20 still to be 

ascentained. 



216






by the depiction of the mounts of 

Bhairava which frame the lotus 

throne. The lower registers feature 

scenes that demonstrate what happens 

to evil-doers, sinners who will 

face punishment (pāpdharma). 

Location of nos. 21-24 still to be 

ascertained. 



217


First level above the sanctum, the four central windows, original 

locations unknown. 

Photographs Katharina Weiler, April 10, 2016 

218


First level above the sanctum, four of the eight blind windows 

flanking the central window. Only one panel with the bust of a 

deity is preserved. Original locations unknown. 


219


First level above the sanctum, four of the eight blind windows 

flanking the central window. Only one panel with the bust of a 

deity is preserved. Original locations unknown. 


220


Second level above the sanctum, central windows, original locations 

unknown. 


221


Third level above the sanctum, central windows, original locations 

unknown. Two cornices are lost, two inner window frames and in 

one case (lower right) also one bracket and the colonnettes. 


222

224


Conciliatory ritual (kṣemapūjā) 

by Gurudatta Mishra to allow 

construction to begin. 

Photographs Katharina Weiler, 


225

226

The Sculpture of Harishankara 

Gabriela Krist, Martina Haselberger, Marija Milchin 

Introduction – Object Description 

The sculpture of the god Harishankara, a manifestation 

of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Shankara) 1 , was originally 

situated in the Harishankara Temple on Patan Durbar 

Square, which collapsed during the earthquake in April 

2015. The temple was erected in 1706 by Yogamati as 

memorial for her father King Yoganarendra Malla. The 

sculpture of the eponymous god is the focus of worshipping, 

situated in the center of the temple building and 

only accessible by priests. He is represented in standing 

position, one half representing Shiva (proper right), 

the other Vishnu (proper left). Both are depicted each 

holding four symbolic attributes in their hands. While 

Vishnu is accompanied by one of his wives (Lakshmi or 

Sarasvati) standing beside him and his mount or vehicle 

Garuda, Shiva is shown with his spouse (Devi or Parvati) 

and his mount Nandi, the bull, bottom right. All of the 

god’s attendants are intentionally depicted smaller to 

emphasize his importance. Standing on lotus blossoms 

whose tendrils surround them, each deity’s head is additionally 

encircled with a flaming halo. Furthermore they 

are all crowned and wear different kind of jewelry 2 . 

In 2015 the team of the Institute of Conservation 

was entrusted with the conservation of this valuable 

sculpture. 

Condition 

By the earthquake of April 2015 the temple housing the 

sculpture of Harishankara collapsed completely and the 

object split into two pieces. Additionally, Parvati’s head, 

the mace of Vishnu, Garuda’s hands and a small part 

from the outer circle broke off. 

In the course of first-aid measures undertaken by the local 

stakeholders and volunteers the sculpture could be 

recovered from the debris. Unfortunately small pieces, 

with the exception of Parvati’s head, got lost. The whole 

surface of the sculpture was covered with layers of ritual 

offerings 3 resulting from continuous religious worshipping 

in the temple over the years. The layers were especially 

thick in the areas of the eight hands, the faces and 

the encircling halo. The stone itself showed no signs of 

structural damage. It is a very hard and dense, weakly 

metamorphic material 4 as described by Leiner 5 which is 

widely used in Patan. 

Aim of the Conservation 

The primary aim of the conservation is to re-adhere the 

broken pieces that were recovered from the debris in 

order to complete the object and to reduce the risk of 

further loss. 

Apart from this re-assembling of the sculpture, the treatment 

of areas with missing parts is another issue of concern. 

In dialogue with all stakeholders it is agreed that 

the sculpture will be again re-installed for worshipping 

inside the Harishankara Temple when it is re-erected. 

Subsequently a full reconstruction of the missing parts is 

required. Only in this way can the integrity and meaning 

of the sculpture be fully restored, which is imperative for 

its re-use in the religious context. 

Conservation Treatments 

Re-adhering 

In a first step the broken sculpture was glued together. 

As the crack runs diagonally, it was necessary to insert 

pins in order to prevent the upper part from sliding 

down during the gluing process. Therefore two holes 

were drilled vertically into the upper and lower part of 

the sculpture. Stainless steel pins with 10cm length and 

0.8 cm in diameter were inserted and glued to both sides 

with hybrid mortar (Hilti HFX). Additionally, dashes of 

epoxy resin (Akepox 2020) were applied to the fractured 

surface for reinforcement. 

Parvati’s head was also re-adhered using the same epoxy 

resin applied in a small drilled hole acting as a kind of 


Lower part of the broken sculpture. 

Photograph by Institute of Conservation, 

University of Applied Arts Vienna. 

Opposite 

Sculpture of Harishankara recovered 

from the debris after the 

earthquake 

Photograph by Suresh Man Lakhe 

227


Top right 

Preparation of the gluing. 

Top left 

Drilling of holes for the pins. 

Bottom left 

Re-adhering of the two parts of the 

broken sculpture. 

Bottom right 

Mechanical cleaning of the surface. 

Photographs by Institute of Conservation, 

University of Applied Arts, Vienna, 

August 2015 

228

“epoxy pin” after hardening. 

Mechanical and Chemical Removal of Deposits 

Deposits were reduced mechanically with spatulas and 

scalpels, whereby hard compacted layers were moistened 

to make them softer. For the further reduction of the 

dark soil layers different solvents including acetone, 

white spirit, ethanol and ammonium hydroxide were 

applied with brushes and cotton buds. The wide range 

of solvents was necessary as their effectiveness fluctuated 

due to the varying composition of the soil layers. In areas 

with high content of oily components an additional lime 

putty poultice was applied. Afterwards all surfaces were 

cleaned with water. 

Pointing and Filling 

For the filling of losses a lime-based mortar mixed with 

local siliceous sands, which correspond to the optical 

properties of the stone, was used 6 . In order to adjust the 

mortar to the color of the stone, the stone powder gained 

during the drilling of the holes was collected and used as 

additional filler. Solely for the pointing of the very thin 

fissures and hairline cracks an adequate cement-based 

mortar 7 was used in order to provide good adhesion to 

the surrounding stone. 

All infills were executed to reach the same level as the 

surrounding stone, embellishment and carving. 

To ensure a homogeneous appearance and to better adjust 

the used mortars to the original surface, the pointed 

joints and infills were retouched using black pigment applied 

in a mixture of acrylic dispersion (Primal SF016) 

and water (mixture 1:7). 

Reconstruction of Missing Parts 

For the reconstruction of the missing attribute a stone 

similar to the original was used. Models for the mace of 

the god were found in the collection of the Patan Museum. 

A sculptor from the Institute’s team produced 

the reconstruction, which was adjusted to the fractured, 

uneven surface without damaging the original. The attribute 

was then adhered to the sculpture using epoxy 

resin (Akepox 2020). 

Conclusion 

In 2015 it was possible to restore the sculpture of Harishankara 

to a satisfactory level. The former crack is hardly 

visible due to the exact gluing and color matching of the 

filling mortar. Also the mortar infills and stone indent 

integrate. The dark layer of offering deposits and dirt 

was massively / to a large extent reduced and the surface 

is now homogenous and unified. The reconstruction 

of missing sculptural details, including the attribute of 

Vishnu, not only completes the figural composition but 

also improves legibility, so that the restored sculpture 

can again serve for worshipping. 

End notes 

1 Wiesner 1976 (1992): 126-127. 

2 Patan Museum Guide 2013: 66ff. 

3 Usually these offerings consist of food (rice, butter, 

etc.), oily substances and Tikka-paste (paste of red or 

yellow pigment). 

4 The material contains a high concentration of silicates 

in foliations surrounded by a very fine grained siliceous 

marble. 

5 Leiner 2010. 

6 Infill mortar: 2 vol. parts slaked lime + 1 vol. part grey 

cement + 4 vol. parts unsifted sand +2 vol. parts stone 

powder + ½ to ¾ vol. parts black pigment, mixed with 

water. 

7 Pointing mortar: 1 vol. part grey cement, 4 vol. parts 

stone powder + ½ vol. part black pigment, mixed with 

water. 

229


Reconstruction of the missing attribute with a stone indent. 

Photograph by Institute of Conservation, University of Applied Arts, Vienna, August 2015 

230


Sculpture of Harishankara after the 

conservation. 

Photograph by Institute of Conservation, 

University of Applied Arts, Vienna, 

August 2015 

231

232 

Bibliography 

Leiner 2010: Leiner, S., Der Pavillion am Bhandarkhal 

Tank, unpublished pre-thesis, Institute of Conservation, 

University of Applied Arts, Vienna 2010. 

Wiesner 1976 (1992): Wiesner, U., Nepal. Königreich 

im Himalaya, DuMont, Köln, 1976 (2. Auflage 1992). 

Patan Museum Guide 2013: Patan Museum Guide, 

Font Traders, Patan, 2013.

Vishveshvara Temple, 1627 

History and Description 

(Niels Gutschow) 

Documentation in photos and drawings

234

History and Description 

The temple was the first to be established by King 

Siddhinarasiṃha Malla in January 1627, eight years after 

he had ascended to the throne of Patan in 1619 as 

a youth. As king of Kathmandu, his father Śivasiṃha 

had wrested Patan from the local mahāpātra rulers. He 

installed a liṅga and dedicated it to the Lord of All, 

Viśveśvara or Viśvanāth. In terms of architectural design, 

establishing a two-tiered temple with an ambulatory of 

20 pillars constituted a revolutionary act. The great royal 

temples, such as the Yakṣeśvara in Bhaktapur (early 15th 

century), and the Caturvyūha (or Cār) Nārāyaṇa temples 

at Kathmandu (1563) and Patan (1565) had followed 

the prototype defined by the Paśupatinātha temple with 

its inner ambulatory on various scales. 

The new temple introduced an outer ambulatory, encircling 

the sanctum (garbagṛha) measuring 403 cm on one 

side of the square. The columned temple measures 715 

cm, which is 54 cm more than the neighbouring Cār 

Nārāyaṇa temple. The placement of the guardian figure, 

Śiva’s mount, the bull, marks the main access from the 

west. The steps leading up to the temple are guarded by 

a pair of lions and guardian deities, Yama and Kuber. 

The sanctum, however, is exclusively accessible from 

the east, the stairs being flanked by a pair of elephants. 

The remaining two doorways contribute to the symmetrical 

layout, but are never opened. The elaborately 

carved doorways are flanked by niches occupied by the 

eight guardians of the universe (aṣṭadikpāla) in the upper 

register, and eight panels of stone featuring Gaṇeśa 

and Mahālakṣmī (west), Annapūrṇā and Umāmaheśvara 

(north), Viṣṇu and Sūrya (east) and Bhairava and a Yogī 

(South). The doorway features the Eight Bhairavas, invariably 

standing on a pair of corpses at the blocks above 

the threshold; in the the wall brackets are eight male deities 

of the śaiva tradition, depicted in the fashion of the 

ancient śālabanjika, with their legs crossed and standing 

in the jaws of aquatic creatures (Makara); and the quarter-round 

panels depict the Eight Mother Goddesses 

(Aṣṭamātṛkā). The lintel ends feature the eight planetary 

deities (aṣṭagraha), with four unidentified four-handed 

deities on either side, enclosed by lotus vine. The bottom 

ends of the outer frames (purātva), colonnettes 

(toraṇthān), U-shaped intermediate element (nāgvaḥ) 

and jambs feature guardian deities such as Sadāśiva and 

Lakṣmī at the jambs and snakes (Nāga / Nāginī) at the 

nāgvaḥ. Durgā appears on the three visible sides of the 

colonnette and pairs of guardians on the outer frame - 

an exceptional location, which can rarely be observed. 

At mid-height the Eight Bhairavas occur again, seated 

and with eight arms. Pointed medallions at the side of 

triple roof moulding on top of the colonnettes bear deities 

such as Rām, Hanumān and various ascetics. In the 

centre of that roof moulding, female deities are placed in 

niches that are framed by pilasters which support tympana 

in miniature form—Maheśvarī in the east, Durgā 

in the south, Umāmaheśvara in the west and Mahākālī 

in the north. These shrine-like niches are supported by 

pairs of snakes under a fivefold snake hood. The lintel 

features even smaller and equally architecturally framed 

niches, five in the west and three in the remaining directions. 

The central niche of the western lintel is occupied 

by a four-headed Durgā, flanked by Kaumārī (on peacock) 

and Mahālakṣmī (on lion), Gaṇeśa and Kumār in 

the outer niches. The entire configuration is guarded by 

a pair of birdmen (gandharva) holding banners. On the 

northern lintel, Durgā appears in the centre, flanked by 

Brahmāyaṇī (on goose) and Mahālakṣmī (on lion), the 

ends being guarded by a pair of dragons. On the eastern 

lintel the central deity is probably Taleju (on horse), 

flanked by Kaumārī and Mahālakṣmī, the ends being 

guarded by fly-whisk bearers, on the southern lintel the 

central deity is Maheśvarī (on bull), flanked by Kaumārī 

and Mahālakṣmī, and the ends are simply shaped with 

lotus scrolls. 

Above 

Vishveshvara Temple: 

Pointed medallion featuring fourarmed 

deity, embedded in temple 

wall. 

Opposite 

Vishveshvara Temple: 

East facade. 

Photo by Stanislaw Klimek, 

August 31, 2015 

235

Vishveshvara Temple 

East side, damaged ground floor. 

Photos by Niels Gutschow, 

August 12, 2015 

236


South side, damaged ground floor. 


August 12, 2015 

237


West side, damaged ground floor. 


August 12, 2015 

Opposite 


South side, detail of damaged 

corner stone. 


August 12, 2015 

238

239


Tympana (torana). Five tympana crowning the intercolumniations 

on each side of the building, twenty tympana altogether. 

Presented here: Four of the five tympana of the South side. 

Photos taken by Ashesh Rajbansh, September 3, 2016 

240


Top right: The fifth of the four tympana of the South side. 


241


Tympana (torana). 


242




243




244


Elevation south. The quarter round panel on the left was 

replaced in 1989; all other details date to 1627, when the temple 

was consecrated. 

Drawing by Bijay Basukala, 2008 

Source: Niels Gutschow, Architecture of the Newars, Vol. II, 2011, 467 

245

Vishveshvara Temple – 

structural repair and retrofit 

concept. 

By seismic engineer Matthias Beckh, 

August 2015 

246

Vishveshvara Temple – 

structural repair and retrofit concept. 

(Base drawings shown are by 

Bijay Basukala.) 

By seismic engineer Matthias Beckh, 

August 2015 

Based on: Niels Gutschow, 

Architecture of the Newars, Vol. II, 

2011, 462 

247

“Vishveshvara Temple – 


concept” 

by seismic engineer Matthias Beckh, 

August 2015 

Based on: Niels Gutschow, Architecture of 

the Newars, Vol. II, 2011, 466 

248

“Vishveshvara Temple – 


concept” 

by seismic engineer Matthias Beckh, 

August 2015 



249


Shoring concept. 

By seismic engineer Evan Speer, 

July 2016 



2011, 463, 

250



By seismic engineer Evan Speer, July 2016 



251



By seismic engineer Evan Speer 



2011, 462 

252

Vishveshvara temple. 

Scaffolding and shoring in progress. 

Photo by Raju Roka, early August 2016 

253


The replacement of the Mahalakshmi 

panel which was lost in theft 

in 2011; carving by Amar Shakya, 

almost complete. 

Photo by Bijay Basukala, 


254

Manimaṇḍapa South 

The Restoration of South Manimaṇḍapa, Patan Darbār Square— 

An annotated on-site report, 24 March to 16 April 2016 

Annex: Overview of restoration activities, April—June 2016 

(Katharina Weiler)

256

The Restoration of South 

Manimaṇḍapa, Patan Darbār Square 

An annotated on-site report, 

24 March to 16 April 2016 

by Katharina Weiler 

Introduction 

The following documentation of the inventory, repair, 

replacement and rebuilding of Patan Darbār Square’s 

lost temples and mandapas provides unique insight into 

historic construction principles and inherited craftsmanship 

but also inspects present-day restoration, conservation, 

and preservation issues. The report highlights 

major steps in the course of the rebuilding of the Char 

Narayan and Harishankara temples, in order to provide 

future generations of craftsmen, conservation architects, 

art historians and the (inter)national community with a 

unique testimony of the loss in the course of the 2015 

earthquake, and the recycling, repair, and replacement 

of old or lost elements. 

At the same time, the annotated report carefully presents 

the changes of values in Newar (re)building history in 

order to contextualize the project within the international 

debate on aspects of authenticity in architectural 

heritage conservation. Historic and, above all, new photographs 

and measured drawings from the workshops 

on site and construction sites at Patan Darbār Square 

illustrate the documentation, with a special focus on the 

work of the craftsmen involved in the repair and reconstruction. 

History 

Since the early 18th century, at least, the South 

Manimaṇḍapa and its northern counterpart, the 

(North) Manimaṇḍapa (“Pavilion of Jewels”), marked 

the entrance to the steps leading to Maṅgahiṭī, the deep 

fountain at the northern end of the Patan palace originating 

in the Licchavi era (7th century). 

From the beginning, the two mandapas that are located 

at the northern side of the Royal Palace in Patan, Keshav 

Narayan Chowk, were used as communal space for social 

gatherings, an informal trading post, and a place to 

prepare religious rituals and festivals. 

The South Manimaṇḍapa appears to be older than the 

Manimaṇḍapa, which is dated 1701 according to an inscription. 

Whereas the Manimaṇḍapa has served as 

the place for astrologers and priests to determine Newar 

festival dates, e.g., the auspicious moment for initiating 

the annual festival of the rain god Rato Matsyendranath, 

and as the coronation site for Patan’s kings, the South 

Manimaṇḍapa functioned as municipal weighing 

house, where market prices were fixed. 

A Manimaṇḍapa (Nev. maḍu), exclusively a Nepalese 

feature of urban architecture, is an elaborate form of a 

public, communal arcaded platform constructed and 

maintained as a means of earning merit by anybody 

who can afford to do so. Already in the late 18th century, 

Capuchin monk Father Giuseppe mentioned in 

his account the great amount of “large square varandas, 

well built, for the accomodation of travellers and 

the public” 1 in every town of the Kathmandu Valley. 

The building type consists of a square (or slightly rectangular) 

platform protected by a roof that is supported 

on sixteen columns. The number of columns bestows 

upon the Manimaṇḍapa the colloquial name “sohra 

kuṭṭa”,or“sixteen legged.” 

From an early photograph taken by Clarence Comyn 

Taylor ca. 1863, we learn about the appearence of the 

two mandapas at Patan Darbār Square in the second half 

of the 19th century. They were each built on a rectangular 

brick plinth, measuring approximately 4 x 5 meters, 

equipped with wooden floorboards. In each case, 

a multi-layered decorative timber cornice was borne by 

twelve intricately carved outer wooden pillars resting on 

timber base beams. The hipped roofs of the one-story 

buildings – clad with terracotta tiles – were borne by 

Opposite 

View of the two Manimaṇḍapa , 

Manimaṇḍapa (right) and South 

Manimaṇḍapa (left). 

Photograph taken ca. 1863 by Clarence 

Comyn Tayler. Description in 

Taylor’s List of pictures: ‘No VIII. 

View from a window of the principal 

reception room in the Palace 

at Patun. Stone temple of Krishna 

in the back ground to the left, and 

temple of Mahadeo on the right. In 

the foreground is an enclosure with 

steps leading down to a “Hittee” 

or fountain’. This photograph is 

reproduced as a woodcut in James 

Ferguson’s History of Indian and 

Eastern Architecture, 1910, Vol 1, 

fig 158. 

Courtesy of National Geographic 

Society 

1 

Father Guiseppe: An Account of the 

Kingdom of Nepal. (...) Asia Society of 

Bengal, 1790, 307-322. 

257

Patan Darbār Square, looking 

east towards the northern wing 

of the palace and the two mandapas. 

A brick wall is built between 

the southern columns of South 

Manimaṇḍapa and one western 

opening. 

Photo by Dr. Kurt Boeck, 1890 

knee walls rising above the cornices and supported by 20 

ornate wooden struts. 

In addition, four pillars inside the halls supported the 

cross beams. Carved wooden god-windows and blind 

windows punctuated the upper level brick masonry. 

Taylor’s photo also testifies to the mandapas’ modification 

in the 19th century, i.e., waist-high planking between 

the northern columns, brick walls in two of the 

three eastern openings of South Manimaṇḍapa, and the 

installaiton of planks between North Manimaṇḍapa’s 

eastern columns. This situation lasted at least until the 

end of the 19th century, as documented in a photo published 

by Kurt Boeck in 1898 in which brick walls are 

also visible between some western pillars. 

Both mandapas survived the earthquake of 1934. Two 

photographs taken by Mary S. Slusser in 1970 show that 

by that time, the plankings and brick walls had been 

removed. The wall that had originally surrounded the 

stepwell at its northern, southern, and eastern side, at 

some point in history had been extended in such a way 

that it partially enclosed the mandapas. The figurative 

roof struts, many of which were lost between the 1970s 

and early 21st century, are still evident in Slusser’s photos. 

The cornice of North Manimaṇḍapa fell prey to some 

renovation activities prior to the 1970’s. On the occasion 

of King Birendra’s coronation in February 1975, minor 

repair was undertaken and the older timber flooring was 

replaced with stone slabs after the filling of the plinth 

with rubble. This action caused the decay of the bottom 

ends of the central pillars and the pairs of crossbeams. In 

the late 20th century, most of the struts were replaced 

by plain timber struts. In 2010, again, the plinth was 

repaired in the course of the renovation of the walls of 

the Maṅgahiṭī. 

258

South Manimaṇḍapa 

In the early 1960s, the South 

Manimaṇḍapa was provided with 

a grill. 

Source: Guiseppe Tucci, Rati-lila, 

1969, 34. 

259

South Manimaṇḍapa, east (back) 

side. 

Photo by Mary S. Slusser 1970 

260

South Manimaṇḍapa, west side. The planking and brick walls 

that were installed in the 19th century have been removed. The 

wall that originally surrounded the stepwell at its northern, 

southern, and eastern sides has been extended in such a way, 

that it partially encloses the mandapa on the north. 

Photo by Mary S. Slusser, 1970. 

261

Top Left 

Back (east) sides of North Manimaṇḍapa and South 

Manimaṇḍapa, with the Maṅgahiṭī in the foreground. 

Photo by Stanisłav Klimek, September 2009 

Top Right 

The ruins of the two Manimaṇḍapas, immediately after the 

earthquake. 

Photo by Suresh Lakhe, April 25, 2015 


The two Manimaṇḍapa plinths, cleared of rubble. 

Photo by Raju Roka, August 2015 

262

North Manimaṇḍapa, South 

Manimaṇḍapa, amd Maṅgahiṭī. 

Ground/plinth level plan. 

Source: Raimund O.A. Ritterspach: 

Water Conduits in the Kathmandu 

Valley, 1994 

263

264

Carpentry and woodcarving- 

A Living Heritage 

Unlike its southern neighbour India, Nepal has never 

been colonized. In India, concepts such as tradition, 

originality, and authenticity have figured as contested 

notions in a dynamic field of tension ever since the 19th 

century when the Archaeological Survey of India was 

founded by the British. These concepts were negotiated 

by colonial agents (British and Indian), postcolonial Indian 

protagonists, and an international community of 

conservationists. Recently, postmodern conservation architects 

have begun to display an inclination to reflect on 

the concept of authenticity in heritage preservation by 

focusing on its relation to new understandings of validity 

based on, for example, non-physical essence and spirit 

(including creative re-creation and craft traditions). 

As mentioned earlier, a Department of Archaeology was 

established in Kathmandu as early as 1953, modelled on 

the Archaeological Survey of India. However, Nepalese 

archaeologists and conservation architects have never initiated 

discussion on authenticity in architectural heritage 

conservation, nor have international experts in the field 

of conservation. The authenticity of workmanship and 

living traditions, suggested in the Nara Document on 

Authenticity (1994), has rarely attracted the attention of 

professionals in the field of conservation in Nepal, and 

the creative hands behind such craft traditions remain 

vaguely delineated. With this in mind, we should have 

a closer look onto the relevance of craftsmanship for the 

rebuilding of Patan’s architectural heritage in post-earthquake 

Nepal not least with a view to foregrounding the 

skills of carpenters and wood carvers. In our case, the 

living traditional knowledge systems play a major role in 

defining the authenticity of cultural heritage, and even 

in recreating what is lost. 

One of the landmarks in the consultation process in the 

framework of the reconstruction of South Manimaṇḍapa 

and Manimaṇḍapa is the assembly of master carpenters 

(Nev. Silpakār) wood carvers (Nev. Kijyami) from Bhaktapur. 

These craftsmen from the ethnic group of Newars 

bring the experience and skills in defining solutions to 

bear on the problems of the restoration project. Retrofitting 

actions are based on traditional technology and 

historic materials, in this case Sal wood. “Intangible” 

aspects of conservation such as inherited craftsmanship 

are given special attention in the present documentation 

because these aspects of authenticity have received little 

attention in the past. 

In the Kathmandu Valley, the Newar Buddhist subgroup 

of carpenters, Hastakār (Nev. Sikarmi) – who are named 

Shilpakār in Bhaktapur, still inherit their trade. In this 

stratified society based on caste membership, a carpenter 

is born as such. The majority of the craftsmen occupied 

with the rebuilding of the damaged architectural heritage 

at Patan Dārbar Square come from Nãsaḥmanā, a 

traditional quarter with a cluster of carpenters in Bhaktapur. 

They started learning their trade from their fathers 

or uncles as children or adolescents. They are representatives 

of the Sikarmi caste and take up and perpetuate 

an unbroken tradition. This hereditary background is 

instrumental in authenticating their creations. Although 

the term “hereditary” refers to the fixity of social function 

rather than expertise, all of them are highly skilled and 

much of the responsibility of repair and restoration falls 

to this small number of craftsmen. Their individual skills 

may depend upon the financial resources of the respective 

project and on whether the budget enables them to 

invest the time necessary to achieve the highest possible 

quality. The reproduction of meaningful iconographical 

details has to be appreciated in terms of the performance 

of Newar woodcarvers who are sons of the woodcarvers 

whose ancestors created the originals. In fact, by wishing 

to escape the narrow boundaries of caste and due to the 

average low income of a carpenter, the younger generation 

is often refusing to take up the traditional family 

trade and is yearning for better-paid jobs. Meanwhile, 

other skilled craftsmen have been trained in workshops 

where they become familiar with the craft tradition. 

Opposite 

Top Row (from left) 

Machaman Shilpakar, Hari Prasad 

Shilpakar, Krishna Sundar Chauguthi 

Middle Row(from left) 

Bal Krishna Shilpakar, Tirtha Ram 

Shilpakar, Pushpa Lal Shilpakar 

Bottom Row (from left) 

Prem Shilpakar, Pratap Shilpakar, 

Shyam Krishna Shilpakar 

265

Clockwise From Above 

Bijay Basukala, site manager of 

the reconstruction work, making 

a sketch of a South Manimaṇḍapa 

window; taking an inventory of 

colonnettes of Harishankara Temple 

with Tirtha Ram Sholpakar; 

giving artistic advice to Hari Prasad 

Shilpakar. 

266 

The power of seeing and drawing Newar 

architecture 

Bijay Basukala acts as a conservation architect and site 

manager for the South Manimaṇḍapa, Harishankara 

temple and Charnarayana temple reconstruction works. 

In 1992/93 Basukala was member of an extended team 

that surveyed a number of temples and Buddhist monasteries 

in Patan (Vambāhā, Jyābābahī, Guitabahī) within 

the context of the Patan Conservation and Development 

Programme, funded by the German Technical Cooperation 

(GTZ). The inventory of potential monuments in 

Patan was concluded in 1995 with measured drawings of 

the Kvābāhā and Kṛṣṇa Mandir. 

Measuring and studying an object or a built structure 

even developed his ability to design new buildings in the 

Newar vocabulary, with measured drawings providing 

the necessary grammar. Since the early 1990s, he has 

designed a number of neo-Newar temples and replicas 

of caityas. 

Since the mid-1980s Bijay Basukala had learned from 

Robert Powell to produce images of architectural details 

in a mixture of techniques by water colouring drawings 

done in ink. Later, he made pencil drawings on transparent 

paper in addition to line drawings in ink. Over 

a period of 25 years Bijay Basukala reached a high level 

that stands out in South Asia and beyond, for he has 

also worked in Cambodia, Mongolia and Orissa. He has 

developed a sense of art that goes beyond his proficiency 

as draughtsmen. 

In autumn 2005, Basukala started further surveys in 

order to fill in the gaps in the overview of Newar architecture 

from the beginning to the present time. He 

has contributed with his detailed drawings to numerous 

publications by different authors, for example Niels 

Gutschow (Nepalese Caitya (1997), Sulima Pagoda, 

together with Erich Theophile (2003) and Architecture 

of the Newars (2011)) and Mary S. Slusser (The Antiquity 

of Nepalese Wood Carving (2010)). From 2011 

to 2013 Basukala documented two lithic Shikara temples 

on Bhaktapur’s Darbar Square. One of these temples 

totally collapsed on 25 April 2015 while the second 

remains, however standing in a critical position (Bijay 

Basukala, Niels Gutschow, Kishor Kayastha: Towers in 

Stone. Śikhara Temples in Bhaktapur — Valsalā and 

Siddhilakṣmī. Kathmandu: Hīmal Kitab) )2014). 

As site manager for the reconstruction activities that 

mainly include restoration and repair of historic building 

elements, but also replication of missing parts, Bijay 

Basukala gives advice to the craftsmen and delibeates on 

each working stage.

Re-creating and copying 

In an account on “Wood Carving In Nepal”, published 

in 1892 in the Journal of Indian Art, the author Surgeon 

R. Shore, I.M.S., then serving as the Residency Surgeon 

in Nepal, describes the carving process as follows: “The 

design of the work to be executed is sometimes drawn 

out on paper, but this is by no means usual. The head 

workman finds that the picture he carries in his own 

mind is sufficient for him.” 2 What is mentioned here 

is a crucial working process of wood carving still used 

today. In the framework of a craftsmanship that today is 

labelled “intangible heritage,” or “living tradition,” the 

value of this design step could be characterized as the 

authenticity of the creative mind. This aspect becomes 

even more important in the course of the rebuilding of 

architectural heritage in Nepal after the earthquake of 

2015. In this context, wood carving gains an important 

role for the repair and restoration of fragmented wooden 

architectural elements that are being recycled in an effort 

to maintain as much of the original material as possible, 

i.e., to be geared to international conservation standards. 

Even though the wood carvers who work at the reconstruction 

site have adopted the English word “copying” 

into their language, neither the Newar nor Nepalese 

language knows such word. One could thus be misled, 

thinking that the practice is alien to Nepalese craftsmen, 

which of course, it is not. Almost all of the carving 

practice in the course of the rebuilding of South 

Manimaṇḍapa is about copying. The Nepalese or 

Newārī language does not know a word for “original,” 

either. In the Newar language, an equivalent for “original” 

may simply be “pulān”, “old”. In this logic, “copy” 

is “nhugu,” “new.” The Newars find various expressions 

for what in English would simply be translated as “copying”: 

“buttā kiyegu,” litteraly meaning “to carve the pattern”, 

or “wa soyā, thva dayekegu”/ “wa soyā, thva kiigu” 

(I look, I make this/carve this) or “thathe kiigu” (I carve 

like this), or “nakal yegu,” which could be translated as 

“to copy.” 

In fact, “looking” and “carving” are based on age-old 

patterns and design that are handed down from one generation 

to the next, creating something new in the form 

of the old. In the Nepalese context, these expressions are 

reduced to the description of a handicraft process, free of 

any negative connotation such as “fake.” 

2 

Surgeon R. Shore: “Wood Carving In 

Nepal,” 10-12, in: Journal of Indian Art, 

4:33–37 (1892, January), 11. 

267

Tirtha Ram Shilpakar replicating a 

beehive pattern (Nev. hāchẽ). 

Some Notes on the Woodcarvers and 

Carpenters Working on the Rebuilding and 

Reconstruction of the Temples and Mandapas 

at Patan Darbār Square 

Patan, 5 April 2016 

Tirtha Ram Shilpakar (“Kancha”), 

woodcarver and carpenter, age 38 

Tirtha Ram Shilpakar lives in the quarter of Tekha 

Pukhu, Bhaktapur, with his wife, son and daughter. He 

started working as a carver fifteen years ago and at some 

point specialized in carpentry. He learned carpentry and 

carving skills at Surendra Joshi’s workshop in Bhakatpur. 

In the late 1980s, Surendra Joshi was involved in 

the restoration project for Chyaslin Mandap in Bhaktapur. 

Tirtha Ram’s elder brother, Ganga Prasad Shilpakar, 

works as carver, too. His father Janak Lal Shilpakar 

was also a wood carver and together with him, he has 

been working with Bijaya Basukala for a long time. 

Hari Prasad Shilpakar, completing 

the first of two columns of 

Harishankara Temple that have 

to be replaced in the course of the 

building’s reconstruction. As he 

carves the beehive pattern (Nev. 

hāchẽ) one of the originals that survived 

the earthquake lies in front of 

the new column and serves as the 

model for replication. 

Hari Prasad Shilpakar, woodcarver, age 41 

Hari Prasad Shilpakar lives in Nãsaḥmanā, Bhaktapur, 

together with his family. He learned carving at Dattatreya 

Wood Carving Institute. Having started carving 

at the age of twelve, he has been skilled in carving for almost 

30 years. He has been working in the Patan workshop 

since December 2015. At the time of the interview 

he had just finished carving one of the two main outer 

columns of Harishankar Temple that have to be fully 

replaced as the originals are heavily damaged. Carving 

the column took him one and a half months. 

268

Bal Krishna Shilpakar, carpenter, age: 48 

Together with his family, Bal Krishna Shilpakar lives in 

the area of Dudhpati in Bhaktapur. Carpentry has been 

his family trade for generations. His father, Krishna 

Bhakta Shilpakar, worked as a carpenter for the Bhaktapur 

Development Project in the early 1980s. He has been 

working at the workshop in Patan since February 2016. 

At the time of the interview he was working on joining 

two pieces of a broken cornice of South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Bal Krishna Shilpakar repairs the 

lotus frieze of Harishankara temple. 

Prem Shilpakar, Woodcarver, age 32 

Prem Shilpakar lives in Nãsaḥmanā, Bhaktapur with 

his wife and children. He has been working as a carver 

for sixteen years and worked as a carpenter before he 

learned carving at a local carving workshop. Carpentry is 

his family trade. At the time of the interview, his father 

was preparing the chariot for Bisket Jatra, Bhaktapur’s 

extensive annual urban ritual celebrating the beginning 

of the New Year (Nep. Bikram Samvat). Approximately 

one month before the beginning of the festival, the 

chariot is assembled on Taumadhi Square in Bhaktapur. 

According to Prem Shilpakar, his family isused to be one 

of five families making the chariot but now only his family 

continues this tradition. His father’s brother, Ramesh 

Shilpakar, also works as woodcarver. Prem Shilpakar 

feels that the skill of carving and carpentry is not highly 

valued and is considered a low level work by Nepalese 

society. He joined the workshop under the aegis of 

KVPT in December 2015. At the time of the interview 

he was copying a window column (Nev. tvalãthã) of 

South Manimaṇḍapa in order to replace the damaged 

original. The surviving counterpart served as the model 

for the new element. 

Prem Shilpakar, transferring the 

pattern of a window colonnette 

(Nev. tvalãthã) for South 

Manimaṇḍapa with a pencil onto 

a new piece of timber. 

269

Left 

Machaman Shilpakar, restoring 

a window colonnette of South 

Manimaṇḍapa. 

Right 

Krishna Sundar Chauguthi, carving 

the delicate design of the lowest 

cornice layer with lotus flower 

alternating with bells pattern (Nev. 

palesva) for South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Machaman Shilpakar, woodcarver, age 44 

Machaman Shilpakar lives in Nãsaḥmanā, Bhaktapur 

with his wife, son and daughter. He has been working as 

wood carver for 25 years. He learned the skill from his 

father Dhana Bahadur Shilpakar. His 20-year old son, 

Manish Shilpakar, is following in his footsteps as a wood 

carver. Machaman Shilpakar has a carving workshop 

at home where he used to make statues, carved picture 

frames, and other handicrafts (like most of the carvers 

from Bhaktapur) - items which were taken to China by 

local traders specialized in handicrafts. However, this 

business has not been lucrative since 2015. Six months 

after the earthquake, in October 2015, he joined the Patan 

workshop behind Mulcok. At the time of the interview 

he had decided on how to restore a window colonnette 

(Nev. tvalãthã) of South Manimaṇḍapa that was 

broken just beneath the upper part: recarve the decorative 

upper part and undecorated shaft on the basis of the 

original and reuse the original kalasha design. 

Krishna Sundar Chauguthi, woodcarver 

Krishna Sundar Chauguthi has been working as a wood 

carver for 12 years. He lives in Bhaktapur, Nãsaḥmanā, 

with his family. In his case, woodcarving is not inherited, 

but as a member of the framer’s community, he 

learned carving at a local carving workshop. 

In February 2016, he started working in the workshop at 

Mulcok. At the time of the interview he was carving the 

delicate design of lotus flower (Nev. palesvã) alternating 

with bells (Nev. ghaṇṭa). This piece will replace a 

damaged part of the lowest layer of the cornice of South 


270

Left 

Pushpa Lal Shilpakar carves a deity 

in a renewed part of pillar “MP7”. 

Right 

Pratap Shilpakar copies a beehive 

pattern (Nev. hāchẽ) of a god-window 

of South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Pushpa Lal Shilpakar, woodcarver, age 37 

Pushpa Lal Shilpakar lives in Tekhapukhu, Bhaktapur, 

with his wife, son and daughter. Carpentry/carving has 

been his family trade and both his brothers (Raju Shilpakar 

(51), Bishnu Shilpakar (42)) and his cousins (Punya 

Mangal (33) and Panch Ratna (28)) are working in this 

field. Pushpa Lal learned carving skill at a local woodcarving 

workshop. He has been working in this field for 

twenty-two years and thinks that the carving trade and 

selling carving products has been severely affected by the 

recent earthquake. He has been working with KVPT 

since October 2015. 

Pratap Shilpakar, woodcarver, age 36 

Pratap Shilpakar lives in the quarter of Yāchẽ, Bhaktapur, 

with his family. Being the only person in his family 

who works as carver, he has been working in this 

business for eighteen years. His family was involved in 

making wooden neckties, which was a very popular item 

among tourists. He said they used to get large orders of 

wood neckties from Europe. He joined the restoration 

project in Patan in March 2016. At the time of the interview, 

he was working on a cornice piece for South 


271

Shyam Krishna Shilpakar saws the 

tenon of a restored column. 

Opposite 

Tools. Every craftsman owns his 

own set of tools, custom made by a 

smith from Bhaktapur. 

Shyam Krishna Shilpakar, carpenter and 

woodcarver, age 44 

Shyam Krishna Shilpakar lives in the area of Dudhpati, 

Bhaktapur, with his wife, son, and daughter. He learned 

his carpentry and carving skills from his father and other 

senior members of his family. Shyam Krishna has been 

working in this field for thirty years. For two years he 

worked at the conservation project in Panauti funded 

by the French government. He has his own workshop in 

Bhaktapur, but started working in Patan. 

272

273


South elevation. 

Elevations drawn in AutoCAD by 

Renu Maharjan, April 2016. 

274


West-East section 

Section hand-drawn by 

Bijay Basukala, April 2016. 

275

South Manimaṇḍapa reconstruction 

of ground plan. 

Hand-drawn by Bijay Basukala, 

April 2016. 

Patan, March 2016 

The twelve base stones (Nev. lvahā) 

mark the ground plan and plinth 

of South Manimaṇḍapa in ruins. 

The plinth has to be reconstructed. 

KVPT proposes the rebuilding 

with concealed steel reinforcement 

and a concrete slab concealed 

underground. 

276 

Onsite Report 

Plinth 

On April 25, 2015 both mandapas collapsed completely, 

leaving only their plinths in place and in poor condition. 

As there were no detailed pre-earthquake plans or measurements 

of the North Manimaṇḍapa and the South 

Manimaṇḍapa, sections and elevations had to be reconstructed 

on the basis of the still-existing plinths and the 

surviving wooden elements. Detailed measured drawings 

of the existing ground plan were hand-drawn in late 

2015. At the same time, elevations and a cross-section of 

South Manimaṇḍapa were reconstructed. The data was 

drawn by Bijay Basukala and transferred into AutoCAD 

by architect Renu Maharjan. 

An important reason for the total collapse of the two 

structures in the earthquake of 2015 concerns the foundations 

and plinths, where the foundations and plinths 

were not unified and there was almost no connectivity 

between the timber columns and the stone blocks of the 

plinth supporting them. Among other things, the foundations 

of both mandapas need seismic retrofitting and 

strengthening to ensure that the sixteen pillars bearing 

the load of the heavy upper masonry walls and roofs are 

properly connected to the ground. The Trust has proposed 

to address this, and other seismic concerns, via a 

strengthened foundation and connections which can not 

be achieved using the original materials. This design is in 

accordance with international preservation norms.

While there was general permission given by the Department 

of Archaeology (DoA) to start work on April 5, 

2016, project implementation has been delayed to date 

by ongoing discussions between KVPT and the DoA regarding 

the use of concealed concrete in the foundation 

as a life safety and strengthening measure. Thus while 

work has proceeded on the carved timber elements, the 

work on site remains at a standstill. 

Outer Columns 

Immediately after the earthquake, the mandapas’ timber 

elements were rescued and stored inside the Royal Palace 

compound. In the months that followed, the Trust 

initiated the cleaning and assembling of some timber elements, 

such as the columns of South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Each column was carefully investigated and as much material 

as possible was reused. 

Of the twelve outer columns, eleven suffered some damage 

and one was not able to be repaired. It was decided 

that the twelfth column (“MP 11”) had to be replicated; 

this assignment was given to Indra Kaji Silpakar’s workshop 

in Bhaktapur. The reason for the replacement of 

the original column is that the latter was too weathered 

and had suffered severe damage when it was modified 

for earlier uses. Bijay Basukala created the design for the 

new column, taking various elements from the remaining 

columns as a model. The eleven remaining outer 

columns of South Manimaṇḍapa were restored and repaired 

by the end of March 2016, with while the Trust 

awaited permission for construction. 

It will not be possible to determine the original location 

of each column; however, the corner pillars are identifiable 

as such. The partial damage that was due to the 

waist-high planking between the northern columns of 

South Manimaṇḍapa indicates the original placement of 

these columns. 

Columns’ lower tenons 

The lower tenons of those columns with renewed bases 

will be shaped after the Trust and the Department of 

Archaeology have finalized the design on the rebuilding 

of the plinth, which will determine their final configuration. 

Columns’ upper tenons 

The surviving columns’ upper tenons, one for each column 

connecting them with the above cornice, broke on 

25 April 2015. The tenons and the rest of the column 

used to be of one piece. As all upper tenons were broken, 

they needed to be replaced, each in a way that ensures 

stability in the rebuilding of the structure. To achieve 

this, either a mortise was cut into the shaft of the column 

and a new tenon stuck inside, or the new tenon 

was an integral part of a new upper end of the column. 

Characteristically, a tenon is not in the center of the 

shaft but rather displaced for static reasons, as the columns 

bear the load of the cornice. With this in mind, 

the side of each column side which will face outward 

had to be chosen before renewing the tenon. In the case 

of columns decorated with faces of deities, it was clear 

that the side with the deity would face to the outside. 

In a few cases the decision was difficult; for example, 

the replacement upper part of one column and its tenon 

were left temporarily as a block of wood as it was unclear 

how the tenon should be oriented; discussion was about 

which sides of the heavily weathered original shaft will 

have to face the outside and inside of the Manimaṇḍapa. 

However the column is oriented, the deity of the replaced 

upper part will have to face the outside. 

Patan, 24 March 2016 

Eleven of the twelve outer columns 

of South Manimaṇḍapa are reusable 

and were restored and repaired 

where necessary. The upper tenons 

(left) had to be replaced. No decision 

has been made to date as to 

how to situate the tenon of the 

second column in front. 

277

Top left 

Original base of a column showing 

the mortise which received a tenon 

to connect it to the plinth. 


Top right 

Once it has been decided how to 

orient a heavily weathered column, 

the upper tenon can be completed. 

Shree Shyam Krishna Silpakar 

makes a rough shape using a hand 

saw, before refining the tenon into 

its final form. 



The base of each column will 

remain temporarily as an extra long 

block so it can be adapted once a 

decision is reached on the restoration 

of the plinth. 


Columns’ decorative carvings 

Some deities inhabiting miniature niches on the respective 

sides of the columns, either on the lower part (Nev. 

tau) or just below the upper spacing board (Nev. cakulã), 

and some decorative floral details were for some time 

waiting to be carved. As there are no detailed models, 

e.g. photographs or drawings, they cannot be copied 

from any original. It was decided to design the details in 

analogy to preserved ones. 

Repair and Restoration of Columns 

For the restoration of the eleven outer columns of South 

Manimaṇḍapa, each had to be inspected individually, 

resulting in a range of responses. All the columns date 

from the late 16th or even 15th century and are intricately 

carved, following a classical design pattern. This 

column type differs from the design of the four inner 

columns, and also from the design of the North 

Manimaṇḍapa columns. 

However similar they might be, each column differs 

slightly from the others. With the aims of keeping as 

much not only of the original wood but also of the intention 

of the original designer as possible, and at the 

same time maximizing their structural integrity, each 

column called for a different intervention. Stainless steel 

pins were used in two cases, for example, where the lower 

parts of a column had to be replaced by new elements. 

In the following pages, various examples document individual 

solutions for the repair and restoration of these 

original timber columns. 

278

Patan, workshop 

Hari Prasad Shilpakar, prepares for the carving of the new 

lower part of column “MP 5”. The upper part is already restored 

and provided with a new tenon. 

279

Bhaktapur, Indra Kaji Shilpakar’s workshop 

Master carver Indra Kaji Shilpakar works on the twelveth 

column (“MP11”) for the South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Photo by Bijay Basukala, March 2016 

280


The replica of the twelveth column 

(“MP11”) after its arrival from 

Indra Kaji Silpakar’s workshop 

in Bhaktapur. As work on each 

column for South Manimaṇḍapa 

was complete or nearly complete, 

photographs were taken by 

photographer Ashesh Rajbansh to 

document their condition after 

restoration. The photos show each 

side of each of the twelve columns, 

a total of forty-eight sides. 

Photos by Ashesh Rajbansh 

281

Left 

Patan, 28. March 2016 

Pushpa Raj Shilpakar is busy working 

on the lower part of column 

“MP 3” that is still lacking the 

foliated design of two blank fields. 

He draws a rough sketch to capture 

the proportions and then carves his 

own design. 

Right 


A lotus scroll design has been 

carved into the blank space of 

column “MP3”. 

282

Left 

Column “MP 3”: One side of the 

corner column, before restoration. 

Part of the top iwas broken off, 

along with the entire base. 

Photo by Bijay Basukala, 

October 7, 2015 

Middle 


Column “MP 3”: One side of the 

corner column remains uncomplete 

when Photographer Ashesh 

Rajbansh documents all 48 sides 

of the twelve outer columns: blank 

space is designed to be for floral 

design. 

Photo by Ashesh Rajbansh 

Right 

Patan, 28. March 2016 

Pushpa Raj Shilpakar carves the 

foliated lotus scroll on the lower 

part of column “MP 3”. 

283

Left 

Bal Krishna Shilpakar and Tirtha 

Ram Shilpakar installing a stainless 

steel pin in the tenon of the 

lower part of MP3 while also adding 

wood glue. 


Right 

Bal Krishna Shilpakar and Tirtha 

Ram Shilpakar join the new lower 

part of MP3 to the column shaft. 


284

Top Left and Right 


Column “MP 7”: One side shows 

the original bust of an (unidentified) 

deity, while another presents a 

newly carved copy. 



The bust of a deity is carved in the 

blank field of column “MP 4”. In so 

doing, Pushpa Raj Shilpakar copies 

the bust of the upper column part 

of column “MP7.” 

285

Left 

Side I of the four-sided column 

“MP 7” after restoration. 

Photo (black-and-white) taken by 

Ashesh Rajbansh, March 30, 2016. 

Right 


Detail showing the efforts undertaken 

to restore column “MP 7” 

in order to save as much of the 

original material as possible and 

retain the original design intention. 

Carved timber was added in the 

upper part of the column replacing 

the damaged part (including the 

tenon). 

Holes that had been made for the 

installation of planking between 

the northern columns were repaired. 

286

Above left 


Detail showing the carved timber replacement of a damaged 

section of the upper part of the column and the tenon 

Above middle 

Detail of the restoration of the lower part of column “MP 7”. 

Right 

Side II of the four-sided column “MP 7” after restoration. 

Photo (black-and-white) taken by Ashesh Rajbansh, 30 March 2016. 

287

Left 

Side III of the four-sided column “MP 7” after restoration. 

Photo (black-and-white) taken by Ashesh Rajbansh, 30 March 2016. 

Above middle and right 


Restoration details of column “MP 7”. Carved timber was 

added to fill holes made for the installation of planking between 

the northern columns. 

288

Left and Right 

Side IV of the four-sided column 

“MP 7” after restoration. 

Photo (black-and-white) taken by Ashesh 

Rajbansh, 30 March 2016. 

289

Top and Bottom Left 


Prince Harry visited the carving 

workshop in Patan. The photos 

show Rohit Ranjitkar (left), 

Prince Harry, and a wood carver. 

Prince Harry draws the design of a 

repaired spacing plate on the new 

timber.and carves the design. 

Via Twitter Kensington Palace: 

“The Apprentice, Kathmandu style. 

#HarryinNepal tries his hand at 

restoring ornate wooden carving”. 

Source: https://www.royal.uk/princeharry-visits-nepal-day-2 

Photos: ekantipur, 20 March 2016 

Right 


Tirtha Ram Shilpakar inspects 

the shape of the replicated timber 

element of a repaired spacing board 

(Nev. cakulã). 

290

Spacing plates (Nev. cakulã) 

All twelve spacing plates at the columns (Nev. cakulã) 

broke and had to be repaired. The repair of the spacing 

plates, which are located on top of each outer column, 

was completed in March 2016. New timber and glue 

were used for their repair. 

The lotus leaf design (Nev. palehaḥ) of the new timber 

elements repeats the pattern of the original parts. The 

pillars’ square-cut holes testify to the various sizes of the 

original tenons of the columns. These tenons, however, 

broke during the earthquake and had to be replaced. It 

is therefore not possible to match each spacing board 

to its original pillar. But the decentralized holes indeed 

provide information about the orientation of the spacing 

boards, since the broader part always faces the outside. 

As mentioned earlier, the tenons, too, are displaced 

for static reason as the columns are load-bearing. In this 

sense, it is at least possible to allocate each corner pillar 

to a corner spacing board. To complete the work, either 

the new tenons will be shaped in accordance with the 

holes of the spacing boards or the original holes will have 

to be reshaped to fit to the tenons. 

Capitals (Nev. metha) 

All capitals (Nev. metha) were saved after the total collapse 

of the Manimaṇḍapa. The capital of each of the 

four corner pillars is composed of two parts that are assembled 

at an angle. One end is characterized by a projecting, 

capital-like lintel, the other by a beam end-like 

part with kũsuru heads (Nev. dhalĩmvāḥ). Some of the 

eight components of these corner capitals exhibited minor 

damage but did not necessarily need replacement or 

repair. Each has a weathered side and a well-preserved 

side—indications for the correct reassembly in the 

course of rebuilding. 

The other eight pillars are crowned by full capitals. They 

are intricately carved on both sides, each of them showing 

the same kind of decoration: in the centre a halo 

face (Nev. kirtimukha) facing the outside, and a stylized 

lotus (facing the inside). It is generally understood that 

the “face of glory,” which is in fact the hybrid face of a 

lion equipped with horns, devours a pair of snake bodies. 

In the case of South Manimaṇḍapa, however, the kirtimukha 

does not devour snakes, but instead spouts forth 

lotus leaves. The design is in each case individual, and in 

one case there are kirtimukhas on both sides of the capital. 

The capital brackets are decorated with lotus scrolls. 

Of the eight capitals crowning the South Manimaṇḍapa’s 

outer columns, two had to be restored. In the course of 

the reuse and restoration of the two damaged capitals, 

one lotus design was copied from a salvaged one and the 

other was designed by a carver. 

It may be possible to situate the spacing boards and the 

capitals using the shapes of the holes which conform to 

the original, lost tenons. However, it will not be possible 

to do the same with the capitals. 

Above 


Tirtha Ram Shilpakar seeks to 

achieve a smooth transition from 

original to replaced carving after 

consulting with Pratap Shilpakar. 

Left 


The twelve spacing boards had to 

be repaired in individual manner. 

Their square-cut holes testify to 

the various formats of the original 

tenons of each column. 

291


Carved beam end-like part of the 

corner capitals,with kũsuru heads 

(Nev. dhalĩmvāḥ). 

Documentation of both sides of 

two corner capitals that are designed 

to be assembled at an angle. 

In each case, one side is weathered, 

the other well preserved. 

292

Above 


Two capitals of the outer columns 

were damaged to such an extent 

that they had to be extensively 

restored. 

Left 


The two capitals (Nev. metha) after 

restoration. Intricately carved on 

both sides, each of them shows the 

same kind of decoration: a halo 

face (Nev. kirtimukha) (facing 

outside), and a stylized lotus (facing 

inside); the kirtimukha does not devour 

snakes, but spouts lotus leaves 

instead. The lintels are decorated 

with lotus scrolls. The design is in 

each case individual. In both cases, 

the lotus-side was heavily damaged 

and had to be replaced by a new 

carving. In one case, the side with 

the kirtimukha could be reused, in 

the other, one half is original and 

the other has been replaced. 

293


Shaft detail at one of the four inner 

columns in situ. 

Photo by Niels Gutschow, 2008 

294

their original columns. 

Top 

Traditional Newari assembly of a post, lintel and beam. The 

Newari expressions for the various elements are: 1. ilohan 

(dressed natural stone), 2. lakansin (wooden threshold), 3. 

than (wooden post), 4. mehta (wooden bracket/capital), 5. nina 

(lintel), 6. dhalin (beam), 7. sa (peg). 

Source: Wolfgang Korn: The Traditional Architecture of the 

Kathmandu Valley, 1976, 106. 

Inner Columns 

The four inner columns that used to support the joists 

remain intact. Due to rising damp, the lower sections of 

the four inner columns were rotten. These load-bearing 

elements will need special reinforcement. 

Top and Bottom Right 


The four inner columns have to 

be restored. Their lower parts are 

rotten, must be replaced, and need 

special reinforcement. 

295

Column Comparison 

From left to right: 

Patan, Ukubaha, ca. 1100 BCE; 

Kathmandu, Kasthamandapa, 

14th century; 

Bhaktapur, Manimaṇḍapa at 

Nasahmana, 16th century; 

Patan, Sarasvati Sattal at Darbar 

Square, 17th century 

Opposite 


Poster “Patan Darbār Square, Nepal 

- MaṇiManimaṇḍapa Column 

Restoration,” printed by the Kathmandu 

Valley Preservation Trust in 

July 2016. 

Implementation of column restoration 

was by the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust, in Cooperation 

with the Department of Archaeology, 

with the support of the German 

Foreign Ministry, the Prince Claus 

Fund (Netherlands), the Himal 

Initiative Deutschland (Bamberg, 

Germany) and South Asia Institute, 

Heidelberg. Restoration of Eleven 

Columns and Replacement of One 

Column - October 2015 - April 


Woodcarvers: Master Carver 

Indrakaji Silpakar, Indra Prasad Silpakar, 

Tirtha Ram Silpakar, Surya 

Silpakar, Puspa Silpakar, Macha 

Man Silpakar and Hari Prasad 

Silpakar, Under the Guidance of 

Bijay Basukala. 

Photos by Ashesh Rajbansh 

296

297

Top Left 

Pushpa Raj Shilpakar carves the 

intricate design of lotus flowers 

alternating with bells (Nev. palesva) 

for the lowest layer of South 

Manimaṇḍapa cornice. 


Top Right 

Lowest layer of South 

Manimaṇḍapa cornice: Pratap 

Shilpakar does not closely copy of 

the original element but instead 

draws his design by looking and 

creating something similar. 



Bijay Basukala points at the “hand” 

(Nev. lhāḥphvaḥ) that is connected 

to a replaced element of the mouse 

teeth (Nev. chũvā) layer with a 

tenon. 


Cornice 

The South Manimaṇḍapa cornice consists of four layers: 

lotus flower (Nev. palesva) alternating with bells (Nev. 

ghaṇṭa), snake (Nev. nāḥg/nāga), beam ends with stylized 

kũsuru heads (Nev. dhalĩmvāḥ), and mouse teeth 

(Nev. chũvā) ending in protruding hand-shaped elements 

(Nev. lhāḥphvaḥ). The repair and restoration of 

the broken multi-layered cornice was completed by the 

end of April 2016. 

The tentative assemblage of the restored salvaged fragments 

shows that the south side (facing the palace) and 

the west side (facing the square) in the main survived 

the structure’s collapse, while the remaining sides that 

fell into the stepwell broke into pieces. All four corners 

had to be repaired as their joints were broken, and some 

“hands” had to be replaced. The restoration of the original 

wooden parts used timber for the replacement of 

decorative elements that were carved as well as for the 

repairs with joints. The joints recall traditional carpentry 

techniques; however, some are highly inventive, based 

on the experience of the carpenters. Stainless steel bars 

reinforce somewhat delicate parts, either parts with large 

cracks or even new joints. The use of steel is considered 

a compromise that allows the retention of as much of the 

original material as possible. It is also used in reinforcing 

repaired but still fragile parts of the construction. 

298

Top left 

Tentative reassembly of the 

restored, renewed, and repaired 

elements of the timber cornice 

of South Manimaṇḍapa . New 

timber carving and reinforcement 

through steel bars was necessary to 

maintain as much of the original 

material as possible. 



New timber carving and reinforcement 

through steel bars was 

necessary to maintain as much of 

the original material as possible. 

The photos show a part of the lowest 

layers, lotus flower alternating 

with bells (Nev. palesva), seen from 

front and back. 

299

Top 


Reinforcement using steel plates 

allowed the retention of as much 

of the original material as possible. 

The photo shows the repair of a 

corner of the lowest layers. 



Reinforcement using steel plates 

and repair with new timber elements. 

The photo shows the repair 

of a part of the second layer. 

300


New timber carving and reinforcement 

with steel plates were used 

in order to retain as much of the 

original material as possible. The 

photos show parts of the lowest 

layers, lotus flower alternating with 

bells (Nev. palesva), the second 

layer, snake (Nev. nāḥg/nāga), (not 

in the picture: the third layer with 

beam ends with kũsuru heads (Nev. 

dhalĩmvāḥ)) and the mouse teeth 

(Nev. chũvā) layer. 

301


Inventory of the four god-windows: 

The windows (1 to 4, clockwise) 

need minor restauration effort. The 

carved gods looking outside the 

openings have been lost. 

Windows 

The four god-windows (Nev. dyaḥjhyāḥ) of the northern, 

eastern, southern and western side of South 

Manimaṇḍapa were reassembled after the earthquake, 

with three of them in a fragmented state. The fragments 

of the intricately carved wooden windows of the knee 

walls were examined by Tirtha Ram Shilpakar and Bijay 

Basukala, who also measured them in order to make 

drawings; a rough sketch and highlights mark the window 

elements that are to be renewed because they are 

lost, damaged or rotten. The windows needed a minor 

restoration effort, which was completed by the end of 

April 2016. 

Interestingly, all four of these early 15th-century windows 

testify to the reuse of decorative timber columns: 

Reminicent of the design of the four inner columns of 

South Manimaṇḍapa, the decorative upper parts of the 

columns reused for the four window sills may date from 

the 11th to 15th centuries. 

The loss of the busts of deities that looked outside the 

window openings are a conservation challenge; as there is 

no documentary evidence, the gods cannot be replaced. 

This means that the window openings’ original purpose 

is lost, and that in this regard they have lost their meaning. 

302

Top left 

The fragments of the four intricately 

carved wooden god-windows 

(Nev. dyaḥjhyāḥ) were roughly 

sketched by Bijay Basukala. The 

highlighted parts of window No. 1 

mark the elements that have to be 

replaced. 


Top right 

Pushpa Raj Shilpakar copies the 

design of a sill that divides the 

opening of the window because it 

got lost due to the earthquake. 

Patan, 2016 

Middle left 

Prem Shilpakar copies the counterpart 

of the colonnette of window 

No. 1 which is deteriorated and will 

be replaced. 


Middle right 

Machaman Shilpakar recarves two 

different replacements (one for the 

broken shaft of a colonnette and 

one for the lower part of another 

colonnette) on one piece that will 

be divided in the end. 



Like the window sill of window 

Nr. 1, all four early 18th century 

windows testify to the reuse of 

decorative timber columns for the 

window sills. 


303

Opposite 

Inventory of the surviving roof 

struts of South Manimaṇḍapa. 

Six struts remain which feature 

fragmented deities with lost forearms. 

The four corner struts with 

“corner horses” (Nev. kũsalaḥ) are 

complete. 


304 

Roof Struts 

South Manimaṇḍapa’s roof was originally supported by 

twenty struts. Sixteen struts represented certain deities in 

distinct postures, holding their characterizing attributes 

in their two hands. Each forearm of the bipartite arms 

was connected to the figure’s upper arm with iron hinges. 

Already before 25 April 2015, some of these struts 

had been lost. The four corner struts which supported 

the Manimaṇḍapa’s heavy roof and spiritually protected 

it represent two pairs of female and male “corner horses” 

(Nev. kũsalaḥ) –– hybrid creatures in the form of horned 

and winged lions. Ten struts survive, among them the 

four corner struts. The cross-legged, garland-wearing 

deities in diaphanous garments on five of the struts have 

lost their forearms, including the attributes that were 

important parts of their iconography. Despite this fact, 

two can be identified as they are riding on their typical 

mounts: Mahālakshmi on a snake, and Unmatta Bhairava 

on a lion. The iconography of one strut, showing 

Hanuman, the central figure of the Hindu epic Ramayana, 

is different compared to the others. Furthermore, 

Hanuman is constructed in a different manner, which 

becomes evident if one studies his remaining upper arms 

that seemed to be of one single part (there remain no 

holes as the forearms are missing). The strut may have 

originally belonged to some other building and was possibly 

recycled at the South Manimaṇḍapa. 

The conservation of the struts will turn out to be a difficult 

issue: Which strut or deity is missing remains unclear 

due to the lack of pre-earthquake documentation. 

In this context, a replacement of the lost struts is impossible. 

At the same time, the lost forearms and attributes 

of the remaining deities cannot be reconstructed using 

3-dimensional models. This situation will likely be resolved 

with the installation of blank timber struts and 

fragmented carved struts,- in other words, a fragmented 

state of repair. 

Roof 

The roof will be reconstructed with new materials since 

there is nothing left that can be reused. 

Open Questions 

In the South Manimaṇḍapa, the rebuilding is taken as an 

opportunity to reconfigure the structure’s latest state of 

repair to return as closely to the historic design as possible, 

as there have been more recent changes to the building 

made in the course of renovations. However, it will 

be a matter of discussion to determine which historic design 

is the. There is only one historic photograph, taken 

by Clarence Comyn Taylor in 1863, that guides us. As 

discussed, this photo does not show the original design, 

but a mandapa that was already altered. And a significant 

question must be addressed regarding the future shape of 

the surrounding wall of the stepwell.

305

Top 


At ground level, the plinth of the 

Pati being excavated and trash 

cleared from site. 

April 25, 2016 

Annex 

Overview of restoration activities, 

April—June 2016 


Stone mason chiseling the bead 

(nagol) for the base of the plinth. 



Former Prime Minister Mr. Puspa 

Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) inaugurates 

the rebuilding of the Pati in 

a ceremony by laying a foundation 

brick at the northeast corner on 

April 25, 2016. This inauguration 

initiated the overall reconstruction 

of monuments and houses that 

were destroyed by the earthquake 

of April 25, 2015. 

306


Brick pavement that was a later addition 

was removed and excavation 

was carried out around the Pati’s 

plinth to analyze the condition of 

the foundation. Original brick and 

stone beads (nagol) were discovered. 


307

Top 


Detailed measurement of different 

sized windows continued on site as 

a basis for making drawings and 

other documentation. Three types 

of multipart windows: Central window, 

side window, blind window. 

Sketch by Sirish Bhatt 




Tirhta Ram Shilpakar and Bal 

Krishna Shilpakar assemble one 

of the four central windows after 

damaged parts have been replicated 

or repaired. 


308


Hari Prasad Shilpakar replicates the 

deity of a central window’s cornice 

(kulan) from an original. 


309

Left 


Documentation of a 15th- century 

column. The drawing was printed 

as a poster by the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust in Summer 


Drawing by Bijay Basukala, 

Spring 2016 

Right 

Detail of Drawing 

Opposite 


Bal Krishna Shilpakar restores 

the top of one of the four inner 

columns. 


310

311


Bal Krishna Shilpakar repairs and retrofits a capital (metha), 

using bamboo pics. The decision to repair the capital was made 

on second inspection. In sum, three capitals had to be repaired. 


312


Bal Krishna Shilpakar repairs and retrofits one capital of the 

inner columns of the Pati. 


313


A metal fence has been installed 

surrounding the construction site 

of both mandapas. 


314

Manimaṇḍapa North 

The Restoration of North Manimaṇḍapa, Patan Darbār Square— 

An annotated on-site report, 24 March to 16 April 2016 

(Katharina Weiler) 

A Brief History of the Emergence and Development 

of the Kirtimukha Motif in Nepal 

(Niels Gutschow)

316

The Restoration and Rebuilding of 

the North Manimaṇḍapa, Patan 

Darbār Square 

History 

Even though the construction date of the North 

Manimaṇḍapa (“Pavilion of Jewels”) cannot be confirmed, 

the structure likely dates to the seventeenth century. 

Daniel Wright quotes a source and names Bir Deva 

as the Licchavi king who built the mandapas, along with 

the tank and watercourses. Renovation of the site was 

carreid out under Raja Yoganarendra Malla in ca. 1701, 

and a throne was installed. 

At some point, the timber cornices fell prey to the modification 

of the building and were replaced in brick. 

On the occasion of King Birendra’s coronation in 1974, 

the North Manimaṇḍapa was altered significantly. The 

timber planking was replaced by stone slabs, and the 

ventilated plinth was filled with rubble. When the step 

well, Maṅgahiṭī, was renovated in 2010, minor repairs 

were made to the plinth of the North Manimaṇḍapa. 

century shape despite several alterations in the centuries 

that followed its contruction, will serve as the model for 

the reconstruction of its norhtern counterpart. Historic 

photographs of the North Manimaṇḍapafrom the 19th 

and early 20th centuries will also inform the design. 

The design will maximize the reuse of salvaged historic 

elements and will use appropriate historic materials to 

replace unsalvageable or missing pieces. 

The North Manimaṇḍapa will also require state-of-theart 

seismic strengthening as the immense load of the knee 

walls and roof have to be supported by the 16 timber 

columns above the plinth. Better connectivity throughout, 

including between the columns and the plinth and 

foundation, is imperative for life safety and durability. 

Existing Condition After the 2015 Earthquake 

The North Manimaṇḍapa ground floor beams were rotten 

even before the earthquake. 

All of the 16 timber pillars were partially damaged in the 

2015 earthquake, and their upper tenons were broken. 

One column broke into four pieces. 

The column capitals (metha) are all in good condition. 

An entire set of new beams and crossed beams need to 

introduced as the existing were damaged by wet rot and 

smaller sections were used in the last renovation. 

The timber conices were already lost before the 1970s, 

and the same is true for the original terracotta cornices 

Nothing salvageable is left from the roof. 

Proposed Rebuilding 

The South Manimaṇḍapa, which kept its early 18th- 

Opposite 

View of the North Manimaṇḍapa, 

seen from the east. Detail of a photograph 

taken ca. 1863 by Clarence 

Comyn Tayler. 

Courtesy of National Geographic Society 

317

North Manimaṇḍapa 

North east corner. Former planking has been replaced by stone 

slabs, and the original wooden multi-layered cornice has been 

replaced in brick. 

Photo by Mary S. Slusser, 1970. 

318


North east corner. The wooden beams above the plinth have 

been replaced. The plinth has been faced with new brick. 

Photo by Rohit Ranjitkar, 2010 

319

320

Left, Top 

North Manimaṇḍapa, 

north-west corner 

Left, Bottom 

South-west corner of North 

Manimaṇḍapa, seen from northwest. 

The base is damaged. 

Right 

South-west corner of North 

Manimaṇḍapa, west side. 

Corner stone is out of plumb. 

Opposite 


The state of the collapsed pati 

indicates that the structural timber 

columns could not withstand the 

earthquake due to the poor connections 

between the timber columns 

and the stone bases, and between 

the stone bases and the foundation. 

Photo by Rohit Ranjitkar, 

April 26, 2015 

321


Elevations of plinth on all four 

sides, showing rotation of corner 

stones in the course of the 2015 

earthquake. 

Documentation by Wolfgang Korn, Padma 

Sundar Maharjan, Sabina Tandukar 

and Monica Bassi, November 2015 

322

Top left 

Details of joints at the southeast corner 

and middle of timber base beam. 

Drawing by Wolfgang Korn, November 

2015 

Top Right 

Elevation and section of plinth 

corner, seen from west. 

Documentation by Wolfgang Korn, 

Padma Sundar Maharjan, Sabina 

Tandukar and Monica Bassi, 

November 2015 


Southeast corner of plinth, showing 

joint at corner base beams. 

Photo by Rohit Ranjitkar, 

October 2015 

323


Field measurement of column and 

capital for use in making measured 

drawings. 

324

Top left 

North Manimaṇḍapa: 

Krishna Sundar Shilpakar copies 

the pattern from one cornice layer 

of the South Manimaṇḍapa, which 

is the model for the new cornice of 

the North Manimaṇḍapa. 


Top right 

A woodcarver replicates the lion 

heads (sinkhwa) and cornices that 

are missing from the past at the 

workshop in Bhaktapur. 


Bottom left and right 

The middle column is repaired by 

adding a new piece of timber onto 

the base. 


325


Woodcarver adding the lost part of 

the column, step by step. 

May 24 & 27, 2016 

326

New piece of sal wood has been 

added on the top of central column 

and replication of lost carving work 

is ongoing. The sal procured for 

the north pati is being stored at the 

carving workshop in Bhaktapur. 

May 29 & June 03, 2016 


The damaged parts of the column 

are being replaced with new timber 

pieces and the carved elements are 

replicated based on the existing. 


327



are being replaced by new timber 

pieces and the carvings are 

replicated based on the existing. 


328


are being replaced by new timber 

dutchmen and the carved elements 

are replicated. 


329

Top 


Woodcarver replicating the details 

of the existing carvings on repaired 

column. The mortise is made on 

the top of the existing column to 

add a new tenon. 





are replaced by new timber pieces 

and the carved elements are replicated. 


330


Woodcarver replicating the details 

of the existing carvings on a 

replacement piece in a repaired 

capital. 


331


The existing damaged capital 

(meth) during fabrication and joining 

of a new piece in preparation 

for carving. 


332

A Brief History of the Emergence and 

Development of the 

Kirtimukha Motif in Nepal 


Overview — levels of symbolism 

Kirtimukha is essentially a lion’s face, albeit as a hybrid 

representation, with horns and, eventually, with winged 

arms. The lion has been, from earliest times, a symbol 

of royalty and as such made its way from the Etruscan 

culture to be absorbed by the Greeks, the Romans, and 

the Sassanians, and may have parallel roots in Central 

Asia and among the Scythian tribes. This is not the place 

to trace origins of the lion in South Asian Art. The lion 

appears in pairs in the 2nd to 1st-century BCE caves 

of Pithalkora. Reduced to its face Kirtimukha is seen 

neither at Pithalkora or at Kanheri, but appears in wide 

variety at the late 5th century caves of Ajanta (fig. 2) and 

at Ellora, at 6th century caves of Badami, at 7th century 

temples of Bhubaneswar and at 8th-century temples of 

Pattadakal and Aihole, India. 

Given this sequence, the earliest representations of 

Kirtimukha must have come from the cave temples of 

western India. In all examples “kirttimukha masks [are] 

spouting forth crocodilian and exuberantly florescent 

forms”, as Walter M. Spink wrote in his seminal account 

of the Ajanta caves in 2009. “Florescent” refers to “flowering 

and budding”, although the “mask” spouts forth 

strands of beads, which are either absorbed by pairs of 

Makaras, held by flying spirits (vidyadhara) in the fashion 

of garlands, or in case of a frieze, by the neighbouring 

masks. Spouting and absorbing has to be understood 

as the act of inhaling and exhaling as the ultimate representation 

of life. 

The beads, however, have to be identified as water drops, 

as Gautam Vajra Vajracharya established in the first 

meaningful article on the subject in 2015. Kirtimukha 

thus turns into one of those cloud borne celestial creatures 

such as Makara (the crocodilian amphibian creature), 

the birdmen Gandharva or Kinnara. Bestowing 

water, the face or mask of Kirtimukha turns into a motif 

that spreads across various architectural elements: it occupies 

the bottom or top of a column or pillar, the capital 

bracket, and the top of cow-eye motifs. 

1 

The earliest known Kirtimukha appear on the corner 

pillar of an open miniature shrine, on friezes of a Shikhara 

temple within the inner compound of the Pashupatinath 

temple (fig. 1) and on the corner pillars of a former 

miniature shrine at Panauti – all of them dedicated 

to Shiva, dated to the 6th or 7th centuries. The head has 

ears, whiskers, traces of the mane framing the cheeks, 

but no horns. The mouth spouts forth strands of beads 

or simply or simply seven to ten parallel strands without 

any indication of beads. 

2 

At about the same time Kirtimukha came to crown the 

niches of Buddhist votive structures, caityas. There, 

Kirtimukha spouts forth strands of beads or snake bodies 

which often serve as the niche’s frame. The strands 

end up in the mouth or tail of a Makara, the tail of a 

lion, or simply in profuse foliage. On Licchavicaityas, 

Kirtimukha is rarely horned but crowned by an elongated 

crescent and the cheeks tend to dissolve into foliage. 

Teeth are rarely seen and occasionally the mouth is 

1 

Pashupatinatha, Kirtimukha on a 

string course of a Licchavi-era 

Shikhara temple in miniature form, 

ca. 6th–7th centiury. 

2 

Ajanta, Kirtimukha on a column of 

the porch of cave 1, dated 469–473 

CE 

333

3 

Panauti, Kirtimukha on the 

stylized bracket of the secondary 

lintel, Indreshvara temple, southern 

portal, ca. mid-13th century. 

4 

Patan, Mahabauddha, Kirtimukha 

on a capital-bracket of the porch, 

ca. 1600. 

334 

beaked. 

3 

Very few Kirtimukha such as those of the 11th-century 

tympanum of Yetkhabaha in Kathmandu, the lintel of 

the early 13th-century western portal of the Indreshvara 

temple in Panauti (fig. 3), the aedicule of 13th century 

Vishveshvara temple in Panauti and the jambs of the 

southern portal of the early 15th century Yaksheshvara 

temple in Bhaktapur illustrate its occurrence without 

winged arms in the seven centuries spanning from the 

9th to the 15th centuries. Likewise, the Kirtimukha faces 

above or below the pot motif of the columns in stone of 

porches of 16th-century Shikhara temples replicate the 

age-old model. 

It is to this model that the Kirtimukha faces of the Manimandapa 

are faithful. They keep spouting either beads 

or lotus foliage in ever new variations, testifying to the 

wide range of patterns the 14th century wood carvers 

mastered. 

4 

The face of Kirtimukha preserves its characteristics in 

the second half of the 16th century, but at the jambs 

of the the Char Narayana temples in Patan (1565) and 

Kathmandu (1560), at the Gokarneshvara temple and at 

the northern portal of the Yaksheshvara temple in Bhaktapur 

the mask is framed by a pair of winged arms. The 

hands grasp lotus vine that is spouted forth and the central 

pendant develops into coils of lotus foliage. 

The small faces of Kirtimukha above the dentils of the 

portals’ lintel spout forth lotus foliage, but in a single 

case it spouts forth a pair a coiled snake bodies. The 

heads are erect and turned away from the face. This is 

probably the first example that follows the Yetkhabaha 

model dated to the 11th century. The Kirtimukha on 

the lintel level of the main entrance of the Mahabauddha 

temple in Patan (fig. 4), most probably dated to the 

legendary completion of the temple in 1601, presents a 

rare exception. The hands emerge from behind profuse 

lotus foliage which in a way replaces the feathered wings. 

5 

Since the early 17th century, Kirtimukha on a variety of 

architectural elements such as columns, capital-brackets 

tympana, the lintel, the jambs and even the colonnettes, 

are in almost all examples equipped with winged arms, 

the hands clutching snake bodies. 

The Vishveshvara temple on Patan’s Darbar Square, dated 

to 1627, alone features nine varieties. Among these 

are two examples which demonstrate the emergence into 

a new era, initiated by King Siddhinarasimha Malla. At 

a tympanum, Kirtimukha displays his upper and lower 

jaws without spouting forth foliage or snake bodies. The 

arms turn away from the face holding upright a pair 

of snakes. The jaws are framed by a pair of beaked leogryphs 

(shardula) and a pair of dragons. On the corner 

tympanum Kirtimukha is even carved in full relief, 

clutching the tails of a pair of dragons. From that time 

onwards dragons attain a prominent role on tympana 

and capital-brackets, replacing the snake as the prominent 

aquatic animal. 

The development culminates with the elaborate Kir-

timukha of the tympanum above Chusyabaha’s principle 

entrance (1673) (fig. 5). With large glaring eyes, 

fiery eyebrows and whiskers, the curled mane of the lion 

framing the cheeks and a crescent on top the face follows 

largely the ancient formula. New and unique is the 

replacement of the horns by upright antlers. The arms 

are not winged but turned upwards to clutch a pair of 

snakes, the bodies of which are entwined with the bodies 

of a pair of winged dragons, their claws clasping the 

ocean’s pearl – an obvious reference to the Chinese tradition 

of dragons that belong to the realm of the waters. 

6 

By the end of the 17th century, the depiction of Kirtimukha’s 

face underwent one more decisive change. 

Almost all facial elements such as eyes, nose, ears and 

mouth are transformed into lotus vine or leaf-pattern. In 

a few prominent cases at Musyabaha (fig. 6) or Laganbaha, 

both in Kathmandu, teeth remain identifiable, and 

horns supporting the crescent motif with lotus pattern. 

The arms emerge from behind lotus scrollwork in an almost 

inconspicuous fashion. 

5 

Kathmandu, Chusyabaha; Kirtimukha 

on the tympanum above 

the principal doorway, north wing, 

dated to 1673. 

6 

Kathmandu, Musyabaha; Kirtimukha 

on the jamb on the jamb 

of the doorway, south wing, last 

quarter of the 17th century. 

335

7 and 8 

South Mandapa 

Metha nos. 1,2 

9 and 10 

South Mandapa: 

Metha nos. 3, 4 

South Mandapa 

Capital-brackets (metha) nos. 1,2 

Striking is the loop that encloses the head (figs. 7 and 8): 

A continous flow of beads is at the same time spouted 

forth and swallowed up — very similar to the early 15th 

century representation of Kirtimukha at the Indreshvara 

temple in Panauti (fig. 3). The heads are not crowned; 

the whiskers foliated and the corners of the mouth only 

indicated and the spouted lotus foliage made to frame 

the panel. No. 1 is the only example of the cheeks featuring 

no mane. 

Capital-brackets (metha) nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 

All of these faces are crowned by a crescent, supporting 

a jewel-like object, circular (no. 7, fig. 13) or oval in 

shape — probably a lotus flower. As a peculiarity, on 

nos. 3 and 6 (figs. 9 and 12) an S-shaped curve divides 

the whiskers from the Cupid’s bow and ends up behind 

the nasal wings. The mouths with seven teeth and a pair 

of fangs spout forward a variety of foliage. Similar to the 

face on the column these Kirtimukha are framed halolike 

by fiery elements in two layers behind which in one 

case (no. 6, fig. 9) emerges lotus vine. 

336

11 and 12 

South Mandapa 


13 and 14 

South Mandapa 


Capital-bracket (metha) no. 8 

One face differs considerably in size (fig. 14). Being 

about ten percent smaller, more space is provided for the 

spouted strands of foliage and the halo-like frame gains 

three layers of fiery elements. 

337

15 

Stylized double roof moulding at 

the top of a pillar, incorporating 

Kirtimukha. 

338

South Mandapa 

Capital-bracket (metha) 

One of the eight capital-brackets (metha) crowning the 

pillars on the four sides. On the outside, the central 

panels (measuring 11.5–13) enclose Kirtimukha’s face 

(fig.16), on the inner side fully opened lotus flowers in 

an almost perfect circle (fig. 17), as usual slightly broader 

than high. 

The projecting bracket-like ends of the capital are defined 

by a variation of a volute with a pair of circular 

cushion-like elements featuring circular lotus blossoms. 

A band of beads encloses dynamic scrollwork of lotus 

vine. 

Pillar (Opposite) 

The stylized double roof moulding at the top of a pillar, 

incorporating Kirtimukha (fig. 15). 

The double roof mouldings at the top, bottom and at 

the upper third of the column incorporate rectangular 

panels featuring foliage, scrollwork, a fully opened lotus 

flower, a peacock, a gander facing a snake, hybrid 

creatures, a bust of a godling, or unidentified deities 

in niches. Only one panel at the top encorporates Kirtimukha’s 

face with its usual features: Upright ears with 

bent horns, cheeks with borders of curls, distinct corners 

of the mouth, revealing seven teeth. The mouth spouts 

forth foliage on each side and a central foliated pendant. 

Unusual is the fiery top above the horns. Ten curved 

strands hover above the head, framing a foliated central 

motif. 

16 and 17 

South Mandapa 

Both sides of a capital-bracket 

(metha) with Kirtimukha and 

lotus. 

339

Krishna Temple, 1637 

(Kṛṣṇa Mandir) 

Investigation and Research of Krishna Temple in Patan Darbar (2015–2016) 

(Neeta Das)

1 

Krishna Temple 

The temple was damaged by the earthquakes of 2015. 

All photographs have been taken by the team unless otherwise stated. 

342

Investigation and Research of Krishna 

Temple in Patan Darbar (2015–2016) 

Inspection Team (Kolkata, India): 

Neeta Das, conservation architect 

(project head and co-coordinator) 

Ramesh Bhole, conservation architect, (stone expert) 

Sumanta Roy, Mascon (conservation contractor) 

Pinaki Ghosh, Caltech (conservation engineer) 

Condition Survey 

Overview 

The Krishna Temple (Kṛṣṇa Mandir) (Figs. 1, 2) was 

designed with three-storeys with 21 pinnacles. Narrative 

friezes wrap the structure. As per architectural historian 

Niels Gutschow, the Krishna Temple “redefined the 

scale and materials of the architecture of the Kathmandu 

Valley, for its impact was greater than any other single 

structure and its influence can be seen in 21 temples built 

over the subsequent 120 years. (...) It takes the shaft of 

the North Indian shikhara tower and reinterprets it with 

the stepped quality of its own multi-tiered temples, culminating 

in a pyramidal top.” 1 The structure raises on 

a modest plinth (fig. 5). Open and covered spaces alternate 

on the first and second floor levels where “the 

devotee moves through a virtual forest of 40 columns” 

(fig. 6). In order to provide stability to the structure, the 

central shrine dedicated to Bālagopāla, Kṛṣṇa’s form as 

the youthful cowherd, was raised to the first level. The 

temple was consecrated by King Siddhinarasimhmalla 

on 23rd February, 1637. 

Despite the fact that only the second floor — the Shiva 

temple level — was damaged by the earthquake in 2015, 

the whole Krishna Temple was closely inspected for 

damage. 

First floor 

The first floor — the Visnu temple level — is worshiped 

every day, morning and evening, by devotees and the 

2 

Elevation of 

Krishna Mandir. 

Source: 

Niels Gutschow, 

Architecture of the 

Newars (...), Vol. II, 

2011 

Shikhara tower 

with garbha griha 

Second floor (Shiva 

temple level) 

First floor 

(Visnu temple level) 

Ground floor level 

Plinth 

1 

Niels Gutschow, Architecture of the 

Newars (...), Vol. II, 2011, 530f. 

343

3 

Krishna Temple, Roof plan, 

scale 1:100 


the Newars, Vol.II, 2011, 548 

4 


Section, scale 1:100. 

Drawing by Bijay Basukala and 

G. Joshi, 1994. 



344

5 


Ground floor plan 



6 

First floor plan 

(Visnu temple level) 



7 

Second floor plan 

(Shiva temple level) 



8 

Shikhara plan with garbha griha. 



345

There are a few problems that can be addressed at the 

Visnu temple level (fig. 6). Probably due to inconvenience 

during the rains, tin sheds (fig. 10) have been erected 

in between the chattris, reducing the aesthetic quality 

of the façade. The other addition to the main structure 

is the iron pipe railing (fig. 9). However, both of these 

may have helped in preventing the damage to this level 

due to the earthquake. 

The temple seems to have been repaired at some earlier 

date. All the stone joints have been repointed and stone 

plastic repairs done. This has been done with a grey cement-like 

material (fig. 11). 

9 

Vishnu temple level: Iron pipe 

railing. 

10 

Vishnu temple level: Temporary 

tin roof 

11 

Vishnu temple level: Cement repairs 

on the ceiling of a chattri 

Second floor 

The maximum damage seems to be at the second floor, 

the Shiva temple level. If one looks at the plans (figs. 2, 

4 and 7), the structure at this level is the most delicate 

and the heavy roof (fig. 3) is supported on slender colonnades 

(fig. 14). It is probably for this reason that the 

maximum damage was caused to this level. 

Due to the lateral movement during the earthquake, the 

columns have moved out of plumb (fig. 12); old repairs 

have come out; the columns, brackets, and bases of the 

columns have been damaged (figs. 16–22, 24); the window 

frames and key stones have been dislodged (fig. 18); 

and some stones, especially at the corners of the domed 

womb-chamber (garbha griha) have been severely damaged. 

priests. It opens every morning for morning aarti (vesper 

service) and bhajans (singing of devotional songs). The 

priest worships the deity and the temple is again closed 

till evening. The same process is repeated after sunset. 

The daily use by the locals keeps the temple vibrant and 

alive and reduces deterioration due to neglect and disuse. 

But it causes some wear and tear to the building and 

especially carved stones. 

Recommendation for repairs 

As suggested by Gutschow the temple was probably designed 

to withstand earthquakes. If one looks at the arrangement 

of stones carefully, the garbha griha is octagonal 

in plan with a domical roof (fig. 8). The roof rests on 

a ring beam which in turn rests on lintel beams. 

The lintel beams are transferring the load to stone (1). 

In all the four corners the stone (2) is left largely free of 

the structural system, probably designed to ‘fail’ during 

346

an earthquake. It is only these four corners and columns 

that have been most damaged but their repair is simpler 

since they do not support the upper structure (figs. 15 

and 23). 

It is thus recommended that the inner shrine be filled 

and thereby supported by sand bags so as to reduce the 

load from the other supporting structures. The corner 

columns can then be easily removed, repaired, and reinstalled 

in place. 

A major problem is the colonnade, where several columns 

have been dislodged and are out of plumb (fig. 

12). It is recommended that the columns be realigned 

and to prevent furhter damage a pipe railing, like the 

one below (fig. 9), is installed all around the external 

colonnade. 

The same is recommended for the corner stones (11) 

(fig. 22) below the columns (1). The window frames 

would be similarly removed, repaired, and installed in 

place and the window grill (jaali) re-installed. All the 

joints would later be filled and finished in matching and 

compatible mortar. 

It is recommended that before starting the work, the 

temple is cleaned of the bird droppings and the archaeological 

material properly stacked. It is also recommended 

that tell tales are attached to major cracks to monitor 

them. 

It is also important to brace the unstable pieces of stone 

to prevent damage and accidents. It would be advisable 

to do a petrography test and mortar analysis of the existing 

samples of stones and mortar to get a better and 

more compatible understanding (figs. 26–28). 

12 

Krsna Degah, Patan: Out of plumb 

columns 

13 

Krsna Degah, Patan: Damaged 

column shaft on second floor level 

14 

External view of second floor 

(Shiva level) 

347

15 

Krsna Degah, Patan: Second floor 

plan showing major earthquake 

damage 

348

Right 

16 

Damaged stone carving 

17 

Dislodged and stone out of plumb 

stones in corners 

18 

Fallen key stone and inclined jamb 

stone 

19 

Old repair damaged and stone 

dislodged 

Left 

20 

Displaced brackets 

21 

Damaged capital 

349

Left 

22 

Damaged corner stone 

Right 

23 

Conjectural stone plan detail of 

second floor (Shiva level) 

Left 

24 

Displaced curved stone brackets 

Right 

25 

Typical second floor level elevation 

350

26 

Stone type no. 1: Probably basalt. 

27 

Stone type no. 2: Probably yellow 

sandstone. 

Left 

28 

List of stone sizes. Three to four 

types of stones are used in the 

construction of the temple. 

351

Annex 

Krsna templa, restoration project. 

Assessment of damaged caused by 

the 25 April 2015 earthquake. Second 

floor level, (Kāśī Viśvanātha 

Sanctum), elevation east, scale 1:10. 

Rendered black: Gaps. Rendered 

grey: Surface of stone flaking off. 

The Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust. 

Survey: Bijay Basukala, 28 October 2015 





Sanctum), elevation south, scale 

1:10. 






352





Sanctum), elevation west, scale 1:10 




Preservation Trust 






Sanctum), elevation north, scale 

1:10. Rendered black: Gaps. Rendered 

grey: Surface of stone flaking 

off. 




353

29 

Krsna Temple with scaffolding, 

Patan Darbar Square, view towards 

West. 

Photograph by Katharina Weiler, 

September 2016 

354

Sundari Cok 

Sundari Cok East Wing 

(Niels Gutschow)

356



Historical Significance of Sundari Cok Palace 

The Sundari Cok courtyard is an outstanding example 

of Malla-period palace architecture, situated at the 

southeast corner of Patan Darbar Square. Its prominent 

position at the major crossroads of the city makes it an 

important public monument, while its extraordinary 

courtyard enclosure — never before opened to the public 

— makes it the most significant structure within the 

former palace complex. Commissioned in 1628 by King 

Siddhinarasimha Malla, the courtyard served primarily 

as the stage for the Tushahiti, a sunken carved stone 

stepwell. While little is known of the exact interior layout 

and function of the building itself, the rooms on the 

ground floor level were likely used for rituals related to 

Tushahiti. 

The courtyard’s intimate scale gives it a unique atmosphere, 

while its intricately carved doors and windows attest 

to an extraordinary artistic legacy. Since its construction 

in the 17th century, the building has undergone a 

series of interventions, retaining stylistic features from 

various time periods. The building was initially a freestanding 

two-storied structure. The pillars of the court’s 

dalan arcades and the wall brackets of the principal entrance 

represent 17th century traditions. 

In the 1730’s, the building received an additional floor, 

distinctive triple-bayed windows, and an ambulatory 

running along the courtyard façade. The introduction of 

dragon-shaped struts toward the square and a screened 

gallery facing the court is a departure from earlier building 

practices and anticipates a change in style that became 

more common later in the 18th century. 

With minimal written documentation and few historical 

photographs, the reading of history from the physical 

layers of the building itself becomes important. Adding 

to the complexity of reading the building is its history of 

repeated earthquakes and cyclical renewal, resulting in 

the blurring of traces of physical history. For this reason, 

KVPT has undertaken extensive documentation and 

analyses of the building’s existing conditions. 

East wing 

The east wing is notable for facing the Bhandarkhal garden 

to the east of the courtyard, of which little is known. 

The building collapsed eastward during the 1934 earthquake, 

leaving the east wing in ruins. There is no historical 

evidence that tells us anything about the design 

of the 18th century east façade except for 19th century 

drawings that suggest the introduction of a terrace on 

the top floor. 

The existing east façade, designed and constructed after 

the 1934 earthquake, contrasts starkly with the rest of 

the building in its lack of ornament and use of ordinary 

bricks (mā āpa). This façade breaks with the conventions 

of Newar architecture by introducing upright rectangular 

windows. The elongation of the facade to the north, 

covering the gap between Sundari Cok and Mulcok, 

may have originated earlier. 

Existing Condition 

The order of the façade with seven windows each on first 

and second floor levels is carefully designed with a central 

range of three windows, flanked by two windows on 

each side at intervals of 2.20 and 2.50 meters. Two doors 

provided access at the northern end and a few roughly 

framed niches house sculptural fragments. Almost all of 

the brickwork of the ground floor has eroded due to rising 

damp, and one window frame is entirely lost. 

The east façade was entirely rebuilt in 1936 using lowfired 

mud bricks (mā āpa). There has been no structural 

repair since then, but the façade has undergone minor repairs 

such as cement repointing of bricks on the ground 

floor level. This has caused severe spalling in several locations. 

Many brick surfaces are completely lost: in some 

cases, half or more of the mass of the individual bricks 

Opposite 

View of Patan Palace from the rear 

garden. This sketch (detail) shows 

what appears to be a three to five 

bayed terrace in the East Wing of 

Sundari Cok. Inscribed on reverse: 

“Rajah Sidhi Nur Singh’s tank and 

Summer House, in the Garden at 

the rear of the Darbar, Patan—constructed 

AD 1647.” Drawing by 

Henry Ambrose Oldfield, ca. 1853. 

British Library, London (Oriental and 

India Office Collection) 

357

is gone. The upper two floors were not pointed with cement 

and thus retain some mud mortar. 

The building has no plinth and rests instead on the 

ground plane of the rear garden area. 

Proposed Restoration 

The existing bricks on the façade wall will be preserved 

and reused wherever possible. Since parts of the ground 

floor wall require new bricks, several wall sections will 

be dismantled and reconstructed with both existing and 

salvaged ma apa bricks in mud mortar. 

Areas with cement mortar will be re-pointed with traditional 

yellow mud mortar. Severely damaged and missing 

bricks will be replaced with salvaged bricks matching 

the surrounding brick size and coursing. 

A new stone plinth has been designed to provide a continuous 

base around the entire building, as is typical in 

Newar architecture. 

December 2013 

358

Sundari Cok 

Ground floor and first floor plans, scale ca. 1:200 

CAD presentation by Anil Basukala, 2008, on the basis of 

measured drawings by Hans Bjønness and his team, 1995. 

359

Sundari Cok 

View of the east façade from the rear garden near Bhandarkhal 

Tank. Due to the shortage of funds and building materials, 

regular bricks were used and simple windows installed. 

The smaller building to the left is an addition dating to the 

1970s when the east wing was used as a temporary jail. 

Photo by Stanisław Klimek, 2008 

360

Sundari Cok 

Design for the east wing’s facade facing east, presented by the 

Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust in December 2013 as the 

outcome of a five-year long debate. 

The roofscape is restored to its presumed 18th century shape, 

the ground floor facing bricks are replaced while on the first 

and second floors the brickwork is simply repaired. The window 

frames are repaired, and the openings closed by a wooden grill. 

A plinth is added at the base of the wall. 

361

Sundari Cok 

The courtyard facade of the east wing. The brickwork of the 

first floor had partially been replaced ca. 1936. The projecting 

balcony had collapsed in 1934, and the latticework was replaced 

ca. 1936. 

Photograph by Stanislaw Klimek, August 2008 

362

Sundari Cok 

The central window of the east wing’s courtyard facade is 

stored on the ground floor and awaits repair and reconstitution. 

Photo Raju Roka, September 2015. 

363

Sundari Cok 

The brickwork of the east wing's ground floor facade facing east 

had eroded to a large extent. Replacement using mud mortar 

started in October 2013. The newly installed 18th-century 

doorway had been recovered from the eastern facade of Mulcok, 

northern end and relocated to serve as the principal entrance of the 

courtyard from the area of the Bhandarkhal tank. 

Photograph by Raju Roka, November 1, 2013 

364

Sundari Cok 

The brickwork of the east wing’s ground floor facade facing east 

had eroded to a large extent. Replacement using mud mortar 

started in October 2013. 

Photograph by Raju Roka, November 16, 2013 

365

Sundari Cok 

The east wing collapsed almost in total in the 25 April 2015 

earthquake. 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, April 27, 2015 

366

Sundari Cok 

The east wing’s courtyard facade after the earthquake. The ground floor with its two doorways 

and the central arcade remained intact. The first floor’s central part with a large window and 

two small ones collapsed in the eastern direction, leaving almost no debris in the courtyard. 

Photograph by Rohit Ranjitkar, April 27, 2015. 

367

Sundari Cok 

East wing, east façade, before rebuilding. 

Photo by Ashesh Rajbansh, November 18, 2015 

368

Sundari Cok 

Courtyard, view towards east wing, before 

rebuilding. 

Photo by Ashesh Rajbansh, November 18, 2015 

369

Sundari Cok 

The Patan Royal Palace Conservation Project 

2006–2014 

Within the context of the Patan Royal Palace Conservation 

Project, established by the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust in 2006, the southernmost of the sequence 

of palace courtyards, Sundari Cok, (also written 

“Chowk” in colloquial Nepali) was studied for a period 

of three years. A Historic Structures Report was presented 

after three years of investigations by Liz Newman and 

Lumanti Joshi in 2009. 

Implementation started in 2009 on the northern wing in 

order to remove the roof which had, probably since the 

1930’s, covered both the southern wing of Mulcok and 

the northern wing of Sundari Cok. The individual roofs 

were restored to their original configuration with a rafter 

spacing and a layer of roof tiles in conformity with the 

norms of Newar Architecture. The restoration / rehabilitation 

of the west wing followed in 2010, funded mainly 

by the World Monument Fund (New York). The ivory 

window is replicated by a team of the University of Applied 

Art (Vienna) since 2012 and will be installed in 

September 2016. In May 2010, work started also at the 

east wing in the context of excavations to allow water 

again to feed Tusha Hiti. The Hiti was restored by the 

team of the University of Applied Art (Vienna) in summer 

2010, and the face of veneer bricks of the ground 

floor arcade was renewed. 

The south wing had been restored in 2012 with funds 

from the German Embassy. This allowed to finally regain 

the first floor space which was appropriated by the 

neighboring shops. 

Lack of funds stopped restoration of the east wing, which 

was planned for 2013. The replacement of parts of the 

much eroded ground floor wall, however, was initiated 

in October 2013. Funding did not improve in 2014. A 

small contribution by the German Embassy, granted in 

October 2014 ,allowed the plinth to be restored and the 

pavement to be replaced in the area between the east 

wing and the Bhandarkhal tank. In early 2015 funds 

to continue the restoration of the east wing were not in 

sight. 

The earthquake 

The earthquake caused the total collapse of the upper 

two storeys of the east wing’s rear facade, and the central 

portions of the first and second storeys of the quadrangle’s 

facade. The eastern end of the south wing’s courtyard 

facade was slightly distorted and the ground floor 

wall of the facade facing the square was bulging at its 

northern end. 

The fragments of the first floor windows could easily be 

salvaged and stored at the courtyard’s arcades. 

Rebuilding 

Seed money for immediate rebuilding was granted by 

the German Embassy in early October 2015. Rebuilding 

started immediately by relaying the foundations of 

the outer (eastern) wall in mud mortar, completing the 

ground floor walls with regular bricks (māapā) on the 

outside and veneer bricks for the arcade. Vertical timber 

posts, wrapped in sheet copper, were integrated into the 

wall to increase seismic safety. At half of the height of 

the first floor, construction was stopped at the end of 

December in anticipation of a further grant. 

A second substantial grant was provided by the German 

Embassy in February 2016 with the requirement 

to complete the rebuilding by the end of the year. Work 

was resumed in early March, the first floor courtyard 

windows were relocated in June, the wall plates of the 

top floor were in place in July, and the projecting balcony 

with its latticed frames in early August. The timber 

roof will be completed in early October, the roofing in 

November and the interior work in December. 

370

Sundari Cok 

The ground floor of the east wing’s 

facade facing south in the process 

of rebuilding with newly fired 

regular bricks (māapā). The wall 

is strengthened by timber posts 

encased in sheet copper (top 

left). 

Photographs by Niels Gutschow, 

November 23, 2015 

371

Sundari Cok 

Wall plates are being installed atop 

the east wing’s second floor. The 

wall plates receive a bitumen-based 

layer to be protected against the 

mud mortar of the brickwork. The 

newly introduced vertical timber 

on the inner faces of the two walls 

extend beyond the layer of the wall 

plates. 

Photographs Anil Basukala, 


372

Sundari Cok 

The cornice of the projecting 

balcony that encircles the entire 

quadrangle is installed above the 

joists. 

Photographs by Anil Basukala, 

June 23 and 24, 2016. 

373

374

Sundari Cok 

East facade of the courtyard; 

carpenters from Bungamati are 

engaged in restoring the latticework 

of the second floor’s projecting 

balcony. 



Opposite 

Sundari Cok 

East facade of the courtyard; the 

restored central window of the 

projecting balcony. 

Photograph by Ashesh Rajbansh, 


375

Sundari Cok 

East wing, installation of the roof 

level timbers, with joists resting on 

the wall plates, and a base on the 

center to support the pillars with 

their capital-brackets and the ridge 

beam on top. 



376

Sundari Cok 

East wing, the ridge beam is in place, a final touch is given to 

the top of the outer wall. 

Photograph by Anil Basukala, June 24, 2016 

377

Sundari Cok 

Top 

The earthquake caused the bulging 

of the northern end of the wall facing 

the Darbar Square. The facing 

layer of veneer bricks (dÁci apÁ) 

was removed and carefully used to 

restore the wall, using yellow mud 

for the joints. 




The proposed vertical grill of the 

window openings is tried out on 

the first floor’s window opening at 

the northern end. 



378

Sundari Cok 

East wing, courtyard facade; the first floor face of veneer bricks 

is cleaned, hairline joints are checked. 

Photograph by Anil Basukala, July 14, 2016 

379

Taleju Agam North 

(Mul Cok, Patan Royal Palace Complex) 

History and Description of Taleju Agams North and South 

Emergency Repairs after 2011 Earthquake 

Post-2015-Earthquake Project 

(Liz Newman)

382


By Liz Newman 

History and Description of Taleju Agams 

(North and South) 

The Taleju Agam North (1671) and Taleju Agam South 

(1666) are two of the three remaining primary agam 

(rooftop temples) of the Patan Royal Palace Complex, 

along with the larger Degutale Temple (b. 1661) to the 

north of Mul Cok. Unlike the temples throughout the 

adjacent Patan Darbar Square, which stand on stepped 

plinths built at grade level, these agam are built atop 

courtyard palaces and above Patan’s roofscape, examples 

of the “floating” temple design that is unique to Newar 

architecture. 

It was under the patronage of the Malla kings that the 

craftsmanship of the Kathmandu Valley flourished, 

making Patan’s Taleju temples a historic and artistic 

testament to the five and a half century rule of the Mallas. 

All three of the Patan Palace temples are dedicated 

to the Goddess Taleju, the tutelary deity of the Malla 

kings. Royal temples dedicated to this lineage deity of 

the Malla kings were erected in all three Darbar Squares 

of the Kathmandu Valley. 

During the great earthquake of 1934, all of the royal palace 

temples in Patan were severely damaged, and among 

the Taleju temples only these three were restored. One of 

the notable losses which appears in a number of historic 

photographs is what is today known as the “lost agam 

of Mul Cok,” which rose from the north wing of Mul 

Cok, near the square, and appears to have been joined at 

an upper level to the adjacent Degu Taleju temple to the 

north. Even today the configuration of this area suggests 

there is a missing piece. 

North Taleju is one of the finest examples of a wellproportioned, 

triple-tiered brick and timber agam of the 

Malla period (1200-1769 CE). It was built atop the 

northeast corner of Mulcok palace and consecrated by 

King Srinivas Malla in 1671. It occupies a prominent 

position and is equal in both religious and artistic significance 

to the Valley's larger Taleju temples. North 

Taleju features unusual, exquisite, carved timber struts 

representing tantric deities such as the bhairavs and 

the matrikas. Taleju Agam South was likewise built by 

Srinivasammalla and consecrated by him in 1666. Although 

it is the smallest of the three surviving Taleju 

temples, the Taleju Agam South nonetheless occupies 

a prominent position and is equal in significance to the 

larger Taleju temples. 

In Newar architecture, the uppermost roof of every 

tiered temple is covered with gilded metal sheets and 

crowned with a gilded copper pinnacle (gajura). The 

gilded pinnacle atop the North Taleju is particularly 

significant as it is sculpted in the shape of a temple 

built in the sikhara style, and is larger and more complex 

than that of the Taleju Agam South. The rafters 

of the temple’s uppermost roof are joined to a central 

timber king post (baymvah or galathan). This central 

post provides the crucial support structure for the pinnacle. 

The king post starts at the upper level brick core 

and extends through the roof and into the pinnacle. 

(KVPT's application of October 2013 to the Sumitomo 

Foundation for restoration of the Taleju Agam 

South pinnacle informed this history, and is a source 

for further information on pinnacles in Patan Darbar 

and in Newar architecture in general.) 

The Taleju Agams North and South continue to this 

day to be used for religious and ritual events, which are 

overseen by local resident priests. During the October 

Dashain festival, Nepal’s most celebrated holiday, both 

Agams house the deity of Taleju—patron goddess of 

the Malla Dynasty. As a result, the North and South 

Taleju agam are the hub of Dashain ritual activities in 

Patan each year. 

Opposite 

Taleju Agam North and South 

above Patan Palace rooftops, view 

looking North. 

383

Top left 

Mul Chowk west facade with the 

North Taleju in the background. 

The agam elegantly floats behind 

Mul Cok’s main entryway off of 

Patan’s Durbar Square. The smaller 

temple in the foreground is now 

called the “Lost Agam of Mul 

Cok”, as it was destroyed in the 

1934 earthquake and was never 

rebuilt. 

Photograph by Perceval Landon, 1924 

Top right 

Taleju Temples in Axonometric 

View of the Palace Complex: This 

sketch shows the graceful octagonal 

and winged shape of Taleju Agam 

North’s roof tiers, and the temple’s 

orientation above the north wing of 

the courtyard building. The large 

temple at left is Degu Taleju, and 

the smaller Taleju Agam South at 

right completes the trio of remaining 

rooftop temples at the Royal 

Palace. 

Survey by the Nippon Institute of 

Technology, December, 1977 


Remnants of Taleju Agam North 

after the 1934 earthquake. This 

photograph vividly documents the 

devastation the 1934 earthquake 

wrought upon the Patan Royal 

Palace Complex. The remnants of 

the Taleju North agam rise in the 

background (center left), while the 

Degu Taleju temple in the foreground 

collapsed completely. 

Photograph circa 1934 

384

Taleju Agam North seen from Mul 

Cok Courtyard, 2012 

385


Projects by the Trust since 2011 

Damage in the September 2011 Earthquake 

Before KVPT was involved with the Patan Palace, the 

Taleju Agams North and South had been partially restored 

in joint UNESCO/Nepal Department of Archaeology 

projects in 2000-2001. In 2007, KVPT’s first estimate 

was that in the Patan Royal Palace Conservation 

and Restoration project, the North Taleju Agam would 

require only seismic strengthening and minor repairs. 

However, closer inspection of North Taleju after the 6.8 

magnitude earthquake of September 18, 2011 and the 

lesser tremors that followed soon after revealed that the 

agam had been so severely compromised that stabilization 

and seismic strengthening were required on an 

emergency basis. Existing structural cracks in walls and 

between masonry and timber door and window frames 

had widened significantly, one of the roofs was separating 

from the wall, and rotting timbers were exposed in a 

number of locations. Without these problems being addressed, 

the agam would not be able to survive the next 

major earthquake. 

Left 

Crack on interior north wall. This 

large crack was present before the 

September 2011 earthquake, but 

grew in width to as much as 8 cm 

in the earthquake as the two walls 

moved farther apart. 

November 2011 

Right 

Detail of crack on the west-facing 

exterior facade of Taleju North 

Gallery. This severe crack on the 

exterior of the building was present 

prior to the earthquake, and was 

likely the result of a lack of proper 

wall joining techniques. This detail 

shows the gaps that had opened 

further—up to 10 cm—after 

the September 2011 earthquake, 

requiring immediate attention. 

November 2011 

386

Top Left 

Door and window frame weakening: 

This detail of a timber window 

frame separated from the surrounding 

brick wall showed the poor 

condition of the temple’s timber 

elements, which suffered from 

rot due to water leakage and were 

structurally compromised. 

November 2011 

Top Right 

Joists in taleju tower roof were 

rotten and poorly spaced and had 

to be removed. The Trust replaced 

them with new joists in the correct 

historical configuration. 

Rohit Ranjitkar, May 2015 


Weight redistribution: This photo 

shows the sagging of Taleju’s lower 

level roof beams, which had become 

too weak to bear the load of 

the agam above. The Trust recommended 

introducing additional 

support beams to safely transfer the 

weight to the structure below. 

November 2011 


Emergency shoring. The Trust 

rapidly installed emergency vertical 

timbers to support the floor of 

Taleju’s shrine room above. The implementation 

of a sound structural 

strengthening system was imperative 

and urgent, as the floors could 

no longer withstand any seismic 

movement. 

November 2011 

387

Opposite 

The third level gallery interior after 

construction. Note new timber 

posts, beam, and rafters.to the right 

and overhead, as well assalvaged 

historic carved columns at the left, 

outside the sanctum, to support the 

new beam. 

2012 

Below right 

Rebuilding of third floor roof 

structure: After rafter installation, 

eaves boards were fitted with 

through mortise and tenon joints. 

Traditionally in Newar architecture, 

timber pegs are used to secure 

the rafters to the eaves beams; here, 

rafters were also pinned with stainless 

steel rods. 

2012 

388 

Emergency Measures by KVPT Following the 

September 2011 Earthquake 

KVPT applied in November 2011 to the Cultural Emergency 

Response Fund of the Prince Claus Fund, which 

agreed to support a program of seismic strengthening 

and other repairs to the agam that was undertaken immediately 

and was completed by October 2012. 

The scope for this project included a number of KVPT’s 

typical repairs and minor seismic strengthening measures. 

Notably, it also included three structural measures 

that were designed specifically for the Taleju Agam 

North. 

Typical KVPT scope items for this type of construction 

which were used at Taleju North included: 

. replacement of rotted timbers such as joists, rafters, and 

wall plates; 

. repairs to timber doors and windows; 

.rebuilding of severely damaged brick masonry walls; 

. the addition of planking above floor joists and marine 

grade plywood above roof planking 

. covering both of these with a waterproofing membrane 

to brace, unify, and waterproof the structure before relaying 

floor or roof tiles on the traditional heavy mud 

mortar beds; and 

, installation of a concealed drainage system. 

Additional damage was identified once the priests of the 

agam allowed the structural engineer access to the inner 

sanctum, resulting in the decision to rebuild the roof at 

the sanctum level to tie it structurally to the inner walls, 

incorporating plywood into the roof assembly; and to 

rebuild significant areas of masonry. 

The photograph of the gallery on the opposite page shows 

the careful design and installation of this last measure at 

the gallery outside the sanctum, whose historic doorway 

ensemble is visible in the brick wall at the left. Salvaged 

historic carved timber columns were added next to the 

existing columns to double the support structure outside 

the sanctum without disturbing the historic configuration. 

These columns support a new beam above 

the doorway which in turn supports the new rafters of 

the gallery roof. A similar doubling was created at the 

simpler outer wall using uncarved columns. These measures 

(working together with (2) below) allowed the new 

roof structure to be tied directly to the cornice embedded 

in the walls of the sanctum, unifying the structural 

elements of the third level. 

The three site-specific seismic additions, described in detail 

on the following pages, were: 

1) The introduction of diagonal steel members into the 

ceiling structure at the gallery level to create a Warren 

truss configuration for horizontal bracing; 

2) a force-fit transition between the sanctum level cornice 

and the adjacent roof structure; and 

3) the installation of four interior timber A-frame braces 

around the walls of the fourth level (just above the top 

of the Mul Cok roof). These designs are described on 

the following pages and, in more technical detail, in 

the chapter above on Seismic Strengthening of Historic 

Newar Buildings.

389

Top 

Taleju Agam North/Mul Cok 

North Wing Gallery - Plan drawing 

detailing the design of the diagonal 

cross bracing system, at the 

ceiling joist level above the gallery 

space of Mul Cok’s north wing. 

Matthias Beckh for KVPT, 2012 


The east end of the Mul Cok North 

Wing Gallery level after the installation 

of steel angle cross bracing. 

Diagonal braces effectively tie the 

horizontal timber beams together, 

creating a much stiffer structure 

similar to a Warren truss. 


Middle Right 

Mul Cok North Wing Gallery level 

roof cross bracing showing the connection 

of steel braces to original 

timber trusses by means of steel 

gusset plates and bolts. 



Layout of framing members for 

North Taleju tower in Mul Cok 

courtyard (compare to plan drawing 

opposite). 

KVPT, 2015 

390

Top 

Taleju Agam North/Mul Cok 

North Wing Gallery - Detail 

drawing showing the design of steel 

plates connecting new diagonal 

steel braces to the existing timber 

beams. The introduction of these 

steel braces created a rigid diaphragm 

which resists movement 

during an earthquake. 

Above 

Southeast exterior corner of inner 

sanctum after rebuilding of walls 

and roof. Roof rafters are all connected 

to the new timber cross 

beam, which is connected to the 

inner sanctum’s cornice, uniting 

components of the third level. 


Left 

New timber columns and beams 

around the inner sanctum are positioned 

to allow beams to be joined 

directly to the historic wooden 

cornice, tying the roof structure to 

the inner sanctum walls. 

2012 

391

Top 

Thumbnail of the full Taleju North 

building section, including the timber 

A-frame design. This drawing 

shows how the A-frame’s strategic 

placement in the fourth level was 

designed to support the weight of 

the roof tiers above. 

2012 


Detail of the timber A-frames at 

the fourth level, seen on the design 

section drawing for Taleju Agam 

North. These braces were designed 

to support the overstressed and 

sagging timber beams that bear the 

load of the upper levels. This provide 

a direct connection down to 

the fourth floor level, strengthening 

the load path and adding stiffness 

to resist seismic movement. 

2012 

Opposite 

Timber A-frame as installed at the 

west end of the fourth level, Taleju 

Temple North. A similar A-frame 

was installed at each of the four 

sides. 


392

393

Right 

Detail of the displaced top roof 

with scaffolding being installed to 

begin repair work. 

Photo mid-2015 

Opposite 

The top roof tilted onto the roof 

tier below during the April 25th 

earthquake, causing considerable 

damage to the lower roofs. 

ca. April 26 2015 

394 

2015 Earthquake Damage to Taleju Agam North 

Thanks to these repairs, the Taleju Agam North survived 

the magnitude 7.8 earthquake of April 25, 2015 and 

the tremors that followed, but it still suffered extensive 

damages at the unrepaired upper levels. The two topmost 

roofs of the four-tiered temple were left structurally 

unstable and in danger of collapse. Further assessment 

revealed that the brick masonry on these two stories was 

cracked and in poor condition and timber elements were 

already decaying. The sculptural pinnacle, made using 

the traditional metal repoussé technique, had already 

been damaged by numerous small earthquakes, exposure 

to the elements, and years of neglect, and was threatened 

by collapse even before the 2015 earthquake. The 

supporting columns of the gilded pinnacle gave way this 

time, and the entire upper level of Taleju North tipped 

to the side, nearly crashing down on the Mul Cok palace 

below. 

Funding for Post-Earthquake Work 

KVPT received funding from several sources for the 

post-2015 earthquake repairs to the North Taleju. The 

Sumitomo Foundation supported the structural rehabilitation, 

extensive cleaning, and repair of the gilded 

pinnacle and gilded top roof, and the fourth tier roof. 

The goal was to restore this distinctive feature of Patan 

Darbar’s temple-dotted skyline to its original beauty. 

The Ambassadors’ Fund for Cultural Preservation (the 

largest funder of the Patan Royal Palace Project) and the 

Prince Claus Fund pledged support for the Taleju Agam 

North after the earthquake and again stepped up to provide 

further support when closer study revealed the need 

to replace parts of the copper pinnacle and repair additional 

masonry damage to the upper walls of the agam. 

Rebuilding of the Upper Levels of the Agam 

It was ultimately decided that the scope of repairs would 

include dismantling and rebuilding the top two stories 

of the temple. Scaffolding at the two upper floors was 

provided, and dismantling work started with the removal 

of the pinnacle. The upper brick walls were dismantled, 

and the related timber framing, - eaves, rafters, 

figurative struts of the hanging eaves, - and roof tiles 

were removed. 

Rebuilding started from the fourth floor (directly above 

the main shrine). New timber elements included cross 

beams, upright posts, lintels and sill beams to replace old 

decayed members. Brick masonry with traditional mud 

mortar was laid using traditional techniques. 

To ensure the stability of the roofs, the lower ends of the 

timber struts, which were shorter in length than needed, 

were replaced by new timber elements while keeping 

as much of the original timber as possible. The eaves 

boards were reconstructed using traditional methods 

and materials. 

Stainless steel plates were used where necessary to connect 

the timber framework to the rafters. The blind windows, 

some of which were reassembled by local wood 

carvers, were anchored to the brick masonry with steel 

rods to ensure better stability.

395

Top 

Elements of the dismantled dome 

and temples of the gajura sheltered 

in the Mul Cok courtyard below, 

awaiting restoration. 

Above 

The copper elements of the pinnacle 

after reassembly. This close 

observation of the pinnacle revealed 

poor quality earlier repairs which 

will now be corrected as part of the 

restoration of the pinnacle. 

Above right 

Careful dismantling underway on 

site at the damaged North Taleju 

pinnacle, following the earthquake. 

396 

The original struts supporting the topmost roof were 

also reinstalled, together with the timber roof framing. 

The assembly of the roof, including a new king post to 

hold the pinnacle, was complete by May 2016. 

During the cleaning and reassembling of the pinnacle 

(gajura), an inscription dating to 1753 was found on thc 

copper at the pinnacle base. Also discovered were copper 

replacement pieces from the 1950's, under King Mahendra, 

that followed the existing shapes of the gajura but 

had simplified, incorrect details. The restoration presents 

an opportunity to improve on these earlier repairs. 

As of late August 2016, the coppersmiths, who were 

restoring the Yoganarendra pillar sculpture, expected 

to return to the gajura in the fall, replicating existing 

original details to replace missing or incorrect pieces, 

and complete the reinstallation of the gajura (and with 

it the entire North Taleju post-earthquake project) by 

November of 2016. 

During post-earthquake observations conducted by 

structural engineer Evan Speer, it was noted that some 

details of pre-2015 strengthening measures should be 

adapted to be more successful and to fully implement 

their original design intent. These alterations are being 

addressed as construction continues.

The two upper stories of Taleju 

North were dismantled to address 

deteriorated timber elements and 

structural cracks in brick walls. 

Top 

Dismantiling of the upper tier roof 

structure. 

KVPT, 2015 


North Taleju seen from the Mul 

Cok courtyard after dismantling of 

the upper tier roof and upper walls 

of the tower. 

KVPT, 2015 

397

Above 

Workers carefully clean the upper 

tier roof struts in the palace gardens 

after dismantling of the upper level 

of the tower. 

Top Left 

Strut with new timber joined to 

the lower end (designed for assembly 

within wall, historically left 

uncarved). 

Top Right 

Back (upper) face of repaired strut 

showing joinery detail. 


Steel plates are used to connect the 

rafters with the timber wall plates. 

Traditional yellow mud mortar is 

used for brick masonry. 


The rebuilding of the upper tier 

is carried out using traditional techniques 

and materials along with 

concealed steel seismic rreinforcing. 

398

Top 

Reinstallation of traditional windows 

in reconstructed wall. Stainless 

steel rods anchor the windows 

to the brick wall. 

Left 

Completed assembly of roof timbers, 

including king post 

399

Top Left 

Planking, marine grade plywood, 

and waterproofing membrane cover 

and brace the roof structure. Wood 

battens are installed in preparation 

for copper roofing. 

July, 2016 

Top Right 

Carpenter and metal craftsman install 

wood runners on the top roof. 

Coppersmith lays and reassembles 

existing gilded metal sheets including 

copper eave corners. 



To allow the historic gilded copper 

to be retained, new sheet copper 

roofing panels, overlapping historic 

copper corner eave, will in turn be 

covered by the damaged, gilded 

historic copper sheet roof panels, 

which cnnot be repaired. 



New sheeet copper is installed 

with screws on the top tier roof 

before the reinstallation of existing 

historic gilded copper sheets. 


400

Taleju North Agam after postearthquake 

repairs, complete except 

for the restoration and reinstallation 

of the copper pinnacle. 

11 September 2016 

401

Taleju Agam South 

(Mul Cok, Patan Royal Palace Complex) 

History and Agam Description 

Pre-2015-Earthquake KVPT Project 

2015 Earthquake Damage 

Post-2015-Earthquake KVPT Project 

(Liz Newman)

404

Taleju Agam South 

Pre-earthquake project, earthquake damage, 

and KVPT post-earthquake project 

By Liz Newman 

History of the agam and summary of KVPT projects 

The history of theTaleju Agam South is similar to and 

included in the history of the Taleju Agam North in the 

preceding chapter. 

Also referred to as South Taleju, the tower, which rises 

above and intersects Mul Cok South Wing and Sundari 

Cok North Wing, underwent significant repairs and restoration 

and had seismic strengthening installed by the 

Trust as part of the Patan Royal Palace Complex Restoration 

Project between 2013 and early 2015. Funding 

support came from the Prince Claus Fund (Netherlands) 

and the Ambassadors’ Fund for Cultural Preservation 

(US State Department). 

In 2013, the agam was structurally unstable and in poor 

condition, and its gilded sikhara-style sculptural pinnacle 

was leaking and in an advanced state of disrepair, 

threatening collapse. As a part of the Patan Palace project, 

the Taleju Agam South was repaired, restored, and 

reinforced by KVPT. Deteriorated roofing assemblies 

and the gilt copper pinnacle were restored and repaired; 

brick walls were repointed; uncarved structural timbers 

were replaced, struts were cleaned; and seismic strengthening 

measures at and just above the Mul Cok roof were 

implemented. By February 2015, the agam project was 

completed, scaffolding had been removed, and only the 

reinstallation of roofing below the scaffolding remained. 

Six weeks later, on April 25, 2015, the Taleju Agam 

South survived the earthquake that struck the Kathmandu 

Valley completely intact, with the exception of the 

part of the agam above the middle roof - the upper cornice 

and uppermost roof tier and pinnacle, - which fell 

off as a unit and landed wedged into the space between 

the roofs of Mul Cok and Sundari Cok, causing minor 

roof damage as it fell. 

The Ambassadors’ Fund for Cultural Preservation responded 

rapidly after the earthquake with support for 

repair and reinstallation of the fallen pieces and roof repairs 

below. Post-earthquake repairs to the Taleju Agam 

South and related roofing repairs below were completed 

by KVPT in late August 2016. 

Existing conditions in 2013: 

.Disrepair and leaking of gilded copper pinnacle (gajura), 

including poor previous repairs such as non-matching 

replacement colonnettes and rotting of wood substrate 

. Top and middle roofs were structurally unsound due 

to rotting and generally poor condition of all rafters and 

wall plates. 

. Poor roofing conditions on all three roof levels, damaged 

terra cotta roof tiles (jhingati), severe deterioration 

and leaking of bituminous membrane 

. Poor condition of mud pointing mortar at Mul Cok 

roof level and just above 

. Structural instability of lower walls at/ just above 

the level of the Mul Cok south wing roof (The roofs 

of Sundari Cok north wing and Mul Cok south wing, 

which had been awkwardly joined to cover the passage 

between the two buildings, were reconfigured during the 

palace project to again be separated, changing the support 

to the agam.) 

Repairs and Restoration by KVPT, 2013-2015 

The scope of repairs for the initial project included the 

following: 

Roofs: Complete dismantling and rebuilding of all three 

roofs. All rotten rafters (about 50%) and wall plates were 

replaced. Rotten planking was replaced (100%) and a 

layer of marine grade plywood was introduced on top 

of the planking for bracing. A new waterproof membrane 

and traditional mud bed were installed and cov- 

Opposite 

Taleju Agam South, view from the 

west across Patan Darbar Square.. 

Photo by Raju Roka, February 27 2015 

405

Left 

Taleju Agam South before restoration 

and seismic strengthening 

project. 

KVPT, January 2011 

Right 

Extensive scaffolding was built with 

a pipe ladder running up to each of 

the temple’s three roofs.-lower, middle, 

and upper. Lower and middle 

roofs have traditional terra cotta 

tile (jhingati). Upper tier roofing is 

sheet copper with battens. 

KVPT, March 6, 2014 

ered with traditional terra cotta tiles (jhingati), of which 

about 50% were replacedments. The roof structure of 

the third tier was reconstructed using newly fabricated 

rafters, wall plates, and purlins. All of the existing rafters 

were too damaged to be reused and were not original. 

The fabrication of new rafters also allowed for an easy 

adjustment to raise the roof to its original 28-degree 

pitch. This decision was based not only on aesthetics but 

also on returning to the original configuration, whose 

increased roof pitch reduces the chance of water infiltration. 

The number of rafters was increased from 24 to 32 to 

achieve the traditional, closely spaced rafter assembly. 

Central and corner rafters were made from Sal (Shorea 

robusta) wood, a locally available hardwood that is traditionally 

preferred for its strength and durability. Pine 

was used for the common rafters. The existing timber 

collar, which was badly affected by wet rot, was replaced 

with a newly fabricated hardwood collar. 

Copper roof and pinnacle: During the restoration. the 

Trust discovered that the gilt copper sheets covering the 

timber structure of the pinnacle were heavily damaged, 

with a number of cracks and holes. Rather than restore 

and re-gild as was originally planned, the Trust decided 

to preserve the existing historical patina of the metal 

sheets, since any restoration effort would have risked 

406

Left and Right 

Taleju Agam South roofing is 

removed at all three tiers in preparation 

for the start of restoration 

work. 

KVPT, February 25 (left) and May 07 

(right), 2014 

damaging the gilt surface. In order to prevent water infiltration, 

an additional protective sheet copper layer was 

added between the timber structure and the gilt sheet. 

The strategy for the gilt copper repousse pinnacle (gajura) 

was to install new copper replicas of the pinnacle 

base covering over the new wood substrate to ensure 

waterproofing, and reinstall the historic repaired copper 

over these. In this way, the worn historic material was 

retained while the integrity of the roof and pinnacle wasreestablished. 

Rafters, wall plates, and other uncarved wood elements: 

After the dismantling and inspecting the structure’s 

existing conditions, it was evident that damages to 

the timber structure were more severe and extensive than 

initially anticipated. Sound elements were reinstalled 

while rotten pieces were replaced in kind. The wood 

pinnacle base was replaced. Rafters were also bolted to 

wall plates with stainless steel fasteners to increase seismic 

strength. (See seismic strengthening notes below.) 

Historic carved wood elements- 

Removal and cleaning of Wood Struts: Carved timber 

struts of the first and second tiers were removed, cleaned, 

and reinstalled in their original locations. As per the project 

proposal, no changes were made to the existing col- 

407

lection of struts except for cleaning. This included several 

carved struts from the 17th century and six uncarved 

struts that had been installed to replace stolen struts in 

1994. 

Cleaning of Carved Wood Cornices: Carved cornices 

are embedded in the brick wall and were able to be 

cleaned in situ, with few repairs. 

Removal of debris and pigeon nests 

Several pigeon nests were discovered behind the struts 

of the top tier, accompanied by large quantities of pigeon 

droppings. The nests and droppings were removed, 

along with a large amount of other debris causing excess 

load in the top tier. 

Brick walls: The exterior brick walls of the tower were 

cleaned. Below the lower roof, walls with pointing in 

poor condition were repointed with traditional mud 

mortar, retaining the existing bricks, with minor repairs. 

The existing void below the pinnacle was filled with 

solid brick masonry to increase stability at the top of the 

tower. 

Seismic strengthening 

Steel beams bracing south wall: Horizontal steel 

beams below the Mul Cok south wing roof were introduced 

to brace the south wall of the tower. Inside the 

agam, steel cross bracing was installed at the level of the 

door (just above the Mul Cok south wing roof) per the 

attached sketch. 

Strengthening connections of rafters to purlins: Halfinch 

thick galvanized steel bolts were installed to strongly 

connect rafters and purlins, a connection which traditionally 

is created only with timber pegs. The addition 

of the steel bolts will prevent the potential separation of 

the joint during future seismic movement and improve 

the overall rigidity of the structure. 

Strengthening connections between rafters and wall 

plates: In traditional structures the rafters are not 

notched to the wall plates. 3/8” stainless steel pins were 

placed to improve the structural stability of the roof 

frame and wall plate connections. This measure will 

firmly pin the rafter to the plate and thus prevent any 

sliding movement of the rafters, especially during an 

earthquake. 

Reinforcement of corner lap joints 

The corner lap joint of the wall plates is not sufficient to 

bear the load of the corner strut. To prevent failure of the 

structure a 2” wide x 3/16” thick steel plate was attached 

at each corner joint, improving the strength of the joint 

and allowing an even distribution of forces. (Similar details 

are described and illustrated in the chapter above, 

“Typical Seismic Issues in Newar Architecture.” 

General Repairs: Other repairs to waterproof the pinnacle 

and roofs contribute to future seismic strength by 

making the wood structure and brick walls below more 

durable. 

It should be noted that the repairs described above, especially 

the replacement of rotting structural wood, contributed 

significantly to the agam’s ability to resist the 

earthquake. 

408


Existing poor condition of gilded 

pinnacle and top tier copper roofing. 

Pinnacle is heavily damaged, 

with copper worn and and leaking; 

copper roof has open joints. 

KVPT, April 3, 2014 


The top tier metal roof, including 

the gilded pinnacle, was completely 

dismantled for reconstruction and 

repair. Nearly 75% of the structural 

timbers were affected by dry rot 

and in need of replacement. 

KVPT, April 04 and 22, 2014 

409


Fabrication and installation of upper 

roof tier wall plates and rafters. 

KVPT, April 24 and 27, 2014. 

Middle Left and Right 

Central and corner rafters (sal wood) are 

joined to the purlins using traditional 

timber pegs. For additional strength, 

every 4th rafter is bolted to the purlins 

below using ½” galvanized steel bolts. 

KVPT, April 28 and 30, 2014 


Top tier roof during reconstruction. 

Sal wood planking is laid over the 

rafters, a new layer of marine grade 

plywood is introduced over the 

planking for increased watertightness 

and bracing, and new copper 

sheets are installed over the plywood 

for waterproofing protection. 

KVPT, May 18 and Sept 4, 2014. 

410

Historic gilded copper sheet is laid 

over the new copper and the repaired 

gilded pinnacle is installed. 

KVPT, September 04 and 05, 2014. 

At lower right, a view of top tier 

roof after restoration 

411


The carved middle roof struts are 

carefully removed and cleaned with 

water and mild soap. 

KVPT, March 2014 

Bottom Row 

Two carved struts of the second 

tier before and after cleaning on 

the ground. The scope for all of 

the existing struts was limited to 

dismantling, cleaning, removal of 

paint, and reinstallation. 

KVPT, March 2014 

412


Deteriorated waterproof membrane 

is removed and marine grade plywood 

is laid over the planking. 

KVPT, November 11 and 12, 2014 

Middle Left and Right 

Roofing installation at lower roof. 

Planking, marine grade plywood, 

and waterproofing membrane are 

in place, and battens have been installed 

to hold the mud mortar bed. 



Roof mason Awale lays traditional 

jhingati roof tile in the yellow mud 

bed. At right, the lower two roofs 

are seen after the laying of tradtional 

terra cotta tile (jhingati). 


413

Seismic Strengthening/ 

Structural improvements 

Top left 

View looking west through Mulcok 

south wing (1935 east wall of Sundari 

Cok is at left). This photograph, 

taken during the reconstruction of 

the south wing of Mulcok, shows 

masonry core and load-bearing 

system of timber columns and joists 

supporting the temple. 

KVPT, June 2010 

Top Right 

South Taleju upper roofs, seen from 

below, before the 2011 earthquake. 

Rohit Ranjitkar, Feb 1 2010 


As an emergency stabilization 

measure, steel I-Sections and new 

timber tie-beams were added to 

existing ceiling joists to strengthen 

and increase the rigidity of this 

crucial support structure. 

KVPT, December 2013 


Completed installation of steel 

angle bracing inside South Taleju 

Temple at Level 3. This new cross 

bracing is used to create a reinforcing 

box, or “core,” as a seismic 

stabilization measure. 

November 27, 2014 

Opposite page 

South Taleju after restoration, looking 

east. 

KVPT, August 10, 2016 

414

415

Top 

South Taleju tower above Mul Cok 

courtyard immediately after the 

2015 earthquake, as seen looking 

south from Mul Cok’s north wing 

roof. Roof tile removed for the earlier 

project was yet to be reinstalled 

on Mul Cok south wing roof, 

which suffered minor damage when 

the gajura and upper roof fell and 

were wedged between Mul Cok and 

Sundari Cok roofs. The top tier is 

visible in this photo to the right of 

the tower, with the gajura stepped 

base resting on the Mul Cok south 

wing roof. 

KVPT, April, 2015 

Repairs after the 2015 Earthquake 

The structure of the fallen upper roof remained intact 

when it fell, landing astride the roofs of Sundari Cok 

North Wing and Mul Cok South Wing. The repair 

scope was to first lower the fallen pieces to the ground 

and store them inside pending restoration and reinstallation 

at the top of the rooftop temple. Once damage 

was repaired, the agam was reinstalled, and roofing below 

which was damaged by the fall of the top tier, or 

removed for scaffolding installation, was repaired or replaced. 

Because there was an open permit for construction 

on the agam, the slow bureacracy was avoided and 

the entire project was completed less than a year and a 

half after the earthquake. This might seem to be a long 

time out of context; but in the post-earthquake Kathmandu 

Valley, it was completed before it was even possible 

to obtain permits for new preservation projects. 


South Taleju tower (at right) with 

damaged top tier, with the fallen 

top tier roof resting in front of the 

tower on the Mul Cok roof below, 

shortly after the April 25, 2015 

earthquake. The damage to the 

North Taleju tower can be seen at 

the upper left in this photo. 

KVPT, April, 2015 

416

Top Left 

The top tier roof of South Taleju 

Tower, which, thanks to earlier 

repairs, fell off in one piece in the 

April 25, 2015 earthquake, seen 

resting where it landed on the roof 

sof Mul Cok’s South Wing and 

Sundari Cok’s North Wing below.. 

KVPT, mid-2015 

Top Right 

Preparation for lowering the fallen 

upper roof tier of South Taleju 

Tower from its post-earthquake 

position on Mul Cok’s south wing 

roof to the ground. 

KVPT, mid-2015 


The pinnacle (gajura) and its base 

from South Taleju Tower, along 

with gilded copper sheets from 

the upper roof, in storage within 

Sundari Cok awaiting repairs and 

restoration. 

KVPT, 2015 


Restored South Taleju tower pinnacle 

(gajura) on display in the Mul 

Cok north dalan while awaiting 

reinstallation. 

KVPT, 2015 

417

Top Left 

South Taleju Tower after restoration 

of top roof tier. Upper scaffolding 

is being removed for the 

next phase of work. Sundari Cok 

East Wing can be seen in the foreground 

under restoration. As seen 

from the Bhandarkhal Tank. 


Top Right 

South Taleju agam with Top tier 

roof restoration complete, with 

scaffolding partially dismantled to 

allow for work on the middle roof. 

Seen from North Taleju Temple. 



Middle tier roof waterproof membrane 

has been laid over marine 

grade plywood, wooden battens are 

installed, and laying of mud bed 

and clay tiles is in progress. 



Finishing the setting of the traditional 

jhingati clay roof tiles into 

the yellow mud bed on the middle 

tier roof. 


418

The South Taleju tower after completion 

of post-earthquake repairs, 

with scaffolding removed, as seen 

from KVPT’s office across Patan 

Darbar Square. 

Photograph Liz Newman 


419

420

Lion Pillar of Bhimsen Temple 

(Singha Stambha) 

(Raju Roka)

422


(Singha Stambha) 

Raju Roka 


after restoration and reinstallation. 

Photograph Raju Roka, 


The stone pillar in front of Bhimsen Temple was built in 

Nepal Sambat 827 (1708 CE) in the reign of King Shree 

Tin Indra Malla. This gilded lion statue on top of a 

stone pillar in front of Bhimsen Temple in Patan Darbar 

was destroyed in the devastating earthquake of April 25, 

2015. The stone pillar was broken into three pieces, with 

the lower part of the pillar remaining standing. 

The broken parts of the stone pillar were restored (joined 

together) by the experts of the University of Applied 

Arts, Vienna with stainless steel rods in August 2015. 

Newar stonemasons, metal craftsmen, and laborers 

restored the repaired stone and copper parts to their 

original positions on April 24, 2016. 

We believe that this project by the Kathmandu Valley 

Preservation Trust was the first monument restoration 

in Nepal after the devastating earthquake of April 25, 

2015. 

The very next day, on April 25, 2016, Mr. Puspa Kamal 

Dahal (the present Prime Minister) inaugurated the 

reconstruction of monuments in a ceremony a few 

meters from the Lion Pillar by laying bricks for the 

foundation of the South Manimandapa. 

Opposite 


after the earthquake. 

Photograph Suresh Lakhe, 

April 25, 2015 

423


Work by the team of the University 

of Applied Arts, Vienna during, 

and after repair of the broken pillar 

by inserting stainless steel pins. 

Photographs University of Applied Arts, 

August 2015 

424


The repaired stone pillar and gilded 

lion were reinstalled by erecting the 

pillar and resetting the lion on top 

in their historic configuration. 

Photographs Raju Roka, 


425

426

Appendices 

Introduction 

Notes on Post-Earthquake Approvals Processes, Guidelines and Manual 

(Erich Theophile) 

Appendix I 

Monument Preservation and Rebuilding Manual 

In Response to the April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake 

(Rohit Ranjitkar) 

Appendix II 

Basic Guidelines for the Preservation and Rebuilding of Monuments 

Damaged by the Earthquake, 2072 (2016) 

(Issued by the Government of Nepal 

Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation 

Department of Archaeology 

March 2016 

and 

Translated from Nepali by Hikmat Khadka 

with the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust) 

427

Notes on Post-Earthquake Approval 

Processes, Guidelines and Manual 

Erich Theophile 

The Approval Processes 

With numerous post-earthquake rebuilding project applications 

under review, the Kathmandu Valley Preservation 

Trust could be considered one of the “first cars 

in the train” attempting to start actual rebuilding work 

requiring the consensus of the Department of Archaeology 

(DoA) and the newly-active National Reconstruction 

Authority (NRA). The process is painfully slow, 

and KVPT is fortunate to have a number of rescue and 

repair operations underway at Patan Darbar to keep our 

staff and work crews busy. The greatest challenges are 

the technical details of seismic strengthening related to 

the use of modern materials like steel and reinforced 

concrete. As additional actors and agencies come on the 

scene to work in 2017, all proposing the industry standards 

of reinforced concrete and steel reinforcements to 

complement historical structures, it it conceivable that 

these questions will become less controversial. 

When one considers the potential for additional actors 

and agencies on the scene, is important to point out 

that to keep KVPT’s official government status, approximately 

two man months of time are required per year 

just to follow and chase the official paperwork. In the big 

picture, such complexities, paperwork, procedures, and 

unintentional obstacles created by the Social Welfare 

Council, the Ministry of Culture, and the Department 

of Archaeology create a significant amount of overhead 

for a small organization. As the bureaucracy tries to increase 

the number of actors by tendering bids for outside 

private consultants to design and execute conservation/ 

restoration projects, the necessary overhead costs and 

unpredictable delays may eliminate many contenders. It 

is hard to make money in the restoring of historic structures 

in Nepal—better to do it for love. 

Department of Archaeology- Guidelines and 

Illustrated Manual 

Rohit Ranjitkar was invited to serve on an expert committee 

advising the DoA on post-earthquake guidelines 

for preservation and was able to enrich the discussion 

and the official approved draft (June 2016). 

One critical and useful point the new draft explains is 

that while traditional materials are desirable, each historic 

structure must be examined for its own conditions 

and characteristics and may require exceptional measures 

for its preservation. (NRA 2016 Guidelines, Section 

12b: “Use of Non-traditional Construction Material 

and Technology: If in the course of restoration and rebuilding 

of a particular monument it is deemed that the 

use of traditional construction material and traditional 

technology cannot reduce seismic risk from a technical 

perspective, non-traditional construction materials and 

technology may be used, with prior approval from the 

Department of Archaeology, in order to rebuild a fully 

collapsed monument, in a manner that the non-traditional 

materials are not visible from outside.”) 

As the only member on that committee with extensive 

hands-on experience on historic buildings, and with a library 

of KVPT’s architectural solutions, Ranjitkar developed 

and contributed the illustrated manual (Appendix 

I, following these notes) which was adopted by the DoA, 

to share KVPT’s techniques for seismic strengthening. 

KVPT furthermore commissioned and supported the 

following professional translation of the Guidelines into 

English from Nepali (Appendix II), in order to open up 

discussion and review. 

428

Appendix I 

(Rohit Ranjitkar)

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

Appendix II 

Basic Guidelines for the Preservation and Rebuilding 

of Monuments 

Damaged by the Earthquake, 2072 (2016) 

Issued by the Government of Nepal 

Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation 

Department of Archaeology 

March 2016 

Translated from Nepali by Hikmat Khadka with the 


May 2016 

(KVPT note: The committee that drafted this document 

included Bhim Nepal, retired archaeologist, and Rohit Ranjitkar, 

Nepal Program Director for KVPT. This information did not 

appear in the original or in KVPT’s translation as issued for 

general use.) 

Preamble 

The 7.6 Magnitude earthquake that hit Nepal on April 

25, 2015 and the several aftershocks that followed caused 

great damage to life and property in various parts of 

Central Nepal. This devastating earthquake claimed the 

lives of almost 8,900 people and injured about 22,000. 

Likewise, hundreds of thousands of private and public 

structures have been fully damaged, while hundreds of 

thousands of structures have sustained partial damage. 

The devastating earthquake also caused great damage to 

many of our historical and cultural heritage sites. According 

to the Department of Archaeology’s damage assessment 

report, over a thousand monuments, including 

those in Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, 

Nuwakot, and Gorkha, have been damaged. Among 

them, the monuments in the Kathmandu Valley, which 

are listed as World Heritage Sites, sustained the most 

damage. About 90 per cent of the monuments in the 

Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square either fully or partly 

collapsed, while some are fully cracked. About 140 monuments, 

including Kasthamandap and Dharahara, which 

hold special significance, fully collapsed. The earthquake 

caused irreparable damage to many monuments that 

were built by our ancestors and stood as symbols of Nepal’s 

pride. At the same time, it had a huge impact on 

the tourism industry, the backbone of Nepal’s economy. 

Therefore, it is not only necessary but also mandatory 

to restore and reconstruct such damaged monuments in 

their original appearance, size, and type. 

The rebuilding and restoration of historical monuments 

differs from other new and modern construction, and it 

is of a specific nature. Such monuments must be restored 

and reconstructed on the basis of established national 

and international principles, norms, values, and philosophy 

relating to the preservation of historical monuments. 

Additionally, as most of the damaged monuments are 

classified as Cultural World Heritage Sites, the World 

Heritage Convention and the provisions of its implementation 

guidelines cannot be undermined. Neither 

can rebuilding and restoration occur by undermining 

the qualities and special features that prove the unparalleled 

significance of such monuments and monument 

sites and their authenticity. However, it is important to 

bear in mind that Nepal is a seismically vulnerable zone, 

where there will be frequent earthquakes. At the same 

time, it is also true that our historical heritage is living 

cultural heritage. Daily worship takes place at our temples, 

where devotees throng, and thousands of pilgrims 

gather there during fairs and festivals. Temples such as 

the Pashupati Nath receive hundreds of thousands of 

devotees during festivals. Likewise, several of our historical 

structures host the offices and museums belonging to 

the Government of Nepal. 

453

After the massive April 25 earthquake, a lesson that this 

generation learned, or an important realization that 

emerged for them from that experience, pertains to human 

safety. In other words, saving human life as soon 

as an earthquake hits is top priority. What is also true is 

that earthquakes do not kill people; rather, our weaker 

structures collapse due to the shock, leading to human 

casualties. Therefore, there is a common voice among 

the general public, experts, and policymakers that the 

structures to be constructed, reconstructed, repaired 

from now onward need to be earthquake-resistant, or 

they should be the type that reduce seismic risk. Government 

policy and programming, too, has placed a special 

emphasis on the terms ‘earthquake-resistance’ in the 

context of constructing structures. It is only too obvious 

that this generation, which experienced the trauma of 

the earthquake, has initiated a debate on the construction 

of earthquake-resistant structures and seismic risk 

reduction. This debate is also strong in the context of 

restoration and rebuilding of monuments. 

Monuments are important because of their art and architecture. 

They are also important from the perspective of 

their construction technology. As construction technology 

and art creation technology are an important genre 

of intangible cultural heritage, they cannot be changed 

in the name of constructing and restoring earthquakeresistant 

structures. The purpose of preservation is also 

to continue traditional construction technology. In this 

context, special arrangements need to be made with regard 

to the restoration and rebuilding of monuments 

damaged by the earthquake. 

As the Ancient Monument Conservation Procedure, 

2064 (2006), currently under implementation, does not 

seem to be adequate to address all the questions that have 

emerged after the earthquake, a need was felt for a separate 

set of guidelines for the rebuilding and restoration of 

the monuments damaged by the earthquake. As a result, 

the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Culture, 

Tourism and Civil Aviation, Government of Nepal has 

formulated and implemented the Basic Guidelines for 

the Preservation and Rebuilding of Monuments Damaged 

by the Earthquake, 2072 (2016). 

1. Title and Commencement 

(a) The name of this set of guidelines shall be Basic 

Guidelines for the Preservation and Rebuilding of Monuments 

Damaged by the Earthquake, 2072 (2016). 

(b) This set of guidelines shall come into force effective 

from the date of approval by the Department of Archaeology, 

Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 

Government of Nepal. 

2. Definitions 

Classified Monuments are monuments classified into 

grades A, B, C, and D by the Department of Archaeology, 

based on the monuments’ significance and ownership, 

in accordance with the provisions contained in the 

Ancient Monument Preservation Act. 

Non-classified Monuments are monuments that have 

not been classified in accordance with the provisions 

contained in the Ancient Monument Preservation Act. 

Rehabilitation is the overall process that brings monuments 

to reuse through continuation of the monuments’ 

originality and physical-cultural significance and living 

character, in compliance with all methods and procedures 

of preservation. 

Renovation is the act or process of bringing monuments 

to reuse through partial rebuilding or complete maintenance, 

restoration, etc., of structures that are weakened 

because they have been damaged by a natural disaster, 

or they have grown old, or fallen apart for other reasons, 

based on the evidence available. 

Retrofitting refers to the structural improvement meas- 

454

ures taken to maintain or enhance the strength of a 

structure if it is felt, from an engineering perspective, 

that the strength of that structure has been reduced. 

Strengthening is the process to take any additional measures 

in order to maintain or improve the strength of a 

structure. 

Stabilization refers to the measures taken in order to prevent 

a structure, which is about to fall or collapse due to 

various reasons, from falling or collapsing. These measures 

could be either temporary or permanent. 

Rebuilding is the act of constructing a new structure, 

generally upward from the foundation, using traditional 

materials and technology, preserving the original appearance, 

size, type, and composition of a structure that has 

collapsed because of a natural calamity or other reasons, 

based on the evidence available. 

Restoration is the work done to maintain a structure that 

has been damaged due to various reasons, or has deteriorated 

due to old age, through the use of traditional 

materials and technology, preserving its original appearance, 

size, type, and composition, based on the evidence 

available. Renovation also refers to partial rebuilding. 

Rescue Archaeology is an archaeological activity that is 

carried out immediately before a monument’s rebuilding 

work begins. Generally, this activity needs to be completed 

rapidly within a specific period of time. 

Periodic Maintenance refers to the work done to maintain 

a structure’s strength, including through restoration 

and maintenance of weak parts and objects from time 

to time, through the use and utilization of traditional 

construction materials and technology, after conducting 

a routine observation of the monument to gather information 

about its physical condition. 

Reversible Technology is employed when traditional 

construction materials and technology are not adequate 

to restore or rebuild a monument in a manner that it is 

maintained in its original form, and its strength is retained. 

If that is the case, non-traditional construction 

materials and technologies may have to be used, more 

out of compulsion. The nature of such construction materials 

and technology should be such that they can be 

changed or replaced in the future. 

Intervention refers to all activities, including preservation, 

conducted by a relevant agency or official, pursuant 

to the prevailing law, in order to protect and prevent a 

monument, which for some reason has been damaged or 

is about to be damaged, from sustaining further damage. 

Authenticity refers to original values, norms, specialty, 

character, style, quality, etc., inherent in any object or 

structure, which enjoy historical recognition, and which 

are acceptable on a social and scientific basis. 

Structural Integrity refers to the ability of a structure to 

bear the overall load of all of its parts in an integrated 

manner, without breaking or bending anything. 

3. Classification of Heritage 

(a) For the purposes of these Guidelines, physical-cultural 

heritage has been classified into three types: (1) 

Heritage Site, (2) Monument, and (3) Object. 

(b) In accordance with the provisions contained in the 

Ancient Monument Preservation Act, these Guidelines 

shall address both classified and non-classified monuments. 

4. Areas to be Addressed by the Guidelines 

Although these Guidelines shall especially address the issue 

of immovable physical cultural heritage, the related 

moveable physical cultural heritage is also included generally, 

according to the context. 

455

Part 1: General Provisions 

5. Authority and Responsibility 

As per the Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 2013 

(1956), classified monuments fall under the direct jurisdiction 

of the Department of Archaeology. Subject 

to Nepal’s prevailing laws, the Department of Archaeology 

may give approval to collaborate with other national 

agencies or reputable national and international 

institutions or individuals for restoration and rebuilding 

or for carrying out that task. However, all tasks shall be 

carried out in compliance with relevant Acts, Rules, and 

the Procedures relating to these Guidelines, under the 

supervision of the Department of Archaeology. 

6. Resource Management 

The Department of Archaeology shall receive and manage 

all forms of assistance, including financial, technical, 

and other miscellaneous assistance, meant for the 

renovation, preservation, and rebuilding of monuments, 

in accordance with the prevailing law. The Department 

of Archaeology shall maintain a proper documentation 

of the resources allocated for every heritage site, monument, 

and object. 

7. Damage Assessment 

In the course of restoring and rebuilding the memorials 

damaged by the earthquake, an assessment of the 

damage caused by the earthquake to the heritage site or 

objects, and to their importance, art, and architecture 

should be made. The nature of damage should also be 

assessed. Additionally, the impact on the living culture 

of religious cultural heritage should also be assessed. 

8. Restoration Priority 

In the course of restoring and rebuilding the memorials 

damaged by the earthquake, priority should be given to 

the restoration of severely damaged monuments. 

9. Documentation 

It is mandatory to prepare a detailed documentation 

of monuments and objects to be restored or rebuilt, in 

an identifiable manner. Damaged monuments, certain 

parts of monuments, and objects should be documented 

in written form, or through the media of photography, 

visually, sketch, and drawing, in a manner that the 

monuments’ dimensions, size, and type are established 

clearly. 

10. Renovation and Rebuilding of Monuments to be 

Based on Available Evidence 

The renovation and rebuilding of the monuments damaged 

by the earthquake should be carried out based on 

the evidence that is obtained or available. Renovation 

and rebuilding may not be carried out based on conjecture. 

11. Preservation Action Plan 

Any outline and plan of action for preservation work to 

be carried out in the context of heritage sites, monuments, 

and objects should be prepared on the basis of 

detailed research and study and assessment of preservation 

work carried out during various times in the past. 

12. Preservation of Traditional Material and 

Technology 

(a) Traditional construction materials should be used, 

and traditional construction technology and norms 

adopted, for the restoration and rebuilding of all types 

of monuments. If in the past irrelevant or non-traditional 

materials, construction technology, and norms happened 

to be used for the restoration or rebuilding of a 

particular monument, the error can be rectified, based 

on the evidence available, in the course of the current 

restoration or renovation. 

(b) Use of Non-traditional Construction Material and 

Technology: If in the course of restoration and rebuilding 

of a particular monument it is deemed that the 

use of traditional construction material and traditional 

technology cannot reduce seismic risk from a technical 

perspective, non-traditional construction materials and 

456

technology may be used, with prior approval from the 

Department of Archaeology, in order to rebuild a fully 

collapsed monument, in a manner that the non-traditional 

materials are not visible from outside. Taking into 

consideration the nature, condition, form, composition 

and importance of the monument to be restored and rebuilt, 

the Department of Archaeology may or may not 

give approval to carry out such a task. Moreover, the 

construction materials or technology used for such restoration 

and renovation should be reversible in nature, 

except in the case of special circumstances. A believable 

and reliable technical report must be prepared to justify 

the reason for the need to use non-traditional construction 

materials and technology in such a manner. It is 

mandatory to include the report in a file relating to the 

rebuilding of the monument in question. 

13. Participation of Local Residents 

As local residents are the guardians of a monument, 

their participation shall be ensured at various stages of 

rebuilding and restoration of damaged monuments. 

14. Clarity of Ownership 

The legal, historic, and cultural ownership of historical 

or cultural monuments shall be made clear, and all stakeholders, 

including heritage owners, shall be included in 

the process of implementation. 

15. Observation, Upkeep, and Periodic Maintenance 

(a) Special attention should be paid to the upkeep and 

periodic maintenance of historical monuments so that 

they become long lasting. Also, special attention shall be 

paid to any long-term impacts that a particular intervention 

could have on the structure. 

(b) A provision shall be made to conduct a periodic observation 

of the structural physical condition of historical 

buildings and monuments. 

(c) The responsibility for conducting regular observation 

in the format specified by the Department of Archaeology 

and carrying out periodic maintenance shall 

be assigned to certain stakeholders, heritage owners, or 

site managers. Arrangements for the periodic maintenance 

of classified monuments shall be made based on 

the regular observation report and in coordination with 

the Department of Archaeology. 

(d) Just as there is a traditional guthi system in place for 

temples, arrangements shall be made for a necessary trust 

to be set up, to the extent possible, for the purposes of 

maintenance (of monuments). 

16. Disaster Management 

In the context of restoration and rebuilding of heritage 

sites, monuments, and objects, the management of disasters, 

including earthquake, flooding, land erosion, fire, 

and lightning, will be taken into consideration, and the 

necessary caution shall be taken against such disasters. 

17. Heritage Impact Assessment 

Prior to beginning any type of development and construction 

activity at a monument, monument area, or 

archaeological site, an assessment of the direct or indirect 

impact that such an activity could have on the heritage 

site, monument, or on the objects’ value, form, etc. 

should be carried out using the format prescribed by the 

Department of Archaeology. Also, the potential impact 

on living culture of the monuments and monument areas 

shall be carried out. 

18. Preservation and Continuation of 

Living Heritage 

Monuments and historical buildings are a living heritage. 

The intangible heritage attached to the monuments 

gives monuments a life, while monuments also provide 

an appropriate background for the staging and expression 

of living heritage. Therefore, while restoring or rebuilding 

historical monuments, arrangements should be 

made to implement and continue intangible heritage, 

preserving the traditions, rituals, or norms and values attached 

to such monuments. 

457

19. Traditional Practices and Commencement 

Rituals 

The damage that the earthquake has caused to religious 

structures has especially had a profound effect on the 

communities’ traditions. In such situations, it is usually 

found that traditional practices and religious commencement 

rituals, including forgiveness-worship, are 

performed before the restoration and rebuilding work 

kicks off. As such practices and commencement rituals 

make monuments lively from a cultural and religious 

perspective, traditional practices and commencement 

rituals must be organized while carrying out the work 

of restoration and rebuilding, and coordination efforts 

must be made in order for that to happen. 

20. Traditional Purpose and New Use of Monuments 

(a) Generally, the continuation of the traditional use and 

purpose of the monuments to be restored and rebuilt 

shall be encouraged. However, in the case of monuments 

whose original purpose has fallen into disuse, they may 

be utilized for newer purposes, in agreement with relevant 

stakeholders, ensuring that the appearance, size, 

type, composition, and architectural exterior of those 

monuments is not affected in any way. 

(b) In the context of monuments where a community 

is involved in the use and maintenance of the structure, 

preservation work shall be carried out through the provision 

of necessary support for the activities of that community. 

(c) In the case of monuments that have lost their original 

use, they may be used for a new and appropriate purpose 

for income generation, ensuring that this does not adversely 

affect their original use. 

21. Installation of Modern Service Mechanisms 

(a) Modern services, including electricity and water 

supply, together with burglar and fire alarms, may be 

installed in the historical buildings that continue to be 

used to this day or those that have been put to newer use. 

(b) Modern equipment shall be installed at the various 

types of historic buildings, based on their vulnerability 

and usage, following the prescribed standards to ensure 

that the monuments’ authenticity and originality, together 

with its external appearance and location, is not 

affected in any way. 

22. Availability and Quality of Materials 

(a) Special attention shall be paid to the smooth availability 

and quality of traditional/non-traditional construction 

materials necessary for the rebuilding and restoration 

of damaged monuments. 

(b) The Department of Archaeology shall play a coordination 

role in order to facilitate the supply of essential 

construction materials. 

(c) Quality of Timber – Timber that is crack-free, mature, 

smooth, hard, dense, granular, less damp, and less 

flexible should be used. Likewise, timber with joints and 

palāns (leaves?) may not be used. Timber that needs to 

bear load, be carved with patterns, remain open in outdoor 

settings, and that needs to be used in a location 

where it will become wet with rainwater, should come 

from a sāl tree. In locations that will not get wet with 

rainwater, other good quality timber may be used. Only 

pure Nepali timber should be used. 

23. Availability of Artisans and Training 

(a) Top priority shall be given to according the highest 

level of respect to senior artisans with traditional skill 

and expertise and training new artisans. 

(b) It should be ensured that work is carried out by good, 

expert, and experienced artisans or that it is carried out 

under the surveillance of such artisans. 

24. Supervision and Quality Control 

(a) The tasks relating to preservation, restoration, and 

rebuilding shall be carried out as prescribed by the 

458

Guidelines, using good quality materials, and maintaining 

the quality of work. 

(b) Arrangements shall be made for the supervision and 

monitoring of restoration, rebuilding, and preservation, 

and standards and procedures shall be determined for 

this task. 

25. Research Study 

In the process of restoration and rebuilding of damaged 

monuments, it is required that a scientific research study 

is conducted on the surrounding area, foundation, the 

structural construction technology of the various parts, 

styles and types of traditional structures, the structures’ 

load bearing and load transfer technology, etc. Likewise, 

it is required that a scientific and technical research study 

is conducted on the traditional technology that can reduce 

seismic risk. 

Part 2: Guidelines for Heritage Sites 

26. Definition of Heritage Site 

Heritage sites refer to legally declared ‘preserved monument 

areas,’ ‘archaeological sites,’ and ‘world heritage 

sites.’ They also refer to potential monument areas, heritage 

sites, archaeological sites, etc. 

27. Preservation and Management of Historical 

Settlements 

Special arrangements shall be made for the preservation 

and management of historical settlements damaged by 

the earthquake. 

28. Damage Assessment of Heritage Sites 

(a) While assessing the damage within the preserved 

monument area damaged by the earthquake, the overall 

effect on the classified monuments and heritage objects 

contained in such an area should be observed. This 

should cover open spaces, natural landscape, and the 

composition of historical settlements. 

(b) Archaeological sites refer to excavated areas or areas 

with a potential for archaeological investigation. 

While assessing the damage to such sites, the effect on 

the designated area as well as on the overall environment 

around it should be observed. 

(c) While assessing the damage to historical settlements, 

attention should be paid to the effect on the settlements’ 

structure, open spaces, monuments and their composition. 

29. Preservation of Heritage Sites 

(a) In the context of not just a handful of monuments 

but monument areas and historical sites that have been 

severely damaged by the earthquake, their physical, social, 

and cultural aspects shall be analyzed and assessed, 

and a rehabilitation master plan shall be prepared, as necessary. 

(b) Initiatives shall be taken to immediately implement 

459

the activities prescribed by the rehabilitation master plan. 

(c) Archaeological sites shall be protected from encroachment, 

and necessary intervention plans shall be made for 

immediate or long-term preservation. As necessary, ‘archaeological 

rescue investigation’ activities shall also be 

conducted. 

Part 3: Guidelines for Graded Monuments 

30. Definition of Monuments 

Monuments shall not be addressed separately, but they 

shall be addressed as defined by the Ancient Monument 

Preservation Act. These monuments comprise those that 

fall under the Department of Archaeology’s classified monuments 

and monuments that are likely to fall under such 

classification. 

31. Nature of Damage to Monuments 

Based on the nature of damage, damaged monuments have 

been categorized into three groups: (1) Fully collapsed 

monuments, (2) severely/partially damaged monuments, 

and (3) ordinarily damaged monuments. 

32. Interventions for Fully Collapsed Monuments 

(a) The rebuilding of fully collapsed monuments should be 

carried out on the basis of documentation prepared after a 

study and thorough research on the evidence obtained and 

documents available. 

(b) Archaeological rescue investigation or excavation may 

be performed, as necessary, at locations where monuments 

have been fully collapsed, in order to obtain information 

about those the historic and ancient aspects of such monuments, 

and to establish those locations’ construction phases 

and cultural sequence. This task should be carried out with 

mandatory approval and direction from the Department of 

Archeology. 

(c) The rebuilding of monuments should be carried out 

in a manner that the original composition, appearance, 

size and type is preserved. Traditional images, creation, 

composition, and technology should be preserved to the 

extent possible. The reuse of all parts whose physical 

condition is good is mandatory. 

(d) Where sufficient proof has not been obtained, no 

rebuilding task may be conducted just based on conjecture. 

In the case of parts, the proof of whose original 

carving or sculpture cannot be obtained because they are 

lost or damaged, uncarved elements resembling the original 

size, type and quality should be used. No sculptures 

of gods and goddesses, or other images, may be carved 

based on conjecture. 

(e) Where sufficient proof is available and the new intervention 

is not going to affect the structural integrity of 

a historical building, such a historical building may be 

built in the same style as before. 

(f) If some parts of a monument need to be replaced, 

they may be replaced with new materials which, based 

on the proof available, have the same quality, physical 

composition, and artwork of the original material. 

(g) The original structural specialty of a monument 

should be preserved. Improvements may be made to it 

only if it is shown to be necessary. If new materials need 

to be used and a proven technique is used, such materials 

should be non-intrusive and reversible in nature. 

(h) To the extent possible, the foundation of a monument 

should be left as is, and improvements may be to it 

only if it is shown to be necessary. 

33. Interventions for Severely and Partially Damaged 

Monuments 

(a) A monument that is in need of a major intervention 

because its structural integrity is affected can be perceived 

as a severely and partially damaged monument. 

460

(b) While assessing the damage to a severely and partially 

damaged monument, an assessment should be made 

to see which particular parts of that monument can be 

retained. The decision regarding whether or not such 

parts can be retained should be made on the basis of a 

scientific and technical study, research and test of the 

structure and materials. 

(c) A detailed documentation that includes photographs, 

diagrams, drawings, notes, remarks, etc. of the parts of 

severely and partially damaged structures which need to 

be demolished should be prepared prior to demolishing 

them. 

(d) While renovating a damaged structure, it should be 

done in a manner that most of its usual parts can be 

retained as before. If under special circumstances new 

materials should be used while restoring such monuments, 

special attention should be paid to ensure that 

such materials are reversible in nature. 

(e) If the physical condition of a monument is too deteriorated 

and the remaining parts cannot be preserved and 

retained, such a monument may be demolished and rebuilt. 

Should this be the case, a detailed technical report 

containing an evidential basis for the reason to demolish 

the monument should be prepared and submitted to 

the Department of Archaeology, and it is mandatory to 

obtain approval from the Department of Archaeology to 

demolish such a monument. 

(f) Where it is proved even by scientific and technical 

test as well as study and research conclusions that 

a severely and partially damaged monument cannot be 

renovated or reconstructed at its usual location, sufficient 

proof and basis for the transfer of that monument 

should be presented to the Department of Archaeology. 

If granted approval by the Department of Archaeology, 

such a monument may be rebuilt in a certain nearby and 

appropriate location, in agreement with the local community 

and all relevant stakeholders, and in accordance 

with these Guidelines, ensuring that its original appearance 

and style is preserved. 

34. Preservation of Ordinarily Damaged Monuments 

(a) Monuments whose structural integrity has not deteriorated 

and that are only in need of ordinary intervention 

should be perceived as ordinarily damaged monuments. 

(b) Ordinarily damaged monuments should be repaired 

using materials that have same quality, physical 

composition, and artwork as the original material. 

Part 4: Guidelines for Objects 

35. Definition of Object 

A moveable object or architectural element which, despite 

its attachment to a heritage site or monument, has 

its own independent existence, should be perceived as 

an object. Such an object could be an important part of 

a monument, or it could be individual works of art at 

a heritage site. The relationship between an object and 

its original location should be made clear in one way or 

another. 

36. Object Damage Assessment 

While assessing the damage caused by the earthquake to 

a moveable object, attention should be paid to its physical 

condition, original location, and whether their relationship 

with such an object remains intact, and whether 

its original purpose is still served. Also, the object’s interrelationship 

with the heritage site, monument, or living 

tradition should be taken into consideration. 

37. Object Preservation Management 

(a) Appropriate and reliable arrangements should be 

made for the preservation, security and storage of important 

moveable elements of a damaged monument. 

461

(b) The objects displaced from their original location 

should be reestablished at their respective original locations. 

But if it is proved that the displaced objects are 

subjected to lack of security, or that they have lost their 

original purpose, they may be put on display at a different 

location in such a manner that their relationship 

with main location is expressed. 

(c) In the context of objects that have lost their important 

purpose from a physical or cultural perspective, 

they may be replaced only if there is no other alternative. 

Such objects can be kept safely and put on display at an 

appropriate location with an indication of their relationship 

with their original locations. 

Part 5: Non-classified Monuments 

(a) The restoration and rebuilding of damaged nonclassified 

monuments may generally be carried out in 

accordance with these Guidelines’ ‘General Provisions’ 

and the Guidelines (Manual?) for the Restoration and 

Rebuilding of classified Monuments. However, it shall 

not be obligatory to implement all provisions word for 

word. 

(b) Other things relating to the restoration and rebuilding 

and management of damaged non-classified monuments 

shall be as per the decision of the Department of 

Archaeology, in coordination with the stakeholders. 

Part 6: Miscellaneous 

A. To be done as per Guidelines – The Department of 

Archaeology itself and other institutions, with approval 

from, in coordination or collaboration with the Department 

of Archaeology, shall carry out the tasks relating to 

the preservation, restoration, and rebuilding of monuments 

damaged by the earthquake in accordance with 

these Guidelines and the Manual included herewith. 

B. Provision relating to the Amendment of Guidelines 

– These Guidelines may be amended from time to time, 

based on the experience gathered in the process of restoration 

and rebuilding of damaged monuments, and in 

such a manner that the main spirit of these Guidelines 

is not affected. 

C. Procedures may be Devised – The Department of Archaeology 

may devise other procedures and implementation 

methodologies, as necessary, under these Guidelines, 

in order for the effective implementation of these 

Guidelines, and to expand on the things contained in 

these Guidelines. 

D. Preservation, Restoration, and Rebuilding Manual 

– “Basic Manual for the Preservation and Rebuilding 

of Monuments Damaged by the Earthquake – 2072 

(2016)” has been formulated for the effective implementation 

of these Guidelines and to clarify the technical 

aspects contained in the Guidelines. The Manual is included 

herewith. 

E. The Department of Archaeology’s Decision Shall 

Apply – In the case of issues that are missing in these 

Guidelines, or that these Guidelines have not been able 

to address, the decision of the Department of Archeology 

shall apply. 

F. These Guidelines Shall Apply – If the things contained 

in these Guidelines contradict other standards, 

procedures, etc., these Guidelines shall apply. In such a 

case, the Department of Archeology might also make a 

special decision. 

G. May set up an Expert Committee – It is possible that 

these Guidelines may not address all types of problems 

and complexities that will emerge in the process of restoration 

and rebuilding of damaged monuments. Every 

monument may have a different and unique set of problems 

and complexities. In such a case, the Department 

462

of Archaeology may set up a committee consisting of experts 

and specialists to provide expert advice and recommendations 

to institutions, including the Department 

of Archeology. 

463

464


Mission 

Support 

Meet our Team 

Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign Donors 

465


Mission 

The Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT) 

was founded in 1991 with the mission to safeguard the 

extraordinary and threatened architectural heritage of 

the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. The negative impact of 

today’s development pressures and the Valley’s seismic 

activity pose a threat not only to individual monuments 

but to the future of public space and urban life in the 

valley at large. 

Over the past quarter-century, KVPT has saved over 

55 historic buildings including temples, step-wells, 

monasteries, palaces, and homes, and has launched three 

major campaigns for preservation on an urban scale. 

KVPT collaborates with community groups, local and 

international specialists, educational institutions, and 

the Department of Archaeology of the Government of 

Nepal. Restoration and conservation operations have 

initiated key research and training programs, and the 

KVPT office in Patan Darbar Square has become a 

resource center for architecture and urbanism in Nepal. 

Support 

KVPT is the only international organization dedicated to 

architectural preservation in the Kathmandu Valley, and 

the only such agency registered with the Government of 

Nepal’s Social Welfare Council. Each project is executed 

by KVPT on a turn-key basis in close partnership with 

the Department of Archaeology, the official agency for 

cultural heritage preservation. KVPT is a registered 

501(c)(3) non-profit organization in the United States, 

and donations are fully U.S. tax-deductible. 

Most of KVPT’s projects rely on a combination of local 

and international funding including local community 

groups, individuals, and businesses in Nepal alongside 

international counterparts from Asia, Europe and the 

United States. 

KVPT Patan Darbar 


See our website (kvptnepal.org) and 

www.kvptearthquakeresponse.org for updates and 

information about how to support ongoing efforts, or 

contact us at: 

KVPT – NEPAL 

P.O. Box 13349 

Kathmandu, Nepal 

Phone: +977 1 55 46 055 

Email: info@kvptnepal.org 

KVPT – UNITED STATES 

36 West 25th Street, 17th Floor 

New York, NY 10010, USA 

Phone: +1 212 727 0074 

Email: info@kvptnepal.org 

Meet our team 

through photos and audio interviews at 

www.kvptstories.org 

466


Patan Darbār Earthquake Campaign Donors 

(list in formation September 1, 2016) 

Donors for each project are listed alphabetically. 

North Taleju Temple 

Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development 

(Netherlands) 

Sumitomo Foundation (Japan) 

South Taleju Temple 

U.S. Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation 


Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Federal Republic 

of Germany 

Bahadur Shah and Mul Cok Roof Repairs at 

Patan Royal Palace Complex 

U.S. Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation 



of Germany 

Himal Initiative Deutschland e.V., Bamberg (Germany) 

Mangal Tol Sudhar Sangha 

The Embassy of Japan in Nepal 


(Netherlands) 

South Asia Institute (SAI), Heidelberg (Germany) 



of Germany 



British Embassy, Kathmandu 

Global Heritage Fund (United States) 



(Netherlands) 


Bonhams, New York (United States) 


John Eskenazi Foundation, London (United Kingdom) 

South Asia Institute (SAI), Heidelberg (Germany) 

World Monuments Fund (WMF) through support from 

American Express (United States) 

Krishna Mandir 

Gerda Henkel Foundation, Düsseldorf (Germany) 



Gerda Henkel Foundation, Düsseldorf (Germany) 

Lion Pillar 

University of Applied Arts, Vienna (Austria) 

Yoganarendra Malla Pillar 


Post-Earthquake Support for KVPT 

Neil Kreitman, Monomos Foundation 

Nick Simons Foundation 

Rubin-Ladd Foundation 

Mary S. Slusser 

Sarah Billinghurst Solomon 

Ivan Zimmerman 


Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage 

(Riksantikvaren), Oslo (Norway) 

In appreciation for their enthusiastic support 

of the Campaign in Patan, Heidelberg, and 

New York: 

Christiane Brosius 

Kanak Mani Dixit 

Axel Michaels 

Pratima and Prithivi Pande 

and Susannah Robinson 

467

KVPT’s Patan Darbar Earthquake Response Campaign - Work to Date - September 2016

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