1.3 MB - Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra Jaume Almera

Carbonates Evaporites (2011) 26:29–40 

DOI 10.1007/s13146-011-0052-7 

ORIGINAL ARTICLE 

Geological methods applied to speleogenetical research in vertical 

caves: the example of Torca Teyera shaft (Picos de Europa, 

northern Spain) 

Daniel Ballesteros • Montserrat Jiménez-Sánchez • 

Joaquín García-Sansegundo • Santiago Giralt 

Accepted: 19 February 2011 / Published online: 5 March 2011 

Ó Springer-Verlag 2011 

Abstract Research in large vertical caves (shafts) is rare 

and usually restricted to speleological explorations because 

of difficult access. The systemic methodology of work in 

shafts has not been established. Picos de Europa massif, in 

the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain, has a spectacular 

development of shafts deeper than 500 m. One of them is 

Torca Teyera cave, which is 738 m deep and 4 km long. 

The present study established a methodology to characterize 

the geological and geomorphological aspects of this 

special group of caves and to identify the factors contributing 

to karst development. The research is multidisciplinary, 

needs data from the cave and the caves’ 

surroundings and involves (1) the speleological cave survey 

at a 1:500 scale: the construction of a 3D model and 

morphometric analyses; (2) the geomorphological mapping 

on the cave survey at 1:500; (3) the geological and fracture 

mapping of the cave environment and cross section at 

1:5.000; and (4) the comparison in stereographic projection 

of the obtained survey data and joint measures. 

Keywords Karst Shafts Speleogenesis 

Picos de Europa Geomorphological maps 

Structural control 

D. Ballesteros (&) M. Jiménez-Sánchez 

J. García-Sansegundo 

Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Oviedo, 

C/Arias de Velasco s/n, 33005 Oviedo, Spain 

e-mail: ballesteros@geol.uniovi.es 

S. Giralt 

Instituto de las Ciencias de la Tierra Jaume Almera (CSIC), 

C/Lluís Solé i Sabarís s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain 

Introduction 

Research in vertical caves or shafts is typically limited due 

to difficult access and methodological constraints. Scientific 

studies of these require speleological exploration, 

which can often include the discovery of new caves and 

passages, as well as careful documentation (Kambesis 

2007) such as cave surveys, exploration reports, photographs 

and morphological descriptions of the cavities. 

The exploration of large shafts in Europe began in the 

late 1970s with the publication of several speleological 

studies on the Alps, Slovenia, the Pyrenees and the Picos 

de Europa Mountains. Since 1981, the Oxford University 

Cave Club has explored the shaft Pozu del H.itu (1,135 m 

deep; Singleton and Naylor 1981). The calcareous massif 

of the Picos de Europa is considered as one of the prime 

sites for investigation by speleologists owing to the spectacular 

development of large shafts (e.g., Ogando 2007). 

The speleological documentation in Picos de Europa is 

extensive, but it is neither systematized nor inventoried. 

The main karst systems are well known through speleological 

publications, which sometimes include geological 

observations (e.g., Erheyden et al. 2008). Some geological 

research in large caves of this massif has been developed 

from speleological explorations (e.g., Laverty and Senior 

1981; Senior 1987). Currently, Picos de Europa contains 

13% of the shafts known in the world to be deeper than 

1,000 m. Most of the karst systems have shafts of only a 

few kilometers. The deepest shaft in this system is Torca 

del Cerro del Cuevón, which is 1,589 m (Estévez 1998), 

and the largest cave system is the Red del Toneyu, with a 

development of 18,970 m (Gea 1991). Nevertheless, few 

works have focused on endokarsts (Hoyos Gómez 1979; 

Smart 1984, 1986; Hoyos Gómez and Herrero, 1989; 

Fernández- Gibert et al. 1992, 1994, 2000). 

123

30 Carbonates Evaporites (2011) 26:29–40 

The present study documents a methodological 

approach useful for the geological and geomorphological 

characterization of these special environments and discusses 

the conditioning of karst development. 

Setting 

Torca Teyera is a large shaft, 738 m deep, located on 

the northern part of the Picos de Europa (Fig. 1), a 

mountain massif located in the Cantabrian Mountains of 

northern Spain. From the structural standpoint, Picos de 

Europa belongs to the Cantabrian Zone of the Variscides 

domain (Lotze 1945; Julivert et al. 1972; Alonso et al. 

2009). The bedrock consists mainly of 1,200 m of carboniferous 

limestone affected by E–W to NW–SE and 

south-directed imbricate variscan system thrust (Fig. 2). 

The décollement level of the structures is above siliciclastic 

rocks from the Pisuerga-Carrión province (Pérez- 

Estaún et al. 1988; Marquínez 1989; Farias and Heredia 

1994; Bahamonde et al. 2007; Merino-Tomé et al. 2009). 

During the Alpine orogeny, some of these thrusts were 

reactivated, causing the rotation of some thrust sheets 

Fig. 1 Situation map of the 

Picos de Europa massif. The 

locations of the cave of study 

(Torca Teyera, Fig. 5) are also 

shown 

123 

and leading to the formation of the main relief 

(Alonso et al. 1996; Pulgar et al. 1999; Gallastegui 

Suárez 2000). 

Picos de Europa is characterized by a rough and calcareous 

relief with peaks exceeding 2,500 m above sea 

level (asl) and by the presence of narrow canyons, such as 

the Cares Gorge. Canyons up to 2,000-m deep evidence the 

important fluvial incision derived from uplifting. The karst 

forms dominate the landscape (Hoyos Gómez 1979; Smart 

1984, 1986; Hoyos Gómez and Herrero 1989; Santos 

Alonso and Marquínez García, 2005), although glacial and 

periglacial features are preserved (Alonso 1991; González 

Suárez and Alonso 1994; Gale and Hoare 1997; Alonso 

1998; Jiménez-Sánchez and Farias Arquer 2002; González 

Trueba 2006, 2007; Moreno et al. 2009; Serrano Cañadas 

and González Trueba 2004). Moreover, nival, gravity and 

fluviotorrential processes also control the geomorphological 

evolution of the landscape. 

Torca Teyera shaft was discovered, explored and surveyed 

by the Groupe Spéléo du Doubs, the Société Suisse 

de Spéléo-Section de Genève, the Société des Amateurs des 

Caverns and the Spéléo Club of Nyon between 1979 

and 1982 (Borreguero 1986). During these explorations,

Carbonates Evaporites (2011) 26:29–40 31 

Fig. 2 Geological map of Picos de Europa (after Martínez García and Rodríguez Fernández 1984; Marquínez 1989; Merino-Tomé et al. 2009). 

Location of Torca Teyera (Fig. 5) is shown 

Borreguero (1986) prepared the first karst research presenting 

the structural control and cave development. From 

2007 to 2009, 2,700 m of new cave passages were 

discovered by the Asociación Deportiva GEMA. At the 

present, Torca Teyera has 4 km of known passages 

reaching a depth of 738 m. 

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Methodology 

The present methodology includes multidisciplinary 

observations to obtain both surficial data and data from the 

underground of the cave. The method is adapted to attain 

access to the shaft, which is difficult, and is based on speleological 

(Butcher 1950), geomorphological and structural 

geology techniques (Alonso et al. 1999; Jiménez-Sánchez 

et al. 2004, 2005, 2006). The method includes the definition 

of an area of 12 km 2 (Figs. 1, 2) including the cave 

and its surroundings: (1) the speleological survey at a 1:500 

scale; (2) the geomorphological mapping of the cave at a 

scale of 1:500 and surrounding of the cavity at a 1:5,000 

scale; and (3) the structural study that includes the geological 

and fracture mapping at a 1:5,000 scale, the cross 

section, rose diagram analyses and the definition of the 

joints families on stereographic projection. 

Cave survey and morphometric analyses 

The cave survey that corresponds to the Torca Teyera shaft 

is the cave projection in a horizontal plane. The survey was 

mapped using the speleological classical method at a 1:500 

scale where successive stations were defined in the passages. 

Distances, orientation and dip data were measured 

between stations using a tape measure or laser, a ruler and a 

clinometer, respectively. The cavity survey was made by 

considering a reference level between 30 cm and 1.5 m 

above the cave floor. The collected data were managed 

using the VisualTopo.503 software program (David 2009) 

to define the survey line (a line connecting the stations). 

The survey is conducted over the survey line consulting the 

sketches made during the data collection phase. The 

VisualTopo.503 software produces a 3D model approximating 

the passages by an octagonal conduit, the axes of 

which are the height and width of the passages. 

The morphometric analyses consist of the representation 

of the survey data on stereographic projection, a common 

structural technique applied to compile figures on the 

direction and dip of the cave passages. The orientation and 

inclination data are represented on the plot per meter of 

surveyed cave. Afterward, a density analysis is made and 

the main groups of passages established according to this 

direction and dip. 

Geomorphological research 

The geomorphological research includes geomorphological 

mapping of both cave and cavity surroundings. Cave geomorphological 

mapping was carried out at a 1:500 scale, 

taking the cave survey as a topographical basis. Cavity 

features were inventoried and classified according to 

genetic, morphological and sedimentary criteria (Jiménez- 

123 

Sánchez et al. 2006; Ford and Williams 2007). Sometimes, 

the geomorphological mapping and the survey were performed 

simultaneously. The limits of the different features 

were established and projected on the survey map. Some of 

the geomorphological elements located in the cave walls 

could not be represented by projecting them on the survey, 

since the survey had to be made at different heights above 

the ground. This problem was due to the difficulties in 

establishing objectively the boundary between the floor and 

the wall of the cave. Therefore, the geomorphological 

elements are shown schematically on the outside contour of 

the passages to minimize these problems. These elements 

were brought down on the walls along an axis located on 

the edge of the passages. 

A geomorphologic mapping of the cave surroundings 

was charted at a 1,500 scale using field observations and 

photo interpretation. This map covers a surface of 12 km 2 

and includes different landscape features that are classified 

according to genetic criteria (Martín-Serrano et al. 2004) in 

karstic, glacial, snow, periglacial, gravity and mixed forms. 

This map also includes the entrances of the caves and the 

projection of their passages that have been explored by the 

speleologists (Borreguero 1986; Carbajal Rodríguez and 

Saiz Barreda 2003); Carbajal et al. 2008; Ballesteros et al. 

2009, 2010). 

Geological mapping and structural analyses 

The geological and fracture maps, covering a combined 

total surface of 12 km 2 (Fig. 2), were produced at a 

1:5,000 scale by means of field work and photo interpretation. 

Three geological cross sections were also prepared. 

The cavity study and others were projected over 

the maps and over the geological cross sections. Rose 

diagram from the data of the fracture map was prepared to 

compare with a rose diagram obtained from the orientation 

of the cave passages. Furthermore, 157 joint data 

measures (dip and direction) were taken on the surface 

(124) and in the shaft (33). These data were represented 

on stereographic projection and a density analysis was 

made. The analysis of densities allows the establishment 

of joint families in which the median plane is illustrated 

in the plot with the bedding. Afterward, the density plot of 

the orientation and dip of the passages were represented 

on the stereographic projection to compare the control of 

the joints and the bedding with the direction and inclination 

of the passages. 

Results and discussion 

The application of the methods described above obtained 

the following results.


Cave survey and morphometric analyses 

The cave survey and the 3D model are shown in Fig. 3. 

The cavity consists of three levels of galleries (horizontal 

passages) and several pits (vertical passages). The galleries 

represent 72% of the development of the cave and are 

narrow meanders up to 50 m that join as tributaries and 

converge to the NE. Thus, the cavity is a branchwork cave 

defined by Palmer (1991). The passages follow the NW–SE 

and NE–SW direction in the northern part of the cavity and 

the N–S and E–O trend in the southern area. 

The groups of passages according to their orientation 

and dip were determinate by the representation of the 

survey data on stereographic projection. This approximation 

is sufficient for passages, but not fully adequate for 

shafts because the survey depends on the track of the 

speleologists. Therefore, a part of the subvertical measures 

does not represent subvertical passages. This fact has been 

taken into account for the interpretation of data. Four 

groups of passages were established and the median value 

of the direction and dip are: (1) subvertical, (2) N10°W/ 

20°NW, (3) N45°E/20°NE and (4) N125°E/0°. 

Cave geomorphological mapping 

A selected portion of the geomorphological map of the 

southern sector of the shaft is illustrated in Fig. 4. The 

legend of the map is divided into three parts: issues related 

to (1) the survey, (2) geomorphological features and (3) 

geological aspects. The first group includes morphometric 

data related to the passages: contour (using the upper and 

lower contour when there is an overlap), scarps and pits, 

presence of rivers or lakes, the slope of the ground and the 

value of altitude and depth from the cave entrance at 

several points. The position of possible continuations of 

Fig. 3 a The cave survey and 

b the 3D model of Torca 

Teyera. The study location 

described in Fig. 4 is shown 

cave passages is also shown. The group of geomorphological 

features includes (1) speleothems, (2) fluviokarst 

and (3) gravity forms. Speleothems are classified into 

dripstones, flowstones, and mixed and other forms. Dripstone 

forms include stalagmites, stalactites and columns. 

The flowstones present as cascades and laminar forms. The 

mixed forms include stalagmite masses that originated by 

drip and flow of water (Fig. 4a). Other peculiar forms such 

as pool deposits or collaroids forms are noted. The fluviokarst 

forms are classified as erosive forms or sedimentation 

forms. The erosive forms include scallops, roof 

pendants, corrosion notches, solution runnels, potholes and 

relict channels. The erosive forms are mostly located in 

active and canyon shaped passages, shafts and at higher 

levels, such as relict forms (Fig. 4b). The fluvial deposits 

are divided into deposits of the active stream channel and 

the fluvial terrace (Fig. 4c). These deposits have been 

classified according to the grain size as pebbles, sand and 

pebbles, sand, and clay and mud. Finally, the gravity forms 

are debris deposits, fallen boulders and single pebbles and 

gravel that have been shed by rockfall processes (Varnes 

1978). The breakdown deposits cover or are covered by 

other fluvial and precipitation deposits. The geomorphological 

map also includes other remarkable geological 

aspects: quartz, galena and malachite mineralizations, 

altered substrate, structural data and volcanic rocks. 

Geomorphological mapping of the cave surrounding 

Torca Teyera is located under a free and half-exposed 

karren, dominated by karstic, glacial and nival activity. The 

geomorphologic map of the cave surroundings is shown in 

Fig. 5a. The distribution of the geomorphological features 

is uneven. The deposits represent 27.3% of the area of 

study and are mainly situated in the valleys. The erosive 

123


Fig. 4 Details from a selected 

portion of the cave 

geomorphology map, its legend 

and pictures of different 

passages. Inset a represents a 

gallery shaped like a canyon, 

b a stalagmite mass and 

c terrace deposits formed by 

levels of mud and sand 

123


Fig. 5 a Geomorphological 

map, b geological map and 

c fracture map of Torca Teyera 

area. The shaft is projected on 

maps and cross section of 

Fig. 6a. The data of the caves 

are from Borreguero (1986), 

Carbajal Rodríguez and Saiz 

Barreda (2003), Carbajal et al. 

(2008), Ballesteros et al. (2009, 

2010) 

forms have been identified at the hillside and the peaks. 

The closed depressions occupy 5.0% and are developed on 

slopes up to 40°. 

Karstic, snow, glacial, periglacial and gravity forms 

were mapped. The former includes karstic deposits, 

dolines, glaciokarst depressions, caves and cave passages 

projections. The karst deposits are situated in the areas 

without slope and are mainly formed by mud that comes 

from the dissolution of the limestone. The sinkholes are 

depressions of 5- to 20-m wide and 1- to 5-m depth and 

associated with gravitational deposits. The dolines are 

closed and dominated by breakdown processes; thus, they 

are mostly collapsed sinkholes. The glaciokarst depressions 

are closed hollows of 600-m wide and 70-m depth located 

123


at the valley bottom. The depressions originated from 

glacial, karstical and snow activity (Smart 1986; Alonso 

1998). The entrances of caves are mainly situated in 

sinkholes or glaciokarst depression and represent cave 

passages truncated by erosion. Torca Teyera is located 

under a free karren with a lot of closed depressions, gravity 

deposits and some glacier cirques. 

The nivation forms include one moraine and some cirques 

originated by snow activity. The nivation cirques are 

observed in some walls of dolines and in scarps oriented to 

the NE or SW. The snow moraine is located under one 

nival cirque. Glacial forms cover till deposits, horns, arête, 

cirques and moraines. A glacial valley is observed in the 

NW of Torca Teyera shaft. Till deposits, mainly formed by 

limestone pebbles and boulders, sand and mud, are found 

in this valley. In some cases, boulders of limestone in 

certain facies are found on the bedrock of limestone with 

other facies. The till is often presented in moraines of 1- to 

6-m wide and 50- to 60-m long. The horns are degraded 

and are situated in the peaks where some arêtes converge. 

The cirques are greatly degraded by karstification and their 

size is between 100 and 300 m. The only periglacial evidence 

is a rock glacier shown on the eastern part of the 

map. The deposit is formed by limestone gravels and 

boulders, and presents some transverse and longitudinal 

ridges and furrows. 

Gravitational forms include debris fall, talus deposits 

and rock avalanches and are situated under scarps and in 

sinkholes. The debris fall generally consists of angular 

pebbles and gravels of limestone. The talus deposits are 

mostly formed of limestone pebbles and gravel, sand and 

mud; these are usually vegetated. The rock avalanches are 

formed from disorganization of angular boulders and 

pebbles of limestone in the NE of the map. 

Some geomorphological features (till, closed depressions, 

cirques, arêtes, gravity deposits and the rock glacier) 

are mainly orientated following the NW–SE and NE–SW 

directions. This trend represents the orientation of the 

bedding, thrusts and the main faults. 

Geologic mapping and structural research 

The cavity surrounding of the geological map was formed 

by both the cave development and the tectonics (Fig. 5b). 

The surroundings of Torca Teyera were formed by 1,000 m 

of limestone of the Valdeteja and Picos de Europa Formations 

stacked vertically. The limestone is divided into 

three strata domain as defined by Bahamonde et al. (2007): 

(1) toe of slope and basin facies, (2) slopes facies and (3) 

platform top facies. The toe of slope and basin facies 

include well-stratified coarse-grained beds formed by 

breccias, bioclastic pack to grainstone limestone, chert and 

shales. The slopes facies consist of massive limestone, 

123 

breccias and boundstone with botryoidal cement fans. The 

platform top facies include stratification rocks, mainly 

formed by skeletal pack, to grainstone limestone and pink 

fossil-rich limestone. Moreover, an andesitic dyke is recognized 

in the western middle part of the geological map. 

The cavity studied is developed on limestone affected by 

an NW–SE trending, subvertical and SW-directed thrusts 

and other faults, the direction of which is SE–NW, SW–NE 

or N–S (Figs. 5b, 6a). Two sequences of thrusts have been 

recognized based on their geometric relationships. The first 

sequence dips 50–70 NE and is interrupted by an out-ofsequence 

anomaly, which dips by 80–90° NE. 

Figure 5a shows 2,367 fractures in the study area; these 

are represented in a rose diagram (Fig. 6b). The plot shows 

three groups of fractures with directions: (1) NE–SW, (2) 

N–S and (3) NW–SE. The first group represents 45% of the 

total fractures and the second group represents another 17%. 

The direction of the cave passages are analyzed by another 

rose diagram (Fig. 6c). On comparing both (fracture and 

cave direction) rose diagrams, the first structural control of 

the orientation can be semiqualitatively established. The 

dispersion of values of the shaft orientation is greater than 

the fracture data, although the NW–SE direction of the cave 

is noted. The group considered as Fracture 1 is the most 

abundant collection, but its influence on the cavity development 

is less than the group considered as Fracture 2. This 

method does not consider the influence of the bedding and 

the intersection between discontinuities; consequently, it is 

only a first approximation to the structural factor. 

Seven families of joints have been established on the 

stereographic projection. The average plane of each family 

is represented in Fig. 7a. The families J2, J3 and J5 correspond 

to the fractures already recognized in a previous 

work (Borreguero 1986). The density plot of the orientation 

and dip of the passages has been shown in gray scale on the 

stereographic projection (Fig. 7a) to compare the main 

orientations and dips of the joints, the bedding and the cave 

passages. Figure 7a highlights that subvertical cave passages 

(Group 1 of galleries) are conditioned by the joint 

families J1, J3, J4 and J6, as well as their intersections. The 

galleries belonging to Group 2 (N10°W/20°N) are mainly 

controlled by the intersection between the families J5 and 

J6. The passages dipping down 20° to the NE (Group 3) 

are ruled by the intersection between family J1, J2, J5 and 

J7. The latter group of passages consists of horizontal 

galleries in the direction N125°E and follows the bedding 

(Fig. 7b). 

Conclusions 

The use of a multidisciplinary methodology including the 

speleological cave survey, geomorphological mapping and


Fig. 6 a One of the three cross 

sections prepared, the position 

of which is shown in Fig. 5b. 

b Rose diagram of the fracture 

direction and c of the orientation 

of Torca Teyera passages 

structural techniques is adequate to develop reliable geomorphological 

assumptions for a cave with difficult access. 

Also, this multidisciplinary methodology allows the definition 

of factors controlling karst development, especially 

the quantitative evaluation of the structural influence on 

endokarst. 

The speleological cave survey is a graphical document 

that is useful to plot geological and geomorphological 

information. However, its development is complex due to 

the adversity of the environment and the subjective criteria 

of the researcher who has to include different elements 

located at inconstant heights above the floor. The 3D model 

approximates the geometry of the endokarst system as a 

whole. In the scale of the passage, the approximation is not 

correct because the irregularities of the passage walls are 

not seen. When a section of a gallery or a shaft is not 

subcircular, the model does not properly represent the shape 

of the passage because the software uses an octagonal 

section to approximate the shape of the section. Where the 

galleries display a canyon morphology, modeling results are 

not accurate because, in the model, the value of passage 

widths decreases with the distance to the floor and the roof. 

After modeling, further analyzing the cave survey data with 

stereographic projection is useful to quantitatively classify 

the cavity passage according to the direction and dip. 

Cave geomorphologic mapping indicates the different 

forms and their spatial distribution. The map informs about 

the genetic processes and their spatial and temporal relationships. 

These aspects are the base of the speleogenetical 

model of the shaft. Some limitations of the method are 

conditioned by the precision of the cave survey. In the wall 

of the passages, several interesting forms are present; 

nevertheless, these forms cannot be represented on the cave 

survey because the plot is only a horizontal projection. If 

the forms on the walls are projected over the survey, all of 

them are situated in the same place. The imprecision of 

information on walls can be solved by projecting down the 

forms on the cave limits. 

123


Fig. 7 a Stereographic 

projection of the orientation and 

dip of the passages showing the 

position of the planes that 

represent the main families of 

joints and the bedding; b a cave 

passage that has been controlled 

by the bending; and c the 

structural control of each group 

of galleries 

The geological and fracture mapping of the cave surrounding 

and the cross section with the shaft projection 

determine the qualitative structural control of the cave. The 

comparison between the fracture direction and the orientation 

of the cavity passage allows a first hypothesis about 

the structural control. This comparison does not consider 

the bending, dip or the hypothetical intersection between 

the discontinuities. These limitations can be resolved using 

stereographic projection, where the dip and the direction of 

joints, bedding and cave passages are represented. This plot 

that includes survey data together with structural data 

evaluates quantitatively the relationship between the 

structure and the endokarst. 

Acknowledgments This research has been funded through the 

CONTRACT project (CN-06-177) provided by ASTURIAS 

GOVERNMENT-OVIEDO UNIVERSITY, CALIBRE project 

(CAVECAL) (CGL2006-13327-C04/CLI) provided by Ministerio de 

Educación y Cultura and GRACCIE project (CONSOLIDER 

PROGRAM) (CSD2007-00067) provided by Centro de Investigación 

Científica y Tecnológica. We acknowledge Dr. Juan Bahamonde, 

Dr. Óscar Merino, Gemma Sendra, Irene de Felipe, Asociación 

Deportiva Gema, Grupo Espeleológico Polifemo and GES Montañeiros 

Celtas for their help. 

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