Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Teachers College Educational ...

Proceedings of the Fourth Annual
Teachers College Educational Technology Conference
Teachers College, Columbia University
New York, NY
May 19 – 20, 2012
Presented by the Communication, Computing, and Technology in Education
Program and the Department of Mathematics, Science, and Technology.
blogs.tc.columbia.edu/tcetc

All works copyright 2012, individual authors

Table of Contents
Math Strategies in Digital Storytelling: Effects of Multiple
Pedagogical Agents on Learning Single-Digit Addition Strategies
Kara Carpenter.……………………………...……………………………………………………………01
Guidelines for an Online Networking Space for Design Learning
Pinar Ceyhan………………………………………………………………………………..………….....04
Investigating Potential Factors to Increase Levels of Participation in Class
Discussion
Apichai Chaiwinij....…………………………………………………………………………………........08
Investigating the Effects of Choice and Feedback as Learning Mechanics in
an Educational Game
Pantiphar Chantes, Apichai Chaiwinij, Nilgun Gunbas, Tatyana Dvorkin, Daniel L. Hoffman,
Selen Turkay ……………………………………………………………………………………………...10
Videogames in Institutional Practice: Towards A Taxonomic Model of
Negotiated Control Between Code and Context
Laquana Cooke..………………………………………………………………………………………….12
The Rhetoric of Learning in Games
Laquana Cooke, Raymond Lutzky……..……………………………………………………………….13
Youth in the Digital Age: Digital Media and Technologies for Supporting
Civic Engagement
Tenzin Doleck …………………………………………………………………..………………………...14
Augmenting The Arrival: Students’ Mobile Device-Enabled Narratives
Christian Ehret.………………………………………………………………...………………………….16
Designing and Developing Apps for Learning and Instruction Research
Cameron L. Fadjo, Benjamin Friedman………………………………………………………………...17
Connected to Word Problems: Improving Mathematical Problem Solving
While Exergaming
Benjamin Friedman……………………………………………………………………………………….18
Computer-Mediated Communication and Deaf Students: Increasing Equity
and Intersubjectivity
Carrie Lou Garberoglio..………………………………………………………………………………….21
MOOCs, Open Education, and Implications for Online Schooling for Middle
School/High School Students
Kristin Gorski ……………………………………………………………………………………………..22
Augmenting The Arrival: Students’ Mobile Device-Enabled Narratives
Ty Hollett ………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
i

Promoting Healthy Eating Habits Through Monster Appetite
Maria Hwang, Pantiphar Chantes, Grant Tedaldi, Ann Louie R. Lomboy…………………………..24
Knowledge Creation: Museum-Based Aesthetics and Technology
Sarah MK Ko ……………………………………………………………………………………………...27
Digital Modeling Artifacts as Geometric Thinking & Learning: Top, Side and
Perspective Views to Improve Spatial Abilities
Sorachai Kornkasem ……………………………………………………………………………………..32
Using Weblogs to Increase Language Arts Proficiency in ESL Students
Maureen Kramanak ………………………………………………………………………………………34
Media Literacy in Action: Using Teaching for Understanding and Universal
Design for Learning to Develop a Media Literacy Lesson Series
Jennifer Lavalle……………………………...…………………………………………………………….38
Learning Science Systems with Graphic Computer Simulations
Na Li, Mengzi Gao, Haofei Shen, Yuyang Guo, Daniel Lee………………………………………....40
From Aristotle to Adobe: Examining Approaches to Integrating and
Sustaining Multimodal Compositions in the Classroom
Lisa Litterio…………………………………………………………………………………………………43
Applying Physics to the Real World: Using Embodiment and LEGO
Mindstorms in Physics Learning for Children
Carol M. Lu, Seokmin Kang, Sorachai Kornkasem, Laura M. Lu……………………………………44
Credibility of Culturally Situated Design Tools: Mathematics and Black
Identity
Raymond Lutzky…………………………………………………………………………………………..46
iPad for Autism: How can the iPad serve as a teaching tool for students on
the Autism Spectrum?
Sheena S. Mozaffar……………………………………………………………………………………….49
Video Games and Vocabulary: Exploring New Possibilities for Vocabulary
Acquisition and Instruction
Mark Barba Pacheco…………………………………………………………..…………………………51
Online Learning Environments in Higher Education: Connectivism vs.
Dissociation
Sasha Reese………………………………………………………………………...…………………….52
Exploration of concepts to facilitate diverse knowledge practices and
personal learning environments
Sabine Reisas……………………………………………………………………………………………..54
Exploring the Intersection of Formative Assessment, Multimedia Design,
and Mobile Technologies
Richards Reshan………………………………………………………………………………………….56
ii

Harnessing the Power of Emotionally Cogent Stimuli for Optimal Learning
Sydney M. Savion…………………………………………………………………………………………59
#phdchat: a community of practice on twitter
sava saheli singh………………………………………………………………………………………….62
A Difficult Balance: Regulating Cyberbullying in the Age of Social Media
Dino Sossi………………………………………………………………………………………………….64
Giving Voice to Images: Visual Data as a Means of Promoting Youth
Participation
Dino Sossi………………………………………………………………………………………………….67
Gone in an Instant: Using Visual Media to Improve Teacher Professional
Practice Participation
Dino Sossi………………………………………………………………………………………………….69
Meaningful clicks, significant bricks: Perceptions of creativity and agency
in physical and virtual play
Lillian Spina-Caza…………………………………………………………………………………………71
Design of computer assisted tools for bridging the gap between receptive
vocabulary and expressive vocabulary for ESL learners
Woonhee Sung, Junghyun Ahn…………………………………………………………………………74
User Experiences with Avatar Customization in Second Life and
Lord of the Rings Online
Selen Turkay………………………………………………………………………………………………78
Design Patterns for Promoting Self-Reflection in Learning Games
Ralph Vacca, Meagan K. Bromley………………………………………………………………………80
Cooperative Inquiry in Designing Technology in Life-Relevant Learning for
Science
Jason C. Yip, Tamara Lynnette Clegg, Allison J. Druin, Mona Leigh Guha, Evan Golub, Elizabeth
Bonsignore, Elizabeth Foss, and Greg Walsh…………………………………………………………82
Designing Instruction for Affect: The Need for Feelings of Belonging in
Distance Education
Sara Behani Zaker………………………………………………………………………………………..85
The Use of Dynamic Geometry Software for the development of Specialized
Subject Matter Knowledge
V. Serbay Zambak, Traci L. Carter……………………………………………………………...……...87
iii

Math Strategies in Digital Storytelling: Effects of Multiple
Pedagogical Agents on Learning Single-Digit Addition Strategies
Kara Carpenter,
Teachers College, 525 W 120 th NY, NY 10027,
Email: kkc2123@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: The current study explores the effects of drawing on children’s understanding
of narrative in developing multiple pedagogical agents to teach complex information.
Specifically, the study investigates how multiple strategy characters (versus a single
character) affect first graders’ ability to utilize different addition strategies as well as
progress towards more efficient strategies. Lower performing students in the multiple
character condition were less accurate, yet were more likely to use an advanced strategy.
Given the use of an advanced strategy, they were more likely to give a nearly accurate
response (+ or – 1), indicating that these students were taking more risks in trying out
new strategies. These results suggest that improved performance on addition tasks
should not be judged based on accuracy alone. A careful analysis of strategy use in
conjunction with exact accurate and near accurate answers gives a more complete
picture of children’s strategy development.
Introduction
Many educational computer games incorporate fantasy, but for too many the fantasy is only superficial,
merely a setting or a mechanism for explanations. Complex ideas that may lend themselves to a narrative
with multiple characters are presented instead from a single perspective. I propose developing multiple
pedagogical agents to improve teaching of complex information. Specifically, I investigate how multiple
strategy characters affect young children’s ability to utilize different addition strategies as well as progress
towards more efficient strategy usage.
Learning games that incorporate a pedagogical agent can show both improved learning and interest,
especially when the agent provides interactive explanations (Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001).
Several studies have begun to explore the effects of multiple pedagogical agents (Baylor & Ebbers, 2003;
White, Shimoda, & Fredericksen, 2000), yet more research is needed.
In solving addition facts, children use a variety of strategies: count all, count on, derived facts, and
retrieval (Carpenter & Moser, 1984; Siegler, 1987). One software activity developed at Teachers College,
Think Facts, supports children’s use of more sophisticated addition strategies, promoting retrieval with
timers and repeated practice, while also providing supportive tools to help students count on and
demonstrate derived facts (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Think Facts Doubles Tool Demonstrating Derived Facts
1

Think Facts introduces four characters: Count-all Carla, Count-on Connie, Friendly Facts Frieda, and
Memory Max, with the more sophisticated strategies appearing older (see Figure 2). The hypothesis is
that learning from multiple agents will improve knowledge of addition facts and strategies.
Methods
Participants were 47 first-grade public school students, blocked into three groups by pretest score and
randomly assigned to one of two conditions: multiple characters or single character. While using the
software, the computer logged participants’ accuracy in the task, self-reported strategy, tool usage, and
response time. Researchers coded observed strategies. The study consisted of pre/post-testing and six
intervention sessions of 10 – 20 minutes, divided into three parts: an interactive instructional video, an
untimed round, and a speed round.
Results
Participants did not differ in terms of age, gender, or pretest scores between treatment groups. Both
groups improved from pretest to posttest with no significant differences between groups. Analyzing the
session data reveals that students in the multiple character condition were less accurate than those in the
single character condition, although splitting the data by block reveals that only those in the low block
performed worse (see Table 1).
Score
Count-all Carla, Count-on Connie, Facts Frieda, Memory Max
Figure 2: Think Facts Strategy Characters
Total
Low Block
(n = 23)
Med Block
(n = 12)
High Block
(n = 12)
Single Multiple Single Multiple Single Multiple Single Multiple
0 331** 421** 166** 291** 139* 106* 26 24
.5 66 88 32 50 21 26 13 12
1 1727** 1611** 791** 714** 410* 453* 526 444
Note. A score of 0 indicates inaccuracy on both attempts; .5 indicates a correct answer on the second
attempt; 1 indicates a correct answer on the first attempt. Single and multiple indicate the condition.
*significant at p < .05
**significant at p < .001
Table 1: Trial Accuracy by Block and Condition
Strategy Single Multiple Strategy Single Multiple
Count All 433** 366**
Count ? 122** 42**
Delay 258** 359**
Count On (after tool) 6 13
2
Non-advanced 819** 780**
Count On 81 110 Advanced 169** 275**

Derived Facts 0 1
Quick 88** 164**
Note. The strategies are listed in the order of typical development.
**significant at p < .001
Table 2: Strategy Use by Condition for Low Block (n = 23)
Looking at the participants’ strategy use helps indicate why they are less accurate. Participants in the lowblock
multiple-character condition are more likely to be using an advanced strategy (see Table 2). Given
that they use an advanced strategy, they are not more likely to be accurate, but they are more likely to be
near the answer on their first or second attempt (see Table 3).
Score
Exact Answer
(on first attempt)
Near Answer
(+ or – 1 on first attempt)
3
Near on either attempt
Single Multiple Single Multiple Single Multiple
0 841 877 830* 831* 815* 813*
1 148 178 159* 224* 174* 242*
Note. A score of 1 indicates both use of an advanced strategy and meeting the column
criteria, whereas 0 indicates a non-advanced strategy and/or not meeting the column criteria.
* significant at p < .05
Table 3: Effective Use of Advanced Strategies by Condition for Low Block (n = 23)
Discussion
Improved performance on addition tasks should not be judged based on accuracy alone. A careful
analysis of strategy use in conjunction with exact accurate and near accurate answers gives a more
complete picture of children’s development. Looking at accuracy alone, the hypothesis that multiple
characters improve addition performance would be rejected, especially for lower performing students. Yet
also analyzing strategy and near accuracy reveals that multiple characters may be helping these lower
performing students to take more risks and try out new, more advanced strategies. More research is
needed to determine if taking risks in trying out new strategies helps students to become more accurate
over time and to investigate why the multiple characters encourage these risks.
References
Baylor, A. L., & Ebbers, S. (2003). The pedagogical agent split-persona effect: When two agents are
better than one. ED-MEDIA (pp. 1-5). Honululu, Hawaii.
Carpenter, T. P., & Moser, J. M. (1984). The acquisition of addition and subtraction concepts in grades
one through three. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 15(3), 179-202.
Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computerbased
teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical
agents? Cognition and Instruction, 19(2), 177-213.
Piaget, J. (1929). Introduction: Problems and Methods. The Childʼs Conception of the World. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Siegler, R. S. (1987). The Perils of Averaging Data Over Strategies : An Example From Children's
Addition. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 116(3).
White, B. Y., Shimoda, T. A., & Fredericksen, J. R. (2000). Facilitating students inquiry learning and
metacognitive development through modifiable software advisers. In S. Lajoie (Ed.), Computers as
cognitive tools vol 2: No more walls (pp. 97-132). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

Guidelines for an Online Networking Space for Design Learning
Pinar Ceyhan,
Columbia University, 525 W. 120th St. New York,
Email: pc2496@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: Tracing back to Ecole Des Beaux Arts design studio has always been central
to design education. In design studio students learn from their peers, by the guidance of
a master teacher (Broadfoot & Bennett, 2003). Since design education is built upon
learning by doing within the design community at school, an Online Social Networking
Space designed specifically for designers, replicating and extending the community in
studio, has potential to enrich this experience. Furthermore, by connecting students with
their peers, teachers, other institutions and professionals, within and outside of school
regardless of their proximity to each other, it can also provide opportunities for an
informal and lifelong learning. The goal of this research is to identify guidelines for a
conceptual online networking space, enhancing design studio experience for explicit
design learning to happen, while taking design pedagogy and the interaction offered by
current design networking sites into consideration.
Habraken (2007) identifies “good judgement” as what makes the final form in design, and design studio
as the ideal setting to learn the art of good judgment. On the other hand, he criticizes the studio setting as
being limited to the teacher's preferences, resulting in predominantly implicit teaching and imitative
learning (Habraken, 2007). As they are developing their personal design vision at school, exposing
students to different design perspectives can help avoiding imitative learning Habraken warns us about.
Expanding Kamihira, Aoki & Nakano’s pedagogical model if students share their ideas and projects in a
network of other students and designers, they will have the chance to get feedback and learn from a
broader design community (Figure 1). An online-networked space, with a broader user profile from both
academia and professional design community can extend the social context offered in the design studio,
and introduce students to new ideas and points of view.
Designing in remote collaboration has been explored as early as 1988 (Broadfoot & Bennett, 2003). The
use of information and Communication Technologies enabled working on projects in Virtual Design
Studios. Although successful collaborations were established, the medium posed challenges in
establishing effective communication. Rapid developments in technology naturally rendered some of the
earlier communication and presentation issues irrelevant today. Subsequently we see more studies on
reflective and collaborative design learning, where online social networking is utilized as a communication
and file-sharing platform (Kamihira, Aoki & Nakano, 2011). The research evaluated some of the earlier
and recent studies conducted in design schools on designing in remote collaboration, in order to come up
with guidelines for a networking platform where the main focus would be supporting design learning.
In order to identify which features of current networking sites can support design education, and what
other features can be implemented to support design learning, four websites; DeviantArt, Etsy,
Design:Related and Design21: Social Design Network were examined. All four of the sites enable
networking, showcasing art and design work, and job search. In addition to these, DeviantArt and Etsy
also allow their members to sell their work online. Based on Maher, Paulini and Murty’s 2011 Analysis of
Successful Collective Intelligence Table, these websites are assessed in representation of a Design
problem and solution, communication and motivation (Table 1).
The initial guidelines for an online social networking space for design learning are listed below:
1- Networking platform for design education should support reflective writing
2- Networking platform for design education should support archiving different kinds of file formats.
3- Networking platform for design education should support creating linkage among blog posts and work
created, and allow sorting to display various connections made by the student.
4- Networking platform for design education should allow mobility.
5- Networking platform for design education should enlist the collaboration of independent API
developers and companies creating digital tools for design.
4

6- Networking platform for design education should support collective and collaborative design,
by allowing creation of project pages and invitation of collaborators to the page.
Although the technology to build a platform with aforementioned features exists, none of the
current online networking sites have combined them all in one. This is understandable since most
of these sites have different business models, targeting very specific needs in the art and design
community. The interactions they offer mostly help self-promotion and meeting fellow designers.
In order to further articulate these guidelines, different design activities requiring the use of social
networking and mobile design tools is scheduled to be piloted among first year undergraduate
graphic and industrial design students, in Fall 2012. The pilot study will make further evaluation
possible on the potentials and affordances of an online networking space for design education.
Figures and Tables
Type
I = Image
T = Text
3D = 3DModel
V = Video
Content
P = Problem
Description
S = Solution,
Knowledge, World
Model
Figure 1: Expanding Kamihira, Aoki & Nakano’s 2011 pedagogical model).
Deviant Art Etsy Design:Related Design21sdn
Representation of a Design Problem/Solution
I + T
S
I + T
S
5
I + T
P + S (in some
cases solutions
were displayed
on a third party
website which
I + T
P + S (in some
cases solutions
were displayed
on a third party
website which
Network for
Design Learning
I + T + V + 3D
P + S

Mode
S = Synchronous
A=Asynchronous
Type
D = Direct
I = Indirect
Content
C = Comments
E = Entries
V = Votes
B = Broad Range
Structure
0 = no structure
S = scale free
M = Multiple
E = Emergent
A
D
C + E + V
S
A
D
C + E + V
S + M
held the
competition)
Communication
Motivation
6
A
D
C + E + V
S + M
held the
competition)
A
D
C + E + V
S + M
S + A
D + I
C + E + V + B
S + M + E
Ideology X X X
Challenge X X X X X
Career X X X X X
Social X X X X X
Fun X X X X X
Reward X X X X
Recognition X X X X X
Duty X X X X
Table 1: Based on Maher, Paulini and Murty, 2011 Analysis of Successful Collective
Intelligence Table
References
Broadfoot, O. & Bennett, R. (2003). Design studios online?: Comparing traditional face-to-face design
studio education with modern internet-based design studios, in Apple University Consortium
(online). Retrieved November 22, 2011
http://auc.uow.edu.au/conf/conf03/papers/AUC_DV2003_Broadfoot.pdf
“Design21sdn,” 2008. Retrieved April 13, 2012 from http://www.design21sdn.com/
“Design:Related,” 2011. Retrieved March 05, 2012, from http://designrelated.com/
“DeviantArt,” 2012. Retrieved March 05, 2012, from http://welcome.deviantart.com/
“Etsy,” 2012. Retrieved March 05, 2012, from http://welcome.deviantart.com/
Habraken, N. J. (2007) To tend a garden: Thoughts on strengths and limits of studio pedagogy. In A.
M. Salama & N. Wilkinson (Eds.), Design Studio Pedagogy: Horizons for the Future. Gateshead,
UK: Urban International Press.

Kamihira, T., Aoki M. & Nakano, T. (2011) Building a shared cross-cultural learning Community for
Visual Communication Design Education. Human Centered Design. Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, 397-406.
Maher M. L., Paulini M. and Murty P. (2011) Scaling up: from individual design to collaborative design
to collective design. Design Computing and Cognition '10 (581). Springer.
7

Investigating Potential Factors to Increase Levels of Participation in
Class Discussion
Apichai Chaiwinij,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 549 W 123 Street, APT 12E, New York, NY 10027,
Email: ac3344@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: While collaborative learning is globally employed, many studies point out that a
majority of Asian students cannot adapt themselves to collaborative learning
environments and tend to be quiet in class discussion. This study aims to investigate
three potential factors (online discussion, anonymity, and online role-play) that may
contribute to a discussion environment and the level of students’ participation. In this
study, there were 32 subjects in total, consisting of four groups of eight subjects. They
discussed six topics under six different discussion conditions, which were the
combination of three factors. The result confirmed that three factors can be employed to
provide a discussion environment that promotes an increased level of participation
among Asian students. In addition, type of roles like school leaders and country
administrators did motivate the participants to seriously engage in role-playing and
generate more critical and problem solving ideas.
Teamwork and collaboration are among of the most important 21 st century learning skills (Schrier, 2006).
Many educators have searched for ways to creatively integrate these 21 st century skills into K-12
pedagogy with innovative, effective, and appropriate activities (Schrier, 2006). One of the popular
methods is to provide a collaborative learning environment in the school setting to instruct modern
students. However, previous research states that a majority of Asian students cannot adapt quickly to
collaborative learning environments (Wong, 2004). In order to assist Asian students, educators need to
provide a suitable discussion environment to encourage them to freely share their ideas with the group.
Thus, the research attempted to investigate the potential factors that should be employed to develop a
suitable discussion environment. Based on previous research, three potential factors are successfully
used to increase levels of participation: (1) online discussion, (2) anonymity, and (3) online role-play.
Online discussion and anonymity enables better performance in terms of quantity of work, generated
(Chester, & Gwynne, 1998; Collins, & Berge, 1995; Hartman, Neuwirth, Kiesler, Cochran, Palmquist, &
Zubrow, 1995; McComb, 1994; Rheingold, 1994; Ruberg, Moore, & Taylor, 1995). Further, online roleplay
improves students’ interpersonal and communication skills (Lloyd, 1998). Although past research has
studied the effects of online discussion, anonymity, and online role-play on level of participation in group
discussion, not many studies have looked at different factors along a continuum with Asian students.
In this study, there were 32 subjects in total, consisting of four groups of eight subjects. The subjects
were asked to discuss six topics under six different conditions, which are the combination of three factors
(online discussion, anonymity and online role-play). Skype IM was used to hold the online discussions.
All chat histories were recorded. Each idea generated in the discussions was coded, compared, and then
analyzed to answer six hypotheses. The interviews after the experiment were conducted in order to elicit
the feedback towards the experiment.
The research findings confirmed that three factors could be employed to provide a suitable discussion
environment to increase levels of participation among Asian students. Online discussion causes
participants to have more interpersonal activities and generate more new ideas in limited time (Bordia,
1997; Ruberg, Moore, & Taylor, 1996). Anonymity unlocks students’ potentials in group discussion in
which students participate in group discussion more when their identities are not revealed. Among two
types of identity: age (seniority) and gender, age (seniority) is more crucial among Asian students as the
junior participants tend to be silent in front of the senior participants (Gao, Ting-Toomey, & Gudykunst,
1996). Online role-play allows students to enthusiastically participate and share critical and problem
solving ideas toward the discussion topics (Doerr-Stevens, 2007; Gee, 2004; Shaffer, 2006). Lastly,
types of roles like school leaders and country administrators do motivate the participants to seriously
engage in role-playing and generate more ideas.
8

The researcher suggests four implications to help Asian students increase levels of participation in group
discussion in a variety of scenarios. First, online discussion is an effective platform for Asian students to
generate ideas in limited time. Second, educators can employ anonymity to unlock Asian students’
potential. Asian students would find their own voices when their identities are not revealed. Third,
educators should provide suitable environments for junior Asian participants to share their thoughts in
front of their senior peers. Lastly, educators can employ online role-play to allow Asian students to share
more critical and problem solving ideas and seriously engage with the discussion topics. While this study
successfully confirms the effects of three factors (online discussion, anonymity, and online role-play), two
limitations were observed: unequal speed of communication and too small sampling size for statistical
analysis. In addition, the researcher suggests the future research to study both the quantity and quality of
ideas that students generate. Further, researchers in this area may expand the size of group discussion
to be the same size of a classroom setting in the real world (e.g., 20 students).
References
Bordia, P. (1997). Face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication: A synthesis of the
experimental literature. The Journal of Business Communication, 34(1), 99-120.
Chester, A., & Gwynne, G. (1998). Online teaching: Encouraging collaboration through anonymity.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 4(8). Retrieved from
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol4/issue2/chester.html
Collins, M., & Berge, Z. (1995). Introduction: Computer-mediated communications and the online
classroom in higher education. In Z. L.Berge & M. P.Collins, (Eds.), Computer Mediated
Communication and the Online Classroom: Vol. 2. Higher Education. Cresskill, NJ, USA:
Hampton Press.
Doerr, C. (2007, November). Online role-play: A blurring of identities and ethical norms. Paper presented
at the National Council of Teachers of English conference, New York City, NY USA.
Gao, G., Ting-Toomey, S., & Gudykunst, W.B. (1996). Chinese communication processes. In M.H. Bond
(Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology, (pp.280–293). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Gee, J.P. (2004). Situated language in learning: A critique of traditional schooling. New York, NY, USA:
Routledge.
Hartman, K., Neuwirth, C. M., Kiesler, S., Cochran, C., Palmquist, M., & Zubrow D. (1995). Patterns of
social interaction and learning to write: Some effects of network technologies. In Z. L.Berge & M.
P.Collins, (Eds.), Computer mediated communication and the online classroom: Vol. 2. Higher
education. Cresskill, NJ, USA: Hampton Press.
Lloyd, C.V. (1998). Engaging students at the top (without leaving the rest behind). Journal of Adolescent
& Adult Literacy, 42(3), 184-191.
McComb, M. (1994). Benefits of computer-mediated communication in college courses. Communication
Education, 43(2), 159–170.
Rheingold, H. (1994). The virtual community: Finding connection in a computerized world. London, UK:
Secker & Warburg.
Ruberg, L., Moore, D., & Taylor, C. (1996). Student participation, interaction, and regulation in a
computer-mediated communication environment: A qualitative study. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 15(3), 243-268.
Schrier, K. (2006). Using augmented reality games to teach 21st century skills. Paper presented at the
ACM SIGGRAPH 2006 Conference, Boston, MA, USA.
Shaffer, D.W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York, NY, USA: Macmillan.
Wong, J. K. (2004). Are the learning styles of Asian international students culturally or contextually
based? International Education Journal, 4(4), 154-166.
9

Investigating the Effects of Choice and Feedback as Learning
Mechanics in an Educational Game
Pantiphar Chantes, Apichai Chaiwinij, Nilgun Gunbas, Tatyana Dvorkin, Daniel L. Hoffman,
Selen Turkay, Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120 th Street, New York, NY
Email: pdc2114@columbia.edu, ac3344@tc.columbia.edu, ng2248@columbia.edu,
td2347@tc.columbia.edu, dlh2109@columbia.edu, st2282@columbia.edu
Abstract: The current study set out to examine the impact of learning and assessment
mechanics in various conditions on an existing educational game. The result was multiple
versions of the game, built on identical game mechanics, but with different learning and
assessment variables. The impact of these variables was subsequently analyzed to
determine their impact on three dependent variables: learning, motivation, and in-game
performance. One hundred thirty-eight (N=138) sixth grade students were randomly
assigned to play one of the four versions of the game. After only thirty minutes of play,
results suggest that providing players with a choice of non-player character from whom to
receive feedback results in significantly higher learning outcomes and desire to continue
playing compared to a non-choice condition. Comparisons between informative and
elaborative feedback; however, did not influence student learning, motivation, or in-game
performance.
Good educational video games possess the powerful features for engaging, learning, and sustaining
interest, which involves doable challenges, clear goals, freedom of choices, and relevant feedback.
However, many games intended to educate, currently lack coherent connections to theories of learning or
fundamental bodies of research (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005). This gap between theory and
practice has resulted in video games that may be enjoyable, but do not support academic learning
(Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). In order to reverse this phenomenon, the Games for
Learning Institute (G4LI) has urged educational game designers to consider in their designs three
categories of mechanics: game, learning, and assessment (Plass et al., in press; Plass, Homer, Kinzer,
Frye, & Perlin, 2011a).
Game mechanics is conceivably the most familiar concept to game designers and much has been written
on the topic (see Bjork & Holopainen, 2005; Fullerton, Swain, & Hoffman, 2008; Salen & Zimmerman,
2004). Common game mechanics include leveling, movement, and turn taking. For the purposes of this
study, game mechanics describe the essential game play activity and are distinct from learning
mechanics and assessment mechanics. Learning mechanics are grounded in learning theory and
describe specialized activities that have learning as their primary objective, whereas assessment
mechanics are grounded in test theory and are specialized activities that have assessment as their
primary objective.
The current study set out to examine the impact of these learning and assessment mechanics on three
dependent variables: learning, motivation, and in-game performance. The overarching question was if
and how the inclusion of each of these theoretically based, non-game mechanics would alter these
important variables. The educational video game used for this study was Noobs vs. Leets: the Battle of
Angles and Lines. This game was developed by researchers at the G4LI and was previously shown to be
an effective educational intervention (see Plass et al., 2001b). The game is designed to teach angle rules
and has a simple story in which players help characters called “Noobs” save their friends trapped in
various places on the screen by unlocking paths. The paths are unlocked by solving for unknown angles.
The game has six chapters with each chapter introduces the player to a new concept about angles. As
players progress through the game, the difficulty level increases.
The learning mechanic targeted in this study was choice. Research has shown that providing students
with choices can increase self-efficacy, motivation and learning. For this study, the variable of choice was
operationalized by providing players with a choice as to the non-player character (NPC) that would act as
10

their “guide” during the game. These NPC “guides” provided feedback to players in the case of incorrect
answers. Players in the Choice condition could manually select a guide from six potential NPCs. Players
in the Non-choice condition were assigned guides automatically in the same proportions as those players
who selected their own
The assessment mechanic varied in this study was feedback type. Feedback is one of the most studied
areas of learning and instruction and has a rich history in instructional theory. Research on feedback
generally confirms that learners are more effective when they attend to externally provided feedback
(Butler & Winne, 1995, p. 246). To operationalize feedback as an assessment mechanic in the studied
game, the researchers provided players with one of two types of feedback: informative or elaborative. The
informative feedback was similar to what Kluger and DeNisi (1996) called “knowledge of results”, which
from an assessment perspective, is of little value as it does not elaborate on why the answer was wrong.
The second type of feedback was termed elaborative. The goal of the elaborative feedback was to
provide players with more applicable information on what to do to correct an error when an incorrect
answer was submitted.
In the study, one hundred thirty-eight (N=138) sixth grade students were randomly assigned to play one
of the four versions of the game. After only thirty minutes of play, results suggest that providing players
with a choice of non-player character from whom to receive feedback results in significantly higher
learning outcomes and desire to continue playing compared to a non-choice condition. Comparisons
between informative and elaborative feedback did not influence student learning, motivation, or in-game
performance.
References
Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis,
a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86-107.
Bjork, S., & Holopainen, J. (2005). Patterns in Game Design. Hingham, MA: Charles River Media, Inc.
Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis.
Review of Educational Research, 65(3), 245.
Fullerton, T., Swain, C., & Hoffman, S. (2008). Game design workshop: a playcentric approach to creating
innovative games: Elsevier Morgan Kaufmann.
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical
review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin,
119(2), 254.
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Chang, Y. K., Frye, J., Kaczetow, W., Kinzer, C. K., Perlin, K. (in press).
Metrics to Assess Learning and Measure Learner Variables in Simulations and Games. In M.S.,
El-Nasr, A. Canosa, & A. Drachen (Eds.), Game Telemetry and Metrics: Maximizing the Value of
your Data. New York: Springer.
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Kinzer, C. K., Frye, J., & Perlin, K. (2011a). Learning Mechanics and
Assessment Mechanics for Games for Learning. G4LI White Paper # 01/2011. Version 0.1
September 30, 2011. Available online at g4li.org.
Plass, J. L., Homer, B.D., Hayward, E.O., Frye, J., Biles, M., Huang, T.T., & Tsai, T. (2011b). The
effectiveness of different game mechanics on motivational and educational outcomes in a middle
school geometry game. Submitted for Publication.
Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). The Rules of Play. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K. R., Halverson, R., Gee, J. P., & Co-Laboratory, A. A. D. L. (2005). Video games
and the future of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 104.
11

Videogames in Institutional Practice: Towards A Taxonomic Model of
Negotiated Control Between Code and Context
Laquana Cooke,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8 th Street Troy, NY 12180,
Email: Cookel3@rpi.edu
Abstract: Today, more than ever, schools and other educational facilities are celebrating
the possibilities of learning through game play. Unfortunately, video games are often
over zealously regarded as prescriptive didactic means of resolving the epidemic of
disengaged youth, without in-depth critical reflections of the phenomena of in-context
gaming. Commercial off-the-shelf games like The Little Big Planet offer tremendous
affordances for immersive play by embedding STEM literacy within its rich situated
learning environments. In a similar light, teachers and researchers adopt simulated
historical games such as Civilization to engage youth in subject matter that is often
deemed as “boring” and “irrelevant”. This paper does not seek to explore the efficacy of
such gaming, but rather look to critically examine the ramifications of content-specific
gaming in classrooms. The rhetorical potential of video games in practice calls for
theories that investigate the structural code of the video game vis-à-vis the conventions
of the contexts that they are practiced. Reexamining preexistent literature and
ethnographic work, this paper will critically evaluate this liminal space of negotiated
control between algorithm and institution, and ultimately provide a potential taxonomic
model for future research.
12

The Rhetoric of Learning in Games
Laquana Cooke, Raymond Lutzky,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8 th Street Troy, NY 12180,
Email: Cookel3@rpi.edu, Lutzkr3@rpi.edu
Abstract: Over the past decade, teachers, academics, and policy makers have
enthusiastically articulated their excitement and optimism of the pedagogical potentials of
video games in classrooms. Such feverish acknowledgements of games places a
responsibility on us as researchers to critically, and with keen understanding, investigate
not only the games, but also their social environments. This paper looks to extend video
game theory and pedagogy by conducting a rhetorical analysis of commercial off-theshelf
educationally deemed games. Intersecting theses of video games by Ian Bogost,
Alexander Galloway, and James Paul Gee, we will examine the rhetorical significance of
such video games both procedurally and socially. While previous theorists’ examinations
may privilege code and/or affinity groups, this paper investigates the rhetorical
phenomena of video games where code and social spaces intersects. The synergism of
the technical affordances of the game and the social norms and practices within the
affinity spaces are inherently rhetorical, but also include aspects of human-computer
interaction design as described by Barbara Warnick, Donald Norman, and others.
Additionally, future considerations for adaption of games into classrooms will be
addressed.
References
Bogost, Ian. (2007). Persuasive games: the expressive power of videogames. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Galloway, Alexander R. (2006). Gaming: essays on algorithmic culture. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press.
Gee, James Paul. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Norman, D. A.(2004). Emotional design: why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic.
Books
Warnick, B. (2007). Rhetoric Online: Persuasion and Politics on the World Wide Web, Frontiers in
Political Communication, Vol. 12, New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
13

Youth in the Digital Age: Digital Media and Technologies for
Supporting Civic Engagement
Tenzin Doleck,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120th Street, New York, NY
Email: tcd2116@columbia.edu
The proliferation of technology is undoubtedly having a profound impact on our lives. This power of digital
media, the Internet, and social networking was fully realized recently in the wake of the high-profile
uprisings in the Arab World as citizens used this digital space and tools as a catalyst for effecting reform.
As technology permeates more aspects of our lives, the transformative consequences are being felt.
There are key aspects/areas in democracy where the effects of technology are clearly visible: elections,
campaigns, governance, civic participation, etc. The Internet and new digital media helps users to be
informed and empowered by providing a voice for all users who normally would not take part in the
political process and also creates opportunities for all interests to be heard; thus, the platform and power
that technology affords has the potential to serve as a catalyst and vehicle for civic engagement, a critical
element of democratic process. Technology certainly has the potential, power, and affordances to
ameliorate the ways and chances to participate and engage in civic activities.
The vast majority of youth in America are online (Madden, 2006). The increased penetration of the
Internet along with the technology readiness of today’s youth has begetted increased online activities. A
report published by the Kaiser Foundation highlights that the total media usage of children (8-18 year
olds) has increased more than an hour in the past decade and mobile media ownership among 8-18 year
olds has also gone up significantly in the past five years (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Bennet
(2008) acknowledges the vibrancy of youth civic engagement and the growing trend of young people
employing creative uses of technology in civic issues, but points out that in cases where they do display
political involvement “it is often related to lifestyle concerns that seem outside the realm of government.”
Attachment to the digital space has also resulted in detachment from the geographic space, “America’s
youth appear to be disconnecting from public life, and doing so at a rate that is greater than for any other
age group” (Carpini, 2000). In light of the rising trends of youth’s dissatisfaction and disenchantment with
conventional politics, it becomes imperative to understand potential positive benefits of digital media and
communication technologies in spurring youth civic engagement so that it can help reverse the long-term
declines in civic and political participation among youth. As Greene (1985) writes, “surely it is an
obligation of education in a democracy to empower the young to become members of the public, to
participate, and play articulate roles in the public space."
Youth are avid users of digital media and communication technologies, as such there is a greater
likelihood that these technologies will be an important part of their civic lives; most real offline activities
already have or will have an online equivalent. Montgomery highlights that the “youth are in many ways
the defining users of the new media”, that there has been a rise in interest in youth’s use of digital media
and how it can be used effectively in engaging youth in civic participation (Montgomery, 2008). Moreover,
according to Xenos and Foot (2008) “the demand for political information on the Web among young
people rivals or eclipses that of those in other age groups.” Youth today are using, creating, learning, and
communicating in new ways. With the emergence of new technologies, youth can find meaningful ways to
incorporate these technologies into their civic lives. Thus, it is important to comprehend how the
innovative uses of technologies by the youth are expanding the boundaries of civic participation and
engagement.
This paper examines many of the digital media and communication technologies available, and the
positive affordances of and creative uses of such technologies by the youth in civic engagement. Further
we provide examples and examine how new technologies are being and can be used by youth for civic
engagement and link these to broader questions of youth civic engagement.
14

References
Bennett, W. L. (2008) Changing citizenship in the digital age. In Bennett, W.L. (Ed.), Civic Life Online:
Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth (1-14). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Budin, H. (2005). Democratic Education and Self-Publishing on the Web. In Crocco, M. (Ed.), Social
Studies and the Press: Keeping the Beast at Bay? Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing,
Inc.
Carpini, Michael X. Delli (2000) ‘Gen.com: Youth, Civic Engagement, and the New Information
Environment’, Political Communication, 17:4, 341-349.
Coleman, Stephen and Blumler, Jay G. (2009). The Internet and Democratic Citizenship: Theory, Practice
and Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Collins, A. & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking Education in the Age of Technology: The Digital Revolution
and Schooling in America. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and Education.
Gee, J. (2005). Learning by Design: Good Video Games as Learning Machines, E-Learning.
Greene, Maxine. (1988). The role of education in democracy. Educational Horizons.
Ketter, S., Zukin, C., Andolina, M., and Jenkins, K. (2002) "The Civic and Political Health of a Nation: A
Generational Portrait" CIRCLE and The Pew Charitable Trusts.
Kushin, M.J. (2009, April). Exploring YouTube, civic engagement and perceptions about the role of the
Internet in civic engagement among college students. YouTube and the 2008 Election Cycle in
the United States Conference, Amherst, MA.
Madden, M. (2006). Internet penetration and impact. Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life
Project.
Montgomery, Kathryn C. “Youth and Digital Democracy: Intersections of Practice, Policy, and the
Marketplace." Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth. Edited by W.
Lance Bennett. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and
Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 25–50.
Pasek, Josh , More, Eian and Romer, Daniel (2009) 'Realizing the Social Internet? Online Social
Networking Meets Offline Civic Engagement', Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 6:3.
Putnam, Robert. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Raynes-Goldie, Kate, and Luke Walker. “Our Space: Online Civic Engagement Tools for Youth." Civic
Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth. Edited by W. Lance Bennett. The
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 161–188.
Rideout, V., Foehr, U.G., Roberts, D.F. Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8-18 years olds. The Henry
J. Kaiser Family Foundation. January 2010.
Xenos, Michael, and Kirsten Foot. “Not Your Father’s Internet: The Generation Gap in Online Politics."
Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth. Edited by W. Lance Bennett.
The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 51–70.
15

Augmenting The Arrival: Students’ Mobile Device-Enabled Narratives
Christian Ehret,
Vanderbilt University, Peabody College230 Appleton Place, Nashville, TN, 37203
Email: christian.m.ehret@vanderbilt.edu
Abstract: Despite their prevalence, we know little about the literacy practices associated
with mobile devices emerging in youths’ lives, and we know still less about the nexus of
these practices and learning. In this presentation, I describe data collected as part of a
larger study of a digital media enrichment class in an urban school in the southeastern
United States. In the class, two teacher-researchers guide five fifth-grade learners in
using a mobile device—the iPod Touch 4G— to compose digital stories and other digital
media. Data analyzed in this paper, focus on two students’ composing process during a
fifty-minute learning segment in which they used an augmented reality app—Flat
Stanley—to produce a digital story. Implications from the analysis contribute to the
conference theme, exploring mobile devices in educational contexts: research and
pedagogy should attend to how youths’ movement through and social production of
space affects how and whether they employ the affordances of mobile devices as
compositional tools to achieve their visions.
16

Designing and Developing Apps for Learning and Instruction
Research
Cameron L. Fadjo, Benjamin Friedman,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120 th Street, New York, NY 10027
Email: clf2110@columbia.edu, bpf2103@columbia.edu
Abstract: What is the most effective way to design an ‘app’ for learning and instruction
research? Do ‘Apps’ have the potential to revolutionize how mobile computing is
implemented in the research or learning and instruction? With the recent interest in using
mobile devices to augment learning, there exists a paucity of research on effective design
practices for developing educational apps. In this presentation we will discuss how apps
can be designed to improve learning and instructional outcomes. Our presentation will
focus on the iterative design and development process behind ‘The Farm,’ an iPad app
used for improving literacy skills among emergent language learners. We will outline the
steps behind creating apps for learning and instruction research and present a
comprehensive framework for creating effective educational experiences using mobile
devices.
17

Connected to Word Problems:
Improving Mathematical Problem Solving While Exergaming
Benjamin Friedman,
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY,
Email: bpf2103@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: How can we best prepare students for instruction and practice in solving
mathematical word problems? What instructional methods best promote understanding of
problem situations and sense making in students? These are important questions given
the prominent place making sense of problems and working to solve them has in the
Common Core State Standards for Mathematical Practice (2010).
This quasi-experimental study seeks to answer these questions by comparing an
instructionally embodied teaching method (Black, Segal, Vitale, & Fadjo, 2011) with a
conceptual model based method (Xin, Wiles, & Lin, 2008; Xin & Zhang, 2009) as well as
a mix between the two methods. Twelve second-grade students from a high-needs urban
public school participated through an after-school program. All students participated in
fitness game activities through the Xbox Kinect. Word problem situations were based off
those students experienced in the fitness game for instructionally embodied conditions
but not for the conceptual model condition.
Relevant Literature
Word problems are the most common problem type encountered by students at all levels of education
(Jonassen, 2003). Many students in the early grades have difficulty solving mathematical word problems,
especially English Language Learners (ELLs) and those with learning disabilities (Jitendra, 2008). In the
context of this study word problems are defined as problems taken from situations in the real-world that
require the use of mathematical concepts in order to obtain a solution (Verschaffel, Greer, & De Corte,
2000). These types of problems provide an important connection between situations expressed through
language and the abstract mathematical language that is expressed in numbers and symbols. Solving
mathematical word problems involves both reading comprehension and mathematical skills such as
conceptual understanding of operations and computational ability (Kintsch & Greeno, 1985).
One reason for a lack of student success in solving mathematical word problems is the suspension of
sense making that occurs when students focus on obtaining an answer without first attempting to make
sense of the problem. Consequently, students may ignore clues that explain what information needs to be
used and what procedures are necessary to find the correct solution (Verschaffel, Greer, & De Corte
2000). Sense making ability may improve through instruction that engages students in using problem
solving skills and provides opportunities for them to reason about the information contained in the
problem as well as the information that is missing.
Types of Instruction
This study attempted to engage students in sense making by comparing instructional methods, namely,
an instructionally embodied approach (Black, Segal, Vitale, & Fadjo, 2011), a conceptual model based
approach (Xin, Wiles, & Lin, 2008; Xin & Zhang, 2009), and a mix between the two methods. Twelve
second-grade students from a high-needs urban public school participated in the study through an afterschool
program in one of the three groups. All groups took part in exergame activities (described below)
through the Xbox Kinect gaming system.
For students in the instructionally embodied and mixed groups, these exergame activities became the
basis for experimenter written problems used during instruction (see Table 1). This was meant to ground
their internal representations of problem situations in physical and perceptual experiences (Barsalou,
2010). Students were then taught to visualize their exergame activities in order to mentally manipulate
problem elements, resulting in improved ability to solve problems independently. Conceptual model
based instruction consisted of teaching specific word problem story grammars that led students to identify
mathematical structural relations for specific problem types. This knowledge then allowed them to
18

determine which quantities are unknown and the correct operation to be used in solving the problem (Xin
& Zhang, 2009). Students used diagrams, prompts, and checklists as part of the method. Although
students in this group participated in the exergame activities, the word problems they received made no
mention of the activities, instead focusing on common problem situations (Van de Walle, 2004). Students
in all groups were assessed through experimenter made pre- and post-tests.
Instructional Embodiment Conceptual Model Mixed Instructional Approach
Frank juggled a soccer ball in the
air 17 times in a row. His friend
Tom juggled the ball 22 times.
How many times did they juggle
the ball in total?
Frank had 17 toy cars in his
collection. Tom had 22 toy cars
in his collection. How many toys
cars have they collected in total?
Table 1: Example problem for each group.
19
Frank juggled a soccer ball in the
air 17 times in a row. His friend
Tom juggled the ball 22 times.
How many times did they juggle
the ball in total?
The Ubisoft Xbox Kinect exergame, Your Shape: Fitness Evolved 2012, is a fitness game that takes place
in a data rich environment. The game records performance data on a variety of fitness exercises including
calories burned, number of exercises completed, and points for correctly performed exercises. As a
result, the game served as an excellent environment from which to develop word problems because it
explicitly makes connections between numerical data and physical and perceptual experiences. As an
added benefit, exergames such as Your Shape have been shown to enhance executive functioning in
children, something that could have a very positive effect on learning (Best, 2011).
Research Questions
There are three questions this study attempted to explore. First, can an instructionally embodied
approach to teaching mathematical problem solving improve student performance? Second, how do the
results obtained through this approach compare with those found through the implementation of a
Conceptual Model based instruction method? Last, are these two methods of instruction compatible and
thus produce the best student performance results?
The Experiment
Participants were twelve second-grade students from a high-needs urban public school after-school
program. Each group contained four students but random assignment was not possible. The program
was implemented over eight weeks with participants attending weekly one-hour sessions. During the first
week, students learned how to play the exergame and took an experimenter made pre-test. From weeks
two through seven, students participated in exergame activities for twenty minutes, received word
problem instruction for thirty minutes, and then took a ten minute mini-assessment to gauge progress
over time. During week eight, students took part in exergame activities and then completed an
experimenter made summative post-test. All questions on both the pre- and post-test were designed
according to second-grade ability levels as described in the Common Core State Standards for
Mathematical Practice (2010).
Results
Results indicated that all groups made significant improvement from pre- to post-test. While none of the
results comparing groups at post-test were statistically significant, students in the mixed group made the
most improvement from pre- to post-test. Small sample sizes likely contributed to the lack of statistical
significance. This trend however possibly indicates that students in the mixed group benefited from the
grounded problem representations from the instructionally embodied approach as well as identifying
important structural relations through the use of the diagrams and prompts of the conceptual-model

ased approach. Future research may provide evidence for this claim through an increased sample size
and random assignment of students to groups.
References
Barsalou, L.W. (2010). Grounded cognition: Past, present, and future. Topics in Cognitive Science,
2, 716-724.
Best, J. R. (2011). Exergaming Immediately Enhances Children's Executive Function. Developmental
Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a002664
Black, J.B., Segal, A., Vitale, J., and Fadjo, C. (2011). Embodied cognition and learning environment
design. In D. Jonassen and S. Lamb (Eds.). Theoretical foundations of student-centered learning
environments. New York: Routledge.
Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2010). Common core state standards for mathematics.
Retrieved from
http://www.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_Math%20Standards.pdf
Glenberg, A., Willford, J., Gibson, B., Goldberg, A., & Zhu, X. (2011). Improving Reading to Improve
Math, Scientific Studies of Reading, 0, 1-25.
Jitendra, A. K. (2008). Using schema-based instruction to make appropriate sense of word
problems. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 20-24.
Kintsch, W. & Greeno, J.G. (1985). Understanding and solving word arithmetic problems
Psychological Review, 92(1), 109-129.
Jonassen, D.H. (2003). Designing instruction for story problems. Educational Psychology Review, 15
(3), 267-296.
Van de Walle, J. A. (2004). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching
developmentally (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Verschaffel, L., Greer, B., & De Corte, E. (2000). Making sense of word problems. Lisse, the
Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Xin, Y.P., Wiles, B., Lin, Y.Y. (2008).Teaching Conceptual Model-Based Word Problem Story
Grammar to Enhance Mathematics Problem Solving. Journal of Special Education, 42(3),
163-178.
Xin, Y. P. & Zhang, D. (2009). Exploring a conceptual model-based approach to teaching situated
word problems. The Journal of Educational Research, 102(6), 427-441.
20

Computer-Mediated Communication and Deaf Students:
Increasing Equity and Intersubjectivity
Carrie Lou Garberoglio,
University of Texas at Austin,
Email: carrielou@utexas.edu
Abstract: This case study takes a socioconstructivist lens in examining the
potential affordances inherent in online chat technologies that then have
potentials of creating multimodal dialogical spaces for deaf students, who often
experience language marginalization in the classroom. This setting uses a
combination of synchronous computer-mediated communication and face-to-face
discussion in a college class of deaf and hearing college students. In this study,
preliminary findings show that the deaf students appeared to gain greater
authentic participation, engagement, and involvement in this discourse
community through the overlap of discussion modalities, particularly those that
allowed for greater direct communication. These findings can support the
rationale behind increasing multimodal opportunities for deaf learners in a variety
of settings.
21

MOOCs, Open Education, and Implications for Online Schooling for
Middle School/High School Students
Kristin Gorski,
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY,
Email: kg2366@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: Massive Open Online Courses (known as MOOCs) are open educational
environments which present learning opportunities and challenges. Through leveraging
information and communication technologies (ICTs), social media, and media creation
tools, MOOC participants create connections across networks as they pursue authentic
learning goals. The unstructured, abundant information can overwhelm, so developing
skills to filter and make sense of what participants find is crucial. MOOCs are ideal places
in which to practice necessary digital literacy skills. In April 2011, I participated in a
MOOC on mobile technologies and learning. In pilot research, I surveyed 21 fellow
participants on what they were learning from MOOCs, recommendations for
educators/participants, and their thoughts on this format for middle and high school
students. The results point to skills needed for MOOC success, how MOOC structure and
design impact learning, and how to develop mini-MOOCs for adolescent learners eager
to pursue their interests online with a cohort.
22

Augmenting The Arrival: Students’ Mobile Device-Enabled Narratives
Ty Hollett,
Vanderbilt University, Peabody College, 230 Appleton Place, Nashville, TN, 37203
Email: Tyler.S.Hollett@vanderbilt.edu
Abstract: In this presentation, I question: how might mobile-devices augment learners’
reading of a graphic novel? This presentation describes a pilot study investigating the use
of iPod touches by five students in a digital media/reading immersion course. As part of a
larger unit, students read the image-only graphic novel, The Arrival. While doing so, they
recorded their inferences, thoughts, and connections using their iPod’s Audioboo app.
Preliminary findings suggest that when using Audioboo to record their responses to the
book, learners focused on individual images rather than the page as a whole. By doing
so, learners did not generate a coherent narrative but rather generated descriptions of
individual pictures. Future research should investigate how learners make sense of visual
texts, particularly graphic novels as well as the role of mobile technology and its support
of literacy learning.
23

Promoting Healthy Eating Habits Through Monster Appetite
Maria Hwang, Pantiphar Chantes, Grant Tedaldi, Ann Louie R. Lomboy,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120 th street, New York, NY
Email: mlh2169@columbia.edu, pdc2114@columbia.edu, grt2106@columbia.edu,
all2110@columbia.edu
Abstract: The obesity epidemic is one of America’s largest public health challenges, one
that creates disparities among race, ethnicity, region and income (Communities Putting
Prevention to Work; Fund for Public Health in NY). Currently there are over 12 million
obese American children and adolescents (Trust for America’s Health, 2010). Intrigued
by the increase in childhood obesity, Monster Appetite is a game that potentially
remediates some aspects of the concern by promoting awareness of the content of food
consumed by children. Through play, children learn about caloric amount in various food
items that a child may select and intake daily. Through constant decision making and
competitive game play, the hope is that children will start thinking more about their food
choices and be able to make better decisions. By improving this knowledge through
applied practice, children may become more cognizant about their food choices and
capable of building healthier eating and exercise habits.
Monster Appetite’s goal in promoting awareness is unique in such that players actually have to select
meals they feel contain the most calories so that their monster avatar can grow to the next level through
the highest caloric intake. Unlike most games that promote nutritional awareness by focusing on what is
best based on nutritional values, Monster Appetite employs reverse psychology and humor, where
players can eventually learn about food calories but by selecting what they feel is the highest caloric
meal. By playing the game multiple times, players will eventually have a greater knowledge of which food
items contain the least to the most calories as it becomes advantageous for their game play.
In designing Monster Appetite (see Figure 1), the most critical aspect considered was the player’s overall
game experience and how the rules and mechanical aspects of the game affected it. Designing a game
that lessened cognitive overload during game play was an important factor that was taken into
consideration. In order to expose players to as many different foods as possible, the game involves
players selecting three meals a day in a span of seven days per round. The food items have been
selected based on what school aged children are most likely to select to eat, where multiple grocery
choices can have large variation on calories and have the high risk of causing obesity (Zinczenko &
Goulding, 2008). The mechanic of selecting a meal is a fast action activity where each player rapidly
selects the meal card based on seeing a picture of an item. The learning of the food items’ calories, end
of day caloric calculations and execution of the actions from the game tokens are done at the end of each
day as opposed to in between meals. Game tokens can impact the player negatively or positively: for
example, doing yoga causes a player to lose calories, but a bonus meal card gives a player additional
calories for the total daily intake, which will help the player’s monster grow more rapidly. These effects of
the tokens are based off real research of exercise and behavioral habits (Costikyan, 2006).
By implementing rules, supported by the use of simple game pieces such as the tokens, dice, calculators
and game actions involving fast hand and eye coordination movements, Monster Appetite creates a fun
way of learning nutritional awareness. The design creates an environment for players where the game
play does not produce cognitive overload, but allows players to have fun through fast-pace, easy-to-follow
rules and means of learning about foods they recognize, and are likely to consume.
Figures and Tables
24

Creators of this game conducted three rounds of initial testing with students from elementary up to high
school (see Table 1). The first round of testing (see Figure 2) did not include a pre and post-questionnaire
but the second and third round of testing included both pre and post-questionnaires.
First testing Second testing Third testing
Number of students 6 2 12
Age range 9-12 8-9 13-17
Pre-Questionnaire No Yes Yes
Post-Questionnaire No Yes Yes
Table 1: Three rounds of testing the game with students.
Figure 1: The Monster Appetite game.
25

Figure 2: Monster Appetite in action.
The results from the questionnaires were positive with criticism mostly focusing on technical improvement
regarding the game mechanics such as having clearer instructions for the chance tokens, including
different kinds of food items, incorporating other nutritional facts besides calories, creating different
versions of the game with different levels, etc. All of the feedback and suggestions are currently being
reviewed by the creators as they consider creating a more complete digital version of the game.
Currently, only a single-player Flash-based digital game is available besides the original board game.
References
Costikyan, G. (2006). I have no words & I must design. In K. S. Zimmerman (Ed.), The Game Design
Reader (pp. 192-211). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
School Lunch | Fooducate - 40% of Kids’ Calories are from junk food. (2010, October 21). Retrieved
December 6, 2010 from http://www.fooducate.com/blog/tag/school-lunch/
Trust for America’s Health. (2010, June). F as in Fat: How Obesity Threatens America’s Future 2010.
Retrieved December 6, 2010 from http://healthyamericans.org/reports/obesity2010/
Trust for America’s Health. (2010, June). Obesity Information. Retrieved December 6, 2010 from
http://healthyamericans.org/obesity/
Zinczenko, D., & Goulding, M. (2008). Eat this, not that! Supermarket survival guide: The no-diet weight
loss solution. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.
26

Knowledge Creation: Museum-Based Aesthetics and Technology
Sarah MK Ko,
McGill University, 845 Sherbrook Street West Montreal, QC,
Email: sarah@iheartteaching.org
Abstract: The study deconstructs the flourishing moments of aesthetic encounter by applying
the designed learning activities. Within a museum and separately at a virtual exhibit (via digital
video), two cohorts of participants benefited from student-centered exercises, which otherwise
would remain as object-centered learning. How do technologically-enhanced interventions
present new opportunities and challenges to aesthetics education? New metrics and a design
for visualizing information data are developed to better convey the experience of live meaningmaking
actions. This partial solution to the much-needed development in aesthetics, vis-à-vis
cognitive, emotional (affective) and social (collaborative) abilities, follows through with
transferable qualities of content, knowing and awareness. Growth in such aspects complement
the cross-curricular standards in elementary and secondary schools, and transition well with the
advent of digitally-mediated instruction (ie., paperless textbooks), virtual tours and electronic
collections. Responses to surveys of the participants demonstrate the co-construction of
knowledge akin to aisthanesthai-driven engagement and the effectiveness of the learning
design.
Introduction
Following the tenets of constructivist and experiential learning, the study builds on museum-based interactions
towards digitally-mediated meaning-making. The focus is on experience, namely interpretive and
phenomenological, as the study compares the individual conversations from both on-site exhibits and its
experimental virtual settings. That stated, participants pursue activities derived from White (2011) with
technological enhancements, culminating in a new direction for graphing and sharing the aesthetics in motion
(Ko, 2012). The findings support ways to demonstrate aesthetic encounters with a versatile design to present
them, whether towards the school curriculum and its specific standards (ie., science and technology; language
arts) and personal cognitive development and aesthetic growth.
Background
As perceptions are drawn from the origins of aisthanesthai (c.f., Baumgarten; Siegesmund, 1999) and the likes
of Dewey, Beardsley and Housen, a practical idea-mapping framework for doing aesthetics with a progressive
outlook (Parsons, 1987) had been developed by White (2011). The recorded thoughts at a viewing can be traced
to a menu of categories for convenience, and together, the moments of the encounter can be consolidated into a
concept map. The techniques administered in the exercises germinated into a fuller analysis for the learner's
connection with the object. Ho et al (2011) add a virtual museum activity for secondary school students in
language arts; the technology and gain in language acquisition promote the meaning-making design for learning.
Similarly in 2010, two teachers and I collaborated with Montréal Museum of Fine Arts. Our grade five and six
class of students participated in a glass-themed workshop. While I supervised students to produce works with
their hands for a concurrent display with the official exhibit, the lead teacher of the English school board
equipped the students with the necessary vocabulary, technical terms and social background pertaining to the
craft and period. The gain in diction for these students allowed them to articulate this very essence in multiple
ways.
Approach
Transfer of content is an ideal variable to investigate because it conveys the importance of aesthetics education
with positive spillover effects to other subjects (Housen, 2002). Benefits are associated with articulating and
organizing thoughts. As such, the motivation for addressing museum-based learning processes will support
(cross-)curricular standards, particularly as investment into STEM.
27

This year, the first participant group was engaged in a viewing exercise akin to White's framework comprised of
recording, conversing and categorizing at a museum. Another group viewed a sculpture through digital video
played in a loop (see Figure 1), while providing feedback of the aesthetic encounter. Individual moments are
graphed and shared. Next, surveys gathered demographics, art background, reasoning skills, perceptions, as
well as their orientation towards museum-based exhibits and technology.
Five cues guided the participants during their viewings:
• What is the significance of the artwork?
• How am I able to relate to the object?
• How can others relate to the object?
• What is the art expressing?
• What is the artist's message?
Results
The participants provided robust details about their aesthetic encounter as they shared thoughts and feelings
formed in the digitally-mediated environment. The participants were able to number and classify the sequence of
moments with ease. Information was arranged onto a graphical chart.
This analytical display, coined the aesthetigraph (Ko, 2012), was pivotal for them to visualize and discern their
own progress towards understanding and learning. Coupled by a survey, they elaborated as much as verified
the plausible transfer of content mentioned via encounters. The meaning-making process in the learning design
was instrumental for promoting critical thinking. For example, in the illustrated sequence (see Figure 2), the 9 th ,
16 th and 21 st moments for the participant convey references to “group behavior,” “cancerous cells” and “sociopolitical
movement,” respectively. Knowledge that develops from the context of social settings at the museum to
the one presented by the computer (social network) instantiates the possibilities that aesthetically doing so can
enable learners to tap into sociology, biology and politics.
Significance
The aesthetic exercises, survey responses and graphs validate that museum-based learning facilitates
knowledge creation. The technologically-induced experience has opened up possibilities, conducive to further
support multimodal learning and curricular standards, such as civic and cultural education, language arts, IT and
STEM. Repeated moments of encounter with the sculpture were worthwhile for them to articulate the “ineffable.”
In the process, they were engaged in critical thinking within the context of their exposure, and sought resolves to
social, scientific and technological problems. They applied knowledge through dialogical explorations à la
STEM-related principles.
28

Figures
Figure 1: Digitally-mediated art viewing on computer or tablet PC
29

Figure 2: The Aesthetigraph represents aesthetic encounter
30

References
Dewey, J. (1910/1997). How We Think. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
Dewey, J. (1934). Art as Experience. New York: Capricorn Books.
Eisner, E. (1998). Does Experience in the Arts Boost Academic Achievement? Art Education, 51(1), 7-15.
Doering, A., Beach, R., & O’Brien, D. (2007). Infusing multi-modal tools and literacies into an English education
program. English Education, 40(1), 41–60.
Falk J. & Dierking, L. (2000). Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and the making of meaning.
California: Alta Mira.
Ho, C., Nelson, M., Mueller-Witting, W. (2011). Design and implementation of a student-generated virtual
museum in a language curriculum to enhance collaborative multimodal meaning-making. Computers &
Education, 57(1), 1083-1097.
Housen, A. (2002). Aesthetic thought, critical thinking, and transfer. Arts and Learning Research Journal, 18(1),
100-114.
Johnson, M. (1981). Aesthetic socialization during social tours in an art museum. Studies in Art Education, 23(1),
55-62.
Ko, S. (2012). Aesthetics in motion: Graphing moments of encounter. Unpublished. IheartTeaching: Canada.
Lachapelle, R., Murray D., & Neim, S. (2003). Aesthetic understanding as informed experience: The role of
knowledge in our art viewing experiences. Journal of Aesthetic Education. 37(3), 80.
Parsons, M. (1987). Talking about a painting: A cognitive developmental analysis. Journal of
Aesthetic Education, 21(1), 37-55.
Siegesmund, R. (1999). Reasoned perception: Aesthetic knowing in pedagogy and learning. Arts and Learning
Research, 15(1), 35-51.
White, B. (2011). Private perceptions, public reflections: Aesthetic encounters as vehicles for shared meaning
making. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 12(LAI 2).
31

Digital Modeling Artifacts as Geometric Thinking & Learning: Top,
Side and Perspective Views to Improve Spatial Abilities
Sorachai Kornkasem,
Columbia University, 220 West 24 th Street #1-O New York, NY 10011,
Email: sk451@columbia.edu
In recent years, there has been considerable research and meta-analysis supporting the notion that
having good spatial abilities could predict achievement and successful attainment in Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) related careers (Uttal et al., 2011; Wai, Lubinski &
Benbow, 2009). Researchers further support the importance of improving spatial skills for both theoretical
and practical frameworks. It is suggested that spatial skills are malleable and can be developed through
training (Uttal et al., 2011). Different types of training have been evaluated. However, in a practical school
setting, which method or intervention would be the most beneficial to young students, who are interested
in pursuing STEM fields and want to improve their spatial skills?
In the present study, I propose to investigate the use of a digital modeling tool such as a 2D or 3D
application, for learning geometric concepts in a mathematics class (at a middle or high school level). It is
hypothesized that using a 2D or 3D tool intervention would help students engage with and better
understand geometric knowledge and consequently gain spatial cognition skills (Wang, Chang, & Li,
2006). Geometry learning is proposed because it is the study of spatial relationships, and it connects
every element in the mathematics curriculum with a multitude of real life situations (NYS ED, 2005).
Additionally, a 2D-3D modeling tool (e.g. Google’s SketchUp) is also proposed as a tool to work on these
geometry lessons.
What is Google’s SketchUp (or other similar application)? For example, SketchUp is a free and userfriendly
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and modeling application, provided for public use on both PC and
Mac operating systems. This unique application is also widely used and accepted by many professional
architects, engineers and college students. Even though it can be used in a more advanced presentation
of geometry ideas in academic, professional and real life construction settings, it also can be used for
simply sketching or 2D manipulation by elementary and middle school children.
In addition to the two- and three-dimensional qualities of the SketchUp modeling application, the use of
this mechanism may provide learners with embodied aspects that are required and taught in K-12
geometry classes, from visual recognition of shapes to analysis and description to informal and formal
deduction, as well as abstract geometric systems and their transformations (NYS ED, 2005 & NJ Math
Framework). These geometric aspects are essentially the foundation of spatial thinking skills. Additionally,
using a geometric modeling tool would help learners engage simultaneously through spatial visualization
and understanding of geometric concepts (WYSIWYG).
The intervention program will focus on late middle school and high school learners. In these levels of
geometric learning, the learners are expected to acquire the analytical skills necessary to solve problems,
make conjectures, and observe for patterns and generalizations (NYS ED, 2005 & NJ Math Framework).
According to these mathematical curriculum guidelines, gradually learners should develop the ability to
make inferences and logical deductions based on geometric relationships and to use spatial intuition to
develop more standard mathematical problem-solving abilities (NYS ED, 2005 & NJ Math Framework).
Furthermore, the study of geometry lessons helps expand the understanding of coordination, vector, and
viewpoint transformations (top view, side views and perspective angles), which are useful spatial skills to
acquire.
In the end, this combination of geometry and digital modeling training is aimed to lead the novice learners
to both near and far transfer in their visuospatial cognition. As a result, the learners are expected to
comfortably engage themselves in spatially enriched educational fields, such as mathematics, science,
engineering, and architecture. The different varieties of training sessions and tools are also discussed.
32

References (selected)
Shavalier, M. (2004). The effects of CAD-like software on the spatial ability of middle school
students. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31, 37-49. doi:10.2190/X8BU-
WJGY-DVRU-WE2L
Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., and Newcombe, N. S.
(2011). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. (In Press,
Psychological Bulletin)
Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over fifty years
of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology,
101(4), 817-835. doi:10.1037/a0016127
Wang, C.-H., Chang, C.-Y., & Li, T.-Y. (2006). The comparative efficacy of 2D-versus 3D- based media
design for influencing spatial visual skills. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(4), 1943-1957.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.02.004
Geometry & Mathematic Guidelines:
New York State Education Department. (2005). Curriculum and Instruction: Geometry. Retrieved:
http://www.p12.nysed.gov/ciai/mst/math/standards/geometry.html and New Jersey Mathematics
Curriculum Framework: Geometry and Spatial Sense.
33

Using Weblogs to Increase Language Arts Proficiency in ESL
Students
Maureen Kramanak,
Emerson Elementary, Kansas City, Kansas Public Schools, 1429 S. 29 th Street, Email: Kansas City,
Kansas, 66106, makrama@kckps.org
Abstract: This project involves a twelve-year-old, Hispanic male student at a Title I elementary
school in the Kansas City, Kansas School District. He is officially classified as an ELL student,
with the home language identified as Spanish. The student's general education (Tier 1) reading
instruction takes place for 90 minutes each day, five days a week. Although there is no “formal”
reading “program” in place, students participate in a Guided Reading format, in which the class
is split into smaller reading groups, which meet with the teacher daily for approximately 20-30
minutes. In addition, students meet with an ESL teacher/para for 20-30 minutes daily. Students
follow a prescribed curriculum (Guaranteed Viable Curriculum, or GVC), which assesses
mastery through a series of computer-based “Checkpoints” given every 4.5 weeks. Results are
available immediately, which gives teachers the opportunity to discover which individual students
master standards assessed during each instructional window, and which standards may need to
be revisited, reviewed, or retaught. Other assessments given on a regular basis include the MAP
(Measures of Academic Progress), given in the Fall, Winter, and Spring, which this year (2011-
12) replaces the Kansas State Assessment (KSA) as the “high stakes” assessment in the
KCKPS, Fountas & Pinnell (F&P) which measures reading levels, and the KELPA (Kansas
English Language Proficiency), which assesses K-12 English Language Learners (ELLs)/Limited
English Proficient (LEP) students for their proficiency levels in the domains of speaking,
listening, reading, and writing English. It is based on the indicators in the Kansas English for
Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) Standards. Teacher created formative assessments
round out this “Checking for Understanding” (CFU) program. The school administered the KSA
General Reading Assessment in March of 2011. On this, the student achieved a raw score of 91,
placing him in the “Exemplary” category, which is the highest category on that test. The MAP
reading test administered in April 2011 yielded a RIT score of 220, placing him in the “At/Above
Proficient” designation, and the Fall 2011 reading MAP again placed him in the “At/Above
Proficient” category, with a RIT score of 214. In all “Checkpoint” assessments, he scored in the
“Proficient” category, with raw scores ranging from 79-92%, with the exception of the first
checkpoint in February 2011, soon after he arrived at the school, on which he scored a 58%,
placing him in the “Not Proficient” category. Regarding the KELPA, he scored 3 out of 4 possible
points, placing him in the “Advanced” category regarding language acquisition in all areas of
listening, speaking, and writing. In addressing behavior, the school uses a district-wide discipline
form to gather school-wide behavior data. No behavior concerns were noted for this student. The
apparent disconnect here occurs because although the student consistently scores in the
highest categories academically and cognitively, he appears to be “stuck” at a KELPA level 3,
corresponding to a Level 3 (Early/Fluent – Transitional) according to the “Leveling Correlation
Chart” (Cappelini, 2005, p. 163). The long - term goal, therefore, of this case study is to move
the student from a Level 3 to a Level 4 (Fluent) category upon completion of the KELPA
administered in Spring, 2012. As the project developed, I first examined the year-end proficiency
scores of ELL students in reading and math. I chose this particular fifth grade class because the
teacher was new to the district, although not new to teaching. With this in mind, I spoke to the
teacher regarding the project, and she was eager for any classroom support that would be
available. Another reason I chose fifth grade in particular was because I taught communication
arts in a middle school for eight years. This presented valuable insights into the vertical
curriculum that students would be expected to master. As students advance in grade level, the
correlation between successful school performance and success in later life, whether it be
college or a trade, becomes more positive. Therefore, I deemed it essential that any student
evidencing a learning gap should be given the opportunity to close it before reaching the
secondary level. Although teachers at all levels are concerned with student achievement, it is
often more propitious to defuse any potential difficulties while still in elementary school, where
34

an often decided advantage is that the classroom teacher usually interacts with the student all
day, not to mention increasing pressures on students, such as peer interactions, that often
surface, and can interfere with learning, at the middle school level. For this particular project, I
chose a high achieving (proficient) student, who evidenced a learning gap between his NCLB
test performance and language proficiency. We chose blogging as a way to remedy this
situation, since the district was presently involved in a “year of study” regarding writing in the
curriculum as aligned with the common core. A weblog (or 'blog') can be thought of as an online
journal that an individual can continuously update with his or her own words, ideas, and thoughts
as in an “online diary.” Another feature of blogging is that similar to an open journal, the
accumulation of writings and other content creates both a record of learning and a resource for
others. In addition, a weblog is interactive, in the sense that readers can respond to any given
entry with a comment and even threaded discussions can take place depending on the
characteristics of the blog. We chose “Kidblog” (www.kidblog.org) as our platform, due to its
simplicity and ease of use for digital “natives” and “immigrants” alike. We chose a hybrid of the
“Tutor,” “Learner,” and “Class” blogs, as described by Campbell (2000).
The Project
Oscar T. is a twelve-year-old, Hispanic male student at Emerson Elementary School in the Kansas City,
Kansas School District. He is officially classified as an ELL student, with the home language identified as
Spanish. Oscar has attended Emerson for two years, beginning in the fourth grade. He has no identified
disabilities, his attendance is good, and he presents no behavioral issues that would interfere with his
learning. Oscar is in a fifth grade general education class comprised of fourteen students, and has never
been retained
The school administered the KSA General Reading Assessment in March of 2011. On this, Oscar
achieved a raw score of 91, placing him in the “Exemplary” category, which is the highest category on
that test. The MAP reading test administered in April 2011 yielded a RIT score of 220, placing Oscar in
the “At/Above Proficient” designation, and the Fall 2011 reading MAP again placed him in the “At/Above
Proficient” category, with a RIT score of 214. Regarding the KELPA, Oscar scored 3 out of 4 possible
points, placing him in the “Advanced” category regarding language acquisition in all areas of listening,
speaking, and writing. In addressing behavior, the school uses a district-wide discipline form to gather
school-wide behavior data. No behavior concerns were noted for Oscar. The apparent disconnect here
occurs because although Oscar consistently scores in the highest categories academically and
cognitively, he appears to be “stuck” at a KELPA level 3, corresponding to a Level 3 (Early/Fluent –
Transitional) according to the “Leveling Correlation Chart” (Cappelini, 2005, p. 163). The long - term goal,
therefore, of this case study is to move Oscar from a Level 3 to a Level 4 (Fluent) category upon
completion of the KELPA administered in Spring, 2012.
The following tables represent Oscar’s NCLB test scores this year:
NWEA MAP Winter 2012 - Jan 17, 2012 (Grade 05)
Reading 221
At/Above Proficient
NWEA MAP Fall 2011 - Sep 22, 2011 (Grade 05)
Reading 214
At/Above Proficient
KELPA Apr 01, 2011 (Grade 04)
35

Total 3 Advanced Performance Level
Total 81 Percent Correct
Listening 3 Advanced Performance Level
Listening 88 Percent Correct
Reading 3 Advanced Performance Level
Reading 72 Percent Correct
Speaking 3 Advanced Performance Level
Speaking 83 Percent Correct
Writing 3 Advanced Performance Level
Writing 85 Percent Correct
KSA General 2010-2011 - Mar 01, 2011 (Grade 04)
Math 89 Exemplary Raw
Reading 91 Exemplary Raw
Science 75 Exceeds Standard Raw
Upon examining Oscar’s test results and grades, an obvious discrepancy appeared. Since Oscar scored
consistently high on the language arts portions of the KSA (Kansas Student Assessment), in fact
“Exemplary” with a 91 raw score, as well as the MAP why did he score at a Level 3 on the KELPA?
As the project developed, I first examined the year-end proficiency scores of ELL students in reading and
math. I chose this particular fifth grade class because the teacher was new to the district, although not
new to teaching. With this in mind, I spoke to the teacher regarding the project, and she was eager for
any classroom support that would be available. Another reason I chose fifth grade in particular was
because I taught communication arts in a middle school for eight years. This presented valuable insights
into the vertical curriculum that students would be expected to master. As students advance in grade
level, the correlation between successful school performance and success in later life, whether it be
college or a trade, becomes more positive. Therefore, I deemed it essential that any student evidencing a
learning gap should be given the opportunity to close it before reaching the secondary level. Although
teachers at all levels are concerned with student achievement, it is often more propitious to defuse any
potential difficulties while still in elementary school, where an often decided advantage is that the
classroom teacher usually interacts with the student all day, not to mention increasing pressures on
students, such as peer interactions, that often surface, and can interfere with learning, at the middle
school level. For this particular project, I chose a high achieving (proficient) student, who evidenced a
learning gap between his NCLB test performance and language proficiency.
We chose blogging as a way to remedy this situation, since the district was presently involved in a “year
of study” regarding writing in the curriculum as aligned with the common core. A weblog (or 'blog') can be
thought of as an online journal that an individual can continuously update with his or her own words,
ideas, and thoughts as in an “online diary.” Another feature of blogging is that similar to an open journal,
the accumulation of writings and other content creates both a record of learning and a resource for
others. In addition, a weblog is interactive, in the sense that readers can respond to any given entry with a
comment and even threaded discussions can take place depending on the characteristics of the blog.
We chose “Kidblog” (www.kidblog.org) as our platform, due to its simplicity and ease of use for digital
“natives” and “immigrants” alike. We chose a hybrid of the “Tutor,” “Learner,” and “Class” blogs, as
described by Campbell (2000).
The “Tutor” blog is a type of weblog that is run by the tutor (teacher) for the learners. It serves the
following purposes:
• It gives daily reading practice to the learners. Sometimes students find assigned reading
material too boring, difficult, or hard to relate with. This is because it is often written with another
purpose in mind. Entries are kept short, geared towards the learner interest, and linked to related
online sources for further reading if desired. Vocabulary used in class can be recycled this way.
New vocabulary words can be linked to definitions on other sites found with a search engine.
36

Furthermore, to develop learner familiarity with native language patterns the tutor can use a
casual, natural writing style.
• It promotes exploration of English websites. Any entry made by the tutor can and ought to
encourage further exploration of the Internet in English by linking to related articles, and content
based websites. For those learners reluctant to step outside the comfort of exploring the Web in
their native language, being led to interesting English language sites will increase their
confidence and help to overcome their aversion
• It encourages online verbal exchange by use of comment buttons. At the bottom of each
entry, any blog reader can make a comment that can be read and further commented on by all
who access the site. Ask your students questions, give them riddles, challenge their views;
whatever it takes to encourage them to comment.
“Learner” blogs are blogs that are either run by individual learners themselves or by small
collaborative groups of learners. In ESL, learner blogs may be best suited for reading and writing
classes. We followed the district GVC in writing in which a common reading assignment would be
followed by blog postings on the thoughts of each learner or group of learners. In addition, the act of
constructing the blog may encourage the use of search engines and net surfing in English to find the
appropriate sites to which links can be made. This will empower the learner to direct the reader to
sites of choice for further reading. Individually, blogs can be used as journals for writing practice, or
as free-form templates for personal expression. The idea here is that students can get writing
practice, develop a sense of ownership, and get experience with the practical, legal, and ethical
issues of creating a document. They also had to learn that whatever they write can instantly be read
by anyone else and, due to the comment features of the software, further exchange of ideas is
promoted.
Finally, the “Class” blog is the result of the collaborative effort of an entire class. For this, we added four
other students to the group, and participated in the “Blogging Challenge,” (www.edublogs.org). The
students worked on their blogs weekly, consistent with the Edublog challenges. Since the “assignments”
came out on Mondays, the students had until Wednesday to compose their blog entries. Also, in keeping
with the district’s “Year of Study” in writing, students were encouraged to follow the format of “first draft,
peer edit, second draft, and publish” for their work. For the rest of the week and through the weekend,
students were encouraged to comments on each other’s’ blogs, as well as those in the Edublog network.
Receiving comments, especially from “far away” peers, proved to be the “bright spot” of the assignment!
Each writing session lasted 30 minutes. Students met twice a week with me, and the rest of the time they
were encouraged to check the blogs on their own, or as part of homework assignments.
As of this writing, the final scores are not yet in for the Spring MAP and KELPA, however, all indications
point to Oscar scoring “Fluent” as he heads off to middle school. We plan on continuing our blog next
year, with the goal of increasing student participation, and we hope that Osacr and his classmates
continue to visit us through the blogging world as well.
References
Blood, Rebecca (2000). Weblogs: a history and perspective.
(www.rebeccablood.net/essays/weblog_history.html)
Campbell, Aaron (2000). Weblogs for use with ESL classes. The Internet TSL Journal.
Capellini, Mary (2005). Balancing reading & language learning. Stenhouse Publishers.
Lindsey, Delores (2007). Culturally Proficient Coaching. Corwin Press.
Marzano, Robert (2001). Classroom instruction that works. ASCD.
Winer, D. (2002). The history of weblogs. (http://newhome.weblogs.com/historyOfWeblogs)
37

“Media Literacy in Action: Using Teaching for Understanding and
Universal Design for Learning to Develop a Media Literacy Lesson
Series”
Jennifer Lavalle,
Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138,
Email: JLL610@mail.harvard.edu
Abstract: This project integrates a blended learning environment into a media literacy
lesson series designed for a sixth grade health classroom. Using Teaching for
Understanding and Universal Design for Learning as guiding models, this project
emphasizes the need for media literacy in school curricula and uses these learning
frameworks to structure the implementation of such activities. This presentation will
comment on the theoretical foundations of this project and will explain the activities of the
lesson series. Though this project is designed specifically for a middle school audience,
the process of integrating 21 st century learning skills into a traditional classroom using
frameworks for educational design is applicable for all ages and grade levels.
Introduction
Today’s children are growing up in increasingly interconnected and ubiquitous media environments.
These children engage with media technologies in unforeseen ways and with unprecedented frequency.
According to authors Douglas Thomas and John Seely Brown (2011), we are experiencing a dramatic
shift to a new culture of learning based on three principles: “(1) The old ways of learning are unable to
keep up with our rapidly changing world. (2) New media forms are making peer-to-peer learning easier
and more natural. (3) Peer-to-peer learning is amplified by emerging technologies that shape the
collective nature of participation with those new media” (p. 50).
In this new culture of learning, behaviors and practices are evolving. As such, educators must rethink
teaching methodology with a keen focus on these new learners. If the majority of child’s time is spent in
an out of school environment, what are children learning in this Out-of-School-Time (OST)? In fact,
approximately 85% of a child’s day is spent in OST (Bransford et al, 1999, p.148). Since we know that
children are engaged in learning activities during this time, the question for educators thus becomes: what
are they learning and how can we harness the power of this learning to further academic knowledge? In
other words, how do we scaffold a student’s navigation through new digital playgrounds?
This question is at the forefront of many minds and several initiatives have been developed around the
idea what it means to be a 21 st century learner. With national initiatives like the Common Core State
Standards providing the overarching goals for educators, it is necessary for researchers and curriculum
designers to provide the means for such instruction. This project synthesizes and applies modern
learning theories in order to produce a lesson series fit for classroom implementation. Teaching for
Understanding and Universal Design for Learning are the principal frameworks that underlie and support
this learning series.
Curriculum Frameworks
Teach for Understanding (Wiske, 1997) is a curriculum framework that proposes four principle areas for
lesson design: generative topics, understanding goals, performances of understanding, and ongoing
assessments. This framework is the guiding model for this lesson series, making it accessible and
comprehensive for all teachers. Secondly, Universal Design for Learning (Meyer & Rose, 2005) is used
as an overarching theme in this lesson series to ensure multiple points of entry for all students with a
variety of needs, preferences, and abilities.
Media Literacy Education
Though these learning frameworks may be familiar to many educators, the topic of media literacy is often
new. In many classrooms across the United States, media literacy is treated as an afterthought to the
38

main topic of inquiry. However, research and developments in the field teach us that this subject has
much more to offer in helping to answer this grand and challenging question. Media literacy is most
commonly defined as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and produce communication in a variety of
forms (NAMLE, 2007, Media Literacy Defined). The National Association for Media Literacy Education
developed the following core principles of media literacy education (2007, Core Principles).
Media Literacy Education (MLE):
• requires active inquiry and critical thinking about the messages we receive and create.
• expands the concept of literacy (i.e., reading and writing) to include all forms of media.
• builds and reinforces skills for learners of all ages. Like print literacy, those skills necessitate
integrated, interactive, and repeated practice.
• develops informed, reflective and engaged participants essential for a democratic society.
• recognizes that media are a part of culture and function as agents of socialization.
• affirms that people use their individual skills, beliefs and experiences to construct their own
meanings from media messages.
Conclusion
Ultimately, Teach for Understanding, UDL, and media literacy are united in this lesson series to provide a
new way to think about how to prepare 21 st century students for the digital playgrounds of their future.
We have a lot more to learn and by applying contemporary theories and innovative media technologies,
we become one step closer to meeting the challenge.
References
Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L. & Cocking, R.R., Eds. (1999) The Design of Learning Environments. In How
People Learn. (p. 119-142). Washington DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved from
http://www.nap.edu/penbook.php?record_id=9853&page=131.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2007, November). Core principles of media literacy
education in the United States. Retrieved from http://namle.net/wpcontent/uploads/2009/09/NAMLE-CPMLE-w-questions2.pdf.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2007). Media Literacy Defined. Retrieved from
http://namle.net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/ .
Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2011). A New Culture of Learning: Cultivating the Imagination for a World of
Constant Change. © Thomas & Brown.
Meyer, A. & Rose, D. (2005). The Future is in the Margins: the role of technology and disability in
educational reform. In D.H. Rose, A. Meyer & C. Hitchcock (Eds.), The Universally Designed
Classroom: Accessible Curriculum and Digital Technologies (p. 13-35). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Education Press.
Wiske, M.S. (1997) What is Teaching for Understanding? In Teaching for Understanding: Linking
Research with Practice. (p. 61-86). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
39

Learning Science Systems with Graphic Computer Simulations
Na Li, Mengzi Gao, Haofei Shen, Yuyang Guo, Daniel Lee,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120 th street, New York, 10027
Email: nl2284@tc.columbia.edu, mg3220@tc.columbia.edu, hs2670@tc.columbia.edu,
yg2282@tc.columbia.edu, dyl2119@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: Graphic computer simulations have great advantages in teaching abstract
system concepts. Instructional scaffolding is very essential for learners to benefit from
these simulation-based learning environments. In this project, multiple simulation models
at different abstract levels are designed as learning materials teaching three ideal gas
laws (a chemical system). 36 adult learners without strong background in science
participated in a pilot study; 10 middle school students from a public school in NYC
participated in the usability testing study; and 58 middle school students from a public
school in NYC participated in our current study. Data from preliminary research show that
a top-down function-centered scaffolding strategy could produce better learning
performance than a bottom-up structure-centered scaffolding strategy; and learning tasks
encouraging learners to model system causality can be very effective under the functioncentered
scaffolding condition, but not under the structure-centered scaffolding condition.
Research Background
Studies have demonstrated that systems learning goes through several sequential stages before learners
are able to grasp a network of mechanics-function relations (e.g.,Assaraf & Orion, 2005). Explaining
mechanism and causality is usually difficult for learners especially when the systems have hierarchical
levels (Duncan & Reiser, 2007). Computational modeling and visualizing technology makes it possible to
show the invisible lower-level mechanism of systems, and allows inquiry-based instructional design
(Wilensky& Resnick, 1999). One important pedagogical implication from these studies is to provide
hierarchical instructional scaffolding in the learning process and help learners iteratively modify their
conceptual representations of a system (Liu & Hmelo, 2009).
Instrument
A computer simulation environment with three simulation models has been designed for this research
project. The first simulation model is realistic visualizations of three ideal gas law phenomena. The
second simulation is a gas molecular activity model which is more abstract, with which learners are able
to conduct virtual experiments to test hypotheses (one example, see Figure 1). The third simulation is an
abstract flowchart model which the learners use to model causality and explain the mechanism of the
system (see Figure 2). These three simulations demonstrate the system function and mechanism at
different abstract levels. Some techniques are used to reduce cognitive load and scaffold information
integration a). Simulations can set to be displayed on separate pages or on the same page in any
combination. If two simulations are displayed on the same page, they are dynamically linked which
means as the learner interact with one simulation, the other changes accordingly. b). The realistic
simulation and the gas molecular activity simulation are functionally and structurally mapped, so it’s very
easy for the learners to compare two models for cross-level reasoning.
Figure 1: A concrete representation of ideal gas law phenomena & a more abstract molecular
activity model.
40

Figure 2: A flowchart simulation for causality modeling
Hypotheses
Based on the pedagogical research on teaching and learning systems, two instructional scaffolding
strategies are hypothesized to be effective: 1. Top-down function-centered scaffolding 2. Forwardbackward
modeling for causality. Hypothesis 1: Top-down function-centered scaffolding leads to better
learning performance compared to bottom-up structure-centered instructional scaffolding. Hypothesis 2:
Forward-backward modeling for causality after sufficient perceptual grounding leads to better learning
performance. Hypothesis 3: Under the function-centered instructional scaffolding condition, the modeling
for causality task has greater effect on learning performance, compared to under the structure-centered
scaffolding condition.
Operationalization
In the top-down function-centered scaffolding condition, participants experience the general system
function with concrete representations (e.g. as you drag the fire icon to the aerosol can, the can explodes),
then analyze the system mechanism at a lower level with “how” and “why” questions. In the bottom-up
structure-centered scaffolding condition, participants learn all the lower-level mechanics information and
then learn the system function. Modeling for causality tasks refers to tasks that require learners to
mentally visualize the causal sequence of a system and also verbally explain the causality.
Preliminary Research
The purpose of the first pilot study was to primarily validate the two variables (function-centered
scaffolding and modeling for causality). 36 Adult learners from Teachers College participated in that
study, and learned three ideal gas law concepts with an early version of the simulations. The learning
time was very short (within 20 minutes) since the topic was not very challenging for this population. The
results indicate the effectiveness of function-centered scaffolding and the significant interaction of the two
variables.
The purpose of the second pilot study was for usability testing of the new simulation environment. 10
middle school students from a public school in NYC (all of them from Hispanic or Black ethnic groups and
families with relatively low SES) participated in that study. This group of students were the top students in
that school. The 6 session curriculum was conducted in the afterschool enrichment program over 3 weeks
(2 sessions per week). The learning progress was smooth for this group of students.
The current study employs a 2X2 factorial design testing the two instructional scaffolding strategies with
the same simulation-based learning environment. 58 7th and 8th graders from a public school in NYC
(Most of them from Hispanic and Black ethnic groups and families with relatively low SES.) participate in
this study. This is a 7 session curriculum (50 min per session) over 7 weeks. Participants in each class
are randomly assigned to a condition. The study is still going on, and partial data to the date support our
three hypotheses.
References
Assaraf, O. B., & Orion, N. (2005). Development of system thinking skills in the context of earth system
education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42(5), 518-560.
Duncan, R. G., & Reiser, B. J. (2007). Reasoning across ntologically distinct levels: Students'
understandings of molecular genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(7), 938-959.
41

Liu, L., & Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2009). Promoting complex systems learning through the use of conceputal
representations in hypermedia. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(9), 1023-1040.
Wilensky, U., & Resnick, M. (1999). Thinking in levels: A dynamic systems perspective to making sense
of the world. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8(1), 3-19.
42

From Aristotle to Adobe: Examining Approaches to Integrating
and Sustaining Multimodal Compositions in the Classroom
Lisa Litterio,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8 th Street, Troy, NY 12180,
Email: lisalitterio@gmail.com
Abstract: In recent years, many scholars have advocated for the development of
sound pedagogy, practices, and assessment strategies for implementing
multimodal compositions in the classroom. Based on this need to address
different and more current forms of composing, this presentation will focus on
pedagogical approaches in two courses where multimodal compositions are
practiced: a traditional writing class and a scientific inquiry class. The speaker will
begin by providing the audience with definitions of multimodal composing using
Selfe’s (2007) and Wysocki’s (2004) theories as well as the rationale for
integrating these compositions in both high school and college classrooms. Next,
the speaker will show and discuss several examples of successful student
multimodal compositions. At the end of the presentation, the speaker will
encourage the audience to pose questions, share their own experiences, and
discuss future practices for sustaining multimodal compositions.
43

Applying Physics to the Real World: Using Embodiment and LEGO
Mindstorms in Physics Learning for Children
Carol M. Lu, Seokmin Kang, Sorachai Kornkasem, Laura M. Lu,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120 th St., New York, NY 10027
Email: cml2133@columbia.edu, sk2587@tc.columbia.edu, sk451@columbia.edu,
lml2152@columbia.edu
Abstract: This study examined elementary students’ ability to apply physics concepts in
real world situations through the use of embodiment and LEGO Mindstroms. Participants
in this study included fifth graders from an inner-city public elementary school where they
were randomly assigned to either LEGO robotics instruction with embodiment or LEGO
robotics instruction without embodiment. Both groups were asked to complete a set of
prescribed tasks pertaining to physical science. In addition, students in the embodiment
group were asked to act like robots and moved their own bodies based on the
instructions given for the tasks. Students in both groups were asked to take a pretest
and then a posttest and short interview to assess the learning outcomes at the end of our
study. The results revealed that students with embodied experiences were able to apply
physics concepts in other contexts better than those without embodiment.
Many cognitive scientists have developed an increased interest in exploring how mind and body
collaborate to develop better understanding through embodied cognition in different contexts and settings.
Recent literature suggests that we generate multimodal representations that are grounded on the physical
experiences we gain through different sensory modalities as well as emotional conditions when we
interact with the world (Barsalou, 2008). Meanwhile, robots provide “students opportunities to represent
their ideas in different ways and utilize 3D artifacts (robots) to contextualize their learning and help them
communicate their ideas and understandings (Church et al., 2010, p. 47). Papert (1980) claims that
learning with robotics transforms the way students learn. That is, robotics helps students associate the
knowledge they learn in their minds and the knowledge they build with their hands, using robots. This
knowledge children acquire is valuable, as they will be using and creating new meaning based on that
understanding.
This study examined elementary students’ ability to apply physics concepts in real world situations such
as sports through the use of embodiment and LEGO Mindstroms. We designed an after-school program
integrating embodied cognition with LEGO robotics to assess whether students’ ability to apply physics
concepts increase when they physically move their own bodies in activities related to science and sports.
Participants in this study included fifth graders from an inner-city public elementary school where they
were randomly assigned to either LEGO robotics instruction with embodiment or LEGO robotics
instruction without embodiment. Both groups were asked to complete a set of prescribed tasks pertaining
to physical science. In addition, students in the embodiment group were asked to act like robots and
moved their own bodies based on the instructions given for the tasks. Students in both groups were
asked to take a pretest and then a posttest and short interview to assess the learning outcomes at the
end of our study.
Although our curriculum had an overall effect on both control and experimental group in terms of science
application and understanding, the results of our study revealed that students with embodied experiences
were able to apply physics concepts in other contexts better than those without embodiment. Previous
studies have indicated that children typically find science concepts abstract and very hard to grasp
(Johnstone, 1991; Millar, 1991). The findings of our study suggest that integrating embodiment with
LEGO robotics can improve students’ ability to transfer their understanding of physics concepts in another
context. Additional research should be done to identify the generalizability of these findings to other
populations and learning content.
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References
Barsalou, L.W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617 – 645.
Church, W., Ford, T., Perova, N., & Rogers, C. (2010). Physics with robotics. Using LEGO Mindstorms in
high school education. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Spring
Symposium Series.
Johnstone, A.H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 7(2), 75-83.
Millar, R. (1991). Why is science hard to learn? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7(2), 66-74.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
45

Credibility of Culturally Situated Design Tools:
Mathematics and Black Identity
Raymond Lutzky,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 Eighth Street, Troy, NY
Email: lutzkr3@rpi.edu
Abstract: Social identities and stereotypes of Black culture significantly impact education
and student learning in American schools (Ogbu and Simons, 1998; Steele et al., 2002),
Strategies to combat these social paradigms, such as “peer proofing” of students, may
only serve to exacerbate the racial divide between black and white and further alienate
African-American students from their own social identities (Fordham, 1991). This has led
to a variety of observable phenomena that negatively impact African-Americans’ selfidentity,
self-confidence, and academic ability. Some have described the cultural
implications of a student being accused of “acting white,” and the consequences within
American educational settings (Fryer and Torelli, 2005; Bucholtz, 2001). Unique teaching
strategies, such as the use of culturally situated design tools (CSDT Web site, 2012),
may hold the key in providing African-American students with a way to achieve academic
success without alienating themselves from their Black peers and cultural identification
(Eglash, 2005). This paper seeks to evaluate culturally situated design tools associated
with Black identity to determine the means by which they achieve credibility with their
audiences and improve student learning.
Black Identity and Education
Social psychological processes play a significant role in the academic underperformance of stigmatized
minority groups (Steele et al., 2002). This is the essence of “stereotype threat,” as manifest in Steele’s
research using standardized test scores across different racial groups:
When a negative stereotype about a group that one is part of becomes personally
relevant, usually as an interpretation of one’s behavior or an experience one is having,
stereotype threat is the resulting sense that one can then be judged or treated in terms of
the stereotype or that one might do something that would inadvertently confirm it. (Steele
et al., 2002, p. 389)
Particularly among African Americans, stereotype threat is a very real phenomenon. For example, it has
been demonstrated that stereotype threat influences the thought processes and academic performance of
students – in instances where African-American students believe they are being compared to a White
group, they provided more stereotypical and self-doubting answers than a control group of the same race.
“Simply expecting to take an ability-diagnostic test was enough to activate racial stereotypes about ability
in the minds of Black participants,” (Steele et al., 2002). An analysis of Black identity and its relationship
to education is required for a deeper understanding of this phenomenon, and the strategies of American
schools to combat it.
The Black identity of African-American students is a complex and evolving psychological paradigm. One
relevant theory is that of fictive kinship, which Fordham addresses in her ethnography of Black
adolescents in American schools. “Fictive kinship indicates a kinshiplike relationship between persons not
related by blood or marriage, who also have some reciprocal social or economic relationship,” (Fordham,
1991). This notion conveys the “peoplehood” of Black social identity, and she goes on to describe the
challenges for this identity in modern American schools. However, traditional American institutions of
education have approached instruction through racially-motivated instances of “peer-proofing,” negatively
affecting students’ identity as Black people. This is evidenced (and exacerbated) by a tendency to
remove high-achieving Black students and place them away from their Black peers into nearly all-White
environments. Fordham notes that this separation in of itself suggests that “they are, in some important
intellectual and nonintellectual ways, different from other Black people and, with the possible exception of
phenotypical (or racial) features, clones of their White peers,” (Fordham 1991). This is reinforced by
46

esearch suggesting that many high-achieving Black students are accused of “acting White,” (Fryer and
Torelli, 2005; Bucholtz 2001).
As a result of this environment, most schools present an inversion of Black students’ fictive social identity
(Fordham, 1991) relating to boundary maintaining factors in social interactions with white students. This
mechanism allows Black students to identify “real” versus “spurious” members of their social group.
According to Bishop, incorporating cultural history and minimizing the perception that students must
“choose” between their Black identity and a desire for academic success are keys to avoiding dysfunction
and raising credibility in education (Fordham, 1991). Eglash’s culturally situated design tools (CSDTs)
rely on these two concepts, and the design of the technology works towards the cultural and historical
education of students while allowing them to maintain the identities (Eglash et al., 2009). His research
shows that this approach produces further benefits beyond enhancing student interest, such as
combating stereotypes, reinforcing student identity, and by combating notions of “primitivism” and raciallybased
theories of “natural ability.” He states that “African fractals in the classroom might help guard
against an overemphasis on biological determinism, which has been found adversely to affect
mathematics learning,” (Eglash, 2005). Clearly, the integration of credible multicultural material with
traditional American mathematics education produces many benefits to learning, student interest, and
social identity, and succeeds in capturing the attention of students and improving academic interest.
Eglash and his team and his team at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have created a suite of culturally
situated design tools, or CSDTs, designed to generate enthusiasm and improve student learning in
mathematics within cultural and historical simulations.
These design tools draw considerable power from their credibility in the classroom. “CSDTs provide a
potent space for students to reconfigure their relations between culture, mathematics, and technology,
and for anthropologists to carry out research in these same domains,” (Eglash et al., 2009). These tools
explore the relationship between youth identity and culture through interactive software simulations of
cultural arts with underlying mathematical designs, coupled with historical context. They also have the
added benefit of helping students better relate to math concepts through the use of culturally-specific
imagery, and support key aspects of multicultural identity.
Credibility of Culturally Situated Design Tools
The credibility of CSDTs begins with context. According to Warnick, source credentials and reputation
have become less important in the credibility of online information. She argues that it is advisable “to
rethink the modernist conception of credibility as reliance on the message source and to a shift to a
framework for judging credibility of messages that arise in the context of a distributed field of production
oriented to specific purposes, functions, and values,” (Warnick, 2007). Therefore, part of the credibility of
CSDTs is their contextual notions of cultural heritage, visual design, and authoritative authorship (the
endorsement of the National Science Foundation is prominent on the CSDT main web site). In relation to
this, Fogg discusses how Web sites will have more credibility if they highlight the people or organization
behind the content and services provided. He also shows that credibility perceptions will be enhanced if a
Web site makes it easy for users to check outside sources to verify the accuracy of site content (Fogg,
2003). The CSDT web site accomplishes both of these tasks through references and by highlighting
authors and partner organizations. Fogg identifies this as reputed, or “third party” credibility. While most
users approach computing technology with “a preconceived notion about credibility, based on general
assumptions about what is and is not believable” (Fogg, 2003), they will re-evaluate their beliefs about the
credibility of a system after initial use and firsthand inspection.
Fogg contends that technology that is viewed as trustworthy will have increased powers of persuasion,
and that “sources that argue against their own interest are perceived as being credible,” (Fogg 123). The
user must also have a perception that the information they are receiving is fair and unbiased. This is
perhaps one of the most relevant and powerful sources of credibility for CSDTs: their incongruity with
traditional American education and relation to cultural identity. It is entirely possible for a student to
perceive that the approach of CSDTs, offering reinforcement to Black fictive kinship or other cultural
identifiers, is directly counter to the approach of their previous schooling. This also speaks to Fogg’s
47

notion that similarity with the user also plays into fostering trustworthiness in technology (similarity in
opinions, language, and background). He notes that “computing technology that is viewed as
incorporating expertise (knowledge, experience, and competence) will have increased powers of
persuasion” (Fogg, 2003). This expertise is manifest as cultural and historical knowledge in CSDTs,
presented as vignettes before the start of each software experience. These vignettes inform the user and
allow them to identify with the cultural and visual elements described by the software by presenting
pictures, sounds, and history lessons relevant to a specific cultural identity. The vignettes are examples
of Warnick’s field dependent factors that may further influence the software’s credibility by relating directly
to the culture and values of the user (Warnick, 2007).
Discussion
Combating stereotype threat and negative influences from peer-proofing is a daunting task that is
essential to the advancement of American education. Eglash’s CSDTs attempt to do this by giving
African American students the ability to remain within their Black social identity while embracing academic
achievement in a unique, interactive setting. The CSDTs achieve credibility through the structure of the
main web site, through their unique “counter-institutional” nature as educational tools, through their
referencing and source authority, and through their ability to allow users to personalize their experiences.
However, they also achieve considerable credibility from their ability to help students retain their
multicultural identities, fictive or otherwise. As Fordham notes, when students attempt to reinforce their
own cultural identities (in her case, Black identity) in predominantly culturally White schools, “they
unwittingly ensure their own academic ‘failure,’ primarily because most aspects of the culture of Black
Americans are stigmatized and assigned a negative valence in both the school context and the larger
American society,” (Fordham, 1991).
References
Bucholtz, M. (2001). “The whiteness of nerds.” Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 11(1):84–100.
CSDT Web Site. (Accessed April 2012). http://csdt.rpi.edu/
Eglash, R. (2005). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press.
Eglash, R., Bennett, A., O’Donnell, C., Jannings, S., and Cintorino, M. (2009). “Culturally situated design
tools: ethnocomputing from field site to classroom.” American Anthropologist, 108(2), 347-62.
Fordham, S. (1991). “Peer-Proofing Academic Competition among Black Adolescents: “Acting White”
Black American Style.” In Sleeter, Christine ed., Empowerment through Multicultural Education.
Albany: State University of New York Press, 69–94.
Fogg, B.J. (2003). Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do. San
Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
Warnick, B. (2007). Rhetoric Online: Persuasion and Politics on the World Wide Web. New York: Peter
Lang.
Fryer, R. and Torelli, P. (2005). An Empirical Analysis of ‘Acting White.’ Electronic document,
http://economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/files/Empiriccal%2Banalysis%2Bof%2B%2527acting%
2Bwhite%2527_final%2Bmanuscript.pdf.
Ogbu, J., and Simons, H. (1998). “Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-Ecological Theory of
School Performance with Some Implications for Education.” Anthropology and Education
Quarterly 29(2):155–188.
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S., & Aronson, J. (2002). “Contending with group image: The psychology of
stereotype and social identity threat.” In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology Vol. 34. Academic Press.
48

iPad for Autism: How can the iPad serve as a teaching tool for
students on the Autism Spectrum?
Sheena S. Mozaffar,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 105, Christopher Street Apt. 2A, New York, NY 10014,
Email: ssm2173@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to explore the use of iPad technology in a 1 st
grade self-contained classroom with students suspected to be on the Autism Spectrum.
According to a 2012 estimate the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 out of
every 88 children in the US is diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder and the rate
has increased by 23% since 2009. Hence, there will be a rise in the number of students
on the spectrum within tomorrow’s classrooms. It is necessary to identify how technology
can support the teacher of tomorrow to accomplish learning objectives. This research
was aimed towards identifying the impact of touch-screen technology, like the iPad, on
students displaying autistic tendencies. The process began with isolating a focus group of
four students on the spectrum. I videotaped classroom observations on individual student
interactions with the iPad to observe engagement, manipulation and functionality with the
hardware and software. Then I recorded student interactions, in groups of 2 and 4,
sharing the iPad to examine social interaction and communication. This was followed by
conducting a Math activity using concrete materials and replicating the activity with an
iPad App to study the difference in engagement, interaction and instruction. Students
were introduced to a new App to analyze change in level of engagement compared to
working with Apps they knew well from experience. The research also draws upon
interviews I conducted with teachers, speech and occupational therapists, and assistive
technology specialists to expand upon the iPad’s capability as both a teaching tool and
assistive device. As a result of this research I learnt that the iPad cannot be utilized with
every child on the Autism Spectrum. Teachers have to adapt their lesson and use of the
iPad, through physical device manipulation or App usage, to support student needs in
terms of comfort with abstract learning and unstructured/structured activity engagement.
iPad usage with students must be supervised to ensure educational exposure and device
safety. The iPad can be used as an incentive, for self-reinforcement of subject matter,
student assessment and lesson differentiation by using specific Apps. The iPad was able
to aid students on the spectrum to self-regulate, perform turn-taking, peer mentoring and
communicate physically as well as verbally with each other. The iPad’s accessibility
features, mobility and media integration made it easier for the teacher and students to
access multiple forms of media to support lessons.
References
Autism Speaks Inc., (2012). What is Autism? What is Autism Spectrum Disorder? Retrieved from:
http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism
Barnes, E. B., O’Flynn, J., Saile, L., (2008). Families, Infants and Young Children at Risk:
Pathways to Best Practice. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes Pub Co.
Brandon, J., (2011, Mar 9). Is the iPad a ‘Miracle Device’ for Autism? Retrieved from:
http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/03/09/can-apple-ipad-cure-autism/
Center for Disease Control and Prevention, (2012). New Data on Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/Features/CountingAutism/
CBC News, (2011, Oct 25). iPad helps Toronto special needs kids learn. Retrieved from:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/story/2011/10/25/ipad-autism.html
Dana, N. F., Yendel-Hoppey, D., (2009). The Reflective Educator’s Guide to Classroom Research:
Learning to Teach and Teaching to Learn through Practitioner Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press
Darragh, J., (2007). Universal Design for Early Childhood Education: Ensuring Access and Equity
for All. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(2), 167-171
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Duncan, H., Tan, J. (2012). A Visual Task Manager Application for Individuals with Autism. The Journal
of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 27(6), 49-57
Gasparini, A. A., Culen, L. A., (2012). Proceedings from ACHI ’12: The Fifth International Conference on
Advances in Computer-Human Interactions. Valencia, Spain: IARIA
Hager, H. B., (2010, Oct 29). iPad Opens World to a Disabled Boy. The NY Times. Retrieved from:
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/31/nyregion/31owen.html?_r=1
Isaacson, W., (2011). Steve Jobs. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster
Joshi, P., (2011, Nov 29). Finding Good Apps for Children with Autism. The NY Times. Retrieved from:
http://gadgetwise.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/29/finding-good-apps-for- children-with- autism/
O’Conell, T., Freed, G., Rotheburg, M., (2010). Using Apple Technology to Support Learning for
Students with Sensory and Learning Disabilities. In Apple in Education: Teachers and
Administrators. Retrieved from: http://images.apple.com/education/docs/L419373A-
US_L419373A_AppleTechDisabilities.pdf
Odom, L. S., (2009). Augmentative and Alternative Communication. In Odom, L. S., Horner, H. R.,
Snell, M. E. & Blacher, J. (Eds.), handbook of Developmental Disabilities (330-348). New York,
NY: The Guilford Press
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Conference on Advances in Computer-Human Interactions. Valencia, Spain: IARIA
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Retrieved from: http://www.edweek.org/tsb/articles/2011/10/13/01tablets.h05.html
Sooin, L., (2012). Project Injini: Developing Cognitive Training Games for Children with Special Needs.
Games For Health Journal: Research, Development, and Clinical Applications, 1(1), 69-73
Sughrue, K., (2011, Oct 23). Apps for Autism: Communicating on the iPad. 60 minutes. Podcast
retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=7385686n
50

Video Games and Vocabulary: Exploring New Possibilities for
Vocabulary Acquisition and Instruction
Mark Barba Pacheco,
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, #329 Appleton Place, Nashville, TN 37203,
Email: mark.b.pacheco@vanderbilt.edu
Abstract: This paper explores the possibilities within four video games for middle
school and high school student vocabulary acquisition. While vocabulary
knowledge is one of the strongest predictors of reading comprehension, effective
vocabulary instruction and acquisition continue to challenge educators and
students. Through creating virtual identities, interacting with player and nonplayer
characters, and manipulating and exploring virtual environments in Vocab
Challenge, Plague World: A Modern Prometheus, Civilization V, and Limbo,
adolescent gamers can build word consciousness, develop metalinguistic
strategies for word problem solving, and strengthen understandings of academic
vocabulary. This paper examines the affordances and constraints of each game
in providing a rich and varied language experience, situating academic
vocabulary within authentic contexts, and leveraging students’ identities.
51

Online Learning Environments in Higher Education:
Connectivism vs. Dissociation
Sasha Reese,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 571 Greendale Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15218,
Email: sashaconnors@yahoo.com
Abstract: Over the last decade online education has emerged as ways for
students and faculty to collaborate more freely, attain greater flexibility, and
utilize new media to learn. The burning debate lies in whether online educational
options are harmful to traditional education or offer endless benefits necessary to
accommodate a 21 st century learner. Supporters of virtual learning environments
suggest that 21 st century learners require the construction and creation
capabilities offered through Web 2.0 to succeed while critics suggest that
asynchronous interactions are not engaging and rigorous enough for higher
education. A balanced online environment should provide a blend of both
asynchronous and synchronous opportunities, which promote communication
and collaboration among classmates and instructors.
Virtual Learning in Higher Education
In an effort to modernize education, many institutes of higher education have adopted online
courses in fully virtual and blended formats. Fully virtual courses allow students to interact with
peers and instructors solely through the use of technology, whereas blended courses use online
learning as a supplement to face-to-face interactions. The current educational trend toward the
development of 21st century skills has made online learning attractive to both basic and tertiary
education. Twenty-first century skills include, but are not limited to cultural and global awareness,
self-direction, risk-taking and creativity, communication, reflection, and real world applications of
knowledge (Green, 2010).
Controversy rests in whether this educational option is viable for both instructors and students.
Research that supports the growth of online learning suggests that today’s learners need
collaboration, freedom to create knowledge, and an authentic audience in order to increase
engagement, participation, and activity (Rheingold, 2010). This suggests that instructors in online
environments should provide students with an experience, which promotes both autonomy and
community.
Conversely, researchers who critic online education mention the dissociative process that can
accompany virtual learning environments, and acknowledge a disconnect in the instructor and
student relationship, as well as in the ability to build a learning community. Supporters of this
perspective exhort that online learning must evolve from a delivery system of knowledge into a
constructivist activity where learners engage in building knowledge (Hamilton, 2004, p. 843). This
shift could help critics to view online schooling as a viable option.
Preparing for the Future Through Connectivism
Online education has emerged at universities across the country because of its ability to connect
students to instructors, peers, and course content through flexible and asynchronous
environments. Online learning creates a recipe of circumstances that can accommodate learners
of the 21st century and their need for collaboration, creation, and construction (Green, 2010).
According to Barbara Hoskin (2011), professor at Clemson University, adult and continuing
educators are leading the way from traditional education to Web 2.0 enabled education, which
promotes engagement and collaboration (p. 57). A need for a pedagogical shift is evident in the
claim that 21st century learners also need to develop skills and competencies that will allow them
to decipher and utilize information quickly and efficiently (Siemens, 2004). Current and future
university students must learn how social media literacy applies to the real world, and instructors
need to begin teaching students how to use this knowledge advantageously.
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Although it has been hinted at throughout different eras, under the guise of Activity Theory and
Social Learning Theory, Connectivism was coined as “the learning theory for the digital age” by
George Siemens and Stephen Downes (2004). Siemens and Downes have developed distinct
principles, which imply connectivisms’ relevance to modern students. Connectivism is founded on
individual ideas and opinions, valuing diversity in the perspectives of others, lifelong learning,
building relationships, interdisciplinary connections, current information, and risk taking (Siemens,
2004). These same principles can be found in many current technologies that students use daily
such as Facebook, Diigo, Wikis, YouTube, etc. In order for online learning to be successful and
meaningful it must provide students with more than the transmission of data. New online
environments must offer students the opportunity to become a participant and creator much like
they are used to doing in everyday life.
Online Learning as a Dissociative Process
Central to the debate is the concept that “educational technology participates in the cultural
context and is as much a part of the learning problem to be identified as it is of the solutions
implemented” (Belisle, 2001, p. 25). Saugstad (2002), when examining the work of Aristotle,
suggested that knowledge is primarily seen as a product rather than a competence which
suggests human activity (p. 378). This suggestion contributes to a critical view of the relevance of
current online educational systems. Separating the person from the product does not contribute
to learning. It also suggests that online learning in higher education, in its current state, does not
sufficiently provide students with engaging and rigorous material in preparation for professional
careers. Belisle (2001) suggests that this perspective of learning is flat and focused on learning
as opposed to teaching (p. 15). Hamilton (2004) refers to the delivery of knowledge style systems
as fast knowledge or ‘McKnowledge’ (p. 844).
Critics of online education argue that virtual environments are not able to provide students with
the same quality and caliber of education that traditional, face-to-face courses can. They also
suggested that online environments expect too much from students in terms of self-discipline and
this expectation can lead new students and students unfamiliar with online education to failure
(Bejenaro, 2008, p.412). It is easy for students to become isolated and completely independent in
online course without the facilitation of the instructor/ Instructors should provide students with
“corrective feedback, encouragement, and motivation” to ensure success in learning (Young,
2006, p. 73).
References
Bejerano, A. R. (2008). The Genesis and Evolution of Online Degree Programs: Who are they for
and what have we lost along the way?. Communication Education, 57(3), 408-414.
Belisle, C., Rawlings, A. & Van Seventer, C. (2001) The educational multimedia taskforce
1995-2001: Integrated research effort on multimedia education and training.
Luxembourg: European Commission. Retrieved from: http://www.cordis.lu/ist/ka3/
eat/training_publ.htm.
Green, N. C., Edwards, H., Wolodko, B., Stewart, C., Brooks, M., & Littledyke, R. (2010).
Reconceptualising higher education pedagogy in online learning. Distance Education,
31(3), 257-273.
Hamilton, D., Dahigren, E., Hult, A., Roos, B., & Söderström, T. (2004). When performance is the
product: problems in the analysis of online distance education. British Educational
Research Journal, 30(6), 842-855.
Hoskins, B. (2011). Demand, growth, and evolution. Journal of Continuing Higher Education,
59(1), 57-60.
Rheingold, H. (2010, September/October). Attention and other 21st century social media
literacies. Educause Review, 45(5), 14-24.
Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal
of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. Retrieved from
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
Young, S. (2006). Student views of effective online teaching in higher education. American
Journal of Distance Education, 20(2), 65-77.
53

Exploration of concepts to facilitate diverse knowledge practices and
personal learning environments
Sabine Reisas,
University Kiel, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Institute of Educational Sciences,
Department of Media Pedagogy/Educational Computer Sciences,
Olshausenstr. 75, D-24098 Kiel, Germany,
Email: sreisas@av-studio.uni-kiel.de
Abstract: Developing new course concepts in higher education, which facilitate students
to analyze and reflect their existing knowledge practices, will be necessary to solve illstructured
tasks in knowledge intensive areas (e.g. collaborative scenarios or developing
interventions in educational settings). Therefore students are challenged to gain a wide
repertoire of diverse knowledge practices to operate flexible and self-determined and to
make their expedient contribution to the knowledge-based society. By considering the
needs and the existing personal learning environments of each student as a foundation,
the author aims to develop a concept which will encourage students to assume
responsibility for co-producing and negotiating new practices and refine their personal
learning environments. The paper describes in which settings the research takes place
and outlines a mixed-method approach to gain a deeper understanding of the implicit and
explicit context conditions.
In recent decades, due to technological changes, new trajectories are developing in knowledge intensive
areas such as higher education. It is assumed that existing practices of knowledge workers are
inadequate, so that there is a need for addressing the emerging requirements such as working in
interdisciplinary teams, continuous learning, flexibility, autonomy and responsibility for one`s own
productivity (Drucker, 1999). This demands modifications of course concepts in higher education to allow
students to develop a wide repertoire of diverse knowledge practices, which enable them to act selfdetermined
and adequately to increase the productivity in knowledge intensive areas. This is also
Wenger`s (2008) intention who understands socially negotiated practices as a fundamental goal of
learning to foster students to make a contribution to knowledge society. Propositions from an earlier study
(Reisas, Schaller, Allert, Richter & Lehmhaus, 2011) will be taken into account to investigate perceived
discrepancies and their influence on common knowledge practices and Personal Learning Environments
(PLEs) of students.
The author understands PLEs as an approach to address the aforementioned requirements and to
facilitate students to develop diverse knowledge practices. There are two different foci on PLEs: (a) a
more technology-oriented view and a more pedagogical-focussed perspective (Buchem, Attwell & Torres,
2011). This work conceives both perspectives as interwoven and understands PLEs as complex and
dynamic activity systems (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010), which are intertwined in a social, cultural and material
environment. It is assumed that a PLE and its interrelated components can be analyzed by the sociohistorical
activity theory framework by Engeström (Buchem, Attwell & Torres, 2011; Engeström, 2007).
Hakkarainen (2009) stated that assemblages of human activity are knowledge practices, which have a
social and an individual component. Based on Orlikowski (2007) “the social and the material are
constitutively entangled”. Which means that materiality and social practices are mutually dependent and
not only a cognitive aspect. The author understands that knowledge practices can`t be seen as separated
from PLEs, because there is an underlying element in consequence of socio-materiality and therefore
PLEs are practice-oriented.
We observed that the existing knowledge practices in seminar settings are of no advantages to students
in order to dissolve ill-structured problems. They have neither a wide range of practices nor are they able
to challenge their common practices, especially in stressful situations students rely on existing repertoire
of practices. For developing new concepts it is important to note that teaching and learning are based on
intentions and expectations, which have an impact on existing knowledge practices and PLEs, because in
each situation, practices are negotiated and socially constructed (Wenger, 2008). That’s why pedagogy
54

can create interventions to encourage reflection but practices and therefore PLEs cannot be simply taken
over.
This research is interested in developing environments and interventions, which foster students not only
to adopt but rather to co-produce and refine diverse knowledge practices. The aim is to allow critical
reviewing of negotiated practices as well as encouraging students to take over responsibility in such
processes. Accordingly, this research aims to enable students to transform their own PLE.
The underlying assumptions can be stated as follows:
• Actual teaching and learning situations (in higher education) are affected significantly by personal
learning environments and incorporated knowledge practices.
• PLEs as activity systems are helpful for students to articulate knowledge practices.
The study takes place in two seminar settings in higher education: The intention of the first seminar is to
facilitate divergent thinking and to encourage students to generate questions. The second seminar aims
to establish the inquiry-based concept development. The teacher assumes that students have to
transform their existing practices and adapt their PLEs to dissolve the given assignments. The
development of PLEs is not an explicit learning goal but it rather serves as a vehicle/instrument to
explicate the knowledge practices.
A mixed-method approach of qualitative methods (Cultural Probes, activity systems analysis,
conversation analysis, interviews, artifact analysis) will be used to gain a deeper understanding of these
negotiations to identify implicit and explicit incorporated practices of students, and how responsibility is
developed in these processes. Students will also contribute as co-researchers by working on exploration
tasks to collect contextual information.
In summery the aim of the dissertation is to develop interventions which engages students to develop
diverse knowledge practices and with it an emergent PLE.
References
Buchem, I., Attwell, G., & Torres, R. (2011). Understanding Personal Learning Environments: Literature
review and synthesis through the Activity Theory lens. In Proceedings of the The PLE Conference
2011 (pp. 1–33). Retrieved from http://journal.webscience.org/658/1/
PLE_SOU_Paper_Buchem_Attwell_Torress.doc
Drucker, P. F. (1999). Knowledge-Worker Productivity: The Biggest Challenge. California Management
Review, 41(2), p 79-94. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41165987
Engeström, Y. (2007). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engeström, R.
Miettinen, & R.-L. Punamäki (Eds.), Perspectives on activity theory (pp. 19–38). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hakkarainen, K. (2009). A knowledge-practice perspective on technology-mediated learning. International
Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(2), 213–231. doi:10.1007/s11412-009-
9064-x
Orlikowski, W. J. (2007). Sociomaterial Practices: Exploring Technology at Work. Organization Studies,
28(9), 1435–1448. doi:10.1177/0170840607081138
Reisas, S., Schaller, R., Allert, H., Richter, C., & Lehmhaus, F. W. (2011). Exploration der Lernsituation
von Studierenden mit Cultural Probes. Zeitschrift für Hochschulentwicklung, 6(2), 78–92.
Retrieved from http://www.zfhe.at/index.php/zfhe/article/view/230
Wenger, E. (2008). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity (16th ed.). Learning in
doing. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Yamagata-Lynch, L. C. (2010). Activity systems analysis methods: Understanding complex learning
environments. New York ;, London: Springer.
55

Exploring the Intersection of Formative Assessment, Multimedia
Design, and Mobile Technologies
Richards Reshan,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120 th Street, New York, NY, 10027
This paper describes the intention of dissertation research which explores how, if at all,
teachers with constructivist-oriented learning beliefs to put those beliefs into practice when using
mobile screencasting as a technology for qualitative formative assessment of student
understanding. I assert that this exploration is needed in order to better understand how to
leverage emerging technologies and combine them with pedagogical approaches to create
effective learning environments. The intent of this design-based participatory case study research
is not to prove if mobile screencasting helps students learn. Rather, the intent is to uncover
themes and patterns in the ways that some teachers implement an emerging technology into their
teaching practices by using an approach that emphasizes and values the data that is gathered as
much as it does the research design. This pilot study tests some of the methods and instruments
for collecting data and documents the implementation and revision process that is part of designbased
research (Collins, 1990; Hawkins & Collins, 1992; Brown, 1992; Barab & Squire, 2004;
Bradley & Reinking, 2011).
Research Problem
Broad-brush research on the effectiveness of a tool often fails to identify the contexts that
contribute to the success or failure of that tool (see HMH Fuse for recent example). This then
leads to uninformed opinions about a tool without consideration of the beliefs and practices of
whoever was in charge of implementing that tool. Cuban (2001) identified three goals for the use
of technology in schools: to make schools more efficient, to transform learning and teaching into a
process connected to real life, and to prepare young people for the future workplace. The term
‘technology’ by itself can be too broad for identifying and clarifying the aspects of hardware,
software, infrastructure, and approaches that help achieve these and similar goals. In this
research, I use the term ‘emerging technology’ to encompass technology software, hardware,
infrastructure, and approaches that have become available to school settings within the last 10-15
years.
The rate at which new technologies emerge and the need to evaluate both their appropriateness
and effectiveness make it extremely important for varied approaches of research on educational
technologies to take place (Haertel & Means, 2003). Skinner (1986) stated that we should be
preparing students to be creators and discoverers. Being a discoverer of knowledge does not
necessarily mean simply coming across information that has been prepared for the purpose of
being accessed (Pink, 2006). In recent months, there has been a lot of attention given to
screencasting technology in the context of flipped teaching (see also inverted classroom or
flipped classroom). The premise of this approach is that instead of having the instruction (content
delivery) take place during the regular school day, teachers create screencast video lectures and
tutorials for students to watch at home. They then do their homework activities (e.g. problem sets
or group discussions) during the class period with the teacher.
The most important piece that is missing is how understanding is demonstrated and learning is
assessed in flipped classrooms. I highlight the example of flipped teaching not because this
research is intended to challenge the validity of such an instructional approach. Instead, I use it
as an example of the lack of consideration for how the contexts, especially the teachers who are
using such approaches, contribute to the success or failure of a learning intervention.
Screencasting on its own is not a transformative technology. It is the way that is used that can
allow educators to transform their practice.
Research Purpose and Questions
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The overall purpose of the dissertation research is to help identify how, if at all, constructivistoriented
teachers’ beliefs on qualitative formative assessment are put into practice when using an
instructional design that features student screencast production on mobile devices. This study will
not reveal generalizable theories, but rather will generate patterns and themes that can be
considered as more people and institutions look to mobile screencasting and its place in
education. It also explores a methodological framework for examining emerging technologies and
teaching practices (Collins 1990; Brown, 1992). Finally, the research helps fill a gap in existing
qualitative and quantitative literature on screencasting, mobile technology, and qualitative
formative assessment. The following research question guides this research: How are selfidentified
constructivist teachers' beliefs on formative assessment put into practice in their
instruction when integrating mobile screencasting technology in their teaching?
Study Design
The research is framed ontologically in relativism and social constructivism (Dewey, 2001;
Goodman, 1984; Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Creswell, 2007). The reality of what I explore and
uncover is only real within the context in which the research takes place. Epistemologically, the
knowledge that is explored and uncovered is tied directly to my own ontological perspective.
Thus, it is extremely important to paint as complete a picture as possible in this research in order
to address the questions. The adults with whom I will work must have some inherent beliefs of
constructivist learning. It will be impossible for me to address my questions if the people whom I
reach out to for this study do not value qualitative formative assessment and the process of
learning, but rather only focus on what has been learned.
I describe the methodology as design-based participatory case study research. I have chosen
design-based methodology because it is an approach that originated in educational research and
because it recognizes the importance and influence of context, including elements of the research
design, on the data that is gathered (Collins, 1990; Brown, 1992; Barab & Squire, 2004). There
will be three independent cases observed with several weeks, if not months, between cases.
During each case, interviews, observations, and archival data will be collected. At the conclusion
of each case, revisions to not only the instruments but also the research questions will take place.
Figure 1. Research design.
References
Anthis, K. (2011). Is It the Clicker, or Is It the Question? Untangling the Effects of
Student Response System Use. Teaching of Psychology, 38(3), 189-193.
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Barab, S. & Squire, K. (2004). Design-Based Research: Putting a Stake in the
Ground. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14.
Bradley, B.A., & Reinking, D. (2011): Enhancing research and practicein early
childhood through formative and design experiments, Early Child Development and Care,
181:3, 305-319
Budin, H. (1999). The Computer Enters the Classroom: Essay Review. Teachers
College Record, 100(3), 656-670
Christopherson, K.M. (2011). Hardware or Wetware: What Are the Possible
Interactions of Pedagogy and Technology in the Classroom? Teaching of Psychology,
38(4). 288-292.
Collins, A. (1990). Toward a design science of education. Technical Report No.
1. New York: Center for Technology in Education.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design, 2nd edition.
Sage Publications.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold & Underused: Computers in the Classroom.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dewey, J. (2001). The School and Society & The Child and the Curriculum.
Mineola, NY: Dover.
Dyson, A.H. & Genishi, C. (2005). On the Case: Approaches to Language and
Literacy Research. New York: Teachers College Press.
Goodman, N. (1984) Of mind and other matters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative
research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research, (pp.
105-117). London: Sage.
Haertel, G.D., & Means, B. (2003). Evaluating Educational Technology: Effective
Research Designs for Improving Learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Hawkins, J. & Collins, A. (1992). Design-Experiments for Infusing Technology
into Learning. Educational Technology, 32(9), 63-67
HMH Fuse. (2011). Results of a yearlong Algebra pilot in Riverside, CA.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved March 21, 2012 from
http://www.hmheducation.com/fuse/pilot-1.php
McMillan, J. (2008). Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer.
New York, Pearson.
Pink, D.H. (2006). A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers will Rule the Future.
New York: Riverhead Books.
Rao, L. (2011). The O’Sullivan Foundation Grants $5M To Online Learning
Platform Khan Academy. Tech Crunch. Retrieved March 21, 2012 from
http://techcrunch.com/2011/11/04/the-osullivan-foundation-grants-5m-to-online-learningplatform-khan-academy/
Schoonmaker, F. (2002). Growing up teaching: from personal knowledge to
professional practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1986, October). Programmed instruction revisited. Phi Delta
Kappan, 68, 103–110.
Yin, R. K. (2002). Case Study Research. Sage Publications, 3rd edition.
Yorks, L. (2005). Action research methods. In R.A. Swanson & E. Holton, (Eds.),
Research in organizations: Foundational principles, processes, and methods of inquiry,
(pp. 375-398). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
58

Harnessing the Power of Emotionally Cogent Stimuli for Optimal
Learning
Sydney M. Savion,
George Washington University, 805 21st Street Northwest Washington, DC
Email: ssavion@wmail.gwu.edu
Daniel J. Glisczinski,
University of Minnesota Duluth, 1049 University Drive Duluth, MN
Email: dglisczi@d.umn.edu
Abstract: The U.S. market for self-paced e-learning is expected to balloon to $24.2
billion by 2015 (Adkins, 2011). Coupled with the torrent of mobile devices, which now
outnumber human beings, academia and corporate America stand at a unique
intersection of opportunity to engage in best practice instructional design for optimal elearning.
As the 21st century market place finds itself in the midst of a nexus of the most
connected populace ever, the opportunity and perhaps responsibility belongs to the
learning professionals to design neuroscientifically guided, emotionally cogent e-learning
programs, so that the most connected populace ever will feel itself moved to cross the
threshold of ubiquitous communication to ubiquitous optimal learning. This paper
proposes when adult learners feel so moved to text, message, and access courses
because of their powerfully moving nature, e-learning will cross the threshold of program
relevance, and in doing so, mobilize learning through emotionally cogent stimuli.
Corporate America expends an estimated $110 billion annually on employee learning and development
(Rivera & Paradise, 2006). According to a recent report by Ambient Insight market research firm, the U.S.
market for self-paced e-learning is expected to balloon to $24.2 billion by 2015 (Adkins, 2011). This taken
together with the torrent mobile devices in which mobile devices now outnumber human beings, twentyfirst
century corporate education stands at a unique intersection of opportunity to engage in best practice
instructional design for optimal e-learning.
Now a days, digital natives (those born into the digital age) and digital immigrants (those assimilated to
the digital age) alike can be readily observed making use of their mobile devices in the bookstore, in the
fitness center, at the cafe, and even in the lavatory. While it has become evident that much of today’s
experience is bursting with digital interactions. What is less evident, however, is whether higher education
or corporate America understands enough about cognition to cross over the traditional pedagogy
threshold of influencing learning to more emotionally cogent stimulating methods that powerfully promote
optimal learning and performance, especially through the use of mobile devices.
The high degree of expenditure on learning and development is not surprising, given its vital role in
maintaining high performance and an effective organization. Interestingly, a substantial amount of
education and training is designed on the premise of behaviorism theory, suggesting that learning is
external to the individual and that the individual is passive in the learning process. The theory of
behaviorism ignores the internal aspects of learning and fails to genuinely engage the learner. This is
significant, given the increased distance placed between the learner and instructor as a result of a
mounting reliance on e-learning pedagogy. And also evidence that only 51% of daily adult learning
episodes occur at home or in the learner’s natural environment (Vavoula, 2005).
Even as far back as the 1900s it was found the theory of behaviorism had inherent limitations, hence the
emergence of cognitivism. Since the seminal works of Jean Piaget, cognitive theorists have believed that
learning encompasses gradually acquiring and constructing knowledge in which a learner processes and
stores information. Moreover, cognitive psychologists maintain that learning involves the use of memory,
stimulus and thinking. Now, as we take into account learning in transition via mobile devices,
constructivism emerges as the best fit learning theory. Cooper (1993) asserts that learners interpret the
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information and the world according to their personal reality; they learn by observation, processing and
interpretation, and then personalize the information into personal knowledge.
Learners learn best when they can contextualize what they learn, both for immediate application
and to acquire personal meaning. Mobile learning facilitates personalized learning because
learning (and collaboration) from any place and at any time allows the learning to be
contextualized (Attewell & Savill-Smith, 2004, p.6).
With a mobile learning opportunity in mind, as best practice is being informed and perhaps even defined
by emergent research findings in educational neuroscience, corporate e-learning may be wise to invest in
adult learning strategies that harness the power of what neuroscience is calling "Emotionally Cogent
Stimuli--or ECS". The Black Coffee Brand Expressionists define Emotionally Cogent Stimuli (ECS) as an
object, sensation, situation or other stimulus that triggers an emotional response. Anecdotally, as
advertised, they help companies design meaningful brand experiences by helping organizations improve
how they deliver value. Likewise, as practitioners and scholars of learning it is our social responsibility to
design instruction that harnesses the power of emotionally cogent stimuli for the learners optimal learning
experience.
Neuroscience has recently identified that what moves our learners to mobilize communication in the book
store, fitness center, cafe, and even lavatory are called emotionally competent stimuli (ECS) which have
been described as the most powerfully processed external stimuli ever measured (Immordino-Yang &
Faeth, 2010; Medina, 2008; Zull, 2011).Specifically, emotionally competent stimuli appear to excite
learning by engage the brain’s reticular activating system, a network of nerve pathways connecting lower
and higher brain regions. These powerful stimuli, when circularly relevant construct and reinforce
neuronal pathways between sensory and analytical regions in the brain (Immordino-Yang & Faeth, 2010;
Medina, 2008; Willis, 2010). Research also suggests that the brain’s cerebral cortex is responsible for
conscious and non-conscious thought processes which direct volition and action (Feinstein, 2006). In this
way, ECS in higher education and corporate e-learning programs can work tacitly or overtly to help
learners feel that they have to access their mobile devices to learn more in the presence of a community
of practice. Such program designs will indeed signal a departure from the longstanding, behavioristic
premises upon which much instruction has been practiced. And still brain research is suggesting that
behaviorism alone is insufficient for activating the reticular activating system’s green light that signals
emotionally competent stimuli to be encoded by positive neurotransmitters and then wired into the
prefrontal, analytical cortex. This is a different kind of mobile learning pedagogy in a prevailing digital era.
It offers neuroscientific insights into the physiology of learning.
So as the 21st century higher education and corporate America market place finds itself in the midst of a
nexus of the most connected populace ever, the opportunity—and perhaps responsibility—belongs to the
staff in academia and corporate America to design neuroscientifically guided, emotionally cogent elearning
programs, so that the most connected populace ever will feel itself moved to cross the threshold
of ubiquitous communication to ubiquitous optimal learning. So to what extent are our e-learning
programs rich and moving? So moving that they must be acted upon even across the formerly sacred
thresholds of the lunchroom and the lavatory, where few electronic academic exchanges are observed.
This paper’s proposition is that when adult learners feel so moved to text, message, and access courses
because of their powerfully moving nature from these telltale spaces, higher education and corporate elearning
will cross the threshold of program relevance, and in doing so, mobilize 21 st century learning
through emotionally cogent stimuli.
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References
Ambient Insight. (2011, January). The US Market for Self-paced eLearning Products and Services: 2010-
2015 Forecast and Analysis Market Analysis. Monroe, WA: Adkins, S.
Attewell, J & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). Learning with mobile devices. Research and Development. London:
Learning & Skills Development Agency.
Immordino-Yang, M. H. & Faeth, M. (2010). The role of emotion and skilled intuition in learning. In D.
Sousa (Ed.) Mind, brain, and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom.
Bloomington: Solution Tree/Leading Edge.
Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. Seattle:
Pear.
Rivera, R. & Paradise, A. (2006). State of the industry leading enterprises: ASTD’s annual review of
trends in workplace learning and performance. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and
Development.
The Praeger Handbook of Learning and the Brain (Sheryl Feinstein, ed., 2006). Wesport: Praeger.
Vavoula, G. N. (2005). D4.4: A Study of Mobile Learning Practices: Internal report of MOBIlearn project.
Willis, J. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In D. Sousa (Ed.) Mind,
brain, and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom. Bloomington: Solution
Tree/Leading Edge.
Zull, J.E. (2011). From brain to mind: Using neuroscience to guide change in education. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
61

#phdchat: a community of practice on twitter
sava saheli singh,
NYU, 82 Washington Square East, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10003,
Email: sava@nyu.edu
Abstract: Twitter is often considered a place for frivolous conversations and people
talking about what they’re eating. Not a lot of people see it as the setting for building
robust and engaging Communities of Practice (CoP). #phdchat is one such community of
PhD students who find solace in each others’ company and support – something they
don’t always get in their physical settings. Gathering around the hashtag, this community
“meets” online on Twitter every week for discussions about the practicalities of being an
academic, challenges with emotional and mental well-being, and also to share useful
resources. This presentation provides a comparison and contrast of #phdchat as a CoP,
with a discussion on a methodology for examining such a community.
“On the web” has increasingly become where people go to hang out, learn, consume, and connect. Digital
and social media tools have changed the way we interact with the world, allowing communities to find
each other through shared interests and a need to connect.
Online communities have existed since the internet has and have taken many forms – from usenet
groups, forums, email newsgroups, and IRC to today’s social network sites like Facebook, Tumblr, and
Twitter. These are examples of what Howard Rheingold (1993) calls “virtual communities”, which exist
beyond location and time.
Communities that gather around a shared interest or practice, form Communities of Practice (CoPs)
(Lave & Wenger, 1991). The web provides new ways for these communities to come together through
online mediated environments, beyond geographical and physical constraints.
Even though Twitter is sometimes dismissed as a tool that encourages frivolous conversations rather
than meaningful interaction, there are robust communities who use it on a daily basis to connect,
collaborate, and commiserate. Twitter is used for everything from a marketing tool and a news outlet to an
educational tool used in classrooms and to connect educational communities beyond the classroom.
In many advanced degree programs, students live in a vacuum. They have their smaller communities
consisting of advisors and cohort members, but there is often a lack of extended input from their larger
professional community. PhD students have a unique academic journey and often find themselves
isolated from friends and family, with little in the way of support and encouragement. This isolation can
also give rise to more serious issues like lack of motivation, self-doubt, impostor syndrome, and
depression. Surprisingly, despite constraints, Twitter affords a way for PhD students to find a community
that understands and relates to their experiences.
Communities on twitter often identify themselves or gather around “hashtags” – a user-created way in
which to tag or contextualize tweets in order to follow, archive, or provide commentary. This paper
focuses on a particular CoP: PhD students, who gather around the hashtag #phdchat.
The #phdchat community conducts a weekly “online meeting” on Twitter around the hashtag #phdchat
during which they discuss a pre-decided topic that the community voted on. They share experiences, tips,
advice – the kind of knowledge-sharing rarely possible within the small cohorts of PhD programs. And the
community extends beyond just this time frame – using the #phdchat hashtag allows members to notice
and respond because the hashtag identifies you as part of that community.
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This presentation will provide on a framework for examining the #phdchat community as a CoP, including
the similarities and shortcomings of this comparison. I will also suggest a methodology for studying this
online community, which includes discourse analysis and auto-ethnography.
Examining how these CoPs form and endure online is important because it helps us understand how to
support and design for communities on the web, especially in education. In today’s educational climate,
constraints are more than just 140 characters. Creating and supporting sustainable community-driven
online learning environments can help students be confident and successful in their academic careers.
References
Anderson, L. (2006). Analytic autoethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 35(4), 373-395.
doi:10.1177/0891241605280449.
Baym, N. K., & Markham, A. N. (2009). Introduction: Making smart choices on shifting ground. In A. N.
Markham, & N. K. Baym (Eds.), Internet inquiry: Conversations about method (pp. vii-xix).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gee, J. P. (1999). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. New York: Routledge.
Goldman, R. (2004). Video perspectivity meets wild and crazy teens: a design ethnography. Cambridge
Journal of Education, 34(2), 157-178
Hine, C. (2008). Virtual ethnography: Modes, varieties, affordances. In N. Fieldingm R. M. Lee, & G.
Blank (Eds.), The sage handbook of online research methods (pp. 257-270). London: Sage.
Hine, C. (2009). How can qualitative internet researchers define the boundaries of their projects? In A. N.
Markham, & N. K. Baym (Eds.), Internet inquiry: Conversations about method (pp. 1-20).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. London: Cambridge
University Press.
Markham, A. N., & Baym, N. K. (Eds.). (2009). Internet inquiry: Conversations about method. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In S. Papert & I. Harel (Eds.), Constructionism (pp.1–11).
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Perkins, D. N. (1993). Person-plus: A distributed view of thinking and learning. In G. Salomon
(Ed.),Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations (pp.88-110).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Pea, R. D. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon
(Ed.), Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations (pp. 47-87).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Rheingold, H. (1993) The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Salomon, G., Perkins, D. N., & Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence
with intelligent technologies. Educational Researcher, 20(3), 2-9.
Schuler, D. (1996) New Community Networks: Wired for Change. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Stahl, G. (2002). Contributions to a theoretical framework for CSCL. In G. Stahl (Ed.), Proceedings of
CSCL 2002 (pp. 62–71). USA: Boulder.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of the higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press. (Originally published 1930, New York: Oxford
University Press.)
Vygotsky, L.S. (1986) Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
63

A Difficult Balance: Regulating Cyberbullying in the Age of Social
Media
Dino Sossi,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120 th Street, New York, NY, 10027,
Email: dds2130@columbia.edu
Abstract: Online environments have promoted interconnectivity in ways that were once
unimaginable. Unfortunately, hate speech, intimidation and harassment have made the
dreamlike promise of online worlds devolve into an ongoing nightmare for some students
who feel they cannot escape. Even the presumably safe environment of the home can
become tainted by hostile words mediated online. This paper examines different attempts
to regulate cyberbullying within educational environments. It focuses on the jurisdictions
of New York State and New York City. To contextualize this issue, the paper also reviews
common law precedent as a guide to possible future legal developments. Finally, related
non-legal issues such as policies created at the local level as well as difficulties youth
have distinguishing between real and virtual environments are considered. The paper
concludes that cyberbullying laws/policies are diverse in their protection and textured in
their balancing of the competing interests of the aggrieved and alleged perpetrators.
Introduction
Cyberbullying laws/policies are generally well-crafted in their conception of what constitutes this problem,
diverse in protection and textured in balancing competing interests of the aggrieved and alleged
perpetrators. Given the harm caused by cyberbullying and the responsibility of governments and schools
to provide safe environments, these measures favoring the rights of alleged victims appears just given the
breadth of the problem and the tremendous mental/social/emotional toll it exacts.
Regulation
New York City (NYC)
The NYC Department of Education Disciplinary Code (2010) appears to be a good faith attempt to
balance the interests of the aggrieved and the alleged perpetrator. With respect to “bullying,” the Code
states “When a student or group of students engages in bias-based bullying, intimidation or harassment
of another student or group of students, both the victim and the student who engages in this behavior
should be referred to separate appropriate counseling, support and education services provided by
school staff or a community-based agency. Neither mediation nor conflict resolution are, under any
circumstances, appropriate interventions for bias-based bullying, intimidation or harassment” (2010, p. 5).
It appears both parties are dealt with constructively and separately.
Regardless of the intensity of the bullying, both parties are separated and “[n]either mediation nor conflict
resolution” are engaged in (Code, 2010, p. 5). Although in the short-term this appears prudent, what
about disruption caused by the absence of mediation or conflict resolution. Assuming both parties remain
at the same school, without adult-supervised communication, will there be a resolution of the underlying
problem that motivated the abuse?
Specific protection from “cyberbullying” appears later in the Code - “Engaging in intimidating and bullying
behavior through electronic communication, such as texting, e-mail, instant messaging, etc.” (2010, p.
15). Section A37 protects K-5th Grade students (2010, p. 15), B40 protects Grades 6-12 (2010, p. 22)
with identical language - “Engaging in intimidating and bullying behavior, including cyber-bullying —
threatening, stalking or seeking to coerce or compel a student or staff member to do something; engaging
in verbal or physical conduct that threatens another with harm; taunting and/or intimidation including
through the use of epithets or slurs involving actual or perceived race, ethnicity, color, national origin,
citizenship/immigration status, religion, religious practices, gender, gender identity, gender expression,
sexual orientation or disability” (2010, p. 15 and 22). Students or staff subjected to these enumerated
types of discrimination through electronic means would be afforded similar protections against this type of
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“dangerous or violent behavior.” It is measured on a scale of Level 4 out of 5 levels of infractions, higher
levels denoting worse behavior. This language “[e]ngaging in intimidating and bullying behavior, including
cyber-bullying” appears to equate actual/physical bullying with virtual/cyberbullying. Students spend more
time online, equivalency appears prudent. Protecting staff is also important given the ease with which
questionable virtual behavior can become public and have real-world lasting effects.
Disciplinary responses are wide: parent conference, in-school disciplinary actions, removal from the
classroom by teacher, suspensions by principals and superintendents as well as expulsion (Discipline
Code, 2010, p. 22). This diverse list implicitly acknowledges the variety of cyberbullying, allowing tailoring
of punishment.
New York State
The Dignity for All Students Act (2009) is a similarly well-balanced piece of legislation, protecting multiple
stakeholders. Section 12, subsection 1 states “[n]o student shall be subjected to harassment by
employees or students on school property or at a school function; nor shall any student be subjected to
discrimination based on a person’s actual or perceived race, color, weight, national origin, ethnic group,
religion, religious practice, disability, sexual orientation, gender, or sex by school employees or students
on school property or at a school function” (Dignity for All Students Act, 2009). Due to this general
definition of “bullying,” “cyberbullying,” a specific subset of bullying behavior is presumably covered. Any
student subjected to these enumerated types of discrimination through electronic means would be
afforded similar protection.
Unfortunately, the term “cyberbullying” is not included in this Act. This could prove problematic in litigation
since the aggrieved would presumably have to prove cyberbullying is a form of bullying and benefit from
its protection.
Common Law
Common law has been inconsistent in its application of the First Amendment to off-campus speech
regarding social networking sites, at least at the Federal Court of Appeals. Conflicting decisions in
Layshock (2011) and Blue Mountain (2011) led the Third Circuit to vacate these differing opinions. Upon
reconsideration they held that the Fraser (1978) standard only applied to on-campus speech and that the
Tinker (1969) standard applied to off-campus speech (Sneed et al., 2011) - regulating off-campus speech
can only occur if there is a reasonable likelihood that the speech in question will have a material and
substantial disruption at the school in question (Sneed et al., 2011). Cases outside the Third Circuit will
clarify the disruption necessary to limit off-campus speech.
Non-Legal Considerations
Limit of Locally-Created Acceptable Use Policies
Given my previous experiences as a teacher in Canada and the United Kingdom as well as a researcher
in New York schools, I appreciate educator demands in the public system. Given the time and care
necessary to draft legally-sound Acceptable Use Policies (AUP), I believe that writing these on anything
smaller than a school-district scale by licensed lawyers invites the potential for needless litigation in terms
of the AUP being either too stifling in prohibiting or loose in allowing behavior. However, a town hall-type
discussion of the language of the AUP, the legal-political-social-educational-technological context that
necessitated its creation, and the need for administrators, teachers, parents and students to be vigilant in
its application, is prudent.
The Virtual v. The Real
Social media plays an increasing role in communications. Educators must help students appreciate the
costs of using networked communication insensitively. Cognitive development involves an understanding
of the differentiation between the physical/real versus the abstract/virtual. Too many students have
insufficient understanding of these differences, especially in terms of the real-world costs of imprudent
virtual behavior. Educators must be involved in this important, but sensitive, area.
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References
Bethel School District v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986).
New York City Department of Education. (2010, September). Citywide Standards of
Intervention and Discipline Measures (The Discipline Code and Bill of Student Rights and
Responsibilities, K-12). Effective September 2010. Joel I. Klein, Chancellor. Retrieved from
http://docs.nycenet.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-
101/Discipline%20Code%20(English).pdf
J.S. v. Blue Mountain School District, No. 08-4138 (3 rd Cir. June 13, 2011).
Layshock v. Hermitage School District, No. 07-4465 (3 rd Cir. June 13, 2011).
Sneed, M., Borkowski, J.W. & Lott, C. (2011, July 1). Federal Court of Appeals issues ruling
clarifying the application of the First Amendment to off-campus speech on social networking sites.
Memorandum to School District Clients and Friends.
State of New York. (2009, February 10). Dignity for All Students Act. Senate Bill - S 1987B.
Introduced by Sens. Duane, Adams, Breslin, Dilan, Foley, Hassell-Thompson, C. Johnson,
Krueger, Little, Montgomery, Oppenheimer, Perkins, Savino, Schneiderman, Serrano, Squadron,
Thompson and Valesky. Retrieved from http://www.bullypolice.org/ny_law.html
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969).
66

Giving Voice to Images: Visual Data as a Means of Promoting Youth
Participation
Dino Sossi,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120 th Street, New York, NY, 10027,
Email: dds2130@columbia.edu
Abstract: This exploratory work-in-progress focuses on photo elicitation (PE) as a
methodology to facilitate intellectual and affective student responses with respect to
immigration, national identity, and related issues. In the role of researcher/classroom
instructor and with the assistance of the regular classroom teacher, we screened a
variety of personally produced visual media regarding my family’s immigration experience
with the purposes of eliciting deeper, thicker responses than normal curricular materials.
Objectives/purposes
This work-in-progress focuses on photo elicitation as a methodology to facilitate student interview
responses with respect to national identity. The researcher utilized a personal photo gallery to elicit
intellectual and affective responses to these images in terms of student conceptions of their own national
identities.
Perspective(s) or theoretical framework
Identifying Key Issues from Existing Sources
Photo elicitation has been defined as “a method of using photographs to guide interviews and ask
questions about social, cultural, and behavioral realities” (Suchar, 1997, p. 34). Photo elicitation is “based
on the simple idea of inserting a photograph into a research interview” (Harper, 2002, p. 13) and makes a
case for its utility, specifically in the fields of anthropology and sociology. Cameras have been utilized
tools to conduct research from as far back as the 1940’s (Mead and Bateson, 1942). Photo elicitation as a
specific methodological technique started in the work of John Collier. Collier believed that photography
afforded the researcher the ability to more efficiently analyze social settings such as the workplace and
dwellings that surpassed discussions with subjects that were focused solely on written or verbal
interviews (1967). Collier initially used photo elicitation to understand how families were able to adapt
when it came living in residence among ethnically diverse groups as well as new forms of work in urban
factories (Harper, 2002, p. 14). It also spoke of the modest beginnings of photo elicitation in the field of
anthropology and greater reception in visual sociology (Harper, 2002, p. 15).
Since its inception, photo elicitation has been implemented in fields as diverse as social class/social
organization/family (Harper, 2002, p. 16), community and historical ethnography (Harper, 2002, pp. 16-
18), identity/biography/autobiography (Harper, 2002, pp. 18-19), and culture/cultural studies (Harper,
2002, pp. 19-20).
Photo elicitation consists mainly of two types. Photos can originate from either the researcher or
interviewee (Clark-Ibánez, 2004, p. 1509). The second type, photos taken by interviewees is called photoelicitation
“autodriven” interviews (Clark-Ibánez, 2004, p. 1509). For example, researchers can use
photographs to expand on questions. At the same time, participants can use photographs to share
different parts of their lives (Clark-Ibánez, 2004).
Positives and Negatives of Photo Elicitation
A number of studies apply photo elicitation techniques in many settings which helps bring the positive and
negatives of using this technique into sharp relief.
Positives
Clark-Ibánez (2004), in the context of school ethnographies and inner-city childhood studies, found that
conducting group interviews using photo elicitation was useful for at least two reasons. First, it revealed
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that children’s photographs were polysemic – “capable of generating multiple meanings in the viewing
process” (p. 1515). Second, they presented tensions and contrasts between viewers (p. 1516).
Negatives
There were also challenges in using photo elicitation interviews. There was tension between collecting
data and showing compassion towards the interviewee (Clark-Ibánez, 2004, p. 1517). Confidentiality of
the interviewee and the associated ethical dilemmas are also important (Clark-Ibánez, 2004, p. 1517).
Keeping possession of the camera and learning skills to shoot photographs properly is something that
does not occur in regular interview situations that do not involve photographs (Clark-Ibánez, 2004, p.
1517).
Methods, techniques, or modes of inquiry
The study consists of qualitative methods, specifically oral interviews conducted by the principal
researcher of a 5th grade urban public school class. The method used is a personal photo gallery to elicit
intellectual and affective responses to these images in terms of student conceptions of their own national
identities.
Data sources, evidence, objects or materials
In terms of data sources, evidence, objects or materials, the researcher will utilize a personal photo
gallery to elicit intellectual and affective responses to these images in terms of student conceptions of
their own national identities. I would like to expand this research into media
production/collection/elicitation where students create their own photography, videos or utilize found
objects, etc. to help them explore their national identity.
Results and/or substantiated conclusions or warrants for arguments/point of view
Although there was no clear distinction between the intellectual and affective domains, it is clear from
student responses that photo elicitation interviews hold promise in assisting educational researchers in
eliciting results that may not normally be provided students from who are younger in age, second
language learners or immigrants from other nations.
Scientific or scholarly significance of the study or work
The scholarly significance of this work is that studying photo elicitation interview techniques begins to
explore a potentially highly useful way to elicit interview information from students and young people who
may be less capable than older people in terms of providing affective and intellectual answers in
interview-type settings. Further, with the advent of low-cost media production techniques, photo elicitation
may be the first in the digital production field in terms of being used within research settings (e.g.
analogous techniques could be employed in video production, audio production, video game
development, online social networking, mobile phone technology, etc.). As a result, the lessons learned
from this methodology could provide the lingua franca for digital media production elicitation techniques.
References
Clark-Ibánez, M. (2004). Framing the social world with photo-elicitation interviews.
American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 1507-1527. DOI: 10.1177/0002764204266236.
http://abs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/47/12/1507
Collier, Jr., J. (1967). Interviewing with photographs, Chapter 6 in Visual Anthropology:
Photography as a Research Method. New York: Holt, Rinehart.
Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: A case for photo elicitation. Visual Studies, 17(1),
13-26.
Mead, M. & Bateson, G. (1942). Balinese characters. New York: New York Academy of
Sciences.
Meo, A.I. (2010). Picturing students’ habitus: The advantages and limitations of photo-
elicitation interviewing in a qualitative study in the city of Buenos Aires. International Journal of
Qualitative Methods, 9(2). 149-171.
Suchar, C.S. (1997). Grounding visual sociology in shooting scripts. Qualitative Sociology,
20(1), 33-55.
68

Gone in an Instant: Using Visual Media to Improve Teacher
Professional Practice Participation
Dino Sossi,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120 th Street, New York, NY, 10027,
Email: dds2130@columbia.edu
Abstract: The unrelenting demands of the typical public school environment conspire
against the educator who aspires to be reflective in her practice. It is simply difficult to
have the time as well as the ability to revisit either the content or the pedagogy that are
the constituent elements of instructional practice. Fortunately, technology can play a
positive role in assisting the conscientious, but overburdened, educator. Low-cost,
consumer digital video equipment allows an increasingly diverse group of people to
record themselves regardless of situations. Within an educational environment,
unobtrusive, economical video cameras allow teachers to document their own practice.
Educators can record aspects of school-life without the distraction inherent to large-scale
video production. This exploratory work-in-progress focuses on a pair of 2nd Grade
Collaborative Team Teaching (CTT) educators who recorded instruction within their
classroom to promote in-service self-reflection.
Introduction
The onset of low-cost, easy-to-use digital video production equipment has allowed an increasingly diverse
group of people to record themselves in an even wider array of situations. Cheaply-priced, compact-sized
video cameras allow teachers to become their own video documentarians. As a result, educators can
record various aspects of school-life without the distraction of video production crews or large, weighty
and highly intrusive recording equipment. This research project focuses on teacher-recorded instruction
within a 2nd Grade Collaborative Team Teaching (CTT) Science classroom to promote teacher selfreflection.
This research is set within the context of a Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM) education program situated in a poor urban elementary school.
Methods
There were a variety of research methods implemented within this study. The main method utilized
included the Collaborative Team Teachers (CTT) who instruct their class using video cameras to
document the progress of their lessons. They teach a 2nd Grade class including Science. After they
finished shooting the footage, the classroom teachers were provided with a series of guiding questions to
help frame their analysis of the video that was captured. The areas of research interest included thoughts
about the lessons they gave as a whole, the strengths of their instruction, the modes of assessment used
within class, the changing levels of student engagement during class, as well as possible avenues they
could explore in terms of pedagogy. Also, teachers were directly asked if the process of video recording
had any effect on teacher self-reflection as well as professional development and, if so, what was it. Due
to the first-person nature of the shooting, the video largely covered student-student interaction and
teacher-student interaction when children were prompted as well as improvised student utterances.
In terms of the demographics of this particular class, the study was situated within a 2nd Grade Science
program mandated by an urban public school board where it operated. The word “urban” is used as a
means to describe the demographics, physical location and socioeconomic status of the school’s
clientele. This elementary school receives Title 1 funding with 89% designated as being eligible. The
school is a Pre-Kindergarten through 5th Grade elementary school was located in a large metropolitan
city. In order of decreasing percentage of representation, students were 79% Hispanic, 18% Black, 2%
White and 0.2% Asian students. Student participants were enrolled in the 2nd grade. The subject matter
involved Science.
Evidence
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A variety of data sources were collected to act as evidence within this research study. To provide
context, the researchers had worked previously in a professional development setting over the past
calendar year.
After successfully working together on an initial research project, the participating teachers suggested
that they wanted to build on previous research where the researchers had previously video recorded their
lessons while visiting the classroom to recording their own instruction themselves. The CTT teachers
video recorded their instruction in a documentary-style manner where they included their instruction as
well as any interactions that occurred within the classroom. The footage was screened with the video
being examined in terms of analyzing and reflecting on the quality of the classroom instruction. The
teachers then commented on the video in a written form using guiding questions suggested by the
researchers that would narrow the analysis to a more manageable frame.
To ensure that the data collected was accurate, valid and reliable, the researchers visited the classroom
and assisted students to become a more seamless part of the classroom culture not only within Science,
but across subject matter. This helped the researchers develop thick and rich descriptions of this
particular classroom culture. To help corroborate these findings, the classroom teachers revisited the
substance of the classroom lessons by watching video from instruction. In this instance, by having
teachers re-examine personally shot footage, it helps them to develop their own ideas about their
classroom practice.
The subject matter of the lessons focused on school board-created curriculum standards in 2nd Grade
Science. In addition to the video recording, additional student-generated data included notebooks,
drawings and personal testimonials to the camera that were inspired by teacher questioning as well as
their own improvised oral utterances. The notebooks and drawings were requested by the classroom
teachers to corroborate the students’ in-class observations.
Scholarly significance of the study
There are simply too few science teachers across the US (Ingersoll, 1999). In an increasingly globalized
economy that puts a premium on information processing, we need to fully teach the knowledge-base and
skills inherent to science education through our Science curriculum. By utilizing existing technology tools
that allow educators to more effectively use the communicative and social aspects of digital media
production, we have a better chance of improving in-service teacher professional development in both
scientific subjects as well as student Science learning. By implementing and investigating teacher-video
recorded action research regarding their classroom teaching within the practical surroundings of a 2nd
grade Science class, we have the potential to improve teacher professional development in Science
education and the learning experience of students. There are many affordances with respect to video
recording technologies, such as asynchronous screening of classroom instruction, which actively
incorporate visual and aural elements of in-class instruction. These hold promise for improved Science
education as well as its impact on students.
References
Ingersoll, R.M. (1999). Turnover and shortages among science and mathematics teachers in the
United States. Science Teacher Retention: Mentoring and Renewal. Issues in Science Education,
SE 066 056.
70

Meaningful clicks, significant bricks:
Perceptions of creativity and agency in physical and virtual play
Lillian Spina-Caza,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180,
Email: spinal@rpi.edu
Abstract: Two important questions define this research: First, does how an activity is
performed – physically or virtually – impact on young people’s perceptions of creativity
and agency? And second, is there a connection between mode, self-perceptions, and
gender? An experimental field study conducted at a lower SES, rural elementary school
comparing similar physical and virtual activity found the answer to both of these
questions is yes. The research presented here makes significant associations between
virtual activity, gender, and young people’s sense of their own creative abilities emerging
through the performance of play at a popular, commercial children’s Internet
environment.
Interactive Virtual Technology and Children’s Self-perceptions
One of the “red” threads appearing throughout much of the literature on children and interactive virtual
technology (IVT) use is a call for young people to be creators and not just consumers of computer culture,
producers of and not just participants in the virtual worlds they inhabit. Frequently, the main reasons
cited for encouraging IVT use include the development of information technology (IT) proficiency, media
literacy skills, scientific reasoning and spatial skills, and other informal educational opportunities (Gee,
2007; Hayes, 2008; Kafai, 2006; Loveless, 2007; Livingstone, 2003). Equally compelling reasons for
exploring the effects of IVT use on young people, however, include a deeper understanding of how virtual
environments alter creativity and/or agency perceptions considered essential for a developing child
(Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Craft, 2000; Hart, 1979; Healy, 1998).
Activity Theory (AT) provides a solid basis for this research, as it acknowledges the role of both individual
creativity and agency in human computer interaction (HCI) (Kaptelinin & Nardi, 2006). AT alone,
however, does not tell the entire story. A child’s subjective experiences in virtual play can also provide
critical insights into what types of IVT are most supportive of contributive play and, consequently, more
supportive of learning and development. As Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggests, there is an active and
creative aspect to children’s play, and a young person’s belief in their ability to reshape or contribute
something to his or her environment, to “discover, sustain, or alter its properties,” is a hallmark of
development (p. 10). Rogoff (1993), too, suggests, though individuals are bound to environment, a
person may be transformed as they “…make a process their own through their (necessarily creative)
efforts to understand and contribute to social activity” (p. 141).
AT is enriched by embracing both an Ecological Systems Theory (EST), which views human development
as a process of a person’s interactions with his or her environment, and also a Creativity Theory of
Development (CTD) (Kozbelt, Beghetto & Runco, 2010), which suggests individual and environmental
attributes support or constrain creative activity. The Creative Agency Model (CAM) introduced in this
study brings together elements of all three to operationalize creativity and agency in the context of IVT
use. In this model, creativity and agency are considered processes or functions of activity-environments
and performance-perceptions. Since there is a dearth of empirical research measuring children’s
confidence in their own creative abilities within the context of real or virtual activity, CAM offers a robust
way to explore the impact of moving activity from physical to virtual spaces.
Breaking New Ground in Virtual Studies
An experimental field study was conducted with 42 fourth and fifth graders at a rural, lower SES,
elementary school in upstate New York, to compare the effects of similar physical and virtual play activity,
isolating for gender. Significant effects were found for both creativity and agency perceptions in response
to virtual play activity. Positive effects were gendered, with girls showing increases in several creativity
dimensions, and boys showing an increase in one of four agency dimensions. For boys, feelings of
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control and mastery increased in virtual play, confirming existing findings in videogames research (Colley,
2003; Jenkins, 2006). Unrelated to gender, both girls and boys showed a decrease in other dimensions
associated with agency, including feelings of self-confidence, self-evaluation, and self-assertion.
The research presented here breaks new ground on several levels. First, it compares similar physical
and virtual activity in an experimental study to determine the effects of mode on creativity and agency
perceptions. No other known study has made such a comparison. Second, it brings children’s selfperceptions
to the study of virtual play activity so that we might better understand the implications of
transferring different types of activities from physical to virtual spaces on concepts of self, important to
overall development and knowledge construction. Third, it addresses surprising gender differences found
for both creativity and agency perceptions. Finally, it introduces the CAM model as a framework for how
we might approach the study and design of interactive virtual technology going forward.
References
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecologial perspectives on human
development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Colley, A. (2003). Gender differences in adolescents’ perceptions of the best and worst aspects of
computing at school. Computers in Human Behavior 19(6), pp. 673-682.
http://dx.doi.org.libproxy.rpi.edu/10.1016/S0747-5632(03)00022-0
Craft, A. (2000). Creativity across the primary curriculum: Framing and developing practice. London, UK:
Routledge.
Gee, J. (2007). Good video games + good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and
72

literacy. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Hayes, E. (2008). Game content creation and it proficiency: An exploratory study. Computers and
education, 51(1), pp. 97-108. Retrieved August 22, 2011, from
http://www.sciencedirect.com.libproxy.rpi.edu/science/article/pii/S0360131507000292
Hart, R. (1979). Children’s experience of place. NY: Irvington Publishers, Inc.
Healy, J. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our children's minds--for better and worse.
New York: Simon & Schuster.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Complete freedom of movement: Video games as gendered play spaces. In K. Salen
& E. Zimmerman (Eds.), The game design reader: A rules of play anthology (pp. 330-363).
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Kafai, Y. (2006). Playing and making games for learning: Instructionist and constructionist perspectives
for game studies. Games and Culture 1(1), 36-40. Retrieved September 30, 2009, from
http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kafai/print/pdfs/playing.pdf
Kaptelinin, V. & Nardi, B. A. (2006). Acting with technology. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Kozbelt, A., Beghetto, R. & Runco, M. (2010). Theories of creativity. In J. Kaufman & R. Sternberg (Eds.),
The Cambridge handbook of creativity, pp. 20-47. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Livingstone, S. (2003). Children’s use of the internet: Reflections on the emerging research agenda. New
media & society 5(2), pp. 147-166. [1461–4448(200306)5:2,147–166;032712].
Loveless, A. (2007). Report 4: Literature review in creativity, new technologies and learning. Retrieved
December 4, 2008, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/documents/lit_
reviews/Creativity_Review.pdf
Rogoff, B. (1993). Children's guided participation and participatory appropriation of sociocultural activity.
In R. Wozniak & K. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific
environments (pp. 121-153). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
73

Design of computer assisted tools for bridging the gap between
receptive vocabulary and expressive vocabulary for ESL learners
Woonhee Sung, Junghyun Ahn
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120th street, New York, NY
Email: ws2345@tc.columbia.edu, ja2178@tc.columbia.edu
Abstract: For English as a Second Language (ESL) students, vocabulary learning
is at the core of language learning and use. This implies that lexical errors and
insufficient vocabulary size among L2 learners prevent effective communication
(Gass & Selinker, 2008). Currently, the scarcity of systematic, intentional
vocabulary teaching in ESL classroom, in particular, unpromising outcomes from
widely spread pedagogy, usage of written context or extensive reading, call for
new L2 vocabulary teaching methods. This highlights major pedagogical issues
such as how ‘receptive vocabulary’ is transferred to ‘expressive vocabulary’ for
writing and speaking. The tools designed here, Visual Vocabulary Map (VVM),
supports ESL learners’ strategy development for learning, using, and producing the
words. This concept mapping based visual representation tool (VVM) would
possibly bring the benefits of organizing information through visual aids showing
the relationships among words, this paper argues how the tools can promote
learning and increasing vocabulary size.
Introduction
One of the most common ways of teaching vocabulary is using written context or extensive reading to
learn word definitions (Feldman & Kinsella, 2005) in ESL classrooms. However, a number of research
studies indicate that the implicit approach is held up as problematic for L2 learning due to several
reasons. First, it requires significant amounts of contextual guessing which unfortunately results in low
rate of vocabulary acquisition (Beck et al. 2002; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985). Second, incidental
vocabulary learning through reading leads to only a superficial understanding of many vocabulary words
(Paribakht & Wesche, 1997). Third, due to sparse exposure over modest periods of time, implicitly
acquired vocabulary is often available to the learner only via receptive channels (Wesche & Paribakht,
2000).
Therefore, this paper proposes the specific design of computer assisted concept mapping tool that would
work as conduits of amplifying the process of transferring receptive vocabulary into expressive vocabulary
based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005), mental model theory (Schwartz &
Black, 1996) and situated cognition (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989).
Visual Vocabulary Map (VVM) is an interactive word concept map for L2 vocabulary learning in which a
user creates vocabulary maps that blossom with meanings and branch to related words. Its innovative
visual display promotes each student’s independent word learning process in and out of the classroom
environment. Findings from incidental vocabulary learning which leads to a superficial understanding of
vocabulary words, VVM was developed to address the urgent needs of targeted instruction for vocabulary
learning (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997).
Designing Theory
Concept mapping is a strategy that helps learners organize information through visual aids by showing
the relationships among concepts. In designing VVM, cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer,
2005), mental model theory (Schwartz & Black, 1996) and situated cognition (Brown, Collins & Duguid,
1989) are conceptually framed to enhance vocabulary learning and retention. When a learner is
processing information through a concept map, it stimulates learners’ meta-cognitive awareness, assists
appropriate monitoring strategy and increases the use of retrieving and memorizing knowledge (Liu, Chen
74

& Chang, 2010; Novak, Gowin & Johansen, 1983). At the same time, it accelerates meta-cognitive
strategy by allowing learners to evaluate and monitor their own learning process.
How it works
Combined with a visualization tool and user interface based on theories from cognitive science, VVM
allows a learner to organize words visually, link words and labeling word chunks, personalize a learner’s
experience, create own uses of a word, master word usage, and access VVM everywhere. When reading
a passage, a L2 learner continuously interacts with VVM by importing unknown, ambiguous or important
words and freely move, link, and connect words by creating a learner’s own references. The open-ended
platform (see Figure 1) promotes flexible yet constructive environment to effectively use and adapt new
words. Built in interactive functions allow further exploration into word definition, usage and examples in a
more engaging way.
Figure 1: Interface design of the Visual Vocabulary Map.
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Figure 2: Interactive functions of the Visual Vocabulary Map.
References
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
Educational Researcher, 18 (1), 32-41.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary
instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
Feldman, K. & Kinsella, K. (2005). Narrowing the language gap: The case for explicit vocabulary
instruction. Research Monograph. Scholastic, Inc.
Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (2008). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course (3rd Edition).
New York: Routledge/Taylor Francis. Pp. 593 + xviii. ISBN 978-0-203-93284-1.
Liu, P., Chen, C., & Chang, Y. (2010). Effects of computer assisted concept mapping learning strategy
on EFL College students’ English learning comprehension. Computers and Education, 54 (2),
436-445.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge
handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31–48). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J.D., Gowin, D.B., & Johansen, G.T. (1983). The use of concept mapping and knowledge
mapping with junior high school science students. Science Education, 67(5), 625-645.
Nagy,W.E., Herman, P.A., & Anderson, R.C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading
Research Quarterly, 20, 233–253.
Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche,M. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in
second language vocabulary acquisition. In J. Coady, T. Huckin, M.H. Long, & J.C. Richards
(Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp.174–199). New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Schwartz, D. L. & Black, J. B. (1996) Shuttling between depictive models and abstract rules:
Induction and fallback. Cognitive Science. 20. 457--497.
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Scarcella, R.C. (1996). Secondary education and second language research: ESL students in the
1990’s. The CATESOL Journal, 9, 129–152.
77

User Experiences with Avatar Customization in
Second Life and Lord of the Rings Online
Selen Turkay,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 525W 120 th St, New York, NY, 10027
Email: st2282@columbia.edu
Abstract: This paper will present an exploratory study on users’ experiences with avatar
customization tools in two different virtual worlds: a social virtual world, Second Life and a
massively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG), Lord of the Rings Online
(LotRO). Preliminary findings highlight fundamental differences in participants’
engagement in avatar creation and experience with the tools.
Introduction
The word “avatar” has become very common in daily life thanks to an increasing number of virtual worlds
(Kzero, 2011), and various consumer media, including James Cameron’s film Avatar. In virtual worlds, an
avatar is the graphical representation of the user. Avatars’ visual and behavioral characteristics depend
on the theme and technical aspects of a virtual world. For example, Linden Lab chose “Your World. Your
Imagination” motto for Second Life (SL) allowing its users to customize their avatars to a great extent. SL
provides over 150 unique sliders for users to customize their avatar appearance (Linden Lab, 2008).
Creating avatars can be considered a form of art in SL but it may be challenging to design a desired
avatar for a novice user with these sliders. This is similar to the experience in the Metaverse, which the
idea of SL is based on, as described in Snow Crash (Stephenson, 1992). Other virtual worlds provide
users with different choices. For example, the Lord of the Rings Online is Tolkein’s Lord of the Rings
books. In this game, players can choose among four races (humans, elf, hobbit and dwarf) and nine
classes. Each race and class has different characteristics both in appearance and as abilities. When
users customize their avatar appearance, they scroll through preset options for head shape, eye shape,
hair style, mouth, nose and so on and have a wide range of choice for colors (such as eye color, skin
color and hair color). They can also adjust weight and build.
Study
Previous studies showed that customizing avatars can effect users’ enjoyment, and using customized
avatars may increase learning and engagement in a virtual world (Bailey, Wise & Bolls, 2009; Turkay,
2011). However, if we are to study the relation between the extent of avatar customization and user
relations with their avatars, we have to take available technology and tools into consideration. For this
purpose, we designed a study with two different virtual worlds: a social virtual world, SL, and a massively
multiplayer online roleplaying game (MMORPG), Lord of the Rings Online (LotRO). Thirty-two participants
(female=17, male=15) were asked to create a SL avatar as part of their assignment in a graduate level
class. Forty participants (female=21, male=19) were asked to create an avatar by using LotRO avatar
creation tools. In both conditions, participants were aware that they would be represented in the virtual
world by the avatar over multiple play sessions. After avatar customization, participants were asked to fill
out a 5-point Likert scale survey about their avatar customization experience (O’Brian & Toms, 2009).
Open-ended questions asked why participants customized their avatars the way they did, and the
reasons for their naming choice.
Results
Preliminary results show that there are significant differences between users’ engagement in customizing
their avatars in LotRO and SL. In general, LotRO players were engaged in their avatar customization
process significantly more than SL users were (p

We also asked how important it was to customize specific parts of avatars, and how similar to their real
life appearance their avatars were. In general, participants in the SL condition (M=39) created avatars
more similar to their real life appearance than LotRO participants did (M=33.13) (p

Design Patterns for Promoting
Self-Reflection in Learning Games
Ralph Vacca, Meagan K. Bromley,
New York University, 70 Washington Square South, New York, NY
Email: ralph.vacca@nyu.edu, meagan.bromley@nyu.edu
Introduction
Self-reflection is an essential part of designing meaningful learning experiences. In formal educational
settings one can see the prominent role of reflective practices in efforts to improve self-regulation skills
such as goal setting and planning, strategic thinking, and monitoring. In therapeutic and counseling fields,
self-reflection is instrumental to cultivating self-awareness and the overall process of long-term behavioral
change. Given self-reflection is so deeply embedded in such a wide variety of learning interventions,
there are multitudes of existing methods to promote self-reflection which range from expressive writing in
journals, guided discussions, portfolio building, and the review of personal performances on video.
However with the emerging use of games and research focusing on benefits to personal aspects of
learning – such as motivation and engagement – the process of designing games to explicitly promote
self-reflection to facilitate learning is still fairly nascent.
Yet games, despite often not explicitly designed to promote self-reflection, are particularly well-suited to
promoting self-reflection given their inherent characteristics - rules, choice, feedback, and monitoring -
which mirror fundamental components to reflective thinking and practice. Choices in game spaces prompt
constrained decision-making within defined contexts that can be used by game systems to help players
meaningfully reflect on decisions in a variety of ways.
Our goal in this paper is to identify potential game design patterns to promote self-reflection in learning
games. We begin with an overview of what scholars have discovered about self-reflection, focusing on
research in education and psychology. This is followed by an examination of scholarship on games, with
a focus on designing games for learning. The design patterns for self-reflection can be thought of as
descriptions of common objectives paired with descriptions of solutions that can be applied, not
prescriptively, but as design guides that interrelate user interactions in ways that can promote selfreflection.
In determining what patterns could be derived from existing games, we identified various
components of self-reflection, and aligned those components with questions for game designers and
researchers. These questions are: 1) Can we reflect on modes of self-representation to promote
motivation? 2) Can we reflect on our own beliefs and assumptions to promote personal perspective
changes? 3) Can we reflect on our emotions to promote self-monitoring? 4) Can we reflect on our own
patterns of behavior to promote self-awareness?
Results
Our method of research was to survey existing commercial games and conduct an in-depth analysis of
mechanics. As a result, we identified four design patterns that can be retrofitted to address the questions
on promoting self-reflection. In the “Ideal Me” pattern, we examine self-representation in the form of
avatars within game play to prompt reflections on self-concept. With the “I Believe it’s Butter” pattern we
examine how the role of framing choices can prompt reflection on personal beliefs and assumptions. In
the “Can I Borrow a Feeling” pattern we question how emotionally regulating features in games like
character experiences and meaningful narratives can be utilized to develop emotional monitoring and
understanding within the self. Lastly, the “Did I Do That” pattern we examine how reflections on
behavioral patterns can be used ex post facto to promote self-understanding.
Conclusion
The patterns we identify are intended to have direct and practical applications to the design of games to
promote self-reflection. A future direction of this survey of existing games will be to incorporate our design
80

patterns into games for learning spaces, and determine potential impact on promoting self-reflection in
games.
References
Baird, J. R., Fensham, P. J., Gunstone, R. F., & White, R. T. (1991). The importance of reflection in
improving science teaching and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(2), 163–
182.
Berk, L. E., Mann, T. D., & Ogan, A. T. (2006). Make-believe play: Wellspring for development of selfregulation.
In D. Singer, R. Golinkoff, & K. Hirsh-Pasek (Eds.)
Blizzard Entertainment. (1998). StarCraft: Brood War [PC game]. Irvine, CA: Activision Blizzard.
Bogost, I. (2007). The rhetoric of video games. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
Series on Digital Media and Learning, 117–139.
Bura, S. (2008) Emotion Engineering: A Scientific Approach For Understanding Game Appeal.
Gamasutra. Retrieved March 2, 2012 from:
http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3738/emotion_engineering_a_scientific_.php
Core Design (1998). Tomb Raider III [PC Game]. Wimbledon, London: Eidos Interactive.
Fullerton, T., Swain, C., & Hoffman, S. (2008). Game design workshop: a playcentric approach to creating
innovative games. Morgan Kaufmann.
Isbister, K. (2006). Better Game Characters by Design: A Psychological Approach. Morgan Kaufmann.
Järvinen, A. (2008). Games without Frontiers: Theories and Methods for Game Studies and Design.
Tampere: Tampere University Press.
Lim, S., & Reeves, B. (2006). Being in the Game: Effects of Avatar Choice and Point of View on Arousal
Responses During Play. Paper presented at the International Communication Association,
Dresden, Germany.
Jenkins, H. (2004). Game Design as Narrative Architecture. Retrieved from:
http://web.mit.edu/cms/People/henry3/games&narrative.html
Juul, J. (2010) A casual revolution reinventing video games and their players. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lionhead Studios (2001). Black & White [PC game]. Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts.
Mezirow, J., & others. (1990). How critical reflection triggers transformative learning. Fostering critical
reflection in adulthood, 1–20.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based
Multimedia Game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117–128.
Rieber, L.R. (2005). Multimedia Learning in Games, Simulations, and Microworlds.
Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games + good learning: collected essays on video games, learning, and
literacy. Peter Lang.
Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. The MIT Press.
Shute, V. J., Ventura, M., Bauer, M., & Zapata-Rivera, D. (2009). Melding the power of serious games
and embedded assessment to monitor and foster learning. Serious games: Mechanisms and
effects, 295–321.
Square Enix (1997). Final Fantasy VII [Playstation]. Tokyo, Japan: Sony Computer Entertainment.
THQ. (2010). The Biggest Loser Challenge [Wii game]. Agoura Hills, CA: THQ Inc.
Von Wright, J. (1992). Reflections on reflection. Learning and Instruction, 2(1), 59–68.
Yee, N., Bailenson, J., & Ducheneaut, N. (2009). The proteus effect: Implications of transformed digital
self-representation on online and offline behavior. Communication Research, 36, 285-312.
81

Cooperative Inquiry in Designing Technology in Life-Relevant
Learning for Science
Jason C. Yip, Tamara Lynnette Clegg, Allison J. Druin, Mona Leigh Guha, Evan Golub, Elizabeth
Bonsignore, Elizabeth Foss, and Greg Walsh
University of Maryland – College Park, Human-Computer Interaction Lab
2117 Hornbake Bldg, South Wing, College Park, MD 20742
Email: jasonyip@umd.edu, tclegg@umd.edu, allisond@umd.edu, mona@umd.edu, egolub@umd.edu,
ebonsign@umd.edu, efoss@umd.edu, gwalsh@umd.edu
Abstract: In this presentation, we offer an approach to designing supporting technologies
for science learning in everyday informal contexts. We advocate for Cooperative Inquiry
as a means of engaging learners in the development and design of their learning
activities and supporting tools. Our participatory design approach focuses on actively
engaging researchers and children in setting design goals, planning prototypes, and
making decisions, ensuring the final design meets the needs of the end users. We outline
the results from two case studies of design sessions with members from a design team
(Kidsteam) and participants of a summer science program (Kitchen Chemistry). We
present the methodological steps we adopted to co-designing early prototypes, what
features learners find important in the technology for their personal interests, and what
implications can be made for designing technology for everyday learning.
Introduction
National goals emphasize “science for all” (e.g., AAAS, 1990). However, science can often be presented
as abstract facts that are disconnected from learners’ daily lives. Subsequently, studies indicate that
many learners can be turned off from this form of science learning (e.g., Atwater, 1996). One approach to
addressing this challenge is to help learners engage in scientific practice in the context of their own
personal interests. Therefore, we aim to design learning environments called life-relevant learning (LRL).
We define LRL as engaging learners in science through the pursuit of their own meaningful goals. Our
LRL environment, Kitchen Chemistry (KC), is an out-of-school program where participants engage in
scientific practice in the everyday context of cooking. In this LRL environment, we have found that
learners engage scientifically in new ways (Chinn & Malhotra, 2002) that promote their scientific identity
development (e.g., Clegg, Gardner, & Kolodner, 2010) and informed decision-making practices (Yip et al.,
2012).
While technology can help address the challenges learners face in LRL environments, these tools also
need to support science learning in the context of learners’ own personal interests. We contend that in
order to design LRL technologies that promote scientifically meaningful experiences in everyday contexts,
we need to capitalize on learners’ personal goals. Therefore, we advocate for Cooperative Inquiry (CI) as
a means of engaging learners in the development of the supporting tools (e.g., Druin et al., 2001). CI is a
participatory design approach created for designing technology for children with children. Our CI
approach focuses on actively engaging researchers and children in setting design goals, planning
prototypes, and making decisions to ensure the final design meets the needs of the end users. While CI
provides a way for developing user-centered technology, few studies have focused on co-designing with
children to develop technological tools to help make science learning more personal. For this study, we
aim to better understand two questions: (1) how can technology be better designed to meet participants’
learning and practical needs in LRL experiences? and (2) how can we structure the CI process for
designing technology for LRL experiences?
Methods
To answer these questions, we worked with two different groups of children and adults. The first group
was composed of the eight children (four boys, four girls, ages 7–11) and researchers of Kidsteam, an
out-of-school program at the University of Maryland’s Human-Computer Interaction Lab. Throughout the
year, the team develops, evaluates, and co-designs new technologies for children. We chose the
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Kidsteam members because they have more CI design experience. The second group was composed of
seven children (three boys, four girls, ages 9–13) and adults that participated in the KC program. In 2011,
KC was enacted as an all day, one-week summer program. At the end of KC, we asked the participants
to engage in CI to develop new technologies for future versions KC. In comparison to Kidsteam, the KC
designers did not have as much CI design experience. However, the KC participants had more
experience completing the LRL activities.
In these sessions, we employed a low-tech prototyping technique called “Bags of Stuff” (Druin et al.,
2001) (Figure 1). In this technique, the children and adults were split into different groups, with each
group having one to two child partners and at least one adult. Each group was asked to create models of
new technologies using pre-determined art supplies found in large bags. During the design time, we took
field notes, photos and recorded the session on video. Once these models were created, the child-adult
groups came together again in a whole discussion group to present their designs. As the groups
presented to the full team, we wrote on a large whiteboard “the big ideas” that were present, recording the
ideas that were the most repeated among the groups and received the most attention from the whole
group. From these low-tech prototypes and presentations, we used a constant comparative analysis
(Strauss & Corbin, 2007) and observed emergent patterns that we interpreted as important in designing
technology for LRL environments.
Figure 1. Low-tech prototyping. Children and adult partners work together using a technique
called “Bags of Stuff” to develop ideas for future technologies.
Findings
From the Kidsteam session, we found five main themes within the artifacts. First, our Kidsteam partners
focused on familiar interfaces, such as iPads and iPhones. Similar to these commercial devices, the
Kidsteam partners wanted capture their experiences in photos and videos to share and reflect. Second,
Kidsteam emphasized mobility. They wanted tools that could easily interact within the context of any
cooking science investigation. Third, the Kidsteam partners emphasized that displays that showed
processes over time in cooking. Fourth, we found was that learners asked for devices that helped scaffold
the cooking investigations. Fifth, the technology needs to have sensors that help learners detect different
properties about their foods.
In the KC design session, all of the same five themes from Kidsteam manifested in the prototype designs.
Interestingly, the prototypes of the KC partners also reflected four more themes. First, KC learners
wanted to retrieve information in situ about the foods they were working with. Second, online social
communities were a priority. Learners wanted to communicate with other Kitchen Chemists and friends.
Third, KC designers put in games and earning points into their prototypes. Fourth, KC designers wanted
an unobtrusive way for the technology to help them conduct their investigations. We observed that many
times learners would spill food and drop the iPads used in KC.
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Implications
Our work with CI extends the argument that built-in science scaffolds, such as prompts and visualizations,
may need to be integrated more seamlessly within multiple contexts. For example, how can technology
support learners to ask informed questions on their everyday observations? We argue from our data that
flexibility is needed. These sessions allowed us conceptualize how to think about social community,
mobility, usability, and narratives as ways that are already familiar. We call for the development of
technology that not only enables learners to access, share, and extend their life-relevant scientific
experiences across the contexts of their lives, but also for technology that integrates to how learners
already naturally interact, perceive, and interpret everyday phenomena (Clegg et al., 2012).
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science, F. J., Rutherford, F., & Ahlgren, A. (1990).
Science for all Americans. Oxford University Press.
Atwater, M. M. (1996). Social constructivism: Infusion into the multicultural science education
research agenda. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 33(8), 821-837.
Chinn, C. A., & Malhotra, B. A. (2002). Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical
framework for evaluating inquiry tasks. Science Education, 86, 175–219.
Clegg, T.L., Bonsignore, E., Yip, J.C., Gelderblom, H., Kuhn, A., Valenstein, T. & Druin, A. (2012).
Technology for promoting scientific practice and personal meaning in life- relevant learning. In
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC). Bremen,
Germany.
Clegg, T., Gardner, C. & Kolodner, J. (2010). Playing with food: Turning play into scientifically
meaningful experiences. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference of the Learning
Sciences (ICLS) (Vol. 1, pp. 1135-1142). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Druin, A., Bederson, B., Hourcade, J. P., Sherman, L., Revelle, G., Platner, M. & Weng, S. (2001).
Designing a digital library for young children: An intergenerational partnership. In Joint Conference on
Digital Libraries (JCDL 2001), 398-405.
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (2007). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory, 3rd ed. SAGE Publications.
Yip, J.C., Clegg, T.L., Bonsignore, E., Gelderblom, H., Lewites, B., Guha, M.L., & Druin, A.
(2012). Kitchen Chemistry: Supporting learners’ decisions in science. In Proceedings of the
Tenth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS). Sydney, Australia.
84

Designing Instruction for Affect: The Need for Feelings of Belonging
in Distance Education
Sara Behani Zaker,
University of Southern California, University of Southern California, Los Angels, CA
Email: sbzaker@gmail.com
The widespread implementation of distance education (DE) programs has changed the face of k-12 and
higher education. The number of students enrolled in DE programs has increased an average of 35%
annually since 2002 (Allen & Seaman, 2006). However, overall student attrition in distance education is
also reported to be higher than in traditional face-to-face programs (Kreijns, Kirschner & Jochems, 2003).
A lack of motivation to persist in online programs has become a significant concern for administrators
(Clark, 2003). Unfortunately, there is a profound lack of research focusing on motivation in distance and
web-based programs (Chen & Jang, 2010; Jones & Issroff, 2005). According to Chen and Jang (2010),
this may be a result of the cognitive and instruction-based past of distance education. In their review,
Miltiadou and Savenye (2003) discuss the importance of studying motivation with online education
programs in order to better ensure achievement and persistence. Attending to the affective and sociocultural
aspects of DE allows for a holistic view of the field. Furthermore, examining the socio-emotional
factors that influence academic success may shed light on the concerns in the field such as high student
attrition rates (Chen & Jang, 2010).
The construct of belonging is a highly relevant socio-affective factor with regard to motivation. Within
academic contexts, feelings of belonging and a sense of community are associated with positive
emotions such as happiness, satisfaction, and tranquility (Osterman, 2000). For many students a sense
of belonging to the campus community is essential for academic success (Osterman, 2000). Students
that lack feelings of school belonging may develop problems with motivation, social interactions, and
achievement. According to Tinto (1993), in the context of higher education, there is a positive correlation
between students’ degree completion and their feeling of involvement in higher education. Conversely,
feelings of incongruence or isolation within an academic setting increase the likelihood of student attrition.
Study Design & Results
The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a difference in the affect of belonging across
methods of instructional delivery. This study specifically examines an online and an oncampus Masters
of Social Work program at a top tier research university in a large urban city. This study sought to answer
the following research questions: 1) Is there a difference in student sense of belonging between
oncampus and online program delivery contexts?; 2) Does involvement in out-of-class networking
activities predict student feelings of belonging?
Participants in this study were asked to complete a self-report to determine feelings of belonging to the
campus community and program in which they are enrolled. In order to determine whether there is a
difference in feelings of belonging to the campus community across program delivery methods an
Oneway ANOVA was conducted. The independent variable of program delivery method was compared
across three groups: students enrolled at the university’s main campus (n=129), a satellite campus
(n=66), and the online version of the program (n=292). Due to unequal sample sizes across groups, a
Scheffe post-hoc was performed. Significant pair-wise differences were found between groups in face-toface
and online program delivery methods. A linear regression was performed to determine whether
student involvement in the oncampus program predicts students’ feelings of belonging. Student
involvement in the oncampus program is defined as frequency of out-of-class peer interactions. Results
were found to be significant with a 9.5% rate of prediction.
Implications of these results are great for the field of educational technology. Currently, instructional
methodologies used in online courses mirror those applied in face-to-face contexts. This approach may
be detrimental to students enrolled in online programs, as affective needs are often not considered in the
development of course design. As educational methodology and program delivery evolves so must
relevant instructional design processes.
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References
Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2006). Making the grade: Online education in the United States.
Available from: http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/making_ the_grade_southern06.
Chen, K.C. & Jang, S.J. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of
self-determination theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 741–752.
Clark, R. E. (2003) Fostering the work motivation of individuals and teams.
Performance Improvement, 42(3), 21-29.
Jones, A., & Issroff, K. (2005). Learning technologies: Affective and social issues in
computer-supported collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 44(4), 395–408.
Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P. A., & Jochems, W. (2003). Identifying the pitfalls for social
interaction in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: A review of the research.
Computers in Human Behavior, 19(3), 335–353.
Osterman, K. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community.
Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367.
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving College: Rethinking the causes and cures of student
attrition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
86

The Use of Dynamic Geometry Software for the development of
Specialized Subject Matter Knowledge
V. Serbay Zambak, Traci L. Carter,
Clemson University, Tillman Hall, 109 Daniel Drive Clemson, SC
Email: vzambak@clemson.edu, tracic@clemson.edu
Abstracts: After the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was introduced by
Shulman, scholars formed theoretical frameworks to clarify this construct and make it
constructible through teacher education programs. Ball’s framework divided mathematical
knowledge into subject matter knowledge and PCK, becoming the most influential
framework for mathematics education. Consequently, methods courses offered by
schools of education changed their course structure to support the development of preservice
mathematics teachers’ PCK. However, there have not been sufficient changes in
pre-service education programs for the development of specialized subject matter
knowledge (SSMK). Considering this need, one teaching module of an instructional
technology course emphasizing the use of Dynamic Geometry Software (DGS) was
developed. Four lesson activities requiring teachers to use DGS were formed. Following
the implementation of this course in Fall/2012 in a southeast research university, a study
was proposed to investigate the influence of DGS on pre-service secondary mathematics
teachers’ development of SSMK.
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