Did the 18th century satire of James Gillray influence the contemporary illustrations of The New Yorker magazine? - by Teo Mechea

Did the 18th century satire
of James Gillray influence
the contemporary
illustrations of The New
Yorker magazine?
a dissertation paper by
Ioana - Teodora Mechea
• University
m of Suffolk

Contents
Introduction 3
Chapter 1
Caricature and Satire 5
Chapter 2
James Gillray & 18th century satire 13
Chapter 3
The New Yorker magazine 17
Chapter 4
Analysis 23
Conclusion 35
Bibliography 36

Introduction
What is the relationship between the 18th century
satirical illustrations and the contemporary The New
Yorker illustrations and can similarities between the
two be found?
The objective of this paper is to try to understand
the connection satire and caricature in their
formative years have with the contemporary
artworks of a major publication.
In order to achieve that, the present dissertation
paper will revolve around the stated question by
analyzing and comparing the two in the hope of
constructing a conclusive argument about the
connection and similarities that they share.
To be able to understand the topic this paper will
focus on two representatives of their respective
periods, more exactly on James Gillray and Barry
Blitt.
The following analysis will aim to treat themes like
message, topic, style, technique and public reaction
together with the social impact of the selected body
of works.
3.

Chapter 1
Caricature and Satire
Even though in most cases caricature and satire are
seen as interchangeable terms, there are actual
differences between one and the other.
The word caricature dates back to the
1590 period of the Italian Renaissance
and describes a type of portrait that
presents exaggerated features, usually
for the purpose of making a statement
about the portrayed person’s characteristics
– most commonly accentuating
its negative physical features and shortcomings
(C. C. McPhee, N. M. Orenstein, 2011,
p. 11).
It is thought to derive from the words carico and
caricare, which mean “to load” or “to exaggerate”,
while other historians believe to also have a linguistic
connection to the first artists who experimented
with the style – the brothers Agostino and Annibale
Carracci from Bologna. The brothers used to take
breaks from their commission works to engage in
drawing small portraits with exaggerated features as
an exercise and a recreational activity (fig. 1). Their
endeavors with these experiments may be considered
a rebellious opposition to the artistic Manierist
canon of the time that was driven by hyperrealism
and sober themes, usually depicted through religious
scenes or by portraits of leaders.
Later on, the Carracci Academy urged its students
to partake in the relaxed exercises of quick drawings
of sitters or visitors as animals or inanimate objects
in order to catch the very essence of the person’s
physique. This progressive approached was a stepping-stone
in the evolution of the study of arts, even
though it would be only centuries later that caricature
will become an art genre in itself (C. C. McPhee, N.
M. Orenstein, 2011, p. 10).
Notable artists of the time that use to engage in
drawing caricature portraits include Leonardo da
Vinci, Lorenzo Bernini and Michelangelo Buonarotti,
while other painters took inspiration from the concept
of caricature’s traits in order to produce works of
biomorphic and grotesque structures like Giuseppe
Arcimboldo and Hieronymus Bosch (to be noted
that Archimboldo’s and Bosh’s works to not fit on
the spectrum of caricature entirely because they do
not represent actual people or comment on a type
of people, instead they made use of the idea of distorting
figures and combining them with animal and
object characteristics in order to depict demons and
otherworldly entities).
Most famous of them all, Leonardo da Vinci was the
artist most closely associated with caricature, even
though at his time this style of drawing was referred
to as grotesque. According to Giorgio Vasari
(1511-1574), Leonardo was attracted to people with
bizarre heads (teste bizarre) and was delighted by
memorizing their appearance in order to later distort
them in his drawings (fig. 2).
However, their drawings had only a purpose of
comedic exercises and were kept privately without
being displayed or considered an art form in its own
right. For that reason, it can be argued that caricature
in the form as we know it today was born in the
18th century Britain, powered by the newly wide
spread technique of the printing press.
5.

Fig. 1 Annibale Carracci (1560 - 1609) Sheet of studies
of caricatures of famous artists of his time
6.

Fig. 2 Leonardo da Vinci (c.1490) Five caricature heads
7.

While caricature accentuates the
physical characteristics of the person
portrayed, satire strives to make a
comment on the internal shortcomings
and faults of character – usually pointing
out immoral traits and vices - in a
humorous manner.
The purpose of satire is to make a moral
judgment or remark on a person or
situation.
The word satire casts a much broader net as a term,
but I will focus solely on literal and visual examples,
with emphasis on the latter.
Satire as defined previously has existed throughout
recorded history, although mostly in written form,
rather than visual interpretation.
Although the word satire and its definition had not yet
been invented, the ancient Greeks produced abundant
examples of literary satirical work, starting with
Aristophanes’ comedies in Ancient Greece, dating
back as far as circa 427 BC (M. Platnauer, O. Taplin,
2015).
Historians and commentators distinguish two major
types of satire: social satire (that is concerned with
everyday situations and human types) and political
satire (that ridicules public figures and it’s a reactive
response to actual events currently going on at the
time).
While the social satire operates mainly with generic
classifications of human character still present today,
political satire cannot be understood if viewed
outside of the context of its time.
As caricature, the satire genre knew a revival in the
18th century Britain as an urban phenomenon aimed
to reach a broad audience in London.
The revival of caricature and satire in the 1800s Britain
was highly influenced by two decisive factors: the
geo-political scene and the advances in technology.
The events that powered the development of the
genre were heavily determined by the turmoil of
public outbursts against the controlled censorship
of the previous establishments, outbursts strongly
driven by the French and American Revolutions and
Napoleon’s conquest of Europe.
Beneath the enlightenment ideals of reason, scientific
progress, knowledge and order, society embraced
an omnipresent mania with decorum, a façade of established
traditions and vanities, as well as a sense
of moral and political supremacy.
This provided artists with a prosper environment to
express their views on political and moral follies by
heavy use of both caricature and satire.
They targeted a multitude of public figures and
situations to subject to ridicule in order to cast a
light on different aspects of British society while
providing much-needed criticism of the superfluous
moral corruption of a society that, to them, seemed
to forget the true ideals of its age. Iconic figures
that were massively targeted by illustrators included
King George III and Napoleon (fig. 3), the Prince of
Wales, William Pitt and James Fox, along with archetypes
of social life among which lawyers, clergy men,
doctors, wealthy merchants and academics were
numbered as recurrent themes.
This blooming period was profoundly steered by the
use of the printing press, without which this movement
would not have been made possible.
The printing press existed since its invention by the
German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 (based
on the earlier screw presses models use for wine
and oil production in the first century Italy), in what
was back then a region encapsulated within the
borders of the Roman Empire.
8.

The Gutenberg press was used solely for the production
and multiplication of holy texts such as the Bible
and was used mainly by the clergy, as they were
among the few people who could read and write and
that time (S. Kreis, 2016).
Within several decades, the press spread throughout
about two hundred cities in a dozen European
countries.
By the Renaissance period the result of peace and
the decline of famine and the plague had led to the
founding of schools and colleges and a rise in literacy
and education. This allowed printing presses to be
increasingly used and wide spread across Europe.
The printing press usage reached its peak in Britain
around 1700 as a result of cheaper paper and
materials due to the industrialisation and along with
literacy among lower classes of the society began
to produce high numbers of books and newspapers
aimed at a much wider audience and with higher
circulation.
By 1800, Lord Stanhope had manufactured a printing
press completely from cast iron, reducing the force
needed while doubling the size of the printed area
(BBC, 2016)
This period of development is regarded by many as a
new print revolution.
Following this rise of technological progress and cost
reduction, another phenomenon began to take shape
in urban clusters as London: the print shops (fig. 4).
As Mark Bills (Senior Curator of Paintings, Prints and
Drawings at Museum of London) explains in a lecture
at Gresham College, satirical illustrations were
considered to be the art of the street, as they
wouldn’t be seen in any high-art gallery, but in print
shops (M. Bills, 2010). This assured a wide visibility
with audience throughout a larger spectrum of social
classes, as they were also cheap and distributed in
vast numbers of copies.
They were, in a hierarchical term, a low culture, often
disapproved of by the artists of the time, many of
whom were trying to preserve the elitist and largely
exclusivist aspect of art.
As the painter James Barry famously stated in a
letter around 1795, in his view the popularity of satire
and its corrupting influence was taking the audience’s
eyes from the art that he and his fellow artists
were producing and was exposing the public to the
most vile and wicked forms of vice (J. Barry, 1794, as
cited in M. Bills, 2010).
This was, of course, the purpose of works of satirical
nature: to take the visible traces of the Enlightenment
Era that made expression in art and literature flourish
in the direction of the people’s voice and to educate
the audience to acknowledge the shortcomings of
the Neoclassical era.
In the mid 18th century publishers began to specialize
in caricature and comic images as until then
satirical prints were being sold alongside portraits or
typography in general print shops.
The production and distribution of individual satirical
prints was centered in London where the print trade
flourished in the late 18th century, starting as a part
of the print trade that included books and other types
of prints imported from Europe.
The enormous demand for prints led to the proliferation
of shops throughout the city. The numbers of
print shops grew rapid, being centered around Saint
Paul’s cathedral, and later on encompassing the
areas of Saint James and Fleet Street.
The magazine London und Paris states in 1806: the
caricature shops are always besieged by the public -
referring specifically to the British audience (C. C.
McPhee, N. M. Orenstein, 2011, p. 11).
The shops provided an area to display and sell satirical
works. Newspapers adverts has always provided
a useful means by which artists could sell their
images as well as auctions of print, yet the print shop
remained the place where individual images of satire
were predominantly bought, sold and consumed
by London public until mid 19th century when the
development of illustrating newspapers and pictorial
journals became the main media for satire.
9.

Fig. 3 James Gillray (1803) Napoleon and King George
III as Gulliver and the King of Brobdingnag
10.

Fig. 4 Piercy Roberts (c.1791-1805) Caricature Shop
11.

Chapter 2
James Gillray and the 18th
century political satire
Few illustrators of the 18th century
Britain had as much success as James
Gillray (1756- 1815).
His satirical works earned him the title
of father of politically cartoons, as stated
by the 20th century cartoonist David
Low, accompanying William Hogarth as
the two most influential satirical artists
of their time (M. Rowson, 2015).
critical message on the third one.
The element of novelty that separated him from the
previous satirical works and elevated satire to an art
form was his sublime technique, reminiscent of
Albrecht Durer’s level of mastery and detail, followed
by the fact that he delivered enjoyable conflicting
expectations to the public as the vice is in the end
always punished but not completely expelled from
the urban scene.
Liza Wade explained in her talk at University of Suffolk
entitled Sex in the 18th century London how his
print series succeeded to appeal to a large audience
by using a form of theatrical conversation in art, a
practice derived from Hogarth’s engagement with
London’s drama scene. It’s influences from popular
London theatre took form in the dramatic storytelling
that treats the main character in a before versus after
manner while combining fictional elements along with
non-fictional ones (Lisa Wade, 2016).
Although visual political mockery had been around
since the proliferation of printing methods, William
Hogarth (1697- 1746) was the one to take this new
art form to a level of mastery that was never seen up
until then, as he produced and publicized the Modern
Moral Tales series in 1730 London.
This series of copper plate based prints incorporated
three smaller series of prints, namely: The Rake’s
Progress, Marriage à-la-mode and A Harlot’s Progress,
each of them containing between six and eight
individual pieces. The series were an absolute success,
reaching bestseller status at the time of their
publication and advancing social satire to a higher
condition in art (Lisa Wade, 2016).
Hogarth’s approach to satirical illustrations was
based on presenting fictional situations that encapsulate
a simplified and symbolic view of a society
divided between three social classes: the poor, the
middle class and the wealthy, with an accentuated
Hogarth worked mainly with social stereotypes, a
practice that will later, thanks to him, become a characteristic
of the whole satirical illustration genre.
Twenty years after William Hogarth’s death, James
Gillray took inspiration from his satirical model while
being a student at the Royal Academy.
As a young pupil, Gillray admired Hogarth’s vision
and took his political and moralizing agenda forward
by continuing to react to the events of his time,
engaging in artistic satirical responses (M. Rowson,
2015).
Somerset House Gazette stated in 1824 that Gillray
was an extraordinary genius, the prince of caricatures
(D. Donald, 1996, p.36).
The reason for their claim is that his illustrations
follow Hogarth’s vision of skillful aesthetics and
attention to detail, while introducing new elements as
13.

color and text for further engaging audience (and as
a more light toned interpretation, if Gillray is the
prince of caricature, who is more qualified than
Hogarth to be its king?).
Gillray’s use of shading and lighting gave his work
supplementary symbolic and compositional dimensions.
Possibly inspired by earlier depictions of Renaissance
grotesque, he sets his work apart from
Hogarth by making use of the caricature technique.
Although Hogarth’s portraits were highly expressive,
they were not to a caricature degree, as it can be
observed that his character’s facial construction lack
exaggerations or deformities. By comparison, Gillray
makes use of facial distortion while maintaining
recognizable likeness and combines it with satire,
which resembles more closely the modern understanding
of satirical artworks.
Diana Donald highlights this very well by relating
how:
One writer after another praised the grasp of
characteristic expression and gait which enabled
the artist to convey character more tellingly than a
conventional portraitist, and transformed carica
ture from a game into a dramatic art form (D. Don
ald, 1996, p. 39).
However, this skillful use of caricature and likeness
did not chance the aspect of satire imposed by
Hogarth of appropriating clear stereotypes to social
characters, as Gillray continued to follow archetypes
of social and political individuals.
A good example for the previously stated is the 1806
illustration Making-Decent (fig. 5), that shows a
group of political figures preparing for service.
that states Broad-bottomies getting into the Grand
Costume.
Here it can be observed Gillray’s forte as a satirist,
as the setting is reminiscent of a backstage scene
of a burlesque show in order to deliver a severe
commentary of the morality of the portrayed administration.
George Stanley asserts that Gillray’s work shows an
elevated sense of exquisite tact, which in his time
referred to an intense capacity of prejudice or perception
- that can be translated into his ability to
seize the points, both in politics and manners, most
open to ridicule. (D. Donald, 1996, p. 40).
To demonstrate Stanley’s claim it is enough to
appreciate the way a character as Lord Henry Petty
(observed in the foreground of Making-Decent, as
the third figure on the right) is portrayed.
In compositional terms, he can be assessed as the
main figure of the group, while he is prancing and
admiring his own gown, regardless of the diminutive
proportion Gillray accorded him.
The comment of his miniature stature that defies the
laws of perspective (and in consequence draws the
eyes even more onto him) can be considered a commentary
on his superfluous ego that has little basis in
the view of any witness except himself.
This corresponds to a stereotype heavily exploited
by satirists of the time, as pride was a vice most subjected
to scrutiny and most frown upon by the lower
classes of society that also happened to be the main
consumers of satire.
The physique of the characters is well described
by the inscription on the lower part of the artwork
14.

Fig. 5 James Gillray (1806) Making-Decent
15.

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•

Chapter 3
The New Yorker
magazine
On 21st of February 1925, Harold Ross
and his wife Jane Grant founded The
New Yorker magazine. (The New Yorker,
2016)
Ross previously worked on publications as Life magazine
and Judge while Grant was a former New York
reporter, therefore in the span of their careers had
had contact with the humorous way in which magazines
approached certain aspects of society.
Consequently their plans for The New Yorker was to
achieve a more sophisticated and intelligent humor
than any previous publications of the time (The New
Yorker, 2016).
Soon after the magazine acquired its first offices
located at 25 West 45th Street, Manhattan, New
York, Ross partnered up with the entrepreneur Raoul
H. Fleishmann in order to establish their own F-R
Publishing Company (B. Yagoda, 2000, page 39).
The magazine quickly established itself as a distinguished
forum that nurtured serious debates and
published high standard works of literary fiction and
journalism.
Among the names of the authors that were presented
within the magazine through their short stories
Truman Capote, John O’Hara , Haruki Murakami,
J. D. Salinger, Vladimir Nabokov, Stephen King and
John Cheever can be mentioned.
As the content of the publication rose to much acclaimed
esteem due to its remarkable intellectuality
and challenging ideas, it soon became one of the
best selling magazines of its time.
As Ben Yagoda asserts in his biographical book
about the publication, it was so well sold that the
Great Depression of 1929 had little to no impact on
the sales, fact that is truly remarkable and shows
how highly valued intellectual stimulation was for
educated Americans in time of great uncertainty and
desperation (B. Yagoda, 2000, page 98).
Apart from its stimulating content, what drove subscribers
to be faithful to the magazine and what set
it apart from other journals was its strong sense of
morals and lack of compromise in the name of profit.
Ross made the following statement that still is the
basis of the publication’s ideological drive:
We will not use any endorsement advertising
containing a palpable lie, or a statement that we
are morally certain is a lie. We have an opportunity
to live honestly. We also have the great privilege
now of being in a position to lead the advertising
industry, for Christ’s sake. Let us no longer pussy
foot. Let us be really honest and not just slick. I
think that in our present prosperous condition we
could afford to suffer even a temporally small loss
in revenue to keep out conscience clear (H. Ross
as cited in B. Yagoda, 2000, page 99).
The principles of morality the publication held up in a
time of accentuated consumerist culture, increasing
advertising and social turmoil shaped the intense
commitment and engagement of its target audience:
educated middle class men and women with an
appetite for stimulating ideas and a low tolerance for
scandal, biases, inequality and tabloid-like approaches.
This allowed highly witty forms of satire and humor to
develop and thrive and later become a main characteristic
of The New Yorker’s identity.
17.

This zealously morality and idealistic approach might
be compared with the ideas of the Enlightenment
era that firstly drove the birth and evolution of satire
as a genre and the amplitude of critique on vice and
corruption by artistic means.
Part of the magazine’s charm was given by the illustrations,
a feature that remained constant throughout
the years.
Most notable illustrators that contributed with artworks
are Saul Steinberg (1914 – 1999), Peter Arno
(1904-1968) and recently Robert Mankoff (today’s
editor in chef), Edward Steed, Benjamin Schwartz
and Barry Blitt (M. Maslin, 2017).
From his statement it can be concluded that the image
had the purpose of making a comment on the racially
biased electorate what did not support Obama
and on the ludicrous claims and lies that surfaced in
the media throughout his campaign, however the
illustration was interpreted in the exact opposite way
and leaving the publication susceptible to allegations
of racism and unfair labeling.
As a consequence of the public reaction, the misunderstanding
gave way to the resurfacing of the fierce
debate of the essential doubts about the satirical
genre – much like the 1795 concern stated by James
Barry.
Even a highly reputed publication for its freedom of
speech and political mockery like The New Yorker
had its moments of controversy.
On 21st of July 2008, the year of Barack Obama’s
first election, The New Yorker used for its cover art
an illustration named Politics of Fear (fig. 6), by
illustrator Barry Blitt, depicting the new president
wearing a turban while offering a fist bump to his wife
Michelle who is dressed in army attire and carrying
a machine gun. In the background of the oval office
a glimpse of a portrait of Osama Bin Laden can be
spotted, although more than half of it escapes the
frame. In the fireplace next to them burns an American
flag.
This image created a storm of negative criticism
from the media and the audience, and it’s not hard to
access why.
In his defense Blitt said that
the idea that the Obamas are branded as
unpatriotic [let alone as terrorists] in certain
sectors is preposterous. It seemed to me that
depicting the concept would show it as the
fear-mongering ridiculousness that it is
(B.Blitt, 2008).
Is laughter a vulgar and disrespectful
approach to concerns that should require
to be treated more seriously or is
it a way of exposing issues and
provoking discussion?
Some critics agreed to D.M. Fletcher’s commentary
in which he states that satire is an aggression in
which some aspects of reality are exposed to ridicule,
while others condemned humour as a means of
desensitizing the public and normalizing vile behaviour
(M.D. Fletcher as cited in M. LeBoeuf, 2007,
page 2).
Contrary to this position Paul Krassner punctuated
that sometimes humour is just a way of calling a
tension to the contradictions of the hypocrisy that’s
going on officially. Than continued by saying: That’s
the function of humor; it can alter your reality (The
Film Archives, 2013).
This commentary was in fact a response to the same
issue that arose in 1998, after Bill Clinton’s alleged
affair with Monica Lewinsky, an event that triggered
much moral backlash in the form of a multitude of
18.

satirical literary and artistic works, articles and jokes.
Larry Beinhart, Arianna Huffington and him make a
compelling case in the favour of satire as part of a
convention in Los Angeles where Christopher Hitchens
serves as the moderator (The Film Archives,
2013).
They affirm that satire is born from a desire to change
the world for the better and advocate in the
affirmation of laughter and comic as a way to deliver
uncomfortable truths to the public in a light and much
easier to cope with matter, while in the same time
reinforcing a sense of duty and justice.
Megan LeBoeuf reinforced that idea by saying:
Messages that would be ignored or
punished if overtly declared are
reaching millions of people in
satirical form, and making a real
difference. It may be the most
powerful tool that critics have to get
their opinions out into the world
(M. LeBoeuf, 2007, page 2).
19.

Fig. 6 Barry Blitt (2008) The Politics of Fear
20.

Chapter 3
James Gillray &
Barry Blitt
Alain de Botton ends his chapter on Hope in Art
as Therapy by discussing the role of humor in art:
The apparent opposite of idealization – caricature
–has a lot to teach us about how ideal images can
be important to us. We are very much at ease with
the idea that simplification and exaggerations can
reveal valuable insights that are lost or watered
down in ordinary experience. We can take this
approach and apply it to idealized images too.
(A. de Botton, 2013, p. 24)
By this, de Botton argues that a piece of caricature
can show the viewer hidden meanings about the
character or situation depicted, while being under the
protective veil of the genre - free of any apologetic
explanations. This allows the viewer to respond to it
by reconsidering and re-analyzing the first original
depiction of the said subject by a more critical and in
depth approach, stripping the original of its carefully
crafted façade.
A good practical example of how this process works
is if we look at Donald Trump’s official inauguration
portrait (fig. 7) side-by-side with Barry Blitt’s illustration
for the cover of the 23 of January 2017 issue of
The New Yorker (fig. 8).
Tamzin Smith, a professional photographer specialized
in portraiture, tells Vox magazine in an article
about the said photograph that Trump’s posture
and slight lean forward portray the president as an
aggressive figure while the light coming from below
(suggested in the white reflexions just below his
pupils) makes him look very intense, serious and
threatening (J. Gardenswartz, 2017).
This shot is clearly supposed to communicate confidence
and authority, which goes very well with the
Trump brand.
Now take a look at Blitt’s illustration that depicts
Trump as a spoilt child playing at the idea of presidency.
His illustration even leaves something for the imagination
of the viewer to fill in by the use of open-to-interpretation
visual clues as the meter on the left of
the machine. As one viewer on social media amusingly
remarks: Even funnier when you think that the
coin in the machine must be a Russian ruble – a direct
assertion to the alleged involvement of Vladimir
Putin in the U.S. presidential elections of 2016.
The use of the visual riddle therefore served its
purpose of playfully engaging the audience in a more
in depth thinking game and draw their own –and
sometimes very creative- conclusions.
Once we have encountered Barry Blitt’s
miniature, child-like Trump can we ever
take seriously the severe, determined
and menacing image he wants to portray
in his first official White House
presidential portrait?
Caricature and satire operate like that: they have the
power to imply other sides of what is presented to us
officially, to punctuate the austere façade of dignity
and duty with jokes and riddles. Satirical illustrators
know well how a memorable image can be used as
a weapon to subvert power and undermine authority,
and that is because they’ve been doing it for centuries.
23.

Fig. 7 White House (2016) Donald Trump
24.

Fig. 8 Barry Blitt (2017) 23 January 2017 Cover
25.

However modern Blitt’s approach to making a
political comment on a public figure may seem, the
practice is fairly similar to another example of visual
satire that directly ridicules one original piece of iconic
imagery. More exactly, 1805’s The Plumb Pudding
in Danger by James Gillray (fig.9).
Today, Trump’s own propagandistic agenda is
playing after the same rules, only exchanging the oil
painting medium for the photographic one, and using
tricks of light and pose to enhance and market his
chosen reinterpretation.
In order to be able to decipher the commentary of
Gillray’s illustration we must look at the image he
was distorting, which in this case it’s the iconic propaganda
of Napoleon’s greatness, best illustrated by
the most recognizable and successful portrait made
for this purpose: Jacques-Louis David’s Napoleon
Crossing the Saint-Bernard Pass (fig. 10), made only
4 years earlier, an oil on canvas painting of large proportions
that now resides at Chateaux de Versailles,
France.
As France declared war on Britain following the
execution of its monarchy, it is not hard to see why
caricatures of Napoleon began to flourish in London.
The French were so offended by the circulation of
satire ridiculing their leader that they tried to get them
suppressed by the British government. James Gillray
was a leading figure in producing highly circulated
works of satire of the French leader to the exuberant
delight of the public.
Much like Trump’s portrait, the painting serves the
viewer not much else other than a grandiose illusion.
The painting commemorates the French victory over
the Austrians in a military campaign in the Alps, and
shows the French general already in a triumphal
pose while crossing the mountains. However the
reality is much different, as Napoleon wasn’t even
there to lead the troops over the Alps, following them
a couple of days later, on a different path and riding
on the back of a mule. Moreover, the French general
offered almost no support at all to the painter,
refusing to pose for David, who was forced to use for
reference an old portrait of Napoleon in his younger
years and resort to his own young son dressed in a
uniform as the sitter for the portrait. This explains the
youthful anatomy of the figure (B. Pollitt, 2016).
Knowing the above is it easy to understand why
Gillray’s illustration treats Napoleon as this miniature
figure that overflows with anxieties and irrational
outbursts of frustration in the most comic and exaggerated
manner. It is a tool for combating
the equally exaggerated French propaganda.
Not only they both operate towards a similar goal,
but we can even observe similarities of style between
Blitt’s and Gillray’s pieces.
Let’s start by looking closer to The Plump Pudding
in Danger (publicised on 26 February 1805), one of
Gillray’s most significant illustrations.
Notably, Napoleon himself said that Nobody knows
if the portraits of the great men resemble them, it is
enough that their genius lives there, highlighting how
likeness was of little importance in presenting an
important official persona to the public (M. D. Zarzeczny,
2013, p. 121).
The theme of the illustration is clearly political critique
targeting the predatory race between France
and Britain in order to gain power, influence and to
dominate one another in the period of the Napoleonic
Wars.
26.

The primary focus of the scene is on the two characters:
William Pitt, Britain’s prime minister at the
time, sitting on the left side and Napoleon Bonaparte
sitting on the right side of the same dinner table,
facing each other.
Both of them are gluttonously slicing into a steaming
plum pudding that resembles a globe with the map
of the world depicted on it. - This action is the actual
critique and comedic moment of the illustration. It
shows how two of the most powerful states at the
time are willing to ruthlessly divide the world just
between the two of them, in an activity filled with so
much greed and lust (suggested by their intense
gaze and rosy cheeks) that only by comparing it to
an immense craving for a sweet and mouth-watery
desert can truly do it justice.
Beside the primary focus and action of the scene
there can also be observed additional themes and
symbols that are meant to stimulate the viewer into
reading more into the illustration. For example, Pitt
not only takes the Ocean, but he does that using a
fork that clearly resemblances a trident (the trident
being the symbol of the Greek god Poseidon, who’s
ruling domain was the aquatic realm).
Consequently, Napoleon carves out a piece of land
that is marked as Europe. Analyzing in more detail,
it can be observed that Pitt’s slice is stretching from
the Pole to the Equator, further West of Britain, in
accordance with the requirement of the West Indies.
So can be said about Napoleon’s territorial accuracy,
as his portion encapsulates Europe but omits Russia
and Sweden. For this reason it can be considered
that the division is a direct description of the situation
of the two nations and the advantages and difficulties
they faced: Britain was a great naval power and was
accomplishing much by sea, but made little progress
on land while the French had a great army that was
progressing on land but lacked the advantage at sea.
An additional element of humor is expressed by the
fact that even though both have richly decorated gold
plates in front of them, those are still empty as they
struggle to cut themselves a piece of the pie.
Moreover, it can be observed the way Napoleon is
struggling to remain seated on his chair because of
his modest height while Pitt’s knees are way higher
than they should be – this small humorous detail
gives way to the interpretation that the table they
are seated at is not appropriate for neither of them,
which in turn is an acidic commentary of the sense of
entitlement and merit the two nations have over the
division of the world.
More visual clues can be observed on a third level of
focus. These can be exemplified by the symbols on
each of the characters’ chairs – Britain has a lion, as
it is a heraldic symbol of British pride while France
has an eagle, a symbol of imperialism and expansion
- and in the complementary chromatic of the two
characters: Pitt is wearing red while seating on a blue
chair while Napoleon is wearing blue while seated on
a red chair. The choice of color could reflect the idea
stated previously that while one nation exceeds in
sea-domination the other one compensates in land
expansion and vice-versa, while it also serves as a
technical element for balancing the composition.
The composition is symmetrically centered on the
pie, with both sides around the main focal point similar
in proportion and color balance. In consequence,
this drives the viewer’s eye on the action while delivering
a pleasing aesthetic.
The technique used is hand-colored printed etching.
27.

Fig. 9 James Gillray(1805) The Plumb Pudding in Danger
28.

Fig. 10 Jacques-Louis David (1801) Napoleon Crossing
the Saint-Bernard Pass
29.

In the case of Barry Blitt’s illustrations matters are
similar, although on a more stripped down degree of
symbolism and detail, due to adjustments to modern
culture.
We have already established the political context of
his cover for the 23 of January 2016 issue of The
New Yorker.
His technique, although quite different of Gillray’s
print-based etching, retains the same characteristics
using fine lines in pen and adding watercolor.
His style is loose and yet precise at the same time,
being able to keep facial distinctions of the portrayed
people while still making good use of caricature.
Blitt himself says in an interview about the said
artwork that:
Blitt’s approach to take a dominant political figure
and distorting it to miniature scale and foolish actions
are comparable with the way Gillray treats Napoleon
and it proves to be a successful procedure of undermining
authority and fear.
The main visual focus of the artwork is Donald Trump
- more exactly his face.
Blitt makes good use of one of caricature’s strongest
points: body deformity, while keeping his head more
proportionate and true to appearance.
This method transforms the character to a comical
Lilliputian state, while his gaze forward and serious
frown gives away the impression that he is unaware
of his scale and takes himself very seriously (reminiscent
of the way Lord Henry Petty is acting in
Making-Descent).
every so often, you hear stories on the news
about a toddler who somehow manages to start
the family car and drive the vehicle across
town, where the law finally apprehends him—
and it’s almost always a him—before too much
damage has taken place
(F. Mouly, 2017)
His commentary is in itself a most evident form of
satire, comparing Donald Trump with a clueless toddler
who stumbled upon a situation that is too much
for him to handle. This particular idea is made clear
in the illustration as well, though he places Trump
in an even more ridiculously toy car, being closely
supervised by his bodyguards.
This displays an even deeper feeling of incompetence
and self-indulgence that results in a humorous
scene.
Additional themes can be observed in this illustration
as well. For instance, the overuse of the American
flag (four flags and a small eagle emblem on the car
and a large scaled symbol of the same American
eagle on the frame of the machine) does exactly the
opposite of what this symbol is supposed to deliver:
confidence, national identity and status. Blitt, however,
by exaggerating its use achieves to strip it of all
original meaning and makes it feel like it’s trying very
hard while failing to convince.
He’s using the idea of façade, as the 18th century illustrators
did before him, to pinpoint ideological flaws
and political hypocrisy. In this case the symbol that is
the image of democracy and liberty is being cramped
in the context of a political figure that rose to power
on disrupting the very basis of these concepts, while
still proclaiming to make America great again.
The car can also be interpreted as a visual metaphor
for the United States of America as a nation, being
steered to nowhere by someone who lives under the
illusion that he’s really driving. In this context, the fan
30.

made comment about the meter next to the machine
stated previously begins to take on a different,
multi-faceted form.
From a compositional point of view, the whole scene
is orbiting around Trump’s action with the main focal
point on his head, being balanced from both sides by
his security service.
This is a simple solution to any composition, but
when it’s used for a publication cover it works very
well by capturing the viewer’s attention on the main
subject.
If we imagine seeing this particular cover in a
newspaper stand, next to a multitude of others, the
chances are it will stand out.
There are several cases when Blitt took inspiration
from iconic works of illustration and reinterpreted
them in order to convey and deliver a different message
than the originals.
These might be considered a more direct approach
at appropriating new meaning to well known imagery
and use the original significance as a base for a new
layer of content and understanding.
As Joyce K. Schiller so eloquently explains this
process:
Image appropriation is an old and even respected
activity, especially in the world of illustration art,
where sometimes choosing to communicate by
reusing a previous image is itself innovation. It
takes a clever illustrator to modify an earlier
image into something compelling for a new
audience.
(J.K. Schiller, 2013)
One of the most compelling exemplifications of how
this method works is demonstrated by Blitt’s cover
illustration for The Media Issue of 2010 (fig.11).
Undoubtedly, the original piece that Blitt crafted this
work after is Norman Rockwell’s Freedom From
Want, made for The Saturday Evening Post’s issue
in 1943 (fig. 12).
The simple fact that he chose to reference one of
Rockwell’s artworks, who’s entire career was based
on producing beautiful and carefully crafted works of
propaganda showing the cliseeic and stereotypically
white nuclear family type of working-class American
Dream, is in itself a method of satirical criticism.
However, the element that drives this entire illustration’s
context, humour and readability is the way Blitt
paired the artwork with the typography on the cover.
Subsequently, reading Advertising Age -The Media
Issue while looking at a slightly modified version of
an iconic piece of imagery originally named Freedom
from Want creates exquisite paradoxical semiotics
that even on their own are enough to drive the idea
home.
Further additions like the exchange of the food motif
with digital screens and technology make the message
even more poignant.
Together they make a commentary on how desirable
technology really is, seemingly so important that is
served as dinner – it feeds the appetite the modern
society has for validation (as it can be observed that
a number of characters are using social media), for
status (as the Apple logo can be distinguished clearly
of some of the devices), for news and for information.
This combination of symbols only shows how far the
characters are from actually being free from want.
Two details however stand out.
One of them is how the character that is least concerned
with decorum, online sharing or even smiling
is the man who reads The New Yorker (he can be
observed holding the most recognizable cover of
the publication, making witty use of iconic imagery
within iconic imagery), and the second detail is the
31.

Fig. 11 Barry Blitt (2010) The Media Issue
32.

Fig. 12 Norman Rockwell (1943) Freedom From Want
33.

solitary book on the shelf in the background. The fact
that the rest of the shelf is completely empty with the
exception of a single old-fashioned book might be
considered a commentary on how the use of print
decreased and was overthrown by digital technology.
On the other hand, the magazine and the book
provide a sort of bittersweet sense of hope and resilience
of the print format in the face of ever growing
expansion of technological advances.
Considering the photographic medium was firstly
explored in the 19th century, Gillray could not make
use of this technique of appropriating imagery at a
comparable level, although there are plenty examples
that might be considered evidence of an earlier
form of the same concept (M. W. Marien, 2006, page
14).
As previously stated, appropriating widely recognizable
attributes and symbols with new interpretations
can be treated as a precursor for how this type of
method developed.
On a different note, the freedom of expression of
both of them is threatened by a looming authoritarian
and expansionist shadow.
In Gillray’s case that shadow is France’s conquest of
Europe that was directed at Britain and it’s attempts
of supressing his satirical prints of Napoleon. In
a similar manner, Blitt’s freedom as an agent of
the media is currently under threat by the growing
presence of conservationist and anti-elitist discourse
spreading across the world and Trump’s controversial
attempts to delegitimise the credibility of the
press (C. Thomas, 2017).
As Blitt is being confronted with issues of the same
sort, it is not surprising that he might have taken
inspiration from one of the greatest satirical artists
of the past that had to deal with a situation close in
nature.
As we analysed both James Gillray’s
work and Barry Blitt’s from a visual
point of view, it would be difficult not to
take into consideration the scenery and
context of the cities they were operating
in.
London in Gillray’s time was a rapidly growing metropolis,
with increasing numbers of population and
thriving economy as a consequence of the Industrial
Revolution.
By comparison, 21st century New York is in many
ways similar, on a much larger scale.
Both are cities where at the time of each artist’s publications
there is a growing phenomenon of debating
ideas and increasing freedom of speech that facilitated
them to activate within the spectrum of satire.
34.

Conclusion
The portrayals of satire and caricature that survived
across the centuries as affirmations of the events and
issues of their time gained the power to sculpt today’s
retrospective look of those times and shape an
interesting phenomenon, most likely by accident.
For example, the majority of people today are
perfectly convinced that Napoleon was a short man.
Nonetheless this is not true, as the Frenchman had
about 5’7”, which made him taller than the average
man of his time. However, as strange that might
seem, Napoleon’s small height has entered popular
belief as a result of James Gillray’s depictions of him.
As the French general despised being mocked at all
cost, the British cartoonist found a way to ridicule him
by depicting him short (in artistic terms that could’ve
been just a metaphor for something else entirely).
Another interpretation of this was that in the 18th
century France and Britain used different
measurements units and by British standards, the
Frenchman’s reported height sounded like very little
(T. Hopper, 2016).
Whatever the initial reason might have been, although
today historians have debunked the myth of
Napoleon’s height, his tiny figure is so well rooted in
popular culture that many people still consider that to
be true.
As a result of Gillray’s grand influence at the time,
other artists took up his model of portraying Napoleon
and so the myth persisted and spread.
By 1956, tiny Napoleons could be seen in commercials,
Bugs Bunny episodes and a range of other
depictions. In 1970 he and his small stature starred in
cartoons and films. In 2000’s televisions series Jack
of All Trades his character was played by a 2’8” actor
(T. Hopper, 2016).
It will be interesting to see how Blitt’s, along with today’s
media and other cartoonist’s portrayals of
Donald Trump and other political figures will shape the
way the current U.S. administration will be
remembered in a few decades or perhaps centuries.
Together with the responsibility of acting like moral
compass granted by the public, the First Amendment
of The United States of America’s Constitution grants
protection to satire and comedy, shielding them and
their authors from charges of defamation or harassment
(The First Amendment Centre, 2002). By this, the
power satire holds in the hands of the general public
and its power to educate, challenge and operate are a
real responsibility, acknowledged by law.
Historian, activist and political science figure Noam
Chomsky makes a powerful statement on this topic
with a fragment extracted from one of his talks on anticensorship.
While talking about the prolonged
oppression societies endured under totalitarian and
monarchic rule he added:
But then people just starting making
fun of them. It’s a very thin structure.
As soon as you submit it to ridicule or
you dismiss it, it can collapse. And this
has been understood for centuries
(N. Chomski, 2017).
He is making a strong case in the favour of satire as a
critical instrument that shapes and balances the
equity of the public versus government. Chomski is
also reminding his audience of the history satire has
and how the birth of it marked a crucial turnover in the
name of progress, critical thinking and freedom.
Publications like The New Yorker continue to honour
the legacy of the first artists who had the courage to
expose the folly of the powerful few and take upon
themselves the responsibility of truth and morality
while inciting smiles and laughter.
35.

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