JPI Spring 2018

holiest shrine” 4 . Is an attack not considered a terrorist act if it is directed at a certain target or place?
Many would argue that attacks directed at a specific place should be considered acts of terrorism.
However, the fact that attacks on targeted places are usually not revealed to the affected individuals
beforehand, would still qualify them as random with respect to the attacked.
This argument for targets specified by the acting agent also being random violence also leads
to the justification of seemingly random acts of violence as a criterion. Even though this criterion
doesn’t account for variations, it certainly accounts for one crucial characteristic of terrorism: instilling
fear. According to Keeley, the main psychological aim of terrorists is to instill fear amongst a broad
audience; “thus the most effective means are indiscriminate attacks against civilians, which can break
down confidence in the state’s ability to provide security” 5 . The randomness of an attack is directly
related to the level of insecurity caused within the attacked society. The positive relationship between
randomness and insecurity validates the criterion of seemingly random violence regardless of different
criticisms.
“Sub-state actors”
This particular component of our working definition of terrorism implies the exclusion of
state terrorism, which will be explored in greater detail below. However, the inclusion of sub-state
actors in our definition also limits the definition of terrorism to a territorially defined group that acts
to achieve goals related to the region it acts within. Such a limitation implies the exclusion of nonstate
actors as terrorists. These non-state actors are often concentrated in a specific region but do not
recognize the accepted structure of nation-states and therefore seek goals independent of nation-state
structures - the establishment of an Islamic caliphate serves as an ideal example. Though Al-Qaeda is
commonly considered a non-state actor - it is defined as a terrorist group. However, a definition based
on one of the criterion of the definition qualifies the group as a terrorist organization. Therefore, this
criterion lacks valuable legitimacy for a general definition of terrorism.
Targets as “non-combatants”
While the targeting of “non-combatants” is generally qualified as a necessary condition for a
terrorist act (as the targeting of “non-combatants” refers to the necessary distinction of terrorist acts
from other violent acts), there are two difficulties inherent to it: the general definition of noncombatants
and the agenda of the agents defining it. Firstly, we must deal with issues of clarity and
terms of inclusion relating to “non-combatants.” In other words, who falls into the category of a
“non-combatant?” Is a combatant necessarily physically involved in any kind of combat or does mere
political involvement suffice? Civilians are excluded from the status of “combatant” due to their
general acceptance of the rules, norms, and both foreign and national policies of their country of
residence. Further complexities arise when political decision-makers are considered. What are we to
make of political decision-makers that are responsible for ordering—but not directly executing—
various killings through foreign interventions or wars? If such political decision-makers are considered
“non-combatants,” then Saddam Hussein would be considered a “non-combatant”; Hussein himself
did not directly engage in terrorist activities during his reign, though he did support them. In the
opposite scenario, if such political decision-makers are considered “combatants,” then further issues
arise. For example, the assassinations of President McKinley and President Kennedy, respectively,
would qualify as acts of terrorism— simple acts of violence—within a political struggle as both
presidents’ political positions and actions would qualify them as combatants.
4
Hoffman, B. (2015). A First Draft of the History of America’s Ongoing War on Terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism.
5
Keeley, R. V. Trying to define terrorism. Middle East Policy.
JPI Fall 2017, pg. 5