Decarburization Efficiency in EAF With Hot Metal ... - Steel Library

Decarburization Efficiency in EAF With 

Hot Metal Charge 

Among the available tools for 

liquid steel melting, the electric 

arc furnace (EAF) demonstrates 

the highest flexibility with respect 

to the selection of charge materials. 

This particular feature of the 

EAF allows for the selection of the 

charge mix that is least dependent 

on the level of the market 

price fluctuations. The feasibility 

of using steel scrap, direct reduced 

iron (DRI), hot briquetted iron 

(HBI) and hot metal in a wide 

0–100% range has already been 

confirmed by a large number of 

reference installations. 

The addition of hot metal into 

EAF charge is popular in areas 

where shortage of scrap and/or 

electric power is observed. Recently, 

a new trend has appeared on the 

market showing a growing number 

of steel plants using both BOF and 

EAF steelmaking routes. The EAF 

can utilize the excess production 

of hot metal from blast furnaces. 

Besides, EAF allows for a boost in 

steel production in case the quantity 

of hot metal is insufficient to run 

the BOF process at full scale, with 

a minimum of 80% of hot metal 

being required for a single charge. 

Much lower investment requirements 

and reduced environmental 

impact of EAF-based production 

Table 1 

Design and Process Issues for EAF With Hot Metal Charge 

are a clear advantage, already being 

an alternative to the traditional 

BOF steelmaking route. 1 Last but 

not least, the use of hot metal 

ensures a low level of residual elements 

and allows an EAF to be used 

in the production of steel grades 

which traditionally were reserved 

for integrated steelmakers. 

The use of hot metal significantly 

decreases the demand for electrical 

energy; 2 however, an increased carbon 

content in the charge may result 

in additional process time required 

for oxygen injection. Furthermore, 

due to elevated contents of silicon 

and phosphorus, lime consumption 

is typically double the consumption 

in a 100% scrap operation. 

Recent developments proved that 

EAF with hot metal charge can 

operate with very short tap-to-tap 

times, reaching productivity that is 

comparable to the BOF process. To 

reach this goal, the design and process 

management of the EAF working 

with hot metal charge require 

particular attention. The main 

issues are highlighted in Table 1. 

Hot Metal Charging Into the 

Furnace 

In order to utilize the advantage of 

hot metal temperature, its charging 

into the furnace should be done 

Hot metal charging Safe, reliable and fully controllable 

EAF shell volume Single bucket charge with 65% scrap 

Liquid bath surface Increased for higher decarburization rates 

Oxygen injection High specific flowrates 

Process management Independent control of each injector 

Abstract 

This paper presents furnace 

configuration, hot metal charging 

techniques and oxygen injection 

practices. Performance results 

related to various charge mixes 

are discussed. 

Authors 

Riccardo Gottardi 

managing director, business unit steelmaking, 

SMS Concast AG, Zurich, Switzerland 

info@sms-concast.ch 

Stefano Miani 

technical director, SMS Concast Italia SpA, 

Udine, Italy 

Adam Partyka 

senior process metallurgist, SMS Concast Italia SpA, 

Udine, Italy 

Maurizio Suber 

commissioning engineer, business unit steelmaking, 

SMS Concast Italia SpA, Udine, Italy 

info@concast.it 

AIST.org January 2012 ✦ 61

Figure 1 

Schematic of ways of feeding hot metal into the furnace. 

with a closed roof. Usually steel plant logistics and 

layout limitations do not allow the freedom to select 

the place where hot metal ladles are delivered to the 

meltshop, i.e., on the charging or tapping side of the 

furnace. The furnace design itself imposes additional 

limitations. Position of the transformer, offgas exhaust, 

material handling system, etc., seriously limit the available 

space where a hot metal runner can be inserted 

into the furnace shell. The actual charging method and 

hot metal runner positioning are a compromise among 

various considerations. 3 

The runner inserted through the slag door must be 

movable (by means of a dedicated hot metal charging 

car). In other positions, the runner can be fixed 

on either the furnace shell or on a charging car or 

manipulator. 

The most serious disadvantage of charging through 

the slag door is that pouring of hot metal is done 

against the flow of slag. In some cases, this can result 

in poor phosphorus removal from the liquid bath. The 

runner has to be moved into charging position before 

scrap loading to avoid scrap building up on the sill level. 

Sidewall position of the runner can be very problematic 

in case of possible hot metal overflow. At that 

particular location, it is difficult to collect spilled metal. 

Furthermore, hot metal overflow from the runner creates 

a risk for all piping installed in neighboring areas. 

The runner located on the EBT balcony seems to be 

the most advantageous. Thanks to limited scrap presence 

in that area, charging of hot metal can be started 

very early. In case of overflow, spilled hot metal can be 

collected in the tapping pit below the furnace. 

Hot metal charging operation requires great 

care, since contact with highly oxidized furnace 

slag or cold scrap can result in violent 

reactions. The same usually happens if large 

carbon-concentration gradients develop in the 

liquid bath during the superheating phase. 

Loss of control during hot metal charging will 

result in overflow of slag and steel from the 

furnace; however, in extreme cases, damage to 

the electrode arms can also be observed during 

violent eruptions in the furnace. 

Summarizing the issue of trouble-free charging 

of hot metal into the furnace, the following 

preferences have been defined: 

• Hot metal pouring should be carried 

out with power on to avoid productivity 

losses. 

• Tilting of the hot metal ladle should not 

involve a crane. 

• Hot metal ladle tilting control should be 

precise enough to ensure stable pouring 

rates. 

• Hot metal runner length should be as 

short as possible to avoid freezing of hot 

metal. 

• The runner should be preheated 

between pouring operations. 

Customized EAF for Operation With Hot Metal 

In November 2007, Concast commissioned a new furnace 

at Zhangjiagang Hongchang Wire Rod Co. (ZHW), 

belonging to Shagang Group in Jiangsu Province, P.R. 

China. This furnace, designed for tap-to-tap times of 

less than 35 minutes, is the heart of a new production 

line including LF, VD and 6-strand billet caster with an 

annual output of 1.1 million tons of SBQ steels for the 

expanding automotive industry in China. 4 

In 2009–2010, two other furnaces with hot metal 

charge were supplied to Tianjin Iron & Steel Group, 

P.R. China, where they are a part of 2.2 million tpy 

mini-mill equipped with two ladle furnaces, one twin- 

VD station, bloom and billet caster. Another two EAFs 

for customers in China are in the engineering phase. 

The furnaces of Shagang and Tianjin are almost 

identical; the main difference between them is related 

to the hot metal charging method. The Shagang EAF 

is fed with hot metal from the EBT balcony, while both 

Tianjin furnaces have been equipped with charging 

cars with refractory-lined spouts which are inserted 

through the slag door. 

The main data of the Shagang and Tianjin furnaces 

are shown in Table 2. 

Shagang Group runs several meltshops equipped 

both with BOF and EAF units and has gained solid 

experience of using hot metal in the EAF process. The 

design solutions adopted for that furnace have been 

intensively tested in practice. This particularly relates to 

the hot metal charging system. Although the EAF was 

originally designed for 30–40% hot metal utilization, 

Shagang already tested operation with up to 70% hot 

62 ✦ Iron & Steel Technology A Publication of the Association for Iron & Steel Technology

Table 2 

Data for the Shagang and Tianjin EAFs 

EAF type AC, full platform 

Average tap weight 110 tons 

Hot heel 15–30 tons 

Shell diameter 6,500 mm 

Shell volume 130 m 3 

Flat bath area 27 m 2 

Transformer rate power 80 MVA + 20% 

Electrodes 610 mm 

Burners 6 x 6 MW (6 x 610 Nm 3 /hour natural gas) 

Supersonic oxygen 6 x 2,500 Nm 3 /hour 

Carbon injection 3 x 50 kg/minute 

metal without a significant decrease of the designed 

productivity. 

For Tianjin, EAF technology is a new challenge. 

However, through an extensive exchange with other 

Chinese steelmakers also working with hot metal, a 

background for thorough testing of the delivered EAF 

flexibility and capability has been created there. 

Shagang EAF Operations 

The EAF has been equipped with a dedicated system for 

hot metal charging from the tapping side. 

The hot metal ladle is placed on a tilting stand. 

The tilter has its own runner with a buffer container, 

improving flow control. During hot metal pouring, the 

tilter is rotated by 90° above the EBT balcony, where it 

meets another short runner permanently attached to 

the furnace shell. 

Hydraulic tilting of the hot metal ladle is fairly precise. 

For reference, the whole pouring operation for 

an EAF charge configuration with 35% (40 tons) hot 

metal can be completed within 3–4 minutes, as hot 

metal can be charged safely with average rates of 7–10 

t/minute. 

A very efficient dephosphorization, thanks to a lime 

discharge point above the hot metal pool and extended 

reaction time between hot metal and highly basic slag, 

has proved to be an additional benefit of hot metal 

pouring from the EBT side. 

The furnace shell volume permits the use of a 

single-bucket scrap charging practice if the minimum 

hot metal share is above 30%. Except for at least 15% 

reduction of the power-off time, single-bucket charging 

practice allows also for the utilization of heat generated 

through hot metal decarburization and post-combustion 

of carbon monoxide for a very efficient preheating 

of a scrap column inside the shell. 5 

The key issue of the furnace is its decarburization 

capacity. High carbon content in the charge may 

require additional time for decarburization. EAFs cannot 

utilize the oxygen injection rates typical for BOF 

practice. According to literature data, a hot metal share 

of 40% has been considered as a maximum limit, above 

which the EAF productivity is reduced due to insufficient 

oxygen injection capacity. 6 The existing oxygen 

injection limits are usually related to problems with 

extensive splashing phenomena, backfire, electrode 

consumption increase and erosion of refractory lining, 

as well as reduced life of roof panels and refractory 

delta centerpiece. 

The Shagang EAF has been equipped with CONSOtype 

combined injectors, allowing operation with up 

to 15,000 Nm 3 /hour of oxygen flow in supersonic 

injection mode. The CONSO injectors are proprietary 

SMS Concast design, and their effective performances 

have been demonstrated on more than 50 EAFs. The 

CONSO system is also a platform of an intensively 

developed chemical energy package called ultrahigh 

chemical power (UHCP) EAF, for which the power of 

installed burners equals 40% of effectively used electrical 

power. 7 Before Shagang, the high decarburization 

capacity of the CONSO system was verified in practice 

on a furnace operating with up to 35% pig iron in the 

charge. 

In total, six CONSO units have been installed on the 

furnace. Their distribution on the shell perimeter has 

been decided, with the aim to reach perfect thermal 

equilibration of the furnace volume, elimination of the 

cold spots and enhancement of the metallurgical reactions 

by intensive bath stirring and homogenization. 

Each injector can use up to 600 Nm 3 /hour of natural 

gas and 1,250 Nm 3 /hour of oxygen in burner mode. 

The lance, which is supplied from a separate oxygen 

line, can operate with 800–1,300 Nm 3 /hour in subsonic 

injection mode and 1,700–2,500 Nm 3 /hour of oxygen 

in supersonic injection mode. 

Injectors 3, 5 and 6 are coupled with carbon injection 

tuyeres, allowing the precise injection of carbon into 

the oxygen jet. Except for slag foaming purposes, early 

carbon injection is needed for process safety aspects. 

Equilibration of FeO content in slag prevents the occurrence 

of carbon and oxygen gradients inside the liquid 

bath volume. 

After scrap charging, all injectors are switched to 

a low-power preheating burner flame with a gradual 

increase of the power in the burner-cutting mode. 

Pouring of hot metal is usually initiated within the first 

minute of power-on. For a short time, injectors 3, 4 and 

5 are used very intensively to melt scrap remaining in 

the hot metal discharge area. At the same time, the 


Figure 2 

Pouring of hot metal through the EBT balcony runner. 

injectors on both sides of the slag door are still kept in 

lower-power burner mode to preheat bigger scrap quantities 

deposited there. 

With about half of the hot metal being already 

charged, the supersonic oxygen lancing starts — initially 

using injectors 2, 3, 4 and 5. At that time, injectors 

1 and 6 are operated with full burner power, followed 

by subsonic oxygen flow for the delivery of oxygen for 

post-combustion of large volumes of carbon monoxide 

generated during the reaction of hot metal. 

After completion, silicon oxidation and liquid bath 

temperature increase, and all injectors are switched to 

supersonic lance operation. About 3 minutes before 

tapping, temperature and oxygen activity in the liquid 

bath are measured. Depending on the actual carbon 

content, the oxygen flow can then be reduced or 

increased to obtain the target value at tapping. 

The electrical power input program is fully integrated 

with the operation of the CONSO injectors in 

the profile executed by the EAF automation. The same 

applies to the carbon injection system. Usually two carbon 

injections are in operation, while the third one is 

kept in standby mode. Slag control system (SCAD) is 

further used to modify injection carbon flow set points 

in function of the actual coverage of the electric arcs. 

Tianjin EAF Operations 

The practice of pouring hot metal through the slag 

door is the principal difference between the Shagang 

and the Tianjin furnaces. Due to layout limitations, 

the EAF charging bay was the only available hot metal 

delivery point, so slag door charging had to be selected 

as a compromise. 

The hot metal ladle is loaded onto a car equipped 

with onboard hydraulic station powering hot metal 

ladle tilting frame movements. Hot metal is poured into 

a flow-control buffer container with a fixed outlet diameter, 

which ensures uniform flow of hot metal into the 

runner. The runner is lined with a typical iron throughrammed 

refractory material and can be exchanged 

completely in case of excessive wear. 

The hot metal ladle is placed on a charging car during 

furnace turnover, so the spout enters the slag door 

tunnel before scrap bucket charging, thus avoiding 

problems with a possible scrap presence inside. Behind 

the slag door sill, an impact pad is made to avoid EAF 

refractory erosion caused by hot metal flow. 

As soon as the EAF roof is closed after scrap charging, 

the hot metal can be tilted. The average pouring 

rates are 5–8 t/minute and may be slightly reduced in 

cased of intensive reactions between the hot metal and 

highly oxidized slag and low-carbon-containing metal 

of the hot heel. 

For safety reasons, oxygen lancing is not used during 

hot metal charging. Consequently, the decarburization 

of the liquid bath has to be delayed. This is the 

most significant disadvantage when compared with the 

Shagang furnace and hot metal charging practice from 

the EBT side. 

Both Tianjin furnaces have also been equipped with 

six CONSO injectors of similar size, i.e., 6 MW in burner 

mode and 2,500 Nm 3 /hour of oxygen in supersonic 

injection mode. 

The location of individual injectors has been optimized 

for the simulated advancement of melting process. 

The injectors located in the scrap melting area are 


more intensively used as full-power burners, while those 

close to the hot metal pool are switched to lancing 

mode immediately after charging car withdrawal into 

the parking position. Injector No. 6 helps to melt scrap 

accumulated above the hot metal spout, after which it 

delivers oxygen for CO post-combustion. 

Execution of the melting program is fully automatic. 

Several programs are available for different percentages 

of hot metal in the charge. 

Figure 4 

Figure 3 

CONSO injectors layout and melting zone distribution. 

Hot metal charging with slag door spout. 

More or less in the middle of the superheating phase, 

the first steel sampling and temperature measurement 

are done. Depending on the result, the remaining programmed 

oxygen volume is updated to ensure targets 

at tapping. Such practice is very similar to in-blow sampling 

in the BOF process. In case of excess steel bath 

temperature, additional lime is charged through the 

fifth hole to cool down the bath, preventing phosphorus 

reversion from slag. 


Comparison of the performance results of the 

Shagang and Tianjin furnaces clearly indicates that the 

hot metal charging method has rather significant influence. 

Slag door charging is a less favorable solution, 

mostly due to the uneven mixing pattern of the liquid 

bath in the furnace, reduced reaction area and lower 

efficiency of the available chemical energy utilization. 

For the same share of hot metal in the charge, the 

specific energy consumption is about 20 kWh/ton 

higher, with a 2-minute power-on time increase and 

consequent loss of productivity. 

Figure 6 

Figure 5 

CONSO injectors layout and melting zone distribution (Tianjin EAF No. 2). 

CONSO injector profiles during melting (a) and superheating (b) phases (40% hot metal). 

Evaluation of Decarburization Efficiency 

The furnaces presented in this paper were originally 

designed for a reference charge configuration with a 

maximum 40% hot metal. 

The average decarburization rates of 0.12% C/minute 

were calculated to be achieved with average specific 

oxygen injection rates of 300 Nm 3 /hour/m 2 of liquid 

bath surface, corresponding to four CONSO lances 

operated at 2,000 Nm 3 /hour each. 

Considering that with 40% hot metal, the carbon 

content in the liquid bath is about 2% (1.7% C from hot 

metal and 0.3% C from scrap), the required continuous 

(a) (b) 


Figure 7 

In-blow sample carbon content (250 heats from commissioning 

phase) 

oxygen lancing time with the earlier defined decarburization 

rate should be about 16 minutes. Since 

the calculated average power-on time was 25 minutes, 

about 7 minutes were reserved for burner operation 

and oxygen injection at subsonic flowrates. According 

to melting process simulations, all heats could be 

completed without extra power-off time for additional 

decarburization. 

Decarburization rates achieved in practice proved 

to be better than the earlier assumed values. Figure 6 

shows the results of the in-blow carbon sampling from 

the early days of the Shagang EAF operation. In some 

cases, the results indicate slightly higher carbon values, 

which can be explained by inconsistency in the carbon 

and silicon contents in hot metal, which deviated the in/ 

out oxygen balance. Nevertheless, thanks to a correctly 

defined moment of sampling, sufficient time was always 

reserved for eventual oxygen blow pattern update with 

oxygen flowrate increase, if required. However, in most 

of the cases, the final phase of superheating was done 

with a reduced oxygen injection rate to avoid too-low 

carbon at tapping. 

The CONSO injection system operation fully confirmed 

expectations regarding high decarburization 

efficiency. It was also concluded that the capacity of the 

system can be further increased using higher supersonic 

oxygen flowrates. 

Facing shortage and inconsistency of scrap supplies, 

the EAF users were forced to increase the share of hot 

metal in the charge — initially to 50% and later even 

to 70%. New melting programs with higher specific 

oxygen flowrates were established for such occasions. 

Precise evaluation of the actual decarburization rates 

is an extremely difficult task for several reasons. Among 

them, the experienced variations in hot metal parameters, 

i.e., carbon, silicon and manganese contents, as 

well as its temperature at the moment of pouring into 

the EAF, play a key role. Diversified hot metal deliveries 

from different blast furnaces additionally increased the 

deviation range of the starting conditions. 

In view of that, the following evaluation procedure 

was adopted: 

• Starting carbon content was calculated based on 

the composition of furnace charge components. 

Figure 8 

Decarburization results. 

• Start of decarburization time was identified as the 

moment when intense flames were seen (spontaneous 

carbon “ignition”). 

• Decarburization time was counted until the time 

of the first sampling, when end carbon value was 

analyzed. 

• Actual decarburization rates were calculated from 

carbon content difference and recorded time. 

Figure 8 shows the results from about 1,300 heats 

produced with variable hot metal share in the charge. 

Available results demonstrate the fact that — except 

for earlier identified factors — the actual decarburization 

rates also depend on the initial carbon content in 

the liquid bath. Some analogies to the decarburization 

reaction in VOD or AOD processes can be noted at this 

point. 

Interdependence between carbon content and decarburization 

intensity is a precious observation which 

can be used for setting up the process conditions for a 

high share of hot metal in the furnace charge. It can 

be assumed that the decarburization rate can be very 

high, providing that sufficient oxygen injection density 

is ensured. 

For higher carbon contents in the charge, the deviation 

of the actual decarburization rates is limited. This 

can be explained easily by the fact that available oxygen 

Figure 9 

Decarburization rates by sample-to-sample method. 


injectors had to be always operated at maximum available 

capacity. In case of lower charge carbon contents 

(20–40% hot metal), the deviations are more significant. 

It is believed that the deviations were caused by 

inconsistent process conditions, among them manual 

control of power and chemical energy input, as well 

as incorrect identification of decarburization reaction 

launch. 

The decarburization reaction efficiency was also evaluated 

using an alternative method, based on sampleto-sample 

carbon content difference and elapsed time 

between the samples. This method could not be used 

for higher carbon contents. 

The first sample used to be taken when more or less 

flat bath conditions were identified, i.e., when the progress 

of decarburization reaction reached 60% or more 

for charges with 35–40% hot metal. The second sample 

was usually taken close to the superheating end. 

Although the accuracy of carbon content evaluation 

in the first sample can be questionable, the obtained 

results (Figure 9) are very interesting. Similarly, as in 

the previous case, the relation between carbon content 

in the liquid bath and the actual decarburization rate 

is rather clear. Moreover, the trendline for all available 

results is almost identical to the one indicated in 

Figure 8. 

The decarburization rates estimated by the second 

method are higher than in the first case. This can 

probably be explained by too-high carbon content 

analyzed in the initial samples, which were not fully 

representative of the whole volume of the liquid bath 

in the furnace. 

Performance Data 

All three furnaces presented in this paper are almost 

identical from the design point of view. The difference 

between adopted hot metal charging practice has 

been considered less significant for such performance 

indexes as specific energy consumption, lance oxygen 

consumption and productivity. Therefore, the available 

performance data have been evaluated jointly. 

Figure 11 

Specific lance oxygen consumption. 

Figure 10 

Specific energy consumption results (to liquid steel). 

The specific electrical energy consumption results 

are shown in Figure 10. 

For the most frequent charge configuration of 

30–40% hot metal, the energy consumption is 220–180 

kWh/ton, respectively. With 70% hot metal, it is practically 

“zero consumption.” For this charge configuration, 

practically observed, very limited energy was consumed 

in the initial part of the heat or before tapping for the 

fine adjustment of required tap temperature. 

The lance oxygen consumption results are shown in 

Figure 11. The deviations observed on the graph are 

related to the fact that oxygen consumed for silicon 

oxidation could not be filtered out in a predictable way. 

Also, the earlier mentioned inconsistency in injection 

system operation with manual control is significant. 

Increase of the hot metal share in the furnace charge 

to 70% dramatically increases the oxygen consumption. 

The required oxygen volume in lance mode is about 

6,000 Nm 3 per heat. With six CONSO units operating 

at 2,500 Nm 3 /hour, lance oxygen injection can be 

completed in less than 25 minutes, with the average 

decarburization rates of 0.12–0.14% C/minute, which 

corresponds to the values practically observed during 

normal operation. 

Figure 12 

EAF productivity results. 


Evaluation of the EAF productivity leads to interesting 

conclusions as well. The graph in Figure 12 was plotted 

combining tap-to-tap time results (with unexpected 

delays filtered out for higher regularity) and tapped 

steel weights. 

The designed productivity of discussed furnaces was 

close to 200 t/hour for reference charges with 35% hot 

metal. Increase of hot metal share to 45% gives an additional 

productivity boost to the level of 210–215 t/hour. 

The most important observation is related to the fact 

that, even with a 55% share of hot metal in the charge, 

the original EAF design productivity can still be maintained. 

This conclusion is a breakthrough in view of the 

traditional opinions saying that the increase of the hot 

metal percentage in the EAF charge above 40% results 

in losses of the furnace productivity. 

Conclusions 

The operational results achieved by the Shagang and 

Tianjin furnaces clearly demonstrate that the EAF is an 

interesting alternative or supplement to BOF steelmaking 

shops. Short melting cycle and extremely high productivity 

can be guaranteed even with a high hot metal 

share in the charge above the traditional limits. 

Customized furnace design, an appropriate method 

for hot metal charging, and reliable and efficient oxygen 

injection technology, allowing for achievable high 

decarburization rates, form the base of success. 

Liquid steel production with hot metal allows for a 

wide range of steels with low levels of residual elements. 

In common with effective secondary refining and casting 

technologies, the new mini-mills have confirmed 

Shagang and Tianjin’s expectations concerning high 

process efficiency and high productivity combined with 

outstanding quality of end products. 

Nominate this paper 

Summary 

For many years, hot metal share in the EAF charge was 

limited to ensure maximum furnace output. Increase 

of hot metal quantity above 40% usually required additional 

process time to conclude decarburization of steel. 

Recently, in P.R. China, SMS Concast has commissioned 

furnaces working with mixed scrap and hot 

metal charges. The customers’ demands to increase 

hot metal share to 70% and above intensified studies 

on possible improvements of decarburization efficiency. 

References 

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Advantage?” La Metallurgia Italiana, Vol. 97, October 2005, p. 58. 

2. S. Köhle, “Recent Improvements in Modeling Energy 

Consumption of Electric Arc Furnace,” 7th European Electric 

Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, Venice, 2002, p. 1.305. 

3. R. Gottardi, S. Miani and A. Partyka, “The Hot Metal Meets 

the Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking Route,” 9th European Electric 

Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, Cracow, 2008. 

4. J. Liu, G. Bünemann, P. Rivetti and A. Partyka, “Single Bucket 

EAF With Hot Metal Charge,” 3rd International Steel Conference 

on New Developments in Metallurgical Process Technologies 

Proceedings, METEC 2007, Düsseldorf, p. 402. 

5. S. Laurenti, R. Gottardi, S. Miani and A. Partyka, “High 

Performance Single-Bucket Charging EAF Practice,” Ironmaking & 

Steelmaking, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2005, p. 195. 

6. X. Xiaohong, R. Xiaojiang, Z. Guowei, D. Xing, M. Grant and C. 

Tao, “High-Efficiency Production Practice of a 100 t DC EBT EAF at 

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Vol. 2, p. 246. ✦ 

Did you find this article to be of significant relevance to the advancement of steel technology? If so, please consider nominating it for the 

AIST Hunt-Kelly Outstanding Paper Award at AIST.org/huntkelly. 

This paper was presented at AISTech 2011 — The Iron & Steel Technology Conference and Exposition, Indianapolis, Ind., and published in the Conference Proceedings.

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