Boneset – Eupatorium perfoliatum L - Frostburg State University

APPALACHIAN PLANT MONOGRAPHS
Prepared by Tai Sophia Institute
For
Appalachian Center for Ethnobotanical Studies
September 2011
Eupatorium perfoliatum L.
Boneset
Chief Author and Editor: Andrew Pengelly PhD, AHG, FNHAA
Assistant Author: Kathleen Bennett
Editorial Team: James Snow AHG
Bevin Clare MS, AHG
Nora Zietz
Deborah Mizur
Lindsay Kluge
Mimi Hernandez
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Boneset – Eupatorium perfoliatum L.
1. Taxonomy
Eupatorium perfoliatum L.
Family: Asteraceae
Common names: boneset, ague-weed, crossword, feverwort, Indian sage, sweating weed,
thoroughwort, wild Isaac, tea-gel, vegetable antimony.
Synonyms: There are no commonly accepted synonyms for E. perfoliatum.
2. Botanical description and distribution
E. perfoliatum is an upright perennial growing to about four feet, with a stout stem
covered with long spreading hairs and branching at the summit. Leaves are opposite,
sessile and lanceolate in shape with acuminate tip, the opposite leaf pairs adjoining at
their bases and encircling the stem node („perfoliate‟). Flowers are born in capitula of 9-
23 white tubular florets arranged in terminal corymbs, the florets maturing to produce
dry, angular achenes (Gleason & Cronquist, 1991). E. perfoliatum is found in swamps
and damp areas, alluvial woods and pastures throughout the Appalachian region
(Krochmal, Walters & Doughty, 1969).
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Figure 1. Image from
A Textbook of Botany
and Pharmacognosy
by Henry Kraemer
1907. J.B. Lippencott,
Philadelphia.

Part Used
Dried flowering herb harvested in summer.
3. Traditional uses
Traditional uses in Appalachia
E. perfoliatum was among the many indigenous plants that Appalachian settlers learned
to use from the local Native Americans (Crellin & Philpott, 1989). By the 1800s, it had
become a favorite household herb and was used for a variety of conditions such as fevers,
colds, coughs, headaches, and rheumatism (Howell, 2006). A tea was also used for
consumption and as a laxative (Krochmal, Walters and Doughty, 1969). E. perfoliatum
remains a common remedy for promoting digestion and tonifying the gastrointestinal
system. In small doses it is said to soothe the tissues while larger doses promote an
emetic response useful in fevers and chronic illness. The whole plant is administered as a
strengthening tonic in low grade fevers, and as a hot infusion it is known to promote
diaphoresis. It has been particularly useful to the people of Southern Appalachia for
“sweating a cold out of the body” (Cavender, 2003, p. 84). No other herb seemed to rival
its effectiveness in dealing with fevers, with few or no ill side effects (Erichsen, 1979).
Traditional uses outside Appalachia
Native American
Most common uses of E. perfoliatum were for treatment of fevers and as a
gastrointestinal aid for pains in the stomach. The entire plant was used, with an infusion
of the leaves (and sometimes the whole plant) applied topically for headaches and fevers,
and as a poultice on broken bones. An infusion of leaves and flowers was taken for a
laxative effect. The smashed roots were said to cure typhoid conditions. Infusions of the
leaves were also employed for early stages of colds and fevers, kidney troubles, and for
“general debility” (Moerman, 1998). The Mesquakies used the root for snakebite and the
aerial parts for expulsion of worms (Kindscher, 1992).
Folklore & Home
A preparation of E. perfoliatum in any form (tea infusion or decoction or powder) was
used with “uniform success” in the treatment of intermittent fevers, in particular yellow
fever. It was also a popular home remedy for dyspepsia when drunk as a cold tea
throughout the day, while in the form of a warm infusion it acted as an emetic – it was
dose dependent in its response (Beach, 1851). Often, it was preferred in place of
chamomile as a tonic stimulant (Child, 1837). As a general tonic, it was employed with
aromatics in tinctures or powders (Gardner & Aylworth, 1836). An infusion was said to
be diaphoretic and was commonly drunk at the onset of fevers to promote sweating
(Child, 1837).
Physiomedical
E. perfoliatum was a popular remedy for physiomedicalists also, and its effects were
often dose and preparation dependent. Given as a cold infusion, it was a decidedly
relaxing tonic acting primary on the liver and gall bladder while also acting as a mild
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laxative. It was said to target sensitive or tense tissues, providing a relaxing, calming
effect on the smooth muscle. It was commonly combined with other herbs to promote a
strengthening response for general debility, and also for weak tissue states. Prepared as a
warm infusion, it was an excellent remedy for yellow fever as a diaphoretic. It was used
to provide relief from “aching limbs” secondary to rheumatism and, in larger quantities,
to promote emesis (Cook, 1869). Clymer later confirmed this approach, using the cold
infusion and tincture as a tonic, warm infusion as a diaphoretic and larger doses as an
emetic – however he believed it to be inferior to Lobelia inflata L. in that respect
(Clymer, 1905).
Eclectic
Scudder (1898) found E. perfoliatum to be a useful remedy for the onset of colds and
fevers, where the body becomes stiff and achy. The relaxing effect proved most useful in
joint, muscle and skeletal pain, as well as promoting secretions to eliminate lingering
illness. It was used by nearly every Eclectic physician in the treatment of fevers and flu
and for the common cold “especially when accompanied by deep-seated, aching pain”.
For respiratory conditions, Felter (1922) considered it, “efficient to relieve cough, acting
best in that occurring in the aged and debilitated, where there is an abundance of
secretion, but lack of power to expel it”.
The most well documented use of E. perfoliatum by Eclectic physicians was during the
1918-19 influenza epidemic, highlighted by two practitioner reports of over 1,000 treated
cases with only five fatalities (Brinker, 2009). The two popular preparations in use at the
time were the warm infusion and Lloyd‟s Specific Eupatorium extract (Brinker, 2009).
Regulars
Following observations of Native Americans, allopathic physicians used E. perfoliatum
for febrile conditions such as influenza, typhoid and yellow fever - especially when the
pains were at their worst. In the early 1800s Dr. Brigalow of Harvard University applied
it to cutaneous conditions as well as for intermittent fevers, while William Barton MD
praised its use in typhus and N. Chapman MD recommended it for respiratory catarrh and
as a hot infusion for the “breakbone fever‟ form of influenza, leading to the use of the
common name - boneset (Brinker, 2009). Other physicians used it for dyspepsia and
general debility (Wood & Bache, 1858). It was official in the United States
Pharmacopeia (USP) between 1820 and 1900.
4. Scientific research
Phytochemistry
Sesquiterpene lactones
Sesquiterpene lactones (STLs) are signature compounds of the large Eupatorium genus
and of the Asteraceae family in general. In E. perfoliatum the STLs are represented by
two structural classes, the guaianolides and the germacrolanolides (Herz, Kalyanaraman,
& Ramakrishnan, 1977). Recently Mass et al. (2011) described several new STLs using a
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with mass spectrometry
(MSMS) method. There were four new guaianolides - one dimeric guaianolide and one
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germacroanolides - and all showed antiprotozoal activity against the malaria vector
Plasmodium falciparum and other protozoa (Maas,Hensel, da Costa, Brun, Keiser &
Schmidt, 2011).
Table 1. Classification of named sesquiterpene lactones in E. perfoliatum
Guaianolides Germacrolanolides
Euperfolide Euperfolitin
11,13 – dihydroeuperfolide Euperfolin
Eufolitin
Eufoliatorin (a dilactone)
(Herz, Kalyanaraman, & Ramakrishnan, 1977; Maas et al., 2011)
Polysaccharides
Two polysaccharides have been isolated from E. perfoliatum by HPLC coupled with
nuclear magnetic resonance ( 13 C NMR) spectroscopy methods (Vollmar, Schäfer, &
Wagner, 1986). The two compounds were characterized as 4-0-methylglucuronoxylans,
one of high molecular weight (>500,000) and a smaller one (ca 40,000), and both showed
phagocytocis-enhancing activity (Vollmar, Schäfer, & Wagner, 1986).
Flavonoids
Methoxyflavonoids are another characteristic compound group among the Eupatorium
genus. Herz et al. (1972) isolated three dihydroxyflavonols from E. perfoliatum in the
early 1970s, while Wagner et al. identified astragalin, hyperoside, quercetin and
kaempferol (Maas, Petereit, & Hensel, , 2009). More recently four methoxylated
flavonoid aglycones - eupafolin, hispidulin, patuletin and kaempferol - were identified
using HPLC coupled with 1 H and 13 C NMR and mass spectroscopy (MS) (Maas et al.
2011) as well as glycosides of quercetin and kaempferol (Maas et al. 2009).
Phenolics
Using reverse phase HPLC coupled with diode array (DAD-UV), six caffeic acid
derivatives were isolated and identified by NMR spectroscopy. They were quinic acid,
chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid and three depsides of caffeic acid (Maas et al.
2009). A chromatogram showing eight caffeic acid derivatives and four flavonoids is
presented in appendix 1.
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Figure 2. Structure of caffeic acid derivatives in E. perfoliatum. Reproduced from Maas
et al. 2009
Other constituents
Other less well characterized constituents of E. perfoliatum are chromenes and the
triterpene alpha-amyrin, sterols, diterpenes dendroindinic acid and hebenolide,
dotriacontane – a hydroharbon, and volatile oils (Skenderi, 2003; Brinker 2009; Natural
Standard, 2011).
Pharmacology
General
Sesquiterpene lactones from E. perfoliatum have been shown to have cytotoxic and
immune-stimulating actions in vitro (Herz, Kalyanaraman, & Ramakrishnan, 1977;
Wagner, Proksch, Vollmar, Kreutzkamp, & Bauer, 1985) while an ethanolic extract of
the dried leaves showed stong cytotoxic effects against three mammalian cell lines and
weak antibacterial effects against two gram-positive species (Habtemariam &
Macpherson, 2000). Aqueous extracts and isolated polysaccharides have also shown
immune modulating effects - by significant enhancement of phagocytosis in vitro and in
vivo (Wagner et al., 1985; Vollmar, Schäfer, & Wagner, 1986). Studies conducted in the
early 1900s demonstrated antibacterial activity against Staphyloccus aureus in vitro
(Brinker, 2009)
Antimalarial effects
E. perfoliatum has long had a reputation for treating febrile disorders, and was widely
used by Indians for this purpose (Hall, 1974; Brinker, 2009). Studies with STLs indicate
many of these compounds have potent effects against protozoans, though the effects may
be linked to their inherent cytotoxicity (Schmidt, Nour, Khalid, Kaiser, & Brun, 2009).
Chloroform extract of E. perfoliatum aerial parts actively inhibited the malarial vector
Pasmodium falciparum in vitro, and a dimeric guaianolide STL was shown to be the most
active constituent (Maas et al., 2011). The cytotoxicty of this compound was relatively
weak. Using a rodent malaria, Lira-Salazar and co-workers found that homeopathic
potencies of E. perfoliatum tincture demonstrated significant – though not completely
inhibitory – effects against Plasmodium berghei, which were stable over several days
(Lira-Salazar, Marines-Montiel, Torres-Monzón, Hernández-Hernández, & Salas-Benito,
2006).
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Clinical trials
No published clinical trials were found in the literature review.
5. Modern Phytotherapy
Modern therapeutic use of E. perfoliatum reflects traditional indications. The German
herbal physician Rudolf Weiss (1988) lists boneset alongside other tonics such as
Echinacea spp. for treating acute viral infections and enhancing overall immunological
resistance. Modern herbal practitioners continue to value the therapeutic benefits of fever,
and boneset‟s diaphoretic effect is seen as playing a key role in the treatment of the
common cold and influenza (Mills & Bone, 2000). Kuts-Cheraux (1953) suggests that
boneset‟s positive influence on body aches associated with infections can be extended
more broadly to treatment of rheumatic pains in general. A classic indication is fevers
with “dry skin, not followed by perspiration, with deep seated aching pain and great
thirst” (Harper-Shove, 1952).
Table 2: Modern phytotherapeutic uses of E. perfoliatum
ACTIONS
Diaphoretic emetic (high doses)
Expectorant immune-stimulant
Aperient Bitter
THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS
Early stages of colds and influenza
Nasopharyngeal catarrh
Acute bronchitis
Fever accompanied by aching bones and muscles
Rheumatoid and gouty arthritis
(Priest & Priest, 1982; British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983; Mills & Bone, 2000)
Specific indication
Influenza with deep aching, and congestion of the respiratory mucosa (British Herbal
Medicine Association, 1983)
Combinations
With Sambucus nigra L. and Salix spp. for prostrating fevers with aching in the bones.
With Scutellaria lateriflora L. and Asclepias tuberosa L. for influenza (Clymer, 1905).
Preparations and dosage
Dried herb 1-2g three times daily or by infusion.
FE 1:1, 1-2 mL, 3 times daily (British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983).
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Toxicity and contraindications
The Botanical Safety Handbook classifies E. perfoliatum as Class 4 – “Herbs for which
insufficient data is available for classification,” because of the possibility of other
potentially toxic Eupatorium species being substituted (McGuffin, Hobbs, Upton, &
Goldberg, 1997). While toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been identified in some
Eupatorium species (Smith & Culvenor, 1981), none have ever been identified in E.
perfoliatum (Skenderi, 2003; Maas & Hensel, 2008). This herb has a long history of
documented usage and few side effects have been reported, although large doses are
emetic and purgative. E. perfoliatum may cause contact allergic dermatitis in persons
hypersensitive to Asteraceae plants containing sesquiterpene lactones (Skenderi, 2003). It
should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation.
E. perfoliatum does not contain the toxic alcohol tremetol, found in the related species E.
rugosum, (now reclassified as Ageratina altissima), which is responsible for trembles in
livestock and milk sickness in humans (Lee et al., 2010; Brinker, 2009).
E. perforatum is regulated in the USA as a dietary supplement.
6. Sustainability
Ecological status-RTE status
While E. perfoliatum is not considered an endangered or threatened species, it is native to
US wetlands and as wetlands continue to disappear, the status may change.
A variety, E. perfoliatum var. colpophilum also called common boneset or estuary
boneset is only found in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont
and Ontario. Estuary boneset is listed by the USDA as endangered and possibly
extirpated in Maine. Currently however, the Maine Natural Areas Program (2008) does
not list E. perfoliatum on its endangered, threatened and rare list.
Harvesting & Collection regulations
Maine does not have any laws protecting rare plant species (MNAP, 2008), but people
gathering plants in the wild should be able to identify related species and varieties that
may be endangered. (Robinson, Agurkis, & Scerbo, 2007).
Market data - harvesting impact, tonnage surveys
According to Jancke (2004) market potential was low to medium as most is gathered in
the wild, but buyers may prefer to purchase from a known organic source. Jancke also
notes that studies mentioning the possibility of liver toxicity have limited its popularity.
In 2004, retail prices ranged from $10.36 to $23.15/lb dry weight.
Cultivation
The preference is full or partial sun, and wet to moist conditions. The soil should contain
considerable organic material so that it can retain moisture. This plant can withstand
flooded conditions for short periods of time, but it is not really aquatic. The foliage
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appears to be little bothered by pests and disease (Hilty, 2002-2011). Jancke (2004) notes
that boneset can also be field grown in Kansas under fairly dry conditions.
Height: 2 to 5 feet
Sun: Full sun to partial shade
Soil: Prefers a rich, moist soil
Water: Natural habitat is on wet sites, and plant prefers regular, deep watering.
However, boneset also appears to withstand Kansas heat and drought fairly well.
Propagation: Easily propagated from seeds or cuttings. Take cuttings before the plant
has flowered. Seeds will germinate without stratification, but will germinate better with
stratification. Seeds need light to germinate. Do not cover. Germination is typically two
to three weeks, with 80 to 90 percent germination. Older plants can be divided and
replanted in the spring. Plant on 18 to 24 inch centers, with row spacing of 24 to 30
inches, because each plant will form a clump.
Pests: No major pests
Harvesting: Harvest aboveground portion when flowers are starting in early or
midsummer.
Dry quickly, or it will decompose. A second, fall harvest may be possible (Jancke, 2004).
E. perfoliatum is being grown for seed by inmates at Michigan's Saginaw Correctional
Facility as part of a program to restore the prairie at the Shiawassee refuge (Conat2010).
7. Summary – some possibilities moving forward
According to Millspaugh (1892) “There is probably no plant in domestic practice that has
more extensive or frequent use” (in reference to E. perfoliatum) and it is mentioned in
virtually all of the historic books on American plant medicine (Kindsher, 1992). With the
advent of antibiotics and so called “magic bullets‟ in the 20 th century, traditional use of E.
perfoliatum for respiratory infections and fevers has declined, and demand is confined
largely to herbalists and phytotherapists in the USA and abroad. The decline in popularity
has not been helped by unfounded reports that the species contains hepatotoxic
pyrrolizide alkaloids (PAs), at a time when there is a great need for alternatives to
antibiotics and to the influenza drugs now in use.
Further analytical studies are needed to determine decisively whether PAs are present and
if so, at what concentrations, as well as toxicological investigations to assess potential for
acute or chronic adverse effects. Provided safety can be demonstrated by such studies, E.
perfoliatum would be an excellent candidate for clinical research.
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8. References
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York, NY: James M‟Alister.
British Herbal Medicine Association (1983), British herbal pharmacopoeia.
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Brinker, Francis. 2009. “Boneset in Dyspesia and Febrile Infections.” Journal of the
American Herbalist Guild 9, 1-13.
Cavender, A. (2003). Folk Medicine in Southern Appalachia. Chapel Hill, NC: The
University of North Carolina Press.
Child, Mrs. (1837). The Family Nurse. Boston, MA: Charles Hendee.
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Conat, R. (2010). Program gives prisoners a chance to grow. ABC12 WJRT-TV
MD/Michigan. Retrieved on June 21, 2011 from:
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Cook, W. (1869). The Physiomedical Dispensatory. Cincinnati, OH: Wm. H. Cook.
Crellin, J. K. & Philpott, J. (1989). Trying to give ease: Tommie Bass and the story of
herbal medicine. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
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Erichsen-Brown, C. (1979). Use of plants for the past 500 years. Aurora Ont, Canada:
Hunter Rose Co.
Felter, H.W. (1922). The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics.
Cincinnati: John. K. Scudder.
Gardner, M., & Aylworth, B. (1836). The Domestic Physician and Family Assistant.
Cooperstown, NY: H & E Phinney.
Gleason, H.A. and Cronquist, A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern
United States and Adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden, New York.
Habtemariam, S., & Macpherson, A. M. (2000). Cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity of
ethanol extract from leaves of a herbal drug, boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum).
Phytotherapy Research, 14(7), 575-577.
Hall, T B, Jr. 1974. “Eupatorium perfoliatum. A plant with a history.” Missouri Medicine
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Harper-Shove, F. 1952. Prescriber and clinical repertory of medicinal herbs. Bradford
UK: Health Science Press.
Herz, W, P S Kalyanaraman, and G Ramakrishnan. 1977. “Sesquiterpene lactones of
Eupatorium perfoliatum.” The Journal of Organic Chemistry 42 (13), 2264-2271.
Hilty, J. (2002-2011) Common boneset, Eupatorium perfoliatum. Prairie wildflowers of
Illinois. Retrieved from: http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/index.htm
Howell, P. K. (2006). Medicinal plants of the southern Appalachians. Mountain City,
GA: Botanologos Books.
Jancke, R. (2004) Boneset: A grower's guide. K-State Research and Extension: MF-2607.
Accessed at http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/hort2/mf2607.pdf
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growers handbook. Department of Horticulture, Forestry and Recreational
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Appalachia. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper NE-138. Upper Darby, PA:
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Meyerholtz, K.A., Wilson, C.R., Stegelmeier, B.L. & Evans, T.J. (2010).
Tremetone and Structurally Related Compounds in White Snakeroot (Ageratina
altissima): A Plant Associated with Trembles and Milk Sickness. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (15), 8560-8565.
Lira-Salazar, G., Marines-Montiel, E., Torres-Monzón,J., Hernández-Hernández, F.,&
Salas-Benito, J.S.( 2006). Effects of homeopathic medications Eupatorium
perfoliatum and Arsenicum album on parasitemia of Plasmodium berghei-infected
mice. Homeopathy: The Journal of the Faculty of Homeopathy 95 (4), 223-228.
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Phytotherapie 29 (05) (November): 249-254. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1102730.
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perfoliatum L. Molecules 14, (1), 36-45.
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Maas, M., Hensel, A., da Costa, F.B., Brun, R., Kaiser, M., & Schmidt, T.J. (2011). “An
unusual dimeric guaianolide with antiprotozoal activity and further sesquiterpene
lactones from Eupatorium perfoliatum.” Phytochemistry 72: 635-644. Maine
Natural Areas Program (MNAP). (2008). Rare, threatened & endangered plant
taxa. Maine Department of Conservation. Accessed online at
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handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
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Press.Natural Standard (2011). Natural Standard Database. Accessed June 16 th ,
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National Wildlife Refuge System (2010). Inmates lend a hand for conservation.
Retrieved on June 10, 2011 from:
http://www.fws.gov/refuges/mediatipsheet/Stories/201009_InmatesLendHandCon
servation.html
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handbook. London, UK: L.M. Fowler & Co
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Accessed online at http://klemow.wilkes.edu/Eupatorium.html
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Structure - Antiprotozoal Activity Relationships of Sesquiterpene Lactones.
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Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America. Philadelphia, PA: J.B.
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(2):377-381.
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Appendix-1
Summary of Endangered, threatened or rare Eupatorium species
Area Status Source
global secure
federal none Natural Heritage Endangered Species Program (2010)
Ma Endangered
E. novae-angliae
ME E. perfoliatum var.
colpophilum
possibly extirpated
MD E. altissimum
G5, S3
MD E. leucolepsis
G5 S2-S3 Threatened
MI, VT E. sessilifolium
upland boneset
S1, threatened
G5 secure
NY E. album
white boneset
S1, G5T5
Natural Heritage Endandered Species Program (2010) - threatened by any activity
that affects the water quality or soil integrity: shore development, eutrophication,
horse & foot traffic, camping, boat launches and digging.
Range: New England and Ontario
(estuary boneset)
tall boneset - MD RTE 2010
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/rte/pdfs/rte_Plant_List.
pdf
Formerly: Uncasia altissima (IPNI, 2005)
white bracted boneset - MD RTE 2010 -
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/Plants_Wildlife/rte/pdfs/rte_Plant_List.
pdf
basionym: E. novae-angliae (IPNI, 2005)
MI Michigan Natural Features Inventory. 2007. Rare Species Explorer (Web
Application). Available online at http://web4.msue.msu.edu/mnfi/explorer
[Accessed May 29, 2011]
Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife Nongame and Natural Heritage
Program, Vermont. 2011. Threatened and endangered plants of Vermont, Vermont
Natural heritage information project, Vermont fish & Wildlife Department Feb 16,
2011
legally protected, Synonym: Uncasia sessifolia (IPNI, 2005)
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
synonym=Uncasia alba (IPNI, 2011)
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NY E. subvenosum
trinerved white boneset
Threatened, S2S3
G5T3T4
NY E. leucolepsis var.
leucoleptis
White bracted boneset
Endangered, S1 G5T5
NY E. pubescens serrate
round-leaf boneset
Endangered, S1, G5T5
NY E. resinosum
pine barrens boneset
Unknown, SX, G3
NY E. rotundifolium
round leaved boneset
Endangered, SH, G5
NY E. torreyanum
fringed boneset
Threatened, S2,
G5T4T5
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
not listed in IPNI
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
no pubescens (IPNI, 2005)
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
IPNI(2005) E. resinosuum var. kentuckiense
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
synonym: E. cordigerum (IPNI, 2005) = E. rotundifolium var. cordigerum
New York, Department of Environmental Conservation. (2010) 2010 New York
Rare Plant Status Lists.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/2010rareplantstatus.pdf
Synonym Uncasia torreyana (IPNI, 2005).
14

Appendix II.
Voucher specimen lodged at the Claude E. Phillips Herbarium, Delaware State
University. Specimen collected from Tai Sophia Institute garden, 8/1/11.
15