Sport As A School Of Life
Sport As A School Of Life
Sport As A School Of Life
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<strong>Sport</strong> as a school of life:<br />
The mental and physical characteristics, developmental objectives<br />
and coaching methods of youth sport<br />
By Arne Barez<br />
Consultant<br />
Copyright © International Labour Organisation 2008<br />
The designations employed in ILO Publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the<br />
presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the<br />
International Labour <strong>Of</strong>fice concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory of its authorities, or<br />
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.<br />
The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their<br />
authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour <strong>Of</strong>fice of the opinions<br />
expressed in them.<br />
Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the<br />
International Labour <strong>Of</strong>fice, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a<br />
sign of disapproval.<br />
March 2008<br />
1
Introduction<br />
Many people believe that sports build character. These people feel that athletes develop<br />
certain positive qualities such as self-discipline, dedication or leadership skills as a result of<br />
their participation in competitive sports. Athletic involvement is, therefore, viewed as a school<br />
of life. Others argue that sports cannot positively impact character development because of its<br />
emphasis on winning. The win-at-all-costs-mentality, prevalent in competitive sports, is<br />
supposed to drive unethical or even dangerous behaviours like cheating, overly aggressive<br />
play or drug abuse. So what is the true value of sports?<br />
Simply playing a sport certainly does not make you a better, wiser or more powerful person.<br />
<strong>Sport</strong> merely provides the opportunity to test and develop both athletic and personal abilities<br />
such as sportsmanship, commitment or goal-orientation. The social context of the team<br />
experience, thereby, determines how athletes define success, relate to each other and perceive<br />
themselves. To control the kind of lessons athletes learn on the playing field, coaches must<br />
examine their own values, design activities with specific outcomes in mind and lead by<br />
example. Personal qualities such as self-confidence, courage and responsibility are not<br />
automatic by-products of the experience, but depend on a positive and encouraging team<br />
environment.<br />
This paper addresses how athletic coaches can assist young athletes in the development of<br />
physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral capabilities. It is written for coaches, club<br />
administrators, league officials and policy makers who wish to use sport as a vehicle for<br />
personal development. The findings are based on a review of relevant literature from different<br />
disciplines including human development, coaching education, sports psychology and<br />
physical education as well as my personal experience as a youth coach.<br />
The discussion includes a review of the mental and physical characteristics of children ranging<br />
from early childhood to late adolescence and culminates in a curriculum of age-appropriate<br />
learning objectives followed by some specific advice on how to achieve them (Table 1). The<br />
age brackets attached to the following growth stages (early childhood, late childhood, early<br />
adolescence and late adolescence) are arbitrary and can be extended to encompass variations<br />
in growth and development.<br />
2
1. Early Childhood<br />
1.1 Mental and physical characteristics<br />
Early childhood is structurally defined by the pre-school years and generally refers to the time<br />
period when children are between 3 and 6 years of age. It is during this developmental stage<br />
that children acquire and refine a variety of fundamental motor skills such as running,<br />
jumping, balancing or climbing through play and playful activities (Origer, 2007). Play also<br />
assists in the development of social, emotional, moral and cognitive competencies: It provides<br />
opportunities to interact socially, explore different emotions, gain an understanding of right<br />
and wrong and discover how different objects function.<br />
Fortunately, young children love to play. They enjoy running around, are extremely curious<br />
and have a strong desire to test and improve their motor skills. But they also fatigue easily and<br />
have very short attention spans. Thus, it is not unusual, if children take frequent breaks from<br />
play or switch activities altogether. Young children are also very imaginative: They love to<br />
play different roles, naturally engage in symbolic play and have a special fascination for fairy<br />
tales. One of the major challenges of early childhood is to overcome the anxiety associated<br />
with the gradual separation from home and the transfer into other environments. In addition,<br />
all children must learn how to control emotions such as fear, anger and jealousy.<br />
Unfortunately, many children today grow up in a world of physical inactivity. They often lack<br />
independent playing opportunities and demonstrate significant deficiencies in terms of both<br />
motor skills and creativity (DFB, 2006). They spend much more time at home watching TV or<br />
surfing the Internet than any other generation. The accessibility of new media, the increase in<br />
street traffic and the lack of playgrounds all contributed to this trend and its consequences.<br />
Only a few decades ago children used to have ample opportunities to play in the anonymity of<br />
the streets, alleys and city-parks. They played a variety of self-organised games, invented new<br />
rules and managed conflicts independently. This not only contributed to their physical but also<br />
to their personal development. Today, pre-schoolers often rely upon organised sports<br />
programmes for playful activities, sports and physical education.<br />
1.2. Developmental objectives<br />
Free play is a very important and special part of childhood. It is particularly important for the<br />
development of basic motor skills, social competencies and creativity (DFB, 2006). Modernday<br />
children often lack these developmental objectives. Organised sports programmes,<br />
therefore, have to compensate for the competencies children used to develop through free play<br />
by providing age-appropriate experiences. Specifically, they have to provide independent<br />
learning opportunities that stimulate creativity as well as a sense of mastery. In terms of motor<br />
development the primary objective is to promote a variety of fundamental movement skills<br />
such as running, jumping, balancing, climbing, throwing, catching and kicking. The most<br />
important objective, however, is to have fun. Young children should have the opportunity to<br />
enjoy themselves in a friendly and stimulating environment. This enjoyment of the game will<br />
eventually translate into a long-term appreciation of physical activity and a healthy life-style.<br />
1.3. Coaching guidelines<br />
The most important rule coaches of this age-level must follow is to create a safe and positive<br />
environment. Coaches who field a team based on talent, assign permanent positions or<br />
constantly interfere with the game, clearly apply inappropriate adult standards and<br />
expectations (United States Soccer Federation, 2006). Negative influences such as<br />
3
performance-pressure, obsessive coaching or aggressive parents are unacceptable and must be<br />
prevented. For children, participation, joy and fun are much more important than winning.<br />
They need attention, encouragement and the feeling of having someone they can trust and<br />
relate to. Coaches should, therefore, take great care to ensure age-appropriate objectives,<br />
training methods and activities. Success should be measured in terms of fun, creativity and<br />
general motor development rather than wins and losses.<br />
1.3.1. Enjoyment of the activity<br />
Young children enjoy a variety of exercises, games and activities. They love to compete in<br />
relays, enjoy games such as tag and have fun experimenting with different sized-balls and<br />
materials. Small groups guarantee high involvement and lots of valuable experiences. Feelings<br />
of success, such as scoring a goal, are particularly motivating and foster a child's sense of<br />
accomplishment. This is the reason why coaches must set up practice groups according to<br />
ability, emphasise individual progress and praise successes constantly (DFB, 2006). Allowing<br />
children to play different roles such as cowboys, pirates or policemen stimulates their<br />
imagination and creativity. The coach may add to this enjoyment, by actively participating in<br />
the activity.<br />
1.3.2. Creativity and sense of mastery<br />
The development of creativity requires a certain amount of uninterrupted play. Free play<br />
provides children with the opportunity to actively explore and interact with their environment<br />
(NASPE, 2000). It encourages them to test their motor skills, interact socially and solve<br />
problems independently. Coaches who organise everything, impose different rules or<br />
constantly interfere with the game provide few opportunities for spontaneity and free<br />
expression. In order to stimulate creativity and a sense of mastery coaches must offer a variety<br />
of unstructured activities, encourage decision-making and applaud effort. Don't always tell<br />
children what to do, involve them, ask open-ended questions and let them play.<br />
1.3.3. Fundamental movement skills<br />
Childhood is the ideal time to learn and refine a variety of fundamental movement skills.<br />
Basic coordination provides the foundation for more complex motor skills, facilitates the later<br />
development of speed, strength and mobility and reduces the risk of injury (Weineck, 2004).<br />
General games and activities with a focus on gross motor development should, therefore,<br />
precede any sport-specific specialization. Performing a broad range of exercises such as<br />
running with and without a ball, climbing over different obstacles or balancing on a bench in a<br />
series of fun activities promotes every aspect of a child's physical development. Moreover,<br />
coaches should keep all activities short and simple in order to account for children's limited<br />
ability to stay focussed on a single task for longer periods of time.<br />
4
2. Middle Childhood<br />
2.1. Mental and physical characteristics<br />
Middle childhood corresponds to the primary school years and generally refers to children<br />
between 7 and 12 years of age. During this time period, children begin to spend much more<br />
time away from home and with other children. They frequently participate in extracurricular<br />
activities and often wish to play sports on a regular basis. For many children, these larger<br />
networks are important sources of social learning and emotional support. Towards the end of<br />
this period, more complex relationships are formed: friendships are becoming more and more<br />
important, while peer pressure may start building up.<br />
Most children develop rapidly during the primary school years (Origer, 2007). They are now<br />
able to concentrate for longer periods of time, think in more concrete and logical ways and<br />
make more mature moral choices. The ability to master challenging situations such as<br />
unfamiliar tasks, jealousy or aggression also increases during this time period. Due to these<br />
developmental changes, primary school children tend to be emotionally stable, optimistic and<br />
open. They are in a state of mental and physical balance. But they are also very sensitive to<br />
criticism and can be easily influenced by parental figures as well as their peers.<br />
In terms of physical development, most primary school children experience a relative plateau<br />
in growth (Weineck, 2004). Their body appears to be undergoing a period of refinement: the<br />
changes that do occur are gradual. The slow growth process as well as the child's increased<br />
attention span and improved cognitive ability allow for the development of more complex<br />
motor skills. The children learn how to write, draw and play musical instruments. They also<br />
refine a variety of gross motor skills and gradually exhibit greater rhythm, smoothness and<br />
control over their bodies. The activities of children between 10 and 12 years of age are<br />
particularly directed and controlled. They often work consciously to coordinate and perfect<br />
sport-specific techniques.<br />
2.2. Developmental objectives<br />
Middle childhood is a critical time period for children to develop confidence in all areas of<br />
life including social, emotional, mental and physical aspects. The central development task,<br />
therefore, refers to the acquisition of feelings of self-confidence and mastery. Children who<br />
develop these competencies are more likely to seek out new challenges, interact socially and<br />
resist negative influences. One of the most important tasks of the coach at this age level is to<br />
teach sport-specific motor skills in a safe and positive environment. A combination of playful<br />
activities and planned movement exercises is most appropriate. In addition, all children must<br />
learn how to cooperate and compete constructively, resolve conflicts independently and<br />
assume different responsibilities. Values such as honesty and fairness should be at the core of<br />
any programme.<br />
2.3. Coaching guidelines<br />
The most important rule coaches of this age-group must follow is to include and support any<br />
child that wishes to play sports regardless of skill level or general physical ability. Ageappropriate<br />
activities are all about fun, active participation and motor skill learning (NASPE,<br />
2001). Primary school children should be allowed to test and refine newly acquired skills in a<br />
positive and encouraging environment without fear, criticism or harassment from the coach or<br />
other children. There should be no penalty for missing practise and no discussion about<br />
commitment. In a team sport, such as football, substitutions should be used to provide equal<br />
playing opportunities rather than to punish a player for a mistake (United States Soccer<br />
5
Federation, 2006).<br />
2.3.1. Self-confidence<br />
Confident children feel good about themselves, are more likely to assume responsibility and<br />
often approach challenging situations with enthusiasm. In order to build self-confidence,<br />
coaches should rely upon positive reinforcement rather than punishment as a means of<br />
controlling behaviour (Smith, 2005). Complimenting children on the execution of a difficult<br />
skill, applauding good plays or recognizing sincere effort provides them with an incentive to<br />
perform and strengthens desired behaviours. Punishing mistakes, on the other hand, works by<br />
arousing fear and often causes the child to choke under pressure or avoid difficult situations<br />
altogether (Smith, 2005). From this point of view the objective is not to eliminate mistakes<br />
but to encourage the correct or desired behaviour.<br />
2.3.2. <strong>Sport</strong>-specific motor skills<br />
The primary responsibility of the coach at this age-level is to teach a variety of motor skills<br />
within a positive and encouraging atmosphere. Skill development requires systematic training,<br />
sound technical demonstration and countless repetitions. The skills and techniques selected<br />
must be age-appropriate following a clear progression from simple to more complex<br />
movement patterns. Activities should alternate between playful games and more deliberate<br />
exercises. Individual or team competitions are particularly motivating. Playing and practising<br />
in small groups provides frequent learning opportunities and builds competences. A good<br />
demonstration facilitates the learning process by providing a visual reference until the skill is<br />
performed both accurately and consistently (DFB, 2006).<br />
Another important variable contributing to the development of sport-specific motor skills is<br />
the coach’s ability to provide clear and concise performance feedback (Smith, 2005). Good<br />
communication begins with a compliment about effort and any part of the skill that was<br />
performed correctly. In a next step, the coach provides just enough information to correct the<br />
most fundamental error in the movement pattern: Do not overload children with too many or<br />
too specific details and try to involve them in the learning process as much as possible.<br />
<strong>As</strong>king questions is particularly helpful in order to ensure the effectiveness of the performance<br />
feedback.<br />
2.3.3. Honesty, fairness and mutual respect<br />
Primary school children pay close attention to the behaviour of coaches and peers. They<br />
observe and often imitate the way you celebrate victory, cope with defeat, handle conflict and<br />
treat other people. Coaches, who want to have a positive influence on moral development,<br />
should, therefore, create an environment guided by honourable principles and values. If<br />
honesty, fairness and mutual respect are important lessons to learn, the coach should never<br />
compromise those values and always act accordingly (Alberts, 2003). Specifically, the coach<br />
should use a respectful tone of voice, avoid disrespectful or obscene gestures and use manners<br />
regularly. Respect for rules is just as important as punctuality or a friendly attitude.<br />
6
3. Early adolescence<br />
3.1. Mental and physical characteristics<br />
Adolescence, the transitional stage of development between childhood and adulthood, has<br />
been linked with the onset of puberty and generally refers to the teenage years from 13 to 19.<br />
The early years of adolescence (from 13 to 16) are characterized by great variations in general<br />
physical, emotional and cognitive development (Origer, 2007). Characteristic features such as<br />
excessive height, breast development or voice changes often embarrass young adolescents.<br />
These physiological changes require the development of a new body image and frequently<br />
cause emotional stress or instability. Supportive reassurance as well as an understanding of the<br />
growth process can facilitate the adjustment.<br />
Great variations in height or strength also raise concern over the ability to compete in<br />
athletics. Physically more mature children have a temporary advantage over their smaller or<br />
less developed peers. Other children may experience significant motor problems during<br />
periods of extreme growth. The accelerated adolescent, for example, may run awkward or<br />
have difficulties executing fine motor skills due to changing body proportions (United States<br />
Soccer Federation, 2006). A four-year spread in physical development within a group of 14year<br />
old teenagers is not uncommon. Coaches should, therefore, put biological age ahead of<br />
chronological age, when assessing talent or selecting athletes for competitive sports<br />
programmes.<br />
Puberty is a particular dynamic and sometimes turbulent period of life. Psychological<br />
characteristics during early adolescence include a highly critical attitude, emotional instability<br />
and interest in sexual activity (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2006). <strong>As</strong> the adolescent is gradually<br />
withdrawing from parental guidance and support, peer groups are becoming increasingly<br />
important. Youth groups and sport teams often provide significant feelings of belonging as<br />
well as valuable lessons about the use of social power and the ability to work cooperatively<br />
towards a common goal. Role models such as professional athletes, movie stars, peers or<br />
coaches provide additional sources of direction.<br />
3.2. Developmental objectives<br />
Young adolescents often strive to develop a sense of independence by establishing their own<br />
values and beliefs. They frequently question authority, dislike close supervision and want to<br />
take on more responsibility. The major developmental task during this stage consequently<br />
relates to the acquisition of cognitive, social and emotional competencies that facilitate this<br />
transition. Teenagers still need to learn how to act independently, control their emotions and<br />
make responsible choices. Promoting respect for rules is, therefore, just as important as<br />
fostering sportsmanship. Communication skills are crucial in order to express concerns,<br />
resolve differences in opinion and address personal problems.<br />
3.3. Coaching guidelines<br />
Competitive sport programmes are popular among young adolescents and often contribute to<br />
powerful feelings of success and self-development. But they can also cause considerable<br />
stress, endorse overly aggressive play or promote unreasonable expectations. To create a<br />
developmentally appropriate learning environment, coaches should reinforce competitiveness<br />
as much as fair play. Young adolescents must learn to take pride in their efforts, play by the<br />
rules and compete with dignity. If winning is the only aspect of the sport experience that<br />
matters to a coach, athletes may choose to sacrifice values such as honesty or fairness.<br />
Specifically, a coach may promote performance excellence and positively impact character<br />
7
development by establishing some basic principles and expectations. Alberts (2003, pp. 31)<br />
provides the following examples for competitive sports teams:<br />
- Show respect for the game by playing by the rules, both in the spirit and their literal<br />
interpretation.<br />
- Show responsibility by coming prepared and on time for practices and games.<br />
- Display commitment and perseverance by giving consistent effort in practices and<br />
games.<br />
- Accept victory with humility and defeat with pride in the effort made.<br />
- Show self-control and respect for others by accepting officials’ calls without<br />
inappropriate comments or gestures.<br />
- Show care for others by being supportive of teammates through comments and actions<br />
during practices and games.<br />
- Maintain self-control and composure when things don’t go in desired ways.<br />
3.3.1. Respect for rules<br />
Establishing clear rules and expectations provides young adolescents with important<br />
boundaries for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. The coach who wants to promote<br />
qualities such as punctuality, self-control and respect for others should maintain order by<br />
enforcing team rules consistently and uniformly (Alberts, 2003). This may mean to substitute<br />
your leading goal scorer for disrespectful behaviour or bench your most talented defender for<br />
missing practice. <strong>As</strong> long as the players know the rules and the repercussions associated with<br />
breaking them, the coach will be perceived as fair and consistent. When it comes to promoting<br />
respect for rules, a good axiom to remember is that actions speak louder than words.<br />
3.3.2. <strong>Sport</strong>smanship<br />
Creating boundaries for behaviour and enforcing them consistently is important, but true<br />
sportsmanship goes beyond the application of rules and regulations. It involves a deeper<br />
understanding of the connection between behaviour and moral standards (Alberts, 2003). For<br />
instance, helping an opponent up after a fall demonstrates caring and consideration, while<br />
accepting defeat with pride in the effort made is a demonstration of composure. Stimulating<br />
discussions about athletes who, for example, refuse to shake hands after a game, intentionally<br />
foul an opponent or use performance-enhancing drugs is a good way to help adolescents make<br />
these connections and to keep the game in perspective.<br />
3.3.3. Communication skills<br />
Young adolescents need to learn how to express their thoughts, feelings and concerns in a<br />
socially appropriate and constructive manner. Effective communication requires the ability to<br />
describe a situation, listen attentively and express both positive and negative feelings<br />
(Yukelson, 2005). Coaches may help athletes to develop such communication skills by<br />
stimulating frequent discussions, asking open-ended questions and displaying sincere interest<br />
in their opinions and beliefs. Most importantly, however, coaches must act as role models<br />
when it comes to approaching team members, challenging officials’ calls or responding to<br />
malicious comments. The constant screamer certainly does not exhibit the kind of behaviour<br />
young adolescents should strive to emulate.<br />
8
4. Late adolescence<br />
4.1. Mental and physical characteristics<br />
Late adolescence refers to the last period of transition from childhood to adulthood and<br />
generally includes teenagers from 17 to 19 years of age. For most adolescents, this is a time of<br />
considerable uncertainty as well as some important decisions about personal relationships,<br />
higher education, vocational training and career opportunities (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2006).<br />
Potential problems such as unemployment, financial difficulties, career confusion,<br />
unsatisfying work experiences or a lack of family support may cause concern and anxiety.<br />
Personal qualities that may help young adults to deal with such negative experiences and to<br />
enter into the career path of their choice include high levels of self-esteem, goal-orientation,<br />
perseverance and self-discipline.<br />
The primary developmental objective during late adolescence therefore relates to the<br />
acquisition of feelings of self-competence and independence. Young adults frequently strive<br />
to take on more complex responsibilities, make professional experiences and earn their own<br />
money. <strong>As</strong> they begin to think of themselves in a specific role, most adolescents start to build<br />
their future by establishing personal and career related goals. They evaluate different<br />
opportunities, solve problems independently and take great pride in accomplishments. Effort<br />
no longer depends on the recognition from parents, peers or coaches, but is often sustained<br />
simply because it is of critical importance to the adolescent’s personal goals and development<br />
(Gould, 2005).<br />
In terms of physical development, adolescents experience further growth of the muscular and<br />
skeletal system leading to greater physical capacity, motor performance and self-confidence<br />
(Weineck, 2006). The most talented and motivated athletes now develop the strength, speed<br />
and endurance to compete at the senior-level. They often qualify for athletic scholarships,<br />
participate in national tournaments or even sign professional contracts. Meanwhile, less skilful<br />
adolescents compete in local leagues or events training two to four times a week. For others,<br />
sport participation is all about recreation, fitness and fun. They train to stay in shape while<br />
spending some valuable time with friends or family.<br />
4.2. Developmental objectives<br />
<strong>As</strong> young adults move towards further education or into the labour market, qualities such as<br />
goal-orientation, self-discipline and perseverance become extremely important. To succeed,<br />
all adolescents must learn how to identify their current and future needs, manage time<br />
effectively and plan meaningful activities. The process of formulating individual goals<br />
facilitates the development of these competencies, but also increases the motivation to do well<br />
in life. Another important aspect of goal-orientation is to follow through on your<br />
commitments and to display high levels of self-discipline and personal responsibility. To<br />
become an autonomous and self-regulated individual, young adults, furthermore, have to learn<br />
how to deal with intense competition, defeat and failure.<br />
4.3. Coaching Guidelines<br />
Effective coaching is based upon high levels of trust and mutual respect. Young adults are<br />
more likely to comply with rules, fulfil expectations and accept coaches as role models, if they<br />
feel that their input is appreciated and the coach genuinely cares about them as athletes and<br />
human beings (Yukelson, 2006). Creating positive and trusting relationships also facilitates<br />
communication. Coaches should be approachable, open and fair. Remember that life off the<br />
field can impact performance on the field and be ready to listen and help, if an athlete has a<br />
9
sincere problem or needs someone to talk. Most young adults like knowledgeable coaches<br />
with high standards and expectations. Constantly negative coaches, on the other hand, often<br />
fail to gain their trust and respect.<br />
4.3.1. Goal-orientation<br />
Goals are great motivational tools: They help us direct our attention to important aspects of<br />
our lives, encourage us to be persistent and foster the development of more effective learning<br />
strategies (Gould, 2005). Teaching young adults how to set realistic goals can, therefore,<br />
facilitate personal growth as well as athletic performance. To be successful, however, athletes<br />
must have clearly defined goals, work consistently to attain them and monitor progress on a<br />
regular basis. In addition, all goals must be specific, measurable, challenging and rewarding.<br />
When setting goals, athletes and coaches should focus on performance and training goals<br />
rather than outcome goals. The secret is to focus on those aspects of your ultimate objective<br />
that are within your control. It may not be surprising that athletes and coaches, who define<br />
goals in terms of skill development, consistent effort, and performance excellence often find<br />
themselves winning championships, too.<br />
4.3.2. Self-discipline and personal responsibility<br />
Establishing short- and long-term goals will not be successful unless the athlete displays the<br />
self-discipline and personal responsibility necessary to follow through on his or her<br />
commitments. Self-disciplined individuals are intrinsically motivated. They will train, work<br />
and study without any external supervision or control, display high degrees of consistent<br />
physical effort and comply with rules and expectations because they recognize the reasons for<br />
them (Alberts, 2003). To promote self-discipline and personal responsibility coaches must<br />
explain the relationship between individual commitments and athletic performance, involve<br />
athletes in the decision making process and instil pride in the effort made. Fear and<br />
punishment, on the other hand, may neither promote self-discipline nor athletic success, since<br />
coaches cannot control all behaviours on a consistent basis.<br />
4.3.3. Perseverance<br />
Even the most dedicated, goal-oriented and self-disciplined athletes are often exposed to a<br />
wide range of difficult and potentially adverse situations including injury, defeat and failure.<br />
All young adults must, therefore, learn how to deal with such negative experiences in a<br />
positive and constructive manner. To help them overcome personal as well as athletic<br />
difficulties coaches should encourage athletes to be persistent, provide productive feedback<br />
and discuss potential solutions. Defeat and failure are great opportunities to demonstrate<br />
mental strength, willpower and perseverance. In order to gain something positive from your<br />
disappointment, it is particularly important to approach all problems with confidence, remain<br />
focussed and display an intense desire to succeed.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
Most youth coaches have a sincere desire to do more than to teach sport-specific skills and<br />
strategies, but they rarely have had any formal training in the development of personal abilities<br />
such as creativity, self-confidence, respect for rules and goal-orientation. In fact, they often<br />
lack an understanding of the relationship between developmental characteristics, teaching<br />
objectives and coaching behaviour. Consequently, some coaches hold inappropriate<br />
expectations such as trying to develop personal responsibility within a group of primary<br />
school children or talking to them about commitment, while others simply do not know how<br />
to instil sportsmanship, respond to misbehaviours or create a positive learning environment. It<br />
is here that national and international sport organizations can make a significant contribution<br />
towards the utilisation of sport as a vehicle for personal development by providing appropriate<br />
coaching education programmes.<br />
Although not exhaustive, this paper provides a potential curriculum for coaches of different<br />
age brackets. It illustrates the important role of the athletic coach in sport for development<br />
programmes and is intended to contribute to the development of professional standards for<br />
quality coaching and physical education.<br />
11
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