PCC Sep Oct 2019

September/October 2019 

Non-Botrytis Fruit Rots of Strawberry: 

Under-Estimated and Under-Researched? 

Assessing the Impact of Irrigation Water Quality on 

Strawberry Cultivars 

California's Prune Orchard of the Future 

Colletotrichum Dieback in California Citrus 

Evaluating Biostimulant and Nutrient Inputs to Improve 

Tomato Yields and Crop Health 

PUBLICATION 

Volume 4 : Issue 5 

Photo courtesy of Luke Milliron. 

VISALIA CONVENTION CENTER 

September 26th | 1:00PM - 9:00PM 

September 27th | 

7:00AM - 1:15PM 

September /October 2019 

For more information 

and the full agenda 

see pages 50-55 

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2 Progressive Crop Consultant September /October 2019

IN THIS ISSUE 

4 

Non-Botrytis Fruit Rots 

of Strawberry: 

Under-Estimated and 

Under-Researched? 

Grape Trunk Diseases 

10 and Management 

Assessing the Impact of 

Irrigation Water Quality 

18 on Strawberry Cultivars 

California’s Prune Orchard 

26 of the Future 

Colletotrichum Dieback in 

32 California Citrus 

38 

Evaluating Biostimulant 

and Nutrient Inputs to 

Improve Tomato Yields 

and Crop Health 

Mechanistic Insight 

into the Salt Tolerance 

44 of Almonds 

The Crop Consultant 

Conference Full Menu of 

50 Workshops and Seminars 

4 

18 

38 

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott 

Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com 

EDITOR: Kathy Coatney 

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons 

Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Phone: 559.352.4456 

Fax: 559.472.3113 

Web: www.progressivecrop.com 

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT 

Andre Biscaro 

Irrigation and Water Resources 

Advisor, UCCE, Ventura 

County 

Mark Bolda 

Farm Advisor and County 

Director, UCCE 

Michael Cahn 

Irrigation and Water Resources 

Advisor, UCCE, Monterey 

County 

Surendra K. Dara 

Entomology and Biologicals 

Advisor, UCCE 

Greg W. Douhan 

UCCE Area Citrus Advisor for 

Tulare, Fresno and Madera 

Counties 

Akif Eskalen 

Department of Plant Pathology, 

UC Davis 

Katherine Jarvis-Shean 

UCCE Orchards Systems 

Advisor for Sacramento, 

Solano and Yolo Counties 

Steven Koike 

Director, TriCal Diagnostics 

Kevin Day 

County Director and 

UCCE Pomology Farm 

Advisor, Tulare/Kings County 

Steven T. Koike, 

Director, TriCal Diagnostics 

Ed Lewis 

Former Associate Dean, 

College of Agricultural and 

Environmental Sciences, 

University of California, Davis 

Dani Lightle 

UCCE Orchards Systems 

Advisor for Glenn, Butte and 

Tehama Counties 

Joey S. Mayorquin 

Department of Microbiology 

and Plant Pathology, UC 

Riverside 

Themis Michailides 

Professor and Plant 

Pathologist, UC Davis 

Luke Milliron 

UCCE Farm Advisor for Butte, 

Glenn and Tehama Counties 

Franz Niederholzer 

UCCE Farm Advisor for 

Colusa, Sutter and Yuba 

Counties 

Gabriel Torres 

UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare 

County 

UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION 

ADVISORY BOARD 

Emily J. Symmes 

UCCE IPM Advisor, 

Sacramento Valley 

Kris Tollerup 

UCCE Integrated Pest 

Management Advisor, 

Parlier, CA 

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and 

advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions 

of writers and advertisers. Progressive Crop Consultant does 

not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the 

publication. 


www.progressivecrop.com 

3

Non-Botrytis Fruit 

Rots of Strawberry: 

Under-estimated and Under-Researched? 

BY MARK BOLDA | Farm Advisor and County Director, UCCE 

AND STEVEN KOIKE | Director, TriCal Diagnostics 

Growers face a multitude of 

obstacles when trying to 

produce large volumes of 

high-quality strawberry fruit for a 

market that runs for many months. 

Up-front, pre-plant ground preparation 

and transplant costs are significant 

financial commitments that are expensed 

before even a single strawberry 

plant is put in the ground. Untimely 

rains and insect infestations can result 

in loss of fruit quality and numbers. 

A series of soilborne pathogens can 

later cause plant collapse and loss of 

profit. Of course, the intractable labor 

shortage dilemma may even result in 

perfectly marketable fruit not reaching 

the consumer. 

When it comes to diseases of the strawberry 

fruit, the number one concern 

is gray mold (also called Botrytis fruit 

rot), which justifiably attracts the rapt 

attention of field professionals and 

captures the interest of researchers. 

However, in coastal California another 

fungal issue can also take its toll on 

strawberry yields and quality and in 

many ways is overlooked and underestimated 

by the industry. Rhizopus fruit 

rot and Mucor fruit rot are collectively 

known as “leak” disease; this disease 

concern also deserves to be recognized 

and studied. 

Symptoms, Signs, Diagnosis 

In the field, leak symptoms and signs 

only develop on mature or near-mature 


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All photos courtesy of Steve Koike. 

Photo 1. Two pathogens, Rhizopus and Mucor, can turn strawberry fruit into black lumps. 

fruit and are very distinctive. Infected 

red fruit first take on a darkened, 

water-soaked appearance; in short 

order the fruit will begin to wrinkle and 

collapse. Almost overnight the rapidly 

growing Rhizopus or Mucor pathogen 

will be visible as white fungal growth 

peppered and interspersed with tiny 

black spheres. Fungal growth will be 

extensive and can entirely envelop the 

fruit, turning it into a white and black 

lump (Photo 1). Rhizopus and Mucor 

produce pectolytic (endopolygalacturonase) 

and cellulase enzymes as they 

colonize the strawberry, disintegrating 

the fruit tissues and causing red juices 

(Photo 2, see page 6) to ooze and flow 

onto the plastic that covers the bed. It is 

because of these messy red juice flows 

that the designation “leak” is used for 

this disease. 

This ugly scene in the field, however, 

is only part of the problem that these 

fungi cause. During harvest infected 

but symptomless fruit, as well as healthy 

fruit exposed to spores of the two 

pathogens, will be packed into containers. 

The pathogens can continue to grow 

during postharvest handling, storage, 

and market display of fruit, causing 

postharvest fruit losses, shortening of 

shelf life of the product, and creating a 

mess in crates and clamshells (Photo 

3, see page 6). In fact, if fruit are not 

properly refrigerated, the fungus on a 

single infected fruit can rapidly spread 

throughout an entire container, resulting 

in what is known as “nesting” or 

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FOR

Mycelial Growth Spore Producing Bodies Overall Colony Color Fungus ID 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table. Description of various fungi found on post-harvest strawberry. 

Continued from Page 5 

clumping of oozing, rotted fruit. Harvested 

strawberry fruit are subject to a 

number of rotting molds; the leak fungi 

are generally identifiable due to the 

color and nature of the fungal growth 

(see Table). 

The Pathogens 

Much is already 

known about the 

two fungi causing 

strawberry leak 

disease. Rhizopus 

and Mucor are both 

in the group of fungi 

called Zygomycetes. Both fungi are 

commonly found in agricultural environments 

and cause similar ripe fruit 

rots on crops such as apricot, cherry, 

peach, pear, and tomato. While closely 

related to each other and difficult to differentiate 

in the field, the two pathogens 

differ slightly. On California strawberry, 

Rhizopus tends to be the more commonly 

encountered pathogen. Rhizopus 

grows very rapidly and haphazardly in 

orientation, creating a web-like mess of 

mycelium (Photo 4, see page 7). Rhizopus 

forms a brown orange, root-like 

structure (called rhizoids) that allows it 

to quickly spread between adjacent fruit 

(Photo 5, see page 7). The black, spherical 

spore bearing structures produce 

huge numbers of dry spores that are 

readily spread by winds (Photo 6, see 

page 8). Mucor grows more slowly with 

an upright, erect mycelial habit (Photo 

7, see page 8) and also produces spores 

on a black spherical structure (Photo 

8, see page 8). However, Mucor spores 

collect in a wet droplet surrounding 

the head; such spores are therefore less 

prone to dispersal by winds. 

Both fungi survive and increase in the 

field by colonizing dead organic matter 

and debris; Rhizopus and Mucor also 

readily colonize discarded and overripe 

strawberry fruit left on the plant 

or thrown into the furrow. These fungi 

produce a resilient structure (zygospore) 

that resists drying and weathering 

Photo 2. The leak pathogens produce enzymes that cause 

strawberry fruit to ooze juice. 

Photo 3. Enzymes released by Rhizopus and Mucor can 

cause significant fruit breakdown during storage and 

transport. 


Photo 4. Rhizopus growth is rapid and results in a messy, weblike 

mycelial growth. 

Photo 5. Brown-orange root-like structures allow 

Rhizopus to rapidly spread between adjacent fruit. 

and provides another means of survival. 

Both Rhizopus and Mucor can be readily 

isolated from soil, thereby demonstrating 

that these fungi can persist in 

fields even if strawberry is not present. 

Once strawberry fruit begin to develop 

and ripen, spores come in contact 

with the fruit and usually gain entry 

via wounds and injuries. Strawberry 

leak pathogens tend to be more active 

if temperatures are relatively warmer, 

generally 65° F or higher. This temperature 

factor may be one reason that leak 

disease is more damaging in coastal 

California in late summer through early 

fall. The pectolytic enzyme that causes 

fresh market fruit to melt into juices can 

also be a concern in some processed 

fruit products. The enzyme is heat-stable 

and withstands canning temperatures; 

for example, apricot halves and 

brined cherries that are contaminated 

with Rhizopus and then canned may 

end up being apricot or cherry mush 

because of the continued activity of the 

stable enzyme even though the original 

fungus is cooked and dead. 

Management Options and Research 

Needs 

Providing 

effective solutions 

for Agriculture 

Fungicide – Bactericide 

Miticide – Insecticide – Fungicide 

Broad Spectrum Insecticide 

Growers already know to refrigerate 

strawberries as soon as possible after 

field packing the fruit. Refrigeration is 

a primary management tool for reducing 

losses due to leak disease. While 

refrigeration generally limits the development 

of Rhizopus, it is notable that 

some species of Mucor can grow quite 

well at storage temperatures of 32° F (0° 


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7


C). Therefore, one research need is the precise 

identification of 

Rhizopus and Mucor 

species present in 

strawberry fields. 

Different species 

will have different 

temperature optima 

regarding growth 

and ability to infect 

fruit in the field, and 

the different species may respond differently to 

postharvest conditions. 

Photo 6. The black, spherical spore-producing head of Rhizopus 

releases thousands of wind-borne spores. 

Photo 7. On strawberry fruit, the Mucor pathogen grows with an 

upright, erect mycelial habit. 

Sanitation, both in field and during harvest, is 

another means of limiting leak development. 

Reducing the amount of over-ripe and rotted 

fruit in the field may help limit the Rhizopus and 

Mucor inoculum present in the planting; the influence 

of field sanitation on inoculum is another 

area of needed research. Field sanitation may 

be an increasingly difficult goal to attain given 

labor shortages and costs. Sanitation during the 

harvest process mainly involves the training and 

education of harvesters. Harvesters who touch 

and handle leak fruit will easily transmit the fungus 

to healthy fruit that are packed. Therefore, 

pickers should be reminded not to touch leak 

fruit and to be sure not to pack fruit showing any 

hint of leak infection. 

Fungicides can effectively limit Rhizopus development 

for some crops. However, such information 

is lacking for strawberry. Research is needed 

to determine the efficacy and feasibility of using 

fungicides for leak management in strawberry. 

Other interactions involving fungicides should 

also be investigated. There are indications that 

fungicides used to manage Botrytis could exacerbate 

growth by Rhizopus and Mucor. 

Among the many challenging factors facing 

strawberry growers, leak disease is not the number 

one concern. However, during certain times 

of the year in coastal California, leak disease 

can affect a significant amount of the harvest. A 

better understanding of strawberry leak disease, 

achieved through collaborative research, may 

help this industry manage this problem and improve 

on an already excellent commodity. 

Photo 8. Mucor also produces a black, spherical head, though the 

spores are captured in a droplet and are not readily spread by wind. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear 

from you. Feel free to email us at 

article@jcsmarketinginc.com 


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9

All photos courtesy of Gabriel Torres. 

Grape Trunk 

Diseases and 

Management 

BY GABRIEL TORRES | UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County 

" 

Trunk disease” is a catch-all term 

that includes several different 

fungal diseases of grapevines 

trunks worldwide. The term was 

coined in the late 1990s by Dr Luigi 

Chiarappa¹, and can include foliar and 

vascular symptoms caused by Petri 

disease, Black foot, Eutypa, Botryosphaeria 

dieback, Phomopsis dieback 

and Esca. Most of the fungi (more than 

50 species) causing trunk disease are 

related, belonging to the order Botryosphareales, 

but fungi that belongs to the 

families that forms mushrooms can 

be also recovered from the cankers. In 

most of the cases, the cankers interfere 

with the movement of water from the 

roots to the leaves, shots and clusters. 

Photo 1. Esca tiger strip symptom on Autumn King. 

Petri disease and Esca are caused by the 

closely related species of fungi in the genus 

Phaeomoniella and Paheoacremonium. 

In both diseases, longitudinal black 

stripes are visible under the bark. Different 

from Petri disease which occurs 

in vines younger than three years, Esca 

is observed in more mature plants. The 

foliar symptom can include the wellknown 

“Tiger Stripe” pattern (Photo 

1). This symptom is visible normally by 

the end of June, when high temperatures 

stress the vines. Reddish-brown 

patches on the leaves are observed in 


Disease Appearance Leaf Symptoms Shoot Symptom Trunk Symptom 

Petri disease 

Black foot 

Eutypa 

Botryosphaeria 

dieback 

Phomopsis 

dieback 

Poor growth

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Photo 2. Measles s. 


red cultivars, while yellow patches are 

more common on white grapes. Esca is 

also known as “black measles” because 

the dark spots that develop on berries 

(Photo 2). Measles is particularly 

damaging to table grapes because berry 

appearance is paramount. 

Black foot is caused by two species of 

the fungal genus Cylindrocarpon, and 

it most commonly observed on young 

vines (three-year-old vines or younger). 

Stunted vines and scorched leaves (Photo 

3, see page 13) are a typical sign of 

black foot. Affected roots present black 

lesions and look like they are dead. 

The disease was reported by late 1990’s 

in California and has been frequently 

found in fields with poor planting practices, 

especially those that were J-rooted 

at planting. The disease if not prevented, 

can require costly replanting. 

Botryosphaeria is caused by more than 

20 species of fungi. However, fungi in 

the species Lasiodiplodia and Neofusicocum 

are the most damaging. Spurs from 

infected vines won’t develop new shoots 

(Photo 4, see page 14) . In cross-section, 

a pie shape necrotic lesion can be 

observed in infected trunks (Photo 5, 

see page 14), however this symptom 

can be also observed in vines infected 

with Eutypa. 

Eutypa is a common disease in California, 

and it is caused by the fungus Eutypa 

lata. In addition to the pie shaped 

internal lesion, proliferation of stunted 

shoots is common (Photo 6, see page 

14). This symptom is absent in Botryosphaeria 

disease, where no growth or no 

leaf symptoms are observed. 

Phomopsis is normally associated with 

damage on green tissue, especially canes 

and leaves. However, when conditions 

favor the pathogen, damage caused by 

Phomopsis can result in death of spurs, 

canes and buds. Severely affected canes 

develop cracks and have a bleached ap- 


Photo 3. Vines affected by black foot disease. Left: scorch symptoms. 

pearance during winter. In early spring 

reproductive structures of the pathogen 

are visible as black speckles. 

Impact 

All the described trunk diseases can 

be seen at any time of the vineyard 

life, but normally they start to appear 

between the third and the fifth year after 

planting. They can appear alone, or in 

combination, which can exacerbate the 

plant stress. In general, by year 10 to 12, 

20 percent of the plants show symptoms 

when no preventive actions have 

been implemented. At this point, trunk 

diseases enter in an exponential phase, 

reaching 75 percent of infection by year 

15, and 100 percent by year 20. 

Significant losses are associated with 

Trunk Diseases Development 

100 

80 

trunk disease development. Reduction 

in number of clusters, decrease 

in quality and cosmetic damages are 

the most visible impacts in the field. 

However, cost of replanting, and/or 

retraining if grower elects to use vine 

surgery, especially in young vineyards, 

it also a major cost 

associated with trunk 

diseases. Siebert² in 

2000, estimated the 

annual loss caused 

by Botryosphaeria 

and Eutypa in the 

California wine 

grape industry was 

$260 million. Similar 

negative effects have 

been reported in 

other grape growing 

areas and trunk 

diseases. 

Management 

Trunk diseases are considered chronic 

diseases, and unfortunately there is 

no fungicide that can provide curative 

action. Preventive management or the 

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Optimal application period is 

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% Infection 

60 

40 

20 

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0 

5 10 15 20 

Year 

Figure 1. Trunk disease infection development in unattended 

vineyard. 

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13

Photo 4. Lack of new shoots growth. 

Photo 5. Typical symptom of botryosphaeria. 


removal of infected tissue from the vine 

(surgery) and destruction by mulching 

or soil incorporation of infected shoots 

and canes are the only viable alternatives. 

More than 95 percent of trunk disease 

infections are associated with pruning, 

or other cultural practices that leave 

Photo 6. Stunted shoots proliferation on vine infected 

with Eutypa. 

pruning wounds exposed at a time 

when the wounds may be infected. 

Dispersal of the pathogens responsible 

for causing trunk disease occurs during 

rain events. Under California conditions 

pruning and rain overlap during 

the winter months (November-January). 

Dr. Gubler and his team found that 

delaying pruning closer to bud break 

significantly reduces disease³. The logic 

behind this is that in a typical California 

year, rain is gone by the 

end of February and the 

days are warmer, letting 

the plants recover 

sooner than during the 

colder days of December 

and January. 

In addition, some sap 

movement (bleeding) 

starts to be present in 

February, helping the 

plant to remove the 

infective spores from 

susceptible tissue. 

However, and knowing 

that the labor and 

logistics doesn’t permit 

all growers to postpone 

pruning until the last part of the winter, 

the use of fungicides to protect the exposed 

tissues is important to reduce the 

rate of the infection. The best practice 

is to protect the plant any time there 

are pruning wounds. This is especially 

important if rain is expected following 

pruning. If pruning is done in November 

or December, it is advised at least 

two sprays with protectant fungicides 

be applied. If the pruning is postponed 

until January and warmer days are 

forecasted, one protectant spray after 

pruning is ideal. 

Another strategy for pruning is to do a 

double pruning (pre-pruning + pruning). 

It consists of pre-pruning the vines 

between November and January. Then, 

by the end of February or March, the 

pruning process is completed. The objective 

of this method is to remove any 

potential infection occurred during the 

winter months. A complementary fungicide 

spray after the last pruning can 

increase the control of trunk diseases. 

In order to improve the efficacy of 



GET READY 

for our 2019-2020 Trade Shows 

New Names, Same Great Experiences! 

In 2018-2019 we had: 

January 21, 2020 (Orland, CA) 

January 10, 2020 (Yuba City, CA) 

June 5, 2019 (Turlock, CA) 

June 19-21, 2019 (Monterey, CA) 

1,268 

PCA/CCA Attendance 

3,336 

Total Attendees 

Come experience our 

shows for YOURSELF! 

Alm nd Day 

June 12, 2019 (Fresno, CA) 

September 26-27, 2019 (Visalia, CA) 

November 20, 2019 (Tulare, CA) 

For more info visit: www.wcngg.com/events 

October 24, 2019 (Bakersfield, CA) 

AG MARKETING SOLUTIONS 

@jcsmarketing 





15

Last Profitable Year 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

25% 25% 25% 50% 50% 50% 75% 75% 75% No 

3 5 10 3 5 10 3 5 10 Pract. 

Percentage of control/year practice established 

Figure 2. Calculated lifespan of profitable vineyard based on the efficacy of the 

implemented practice and the year when they are implemented. 


protective fungicide, a closer identification 

of the disease is recommended as 

any particular fungicide cannot control 

all possible pathogens. A recent report 

done by Baumgartner and Brown⁴ on 

their research in 2017, demonstrates 

that Pristine, Topsin + Rally (in mixture), 

and Luna had better preventive 

control of Botryosphaeria and Phomopsis 

dieback. Eutypa was controlled more 

effectively with Pristine. The highest 

control of Esca was obtained with 

Serifel, but it only reached 64 percent. 

Results in 2018 in the same study presented 

different results and were mainly 

associated with a different weather 

condition. 

Different studies, including the one 

recently done by Dr. Baumgartner and 

collaborators⁵, demonstrates that preventive 

practices works better if they are 

established during the first years of the 

crop (Figure 2). Dr. Baumgartner estimated 

that when more effective practices 

are adopted early in the crop life, 

it is expected to prolong the vineyard 

rentability by at least 25 years. 

Further information on trunk diseases 

can be found at: 

1) http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.grapes.html 

2) Bettiga LJ, ed. Grape Pest Management, 

Third Edition. University of 

California, Agriculture and Natural 

Resources; 2013. https://books.google. 

com/books?id=4A9ZAgAAQBAJ. 

3) Wilcox WF, Gubler WD, Uyemoto 

JK, eds. Compendium of Grape Diseases, 

Disorders, and Pests. Second. St 

Paul, Minnesota, USA.: The American 

Phytopathological Society; 2017. 

4) Disease P, Gramaje D. Grapevine 

Trunk Diseases: Symptoms and Fungi 

Involved. 2018;102(1):12-39. https:// 

apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/ 

PDIS-04-17-0512-FE 

Cited literature: 

1. Gramaje D, Úrbez-Torres JR, Sosnowski 

MR. Managing Grapevine 

Trunk Diseases With Respect to Etiology 

and Epidemiology: Current Strategies 

and Future Prospects. Plant Dis. 

2018;102(1):12-39. doi:10.1094/PDIS- 

04-17-0512-FE 

2. Siebert JB. Economic Impact of 

Eutypa on the California Wine Grape 

Industry. Davis; 2000. 

3. Gubler WD, Rolshausen P e., Trouillase 

FP, et al. Grapevine trunk Diseases 

in Califronia. Pract Winer Vineyard. 

January 2005:1-9. 

4. Baumgartner K, Brown AA. Protectants 

for Trunk-disease management 

in California table grapes. In: California 

Table Grape Seminar. Visalia: California 

Table Grape Commission; 2019:19-21. 

5. Baumgartner K, Hillis V, Lubell 

M, Norton M, Kaplan J. Managing 

Grapevine Trunk Diseases in California 

’ s Southern San Joaquin 

Valley. 2019;3:267-276. doi:10.5344/ 

ajev.2019.18075 

Comments about this article? We want 

to hear from you. Feel free to email us at 



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17

Assessing the Impact of Irrigation Water Quality on 

Strawberry Cultivars 

BY ANDRE BISCARO | Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, UCCE Ventura County 

AND MICHAEL CAHN | Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, UCCE Monterey County 

Introduction 

Strawberries are the third most 

valued crop in California ($2.3 

billion) and one of the most 

sensitive to salinity. Limited information 

on the tolerance of new varieties 

to salt and chloride toxicity has led to 

significant yield losses in recent years. 

Even a modest yield loss of 5 percent 

due to soil and water salinity may cost 

the strawberry industry and California 

$260 million per year. Despite the 

importance, commonly used salinity 

tolerance thresholds for strawberry 

(Ayers and Westcot, 1985) are based on 

studies almost a half-century old and 

may not be applicable to the soils, water 

quality, climate, and modern cultivars 

grown in California. California production, 

which accounts for approximately 

85 percent of the strawberries produced 

in the US, are mostly grown on coastal 

soils with electrical conductivity (ECe, 

saturated paste extract method) ranging 

from 2 to 4 dS/m. Some of these soils 

have moderate to high concentrations 

of calcium, bicarbonate and sulfate. 

Although most of these salts may be 

precipitated in the form of calcium 

sulfate (gypsum) and calcium carbonate 

(lime) and have limited impact on plant 

growth, the ECe can be considerably 

increased when a soil sample is saturated 

with distilled water (used in the 

saturated paste extract method) due to 

the dissolution of these salts. That is a 

common scenario found in arid regions 

such as in the Southwestern US (e.g. 

Ventura County), where limited rainfall 

contributes to the accumulation of certain 

salts in the topsoil. In the Watsonville 

area, however, there is much less 

carbonate and sulfate in the groundwater 

and therefore in agricultural 

fields, where sodium and chloride are of 

major concern. Excessive sodium most 

often leads to high sodium adsorption 

ration (SAR), which causes infiltration 

problems on some soil types. In irrigated 

agriculture, the irrigation water 

quality and leaching fraction are usually 

the main factors driving soil salinity. 

When appropriate leaching amounts 

are applied, the salinity of the soil and 

of the irrigation water reach a steadystate 

(equilibrium). However, when 

irrigation amounts do not exceed crop 

evapotranspiration (ETc), soil salinity 

can increase considerably due to the 

accumulation of salts in the rootzone. 

Infiltration rate and rainfall also affect 

soil salinity. In an attempt to account for 

the precipitation effect of certain salts, 

Rhoades et al. (1992) suggest that plants 

can tolerate ECe about 2 dS/m higher 

than published thresholds when grown 

on gypsiferous soils (soils that contain 

significant quantities of gypsum, or calcium 

sulfate). Although this publication 

provides basic management guidance, 

strawberry growers and farm managers 

need more detailed information to determine 

leaching fractions and to select 

irrigation water sources and cultivars. 

Identifying the specific types of anions 

and cations that make up the salts in 

soil and irrigation water is important 

for predicting how different strawberry 

cultivars will tolerate salinity. For 

example, a field with soil ECe of 2.5 

dS/m, where chloride is approximately 

10 meq/L can have significantly greater 

impacts on strawberry yields than a soil 

with the same soil ECe where chloride 

is 2 meq/L and calcium and sulfates are 

the predominate salts. 

Material and Methods 

In order to assess how susceptible 

strawberry cultivars are to irrigation 

water of different quality, a two-year 

study was conducted in California 

between 2016 and 2018. The first year of 

the study consisted of a survey conducted 

in 40 strawberry fields located 

in the Oxnard and Watsonville districts, 



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DISTRICT 

OXNARD 

WATSONVILLE 

dS/m 

EC 

Average 1.4 

Standard Deviation 0.3 

Average 1.1 

Standard Deviation 0.5 

SAR 

2.0 

0.2 

2.5 

1.5 

Ca 

7.2 

1.9 

3.2 

1.5 

Mg 

3.6 

1.0 

2.3 

1.0 

meq/L 

Na 

4.5 

0.4 

3.9 

2.4 

CI 

1.8 

1.3 

4.2 

2.8 

SO₄ 

10.3 

2.5 

1.9 

1.1 

Table 1. Irrigation water chemical analysis average and standard deviation of 40 fields in the Oxnard and in 

the Watsonville production districts, year 1 (2016/2017 season). 


where irrigation water and soil samples 

were analyzed for salinity composition. 

Overall, the irrigation water of the 

fields located in the Oxnard district 

had greater electrical conductivity and 

significantly greater sulfate levels, while 

chloride levels in the Watsonville fields 

were twice as great as the Oxnard fields 

(Table 1). These results were used as the 

benchmark for determining the treatments 

of the salinity tolerance experiment 

conducted the following year. 

The second year of the study consisted 

of an experiment conducted in a commercial 

field located in Oxnard, California 

during the 2017/2018 production 

season. Strawberry yield, soil salinity 

and salts content in leaf blades of the 

two most popular public cultivars in 

Oxnard (cv. Fronteras) and in Watsonville 

(cv. Monterey) were assessed under 

eight salinity treatments following a 

randomized complete block design. 

Each plot was 30 feet long and 1 bed 

wide (64 inches), with four plant rows, 

approximately 90 plants/plot, and two 

high flow drip tapes (0.67 gpm/100ft) 

placed about 1.5 inch deep between 

the 1st and 2nd, and between 3rd and 

4th plant rows. The experiment was 

planted on October 2017, and the treatments 

started approximately a month 

post-planting in 

order to promote a 

good establishment 

Bring the 

heat on 

hard-to-kill 

weeds and 

insects with 

of the crop; during 

that period, overhead 

micro-sprinklers 

was the predominant irrigation 

method. Drip irrigation amounts and 

timing were decided based on ETc 

estimations from the California Irrigation 

Management Information System 

(CIMIS station # 152) weather station, 

and matric potential readings from tensiometers, 

respectively. Water-powered 

injection pumps (Figure 1) blended the 

well water with concentrated salt solutions 

formulated for each treatment at a 

1:100 ratio during every drip irrigation 

event from November 2017 to June 


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2018 (total of 60 drip irrigations). The 

treatments consisted of irrigation water 

with two levels of elevated sodium adsorption 

ratio (SAR, 4.6 and 6.6), three 

levels of elevated chloride (4.2, 7.7 and 

11.7 meq/L), and two levels of elevated 

sulfate (18.3 and 26 meq/L of SO4). Table 

2 displays a complete description of 

the salts’ composition of each treatment. 

Composite soil and leaf blade samples 

were collected from each plot at early, 

mid and late production stages and analyzed 

for pH, ECe, Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, B, 

HCO3, CO3 and SO4 (soil samples), and 

N, P, K, S, B, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, 

Na and Cl (leaf blade samples). Marketable 

and unmarketable yield, and berry 

weight were measured in average twice 

a week from December 2017 through 

June 2018, totaling 54 harvesting events. 

There was a total of 5.8 inches of rainfall 

throughout the entire growing season, 

of which 4.8 inches happened in March, 

between the first and second sampling 

events. 

Results and Discussion 

Total marketable yield of Fronteras 

was significantly (P0.05). The high sulfate 

treatment reduced Fronteras cv. marketable 

yield by 10 percent, although 

the differences were not statistically 

significant (P=0.094). Yield losses due 

to the elevated salts started before plant 

symptoms were noticeable in Fronteras. 

Total marketable yield of the Monterey 

cultivar was not significantly affected 

by any salinity treatment (Figure 3 and 

Table 4, see page 24). Cull rates of both 

cultivars were not affected by the salinity 

treatments. Fronteras berry weight 

was significantly reduced by 6.3 percent 

with the highest chloride treatment 

(11.7 meq/L). Salt concentrations in 

soil and leaf blade samples consistent- 



Number 

1 

2 

Treatments 

Description 

dS/m 

Elevated SAR, I 1.7 

Elevated SAR, II 2.1 

Table 2. Chemical analysis of irrigation water treatments of year 2 (2017/2018 

season). Values represent average of three samples collected from the drip tape 

throughout the season. 

Table 3. Total yield response to treatments, Fronteras cultivar. 

meq/L 

3 

4 

Elevated CI, I 

Elevated CI, II 

1.6 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

7.2 

8.7 

3.6 

4.8 

5.5 

6.3 

4.2 

7.7 

11.7 

11.7 

5 Elevated CI, III 2.3 2.4 10.3 6.2 6.9 11.7 11.8 

6 

7 

Figure 2. Total marketable yield of Fronteras cultivar displayed in boxplot graph; 

in this graph, the box represents the limits between the 25th and the 75th 

percentiles, and the whiskers represent the upper and lower endpoints. The 

horizontal line inside the box represents the median. 

EC 

Elevated SO4, I 1.8 

Elevated SO4, II 2.3 

SAR 

4.6 

6.6 

2.7 

3.1 

Ca 

5.6 

5.5 

5.5 

5.4 

Mg 

2.9 

2.8 

7.9 

12.9 

Na 

9.6 

13.6 

7.0 

9.3 

CI 

1.2 

3.1 

2.1 

2.3 

SO₄ 

16.4 

18.5 

18.3 

26.0 

8 Control 1.3 2.5 5.5 2.8 5.1 1.2 11.9 

*Control water was provided by local water agency (United Water Conservation District). 

Number 

1 

2 

Treatments 

Description 

lbs/acre 

Elevated SAR, I 70,626 

Elevated SAR, II 68,795 

Yield loss* 

4% 

6% 

P-Value 

0.953 

0.618 

3 Elevated CI, I 68,850 6% 0.632 

4 Elevated CI, II 64,075 13% 0.022 

5 Elevated CI, III 61,160 17% 0.001 

6 

7 

Elevated SO4, I 69,689 

Elevated SO4, II 65,756 

8 Control 73,393 

*Compared to Control 

5% 

10% 

0.820 

0.094

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Number 

1 

2 

Treatments 

Description 

lbs/acre 

Elevated SAR, I 51,040 

Elevated SAR, II 50,763 

3 Elevated CI, I 51,725 3% 0.995 

4 Elevated CI, II 53,296 0% 1.000 

5 Elevated CI, III 50,812 5% 0.934 

6 

7 

Elevated SO4, I 52,797 

Elevated SO4, II 51,700 

8 Control 53,243 

*Compared to Control 

Table 4. Total yield response to treatments, Monterey cultivar. 

Yield loss* 

4% 

5% 

1% 

3% 

P-Value 

0.960 

0.928 

1.000 

0.995 


ly increased with the higher salinity 

treatments for both cultivars (data not 

shown). 

The rainfall events that occurred between 

the first and second samplings 

contributed to significant leaching of 

salts from the root zone (0-12 inch 

depth), which made overall ECe values 

from the second sampling date very 

similar to the values measured during 

the first date. Hence, yield losses 

observed in this experiment may have 

been greater, and occurred sooner if 

the rainfall during that period had 

been less. Additionally, plant symptoms 

of the salinity treatments, which 

were not observed until mid-May, may 

have been observable sooner with less 

intense precipitation. Overall, the most 

surprising finding of this study is the 

marked differences in yield response to 

the salinity treatments between the two 

cultivars. While Fronteras proved to be 

highly susceptible to increased irrigation 

water salinity, especially in regards 

with chloride, Monterey cv. presented 

limited and statistically not significant 

yield declines. Accordingly, other major 

public and proprietary strawberry 

cultivars may also exhibit a range of susceptibility 

to salinity. It is also reasonable 

to expect greater yield losses of the 

cultivar Fronteras grown on fields that 

have been farmed with irrigation water 

quality equivalent to the treatments of 

this study for years. In that case, plant 

establishment can be compromised by 

the increased water and soil salinity, especially 

if the irrigation wasn’t managed 

with the appropriate leaching requirement 

to the water quality. The fact that 

the Monterey cultivar did not respond 

to the salinity treatments included in 

this study may be related to significantly 

greater chloride levels found in the 

irrigation water of the Watsonville area, 

where the cultivar was selected and tested 

before being released to commercial 

production. 

In summary, the findings of this study 

conclude that the strawberry cultivar 

Fronteras is highly susceptible to elevated 

chloride levels, and that salinity 

effects on strawberry yield is cultivar 

dependent. Although this study provides 

conclusive information of salinity 

effects on Fronteras and some information 

about Monterey cultivar, the quest 

to understanding the impact of salts on 

the main strawberry cultivars is very 

challenging and most likely far from 

being achieved. 

References 

Ayers, R.S. and D.W. Westcot, 1985. 

FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29: 

Water quality for agriculture. In Crop 

tolerance to salinity. http://www.fao. 

org/3/T0234E/T0234E03.htm#ch2.4.3 

Rhoades, J.D., A. Kandiah and A.M. 

Mashali. 1992. FAO Irrigation and 

Drainage Paper 48: The use of saline waters 

for crop production: http://www. 

fao.org/3/t0667e/t0667e00.htm 




Figure 3. Total marketable yield of Monterey cultivar displayed in boxplot graph. 


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25

California’s Prune Orchard 

OF THE Future 

BY LUKE MILLIRON | UCCE Farm Advisor for Butte, Glenn and Tehama Counties 

AND FRANZ NIEDERHOLZER | UCCE Farm Advisor for Colusa, Sutter and Yuba Counties 

AND DANI LIGHTLE | UCCE Orchards Systems Advisor for Glenn, Butte and Tehama Counties 

AND KATHERINE JARVIS-SHEAN | UCCE Orchards Systems Advisor for Sacramento, Solano and Yolo Counties 

Figure 1. An unheaded 2nd leaf prune tree in March 2017 in Glenn County with traditionally headed trees in the 

background. This Glenn County grower is experimenting on their own with various tree training regimes. 

California will likely have a large 

prune crop in 2019 following 

favorable bloom conditions and 

lower yields in 2018. Unfortunately, 

in prune production with larger crops 

typically comes smaller fruit, of which 

there is currently an over-supply in 

the world market. High production of 

small fruit world-wide has come at a 

time when demand for small fruit from 

consuming nations like China, Brazil, 

and Russia has been in decline. California 

handlers have been strongly urging 

their growers to use shaker thinning to 

reduce the fruit number during spring 

and help deliver large, high-quality fruit 

at harvest. 

To be successful, the prune orchard of 

the future is going to have to thread the 

needle of achieving earlier production 

in its life cycle and maintaining high 

and consistent yields in maturity, all 

while attaining large average fruit size 

each year. Prunes come into production 

later than many other orchard crops. 

One way to increase early production 

is to reduce or eliminate severe heading 


cuts during tree training. Subsequently, 

yield potential at orchard maturity may 

be increased over historical production 

levels in some situations by striking a 

new balance between spacing and rootstock 

vigor for increased canopy volume 

and higher light interception. Finally, 

the key mechanism for achieving more 

consistent yields and larger fruit size in 

prune production has been to thin the 

crop with mechanical shaking following 

good bloom conditions like we had this 

year. Shaker thinning will likely continue 

to be the foundation of consistent 

yields for future orchards. 

Pruning Prunes: Greater Early 

Production by Avoiding Heading 

Cuts During Establishment 

University of California (UC) research 

has shown that earlier and greater 

production can be achieved in both 

almonds and walnuts by reducing 

the severity of pruning during tree 

establishment. This has been done by 

reducing or eliminating the use of severe 

heading cuts (Figure 1) during tree 

establishment. In pruning, “heading 

cuts” reduce the length of a limb, while 

“thinning cuts” completely remove the 

limb. Although historical orchard tree 

training often calls for severe heading 

cuts (e.g. cutting back ½ or more of the 

1st year growth during the first dormant 

period), leaving limbs unheaded can 

lead to earlier fruit production. 

Bill Krueger, now a UC Cooperative 

farm advisor emeritus, tested several 

pruning regimes for newly planted 

prune trees from 1996 through 2000. 

The most successful of these pruning 

regimes all minimized the severity of 

pruning. Yield and profitability were 

greatest in the treatment that selected 

three to five scaffolds at the first dormant 

and bent back competing limbs 

(nearly to, or to the point of breaking 

to reduce competitiveness). Competing 

limbs were again bent at second and 

third dormant, and finally limbs were 

left unheaded at fourth dormant. In all 

four years of this treatment, pruning 

cuts were made for selective thinning 

(complete limb removal) to help shape 

the tree into a vase-shape and elimi-

SOURCES: 

Figure 2. Measuring both almond yield (kernel lbs/ac) and midday 

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) percentage have shown a direct 

relationship of 40 kernel lb/ac per 1 percent PAR. Photo courtesy of 

Lampinen Lab, UC Davis. 

nate competing or crossing branches. 

Other treatments that both yielded 

well and had the highest total income 

selected either 3 or 3-5 scaffolds and 

either left those scaffolds unheaded or 

lightly tipped in the first dormant. In 

the 2nd, 3rd and 4th dormant these 

other successful treatments had various 

sequences of either being unheaded 

(but still making thinning cuts) or leaving 

the trees completely unpruned. By 

contrast, the severe pruning treatment 

that had the lowest cumulative dry yield 

and income selected three scaffolds at 

the first dormant and then headed new 

limb growth back to 30 inches in the 1st 

through 4th dormant. 

You can read the full report from 2000, 

which is the second listed report at: 

ucanr.edu/sites/driedplum/show_categories/General_Pruning/ 

Joe Turkovich, Winters area grower 

and Chairman of the California Prune 

Board developed his own minimal 

pruning training method, which he 

describes as a modified version of the 

"long pruning" method described by 

Krueger and others in the UC Prune 

Production Manual. First used in the 

early 1990’s, the goal of his approach 

is to create an upright canopy framework 

with a strong interior architecture 

capable of bearing large crops without 

the need for wiring, rope, or propping. 

It allows for early bearing and isolates 

breakage to flatter, bearing side limbs. 




27


It involves the almost exclusive use of 

thinning cuts as opposed to heading 

cuts. Turkovich heads the dormant 

bareroot trees at 40 inches at planting 

to allow space for vertical separation 

between the future primary scaffolds. 

Scaffolds are selected during October 

of the first year of growth and left 

unheaded. In May of the 2nd year, the 

three scaffolds are lightly tipped back 

(approximate height nine feet) to keep 

them from bending out of position, and 

approximately a third of new growth 

is thinned out (in particular, removing 

crossing-limbs, while allowing flat fruiting 

wood to develop). In the dormant 

period between year two and three (or 

during the summer of year three) the 

only pruning that occurs is to select 

or promote the growth of secondary 

leaders (two per scaffold). Again, no 

heading cuts are done, and no attempt 

is made to "open up the tree". Between 

year three and four, again, no heading 

cuts. Excessive side limbs are removed 

or tipped to prevent over-bearing and 

breakage and tertiary leaders are selected 

or promoted, two per secondary 

leader. In subsequent years he continues 

to avoid heading cuts, never topping the 

trees. If tree height needs to be reduced, 

leaders are thinned back to strong side 

upright limbs three to five feet below the 

top of the tree. On 18' by 16' spacing, 

Turkovich reports this orchard training 

approach has yielded approximately 0.6 

tons in the 3rd leaf, 1.2 in the 4th, 3.0 in 

the 5th and an average of 4.5-5.5 tons/ac 

of high-quality fruit in the 6th year and 

beyond. 

Whether utilizing one of the minimal 

pruning regimes tested by Bill Krueger 

or the approach utilized by Joe Turkovich, 

minimizing severe heading cuts 

during tree establishment can lead to 

improved early yields. 

Tighter Spacing and Greater Light 

Interception in the Prune Orchard of 

the Future: 

Increased Canopy Volume → 

Increased Light Interception → 

Increased Yield Potential 

At maturity, higher yields could be 

Figure 3. Two clusters of prune yield (dry tons/acre) versus midday light 

interception (%), grouped by row spacing. Photo courtesy of E. Fichtner 

and F. Niederholzer. 

achieved in many California prune 

orchards by capturing more light with 

the choice of a more vigorous rootstock, 

and/or planting at a closer spacing. We 

all know that fruit and leaves grow on 

branches, and that fruit need the sugar 

production from neighboring leaves 

to grow and sweeten. Thus, one way to 

think about the yield potential of an orchard 

is how many fruit-leaf groupings 

(also called bearing units) are spread 

out over the orchard. In other words, 

increasing the amount of space in the 

orchard taken up by the orchard canopy 

(instead of open, unused space) will 

increase your yield potential per acre. 

One measure of canopy size is how 

much light that canopy intercepts. Light 

that is intercepted by the leafy canopy 

and doesn’t reach the orchard floor is 

measured as midday photosynthetically 

active radiation (percent PAR). Work 

by the laboratory of Bruce Lampinen, 

University of California Cooperative 

Extension (UCCE) orchard specialist 

at UC Davis, has found that for every 1 

percent of light that an almond orchard 

captures there is an average of 40 lbs/ac 

increased yield in all measured orchards 

(Figure 2, see page 27). Lampinen has 

found this relationship between greater 

light capture and greater yield potential 

in both almond and walnut production. 

Light interception isn’t the only determinant 

of yield of course, therefore 

these are “potential” yields and depend 

on proper irrigation, fertilization, pest 

and disease management. 

Light Interception and Yield 

Potential in Prune Production 

Although the relationship between 

canopy light interception and yield 

has not been as well studied in prune 

production, there does appear to be a 

clear relationship from the limited data 

available (see Figure 3). Although there 

is substantial variation, the denser 14 

feet x 17 feet planting in this example is 

achieving between 60-80 percent light 

interception and is clearly out yielding 

the wider spaced plantings that are only 

capturing 30-45 percent of midday light, 

common in many California prune 

orchards. The 16 foot in-row spacings 

of the wider plantings appear as discrete 

trees (they do not touch), while the 

spacing 14 feet by 17 feet have created 

continuous hedgerows (Figure 4, see 

page 30). This tighter (183 trees/acre) 

spacing illustrates the 14 feet by 17 feet 

6-8 dry tons/ac yield potential of prune 

orchards in excellent cropping years. 

Prune orchard spacing has historically 

been determined by the constraints 

of harvest equipment. However, some 

growers are instead shifting this paradigm 

and beginning to modify their 

equipment to get through tighter 

spacings. Many questions and potential 

challenges arise due to this shift in paradigm 

and will be addressed through 

experimentation by innovative growers 

and UC researchers. 

For more considerations impacting 



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remove 91.2 pounds of K 2 

O per 1,000 kernel pounds every season. KTS® is the 

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29

Figure 4. Two orchards with contrasting spacing, light interception and yield potential. Left photo courtesy 

of E. Fichtner. Right photo courtesy of F. Niederholzer. 


spacing and light interception, including 

rootstock vigor and soil type, per 

tree costs and mechanical hedging, see: 

cebutte.ucanr.edu/newsletters/Prune_ 

Notes79781.pdf 

Consistent Large Fruit Size 

The final component to remaining 

competitive with the increased production 

levels in Chile and Argentina, is 

achieving large, high-quality fruit each 

and every-year. The key approach to 

achieving consistent large fruit size is 

shaker thinning in years like 2019 when 

a high percentage of flowers set fruit 

(far too many for the tree to achieve a 

large average fruit size). Fruit thinning 

occurs roughly at “reference date” or 

when 80-90 percent of fruit have a visible 

“endosperm”. 

Endosperm is a clear gel-like glob that 

can be excised with a knife point from 

the blossom end of the seed (Figure 5). 

Reference date is roughly one week after 

the pit tip begins to harden and timing 

is typically late April or early May. Although 

the earlier thinning is done, the 

greater the effect will be on final fruit 

size at harvest, if you thin too early you 

can damage the tree without effectively 

removing fruit. 

UC Cooperative Extension orchard 

farm advisor Dani Lightle developed a 

great guide to shaker thinning that computes 

the required calculations for you: 


sacvalleyorchards.com/prunes/horticulture-prunes/prune-thinning-calculator/ 

Thinning is a critical practice for several 

reasons. When production of small 

fruit is up worldwide at the same time 

demand for small fruit is in decline, 

achieving large average fruit size is an 

absolute imperative. Not only do small 

fruit have substantially less value (or 

even no value in some cases), they are 

costlier to harvest and dry. Setting a 

large crop of small fruit can also be a 

great stressor on an orchard creating a 

large sink for potassium demand and 

causing limb breakage. Finally, since 

not every year’s bloom creates favorable 

conditions for fruit set, over-cropping 

can set up a vicious cycle of having fewer 

flowers that will be blooming during 

an uncertain bloom period in the subsequent 

year. In other words, thinning 

enables a high flower density each year. 

Even if bloom conditions are poor and 

set is low, a low percentage of fruit set 

from a high number of flowers is much 

better than low set from only a few 

flowers. Mechanical thinning enables 

the production of higher-value fruit, 

avoids the drain of costly small fruit and 

sets up the orchard for more sustainable 

year-to-year production. 

Three key practices for maximizing orchard 

productivity are utilizing reduced 

severity of pruning during canopy training, 

achieving higher yield potential by 

maximizing canopy light interception 

and consistently attaining large average 

fruit size through thinning. These 

practices may be part of what gives the 

California prune orchard of the future a 

competitive edge in the global market. 

This work is made possible by the 

funding support of the California Prune 

Board. Special thanks to Mark Gilles 

(Sunsweet) for his input on prune 

orchard spacing both historically and 

currently. Special thanks also to Joe 

Turkovich who kindly provided the details 

of his modified version of the "long 

pruning" method. 




Figure 5. Extraction of the 

endosperm on a developing prune. 

Photo courtesy of M.L. Poe.

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31

Colletotrichum 

Dieback in 

California 

Citrus 

BY GREG W. DOUHAN | UCCE Area Citrus Advisor for Tulare, 

Fresno, and Madera Counties 

AND AKIF ESKALEN | Department of Plant Pathology, UC Davis 

AND JOEY S. MAYORQUIN| Department of Microbiology and 

Plant Pathology, UC Riverside 

November 20th, 2019 

7:00 AM - 1:00 PM 

Tulare Fairgrounds 

215 Martin Luther King Jr Ave, Tulare, CA 93274 

For More Information, See Page 37 


The 2017-2018 United States 

(U.S.) citrus crop was valued at 

3.28 billion dollars with California’s 

citrus production accounting for 

59 percent of the overall U.S. production. 

Much of California’s bearing 

acreage is devoted to orange production, 

however other citrus varieties 

of tangerine, mandarin, lemon and 

grapefruit are grown throughout the 

state. As the California citrus industry 

contributes to over half of the total U.S. 

citrus production, the identification 

and management of new disease threats 

is crucial. 

Colletotrichum, a Globally 

Distributed Fungus 

Colletotrichum constitutes a large 

genus of fungi which are known for 

having diverse ecological roles ranging 

from endophytes, fungi living within 

plant tissues and causing no known 

problems, to plant pathogens that can 

kill entire plants or portions of the 

plant. Colletotrichum includes some 

important fungal pathogens of numerous 

plant hosts including native and 

agricultural plant species occurring in 

tropical and subtropical regions in the 

world. Colletotrichum is well-known for 

causing various anthracnose diseases on 

many plants, with general anthracnose 

symptoms including necrotic lesions 

on various plant parts including stems, 

leaves, flowers and fruits. Although 

Colletotrichum is primarily described 

as causing anthracnose diseases, other 

diseases such as rots caused by Colletotrichum 

spp. have been documented. 

Currently, over 100 species of Colletotrichum 

have been described and 

recent phylogenetic studies (which 

show the relationship among organisms) 

based on the analysis of DNA has 

found that at least 71 unique phylogenetic 

species exist within three well 

known ‘species’ of Colletotrichum based 

on traditional morphology; C. gloeosporioides, 

C. acutatum, and C. boninense. 

The large species diversity within the 

Colletotrichum genus highlights the 

importance of DNA phylogenies to 

accurately identify species. With respect 

to citrus, two species of Colletotrichum, 

C. gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & 

Sacc. and C. acutatum J.H. Simmonds, 

have been associated with anthracnose 

diseases of citrus. These anthracnose 

diseases, which include post-harvest anthracnose, 

postbloom fruit drop (PFD), 

and key lime anthracnose (KLA) are of 

great economic importance as postharvest 

diseases. However, recent evidence 

is suggesting that additional species of 

Colletotrichum previously unknown 

from citrus are causing diseases of citrus 

globally, particularly from the C. boninense 

species complex. 

Colletotrichum karstii You L. Yang, Zuo 

Y. Liu, K.D. Hyde & L. Cai (C. boninense 

species complex) has been increasingly 

reported from anthracnose symptoms 

of citrus worldwide and is often found 

to occur in association with other Colletotrichum 

spp., particularly C. gloeospo- 


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one species may be present. Historically, 

C. gloeosporioides sensu stricto 

has been the only species associated 

with anthracnose diseases of citrus in 

California. 

C. karstii, a ‘New’ Species Associated 

With Citrus in California 

A 

C 


rioides which generally predominates 

within citrus hosts. C. karstii has been 

increasingly reported from anthracnose 

diseases of other crops including 

avocado, mango, and persimmon and 

is considered the most common and 

widely distributed species of the C. 

boninense species complex. Although C. 

karstii has been reported from citrus in 

China, Italy, and Portugal, in the United 

States C. karstii has only been reported 

from other host species. 

B 

D 

Figure 1. Symptoms of Colletotrichum Dieback. A) Shoot dieback symptoms on 

Clementine, B) Gumming symptoms on an infested shoot. C) Branch dieback 

symptoms on Clementine. D) Wood discoloration and canker on the wood. 

Colletotrichum Symptomology 

Recently, unusual disease symptoms 

associated with Colletotrichum spp. 

have been observed frequently in various 

citrus orchards in the San Joaquin 

Valley of California (Eskalen, per ob). 

Symptoms include leaf chlorosis, twig 

and shoot dieback, crown thinning, 

wood cankers in branches and in some 

cases death of young plants (Figure 1). 

Isolations from diseased tissues yielded 

typical Colletotrichum species based 

on colony morphology but slight differences 

also suggested that more than 

Recent work by researchers at the 

University of California have now 

identified C. karstii as a new pathogen 

of citrus causing twig and shoot 

dieback with or without gumming and 

occasionally branch dieback and wood 

canker in the Central Valley of California. 

Pathogenicity tests on clementine 

mandarin also confirmed that C. 

karstii is a more aggressive pathogen 

of citrus in California compared to 

C. gloeosporioides based on in planta 

experiments (Figure 2, see page 35). 

Based on a survey of samples collected 

throughout the Central Valley, this 

same research also found that both 

species are commonly isolated from 

symptomatic tissues and were often 

found co-infecting the symptomatic 

samples. However, the researchers also 

never found other known wood canker 

pathogen species of citrus within 

the Botryosphaeriaceae and Diatrypaceae 

from samples in which both 

Colletotrichum species were isolated. 

Unlike anthracnose which can cause 

twig dieback and is associated with C. 

gloeosporioides, this disease is associated 

with two species of Colletotrichum 

and is not limited to twig dieback 

alone but is also associated with shoot 

dieback and in some cases, woody 

cankers. Taken together, this confirms 

C. karstii as a new pathogen of citrus 

in California causing a disease distinct 

from anthracnose which is caused by 

C. gloeosporioides. 

The association of C. karstii with 

citrus twig and shoot dieback in 

California represents a significant 

finding since C. karstii appears now 

to be a new pathogen of citrus in the 

United States. Anthracnose disease of 

citrus has mainly been attributed to C. 

gloeosporioides and C. acutatum which 


Mean Lesion Length (cm) 

C. karstii C. gloeosporioides Control 

Fungal Isolates 

Figure 2. Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum spp. on ‘4B’ clementine after 15 months. Vertical 

lines represent standard error of the mean. 

results were found with 

other spore trap studies 

in California. Wounding 

is also known to predispose 

plants to infection by 

Colletotrichum and typical 

agricultural practices and 

the environment in California 

citrus groves (pruning, 

shearing, wind/sand 

damage) give both of these 

species the opportunity to 

colonize citrus trees. Based 

on recent research, symptoms 

were observed during 

the late spring and summer 

months, with no new 

symptoms being observed 

into fall, winter and early 

spring. This suggests that 

young, tender tissues developing 

in the late spring are 

likely necessary for initial 

pathogen colonization. 


are considered mainly as foliar and 

fruit pathogens. Although symptoms of 

anthracnose caused by C. gloeosporioides 

in citrus include twig dieback, leaf 

drop and necrosis on fruits as a postharvest 

disease, a progression to shoot 

dieback and association with branch 

dieback and wood cankers has not been 

observed. 

Although little is known regarding the 

epidemiology of C. karstii on citrus, 

several environmental factors are likely 

important for the dissemination and 

progression of this disease. Relative 

humidity and precipitation in citrus 

orchards in California play an important 

role in the epidemiology of Colletotrichum 

infection whereby conidia 

dispersed by rain and humidity are 

conducive to pathogen spread. Our 

spore trap study showed that spore trapping 

of Colletotrichum species occurred 

most frequently during the months with 

the highest precipitation (Figure 3), 

however Colletotrichum spp. were not 

always correlated with rainfall. Similar 



35


Management Practices for 

Colletotrichum Dieback 

Currently no strategies exist for the 

management of this emerging disease in 

citrus. Adherence to cultural practices 

recommended for the management of 

other canker and dieback pathogens 

should be followed. These practices 

include maintaining trees in good condition 

through appropriate irrigation 

regimens and proper fertilization, removal 

of infested branches and pruning 

debris during dry periods followed by 

immediate disposal of infested material, 

and sanitizing pruning equipment. 

Chemical management using fungicides 

is being investigated and these methods 

may become part of an integrated pest 

management strategy for Colletotrichum 

diseases of citrus in California. 

Acknowledgements 

Financial support for this project was 

provided by the Citrus Research Board 

(Project # 5400-152). Plants used for 

pathogenicity tests were kindly donated 

by Wonderful Citrus. We thank D. 

Trannam, R. Yuan, K. Sugino, Q. Douhan, 

and our cooperating citrus growers 

for assistance in the lab and field. 




Average Temperature (°C)/CFU 

Average Temperature (°C)/CFU 

Kern Co. 

Month 

Tulare Co. 

Total Precipitation (in)/Average Relative Humidity (%) 

Total Precipitation (in)/Average Relative Humidity (%) 

Month 

Figure 3. Monthly spore trap counts with temperature (°C), precipitation 

(mm), and relative humidity (%) for (a) Kern and (b) Tulare counties. Vertical 

bars represent total colony forming units (CFU) counted from each citrus 

orchard by month. Lines represent average monthly temperature (°C) and 

relative humidity (%) and total monthly precipitation (mm). 


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37

Evaluating Biostimulant 

and Nutrient Inputs to 

Improve Tomato Yields 

and Crop Health 

BY SURENDRA K. DARA | Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, UCCE 

AND ED LEWIS | Head, Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology, and 

Nematolody, University of Idaho 

California is the leading producer 

of tomatoes, especially 

for the processing market 

(California Department of Food and 

Agriculture (CDFA), 2019). Tomato is 

the 8th most important commodity in 

California valued at $1.05 billion. Processed 

tomatoes are ranked 6th among 

the exported commodities with a value 

of $813 million. While good nutrient 

management is necessary for optimal 

growth, health, and yields of any crop, 

certain products that contain minerals, 

beneficial microbes, biostimulants, and 

other such products are gaining popularity 

as they are expected to improve 

crop health and yield, impart soil or 

drought resistance, induce systemic 

resistance, or improve plant's immune 

responses to pests, diseases, and other 

stress factors (Berg, 2009; Bakhat et 

al., 2018; Chandra et al., 2018; Shameer 

and Prasad, 2018). Maintaining 

optimal plant health through nutrient 

management is not only important 

for yield improvement, but also an 

important part of integrated pest management 

strategy since healthy plants 

can withstand pest and disease pressure 

more than weaker plants and thus reduce 

the need for pesticide treatments. 

Methodology 

A study was initiated in the summer 

2017 to evaluate the impact of various 

treatment programs on tomato plant 

health and yield. Processing tomato 


Experimental plots, transplanting, and treatment details. All photos courtesy of Surendra K. Dara. 


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cultivar Rutgers was seeded on June 

7th and transplanted on July 18th, 

2017 using a mechanical transplanter. 

Monoammonium phosphate (11-52-0) 

was applied at 250 lb/ac as a side-dress 

on August 7th as a standard for all 

treatments. Since planting was done 

later in the season, crop duration and 

harvesting period were delayed due 

to the onset of fall weather. Plots were 

sprinkler irrigated daily or every other 

day for three to four hours for about 

two weeks after transplanting. Drip 

irrigation was initiated from the beginning 

of August for 12-14 hours each 

week and for a shorter period from 

mid October onwards. 

There were five treatments in the study 

including the standard. Each treatment 

had a 38 inch wide and 300 foot long 

bed with a single row of tomato plants. 

Treatments were replicated four times 

and arranged in a randomized complete 

block design. Different materials 

were applied through drip using a 

Dosatron injector system, sprayed at 

the base of the plants with a handheld 

sprayer, or as a foliar spray using a 

tractor-mounted sprayer based on the 

following regimens. 

A 50 foot long area was marked in the 

center of each plot for observations. 

Plant health was monitored on August 

1st, 8th, and 22nd by examining each 

plant and rating them on a scale of 5 

where 0 represented a dead plant and 5 

represented a very healthy plant. Yield 

data were collected from October 11th 

to December 5th on eight harvest 

dates by harvesting red tomatoes from 

each plot. On the last harvest date, mature 

green tomatoes were also harvested 

and included in the yield evaluation. 

Data were analyzed using analysis of 

variance and Tukey's HSD test was 

used for means separation. 

Results and Discussion 

There was no statistically significant 

difference (P > 0.05) in the health of 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Standard 

AgSil® 21 at 8.75 fl oz/ac in 100 gal of water through drip (for 30 

minutes) every three weeks from July 31st to November 13th (6 times). 

AgSil 21 contains potassium (12.7 percent K2O) and silicon (26.5 

percent SiO2) and is expected to help plants with mineral and climate 

stress, improve strength, and increase growth and yields. 

Yeti BloomTM at 1 ml/gallon of water. Applied to the roots of the 

transplants one day before transplanting followed by weekly field 

application through the drip system from August 7th to November 13th 

(15 times). Yeti is marketed as a biostimulant and has a consortium of 

beneficial bacteria—Pseudomonas putida, Comamonas testosterone, 

Citrobacter freundii, and Enterobacter cloacae. Yeti Bloom is 

expected to enhance the soil microbial activity and helps with 

improved nutrient absorption. 

Tech-Flo®/Tech-Spray® program contained five products that 

supplied a variety of macro and micro nutrients. Products were applied 

through drip (for 30 min) at the following rates and frequencies in 

300gal of water. 

1. Tech-Flo All Season Blend #1 1 qrt/ac in transplant water and again 

at first bloom on August 28th. 

2. Tech-Flo Cal-Bor+Moly at 2 qrt/ac at first bloom on August 28th. 

3. Tech-Flo Omega at 2 qrt/ac in transplant water and again on 

September 11th (two weeks after the first bloom). 

4. Tech-Flo Sigma at 2 qrt/ac on September 11th (two weeks after the 

first bloom). 

5. Tech-Spray Hi-K at 2 qrt starting at early color break on September 

25th with three follow up applications every two weeks. 

Innovak Global program contained four products. 

1. ATP Transfer UP at 2 ml/liter of water sprayed over the transplants to 

the point of runoff just before transplanting. Three more applications were 

made through drip (for 30 min) on August 7th and 21st and September 

4th. This product contains ECCA Carboxy® acids that promote plant 

metabolism and expected to impart resistance to stress factors. 

2. Nutrisorb-L at 40 fl oz/ac applied through drip (for 30 min) on 31 

July, 14 August (vegetative growth stage), 4 and 18 September, and 2 

October (bloom through fruiting). Nutrisorb-L contains poly hydroxyl 

carboxylic acids, which are expected to promote root growth and improve 

nutrient and water absorption. 

3. Biofit®N at 2 lb/ac through drip (for 30 min) on July 31st, August 21st 

(three weeks after the first), and September 4th (at first bloom). Biofit 

contains a blend of beneficial microbes—Azotobacter chroococcum, 

Bacillus subtilis, B. megaterium, B. mycoides, and Trichoderma 

harzianum. This product is expected to improve the beneficial microbial 

activity in the soil and thus contribute to improved soil structure, root 

development, plant health, and ability to withstand stress factors. 

4. Packhard at 50 fl oz/ac in 50 gal of water as a foliar spray twice 

during early fruit development (on September 11th and 18th) and every 

two weeks during the harvest period (four times from October 2nd to 

November13th). Contains calcium and boron that improve fruit quality 

and reduce postharvest issues.


the plants in August (Figure 1) or in the 

overall seasonal yield (Figure 2) among 

treatments. The average health rating 

from three observations was 3.94 for the 

standard, 4.03 for AgSil 21, 4.45 for Yeti 

Bloom, 4.38 for Tech-Flo/Spray program, 

and 4.35 Innovak Global program. 

When the seasonal total yield per plot 

was compared, Yeti Bloom had 194.1 lb 

followed by, Innovak program (191.5 lb), 

AgSil 21 (187.3 lb), the standard (147.4 lb) 

and Tech-Flo/Spray program (136.5 lb). 

Due to the lack of significant differences, 

it is difficult to comment on the efficacy 

of treatments, but the yield from AgSil 21 

was 27 percent more than the standard 

while yields from Innovak program and 

Yeti Bloom were about 30 percent and 32 

percent higher, respectively. 

Studies indicate that plants can benefit 

from the application of certain minerals 

such as silicon compounds and beneficial 

microorganisms, in addition to optimal 

nutrient inputs. Silicon is considered as 

a beneficial nutrient, which triggers the 

production of plant defense mechanisms 

against pests and diseases (Bakhat et al., 

2018). Although pest and disease conditions 

were not monitored in this study, 

silverleaf whitefly (Bamisia tabaci) infestations 

and mild yellowing of foliage in some 

plants due to unknown biotic or abiotic 

stress were noticed. AgSil 21 contains 

26.5 percent of silica as silicon dioxide 

and could have helped tomato plants to 

withstand biotic or abiotic stress factors. 

Similarly, beneficial microbes also promote 

plant growth and health through improved 

nutrient and water absorption and imparting 

the ability to withstand stresses (Berg, 

2009; Shameer and Prasad, 2018). Beneficial 

microbes in Yeti Bloom and Biofit®N 

might have helped the tomato plants in 

withstanding stress factors and improved 

nutrient absorption. Other materials applied 

in the Innovak program might have 

also provided additional nutrition and 

sustained microbial activity. 

The scope of the study, with available 

resources, was to measure the impact of 

various treatments on tomato crop health 


Figure 1. Plant health on a 0 (dead) to 5 (very healthy) rating on 

three observation dates. 

Figure 2. Seasonal total yield/plot from different treatments. 

Figure 3. Percent difference in tomato yield between the standard 

and other treatment programs. 



41


and yield. Additional studies with soil 

and plant tissue analyses, monitoring 

pests and diseases, and their impact on 

yield would be useful. 

Acknowledgements: Thanks to Veronica 

Sanchez, Neal Hudson, Sean White, 

and Sumanth Dara for their technical 

assistance and the collaborating companies 

for product samples or providing 

financial assistance. 

References 

Bakhat, H. F., B. Najma, Z. Zia, S. 

Abbas, H. M. Hammad, S. Fahad, M. 

R. Ashraf, G. M. Shah, F. Rabbani, S. 

Saeed. 2018. Silicon mitigates biotic 

stresses in crop plants: a review. Crop 

Protection 104: 21-34. DOI: 10.1016/j. 

cropro.2017.10.008. 

Berg, G. 2009. Plant-microbe interactions 

promoting plant growth and 

health: perspectives for controlled use 

of microorganisms in agriculture. Appl. 

Microbiol. Biotechnol. 84: 11-18. DOI: 

10.1007/s00253-009-2092-7. 

CDFA (California Department of Food 

and Agriculture). 2019. California 

agricultural statistics review 2017-2018. 

(https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/ 

PDFs/2017-18AgReport.pdf) 

Chandra, D., A. Barh, and I. P. Sharma. 

2018. Plant growth promoting bacteria: 

a gateway to sustainable agriculture. 

In: Microbial biotechnology in environmental 

monitoring and cleanup. 

Editors: A. Sharma and P. Bhatt, IGI 

Global, pp. 318-338. 

Shameer, S. and T.N.V.K.V. Prasad. 

2018. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria 

for sustainable agricultural 

practices with special reference to biotic 

and abiotic stresses. Plant Growth Regulation, 

pp.1-13. DOI: 10.1007/s10725- 

017-0365-1. 




For Immediate Release: 

Dr. Surendra Dara, entomology and biologicals advisor with the University of California 

Cooperative Extension, has been selected for the Distinguished Achievement Award in 

Extension from the Entomological Society of America that has more than 7000 members 

worldwide. This prestigious national level award recognizes outstanding contributions to 

extension entomology. His research and extension program creates innovative solutions for 

sustainable crop production and protection, and he reaches out to the agricultural community 

locally, regionally, and internationally. Details of this award and Dr. Dara’s credentials, 

achievements, and current research efforts can be found on the internet at https://www. 

entsoc.org/esa-names-winners-2019-professional-and-student-awards. Dr. Dara’s faculty 

profile can be seen at https://ucanr.edu/index.cfm?facultyid=4458 

INCORPORAT ED 


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43

Mechanistic 

INSIGHT 

into the Salt 

Tolerance of 

Almonds 

BY DEVINDER SANDHU 

USDA-ARS, US Salinity Lab, 

Riverside California 

AND BISWA R. ACHARYA 

University of California Riverside 

Good quality water is extremely important for agriculture 

throughout the world. However, due to reduced availability 

of water and increasing food demands, future use of degraded 

waters is evident. One of the major concerns of utilizing degraded 

waters for irrigation is their high salt concentration. 

Salinity is one of the main abiotic stresses faced by the agriculture 

industry. Modest increase of soil salinity level impacts both plant 

growth and yield by causing several physiological and biochemical 

changes. Based on salt tolerance level plants are classified broadly 

in two groups: halophytes and glycophytes. The halophytes have 

special mechanisms to tolerate high concentrations of salts and 

therefore can grow in saline environments. The majority of plants 

(including almonds) are glycophytes and cannot tolerate high salt 

concentrations and so grow in soil containing low salts. However, 

among glycophytes, salt tolerance level varies tremendously not only 

at the species level but also at the variety level within a species. This 

variation is directly dependent on the functional status of various 

molecular components that play critical roles to protect the plant 

during salt stress. 

In the initial stages of salinity exposure, a plant faces 

osmotic stress, resulting in ion imbalance in cells, 

membrane disintegration and reduced photosynthesis. 

In addition, osmotic stress in the root sends a 

signal throughout the plant causing reprograming 

of physiological and molecular activities to initiate 

defense response against salinity stress. Slowly ionic 

stress develops, leading to accumulation of Na + 



Figure 1. Evaluation of salinity tolerance of 16 almond rootstocks irrigated with waters of different ion compositions. 

Photo courtesy of Devinder Sandhu. 

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45 

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(sodium ions) and Cl- (chloride ions) in 

plant tissues. High ion concentrations 

are not only toxic but also interfere with 

absorption of essential nutrients by a 

plant. High Na + and Cl- levels interfere 

in many molecular, biochemical, metabolic 

and physiological processes which 

could also lead to unnatural senescence 

and cell death. For plant species that are 

moderately tolerant to salinity, osmotic 

stress may play an important role. 

However, for species sensitive to salinity 

such as almonds, low salt concentration 

is able to impose ionic stress that may 

reach to an intolerable level, whereas it 

may not generate osmotic stress critical 

for plant growth. Hence, when studying 

salinity stress in almonds, it is important 

to focus on responses related to 

ionic stress and the exposure to salinity 

should be gradual to avoid any osmotic 

shock. This also mimics field conditions 

in an almond orchard, as during spring 

salt moves to subsurface layers due to 

the rain and slowly moves to upper 

layers during summer, which leads to 

gradual increase in root zone salinity. 

Due to a continuous increase in cultivated 

area under almonds, farmers are 

forced to utilize marginal lands with 

low quality saline water for irrigation. 

In almonds, rootstock plays an important 

role in regulating plant growth 

in salinity stressed 

environment. 

Hence, the 

development 

of 

new almond 

rootstocks 

tolerant to 

salinity is 

“ 

Due to a continuous increase in 

cultivated area under almonds, 

farmers are forced to utilize 

marginal lands with low quality 

saline water for irrigation. 

” 

highly desirable. In the last two decades, 

several studies focusing on screening 

almond rootstocks for salinity tolerance 

have been conducted and some 

tolerant rootstocks have been identified. 

However, a comprehensive approach to 

screen and develop new rootstocks with 

enhanced salinity is missing in almonds. 

Impact of Salinity on Water 

Relations and Photosynthesis 

Water uptake by a plant is drastically 

affected under salinity, which leads to 

reduced water potential, relative water 

content, stomatal conductance and 

transpiration. As plants take nutrients 

with water, reduced water uptake also 

decreases tissue concentration of essential 

nutrients affecting plant growth. In 

addition, high salt concentrations also 

affect homeostasis, osmoregulation and 

net photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is 

the most critical metabolic process for 

almonds. In response to salinity, osmotic 

stress-mediated stomatal closure prevents 

water loss through transpiration 

in plants that also restricts the amount 

of CO2 taken in for photosynthesis. 

Consequently, stomatal conductance, 

net photosynthetic rate and amount of 

chlorophyll are used as physiological 

parameters to study salinity tolerance in 

different almond varieties. In a recent 

study where we compared several 

rootstocks for salinity tolerance, 

photosynthetic rate was 

found to be the most reliable 

parameter to assess 

salinity tolerance. 


46 

Progressive Crop Consultant September /October 2019 

Continued on Page 46

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47 

Your Edge – And Ours – Is Knowledge.


Tissue Ion Composition 

and Salinity Tolerance 

Tissue Na concentration is commonly 

used as a guide for the salinity tolerance 

of a variety. However, for some plant 

species, tissue Na concentration is not 

a true indicator of salt tolerance of a 

variety. Never-the-less, for almonds the 

negative correlation between tissue Na 

concentration and salt tolerance holds 

well. Similar to Na accumulation, salt 

tolerant genotypes stored least amount 

of Cl in leaf tissue. 

Genetic Control of 

Salinity Tolerance 

48 

Progressive Crop Consultant September /October 2019 

In model plants, hundreds of genes 

have been discovered that play critical 

roles in salinity tolerance. Salt-stress 

induced signaling pathways have also 

been well-dissected. Molecular mechanisms 

of salt tolerance or salt sensitivity 

is largely unknown in almonds. 

Expression analysis of genes involved in 

ion transport in almond tissue showed 

induction of multiple genes involved 

in Na + and Cl- transport under salinity 

treatment, suggesting importance of 

both Na and Cl during salinity stress. 

The genes involved in Na + transport 

were differentially expressed during 

salinity stress, compared to the control. 

For instance, NHX1 (a vacuolar sodium/proton 

antiporter) and SOS3 (SALT 

OVERLY SENSITIVE 3 that encodes 

a calcium sensor) were upregulated in 

leaves and on the other hand HKT1 

(encodes a Na transporter) was induced 

in roots under salinity treatment. SOS3 

is involved in Na + exclusion from roots, 

NHX1 plays a role in sequestering Na + 

in vacuole and HKT1 is critical for 

retrieving Na + from xylem back into 

root to protect leaves from salt toxicity. 

Additionally, CLC-C (chloride channel 

C) and SLAH3 (encodes a slow-type 

anion channel) that are important for 

Cl- transport, were highly upregulated 

in salinity treatments in almond roots. 

These observations confirmed the role 

of multiple component traits in salt tolerance 

mechanism in almonds. As seen 

in other plants, multiple signaling pathways 

and various genes are expected 

to be involved in establishing ionic homeostasis 

during salt stress. Nevertheless, 

there are not many studies focusing 

on understanding the roles of organic 

solutes and enzymatic or non-enzymatic 

antioxidants in mitigating effects 

of salinity in almonds. Although some 

genes involved in ion exclusion, and 

ion sequestration in vacuoles have been 

identified in almonds, future studies are 

warranted to identify additional genes. 

In addition, different scions should also 

be compared for the genetic variation 

involved in ion homeostasis and scavenging 

reactive oxygen species (ROS) 

produced during salinity stress, which 

may provide some insights into sensitivity 

of almonds to salinity. 

Contrary to studying the importance of 

a few genes in salinity stress at a time, 

an RNA-seq based approach compares 

global changes in gene expression between 

the control and the salinity treatments. 

In addition to targeting genes 

already characterized in model plants 

this strategy can link different pathways 

involved in salinity tolerance and identify 

specific almond genes contributing 

toward salt tolerance. 

Can Alternate Approaches 

Mitigate Harmful 

Effects of Salinity? 

Many additional strategies have been 

reported in plants that have been implicated 

to improve salt tolerance level 

in response to salt stress. For instance, 

application of certain microbes could 

improve salt tolerance level of plants. 

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) 

are known to form symbiotic associations 

with many land plants that 

are considered to be valuable to plant 

growth. AMF helps host plants not only 

by providing essential minerals but also 

by impeding the translocation of 

toxic ions like sodium. The use 

of AMF in multiple plant 

species has shown 

enhanced growth, 

development 

and productivity 

under 

salt stress. Although, different Prunus 

rootstocks have been screened for mycorrhizal 

colonization, direct effect of 

AMF in mitigating salinity still need to 

be established. 

Application of plant growth promoting 

rhizobacteria (PGPR) is also known 

to improve salt tolerance in different 

plant species. However, there are no 

published reports describing the effect 

of PGPR in improving salt tolerance in 

almonds. 

Although, AMF and PGRP show a lot 

of promise, the potential of their application 

on almond rootstocks to mitigate 

salinity stress needs to be explored further, 

along with the economic feasibility 

of these approaches at the commercial 

level. 

Future Perspectives 

One of the main consequences of the 

climate change is the length and frequency 

of drought periods experienced 

in certain parts of the world. California, 

the main almond producing region of 

the world, experienced a long drought 

period in the recent past. Drought leads 

to excessive groundwater pumping and 

use of alternative water resources with 

high salinity for irrigation. Based on 

the current trends, salinity problem is 

expected to intensify in next couple of 

decades. Currently, salinity screening is 

taking a backseat in almond rootstock 

breeding, which is expected to change 

in the near future. One of the approaches 

for the future almond breeding 

programs will require screening of wild 

genetic material for salinity 

tolerance. In addition 

to the other 

important 

root-

stock traits such as high vigor, nematode 

resistance, disease resistance, insect 

resistance, drought tolerance, salinity 

tolerance should also take central stage 

during rootstock breeding. 

Identification and isolation of the key 

almond genes involved in salinity 

tolerance will be critical. Functional 

validation of selected almond genes 

by complementation assay in a model 

plant like Arabidopsis may provide an 

initial proof of functional conservation 

of genes between these species. 

Characterization of genes will facilitate 

identification of specific mutations that 

are critical for salinity tolerance. The 

CRISPR/Cas9 system has a great potential 

in fixing the both type of genes 

that play positive or negative roles in 

salt tolerance in almonds. The CRISPR/ 

Cas9 is a precise, suitable, and efficient 

technology that has been used for 

genome editing in various crops such 

as rice, wheat, maize and sorghum. It 

is important to note that CRISPR/Cas9 

modified crops are not considered as 

genetically modified organisms (GMO). 

Identification and characterization of 

genes regulating ion uptake, effective 

compartmentalization, and tissue tolerance 

may provide new means to develop 

almond varieties with enhanced salinity 

tolerance. 

Acknowledgements: 

The study was funded by Almond Board 

of California. 

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of drought periods experienced 

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49

The Crop Consultant 

Conference 

Full Menu of Workshops and Seminars 

BY CECILIA PARSONS | ASSOCIATE EDITOR 

The inaugural Crop Consultant 

Conference (CCC) will be a 

gathering place for all who are 

dedicated to caring for California 

specialty crops. 

Pest Control Advisors (PCA), Certified 

Crop Advisors (CCA), applicators and 

agriculture retailers are all invited to 

participate in this two-day conference, 

September 26-27 in Visalia. 

This event at the Visalia Convention 

Center packs a full menu of educational 

workshops and seminars, professional 

networking opportunities plus multiple 

hours of PCA and CCA credits into 24 

hours. The program begins at 1 p.m. on 

Thursday and concludes after lunch and 

a final speaker, at 1 p.m. on Friday. 

The workshop and seminar topics at the 

CCC have been chosen to help all crop 

advisors keep informed about new regulations, 

pest and disease control and 

management updates, label information 

and new technologies. In addition 

to the educational component, this 

conference will feature an early evening 

mixer and networking opportunities 

to be followed by a full gala dinner and 

entertainment. 

Why Attend? 

“Where else can a PCA or CCA get that 

many hours of credit, receive useful 

information plus meals and entertainment 

and not have to drive long distances?” 

says Jason Scott, publisher 

of West Coast Nut, Progressive Crop 

Consultant and Organic Farmer 

magazines and host of this conference. 

“This event is right in their 

back yard, where specialty 

crops addressed in this 

conference, are grown. It 

is designed to present 

the ‘big picture’ 

of specialty crop 

production, innovative 

technology, regulations, 

and challenges here in California,” Scott 

added. 

Citrus 

Greg Douhan University of California 

Cooperative Extension (UCCE) area 

citrus advisor for Tulare, Fresno and 

Madera counties, said the conference 

will be a valuable forum to communicate 

important research and information 

regarding many aspects of various 


crops grown in California. 

Agriculture industry 

personnel, PCAs, CCAs, 

and so on and so forth, 

benefit from these 

meetings tremendously 

to keep abreast of the 

latest challenges that face 

California Agricultural 

producers. 

Douhan, whose territory includes a 

major portion of California’s citrus belt, 

will be one of the featured conference 

speakers and will present current information 

on HLB and Asian Citrus Psyllid 

management. 

Aerial Drone Technology 

“ 

A presentation on aerial drone technology 

is also expected to drive attendance. 

Chris Lawson, Business Development 

Manager for Aerobotics, will speak on 

optimizing integrated pest management 

(IPM) and nutrient management using 

drones. 

Agronomist Nick Canata with Ingleby 

USA/Eriksson LLC of Visalia reports 

that the CCC agenda looks interesting, 

especially the drone technology presen- 

This event is right in their 

back yard, where specialty 

crops addressed in this 

conference are grown. It 

is designed to present the 

‘big picture’ of specialty 

crop production, the new 

technology, regulations 

and challenges here in 

California 

” 


September 26th-27th 

Visalia Convention Center 

See pages 54-55 for more details or visit 

progressivecrop.com/conference/PCC919 



51

Botrysphaeria on walnut. Photo courtesy of Cecilia 

Parsons. 

Checking for NOW Larvae. Photo courtesy of 

Cecilia Parsons. 


tation. His company, he added, is presently 

using aerial flyovers to obtain irrigation 

information. 

Mating Disruption 

Crop advisors who are evaluating their mating 

disruption choices will hear a panel of experts 

that includes United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) researcher Chuck Burks, 

Dani Casado, chemical ecologist with Suterra 

and Peter McGhee, research entomologist 

with Pacific BioControl Corp. This panel will 

evaluate mating disruption as part of an IPM 

program. 

Soils 

Thursday’s program starts on the ground with 

sustainability specialist Richard Kreps who 

will explain how to get the most out or your 

soils. 

Kreps, with Ultagro, said making soils work 

at an optimal level requires a quite a bit of 

dedication. Attacking it from all sides: amending, 

nutrition applications, increasing organic 

matter, biology and proper irrigation require 

a lot of coordination. The upside is orchard 

longevity, higher returns with less disease and 

pest pressure. 

Paraquat Guidelines 

Thursday’s education agenda ends with new 

EPA guidelines for 2020 for Paraquat closed 

transfer system. Speaker will be Charlene Bedal, 

West Coast regional manager with Helm 

AGRO US. 

Trade Show and Mixer 

The conference mixer and trade show begin 

at 5 p.m. Thursday, and dinner will be served 

at 6 p.m. The keynote speech will be Trécé on 

NOW Monitoring and Management–Current 

and Future Trends. At 7, Las Vegas entertainer 

and illusionist Jason Bird will perform. One 

of the most innovative and prolific minds in 

the magic industry, Bird continuously advances 

the boundaries of his craft while making 

connections with his audiences. Bird will also 

perform small group illusions during the trade 

show/mixer. 

Friday 

Friday morning’s agenda kicks off at 7 a.m. 

with breakfast and a presentation by Patty 

Cardoso of Gar Tootelian on keeping growers 

compliant with local and state regulations. The 

trade show opens at 7:30. 

Friday’s topics include A New Approach to 

IPM by Surendra Dara, UCCE entomologist; 

a panel discussion major crop pests affecting 

specialty crops; and an update on labels. 

To register for this event and see a complete 

agenda, go to 








Pre-Register at 


Find the full agenda 

on page 55 

or online at 

progressivecrop.com/agenda 



53

PCA Credit 

CCA Credit 

ve and 

er – 

liant 

pliance for 

ther 

8:00AM 

Label Update 

CE Credits: 50 Minutes; L & R 

powered by: 

8:50AM 

Evaluation of Mating 

Disruption as Part of an IPM 

Program 

Chuck Burks USDA 

Dani Casado, Ph.D. in Applied Chemical Ecology, Suterra 

Peter McGhee, Ph.D., Research Entomologist 

CE Credits: 40 Minutes; Other 

Powered by: 

Bringing 

Crop 

Consultants 

Together 

9:30AM 

Regulatory Impacts on 

California Crop Protection 

Industry 



303 E. Acequia Ave. Visalia, CA 93291 

10:30AM 

Trade Show 


11:00AM 

Panel—Top Insects Plaguing 

California co-hOSTED Specialty By: Crops— 

BMSB, Mealy Bugs/NOW 

Spotted Wing Drosophila 

David Haviland (Mealy Bugs/NOW) UC 

Cooperative Extension, Kern County, 

Kent Daane (SWD) Cooperative 

Extension Specialist, UC Berkeley, 

Jhalendra Rijal (BMSB) UCCE IPM 

Advisor for northern San Joaquin Valley 


12:00PM 

Lunch 

12:15PM 

A New Approach to IPM 

Western Growers 

FOR MORE DETAILS OR TO PRE-REGISTER ONLINE Surendra VISIT Dara, Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, 

University of California Cooperative CE Credits: 30 Minutes; L & R 

Extension 


10:00AM 

Break 

Dinner Sponsor 

Mixer Co-Sponsor 

CE Credits: 30 Minutes; Other OVER $1,000 VALUE 

1:00PM 

Adjourn 

Agenda Sponsor Indoor Sponsor Registration Sponsor 

PCA Hours: 

 

 

CCA Hours: 

ONLY $100 

per person 

Workshops and Seminars 

Mixer & Networking 

Meals Included 

(Breakfast, Lunch and Snacks) 

Full Gala Dinner 

Live Entertainment 

(Jason Bird, Magician and Illusionist) 

Over 60 Exhibits 

PRE-REGISTER TO BE ENTERED 

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September 26th 

1:00PM - 9:00PM 

September 27th 

7:00AM - 1:15PM 

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Thursday 

September 26 

1:00PM 

Registration 

2:00PM 

Getting the Most out 

of Your Soil 

Richard Kreps, CCA 

2:30PM 

How to Optimize IPM and 

Nutrient Management using 

Aerial Drone Technology 

Chris Lawson, Business Development Manager, Aerobotics 


3:00PM 

Managing Botrytis in a 

Challenging Year 

Gabriel Torres, UCCE Farm Advisor, Tulare County 


3:30PM 

The Latest in HLB and Asian 

Citrus Psyllid Management 

Greg Douhan, UCCE Area Citrus Advisor for Tulare, 

Fresno, and Madera Counties 


4:00PM 

Navigating Fungal Diseases 

Themis Michailides , Professor and 

Plant Pathologist UC Davis 


4:30PM 

Paraquat Closed Transfer 

System (New EPA 

Guidelines for 2020) 

Charlene Bedal, West Coast Regional 

Manager, HELM AGRO US 


5:00PM 

Mixer/Trade Show 


6:00PM 

Dinner 

6:30PM 

NOW Monitoring and 

Management – Current and 

Future Trends 

Brent Short, Regional Technical 

Representative, Trécé, Inc. 


7:00PM 

Jason Bird 

Magician and Illusionist 

Jason Bird will perform small group illusions 

during the trade show / mixer from 5-6PM 

Friday 

September 27 

7:00AM 

Breakfast / Going Above and 

Beyond for Your Grower – 

Keeping them Compliant 

Patty Cardoso, Director of Grower Compliance for 

Gar Tootelian, Inc. 

7:30AM 

Trade Show 

8:00AM 

Label Update 

Plant Food Systems, Inc., Trécé, Inc., Helm, Suterra, 

& Sym-Agro, Inc. 



9:30AM 

Update on the Sterile Insect 

Program for NOW 

Houston Wilson, Asst. Coop. Extension Specialist, 

Kearney Ag. Center, Dept. Entomology, UC Riverside 


10:00AM 

Trade Show Break 



AGENDA 

8:50AM 

Evaluation of Mating 

Disruption as Part of an IPM Program 

Chuck Burks USDA 

Dani Casado, Ph.D. in Applied Chemical Ecology, Suterra 

Peter McGhee, Ph.D., Research Entomologist 


11:00AM 

Panel—Top Insects Plaguing 

California Specialty Crops— 

BMSB, Mealy Bugs, NOW, 

Spotted Wing Drosophila 

David Haviland (Mealy Bugs/NOW) UC 

Cooperative Extension, Kern County, 

Kent Daane (SWD) Cooperative 

Extension Specialist, UC Berkeley, 

Jhalendra Rijal (BMSB) UCCE IPM 

Advisor for northern San Joaquin Valley 


12:00PM 

Lunch 

12:20PM 

Label Update 

Earth-Sol 

12:30PM 

A New Approach to IPM 

Surendra Dara, Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, 

University of California Cooperative Extension 


1:15PM 

Adjourn 

55

PUT YOUR ALMONDS 

TO BED WITH THE 

RIGHT NUTRITION. 

HIGH PHOS 

Apply High Phos as Part of Your Post Harvest Fertilizer Program. 

A balanced formulation of essential nutrients containing 

organic and amino acids to stabilize the nutrients and 

facilitate their chelation, uptake, translocation and use. 


For more information visit wrtag.com, or 

contact Joseph Witzke at (209) 720-8040

PCC Sep Oct 2019

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