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White
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Black
Market

Cybele
Adonis
Cybele is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a
possible forerunner in the earliest neolithic at Çatalhöyük,
where statues of plump women, sometimes sitting, have been
found in excavations. She is Phrygia’s only known goddess,
and was probably its national deity. Her Phrygian cult was
adopted and adapted by Greek colonists of Asia Minor
and spread to mainland Greece and its more distant western
colonies around the 6th century BC.
In Greece, Cybele met with a mixed reception. She was
partially assimilated to aspects of the Earth-goddess Gaia,
her possibly Minoan equivalent Rhea, and the harvest–
mother goddess Demeter. Some city-states, notably Athens,
evoked her as a protector, but her most celebrated Greek
rites and processions show her as an essentially foreign,
exotic mystery-goddess who arrives in a lion-drawn chariot
to the accompaniment of wild music, wine, and a disorderly,
ecstatic following. Uniquely in Greek religion, she
had a eunuch mendicant priesthood. Many of her Greek
cults included rites to a divine Phrygian castrate shepherd-
consort Attis, who was probably a Greek invention.
In Greece, Cybele is associated with mountains, town and
city walls, fertile nature, and wild animals, especially lions.
In Rome, Cybele was known as Magna Mater (“Great
Mother”). The Roman state adopted and developed a particular
form of her cult after the Sibylline oracle recommended
her conscription as a key religious ally in Rome’s
second war against Carthage. Roman mythographers reinvented
her as a Trojan goddess, and thus an ancestral goddess
of the Roman people by way of the Trojan prince Aeneas.
With Rome’s eventual hegemony over the Mediterranean
world, Romanized forms of Cybele’s cults spread throughout
the Roman Empire. The meaning and morality of her
cults and priesthoods were topics of debate and dispute
in Greek and Roman literature, and remain so in modern
scholarship.
No contemporary text or myth survives to attest the
original character and nature of Cybele’s Phrygian cult.
She may have evolved from a statuary type found at
Çatalhöyük in Anatolia, dated to the 6th millennium BC
and identified by some as a mother goddess. In Phrygian
art of the 8th century BC, the cult attributes of the Phrygian
mother-goddess include attendant lions, a bird of
prey, and a small vase for her libations or other offerings.
The inscription Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya at a Phrygian
rock-cut shrine, dated to the first half of the 6th century
BC, is usually read as “Mother of the mountain”, a reading
supported by ancient classical sources,and consistent
with Cybele as any of several similar tutelary goddesses,
each known as “mother” and associated with specific
Anatolian mountains or other localities:a goddess thus “born
from stone”. She is ancient Phrygia’s only known goddess,
and was probably the highest deity of the Phrygian state.
Her name, and the development of religious practices
associated with her, may have been influenced by cult to
the deified Sumerian queen Kubaba.
Mother of the mountain
Protector of cities
Friend to lions
Adonis was the mortal lover of the goddess Aphrodite
in Greek mythology. In Ovid's first-century AD telling of
the myth, he was conceived after Aphrodite cursed his
mother Myrrha to lust after her own father, King Cinyras
of Cyprus. Myrrha had sex with her father in complete
darkness for nine nights, but he discovered her identity and
chased her with a sword. The gods transformed her into a
myrrh tree and, in the form of a tree, she gave birth to Adonis.
Aphrodite found the infant and gave him to be raised by
Persephone, the queen of the Underworld. Adonis grew into
an astonishingly handsome young man, causing Aphrodite
and Persephone to feud over him, with Zeus eventually
decreasing that Adonis would spend one third of the year
in the Underworld with Persephone, one third of the year
with Aphrodite, and the final third of the year with whomever
he chose. Adonis chose to spend his final third of the
year with Aphrodite.
One day, Adonis was gored by a wild boar during a hunting
trip and died in Aphrodite's arms as she wept. His blood
mingled with her tears and became the anemone flower.
Aphrodite declared the Adonia festival commemorating his
tragic death, which was celebrated by women every year in
midsummer. During this festival, Greek women would plant
“gardens of Adonis”, small pots containing fast-growing plants,
which they would set on top of their houses in the hot sun.
The plants would sprout, but soon wither and die. Then the
women would mourn the death of Adonis, tearing their
clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.
The Greeks considered Adonis's cult to be of Oriental origin.
Adonis's name comes from a Canaanite word meaning "lord"
and modern scholars consider the story of Aphrodite and
Adonis to be derived from the earlier Mesopotamian myth
of Inanna (Ishtar) and Dumuzid (Tammuz).

Anenome
Liliales
Anemone is a genus of about 200 species of flowering
plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native to temperate
zones. The genus is closely related to Pulsatilla (‘Pasque
flower’) and Hepatica; some botanists even include both
of these genera within Anemone. Anemone are perennials
that have basal leaves with long leaf-stems that can be upright
or prostrate. Leaves are simple or compound with lobed,
parted, or undivided leaf blades. The leaf margins are toothed
or entire.
Flowers with 4–27 sepals are produced singly, in cymes
of 2–9 flowers, or in umbels, above a cluster of leaf-or sepallike
bracts. Sepals may be any color. The pistils have one
ovule. The flowers have nectaries, but petals are missing in the
majority of species. The fruits are ovoid to obovoid shaped
achenes that are collected together in a tight cluster, ending
variously lengthened stalks; though many species have sessile
clusters terminating the stems. The achenes are beaked and
some species have feathery hairs attached to them. Anemone
are called “wind flowers”. Anemone is derived from the Greek
word anemoi, which in English means “winds”.
Anemone is situated in the tribe Anemoneae, subfamily
Ranunculoideae, and the family Ranunculaceae. As considered
in the broader sense (sensu lato) the genus subsumes
a number of previously independent genera including
Hepatica, Pulsatilla, Knowltonia, Barneoudia and Oreithales.
Several of these were included as separate genera within
Anemoneae by Wang et al., a tribe with six genera in total.
Early molecular analyses divided the genus into two subgenera
(Anemonidium and Anemone), with seven sections,
and 12 informal subsections. Ziman and colleagues (2008)
treated the genus Anemone as 5 subgenera, 23 sections, 4
subsections, 23 series and about 118 species. A further reclassification
by Hoot and colleagues (2012) estimated 200 species.
Hoot et al. found many of the previously defined subdivisions,
based on morphological characteristics were polyphyletic
or paraphyletic. In contrast two clearly defined
monophyletic clades emerged corresponding to the above
two subgenera. Anemonidium demonstrated four subclades,
corresponding to sections. The larger subgenus Anemone
showed a similar pattern.
Liliales (older name: Lilia) is an order of monocotyledonous
flowering plants in the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group and Angiosperm Phylogeny Web system, within the
lilioid monocots. This order of necessity includes the family
Liliaceae. The APG III system (2009) places this order in the
monocot clade. In APG III , the family Luzuriagaceae is
combined with the family Alstroemeriaceae and the family
Petermanniaceae is recognized. Both the order Lililiales
and the family Liliaceae have had a widely disputed history,
with the circumscription varying greatly from one taxon–
omist to another. Previous members of this order, which at
one stage included most monocots with conspicuous tepals
and lacking starch in the endosperm are now distributed over
three orders, Liliales, Dioscoreales and Asparagales, using
predominantly molecular phylogenetics. The newly delimited
Liliales is monophyletic, with ten families. Well known
plants from the order include Lilium (lily), tulip, the North
American wildflower Trillium, and greenbrier.
The order has worldwide distribution. The larger families
(with more than 100 species) are roughly confined to
the Northern Hemisphere, or are distributed worldwide,
centering on the north. On the other hand, the smaller
families (with up to 10 species) are confined to the Southern
Hemisphere, or sometimes just to Australia or South
America. The total number of species in the order is now
about 1,768.
As with any herbaceous group, the fossil record of the
Liliales is rather scarce. There are several species from the
Eocene, such as Petermanniopsis anglesaensis or Smilax,
but their identification is not definite. Another known
fossil is Ripogonum scandens from the Miocene. Due to
the scarcity of data, it seems impossible to determine
precisely the age and the initial distribution of the order.
It is assumed that the Liliales originate from the Lower
Cretaceous, over 100 million years ago.
Liliales are
monophyletic,
with ten families.
wind flowers

Dinosaurs
Hadrosauridae
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade
Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period,
between 243 and 233.23 million years ago, although the
exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the
subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial
vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
201.3 million years ago; their dominance continued through
the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record demonstrates
that birds are modern feathered dino- saurs, having
evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic
epoch. As such, birds were the only dinosaur lineage to
survive the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately
66 million years ago. Dinosaurs can therefore be
divided into avian dinosaurs, or birds; and non-avian dinosaurs,
which are all dinosaurs other than birds. This article
deals primarily with non-avian dinosaurs.
Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic,
morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over
10,000 living species, are the most diverse group of vertebrates
besides perciform fish. Using fossil evidence, paleontologists
have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than
1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are
represented on every continent by both extant species (birds)
and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century,
before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs, most
of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been
sluggish and cold-blooded.
Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has
indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated
metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social
interaction. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous.
Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were egg-laying; and
nest-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both
avian and non-avian.
While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct
groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able
to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures
such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups,
and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications
such as bony armor and spines. While the dinosaurs’ modern
day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small
due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs
(non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest
sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths
of 39.7 meters (130 ft) and heights of 18 meters (59ft) and were
the largest land animals of all time. Still, the idea that nonavian
dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception
based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones
are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs
were quite small: Xixianykus, for example, was only
about 50 cm (20 in) long.
Hadrosaurids or duck-billed dinosaurs, are members of
the ornithischian family Hadrosauridae. This group is known
as the duck-billed dinosaurs for the flat duck-bill appearance
of the bones in their snouts. The family, which includes
ornithopods such as Edmontosaurus and Parasaurolophus,
was a common group of herbivores during the Late Cretaceous
Period in what is now Asia, Europe, Antarctica, South
America, and North America. Hadrosaurids are descendants
of the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous iguanodontian
dinosaurs and had a similar body layout.
Like other ornithischians, hadrosaurids had a predentary
bone and a pubic bone which was positioned backwards in
the pelvis. Hadrosauridae is divided into two principal
subfamilies: the lambeosaurines (Lambeosaurinae), which
had hollow cranial crests or tubes; and the saurolophines
(Saurolophinae), identified as hadrosaurines (Hadrosaurinae)
in most pre-2010 works, which lacked hollow cranial crests
(solid crests were present in some forms). Saurolophines
tended to be bulkier than lambeosaurines. Lambeosaurines
included the aralosaurins, tsintaosaurins, lambeosaurins
and parasaurolophins, while saurolophines included the
brachylophosaurins, kritosaurins, saurolophins and edmontosaurins.
Hadrosaurids were facultative bipeds, with the
young of some species walking mostly on two legs and the
adults walking mostly on four. Their jaws were evolved for
grinding plants, with multiple rows of teeth replacing each
other as the teeth wore down.
Hadrosaurids were the first dinosaur family to be identified
in North America - the first traces being found in
1855-1856 with the discovery of fossil teeth. Joseph Leidy
examined the teeth, and erected the genera Trachodon and
Thespesius (others included Troodon, Deinodon, and
Palaeoscincus). One species was named Trachodon mirabilis.
Ultimately, Trachodon included all sorts of cerapod dinosaurs,
including ceratopsids, and is now considered an
invalid genus. In 1858, the teeth were associated with Leidy’s
eponymous Hadrosaurus foulkii, which was named after the
fossil hobbyist William Parker Foulke. More and more teeth
were found, resulting in even more (now obsolete) genera.
A very well preserved complete hadrosaurid specimen,
AMNH 5060 (Edmontosaurus annectens), was recovered
in 1908 by the fossil collector Charles Hazelius Sternberg
and his three sons, in Converse County, Wyoming. It was
described Henry Osborn in 1912, who dubbed it the
“Dinosaur mummy”. This specimen’s skin was almost completely
preserved in the form of impressions.
Duck-Billed Dinosaur

Triceratops
Rhinoceros
Triceratops is a genus of herbivorous ceratopsid dinosaur
that first appeared during the late Maastrichtian stage of the
late Cretaceous period, about 68 million years ago (mya)
in what is now North America. It is one of the last known
non-avian dinosaur genera, and became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene
extinction event 66 million years ago.
The name Triceratops, which literally means “three-horned
face”, is derived from the Ancient Greek words (tri-) meaning
“three”, (kéras) meaning “horn”, and (ōps) meaning “face”.
Triceratops has been documented by numerous remains
collected since the genus was first described in 1889 by
Othniel Charles Marsh. Specimens representing life stages
from hatchling to adult have been found. As the archetypal
ceratopsid, Triceratops is one of the most popular dinosaurs,
and has been featured in film, postal stamps, and many other
types of media.
Bearing a large bony frill and three horns on the skull,
and its large four-legged body possessing similarities with
the modern rhinoceros, Triceratops is one of the most recognizable
of all dinosaurs and the best known ceratopsid.
It was also one of the largest, up to nine metres long and
twelve tonnes in weight. It shared the landscape with and
was probably preyed upon by Tyrannosaurus, though it is
less certain that the two did battle in the manner often depicted
in museum displays and popular images. The functions
of the frills and three distinctive facial horns on its head
have long inspired debate. Traditionally, these have been
viewed as defensive weapons against predators. More recent
interpretations find it probable that these features were
primarily used in species identification, courtship and
domonance display, much like the antlers and horns of
modern species.
Triceratops was traditionally placed within the “shortfrilled”
ceratopsids but modern cladistic studies show it to be
a member of the Chasmosaurinae which usually have long
frills. Two species, T. horridus and T. prorsus, are considered
valid today, from the seventeen species that have
ever been named. Research published in 2010 concluded
that the contemporaneous Torosaurus, a ceratopsid long
regarded as a separate genus, represents Triceratops in its
mature form. This view was immediately disputed with examination
of more fossil evidence needed to settle the debate.
A rhinoceros, from Greek rhinokerōs, meaning ‘nosehorned’,
from rhis, meaning ‘nose’, and keras, meaning ‘horn’),
commonly abbreviated to rhino, is one of any five extant
species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae,
as well as any of the numerous extinct species there in. Two of
the extant species are native to Africa and three to Southern
Asia. The term “rhinoceros” is often more broadly applied
to now extinct species of the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea.
Members of the rhinoceros family are some of the largest
remaining megafauna, with all species able to reach or exceed
one tonne in weight. They have a herbivorous diet, small
brains (400–600 g) for mammals of their size, one or two
horns, and a thick (1.5–5 cm) protective skin formed from
layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. They generally
eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment
food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous
plant matter when necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls,
the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front
of their mouths, relying instead on their lips to pluck food.
Rhinoceros are killed by some humans for their horns,
which are bought and sold on the black market, and used
by some cultures for ornaments or traditional medicine.
East Asia, specifically Vietnam, is the largest market for
rhino horns. By weight, rhino horns cost as much as gold
on the black market. People grind up the horns and consume
them, believing the dust has therapeutic properties.
The horns are made of keratin, the same type of protein
that makes up hair and fingernails. Both African species
and the Sumatran rhinoceros have two horns, while the
Indian and Javan rhinoceros have a single horn. The IUCN
Red List identifies the Black, Javan, and Sumatran rhinoceros
as critically endangered.
Although rhinos are large and have a reputation for being
tough, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes
daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December
2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect
the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective.
The most serious estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully
countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal
has largely avoided the crisis. Poachers have become more
sophisticated. South African officials have called for urgent
action against poaching after poachers killed the last female
rhino in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve near Johannesburg.
Keratin

Black Market
Al Capone
A black market, underground economy or shadow economy,
is a clandestine market or series of transactions that
has some aspect of illegality or is characterized by some
form of noncompliant behavior with an institutional set of
rules. If the rule defines the set of goods and services whose
production and distribution is prohibited by law, noncompliance
with the rule constitutes a black market trade
since the transaction itself is illegal. Parties engaging in the
production or distribution of prohibited goods and services
are members of the illegal economy. Examples include
the drug trade, prostitution (where prohibited), illegal
currency transactions and human trafficking. Violations
of the tax code involving income tax evasion constitute
membership in the unreported economy.
Because tax evasion or participation in a black market
activity is illegal, participants will attempt to hide their
behavior from the government or regulatory authority.
Cash usage is the preferred medium of exchange in illegal
transactions since cash usage does not leave a footprint.
Common motives for operating in black markets are to
trade contraband, avoid taxes and regulations, or skirt
price controls or rationing. Typically the totality of such
activity is referred to with the definite article as a complement
to the official economies, by market for such goods
and services, e.g. “the black market in bush meat”.
The black market is distinct from the grey market, in
which commodities are distributed through channels that,
while legal, are unofficial, unauthorized, or unintended by
the original manufacturer, and the white market, in which
trade is legal and official.
Black money is the proceeds of an illegal transaction,
on which income and other taxes have not been paid, and
which can only be legitimised by some form of money laundering.
Because of the clandestine nature of the black economy
it is not possible to determine its size and scope.
The literature on the black market has not established a common
terminology and has instead offered many synonyms
including: subterranean; hidden; grey; shadow; informal;
clandestine; illegal; unobserved; unreported; unrecorded;
second; parallel and black.
There is no single underground economy; there are many.
These underground economies are omnipresent, existing
in market oriented as well as in centrally planned nations,
be they developed or developing. Those engaged in underground
activities circumvent, escape or are excluded from
the institutional system of rules, rights, regulations and
enforcement penalties that govern formal agents engaged
in production and exchange. Different types of underground
activities are distinguished according to the particular institutional
rules that they violate. Four major underground
economies can be identified:
Alphonse Gabriel “Al” Capone born January 17, 1899
– January 25, 1947), sometimes known by the nickname
“Scarface”, was an American gangster and businessman who
attained notoriety during the Prohibition era as the cofounder
and boss of the Chicago Outfit. His seven-year
reign as crime boss ended when he went to prison at age 33.
Capone was born in New York City in 1899 to Italian
immigrant parents. He joined the Five Points Gang as a
teenager, and became a bouncer in organized crime premises
such as brothels. In his early twenties, he moved to Chicago
and became a bodyguard and trusted factotum for Johnny
Torrio, head of a criminal syndicate that illegally supplied
alcohol–the forerunner of the Outfit–and was politically
protected through the Unione Siciliana. A conflict with the
North Side Gang was instrumental in Capone’s rise and fall.
Torrio went into retirement after North Side gunmen almost
killed him, handing control to Capone. Capone expanded
the bootlegging business through increasingly violent means,
but his mutually profitable relationships with mayor William
Hale Thompson and the city’s police meant he seemed safe
from law enforcement.
Capone apparently reveled in attention, such as the cheers
from spectators when he appeared at ball games. He made
donations to various charities and was viewed by many as
“modern–day Robin Hood”. However, the Saint Valentine’s
Day Massacre, in which seven gang rivals were murdered
in broad daylight, damaged Chicago’s and Capone’s image,
leading influential citizens to demand government action
and newspapers to dub Capone “Public Enemy No. 1”.
The federal authorities became intent on jailing Capone
and prosecuted him in 1931 for tax evasion. During a highly
publicized case, the judge admitted as evidence Capone’s
admissions of his income and unpaid taxes during prior (and
ultimately abortive) negotiations to pay the government
taxes he owed. He was convicted and sentenced to 11 years
in federal prison. After conviction, he replaced his defense
team with experts in tax law, and his grounds for appeal
were strengthened by a Supreme Court ruling, but his appeal
ultimately failed. Capone showed signs of neurosyphilis
early in his sentence and became increasingly debilitated
before being released after almost eight years of incarceration.
On January 25, 1947, Capone died of cardiac arrest
after suffering a stroke.
the illegal economy
the unreported economy
the unrecorded economy
the informal economy
Scarface
“modern-day Robin Hood”
“Public Enemy No. 1”

Black
Market
White
Plastic