Organic Farmer February / March 2020

February/March 2020 

Organic Poultry Production for Meat and Eggs 

Drying and Processing Hemp 

Optimizing Soil Fertility 

& Plant Health for Organic Growers 

Earthworms – the Good, the Bad and the Hungry 

See page 17 

for details 

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Organic 

FARMER 

4 

IN THIS ISSUE 

Organic Poultry Production 

for Meat and Eggs 

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott 

Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com 

EDITOR: Marni Katz 

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons 

Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Phone: 559.352.4456 

Fax: 559.472.3113 

Web: www.organicfarmingmag.com 

4 

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS 

& INDUSTRY SUPPORT 

12 

18 

Drying and Processing 

Hemp 

Optimizing Soil Fertility 

and Plant Health for 

Organic Growers 

Ann Baier 

Sustainable Agriculture 

Specialist, National 

Center for Appropriate 

Technology 

Danita Cahill 

Contributing Writer 

Steve Elliott 

Western SARE and 

Western IPM Center 

Katelyn Jones 

PCA, CCA 

Neal Kinsey 

President of Kinsey 

Agricultural Services 

Richard Kreps 

CCA, 

Contributing Writer 

22 

Earthworms – the Good, the 

Bad and the Hungry 

12 

26 

30 

32 

Managing Nutrition for 

Organic Vegetables 

Rockey Farms Builds a 

Tradition of Sustainability 

Green Rush 

30 

UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION 

ADVISORY BOARD 

Kevin Day 

County Director and 

UCCE Pomology 

Farm 

Advisor, Tulare/ 

Kings County 

Steven Koike 

Director, TriCal 

Diagnostics 

Emily J. Symmes, 

PhD, 

UCCE IPM Advisor, 

Sacramento Valley 

Kris Tollerup 

UCCE Integrated Pest 

Management Advisor, 

Parlier, CA 

The articles, research, industry updates, 

company profiles, and advertisements in this 

publication are the professional opinions of 

writers and advertisers. Organic Farmer does 

not assume any responsibility for the opinions 

given in the publication. 


www.organicfarmermag.com 

3

Organic Poultry Production for 

Meat and Eggs 

B y : A N N B A IE R | S u s ta in a b le A g ric u ltu re S p e c ia lis t 

N a tio n a l C e n te r fo r A p p ro p ria te Te c h n o lo g y 

This article describes the 

production system and handling 

practices currently required to 

market poultry products--eggs and 

meat--as certified USDA organic. It 

also discusses the substantive overlap 

and continuum in goals and practices 

among “organic” and “pastured” 

and “humane” poultry production. 

It addresses the main commonalities 

and a few key distinctions between 

systems and practices in the growing 

field of poultry production. Finally, it 

highlights the need for transparency 

and integrity with respect to product 

representation, both within and beyond 

the organic label. 

Introduction 

What image does the phrase “organic 

poultry production” conjure up in the 

mind of the American consumer? Many 

people are likely to imagine idealized 

happy hens on verdant pastures (like 

the pictures in this article). Perceptions 

of organic production system practices 

may overlap, and descriptions blur 

with less rigorous marketing terms, 

such as “cage-free,” “free-range,” and 

more rigorous “humane,” and “raised 

on pasture,” to name just a few. Many 

branding terms (paired with clever 

packaging and graphics) vie for customer 

attention in the marketing of 

poultry products. The complexity of 

terms and standards can confuse or 

even mislead the uniformed consumer. 

This article reviews the main sections 

of the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) organic regulations 

for poultry production and 

discusses the different marketing terms 

used. Laws lead to creation of regulations 

that set standards for trade. 

Government standards, such as grading, 

food safety, and labeling are requirements 

that every producer must meet 

in order to sell their products. Beyond 

government requirements, many voluntary 

programs provide opportunities for 

producers to differentiate products in 

the marketplace, using terms with legal 

definitions, unregulated descriptors, or 

third-party certification programs. Some 

of these have minimum standards to 

qualify for certification; others provide 

levels or steps, and expectations for 

continual improvement (for details see 

sidebar on Page 6). 

Producers can choose to pursue such 

voluntary certification options in 

response to the priorities of buyers, 

whether they are distributors or 

direct-market consumers. Assurance of 

clear standards and consistent enforcement 

of those standards boost consumer 

confidence and facilitate trade. 

Producer priorities and consumer values 

may include poultry health, production 

efficiency, whole farm productivity, 

environmental stewardship, animal 

welfare, food quality, product accessibility, 

and cost. 

USDA Organic Regulations 

While this article focuses on current 

USDA regulations which are qualitative 

and goal-oriented, it is appropriate 

and important to acknowledge that, in 

the words of USDA, “the variability in 

outdoor access practices among organic 

producers threatens consumer confidence 

in the organic label.” National 

Organic Program (NOP); Organic 

Livestock and Poultry Practices. More 

quantitative and prescriptive regulatory 

language in USDA organic regulations 

Continued on Page 6 

4 

Organic Farmer February/March 2020

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Label Claims Distinct from 

Organic: Pastured and Humane 

Poultry Production 

Informed consumer choice relies on 

transparency in trade with truth in labeling 

and appropriate use of marketing terms 

used to differentiate approaches to poultry 

production. 

A few of many organizations promoting clarity 

are listed below. 

American Pastured Poultry Producers’ 

Association (APPPA) at apppa.org is a nonprofit 

trade association (not a certification 

program) and network of producers for mutual 

learning. Their website includes resources 

for farmers and consumers, descriptions of 

management practices, distinctions between 

marketing terms, and designs for building 

poultry shelter and houses. 

Food Animal Concerns Trust (FACT) at 

foodanimalconcernstrust.org offers welfareoriented 

livestock and poultry farmers grants, 

scholarships, free webinars, a livestock 

guardian animal project, and an online 

community to connect with other farmers. 

Certified Animal Welfare Approved https:// 

agreenerworld.org/certifications/animalwelfare-approved/ 

is a certification program 

that educates consumers and rewards farmers 

for meeting a high standards, recognizing links 

between natural animal behavior and wellbeing, 

nutritional quality of food, the impact of 

farming systems on wildlife, the environment 

and wider society. 

Certified Humane at certifiedhumane.org 

aims to “improve the lives of farm animals by 

driving consumer demand for kinder and more 

responsible farm animal practices.” 

Continued from Page 4 

would help level the playing field with 

respect to outdoor access and would give 

consumers more confidence in the organic 

label. There is a significant contrast in 

practices between two main types of 

poultry operations that, at this point in 

time, may both be certified organic: those 

that use barn- or aviary-based production 

with enclosed porches and no direct 

contact with soil, and those whose understanding 

of the organic regulations and 

natural poultry behavior lead to free-range 

or pasture-based production. 

Organic System Plan and 

Recordkeeping Requirements for 

Poultry Operations 

Every certified organic operation needs 

to develop an Organic Production and 

Handling System Plan (OSP) that describes 

the operation. In general, an 

OSP needs to include a description of 

methods, materials, monitoring, and 

recordkeeping to demonstrate how the 

plan is being followed. For poultry 

operations, this includes the following: 

• Source of birds (purchase receipts 

or brooding/hatching records) 

• Feed (100% certified organic rations, fee 

sources, receipts and labels for certified 

organic feed, approved supplements and 

additives, and production or purchase of 

organic pasture, forage or other 

feed crops) 

• Housing and living conditions 

• Preventative health care practices 

• Handling practices and materials (meat 

bird slaughter, packaging and sales; or egg 

collection, washing, candling, grading and 

packaging) 

• Production and sales records 

• Labeling to be used 

• Recordkeeping (documentation of all of 

the above to show implementation of the 

producer’s OSP and compliance with the 

USDA organic regulations) 

FREE online tutorials 

on soil health, produce safety, and more 

Global Animal Partnership program at 

globalanimalpartnership.org has created a 

5-step “meaningful animal welfare labeling 

program, verified by audits conducted on every 

farm, in order to influence the food industry, 

raise consumer expectations, and create a 

sustainable environment.” 

Niche Meat Processor Assistance Network 

(NMPAN) at nichemeatprocessing.org is 

a national community helping small meat 

processors thrive with an active listserve, 

a website with processing and food safety 

regulations information for all kinds of meat, 

and poultry specific resources. 

eXtension at poultry.extension.org 

complements the Cooperative Extension 

system with research-based articles on poultry 

production, health, marketing and economics 

including “Poultry breakeven calculator for 

small and backyard flocks” and a webinar on 

how to use it. 

How can ATTRA help you? 

Trusted technical assistance for your ag challenges 

6 


The 

Egg Handling and Meat Processing 

In order to sell eggs or poultry meat as 

organic, products must be processed 

(handled) in certified organic facilities. 

Washing organic eggs or processing 

poultry meats may take place on- or offfarm 

as long as practices and materials 

are described in your OSP. Materials 

used in egg handling may include 

cleaners, sanitizers, and egg-coatings. 

Materials frequently used for poultry 

meat processing may include cleaners 

and sanitizers used on scalders, evisceration 

tables, chill tanks, scales, or any 

other organic food-contact surfaces. 

Egg handling and meat processing 

methods materials must comply not 

only with organic regulations, but also 

other federal regulations, including 

but not limited to the USDA’s and 

Food Safety and Inspection Service, 

Egg Products Inspection Act, Egg 

Safety Rule, and the Food and Drug 

Administration (FDA)’s Food Code. 

Industry standards may also apply. 

Selecting Your Poultry 

USDA organic regulations require 

livestock producers to choose species 

and breeds that are well-adapted to 

the site and climate where they will be 

raised, and resistant to common diseases 

and parasites in that environment. 

Hatcheries provide breed descriptions 

and productivity data. The experience 

of other local producers can provide 

valuable input to guide your selection. 

Your buyers’ values, priorities, and 

preferences are practical considerations 

in designing your production system, 

and selecting breeds that thrive in that 

environment. Go to attra.ncat.org for a 

link to ATTRA publications on organic 

and pastured poultry production. Some 

customers value outdoor production, 

and seek birds they consider to be 

more flavorful. However, breeds that 

are well-adapted to outdoor production 

are better foragers in pasture-based 

production usually grow slower than 

more conventional meat breeds. 

Some buyers prefer the more familiar 

large-breasted breeds. Fast-growing 

birds tend to have more health and 

mobility problems, but reach marketable 

size several weeks faster on less 

feed. Design your production systems 

and select breeds with desirable characteristics 

to balance the health and 

productivity of the birds in your environment, 

and sustain farm profitability 

in varied markets. 

Sourcing Birds / Hatcheries 

Most poultry producers source their 

young stock from commercial hatcheries 

or specialized producer networks. 

Some breeds and circumstances call for 

sourcing eggs to brood on-farm (e.g. 

quail, whose small chicks are delicate 

to ship). According to USDA regulations, 

organic management of poultry 

must begin no later than the second day 

of life. Although the type of hatchery 

is not specified in organic regulations, 

poultry farm advisors recommend 




7


purchasing only from breeding flocks 

approved by the USDA National Poultry 

Improvement Program (NPIP), which 

certifies flocks to be free of certain 

diseases. 

Vaccination against common diseases is 

allowed in organic poultry production, 

though vaccines must not be genetically 

modified. Vaccination of chicks, duckings, 

poults, or other avian stock by the 

hatchery can be requested at the time of 

ordering. Hatchery purchase records document 

animal origin and some preventive 

health. Other vaccinations may be done 

later on farm, and farm records kept 

for organic inspection and certification. 

Vaccines commonly used in the United 

States include those against Marek’s 

disease, Newcastle disease (whether 

this vaccination is recommended or not 

depends on the region), and infectious 

bronchitis. Other preventive health care 

strategies are discussed further in the 

health care section below. 

Nutrition: Feed, Supplements 

and Additives 

Poultry need quality feed to grow well. 

Good nutrition includes protein, amino 

acids, fatty acids, energy sources, fiber, 

vitamins, and minerals. All agricultural 

ingredients in organic poultry feed must 

be certified organic. Any non-agricultural 

ingredients used must be allowed 

by the USDA organic regulations. For 

example, oyster shell may be used as a 

calcium supplement to strengthen bones 

and eggshells. All feed rations, additives, 

and supplements must be listed in 

the producer’s OSP with their complete 

brand name, formulation, and manufacturer, 

and must be approved by the 

organic certifier prior to use. 

Organic producers need to watch out 

for feed additives that are not allowed 

in organic production. For example, 

“medicated” chick starter includes 

a coccidiostat which is prohibited 

for use in organic production. Some 

non-organic rations include arsenic as 

a feed stimulant and protozoan parasite 

control. Arsenic cannot be fed to 

organic livestock and is also prohibited 

for organic crop production, so poultry 

manure that contains arsenic must not 

be applied to organic land. 

Regulations specify that organic producers 

must not use feed quantities or 

feed supplements or additives beyond 

what is needed for adequate nutrition 

and health maintenance. Feeding 

mammalian or poultry slaughter 

by-products to mammals or poultry is 

prohibited. Organic and non-organic 

producers alike must not use any feed, 

feed additives, and feed supplements in 

violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and 

Cosmetic Act. The U.S. Food and Drug 

Administration (FDA) prohibits the use of 

hormones in all poultry production operations 

regardless of organic status. 

The requirement that organic poultry 

receive all-organic feed is the main distinction 

between certified organic and other 

non-conventional poultry production 

systems such as free-range, humane, or 

pastured. The cost of organic feed varies 

significantly depending on regional proximity 

to grain production and other factors. 

However, perhaps the biggest price difference 

is based on the quantities the producer 

purchases. Fifty-pound sacks from the feed 

store are considerably more expensive than 

one-ton totes or bulk delivery of truckloads. 

Poultry producers using humane, 

outdoor, or pastured systems articulate how 

they weigh this decision point: the value 

of supporting organic production of feed 

crops vs. producing eggs or poultry meat 

that are economically accessible to more 

consumers. Feed costs range around 70% 

of poultry production costs; likely more 

in organic. Organic production costs are 

higher than non-organic production due, 

in large part, to the higher cost of organic 

feeds. To maintain a viable business, 

higher production costs must be offset by 

higher prices. 

Organic products garner premium prices 

8 


USDA Organic Regulations for Poultry Production 

The National Organic Program is part of the USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service. In 2002, USDA began full implementation of regulations for 

production and handling of organic crops and livestock. The goal was to create a uniform standard and a consistent certification process that would 

build consumer confidence in the certified organic label. 

Organic regulations specify that poultry or edible poultry products must be from birds that have been under continuous organic management 

beginning no later than the second day of life. Livestock feed must be 100% organically grown, with allowed additives and supplements and provide 

adequate nutrition. The livestock health care practice standard emphasizes preventative health care and humane treatment of animals. Organic 

livestock living conditions require shelter, access to the outdoors, fresh air, direct sunlight, clean water, adequate space and opportunity to exercise 

and express natural behaviors appropriate to the species. Some synthetic substances (such as methionine) are specifically listed as allowed, with 

restrictions. Conversely, a few non-synthetic materials (such as arsenic) are prohibited for use in organic production and specifically listed as such 

in the regulations. Facility management and organic handling regulations apply to egg washing and processing of poultry meat labeled as “organic”. 

Lumber treated with prohibited materials is not allowed where it would touch soil, crops, or livestock. Some regulations apply to all organic 

operations, including development of an Organic System Plan that describes production practices and substances to be used, recordkeeping systems, 

and prevention of commingling and contamination, land transition requirements, and soil fertility and crop nutrient management. 

Additional online resources: 

• USDA National Organic Program http://ams.usda.gov/nop includes links to USDA Organic Regulations 7 CFR 205; NOP Program Handbook; and 

the Organic INTEGRITY Database of all organic operations certified by USDA-accredited organic certifiers. 

• Market News and Transportation Data: USDA Certified Organic Poultry and Eggs https://www.ams.usda.gov/mnreports/pyworganic.pdf 

• United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Shell Eggs From Farm to Table https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safetyeducation/get-answers/food-safety- 

fact-sheets/egg-products-preparation/shell-eggs-from-farm-to-table/ 

• USDA Quality Grading and Inspections: https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/grading 

• Meat, Poultry and Egg Product Inspection Directory https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/inspection/mpi-directory 

for their value as food, but also for their 

perceived contribution to the greater 

good, such as human health, social 

benefits, animal welfare, and environmental 

stewardship. Consumer trust 

in a label is necessary for consumers 

to be willing to pay a higher price for 

what they value. Significant controversy 

whirls amid discussion of the 

value of organic compared with other 

marketing claims. There are two main 

currents in the discussion. One has to 

do with the integrity of the organic 

label itself. To be most credible, USDA 

organic regulations provide a clear and 

universal standard, practiced by all 

organic producers, in alignment with 

consumer expectations, with consistent 

interpretation across accredited 

certifiers, and third-party verification 

of all producers seeking organic 

certification. The cross-current is the 

distinction between industrial type, 

house-based operations and producers 

who place a high priority on outdoor 

access and pasture-based systems. The 

pastured producer community eagerly 

shows--and customers recognize--the 

differences in quality--visual beauty, 

flavor, and texture of eggs and meat 

from birds raised on pasture. Research 

shows differences in nutrition, including 

higher levels of Omega-3 fatty acids 

in products when the animals’ diets 

include fresh, green forage. 

microorganisms work in the poultry’s 

gut, by competitive exclusion, to 

reduce disease-causing organisms like 

Salmonella and E. coli. 

Physical alterations of organic livestock 

are not allowed unless they are 

necessary for the animals’ welfare. 

Preventative Health Care 

Most organic producers find alterations 

(such as beak trimming) to be 

Organic regulations require preventative 

health care of birds. Selection of unnecessary when their systems design 

appropriate species/breeds and vaccination 

programs are discussed above. prevent crowding and competition, 

and husbandry provide enough space, 

Poultry, like all livestock, benefit from a possibly include roosters to maintain 

healthy environment to prevent diseases social order, and use other strategies 

and minimize stress. Clean drinking to provide a low-stress environment. 

water is required by organic regulations, The Organic Livestock and Poultry 

and a mainstay of preventive health. Program (OLPP) would add definitions 

Watering systems that keep water clean to the regulations, and prohibit some 

reduce diseases such as coccidiosis, a alterations (See Sidebar on page 11 for 

disease caused by a protozoan parasite. more information about OLPP). 

Because poultry eat in proportion to 

their drinking, poultry health, growth, Living Conditions 

and productivity depend on a reliable Although the land on which organic 

supply of fresh, clean water. In addition animals are raised must be certified 

to vaccines, discussed above, probiotics, 

or beneficial microbes may be used 

to establish beneficial microflora. Good Continued on Page 10 



9


organic, regulations do not require producers 

to provide pasture as a feed source 

for organic poultry. (Pasture is required 

for organic ruminants since they are 

natural grazers, and the regulations specify 

minimum time and dry matter consumption.) 

However, production of poultry 

on pasture or forage generally provides 

outdoor access and healthy living conditions--both 

of which are required by USDA 

organic regulations. To be certified organic, 

pasture-based systems must also use all 

organic feed, preventive health care, and 

avoid prohibited materials. 

The quality and quantity of outdoor access 

is one of the main areas of debate that 

needs more consistent interpretation and 

verification by certifiers. Organic poultry 

must have access to the outdoors, exercise 

areas, shade, and direct sunlight, as 

appropriate to stage of life, climate, and 

environment. 

Organic requirements prescribe a healthy, 

low-stress environment that is key 

to production. Good air quality is 

extremely important to birds’ health. 

Dust and high levels of ammonia 

can cause respiratory problems, 

Appropriate, clean, dry bedding, and 

regular cleaning of poultry housing 

contribute to healthy living conditions. 

Young birds--chicks, ducklings, poults, 

and other young birds need to be kept 

warm and safe from predators. 

Poultry must be able to express their 

natural maintenance and comfort 

behaviors, such as roosting, scratching, 

and dustbathing. The OLPP and animal 

welfare programs specify minimum 

requirements for roost space, housing, 

and outdoor access and exercise 

areas, as well as limits on the size 

and density of flocks. Current organic 

regulations require outdoor access once 

birds have adequate feathering. The 

OLPP specifies quantitative timeframe 

requirements. Any confinement of 

poultry after this early stage of development 

must be documented and justified 

for inclement weather; stage of life; 

animal health, safety, or well-being; 

GOOD AIR QUALITY IS 

EXTREMELY IMPORTANT 

TO BIRDS’ HEALTH. 

DUST AND HIGH LEVELS 

OF AMMONIA CAN 

CAUSE RESPIRATORY 

PROBLEMS. 

risk to soil or water quality; healthcare— 

illness or injury; sorting or shipping and 

sale; breeding; and for youth projects. 

Supplemental lighting is commonly used 

in layer operations to diminish seasonal 

dips in rate of lay during winter months. 

Currently, producers describe proposed 

practices with respect to lighting in their 

Organic System Plan (OSP) which is subject 

to approval by the certifier. If/when the 

OLPP is implemented, it would provide 

specific 16-hour guidelines. 

House-based systems can qualify for 

organic certification provided there is 

adequate access to the outdoors, direct 

sunlight, fresh air, and all other regulatory 

living condition requirements are fulfilled. 

The OLPP clarifies the requirement for 

soil and vegetation. With time and shared 

experience, producer capacity, consumer 

awareness, and policy clarification, each of 

these systems may become further developed, 

clearly defined, and transparently 

represented for the benefit of poultry producers, 

consumers, poultry themselves, and 

the environments in which they are raised. 

Predator management is necessary for 

the survival, health, safety and well-being 

of both poultry and predators. In the 

interest of all creatures involved, predator 

management practices should prevent 

wildlife contact with livestock. Producers 

may “train” each type of potential predator 

NOT to perceive their poultry as food or 

prey. Wildlife is specifically listed in USDA 

organic regulations as one of the natural 

resources that organic operations must 

10 


maintain or improve, so approaches should 

be non-lethal. Predator management strategies 

include a combination of physical 

barriers, (housing, fencing, daytime cover 

and night shelter); deterrents (“predator 

eyes” lights, motion sensor sprinklers), and 

management (regular presence of humans, 

and well-trained guard animals). 

Organic poultry are required to have 

appropriate, clean, dry bedding, whether 

in housing or nest boxes. If the bedding 

material used is an agricultural crop that 

may be consumed, it must be certified 

organic. When forest products such as 

wood shavings are used, they need not be 

certified organic, but must consist only of 

plant products that are not treated with any 

prohibited materials. 

Manure management is an important part 

of managing an organic livestock operation. 

Regulations state, “The producer 

of an organic livestock operation must 

manage manure in a manner that does not 

contribute to contamination of crops, soil, 

or water by plant nutrients, heavy metals, 

or pathogenic organisms and optimizes 

recycling of nutrients and must manage 

pastures and other outdoor access areas in 

a manner that does not put soil or water 

quality at risk.” While hydrated lime is 

allowed as an external pest control, it is 

not permitted for cauterizing or to deodorize 

animal wastes. 

Each type of poultry production system 

can and should become more transparently 

represented for the benefit of poultry 

producers, consumers, poultry themselves, 

and the environments in which 

they are raised. This process takes time, 

persistence, producer capacity, consumer 

awareness, political will, and clear legal 

definitions for marketing terms. NCAT is 

working, together with our project partners 

and many farmers from whom we continue 

to gain key insights, to develop reliable 

information and make it accessible. 

The National Center for Appropriate 

Technology (NCAT) is a private nonprofit 

organization founded in 1976. Its programs 

deal with sustainable and renewable 

energy, energy conservation, resource-efficient 

housing, sustainable community 

development, and sustainable agriculture. 

ATTRA is a program developed and 

Organic Livestock and Poultry Practices 

The Organic Livestock and Poultry Practices (OLPP) final rule came about from a decades-long effort, 

with significant public comment, to develop more specific and quantitative regulatory language to 

resolve current ambiguities and provide for consistent interpretation and enforcement of a uniform 

federal standard. The National Organic Program (NOP) Organic Livestock and Poultry Practices final 

rule was published in the Federal Register (82 FR 7042) on January 19, 2017. Although its current status 

is “withdrawn,” producers and the public can still read the OLPP final rule in order to understand the 

reasoning behind the changes and to inform their own production practices and purchasing decisions. 

Look up: A Rule by the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) 03/13/2018 to find links to all past 

documents published in the process of developing these regulations. Before its implementation was 

delayed and finally withdrawn, the USDA’s AMS published justification and the compelling need for this 

new regulation. 

What does this rule do? 

This rule sets production standards for organic livestock and poultry, including transport and slaughter. 

This action assures consumers that organically produced products meet a consistent standard by 

resolving the current ambiguity about outdoor access for poultry. It also establishes clear standards for 

raising, transporting, and slaughtering organic animals and birds. This rule will provide for effective 

compliance and enforcement, as well as fair competition among organic livestock producers. 

Why is the rule necessary? 

A lack of clarity in organic livestock and poultry standards has led to inconsistent practices among 

organic producers. For example, as a result of ambiguous standards for what constitutes “outdoor access” 

for poultry, there are currently two very different organic egg production systems in the United States: 

operations whose outdoor space consists of an enclosed porch with a roof, mesh walls and cement floor, 

and operations that provide birds with access to pasture. Both production systems are currently able to 

utilize the organic seal and capture a premium from consumers.” 

What are the key components of the final rule? 

1. The final rule addresses the following key points: 

2. Requires that producers provide animals with daily access to the outdoors and that outdoor areas 

include vegetation and/or soil. Additionally, exit doors must be distributed to ensure animals have 

ready access to the outdoors. It does not allow enclosed porches to be considered outdoors or to meet 

the requirement for outdoor access. 

3. Specifies the amount of space required indoors for chicken broilers and layers, prohibits forced 

molting, restricts the use of artificial light, limits the amount of ammonia in the air indoors, and 

requires perching space for laying chickens indoors. 

4. Describes when producers can confine animals indoors temporarily and codifies flexibility for 

producers to confine animals when their health, safety or well-being could be jeopardized. 

5. Adds humane handling requirements for transporting livestock and poultry to sale or slaughter, and 

clarifies humane slaughter requirements. 

6. Prohibits several kinds of physical alteration, like de-beaking chickens or docking cows’ tails. 

7. Provides a phased implementation plan, allowing producers reasonable time to implement the rule. 

Changes relevant to poultry production include addition of several terms, revision of livestock care and 

production practices standard, and addition of two new sections on avian living conditions and transport 

and slaughter. 

managed by NCAT. The majority of funding for ATTRA is through a cooperative 

agreement with the USDA Rural Business-Cooperative Service. We are committed 

to providing high value, practical science-based information and technical assistance 

to farmers, ranchers, Extension agents, educators, and others involved in 

organic and sustainable agriculture in the United States. 

For more information on organic poultry practices and other sustainable agriculture 

resources visit attra.ncat.org. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us 

at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 



11

Drying and 

Processing Hemp 

By: Danita Cahill | Contributing Writer 

Steve Knurowski holds A handful of dried hemp. All photos courtesy of Danita Cahill. 

A 

stretch of heavy clay fields that 

spread alongside McDowell Creek 

in Lebanon, Oregon was once 

home to a Holstein dairy farm, operated 

by Marty Bates’ granddad. Times 

have changed for the smaller-scale 

dairies. Competition with huge dairies, 

which can turn a profit with their sheer 

volume of cows and milk, elbowed aside 

smaller dairy farmers. After the black 

Propane hemp dryer. 

and white spotted cows were gone, the 

Bates family raised beef cattle and field 

corn for cattle feed. With only 121 acres, 

raising beef cattle also proved a challenging 

way to turn a profit. 

From Cattle to Hemp 

“CBD started growing,” Bates said about 

the hemp market. “My oldest son was 

working in a lab in Portland.” 

The Bates family decided to say goodbye 

to cattle and hello to hemp. 

Their first hemp crop was small – they 

planted only two acres. That was three 

years ago. “A learning experience,” Bates 

said about that first year. 

The second year was also part of the 

learning curve. They didn’t buy good 

seed. Bates shakes his head thinking 

about it. Around 75% of the plants 

turned out to be male and were worthless. 

His family had about given up 

growing a crop that year, but they found 

a nearby grower with plants for sale and 

bought a few hundred. “So we tilled up 

a strip of dirt,” he said. 

Marty’s most important message to 

other beginning hemp growers: “Buy 

good seed.” 

Drying and Processing Facility 

They turned the old milking barn into a 

hemp-processing facility. 

Bates stopped in to talk with hemp 

growers Tyrel and Linda Rose at 

another family farm in Lebanon. Their 

crop is planted each year on Century 

12 


Farm land that’s been in the family 

for years. 

The Rose family was looking for a processor 

and wound up processing their 

hemp at the Bates. They all needed a 

drying facility, too. So, the Roses put in 

a dryer at the old Bates dairy, alongside 

Marty Bates crosses through his young 

hazelnut orchard to a harvested hemp field. 

the old milking barn. 

Last year, the Bates did hemp 

processing for several other 

farms, too. “Kept us busy most 

of the year,” Bates said. This 

year is no different. “We’ll go 

right on into summer with 

what we’ve got.” 

Harvests 

Fall 2018 was dry and clear 

into November. Not so for 

the 2019 harvest season. “It 

rained all through September, 

making the hemp fields a 

sticky, muddy mess. The 

harvest was a real challenge. 

Equipment got bogged in the 

mud. Bates drove the harvester, and his 

dad would pull him through the muddy 

fields with a CAT. 

“Luckily, we had the dryer right here. 

That kinda saved our bacon a little bit,” 

Bates said. 

Hemp and ethanol go through several spin cycles 

at the beginning of the process to extract CBD oil. 

Rain and Mud Issues 

A cloudy day in early December, 2019, 

found Bates on a tractor in one of the 

still-muddy hemp fields, pulling up the 

used drip tape and cutting and pulling 

up black plastic. “Some guys use this 




13

Marty Bates pulls up used drip line and black plastic from a harvested hemp field. 


plastic, some don’t,” Marty said. He uses 

the black plastic to retain soil moisture. 

Normally, the Bates would work up 

the hemp fields after harvest and plant 

a cover crop. The plan was to plant 

crimson clover. But because of the mud 

Hemp processor at Bates Farm. 

they can’t do it this year. 

The rain causes other problems besides 

mud. It also creates mold issues. “A lot 

of people got mold,” Bates said about 

the 2019 harvest season. Fortunately 

for the Bates, their varieties – KLR 

Farms #1 and #117 – are mold resistant. 

They made it through October and 

November mold free, but the weather 

was cold and plants didn’t mature. 

A week of freezing conditions down 

into the 20s in October compounded 

problems. “It just wasn’t gonna grow 

after that.” Bates said. Still, they couldn’t 

harvest it all at once, either. “Have to 

chop it as the dryer is ready,” Marty 

said. They harvested as fast as the dryer 

could do its job, but towards the end 

of harvest, still lost some of the plants 

to mold. 

Chopping and Drying 

Marty and his family use the old dairy 

equipment for the hemp. They harvest 

with a corn chopper and load it onto the 

dryer conveyor belt out of a feed wagon. 

It travels up into a pre-dryer that warms 

it up and gets it ready for the main 

dryer, which finishes the process. 

The propane dryer is a model from a 

company out of Wisconsin. The original 

design was meant to dry sand used as 

cow bedding. The dryer can dry about 

200 pounds of hemp an hour. 

After the chopped hemp comes out of 

the dryer, it’s kept under cover in silo 

14 


Marty uses a corn chopper and a feed wagon for harvesting hemp. 

storage bags. 

In the Willamette Valley, there is too 

much moisture during fall harvest 

season in the way of rain, fog, mist 

and dew to cut and dry on the ground. 

Marty said in drier parts of the state 

they may be able to do that. Some hemp 

farmers hand cut and hang the plants 

from the rafters inside buildings to dry. 

There are two drawbacks to that for the 

Bates’ operation: It takes a lot of manual 

labor, and a lot of space under cover to 

hang dry hemp. Bates admits that hang 

drying does make a superior product. 

He tried hang drying some last year and 

got a better CBD oil yield out of it. 

As of early December, the Bates had 

60,000 pounds of dried hemp stored 

and waiting for processing. Bates said 

they can process 700-800 pounds of 

dried biomass per day. 

Processing 

The Bates use an ethanol extraction. 

Ethanol is a solvent that dissolves the oil 

in the plants. The ethanol and the dried 

plant biomass go into the stainless steel 

extractor, which holds 15 gallons. The 

extractor runs on a vacuum. It spends 


Steve Knurowski inspects dried biomass. 



15

Hemp processor at Bates Farm. 


three minutes extracting, then nine 

minutes of spin-dry cycles. The liquid is 

filtered through a series of screens to get 

out any particles. The finest-mesh screen 

is one-micron. 

The solvent is recovered and reused. 

The process “basically evaporates it and 

condenses it,” Bates said. What’s left is the 

CBD “crude oil,” which looks rather like 

black tar. The oil has to pass a solvent test, 

which is a check for residual solvents. 

AgWrite Resources 

Agriculture Communications 

Editing, Photography 

& Copywriting 

Cecilia Parsons 

559-920-4936 

ceciliaparsons8@gmail.com 

Marty’s son, Sterling, “learned a whole 

lot of different extractions,” Bates said. 

Sterling distills some of their crude oil, 

which further concentrates it. When 

that process is done, the oil looks more 

like honey than tar. 

Steve Knurowski, who farms six acres of 

hemp in the Lebanon area, knows the 

ins and outs of the stainless steel processing 

equipment and helps the Bates 

with processing chores. Marty’s wife, 

Jenna does the books and the billing. 

“It’s a lot,” Bates said. 

Sales 

The crude oil is stored 

in plastic buckets 

with lids. “Ideally, 

we don’t store it for 

long,” before it’s sold, 

Marty said. 

Most of Bates’ sales are 

of the crude oil, which 

is sold by the kilogram 

or liter to other labs, 

where it is further 

processed. 

The Bates have several 

different customers. They deliver to some. 

Others pick up their orders at the farm. 

Issues 

• Mold is difficult to deal with in the 

Willamette Valley. 

• Sometimes deer eat hemp plants. 

• Last year they had some problem 

with cucumber beetles. 

• Bad seeds cause a real problem. 

The Bates had very good results with seeds 

from KLR Farms out of Albany, Oregon. 

They planted 20,000 to 25,000 plants 

and only about a dozen turned out male. 

The Bates also planted a hemp field in 

Lacomb, which is an outlying rural area of 

Lebanon. They got no male plants at all in 

that field. 

Buying good seed is key, Bates said. “Don’t 

go cheap on your seed.” 

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17

When considering healthy soils 

and plants, the greatest need in 

terms of achieving vibrant plant 

health and lasting vigor is to consider 

“the trunk of the tree” instead of getting 

hung out on a limb and never tackling the 

core problem. To determine this certain 

basic questions and answers should first 

be considered and some of those may not 

always come that easily into view. 

As a whole, in this entire world someone 

has responsibility over all the land. 

Someone is put in charge of it and generally 

has a say about what can or cannot be 

done to that land and too often not with 

a mind toward what would be best for 

the land or what is produced on it. The 

real bottom line is, when you give the soil 

what it actually requires, only then can it 

provide what is truly needed for optimum 

soil and plant health! Anything less and 

that much less is what you should expect 

in return! 

Various short term for profit programs 

have allowed so many destructive actions 

and so much degradation to the land that 

there are now a host of programs that 

“make it better” and are touted as basic 

solutions to the problems the previous 

thinking of past and present generations 

have caused. 

What works best? Is it when plants 

improve soil health or when soil improves 

plant health? In other words, can you 

best use plants to improve the soil and 

its fertility level, or the soil to improve 

the plants and their health and nutritive 

providing abilities? This is not like asking 

the question, “Which one came first, the 

chicken or the egg?” This question can be 

correctly answered. And in the process 

of answering such a question, what is best 

for soil biology - the true life of the soil - 

would need to be included. 

So then what is the trunk of the tree 

for deriving the most benefit from 

agriculture? Is it making the most 

money, or making the greatest yields? 

Is it growing the best plants or the most 

nutritious foods? It should be the key 

to all of those packed into one logical 

program with the most economical 

approach being what can best be done 

to most help the soil and the crops that 

grow there. 

The best answers to soil fertility, plant 

growth and feed or food quality are not 

geared to the philosophy of how much 

can growers get for the least amount 

they can give, whether that is money, 

fertility or the amount of effort being 

put forth. 

However, most of the time the solutions 

that get adopted are because it 

can be shown that to do so means there 

is substantial profit to be made by the 

sale of something to the farmer. This is 

not meant to even imply that anything 

is wrong with increasing income from 

the added value of work being done. 

But if the bulk of the profit accrues to 

those who are devising the program at 

the expense of the soil and what grows 

there, is it really true profit? And are 

those programs being proposed the 

actual solutions needed or just another 

“band aid” as a stop-gap measure that 

helps only temporarily improve the 

situation in some way? 

Dr. William Albrecht once described an 

experiment his team tried for extracting 

more nitrogen from the colloidal humus 

once they learned to isolate that humus 

from the soil. He said they tried every 

conceivable acid and many “reasonable” 

combinations, but could never find a 

formula that would do the job. 

But conversely, by extracting exudates 

from plant roots and using an inordinately 

large amount as compared to the normal 

release from plants and crops, it was the 

secret key to unlock that N. Yet they were 

unable to duplicate that in the lab. So far 

as is now known, no one ever has. When 

science can’t even do that, it is hard to 

believe that even the best team of scientists 

would be wise enough to figure out 

all that a plant really needs. 

That said, a slow steady feed of what is 

shown to be needed should generally be 

of most benefit to both plants and soils. 

However, in work with a company using 

that approach on a 20,000 acre almond 

operation for feeding nutrients through 

the drip, the program still only provides 

top results if the soil contains or receives 

what nutrients can be measured and supplied 

as needed first. 

No matter how intelligent mankind may 

be considered, taking care of the soil to 

feed the total biological needs of the entire 

“team” - then striving to provide needs for 

the specific crop - works time after time. 

But too many want to skip building up 

soil fertility and just feed the crop. When 

that happens, could growers be robbing 

themselves of the greatest benefits in 

terms of both soil health and the highest 

yields and quality for whatever they are 

producing? 

Most likely there is no one who really 

knows how to provide all of the exact 

nutrients each plant will thrive on to do its 

best. When anyone proposes to improve 

upon what life in the soil can do in that 

regard, even the best “guesstimate” will 

likely fall far short of properly feeding the 

soil- and thus will also rob the plant of its 

full potential - to grow the best yields and 

highest nutrition from the proper inputs. 

So the question then becomes what is the 

18 Organic Farmer February/March 2020

purpose of constant plant feeding? If it 

is just to sell a product to feed the crop 

without regard to the measurement of 

the real needs and condition of the soil 

in that field, it is not necessarily going to 

be of the greatest benefit to the farmer 

or provide the best outcome for what he 

wants to grow based on the cost of return. 

For many who claim to use the Albrecht 

system or some other type program it is 

just an excuse to sell a “feed the plant” 

fertility program. As a rule, a farmer is 

told he cannot afford to do anything more 

than feed the crop. Is that actually the 

truth, or just a sales pitch? Sometimes this 

may be true, but generally speaking, it is 

not the most productive approach. 

For long-term solutions to soil fertility 

and to best supply actual plant needs 

sufficient time is needed to plan and 

take a meaningful and careful approach. 

When growers have a program that is 

the best they can plan out or afford, even 

though believing and choosing to follow 

that program, they should still choose at 

least one small field of average or better 

production and split it in half for a test. 

Follow the normally proposed fertility 

program on half of it. On the other half 

use a true soil building program such 

as the one developed by Dr. William A. 

Albrecht for use in organic production. 

Spend the same amount of money for 

fertility on both. But when using a feed 

the soil approach use the most important 

nutrients to feed the soil as shown 

on the soil test by prioritizing the need 

for all nutrients. If the budget doesn’t 

cover it all, spend the money based on 

prioritizing the needed nutrients and 

put it where it makes the most difference. 

That will usually be quite different 

in approach as compared to a normal 

program that just strives to “feed the 

crop what it needs” and let the soil fend 

for itself. 

For client after client using the correct 

guidance for testing this type of 

program, they now say they must feed 

the soil and let the soil feed the plant to 

be most productive and most profitable. 

Just about all of agriculture is not geared 

to think that way today under the guise 

that farmers and growers cannot afford 

the cost in terms of time and money. 

But how do you know if you have never 

tried it? 

Even on organic farms, most growers 

still tend to try and cut corners with a 

program that requires minimal inputs 

in regard to time or money. Generally it 

becomes a question of how can I maximize 

production and still provide enough 

to do that with as little inputs as possible. 

When that is accomplished, too many 

are satisfied with conditions that can just 

help them remain where they are. This 

type of thinking should not be considered 

and will never correctly apply to 

those who want a program that provides 

true soil health. 

Will the use of cover crops, crop rotations, 

compost applications, striving for 

the correct soil pH, and applying the 

fertilizer that has provided top yields 

in the past solve the real issues that are 

needed to provide excellent soil health? 




19


When used as needed any one or a 

combination of these measures may 

help improve soil health, but this is still 

not getting back to the trunk of the tree 

which is needed as the foundation to 

best provide real soil health. That is 

because under normal conditions even 

following all of these as accurately as 

possible still will not completely provide 

the real basic needs that are required for 

excellent soil health. 

Think about this for a moment. 

Consider someone growing livestock 

and trying to maximize profits, with a 

stocking rate of one cow per acre. How 

many will place their stock in a confined 

area and expect the animals to fend for 

themselves on whatever feed is left there 

and thrive to the point of providing top 

quality while doing so? Ridiculous, 

right? But how many expect that very 

thing from the life in the soil which by 

weight is equivalent to feeding at least 

one average sized cow per acre? 

Based on the study of soil microbiology, 

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the nutrients we apply to grow a crop 

are not in the form the plant needs to 

produce the best quality and yields 

possible. What we apply must first be 

converted by microbes to the form that 

can best be supplied to the plants. In 

fact, microbiologists who study the productivity 

of the soil maintain that the 

more life there is in the soil, the more 

fertile that soil becomes. They measure 

soil productivity by measuring the 

amount of soil life that is present there. 

Plant roots move throughout the soil 

in search of moisture and nutrients, 

and yet farmers and growers are told 

to place the needed nutrients right up 

close to the plants. How does soil life 

and consequently the health of a soil 

thrive when so much of that soil life 

is “confined” to a very small area that 

provides at best very limited means of 

obtaining the nutrients they need that 

have been applied outside that confined 

area? 

Broadcasting needed soil nutrients 

helps feed the entire population of 

living organisms in the soil. To achieve 

Save 

The 

Date 

the utmost in terms 

of soil health benefits, 

the total area must 

have sufficient nutrition. 

Too little causes 

nutrient shortages 

and too much causes 

nutrient toxicities 

that results in other 

needed nutrients 

becoming unavailable 

for crop use. 

The second law of 

thermodynamics 

states that life only 

comes from life. In 

the study of soil 

biology this should be 

a consideration since 

the more life found to 

be present in the soil, 

from earthworms to 

microbes, the more 

healthy and productive 

that soil proves 

to be. Once that can 

be measured, then 

the question must be 

asked and considered 

as to what are the basic needs for all life? 

There are four basic needs for life – 

shelter, food, water and air. Which 

one of these on average can more likely 

be missing and life would go on the 

longest? Shelter would be the answer 

most of the time. Then between the 

three that are left, food would be the 

answer. Then water, with air being the 

most critical of all since we can only live 

a very short time without it. 

The most critical need for sustaining 

our life is also the most critical to the 

soil for life. Now we are getting to 

the trunk of the tree. But how many 

consider that providing an adequate 

amount of air to the soil as the most 

critical step to building excellent soil 

health? And even so, if the soil lacks 

aeration, is there anything that can be 

universally done to change or correct 

that lack? 

Most of those working in agriculture 

fail to recognize the significance of 

the need for just the right amount of 

air in the soil, let alone the keys that 

must be involved for correctly solving 

this problem. That is one of the big 

reasons it is not pointed out as the 

greatest problem affecting soil life and 

soil health. 

Then when soil aeration is lacking, 

how can farmers and growers know 

that truly is the case? What provides 

the proper amount of aeration to the 

soil to best promote soil life and soil 

health? That will be the topic for Part II 

next time. 

Neal Kinsey is owner and President of 

Kinsey Agricultural Services, a consulting 

firm that specializes in restoring 

and maintaining balanced soil fertility 

for attaining excellent yields while 

growing highly nutritious food and 

feed crops on the land. Please call 573 

683-3880 or see www.kinseyag.com for 

more information. 


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21

All photos courtesy of Danita Cahill 

Earthworms are definitely the movers 

and shakers of the soil world. 

Ravenous creatures, even without 

teeth, earthworms can eat half their body 

weight every day. Since an adult night 

crawler, Lumbricus terrestris, may reach 

a weight of 0.39 ounces, that adds up to 

approximately four and a half pounds of 

soil consumed, digested and recycled by a 

single adult nightcrawler each year. 

The Good 

The number of earthworms per acre 

depends on the type of soil. The number 

could be a hundred, or might even 

number into the hundreds of thousands 

per acre. For the farmer, that equates to a 

whole lot of soil movement. The resulting 

worm feces – or, in more polite circles, 

worm castings – is a good thing. Once 

organic matter has worked its way through 

a worm, the nutrients in castings are much 

easier for plants to absorb and utilize. 

Earthworms also help aerate the soil with 

their tunneling. Worms are most active 

during the spring and fall months, and live 

in various layers. Shallow-dwelling earthworms 

live in the top 12 inches of soil. 

They create random pathways as they feed. 

Deeper dwelling earthworms live in lower 

levels of soil – as deep as 6.5 feet. Their 

burrows are semi-permanent. 

Shallow dwelling worms are the most 

beneficial to the top soil. Not only do 

their burrows allow the movement of 

air, but also the movement of water. In 

areas of compaction or overuse, such 

as land developed by urbanization, 

or heavily-farmed land, the worms’ 

movement through the soil is especially 

important. 

Nightcrawlers are surface feeders, 

coming up from their burrows at night 

to feed. They also store snacks for later. 

They are the only earthworms known to 

pull bits of leaves and plant debris down 

into their burrows where it further 

decomposes before they ingest it. 

Worm populations often increase under 

reduced tillage systems, according to 

results from tests conducted in Indiana 

and Illinois tilled and untilled corn and 

soybean fields. 

Worm Biology 

Earthworms have no skeleton. The 

earthworm’s digestive system is a tube 

running from the mouth to the rear 

of the body. Consuming and digesting 

organic matter, such as fallen leaves, 

allows worms to move nutrients such as 

nitrogen and potassium from the surface 

down into the soil. 

Worms have a simple nervous system – 

cutting a worm in half does not seem to 

unduly stress it out. However, contrary 

to popular belief, most worms chopped 

in two will not grow into two separate 

worms. If the head portion is long 

enough, it may grow a new tail and continue 

to live, but the tail portion will not 

grow a new head, or new internal organs, 

and will eventually die. 

Earth worms have no lungs, instead they 

breathe through their skin. This process is 

known as diffusion. A worm’s skin must 

stay moist to keep diffusion working. Too 

much moisture, such as water saturated 

soil from heavy rainfall is also detrimental 

to worms. It doesn’t allow gases to diffuse 

across the worm’s skin. In such a case, if 

the worm doesn’t surface, it will suffocate. 

In Germany, night crawlers are known as 

“rain worms.” 

An earthworm’s head is at the thicker, 

rounder end. It has no eyes or ears, but 

in addition to a toothless mouth it has 


22 




23


a tiny lip-like appendage called a prostomium. 

This is a sensory organ used to 

navigate, or feel its way through the soil. 

Although an earthworm has no eyes, it can 

still sense light, especially with the head 

end. Extended exposure to UV light will 

paralyze a worm and cause it to die within 

a short span of time. 

An earthworm’s body is made up a series 

of reddish-brown flexing segments. It uses 

the segments to propel itself. Each segment 

is covered with tiny bristles, called setae. 

These bristles act as traction devices to 

help the worm move. The setae also assist 

the worm in navigation. 

The Bad 

Night crawlers are not indigenous to North 

America. They originally came over from 

Europe, and are now spread throughout 

North America and Western Asia. It’s 

suspected they came over in soil used as 

ballast in the bottom of ships. 

Still, there are many types of earthworms 

that are indigenous to the US. There are 

approximately 6,000 species of earthworms. 

Around 120 of those species are 

widely distributed around the world. 

Earthworms are generally considered beneficial 

to the soil, although there are times 

when the presence of earthworms has a 

negative effect. 

After the glaciers retreated, the northern 

forests evolved. The resulting ecosystem 

does not benefit from earthworms. 

Invasive species of earthworms from the 

suborder Lumricina can have detrimental 

effects on temperate forests. 

These forests need thick layers of slowly 

decomposing duff – such as the layer 

of needles, bark and debris under pine 

or fir trees. When earthworms invade 

the forests, they consume and break up 

the organic matter and spread it down 

into the soil. This increases the cycling 

and leaching of nutrients. Native forest 

plants have adapted to the presence of 

thick layers of slowly decaying organic 

matter. With this thick layer broken up 

too quickly by worms, the young plants 

may face conditions in which they are 

not evolved to adapt. 

The change in the forest has resulted in 

damages to some trees, such as sugar 

maples, and to forest-floor plants such 

as trout lilies, trilliums and some ferns. 

Earthworms are blamed for the invasion 

of Japanese barberry, and for buckthorn 

overrunning oak forests. 

The disappearance of forest duff equates 

to the disappearance of insects and 

small creatures that depend on the duff 

layer for food and habitat. The loss of 

insects as a food source results in a population 

decline of other small creatures, 

such as frogs and salamanders. 

While earthworm tunnels are beneficial 

to farmland and gardens with compacted 

soil, the burrows in forest land 

may speed the passage of water seeping 

through the forest floor, which can have 

a negative impact. 

Eradicating earthworms from invaded 

forestland is virtually impossible without 

spraying pesticides, which would kill other 

species as well. But organic growers with 

cropland near forested ecosystems can take 

measures to help prevent the spread of 

earthworms. If you compost with the aide 

of earthworms, you can stop using worms. 

Although it may not be practical, freezing 

compost material for at least a week before 

spreading it will kill worms and their eggs. 

The Hungry 

Earthworms have the best of both worlds. 

As hermaphrodites, worms are both male 

and female. Although unlike slugs and 

snails, they cannot self-fertilize. A worm 

has a pair of ovaries and two sperm receptacles. 

When the romantic mood strikes, a 

worm meets up with another at the surface. 

There they line up, join together and 

exchange sperm. 

That distinguishing pink bump around an 

earthworm’s body is called a clitellum. Not 

only is it the defining feature of this class 

of worm, but it’s also part of the worm’s 

reproductive system. After fertilization, the 

clitellum forms a slime tube filled with albuminous 

fluid. Albumin is a water-soluble 

protein – the same protein found in milk, 

blood plasma and egg white. 

The worm wriggles forward out of the tube. 

The tube first passes over the female pore, 

which deposits eggs. As the worm continues 

to crawl forward, the slime tube passes 

over a male opening. The eggs are fertilized 

with stored sperm from the other parent 

worm. The tube closes off to form a tiny, 

lemon-shaped egg case. This egg cocoon is 

deposited underground. A worm produces 

3-80 cocoons per year. Each contains from 

1-20 fertilized eggs. 

The gestation period for worms is from 2-12 

weeks, depending on factors such as soil 

type and temperature. Baby worms hatch 

and emerge tiny, but fully formed. They 

become mature enough to reproduce at 3-4 

months. Night crawlers can grow to 14-15 

inches and may live up to six years, although 

two years is more likely. 




24 


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MANAGING NUTRITION 

FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLES 

BY: DANITA CAHILL | CONTRIBUTING WRITER 

Abelardo Orozco, Duncan Family Farms Director of Farming Operations (Southern California and 

Arizona) checks on a crop of baby spinach, while employees weed and survey the fields. 

All photos courtesy of Danita Cahill. 

It’s not generally possible to increase 

the soil organic matter by more than one 

percent. But even that one percent can 

markedly improve soil fertility. “Feed the 

soil to feed the plant” is the organic farmer’s 

adage, and organic matter is the go-to 

organic fertilizer option to do just that. 

Organic matter is also a significant source 

of micronutrients such as iron, copper and 

zinc. As organic matter is mineralized, it 

either becomes bound to soil minerals, or 

it becomes available for plant growth. 

With vegetable crops, color, product size 

and uniformity are often as important 

for market share as yield. To obtain these 

attributes, nitrogen management is key. 

But managing soil nitrogen levels with 

organic matter is tricky, according to Nick 

Andrews, Oregon State University (OSU) 

Organic extension agent. “Nitrogen is 

often the most limiting nutrient. It’s a little 

bit more complex,” Nick said. The label of 

an organic fertilizer gives the NPK (nitrogen, 

potassium, phosphorus) numbers, 

but those amounts won’t necessarily be 

available to the plants. 

Nitrogen (N) 

Through the process of mineralization, 

some of the nitrogen from organic 

matter is changed into plant-available 

minerals—ammonium and nitrate, for 

instance. The problem is this process 

doesn’t always coincide with crop 

growth. Several factors are at play: 

1) Temperature. Mineralization in 

soil temperatures below 50 degrees is 

insignificant. It does, however, increase 

as soil warms. 

2) Moisture. Soil moisture is important. 

Mineralization happens rapidly in 

moist soils, but slows considerably in 

extremely wet or extremely dry soils. 

3) Tillage. Tilling creates a surge of 

microbial activity, but that burst doesn’t 

last long—it subsides within weeks or 

even days. 

Some short season crops have low nitrogen 

requirements. Using the available 

nitrogen in soil organic matter, residues 

from cover crops and/or applications of 

compost, crops such as radishes and leafy 

greens may still produce well. 

Crops with longer seasons and higher 

nitrogen needs will often need supplemental 

sidedressings of organic nitrogen 

fertilizers. Heavy feeders such as peppers 

and tomatoes will benefit greatly from 

additional nitrogen. 

Nitrogen fuels green, leafy growth, which 

helps plants photosynthesis, producing the 

food required to set and develop fruits and 

vegetables. 

Here are some animal-based organic fertilizers 

to supply nitrogen quickly. 

These are good for cool season plantings: 

Blood Meal, 13-0-0—Blood meal, made 

from dried cattle blood, is a good nitrogen 

source for early spring or fall plantings. 

Chicken Manure, 1.0-0.8-0.5—Chicken 

and other poultry manures are a good 

choice if your crop needs a quick hit of 

nitrogen. Poultry manures release nitrogen 

rapidly—up to 75 percent is released into 

26 


the soil the first year. Most other manures 

release only about a third of their nitrogen 

the first year. Nick cautions against using 

only manures for nitrogen. “If you’re using 

enough manure to supply your nitrogen, 

you’ll have more phosphorus and potassium 

than you need.” 

Fish Meal, 9-4-1—Fish meal is made from 

ground-up fish. It’s an excellent nitrogen 

source for cool-season vegetables, especially 

for early spring plantings. Blood meal and 

fish meal may attract animals, including 

raccoons. 

The following are organic fertilizers that 

supply nitrogen slower. These are good for 

later-season crops: 

Feather Meal, 12-0-0—Feather meal, made 

from ground-up chicken feathers, is a good 

source of nitrogen for late-season growth. 

Good choice for tomato and pepper crops. 

Barnyard Manures—these are well-balanced 

fertilizers, supplying small amounts 

of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in 

an organic base. Well composted and cured 

manure should smell earthy. It shouldn’t 

smell strongly of ammonia. 

(50-60 parts per million). Phosphorus is 

especially important early in the season 

because it stimulates early shoot and 

root growth. 

Optimal crop yield calls for adequate 

levels of soil phosphorus, the second 

primary nutrient. Phosphorus helps 

plants store and move carbohydrates, or 

plant energy. It also promotes development 

of roots, flowers and fruits. Low 

phosphorus levels slow plant growth. 

Only about one percent of the soil phosphorous 

is available to plants. But too much 

isn’t good, either. Excessive levels can create 

field run off into streams and rivers, which 

can cause algae bloom, resulting in oxygen 

depletion and fish kills. Phosphorus soil 

level is something to keep an eye on. 

Potassium (K) 

Potassium is the third primary nutrient. 

It helps plants with root growth and disease 


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Different crops have different nitrogen 

needs. Crops with low nitrogen needs 

include spinach, baby greens, arugula, 

collard greens, Swiss chard, kale and 

radishes, as well as parsnips, peas, beans 

and squash. 

Crops with medium nitrogen needs 

include carrots, onions and garlic. Also 

with medium needs are lettuce, sweet corn, 

pumpkins, cucumbers, zucchini, rutabagas, 

potatoes, scallions and watermelon. 

Crops with higher nitrogen needs include 

not only tomato and peppers, but cruciferous 

vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels 

sprouts, cauliflower and cabbage. High 

nitrogen is also needed by celery, kohlrabi, 

turnips, cantaloupe and honeydew, squash 

and eggplants, as well as cruciferous vegetables 

like broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage. 

Phosphorus (P) 

Organic matter not only provides nitrogen, 

it also provides phosphorus, a macronutrient. 

Warm season vegetables require 

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27

Mixing the compost. 


resistance. Potassium also improves a plant’s 

hardiness to cold and increases vegetable 

size. 

Plants lacking in potassium are weak and 

grow slowly. The fruit is small, sometimes 

shriveled. Leaves show discoloration at the 

margins and tips. Like with phosphorus, 

only about one percent of the soil potassium 

is available to plants. 

In Western Oregon’s Willamette Valley, “a 

lot of farms really don’t need more phosphorus 

or potassium,” Nick said. 

Aggregate Formation 

Organic matter also helps with aggregate 

formation, which is the process of sand, silt 

and clay coming together to form larger-sized 

granules. Larger granules create 

nice, crumbly soil. Good soil structure 

allows water to easily penetrate the surface. 

Crumbly soil also creates better aeration, 

better water infiltration, and a better ability 

to retain water. 

Hummus 

Although low in nitrogen, hummus is 

the most mature soil component. In most 

soils, hummus makes up 70-80 percent 

of the organic matter. Increasing soil 

hummus improves both soil and crop 

growth. Adding hummus to the soil has 

long lasting effects. Not only does it feed 

the soil for the season, or even for the following 

season—it breaks down slowly and 

will continue to feed the soil for decades. 

Sometimes hummus can last for hundreds 

of years. Straw and cornstalks are high in 

carbon and low in nitrogen. Both decompose 

slowly and are efficient suppliers 

of hummus. 

Cover Crops 

Cover crops—or green manure—build 

nutrient-rich organic matter in the soil. 

The plants collect the sun’s rays, which 

powers photosynthesis. The plants take in 

carbon dioxide from the air to produce 

food for the plant, and food for the microorganisms 

living in the root zone. Clean 

oxygen is released into the atmosphere 

during this same process. 

place. So, in fields with high fertility levels, 

a cover crop could save farmers money 

in fertilizer costs. If farmers have a lot of 

phosphorous in their fields, cover crops are 

a good way to go—by adding nitrogen, Nick 

said, without adding more phosphorous. 

Nick suggests sending a cover crop sample 

into a testing lab before incorporating it into 

the soil. The lab can analyze for dry matter 

and nitrogen content. Such a test can predict 

how much nitrogen will be released in that 

growing season. 

OSU offers a free online organic fertilizer 

and cover crop fertilizer calculator, with a 

mineralization model. “It’s not the be all and 

end all, but it’s useable and grower friendly,” 

Nick said. This calculator is intended for 

growing conditions in Western Oregon and 

Western Washington. 

Nick points out that farmers in different 

regions with different soil types and precipitation 

levels will need to check with 

their local extension agents, or land-grant 

university. 

Well-aggregated soil improves root growth. 

It also provides a healthy habitat for soil 

organisms. In turn, the organisms create a 

favorable environment for plant growth. 

Cover crops such as young legumes and 

cereals are high in nitrogen. They decompose 

quickly and produce less hummus 

than chopped straw or cornstalks. 

A cover crop works to keep nutrients in 

Annual soil tests are the best way to determine 

crop needs and monitor soil pH levels. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear 

from you. Feel free to email us at article@ 

jcsmarketinginc.com 

28 


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Photos courtesy of Rockey Farms. 

ROCKEY FARMS BUILDS 

A TRADITION OF SUSTAINABILITY 

BY: STEVE ELLIOTT | WESTERN SARE AND WESTERN IPM CENTER 

Back in 1982, The Fixx had a hit with 

the song “One Thing Leads to Another.” 

In south-central Colorado’s high 

desert, Rockey Farms has followed that path. 

Beginning with integrated pest management, 

the multi-generational family farm has experimented 

and implemented one new farming 

practice after another, steadily increasing 

their sustainability, profitability, soil health 

and crop quality. 

And it began with IPM. 

“My grandfather started the farm in 1938, 

raising potatoes and he had some pasture 

for sheep,” recalled Brendon Rockey, who 

runs the farm now with his brother Sheldon. 

“But the first shift for us as far as being more 

sustainable came 25, 30 years ago when my 

uncle wanted to really avoid toxic chemicals. 

He didn’t like being personally exposed to 

them, didn’t think they were good for our soil 

and didn’t really think they were going to be 

good for our consumers as well.” 

So the farm started eliminating chemical 

pesticides. It wasn’t a big success. 

“We had such a dysfunctional system at the 

time,” Rockey said. “We had poor soil health 

and a real lack of diversity on the farm. We 

really didn’t have a system created that could 

handle getting rid of the chemicals.” 

But instead of going backward, Rockey Farms 

pressed on. They’d been rotating barley as a 

cash crop with their potatoes, but a drought 

in the already water-limited area made 

that rotation impossible. They planted a 

cover crop. Year one it was all sorghum. But 

Brendon Rockey was already seeing the benefits 

of diversity and in year two, the cover 

crop was a seven-species mix. 

“Watching these plants grow together, it just 

made so much sense to me,” he said. “I could 

see them interacting with each other. Diversity 

became a foundation for us.” 

Except for the potatoes. That was still a monoculture, 

and that bothered Rockey. 

“Then one day I was out in the potatoes and 

came across a patch of field peas that was 

growing volunteer,” he said. “And I remember 

thinking, ‘Well, I don’t think those peas are 

doing any harm.’” 

So the next year, he pushed forward again. 

Despite having about six inches of rainfall 

annually to work with, Rockey intentionally 

planted peas with some of his potatoes. 

It worked. 

“I was just so pleased with how well the two 

plants interacted with each other,” he said. 

“They weren’t creating competition, but were 

actually collaborating with each other. We 

didn’t end up using any more water, and we 

had a slightly higher yield in the intercropped 

blocks. I was always taught that any plant out 

there that isn’t your cash crop is creating competition, 

and that wasn’t the case.” 

The next year, Rockey Farms pushed forward 

again, planting diverse companion crops in 

their potato fields, mostly legumes. Then 

seeing an increase in insect diversity, they 

added buckwheat and flower strips and companion 

flowering crops. 

“I started discovering all of these things were 

stacking on top of each other and all the benefits 

I was getting from these practices,” he said. 

“It was amazing to me how many problems just 

disappeared by simply bringing diversity into 

the rotation.” 

Higher quality – and profits – followed. 

“I think a lot of times we get stuck in this 

dynamic that we always think that we have 

to grow more crops in order to make more 

money,” he said. “We decided to do a higher 

quality crop and really became more efficient 

with our inputs. The way we’re farming now, we 

feel like we’ve really eliminated a lot of expenses 

of growing the crops. Every time we spend the 

money now the focus is on investing in the soil.” 

And Rockey doesn’t see these stacked benefits 

ending at the farm boundary. He believes one 

thing will continue to lead to another. 

“For a while, we were stuck in this real linear 

mindset that whenever we had a problem we’d 

go out and try to kill the problem off,” he said. 

“Adding living components to our farm are 

now controlling those insect populations. We’re 

growing a crop to feed other people, so it’s all 

about life. It was really confusing to me that 

with all this life, we were trying to solve our 

problems with death.” 

“So instead, now we want this dynamic living 

system that functions properly and in the end 

we end up with a good crop,” he said. “And it’s 

helping create healthier human beings as well. 

It’s all about this positive life.” 

Brendon Rockey was interviewed for an 

upcoming podcast series by Western SARE. 

Please visit westernsare.org to listen to the 

podcast. 




30 


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GREEN 

RUSH 

BY: RICHARD KREPS, CCA, CONTRIBUTING WRITER 

KATELYN JONES, PCA, CCA 

The green rush is on! With a lot of 

people attempting to get into the 

hemp market right now, the pace 

is fast and furious. Unfortunately, the 

horror stories are starting to emerge 

in the mix of the big gains. It seemed 

many people just jumped in with both 

feet without truly thinking it out. Some 

blocks were smaller than an acre, up to a 

900 acre facility we visited in the desert 

this year. Many “green thumbers” and 

green house farmers attempted to grow 

outdoors and found out there is more to 

farming than just planting and watering, 

in a bit more hostile environment. 

For a few brave souls, the draw of bigger 

returns compelled them to go the extra 

mile and grow hemp for feminized seed. 

As most of you know, growing hemp for 

seed has its own rules and parameters. 

You have to have a clean field, proper 

spacing, great timing, no neighbors 

with male plants (at least 3 miles away!), 

and flipped females to males timed for 

pollen production to match the flower. 

And then the fun begins. Continual 

testing for low THC levels, the threat 

of mites, gophers and root issues, early 

rains, dehydration, combining, sorting, 

grading, germination and certification 

caused many sleepless nights. No big 

deal right? Right. 

There are quite a few things to consider 

if you are attempting to grow hemp for 

feminized seed. Here are a few of our 

most important items to consider: 

Plan your field accordingly. If you have 

the potential for gopher issues, you 

can border up and flood your field to 

eliminate most of them from the get 

go. Get your field level, not only for 

initial flood, but deviations in elevation, 

especially at your perimeter make for 

tough turns with a cultivator in tow. We 

witnessed quite a few people try to plant 

every available inch by stretching their 

borders to the limits, only to have major 

frustration with future tractor work. 

Have an irrigation designer plan your 

system. New technology and monitoring 

will help dial in your water, pressure, 

movement and soil moisture levels. 

Knowing exactly how deep and wide 

your water moves over time will allow 

you to control your inputs with more 

perfection. Spread your soil amendments 

before bedding up to blend them 

into the beds with more uniformity. If 

you are planting your field on 60” beds 

with a five row planter, leave skips on 

every fifth row to eventually plant your 

males when flowering progresses. It’ll 

make planting the males from pots 

much more efficient. On our personal 

fields, we had to run additional surface 

drip lines to accommodate potted male 

plants in season, and it made for some 

extra logistical hurdles. If you aren’t 

growing and flipping your own male 


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plants, contract with a reputable transplant 

company and/or greenhouse to 

ensure a timely delivery. Getting plants 

late can have a dramatic effect on a good 

pollination window. It is important 

to start early with that process as well. 

Placing male plants at 1 foot tall into 

a field with 4 foot females can greatly 

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reduce the even spread of pollen. 

After pollination, be prepared to 

leave the plants in the field until the 

seeds are ready. Early harvest due 

to weather can greatly diminish the 

yield of your higher quality seeds. 

Plan to have a dehydrator in place in 

case weather eliminates the ability 

to dry in the field. Your plants have 

to be crispy if you are planning on 

using a combine to extract seeds. 

When the weather came this year, 

many growers had to leave their 

plants on drainable tarps in the 

field and cover them with plastic in 

wet weather. Removing the plastic 

and letting them air dry in the sun 

after rains is labor intensive and a 

thought many won’t consider on 

their budget. Having a dehydrator 

ready can eliminate much of this 

extra effort. 

It is important to consider the effects 

of weather, genetics and nutrition 

on THC production. Pouring 

thousands, hundreds of thousands, 

or even millions of dollars into a 

project only to have to disc it under 

does not fit anyone’s profitability 

plan. As seed production ramps up, 

we have seen THC levels drop in the 

flower, which can help if growing 

plants for seed. But at any point, 

government officials stepped in this 

year and demanded field destruction 

for many farmers. Good genetics 

and happy, unstressed plants seemed 

to weather the cycles much better 

this year. Do your homework. 

Last but not least, have a security 

plan in place. The expense of 

security, or lack thereof, and consequential 

reduction in yield due 

to theft is a significant line item. 

Unfortunately, many of our growers 

were not prepared for this and 

lost as much as 5 acres to thieves 

thinking it was traditional cannabis. 

Think about that; five acres, 

thousands of plants, gone overnight! 

“No THC, Industrial Hemp” signs 

posted around your property do not 

dissuade thieves, as once they can 

34 


UNFORTUNATELY, MANY OF OUR GROWERS WERE NOT 

PREPARED FOR THIS AND LOST AS MUCH AS 5 ACRES TO 

THIEVES THINKING IT WAS TRADITIONAL CANNABIS. THINK 

ABOUT THAT; FIVE ACRES, THOUSANDS OF PLANTS, GONE 

OVERNIGHT! 

smell it, they think its cannabis and 

the signs are just a farmer’s masked 

deterrent. Hiring 24 hour security a 

month or two before seed harvest is 

going to be the norm. You have to 

prepare for that in your budget and 

scheduling. 

The numbers are real. Variations 

from $0.05 per seed to over $1.00 

per seed were realized in 2019. 2020 

should be no different as the market 

continues to expand. The demand 

seems to still be in effect for quality 

seeds. Tens of thousands of seeds 

per pound and several pounds per 

acre can definitely happen. But 

you have to be diligent, and more 

importantly, prepared for all contingencies 

to be successful with seed 

production. We witnessed too many 

operations this year that planted too 

late, too hot, too dense, too close to 

other farms, in areas with significant 

early frost potential, with no plan for 

processing, etc…. Don’t get caught 

unprepared. The green rush is real 

and he gains may last another year or 

more, but so will the pitfalls. Hedge 

your bet with preparation for the 

contingencies and the green your 

field will be the green in your return. 

All your hard work and diligence will 

have your friends green with envy! 


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Organic Farmer February/March 2020 

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Organic Farmer February / March 2020

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