Taphonomy - Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute

The scene of an accidental death and the victim’s self-inflicted wound which caused it.
Taphonomy – Edged, Incised, Hacking, and Impaling Traumas
Among the more spectacular, or gruesome, injuries encountered within accidental or intended death scenes are
those classified under sharp or edged forces. The physical acts which cause such injuries are intimiate acts. In
interpersonal attacks they require the victim and subject to be in close physical contacts. Even more psychologically
intimate than distance is the requirement of edged weapon attacks that the subject, or victim in the case of suicide, feel
the impact the weapon has in creating the trauma. For this reason the reader is referred to citations under Criminal and
Cultural Behavior. As with ballistic wounds, topics of tool mark examination consider characteristics of edged
weapon wounds. Those marks may extend from the substrates of the victim’s outer garments into that of bone.
Because edged trauma, like blunt and ballistic wounding may generate patterned blood stains, citations under Blood
Stain Identification and Interpretation may aid researchers using this bibliography. An interesting and perhaps
unconsidered cross-reference to the instant section is to Fingerprint, Footprint, Earprint, and Tatto Evidence or
Other Body Modification Evidence in as much as scarification constitutes healed edged wounds. Hacking trauma has
been included within this category. Unlike other wounds created by edged implements, the act of hacking imparts blunt
trauma in addition to sharp force injury. Therefore, citations included under Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas
may include reference to hacking injury. Penetrating wounds, like incised or stab wounds as well as bullet wounds, are
often sites to which scavenging insects are first attracted. Citations under Entomology may discuss same.
(550 citations)
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493

Allen, W.H., C.F. Merbs, and W.H. Birkby
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Cranial blunt trauma exhibited by a kidnapped and murdered juvenile.
Taphonomy – Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas
Unlike other types of trauma, blunt force injuries are typically attributable to a much wider array of causes.
General references to forensic pathology will contain chapters addressing each type of trauma including blunt injuries.
There may also be some overlap between blunt traumas and hacking traumas which have been categorized in this
bibliography with edged trauma – Edged, Incised, Hacking and Imapling Traumas. In hand to hand combat the
most basic implement may be the fist or the action of grabbing the victim’s head, arm, back, or other body part and
striking it against a solid surface. Innumerable objects can be used as weapons to create fracture and crushing injuries.
The most extreme force creating blunt traumas are generated in vehicular crashes or disasters. For this reason the
reader is invited to look through the section of the bibliography that addresses Mass Fatalities …. All injuries to soft
and skeletal tissues are, in effect, tool marks. Articles discussing tool marks left in synthetic substrates may be
encountered under the sub-section entitled general tool mark evidence. Crushing injuries may be the result of being run
over by a vehicle. One will find articles related to tire mark evidence on clothing and soft tissue under Shoe, Foot and
Tire Impression Evidence.
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Taphonomy – Hangings, Asphyxial Injuries and other Neck Traumas
This sub-section to trauma related to taphonomy concerns those injuries typically associated with
impediments, or trauma, to the airway. In the situation of suicidal, homicidal, or accidental hangings as well as
vehicular crashes, additional traumas may present in the cervical area of the spine. Bruising, echymosis, as well as the
presence of pettechia in various tissues throughout the body are also typical of such deaths. For these reasons this
bibliography’s user might want to look through those sections with Miscellaneous Topics in Taphonomy. Perhaps
one of the more often staged, or misinterpreted, types of death scenes are those involving handings. Auto-erotic, versus
suicidal, versus homicidal, situations may take on the appearance of the other or be posed to do so. This bibliography’s
sections on Criminal and Cultural Behavior and General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation contain
numerous case examples which may be of aid. For the crime scene reconstructionist a subsection like Miscellaneous
Trace Evidence might be useful in locating research which has been published or presented on the analyses of knots.
Extreme cervical and neck trauma may result in decapitation. For that reason applicable citations could be found in the
Taphonomy sub-section created for Edged, Incised, Hacking and Impaling Traumas. Some of the titles in that subsection,
as well as Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas may have not been specific enough to identify them as
containing discussion of those types of trauma which could result in asphyxial deaths. As examples of how other
different evidence categories might impact this topic of neck traumas or strangulation deaths, consider the examination
of victims for fingerprints on their skin; or the use of forensic light technology and photography in revealing evidence
not visible under more ambient conditions.
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561

Taphonomy – Ballistic Wounds
Classic star pattern created by a contact wound to the forehead of an individual who committed suicide
The largest sub-section of individual trauma references in this bibliography are categorized as ballistic
wounds. Approximately 760 references are cited in this edition. Naturally, this secton goes hand in hand with that
titled Firearms, Projectiles, and Tool Mark Evidence and specifically its sub-section of Firearms and Ballistic
Evidence. This mostly physiological-related sub-section within the Taphonomy sections usually represents the final or
terminal area of ballistic science. An understanding of wounds in the context of initial and transitional ballistics is
required to reconstruct a shooting or death scene. Additionally, a working familiarity with firearms and ammunition
characteristics and components is fundamental toward scene reconstruction. Beyond the weapons and wounds, various
substrates may be affected during the flight and impact(s) of a projectile. For this reason the researcher is asked to
consider the Fiber and Textile Evidence and Other Trace Evidence Topics sub-sections of Miscellaneous Trace
Evidence. Hejna and Šafr (2010b) is an example of a transitional or near-terminal ballistic study which addresses the
impact of the projectile and gunshot residues on clothing worn by the victim. Other sections of this bibliography which
should be considered when researching ballistic wounds include Criminal and Cultural Behavior for possibly
determining the decision process involved in the selection of particular weapons. Circumstances surrounding a
shooting incident might be reflected in case studies or accounts presented throughout General Crime Scene and Death
Scene Investigation and Nonfiction Accounts of Buried Body Cases. Even the search for expended bullets or shell
casings and/or secreted firearms might be aided through a review of Geophysical/Remote Sensing Technology and
Applications.
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1986 Bullet or Bite: A Contribution to the Morphogenesis of Gunshot Dermal Injury. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 31(4):1479-1486.
562

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596

Taphonomy – Miscellaneous, General, and Other Traumas
This sub-section includes those titles which indicate combined traumas, unique causes, or are unclear in the
specific trauma discussed. For example, blast injuries typically consist of a variety of exaggerated and typically
overlapping penetrating, ballistic, sharp edged, and blunt wounds. The uses of this bibliography should examine the
contents of this section in as much as it may contain references and case examples discussing the more singular topics
above, in the context of other wounding mechanisms and traumas. Several of these references also address general or
introductory discussions of different types of trauma.
(599 citations)
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