Good Shepherd Career Long Professional Learning Academic Papers

PART 3 - ACADEMIC PAPERS 

The Good Shepherd Leadership Pathway 

Standard for Career Long Professional Learning 

Teacher 

Relational Leadership: Reflective Journal 

Good Shepherd Leadership Pathway

CONTENTS PAGE 

Standard for Career Long Professional Learning 

Professional Directed Reading 

AUGUST 

1. Professional Directed Reading (i): Covey (2012) ‘Perceptions of Catholic Identity’ 

SEPTEMBER 

2. Professional Directed Reading (ii): Black (2010) ‘Servant Leadership and School Climate’. 

OCTOBER 

3. Professional Directed Reading (iii): Read ‘Transforming Behaviour’ in Teaching Scotland’s Future 78: 16 ff. 

4. Professional Directed Reading (iv): paragraphs 10-16 of Pope Francis’ Laudato Si, 

NOVEMBER 

5. Professional Directed Reading (v): ‘Bereavement in Our Catholic Schools’, a document from Ontario 

DECEMBER 

6. Professional Directed Reading (vi): McKinney and Hall (2016) ‘Nurture Groups’ in The Pastoral Review. 6a-The Charter 

for Catholic Schools 

JANUARY 

7. Professional Directed Reading (vii): Michael & Nita Creekmore (2020)-Back to school self care: putting your oxygen 

mask on first. Additional reading - buy James Hilton (2018) ‘Taking Care of Yourself and Others’ in Ten Traits of Resilience: 

MARCH 

8. Professional Directed Reading (viii): The Holy Father’s reflection for this year’s Lent 

9. Professional Directed Reading (ix): Teaching Scotland, Dick Lynas ‘Teacher Leadership and Collaborative 

Professionalism’. 

MAY 

10. Professional Directed Reading (x): The Catholic School: Developing in Faith (pg 23)‘Our school shows an inclusive 

ethos which aims to honour the life, dignity and voice of each person, made in the image of God.’ 

JUNE 

11. Professional Directed Reading (xi): Bollan (2013), Eucharist and School Leadership: The Catholic School as the Body of 

Christ 

12. Professional Directed Reading (xi): ‘Firing on all cylinders: what makes an effective middle leader’ (outline only) report 

(2016)

Perceptions of Catholic Identity 

187 

Perceptions of Catholic Identity: 

Views of Catholic School Administrators and Teachers 

John J. Convey 

The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 

This article presents the results of a survey conducted in 2010 of over 3,300 administrators 

and teachers in Catholic elementary and secondary schools nationally 

about their understanding of the meaning of the term “Catholic identity.” The 

survey was conducted in the fall of 2010 in anticipation of a national conference on 

the Catholic identity of Catholic elementary and secondary schools at The Catholic 

University of America, October 2-4, 2011. The vast majority of respondents 

viewed the school’s culture or faith community as the most important component of 

its Catholic identity. The longer the teacher or administrator worked in Catholic 

schools, the higher the rating they gave to the essential nature of the school’s faith 

community to its Catholic identity. Other aspects of Catholic identity that received 

high ratings were prayer, the content of the religion course, who taught religion, 

liturgical celebrations, and participation in service. The respondents viewed the 

percentage of Catholic students as the least important aspect of Catholic identity. 

When I was growing up in Philadelphia in the 1940s and 1950s, the 

Catholic identity of the parish elementary school and Catholic 

high school that I attended was not really given a second thought. 

Clearly, they were schools with a strong Catholic identity. All the teachers 

in the parish school and all but one of those who taught me in high school 

were members of religious congregations. Only Catholic children attended 

our large parish school and all but a very few students in the high school were 

Catholic. We learned from the Baltimore Catechism in the elementary school 

and the daily high school’s religion classes were rigorously taught like the other 

academic subjects. Prayers were said at specific times of the day in the elementary 

school—at the beginning of the day, before lunch, when we returned from 

lunch, and at the end of the day—and every class in high school began with a 

prayer. Liturgical celebrations were frequent and religious symbols abounded. 

We were challenged to be “soldiers of Christ” and to “spread the good news.” 

Some years ago I was conducting a meeting on Catholic identity with a 

Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice, Vol. 16, No. 1, September 2012, 187-214 

© Trustees of Boston College.

188 Catholic Education / September 2012 

strategic planning committee that was charged with making recommendations 

about the Catholic schools in a diocese. During the meeting, I was asked, 

“What do you mean by Catholic identity?” I was taken aback a bit, not by the 

question itself, but rather by the questioner, a prominent pastor of a parish with 

a Catholic school. I had conducted a number of such meetings in the past, but 

no one had ever asked me a similar question. Why was the question arising in 

the context of this meeting? Was it that the pastor really didn’t know? Was he 

testing me? Was he trying to clarify the term so that all at the meeting would 

be on the same page and could discuss the topic with some understanding? 

While I never pursued his reasons for asking, I had assumed for years that the 

concept of Catholic identity was so ingrained in those involved with Catholic 

schools that I could freely use the term and it would be clear what I meant. The 

pastor’s question prompted me to be more proactive in explaining what I mean, 

and what the Church means, by the Catholic identity of a Catholic school. So, 

what does the term Catholic identity encompass? 

Nature of a Catholic School 

Review of Literature 

The examination of the Catholic identity of a Catholic school must begin with 

an examination of the nature of a Catholic school. The Fathers of the Second 

Vatican Council described the distinguishing characteristic of a Catholic 

school in Gravissimum Educationis, The Declaration on Christian Education 

(Paul VI, 1965), as follows: 

The influence of the Church in the field of education is shown in a 

special manner by the Catholic school. No less than other schools does 

the Catholic school pursue cultural goals and the human formation of 

youth. But its proper function is to create for the school community a 

special atmosphere animated by the Gospel spirit of freedom and charity, 

to help youth grow according to the new creatures they were made 

through baptism as they develop their own personalities, and finally to 

order the whole of human culture to the news of salvation so that the 

knowledge the students gradually acquire of the world, life and man is 

illumined by faith. (#8)


189 

Thus, what makes a Catholic school distinctive is its religious dimension, 

which is found in the educational climate, the personal development of each 

student, the relationship established between culture and the Gospel, and 

the illumination of all knowledge with the light of faith (Congregation for 

Catholic Education, 1988). 

In 1972 the bishops of the United States issued a pastoral letter entitled To 

Teach as Jesus Did (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1972). In it the 

bishops delineated a fourfold purpose of Catholic schools: message, service, 

worship, and community. The bishops indicated that the building of, and the 

living of, community must be explicit goals of Catholic schools (#108) and that 

community is not just a concept to be taught, but a reality to be lived (#106). For 

the bishops, community is a necessary condition for, as well as a goal of, Christian 

education. 

Thomas Groome from Boston College has written extensively about the 

nature of a Catholic school. Groome (1996) described what makes a school 

Catholic as follows: “the distinctiveness of Catholic education is prompted by the 

distinctive characteristics of Catholicism itself, and these characteristics should 

be reflected in the whole curriculum of Catholic schools” (p. 107). In a real sense, 

upon entering a Catholic school, it should be obvious that one has come into 

a Catholic environment. As stated in The Religious Dimension of Education in a 

Catholic School: “From the first moment that a student sets foot in a Catholic 

school, he or she ought to have the impression of entering a new environment, 

one illumined by the light of faith, and having its own unique characteristics” 

(Congregation for Catholic Education, 1988). 

In his address to the bishops from Region XIII of the United States 

Conference of Catholic Bishops during their ad limina visit on May 5, 2012, 

Pope Benedict XVI also spoke to the nature of a Catholic school: 

First, as we know, the essential task of authentic education at every 

level is not simply that of passing on knowledge, essential as this is, but 

also of shaping hearts. There is a constant need to balance intellectual 

rigor in communicating effectively, attractively and integrally, the richness 

of the Church’s faith with forming the young in the love of God, 

the praxis of the Christian moral and sacramental life and, not least, 

the cultivation of personal and liturgical prayer. (Benedict XVI, 2012)


Culture and Community 

An important component of any school is its culture. Support for the 

importance of the culture of a Catholic school comes from the research on 

effective schools and the documents of the Church. 

A Catholic school by its very nature should have a distinct Catholic culture. 

Research has shown that good Catholic schools have a “sense of community,” 

which has a positive effect on the quality of life in the school and contributes 

to its effectiveness (Bryk, Lee & Holland, 1993). The importance of a school’s 

community was noted by James Coleman in a series of studies based on the 

1980 U.S. Department of Education sponsored High School and Beyond Study 

(Coleman, Hoffer & Kilgore, 1982; Coleman & Hoffer, 1987). The differences 

that he saw in the communities in Catholic schools and those he found in 

many other schools led Coleman to write about the differences between value 

communities and functional communities (Coleman, 1988). According to 

Coleman, value communities are those that share a common value or values, 

such as high academic ideals, a preference for a particular type of educational 

philosophy, or exposure to a particular type of environment. Most private 

schools, including Catholic schools, should have strong value communities. But 

Coleman saw Catholic schools as more than value communities, they were 

also functional communities. A functional community has a particular value 

orientation, but it goes beyond that. It is a community that functions at a 

high level; it is efficacious in the sense that the social capital produced by 

the relationships within the community is instrumental in producing good 

outcomes (Coleman, 1988). 

Coleman, who was not Catholic, used sociological terms to explain the 

type of community that he observed in Catholic schools. Catholic educators 

would call this a faith community. The school’s faith community is a functional 

community that produces social capital and is a major contributor to the 

effectiveness of the school. It’s the faith community of the school that 

constitutes an integral part of the school’s Catholic identity (Convey, 1992). 

The Church calls Catholic schools to be faith communities, dedicated 

to fostering both social reform in light of Christian values and the personal 

sanctification of the students (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1979). 

The major documents from the Congregation for Catholic Education from 1977 

to 1997 emphasized the importance of the faith community in the Catholic 

school. In The Catholic School (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977), the 

Congregation directed that the Catholic school “…must be a community whose


191 

aim is the transmission of values for living” (#53). Lay Catholics in Catholic Schools: 

Witnesses to the Faith (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1982) specified 

that the educational community of a Catholic school must be in the process 

of becoming a Christian community and a genuine community of faith (#41). 

Finally, The Catholic School on the Threshold of the Third Millennium (Congregation 

for Catholic Education, 1997) describes the Catholic school as a place “in which 

faith, culture and life are brought into harmony” (#11). 

Curriculum 

The curriculum of a Catholic school, in addition to containing academic subjects 

like all schools, also has a religion curriculum. In addition, teachers should look 

for opportunities to integrate Catholic teachings throughout the curriculum. 

The code of canon law establishes that, first and foremost, a Catholic school 

is characterized by excellence (Canon 806). As indicated in the National Standards 

and Benchmarks for Effective Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools, a 

2012 publication from the Center for School Effectiveness at Loyola University 

Chicago in partnership with the Roche Center for Catholic Education 

at Boston College, a Catholic school “has a clearly articulated rigorous curriculum 

aligned with relevant standards, 21st Century skills and Gospel values” 

(Standard 7). Students should be exposed to the great wealth of the Catholic 

intellectual tradition. The teachings of the Church are to be presented with the 

same rigor and academic expectations accorded to other subjects in the curriculum. 

In the Vatican document The Catholic School (1977), the Sacred Congregation 

for Catholic Education speaks to the formation of the whole person in a 

Catholic school, which includes “preparation for professional life, formation 

of ethical and social awareness, and developing awareness of the transcendental 

and religious education” (#31). In like manner, Standard 2 of the National 

Standards and Benchmarks for Effective Catholic Elementary and Secondary 

Schools specifies that an effective Catholic school “provides a rigorous academic 

program for religious studies and catechesis in the Catholic faith, set within a 

total academic curriculum that integrates faith, culture and life” (Standard 2). 

An important component of the curriculum of a Catholic school is the 

teaching of religion. Studies have shown the importance of the knowledgeable 

and committed teachers of religion and the problems that can occur when 

teachers of religion do not know or do not fully accept some Catholic teachings 

themselves (Cho, 2012; Galetto, 2000).


While the religion course must be the central component of the curriculum 

of a Catholic school, equally important is the integration of Catholic teachings 

in all aspects of the curriculum. The content of a Catholic school is a 

“synthesis of culture and faith and a synthesis of faith and life” (Congregation 

for Catholic Education, 1977, #37) and all academic subjects can contribute to 

the development of a mature Christian (Congregation for Catholic Education, 

1977, #40). 

Administrators and Teachers Supporting Catholic Identity 

Good administrative leadership and effective, committed teachers are important 

for the success of any school. The important roles of administrations and teachers 

in Catholic schools have been affirmed by Church documents, individual scholars, 

and empirical research. 

The Church has been clear about the importance of administrators and 

teachers in supporting the Catholic identity of a school and the development of 

its faith community. In the document from Vatican Council II, Declaration on 

Christian Education, the Council Fathers wrote: “But let teachers recognize that 

the Catholic school depends upon them almost entirely for the accomplishment 

of its goals and programs. They should therefore be very carefully prepared so 

that both in secular and religious knowledge they are equipped with suitable 

qualifications and also with a pedagogical skill that is in keeping with the 

findings of the contemporary world” (Paul VI, 1965, #8). The Congregation for 

Catholic Education in the document The Catholic School wrote: “The extent to 

which the Christian message is transmitted through education depends to a 

very great extent on the teachers” (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977). 

And again in its document, The Religious Dimension of Education in a Catholic 

School, the Congregation stated that “the prime responsibility for creating this 

unique Christian school climate rests with the teachers, as individuals and as a 

community” (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1988). 

Individual scholars who have studied Catholic schools also affirmed the 

importance of the principal and the teachers in creating the environment 

necessary for a good Catholic school with a strong Catholic identity. Particularly 

important in Catholic schools are the leadership of the principal and the 

commitment of the teachers (Convey, 1992; Cook, 2001, 2002; Cook & Simonds, 

2011; Helm, 1989; Tarr, Ciriello & Convey, 1993). Ciriello (1998a, 1998b, 1998c) in 

her seminal works on the Catholic school principal illustrated the importance 

of the principal as the spiritual leader, academic leader, and managerial leader


193 

of the school. Schuttloffel (1999, 2008) has written extensively on the Catholic 

school principal as contemplative leader. Cook (2001) described Catholic school 

principals and teachers as “the architects of Catholic culture.” Shimabukuro 

(Shimabukuro, 1998, 2008; Shimabukuro & Fox, 2010) wrote about the ideal 

Catholic school teacher being among other things a community builder and 

committed to the spiritual formation of students. Jacobs (1996, 1997) reminded 

Catholic school teachers that they have to be mindful of their ministerial role. 

Empirical studies have consistently shown the importance that Catholic 

school administrators and teachers place on Catholic identity in a Catholic 

school and the development of its faith community. In The Catholic High School: 

A National Portrait (Yeager, Benson, Guerra, & Manno, 1985), 87% of the high 

school principals included the building of community as one of the top seven 

educational goals for their schools. More principals ranked this goal first or 

second than any other goal, and 72% of them believed their schools were quite 

good or outstanding in building community among the students and staff. 

In a 1990 survey of 783 Catholic elementary school principals, Harkins 

(1993) found that statements related to the development of the school’s faith 

community were most often selected by the principals as essential for Catholic 

schools. Thirty-nine percent of the principals selected a schoolwide emphasis 

on imitating Jesus as their first priority, while 14% selected developing a caring 

atmosphere, and 10% selected treating others with respect. Furthermore, at least 

59% of the principals selected each of these as being among their top six essential 

characteristics. 

In a survey of 1,076 Catholic elementary school teachers, Kushner and 

Helbling (1995) found that the teachers were far more likely to indicate that the 

teaching of religion contributes more to the Catholic identity of their schools 

than does the presence of Catholic teachers or the presence of religious on 

the faculty or in the administration. In addition, at least 90% of the teachers 

indicated that the school has very clear expectations of their role in religious 

and value education, that they are sure what their role is, and that they feel they 

have an obligation to promote the religious faith of their students Similar to 

the secondary school teachers in Benson and Guerra’s study (1985) the majority 

of the teachers indicated that a Catholic school should place the most emphasis 

on developing in its students a personal commitment to Jesus, compared to 

acceptance of Catholic teachings on moral values, knowledge of doctrine or a 

clear understanding of the bible.


Model for Catholic Identity 

In outlining my answer to the pastor who asked me about my definition 

of Catholic identity, it occurred to me that a visual would be helpful in 

capturing the essence of Catholic identity. The schematic model given in 

Figure 1 and first presented in Weathering the Storm: Moving Catholic Schools 

Forward (DeFiore, Convey, & Schuttloffel, 2009, p. 35) provides one possible 

representation of the various dimensions of a school’s Catholic identity. At the 

top of the model are the people associated with the school who are the creators 

and drivers of a school’s Catholic identity, each in their own particular role of 

administrator, teachers, priest, staff support, or parents since they individually, 

collectively, and in varying degrees “communicate the message (content) and 

create the environment (culture) that comprise the essence of a Catholic 

school” (DeFiore, Convey & Schuttloffel, 2009, p. 34). The communication of 

Catholic teachings in the religion course and, when possible, in other subjects 

and the school’s environment or culture constitute the major dimensions of a 

school’s Catholic identity. While content is obviously important, research has 

shown that a school’s culture, particularly the type of community it creates, is 

an important contributor to its effectiveness (Convey, 1992). The environment 

of a Catholic school supports its Catholic identity through the establishment 

of a faith community, an emphasis on service, the celebration of rituals (prayer, 

liturgy, sacraments) and the presence of appropriate symbols (statues, crucifixes, 

religious pictures). The model also provides a framework as to how to develop 

measures of a school’s Catholic identity. 

Figure 1: Components of Catholic Identity 

People 

Content 

Culture 

Religion 

Program 

General 

Curriculum 

Faith Community 

Service 

Rituals & Symbols


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Survey 

Method 

In order to measure how Catholic school administrators and teachers 

understand the term “Catholic identity” and how their understanding relates 

to the model in Figure 1, a 3-part online survey was designed. The respondents 

were informed that the survey was intended to find out what they and other 

Catholic school educators understand by the term “Catholic identity” and not 

how they assessed the extent of Catholic identity in their schools, but rather 

what meaning they associated with the term. They were told that the surveys 

were anonymous; neither they nor their schools would be identified. 

Part 1 of the survey consisted of a single open-ended question that asked 

the respondents to describe in 10 words or less the first thing that comes to 

their minds when asked to describe what the Catholic identity of a Catholic 

school means to them. This question was placed first in the survey so that the 

items in the subsequent parts of the survey would not influence their responses 

to this question. 

Part 2 of the survey involved the rating and ranking of 12 items based on 

the dimensions of Catholic identity in Figure 1. The respondents were asked 

first to rate the items on a 4-point Likert scale (4=Essential, 3=Very Important, 

2=Somewhat Important, and 1=Not Important) and then rank them in order 

of importance. The 12 items in their order of presentation on the survey were: 

• The vast majority of students are Catholic. 

• A crucifix is present in every classroom. 

• Each class begins with a prayer. 

• The school has a strong faith community. 

• The vast majority of teachers are Catholic. 

• The teacher of religion is Catholic. 

• Catholic teachings are integrated into academic subjects other than the 

religion course. 

• The principal is Catholic. 

• The school’s day begins with a prayer. 

• Schoolwide liturgies occur periodically. 

• Students participate in Christian service. 

• Religion course presents the teachings of the Church. 

Part 3 of the survey used a scaling procedure called paired comparisons,


which is designed to rank a set of objects in terms of preference or relative 

importance by having the respondents select the more important item in a 

pair of items (Nunnally, 1978). The number of possible pairs of n items is onehalf 

n (n – 1). Such a ranking procedure is normally easier for a respondent to 

do than the ordered ranking of a set of items. In addition, transforming the 

results of the pair selections according to a procedure outlined by Guilford 

(1954) produces a scale with interval measure, whereas simple ranking results 

in an ordinal scale. 

In this study, the administrators and teachers were given all possible 

pairs, six in total, of four components of Catholic identity and asked to select 

which member in each pair was more important than the other member 

in contributing to the Catholic identity of a school. The four components, 

based on the dimensions of the model in Figure 1, were: (1) Religion Course 

Teaches Catholic Doctrine, (2) Integrate Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum, (3) 

Culture and Faith Community, and (4) Rituals and Symbols. The results of the 

comparisons were then transformed to produce an interval scale. The scale that 

resulted was used to determine how far apart in importance each of the four 

components is to one another. 

Participants 

Superintendents of Catholic schools in 47 dioceses were invited to assist with 

the administration of the survey by sending a link for the online survey to 

their principals and asking them and their teachers to take it. The directions 

to the superintendents and principals stressed that the survey was designed 

to determine what the teachers understood by the term Catholic identity, not 

how they evaluated their school’s Catholic identity. It was apparent from the 

returns that not all dioceses followed up with the distribution of the survey. 

It is important to note here that the responses that were received are not 

statistically representative of all Catholic schools administrators and teachers 

since a statistical probability sampling procedure was not employed that would 

assure a representative sample. 

A total of 3,389 surveys were fully or partially completed. Over 1,000 

administrators and teachers viewed the survey but did not complete it; although 

it is possible that some returned to the survey and completed it later. The 

responses came from teachers and administrators from 36 states. A minimum 

of 100 surveys were from 12 states: over 400 from New York, between 300 and 

400 each from Georgia and New Jersey, over 200 from Florida, and between


197 

100 and 200 each from California, Illinois, Massachusetts, Oklahoma, Hawaii, 

Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Louisiana. Fewer than 100 surveys each came from 

Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Nevada, New Hampshire, North 

Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. Fewer than 

10 surveys were received from Arkansas, District of Columbia, Idaho, Indiana, 

Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, South Carolina, 

Tennessee, and Texas. 

Characteristics of the Respondents 

Results 

Of those surveys where the respondent identified his or her role in the 

school, 14% came from administrators (n = 457), and the remaining 86% were 

approximately evenly distributed across teachers in grades PK-2 (n = 627), 3-5 

(n = 672), 6-8 (n = 751) and high school (n = 708). Identifying information was 

missing on 174 surveys. 

Over half (58%) of the surveys with identification came from respondents 

who had worked in Catholic schools at least 10 years. The highest number of 

surveys come from those who had worked in Catholic schools for 20 or more 

years (n = 947) followed closely by those with 10 to 19 years of experience (n = 

930). The remaining returns were from those with 5 to 9 years (n = 681) and 1 

to 4 years (n = 663) of experience. 

As expected, the vast majority of respondents, 90%, were Catholic. A slightly 

larger percentage of administrators (96%) and a slightly smaller percentage of 

respondents from high schools (83%) were Catholic. Slightly more than half 

of the respondents (51%) taught religion either as a religion or catechetical 

specialist or as part of their teaching responsibilities along with other courses. 

Open-Ended Question 

The responses to the open-ended question produced a wealth of descriptions 

of Catholic identity. What is striking is the variety of the descriptions that 

occurred. Some examples are the following: 

• “Keeping Christ as the center of our education” (Grades 6-8, Iowa). 

• “Live, talk and teach your faith and beliefs” (Grades 3-5, Massachusetts).


• “Primary objective is to teach children to be Christ-like” (Grades PK-2, 

Illinois). 

• “Supporting teachings and traditions of the Catholic Church” (Grades 

9-12, Florida). 

• “Teaching Catholic values” (Non-Catholic, Utah). 

• “Gospel imperative is taught and lived” (Administrator, Illinois). 

Four terms appear in over 10% of the responses: Faith, Catholic, Christ, and 

Jesus, with Faith appearing in over 20% of the responses (see Table 1). Three 

percent of the responses contained the combination, “Jesus Christ.” Seven terms 

or combinations appeared in 5% to 10% of the responses: Liturgy (Eucharist, 

Mass), Community, Living, God, Values, Teachings and Love (Charity). Other 

terms that appeared with some regularity were Prayer, Christian, Belief, Follow, 

Service, and Gospel. Some examples of specific phrases in the responses are: 

Christ centered (75), Christ-like (52), Catholic Church teachings (50), Catholic 

values (42), Christian values (37), Gospel values (26), and Faith community 

(20). Fourteen responses contained the phrase so familiar to Catholic educators 

in the past, “To teach as Jesus did.” Further analyses revealed that, with few 

exceptions, the frequency of terms used were similar for Catholic teachers and 

non-Catholic teachers and for teachers in different grade levels and experience in 

working in Catholic schools. 

Table 1 : Frequency of Most Common Terms in Responses to 

Open-Ended Question about Catholic Identity 

Term Frequency Term Frequency 

Faith 660 Catholic 613 

Christ 447 Jesus 382 

Eucharist, Mass, Liturgy 261 Community 246 

Living 245 God 232 

Values 221 Teachings 197 

Charity, Love 181 Follow 124 

Belief 126 Gospel 93 

Service 95 Spiritual 79 

Morality 88 Environment 75 

Care, Caring 78 Respect 72 

Tradition 72 Faithful 53 

Compassion 66 Sacrament 46


199 

Religion 49 Justice 26 

Formation 27 Doctrine 19 

Kindness 26 

Ratings of Importance 

In rating the 12 items describing aspects of Catholic identity, at least 90% of 

the teachers and administrators gave essential ratings to three items: School 

Day Begins with Prayer, Strong Faith Community, and Religion Course Presents 

Teachings of the Catholic Church (Table 2). Three other items were rated as 

essential by more than 80% of respondents: Periodic Schoolwide Liturgies, Students 

Participate in Christian Service, and the Teacher of Religion is Catholic. About 

three-fourths of the respondents thought that a crucifix in every classroom 

and the principal being Catholic were essential. Just over 60% rated class 

beginning with a prayer and integrating Catholic teachings into the curriculum 

as essential. Finally, 39% rated the vast majority of teachers being Catholic as 

essential; however, only 15% thought that the vast number of students being 

Catholic was essential to the Catholic identity of a Catholic school. Clearly in 

terms of what’s essential to Catholic identity, the respondents focused more on 

what happens in the schools rather than on the characteristics of who attends 

the school or who teaches in them. 

Table 2: Average Ratings of Components of Catholic Identity 

Component Mean S.D. Essential 

School Day Begins with Prayer 3.90 .375 92% 

Strong Faith Community 3.90 .343 91% 

Religion Course Presents Catholic Teachings 3.88 .403 90% 

Periodic Schoolwide Liturgies 3.87 .417 89% 

Students Participate in Service 3.85 .433 87% 

Teacher of Religion is Catholic 3.77 .555 82% 

Crucifix in Every Classroom 3.66 .702 77% 

Principal is Catholic 3.66 .649 74% 

Class Begins with Prayer 3.46 .815 63% 

Catholic Teachings Integrated in Curriculum 3.48 .755 61% 

Vast Majority of Teachers are Catholic 3.19 .800 39% 

Vast Majority of Students are Catholic 2.82 .762 15%


Table 3 shows the pattern of “essential” ratings across the five subgroups of 

respondents by grade level. With few exceptions, the relative ordering of the 

essential nature of the items to a school’s Catholic identity was similar among 

the five subgroups of respondents. For many components only small differences 

occurred among the subgroups. Using a criterion of five or more percentage 

points as a notable variation from the ratings of the entire group, with few 

exceptions, the percentage of “essential” ratings by high school teachers tended 

to be lower than the percentages of other groups. On the other hand, a higher 

percentage of administrators rated the religion teacher and principal being 

Catholic and the integration of Catholic teachings into the curriculum as 

essential elements of Catholic identity. Class beginning with prayer received a 

higher percentage of essential ratings from principals and teachers in PK to 2 

Table 3: Components of Catholic Identity Rated Essential by Grade Level 

Component PK-2 3-5 6-8 9-12 Administrator 

n=627 n=672 n=750 n=708 n=457 

School Day Begins with 95% 94% 93% 84% 94% 

Prayer 

Strong Faith Community 

94% 92% 93% 85% 91% 

Religion Course Presents 

93% 92% 91% 85% 93% 

Catholic Teachings 

Periodic Schoolwide 89% 90% 91% 85% 93% 

Liturgies 

Students Participate in 90% 87% 87% 82% 90% 

Service 

Teacher of Religion is 83% 83% 82% 76% 89% 

Catholic 

Crucifix in Every Classroom 

87% 84% 79% 62% 72% 

Principal is Catholic 79% 77% 74% 63% 84% 

Class Begins with 74% 61% 56% 58% 69% 

Prayer 

Catholic Teachings Integrated 

66% 63% 63% 48% 70% 

in Curriculum 

Vast Majority of Teachers 

47% 45% 43% 22% 41% 

are Catholic 

Vast Majority of Students 

are Catholic 

17% 17% 15% 12% 17%


201 

compared with other respondents. Finally, teachers in the early grades (PK-5) 

were more likely than other teachers to rate the presence of a crucifix in the 

classroom as being an essential element of a school’s Catholic identity. 

In viewing the results by years of experience working in a Catholic school 

(see Table 4), with only two exceptions, the longer the tenure in a Catholic 

school, the more likely the teacher or administrator rated the characteristics 

presented as being essential. Except for having a crucifix in the classroom and 

the vast majority of students being Catholic, the relative importance of items 

increased almost linearly from respondents with less experience in Catholic 

schools to those with more experience. 

Table 4: Components of Catholic Identity Rated Essential by Years of Experience 

Component 1-4 5-9 10-19 20 or 

More 

n=663 n=681 n=930 n=948 

School Day Begins with Prayer 90% 91% 92% 94% 

Strong Faith Community 90% 88% 90% 95% 

Religion Course Presents Catholic 

Teachings 

87% 87% 91% 94% 

Periodic Schoolwide Liturgies 84% 86% 91% 93% 

Students Participate in Service 84% 86% 87% 91% 

Teacher of Religion is Catholic 77% 82% 83% 85% 

Crucifix in Every Classroom 76% 75% 79% 77% 

Principal is Catholic 63% 73% 78% 81% 

Class Begins with Prayer 62% 59% 62% 67% 

Catholic Teachings Integrated in Curriculum 

51% 56% 60% 73% 

Vast Majority of Teachers are Catholic 31% 38% 41% 45% 

Vast Majority of Students are Catholic 14% 18% 15% 14% 

Table 5 shows the “essential” ratings according to whether or not the 

respondents were Catholic or whether or not they taught religion as part of 

their responsibilities. A higher percentage of Catholic respondents and those 

teachers who taught religion rated the items higher than respondents who 

were not Catholic or those teachers who did not teach religion.


Table 5: Components of Catholic Identity Rated Essential by Religion and Teacher 

of Religion 

Component Catholic Not 

Catholic 

Teach 

Religion 

Not Teach 

Religion 

n=2895 n=319 n=1481 n=1259 

School Day Begins with Prayer 93% 85% 94% 89% 

Strong Faith Community 92% 87% 93% 89% 

Religion Course Presents 

92% 79% 93% 86% 


Periodic Schoolwide Liturgies 90% 79% 91% 86% 

Students Participate in Service 88% 82% 89% 84% 

Teacher of Religion is Catholic 84% 64% 85% 77% 

Crucifix in Every Classroom 79% 57% 84% 71% 

Principal is Catholic 77% 54% 79% 66% 

Class Begins with Prayer 65% 48% 69% 54% 


64% 35% 68% 50% 

in Curriculum 

Vast Majority of Teachers are Catholic 43% 10% 48% 29% 

Vast Majority of Students are Catholic 14% 18% 16% 14% 

Note. Administrators are included in the percentages for Catholic and Not Catholic, 

but not included in those for Teach Religion and Not Teach Religion. 

Ranking of Relative Importance 

In the previous analyses, it’s possible for a respondent to give each of the 12 

components the same scale value, e.g., a respondent could indicate that every 

item represented an essential component of a school’s Catholic identity. On 

the other hand, ranking is a forced choice procedure since only one component 

can be ranked first, second, and so forth. A ranking task forces a respondent 

to discriminate among components, each of which the respondent may have 

thought were an essential or very important component of a school’s Catholic 

identity. 

Table 6 shows the average ranking for each of the 12 components. The 

lowest average score represents the highest relative importance ranking. The 

three components with the highest average importance rankings are strong 

faith community, religion teacher being Catholic, and the school day beginning 

with prayer, respectfully. These results differ slightly from the average ratings.


203 

A strong faith community and the school day beginning with prayer are both 

among the highest ratings and rankings; however, that the religion course 

presents the teachings of the Catholic Church falls to fourth in the rankings 

being replaced in the top three by the religion teacher being Catholic. In 

addition, the integration of Catholic teachings into the curriculum moves 

higher in the rankings than in the ratings, whereas students participating in 

service moves lower in the rankings than in the ratings. 

In focusing on the characteristics of Catholic identity that received 

the highest ranking of 1 indicating they were most important, the five 

characteristics that appear most frequently are: (1) strong faith community, 

ranked most important by more than a third of the respondents (36%); (2) 

importance of the religion teacher being Catholic (12%); (3) importance of the 

principal being Catholic (11%); (4) the school day beginning with prayer (10%); 

and (5) the religion course teaches Catholic doctrine (9%). Three-fourths 

of the respondents rated one of these components as the most important 

characteristic of Catholic identity. Over half of the respondents (56%) ranked 

strong faith community either first, second, or third in relative importance as 

an indicator of the Catholic identity of a school. 

Further analysis revealed that the ranking of faith community as the most 

important characteristic of Catholic identity was similar for administrators 

and teachers and for Catholic teachers and non-Catholic teachers. The only 

noticeable difference in the percentages ranking this characteristic as the most 

important occurred for respondents with 20 or more years of experience, where 

42% ranked Culture and Faith Community as most important compared with 

34% or fewer of those with less than 20 years of experience in a Catholic school. 

Paired Comparisons 

Table 7 shows which member of the six pairs of four components of Catholic 

identity presented to the administrators and teachers was viewed as more 

important in defining the Catholic identity of a school. Each of the components 

had been rated by the respondents as being essential or very important to their 

understanding of Catholic identity, so these items force the respondents to 

choose one member of the various pairs of important characteristics as being 

more important than the other. 

The first comparison is between the school’s Culture and Faith Community 

and the presence of Rituals and Symbols. The vast majority of respondents 

chose Culture and Faith Community as being more important to the school’s


Table 6: Components of Catholic Identity Ranked Highest in Importance 

Rank 

Component 1 st 2 nd 3 rd Top Three Avg. 

Strong Faith Community 36% 11% 9% 56% 3.6 

Teacher of Religion is Catholic 

12% 16% 13% 41% 4.7 

School Day Begins with 10% 12% 11% 33% 5.5 

Prayer 

Religion Course Presents 9% 11% 9% 29% 6.3 



7% 10% 9% 26% 6.4 

in Curriculum 

Principal is Catholic 11% 7% 7% 25% 6.6 

Crucifix in Every Classroom 5% 8% 10% 23% 6.8 

Periodic Schoolwide Liturgies 3% 5% 8% 16% 6.9 

Class Begins with Prayer 3% 6% 7% 16% 7.3 

Students Participate in 

3% 8% 8% 19% 7.4 

Service 

Vast Majority of Teachers 2% 5% 5% 12% 8.3 

are Catholic 

Vast Majority of Students 0.4% 2% 4% 6% 8.4 

are Catholic 

Note. The average is based on a scale where 1 is highest and 12 is lowest, so a 

lower average rank is better than a higher average rank. 

Table 7: Paired Comparison Preferences by Function and Grade Level Teaching 

Administrators PK-2 3-5 6-8 9-12 

Rated Faith Community More Important Than 

Religion Course 63% 54% 56% 55% 64% 

Integration into Curriculum 69% 60% 59% 68% 79% 

Symbols and Rituals 81% 66% 69% 73% 81% 

Rated Religion Course More Important Than 

Integration into Curriculum 46% 48% 55% 51% 59% 

Symbols and Rituals 59% 55% 60% 55% 64% 

Rated Integration into Curriculum More Important Than 

Symbols and Rituals 54% 50% 49% 48% 47%


205 

Catholic identity than the presence of Rituals and Symbols. Eighty-one percent 

of administrators and high school teachers, more than 70% of middle school 

teachers, and approximately two-thirds of teachers in the PK and elementary 

grades chose Culture and Faith Community as a more important component of 

Catholic identity than the presence of Rituals and Symbols. 

The teachers and administrators also selected Culture and Faith Community 

as a more important identifier of the school’s Catholic identity than Integrate 

Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum. The percentage choosing Culture and 

Faith Community over Integrate Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum was 

not as high as in the comparison with Rituals and Symbols, but the pattern 

was nearly the same. The high school teachers (78%) were the most likely to 

choose the Culture and Faith Community as more important than Integrate 

Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum, followed by the administrators (69%) 

and middle grade teachers (68%), and finally by the PK and elementary grade 

teachers at approximately 60%. 

The final comparison of Culture and Faith Community is with Religion 

Course Teaches Catholic Doctrine. All groups of respondents continue to 

consider Culture and Faith Community as a more important component of a 

school’s Catholic identity than the content of the religion course. Just over 

60% of high school teachers and administrators selected the school’s culture 

and faith community as more important than the religion course teaching 

Catholic doctrine followed by approximately 55% of the other teachers. 

Religion Course Teaches Catholic Doctrine was seen as a more important 

component of Catholic identity than the presence of Rituals and Symbols 

by all groups of respondents. Between 55% and 64% of the respondents felt 

that teaching Catholic doctrine in the religion course was more important to 

the school’s Catholic identity than were the presence of rituals and symbols. 

The pattern was somewhat different, however, for whether the content of the 

religion course was a more important component than integrating Catholic 

teachings into the curriculum. While more than half of the teachers in grades 

3 through 12 felt that Religion Course Teaches Catholic Doctrine was more 

important than Integrate Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum as a defining 

characteristic of a Catholic school, the administrators and teachers in the very 

early grades thought that the integration of Catholic teachings into courses 

was slightly more important. 

The final of the six comparisons that the administrators and teachers were 

asked to make was between Integrate Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum 

and the presence of Rituals and Symbols. More than half of the administrators


selected Integrate Catholic Teachings into the Curriculum as more important; 

however, the teachers were about evenly split between Integrate Catholic 

Teachings into the Curriculum and the presence of Rituals and Symbols. The 

differences among the subgroups of teachers were not large since all the 

percentages were 50% or slightly smaller. 

Figure 2 shows a graphical representation of how far apart on a common 

interval scale are the four components of Catholic identity for the administrators 

and each of the subgroups of teachers. The length of each segment in each 

column represents the distance in importance between that component and 

the component below it. In each case, the base from which the distances are 

calculated is Rituals and Symbols, which has been assigned a value of 0, since it 

had the lowest scale value for each of the subgroups. The shorter the length of 

the segment, the closer the component is in the respondents’ assessment of the 

importance of that component in contributing to a school’s Catholic identity 

compared with the component below it. The scale value on the vertical axis 

Figure 2: Distances in Importance between Adjacent Components of Catholic Identity with 

Rituals and Symbols as the Baseline as Perceived by the Administrators and Teachers 

0.800 

0.700 

0.600 

0.450 

0.500 

0.478 

0.400 

0.300 

0.297 0.163 

0.200 

0.027 

0.322 

0.156 

0.191 

0.100 

0.157 

0.050 

0.000 

Administrator Grades 9-12 Grades 6-8 Grades 3-5 Grades PK-2 

Integrate Catholic Teachings into Curriculum Religion Course Teaches Cathoilc Doctrine 

Culture and Faith Community 

Note: The base from which the distances are calculated is Rituals and Symbols, which has been assigned 

a value of 0.


207 

represents the total distance in importance of that component on the scale 

from the base of Rituals and Symbols. 

The graph shows that relative ordering of the importance of the components 

for the subgroups is the same: Culture and Faith Community is furthest in 

importance from Ritual and Symbols, followed by Integrate Catholic Teachings 

into the Curriculum and Religion Course Teaches Catholic Doctrine. Several other 

patterns are observed in the graph: 

• The graph shows that the separation between the four components, which 

is an indication of how distinct these components are in their order of 

importance for Catholic identity in the perceptions of the respondents, is 

greater for administrators and high school teachers than it is for teachers 

in grades PK-8. In fact, the differences in importance among the 

components decreases according to the grade level of the teachers, with 

the high school teachers having the largest variance in importance of the 

components and the teachers in grades PK-2 having the smallest variance. 

• For the administrators and each subgroup of teachers, Culture and Faith 

Community not only is seen as the most important component of Catholic 

identity, it has the greatest separation in importance from the other 

components, far greater for administrators and high school teachers than 

for teachers in grades PK-8. As was previously noted in the ratings and 

rankings, the importance accorded to Culture and Faith Community was 

greater than the importance accorded to the other three components of 

Catholic identity. 

• Considerable variation exists among the subgroups for the importance of 

the component representing that the religion course teaches Catholic doctrine. 

The largest separation in importance of Integrate Catholic Teachings 

into the Curriculum from its adjacent component occurs for high school 

teachers and the two smallest separations in importance are present for 

administrators and teachers in grades PK-2. The small differences in importance 

may be indications of some ambivalence in rating the relative 

importance of the content of the religion course and the integration of 

Catholic teachings into other courses in the curriculum. On the other 

hand, there is clear separation in importance between these two components 

for the other teachers, with the high school teachers exhibiting the 

greatest separation. 

• Finally, the clearest indication that the culture and faith community of a 

Catholic school is a more important indicator of a school’s Catholic iden-


tity than the presence of rituals and symbols is most evident from the 

administrators who responded to the survey. The administrators not only 

had one of the largest separations in importance among the components 

overall in their response to the importance of integrating Catholic teachings 

into the curriculum, they also exhibited the largest separation of that 

component from the base of Rituals and Symbols. In each of the subgroups 

of teachers, the separation in importance between Integrate Catholic Teachings 

into the Curriculum and the base of Rituals and Symbols was much less 

than that for administrators and very small for middle school and high 

school teachers. 

Discussion 

It is clear from the findings that a school’s culture or faith community is 

viewed as the most important component of the school’s Catholic identity 

by the vast majority of the teachers and administrators who responded to the 

survey. Over 90% of the teachers and administrators saw the school’s faith 

community as essential to the school’s Catholic identity. The longer the teacher 

or administrator worked in Catholic schools, the higher the rating they gave 

of the essential nature of the school’s faith community to its Catholic identity. 

Furthermore, in every group of respondents, the school’s faith community far 

surpassed the other components in importance. 

The relationship between the length of time working in a Catholic school and 

the importance that teachers and administrators assigned to the development of 

the faith community in the school is an important finding. Hobbie, Convey, and 

Schuttloffel (2010) had a similar result with their finding that years of teaching 

in a Catholic school was a significant predictor of Catholic school identity. 

Since the responsibility for creating the faith community rests principally with 

the teachers “as individuals and as a community” (Congregation for Catholic 

Education, 1988), these findings imply that it takes time and experience for 

teachers to grasp fully the importance of the faith community and their role 

in creating and sustaining it, which argues for the importance of a stable and 

experienced faculty. Rapid turnover in a Catholic school may be a prescription 

for an unfocused Catholic environment. Every effort should be made to retain 

committed and seasoned Catholic school teachers in order to preserve a strong 

Catholic identity in the school. 

Three of the five other components that received high ratings from the


209 

teachers and the administrators for being essential to a school’s Catholic 

identity are also part of a Catholic school’s particular culture. The school’s 

day beginning with prayer sets the tone for the entire day. Periodic schoolwide 

liturgies connect the Catholic school community to the wider Church’s 

Eucharistic celebrations, “the source and summit of the Christian life” as 

stated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, #1324 (United States Catholic 

Conference, 1994). Providing students with opportunities for Christian service 

enables students to put their faith in action and in service to others. 

The final two of the six highest rated components of Catholic identity 

concern what is taught in the religion class and by whom. The vast majority 

of the teachers and administrators affirmed the essential nature of the religion 

course presenting Catholic teaching and most placed high importance on 

the religion teacher being Catholic. Most dioceses have adopted a religion 

curriculum or have established standards that the religion curriculum should 

meet. In any event, the religion classes should clearly present the teachings of the 

Church in a manner that is appropriate to the age of the students. In addition, the 

religion curriculum should follow the guidelines establish by the United States 

Conference of Catholic Bishops in the National Directory for Catechesis (United 

States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2005) and the recently adopted curricular 

framework for the teaching of high school religion (United States Conference of 

Catholic Bishops, 2008). 

The communication of Catholic teachings and values, however, should not 

be limited to the formal religion courses, but should be infused in all aspects of 

the curriculum to the extent possible and appropriate. While teachers may find 

it easier to integrate Catholic teachings in subjects such as English, language 

arts, social studies, and the sciences, particularly biology, why not also in the 

mathematics class in the types of word problems presented to the students. In 

bringing Catholic teachings periodically to other courses in the curriculum other 

than the religion course, the intellectual environment of the school is enriched and 

students are helped to see that their faith and beliefs are not compartmentalized 

but rather are a part of their entire experience, a true integration of “faith and 

reason.” 

The component of Catholic identity that showed the greatest variation in the 

rankings and ratings and among the groups of teachers and administrators was 

the integration of Catholic teachings into the curriculum. Its mean rating score 

placed it ninth among the 12 components and the percentage of all respondents 

that rated it essential would place it in 10th place; however, its average ranking 

was fifth highest.


While the integration of Catholic teachings into the curriculum did not receive 

as high ratings on the essential scale as did the content of the religion course 

overall, it did have higher ratings from administrators and more experienced 

teachers than from other respondents. On the other hand, the separation in 

importance of integrating Catholic teachings into the curriculum from the 

presence of rituals and symbols was the smallest for teachers in grades 6 to 12, the 

grades that should present the best opportunities for such integration. It would 

seem that all teachers, but particularly those in the middle school and high school 

grades, could benefit from professional development that would assist them to 

develop ways to integrate Catholic teachings throughout the curriculum. 

It is also clear from the findings that the majority of teachers and administrators 

did not consider the proportion of Catholics on the faculty and percentage of 

Catholic students as being essential elements of a school’s Catholic identity. This 

finding is similar to the teachers in Kushner and Helbling’s study (1995) who were 

far more likely to indicate that the teaching of religion (86%) contributes more to 

the Catholic identity of their schools than does the presence of Catholic teachers 

or the presence of religious on the faculty or in the administration. Apart from 

the religion teacher being Catholic because of the content that the teacher is 

expected to present and the principal being Catholic because of her or his role in 

the spiritual leadership of the schools in addition to the academic leadership, the 

respondents viewed the school’s environment, the content that is presented, and 

the presence of rituals and symbols as more important than the religion of those 

who taught in the school and the students who attend it. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, the teachers and administrators felt that the most important 

component of Catholic identity in a Catholic school is the school’s culture 

or faith community. The faith community was rated higher than any other 

dimension of Catholic identity and the term “faith” appeared among the most 

frequently mentioned attributes in the open-ended question. The teachers and 

administrators also gave high priority to the content of the religion course, who 

taught religion and other aspects of the school’s environment, prayer at the 

beginning of the day, periodic liturgical celebrations, and students participating 

in Christian service. 

The lowest priorities assigned by the teachers and administrators as being 

essential to the Catholic identity of a Catholic school were the percentage of 

students who are Catholic, followed by the percentages of teachers who are


211 

Catholic. On the other hand, the respondents affirmed the importance of both 

the principal and the religion teacher being Catholic. 

Differences in the perceptions of importance of various components were 

evident by the length of time the respondents had worked in a Catholic school, 

with more experienced teachers assigning more importance to the leading 

component than less experienced teachers, and their role in the school, with 

administrators assigning the highest ratings, following by teachers in elementary 

school and finally by high school teachers. In addition, those who taught religion 

generally gave higher ratings to the components compared with those who did 

not teach religion, a large number of whom were high school teachers. Finally, 

Catholic teachers were more likely than non-Catholic teachers to rate a particular 

component as being essential to the school’s Catholic identity. 

Our Holy Father Pope Benedict XVI was very clear in his presentation to 

Catholic educators on April 17, 2008 at The Catholic University of America 

about the importance of education to the Church and, in particular, the 

education that occurs in a Catholic school with its faith dimension. The Holy 

Father said: “First and foremost every Catholic educational institution is a 

place to encounter the living God, who in Jesus Christ reveals his transforming 

love and truth.” He later continued: “Clearly, then, Catholic identity is not 

dependent upon statistics. Neither can it be equated simply with orthodoxy 

of course content. It demands and inspires much more: namely that each and 

every aspect of your learning communities reverberates with the ecclesial life 

of faith” (Benedict XVI, 2008). 

For the teachers and administrators of Catholic schools, a school is 

Catholic not because of its name, or the presence of crucifixes, or because it 

has a course in religion, or by the percentage of Catholic students, but rather by 

its Catholic ethos, its faith community, which is manifested in what is taught 

and how, how people relate to one another, what the environment looks like, 

what celebrations occurs and, finally, by its name. 

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Servant Leadership and School Climate 437 

Correlational Analysis of Servant Leadership 

and School Climate 

Glenda Lee Black 

Halton Catholic District School Board, Ontario, Canada 

The purpose of this mixed-method research study was to determine the extent 

that servant leadership was correlated with perceptions of school climate to 

identify whether there was a relationship between principals’ and teachers’ 

perceived practice of servant leadership and of school climate. The study employed 

a mixed-method approach by fi rst administering two validated quantitative 

instruments: Laub’s (1998) Organizational Leadership Assessment (OLA) 

measured the perceived servant leadership in the schools and Hoy, Tarter, & 

Kottkamp’s (1991) Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire-Revised 

(OCDQ-RE) measured the school’s climate. These instruments were administered 

to a randomly selected sample of 231 full-time teachers and 15 principals 

working in a Catholic school board in Ontario. Upon completion of the quantitative 

data analysis, focus group interviews were conducted with 10% of the 

sample. The data revealed a significant positive correlation between servant 

leadership and school climate. 

As the demands of our public educational system have become greater, 

student motivation and new methods of attaining student academic 

achievement have become increasingly elusive. A generation of 

research has provided evidence demonstrating improved academic achievement 

goals can be attained by effective school leaders attending to the needs 

of school organizations (Kelley, Thornton, & Daugherty, 2005; Mitchell 

& Castle, 2005; Mulford, Silins, & Leithwood, 2004; Waters, Marzano, & 

McNulty, 2004). Visionary, creative, knowledgeable, principled, and inspiring 

educational leaders are vital to building and fostering a positive school environment 

to help meet public education goals in the 21st century (Simonson, 

2005). Belief in the tenets of servant leadership as a practical operational approach 

for school communities has gained momentum among scholars and 

practitioners in the past 20 years (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). Servant leadership, 

a philosophy introduced in 1970 by Greenleaf entitled The Servant as 

Leader, emphasized the importance of a leader’s motivation to serve or to 

lead as an identification of servant leadership. Servant leaders put serving 

Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice, Vol. 13, No. 4, June 2010, 437–466 

© Trustees of Boston College.

438 Catholic Education / June 2010 

others before themselves, assuming a non-focal position within teams, providing 

resources and support without an expectation of acknowledgment. 

The current research project explored a potential correlation between elementary 

principals’ and teachers’ perceived practice of servant leadership 

and school climate. 

Twenty-first-century scholars presented the servant leader as one moving 

beyond being transformational. These servant leaders possess the intent 

of transforming those served to grow personally and professionally, become 

more autonomous, and increase the likelihood of becoming servants 

themselves (Spears & Lawrence, 2004). Studies have shown a relationship 

between implementing principles of servant leadership and positive organizational 

climate (Ehrhart, 2004; Hunt, 2002; McCowan, 2004). The current 

study investigated and extended prior studies of the servant leadership and 

school climate relationship within the Ontario Catholic elementary school 

system. The acquired knowledge provided much-needed empirical evidence 

(Russell & Stone, 2002; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002) to assist leaders in establishing 

training programs and other support systems to promote servant leadership. 

The principles and characteristics of servant leadership are the most 

appropriate leadership style for leaders in Catholic schools (Schafer, 2005). 

The vision of Catholic education in Canada is to provide a holistic education 

inspired by Jesus Christ, Christian teachings, and the Catholic community 

(Mulligan, 1999). Servant leadership’s tenants of caring and ethical behavior 

and community building are an essential component to Catholic education. 

Servant Leadership 

Leadership research has evolved considerably over the past century. A leadership 

evolution does not mean there is a clear, agreed-upon definition of the 

concept among scholars. Like all constructs in social sciences, the definition 

of leadership is arbitrary and subjective. Due to the lack of consensus, leaders 

must choose the most effective leadership theory for their organizations. 

Three phases in the study of leadership theories have evolved over the 

past century (Polleys, 2002). The first phase, spanning 1900 to World War 

II, included definitions of leadership, emphasized leaders and psychological 

and trait theories. In the second phase, from the end of World War II until the 

late 1960s, a behavioral approach toward leadership emerged, with a focus on 

what leaders did. The third phase began in the 1970s, with a shift from the behavioral 

approach toward definitions examining leadership environment, and 

included the development of situational and contingency theories. Late in the 

1970s, servant leadership emerged, viewing the leader as a servant.


The servant leadership model formed the main portion of the theoretical 

framework for the current study. According to servant leadership principles, 

leaders take care of their followers (Ehrhart, 2004). Followers of a servant 

leader are only effective when their needs are met; an effective servant leader 

understands and is sensitive to the followers’ needs (Rowe, 2003). By removing 

obstacles, a servant leader enables followers to concentrate on their tasks 

(Polleys, 2002). The surest way for a servant leader to succeed is to put others 

first (Rowe, 2003). 

Servant Leadership According to Greenleaf 

Greenleaf introduced the term servant leader to the corporate world. 

Greenleaf’s (1977) concept for servant leadership began to develop during 

his involvement with universities in the 1960s and 1970s. Lecturing at the 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Sloan School of Management and 

at the Harvard Business School, as well as other prestigious universities, 

Greenleaf developed his program of leadership in the context of his research 

on organizational management. 

The servant leadership philosophy Greenleaf (1970) introduced emphasized 

the importance of a leader’s motivation to serve or to lead as an 

identification of servant leadership. His 1977 seminal book entitled Servant 

Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness 

introduced the term servant leadership and he has been given the title grandfather 

of servant leadership (Polleys, 2002). Greenleaf (1977) described servant 

leadership as follows: 

The servant-leader is servant first . . . It begins with the natural feeling that one 

wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to 

lead. He or she is sharply different from the person who is leader first, perhaps 

because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material 

possessions. For such it will be a later choice to serve—after leadership is established. 

(p. 52) 

There is a significant difference between those choosing leadership before 

service (Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). 

According to Greenleaf (1977), one way to identify servant leaders is to test 

whether their followers grow as people by becoming more autonomous. He 

hypothesized these leaders become more of a servant. 

The attribute to serve others is not serving in the sense of doing things 

for others. The leaders’ focus is to make the person served more competent


to meet their own needs and be better equipped to serve the organization and 

society in general. The focus is to help followers become more autonomous, 

not more reliant on the leader (Greenleaf, 1970). Greenleaf explained individuals 

could assess how well they were living the life of a servant leader 

by proposing if those served grow personally, grow professionally, become 

more autonomous, and themselves become servants (Greenleaf, 1970). The 

autonomous growth of followers test, recommended by Greenleaf, served as 

the core rationale behind the development of the Organizational Leadership 

Assessment (OLA; Laub, 1998) that quantitatively measures the perceived 

servant leadership in organizations and schools. 

Servant Leadership in Academic and Popular Literature 

Whether in the corporate boardroom, church pew, or school hallways, leaders 

have embraced servant leadership as a legitimate leadership style for creating 

a positive and productive environment. In the 1990s, scholars promoted 

a movement toward a leadership model of putting people first as a necessary 

step in creating a profitable business (Spears, 2004). Spears noted that 

standard practices are rapidly shifting toward the ideas put forward by Robert 

Greenleaf, Stephen Covey, Peter Senge, Max DePree, Margaret Wheatley, Ken 

Blanchard, and many others who suggest that there is a better way to lead and 

manage our organizations. (p. 10) 

Organizations were moving toward a more meaningful leadership model; 

one based on teamwork, community, morals, involving others in decisionmaking, 

and promoting the growth of people (Lubin, 2001; Spears, 2004; 

Yukl, 2002). 

Servant Leadership Traits 

Spears (1998) tracked the evolution and growing impact of servant leadership 

over three decades. By reviewing Greenleaf’s writing and researching 

contemporary literature on servant leadership, Spears detailed 10 characteristics 

believed to be essential for any servant leader. Although the list is by 

no means exhaustive, servant leaders should exhibit the qualities to motivate 

others (Spears, 1998). The traits described by Spears were (a) listening, 

(b) empathy, (c) healing, (d) awareness, (e) persuasion, (f) conceptualization, 

(g) foresight, (h) stewardship, (i) commitment to the growth of people, 

and (j) building community.


Listening is the ability to listen receptively (Spears, 1998). The inclination 

of the servant leader is to understand the situation before taking action 

(Lubin, 2001). According to Greenleaf (1977), the servant leader is empathetic 

and attempts to understand the actions, behaviors, and intentions of others. 

Healing, in the servant leadership context, is not alleviating physical ill, 

rather it is addressing emotional and spiritual damage from life experiences 

(Lubin, 2001). The goal of education is to develop the whole child, including 

his or her cognitive, physical, emotional, and spiritual self. Educators are 

healers of the whole child. 

The servant leader has a wide perspective on the world. The awareness 

trait is not only sensory, but includes an understanding of one’s ethics, morals, 

and values. Greenleaf (1977) observed awareness is not a comforting 

state, rather leaders increase their sensory perception to gather information 

for future situations. Servant leaders demonstrate persuasion by showing respect 

and dignity for others (Greenleaf, 1977). Spears (1998) wrote the use of 

persuasion, rather than formal sanctions and rewards, to enlist and maintain 

follower commitment to organizational goals is representative of the servant 

leader. According to Spears, persuasion is the ability of the servant leader 

to build consensus within groups. Greenleaf (1977) suggested persuasion is 

usually a slow, deliberate, and painstaking process. Conceptualization or conceptual 

leaders traditionally had characteristics of visionaries and were innovators 

in their institutions. Spears (1998), following a review of Greenleaf’s 

essays, defined the attribute of conceptualization as the ability to look beyond 

day-to-day realities to examine an issue. The servant leader conceptualization 

attribute requires the servant leader to balance looking beyond the short term 

to the long-term vision of the organization (Spears, 1998). 

Foresight, as defined by Greenleaf (1977), is “a better than average guess 

about what is going to happen in the future” (p. 24). One develops foresight 

through superior awareness and perception, and as an ability to face the unknown. 

Stewardship, as defined by Peter Block (1998), is “to hold something 

in trust for another” (p. 15). Greenleaf (1977) believed it was a leader’s responsibility 

to “hold institutions in trust for the larger society” (p. 52). From 

Greenleaf’s perspective, the ultimate test of servant leaders is the extent they 

contribute to the growth of nominal followers or commitment to the growth 

of people. The primary concern for servant leaders lies in meeting the higherorder 

needs of those served. The most admired leaders develop their followers 

self-worth and self-esteem (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Servant leaders are 

committed to doing what is necessary in the work environment so the environment 

contributes to the professional and personal growth of all people 

in the institution. The building community attribute illustrates Greenleaf’s


vision of improving a community by actively participating in improving the 

organization’s growth. According to Greenleaf (1977), “Only community can 

give the healing love that is essential for health” (p. 37). Servant leaders do 

not allow themselves to become isolated from their subordinates by layers of 

hierarchy. Instead, they are physically present at the actual working site. 

Servant Leadership in Catholic Schools 

Catholic schools are a ministry of the parish. Although Catholic school boards 

have a significant role in the decision-making of Catholic schools, Catholic 

school principals are the primary decision-makers within a school. If principals 

have common role expectations they will likely be more effective leaders 

in their community. The language and characteristics of servant leadership 

are the most appropriate leadership style for Catholic school leaders (Schafer, 

2005). The doctrines and teachings of the Catholic Church encourage members 

of the Catholic community to live the principles of servant leadership. 

The concept of servant leadership occurs in the Bible through examples 

from Moses to Jesus. The word servant is in the Bible almost 1,000 times. 

Scholars, contemporary authors, and researchers have cited biblical references 

to support servant leadership (Blanchard & Hodges, 2002; Contee-Borders, 

2002; Greenleaf, 1970; Jennings, 2002; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). 

Jesus, considered by some scholars to be the greatest leader to have lived 

(Carter, 2003; Kubicek, 2005), presented a model of leadership focusing 

on God, not the leader. Jesus exemplified leadership as care, love, and submission 

rather than strength, might, and power. Colson once stated during a 

speech, “All kings in history sent people out to die for them. There is only 

one king I know who decided to die for his people” (as cited in Blanchard, 

1998, p. 26). 

In a document from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 

(1972), To Teach As Jesus Did, the bishops promoted the concept that it is 

the responsibility of the Christian community to follow the example of Jesus. 

The bishops stated, 

This community is based not on force or accident of geographic location or 

even on deeper ties of ethnic origin, but on the life of the Spirit which unites its 

members in a unique fellowship so intimate that Paul likens it to a body of which 

each individual is part and Jesus Himself is the Head. (sec. 22) 

Jesus’ life and teachings exemplified the perfect servant leader (Blanchard & 

Hodges, 2002; Contee-Borders, 2002; Moore, 2005). Jesus did not lead from


behind, but rather he stood out front, even in the face of great adversity. He 

had a vision of what he had to do, and probably knew there was a short time to 

complete his tasks. Ultimately, the essence of Jesus’ message was simple; he 

showed by example (Spears, 1998). “Jesus washing his disciples’ feet is a dramatic 

example of His service and humility to people” (Woolfe, 2003, p. 84). 

The characteristics of servant leaders, as defined by Spears (1998), listening, 

empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, 

stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community, 

are what one would expect in a Catholic school (Schafer, 2005). The Church’s 

philosophy on education aligns with the principles of servant leadership as noted 

in a document from the Vatican: the Congregation for Catholic Education 

(CCE; 1998), stated, “A Catholic school is not simply a place where lessons 

are taught, it is a center that has an operative educational philosophy, attentive 

to the needs of today’s youth and illuminated by the Gospel message” 

(sec. 22). The idea of Catholic schools as Christian communities is embodied 

in servant leadership and further illustrated in the Vatican document entitled 

The Catholic School (CCE, 1977). In reference to Catholic schools, the CCE 

stated, “It is a genuine community bent on imparting, over and above an academic 

education, all the help it can to its members to adopt a Christian way of 

life” (sec. 60). Servant leadership’s general attitude to service closely reflects 

the Church’s teachings and embodies the characteristics one would expect 

Catholic school principals to follow. 

School Climate 

School leaders investing time and effort in assessing and improving their 

schools’ climate can increase their school’s overall efficacy. Research supports 

the relationship between a positive school climate and improved student 

achievement (Halawah, 2005), teacher retention and satisfaction (de Barona 

& Barona, 2006), reduced school violence (Khoury-Kassabri, Benbenishty, & 

Astor, 2005), and sustained school reform (Kelley et al., 2005). The principal 

has the responsibility to create a positive organizational climate through effective 

leadership at the school level. According to Halawah (2005), an elementary 

school principal’s behavior influences students’ academic achievement. 

By modeling and promoting a positive instructional learning environment, 

the principal is able to influence positively the school’s climate and student 

achievement. Research explored the relationship between secondary principals’ 

servant leadership and school climate (Anderson, 2005; Lambert, 2004; 

Miears, 2004). There were no empirical data addressing the relationship between 

elementary school principal servant leaders and school climate.


Interest in the construct of school climate increased when researchers 

began to show a relationship between positive school climate and academic 

achievement. Cohen (2006) underscored the significance of a positive school 

environment in “meeting the academic, emotional, and social needs of students” 

(p. 201). As a result of these findings, the U.S. Department of Justice 

and state agencies actively encouraged educators to foster emotionally, socially, 

and physically safer school communities (Cohen, 2006). 

Recent increased media and legislative attention to school violence issues 

from the public and educators brought attention to safety concerns within the 

school environment. With the focus on student safety, school climate has been 

elevated to national attention and is now among top variables school staff and 

policy-makers constantly evaluate (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). 

School climate influences not only the day-to-day experiences of the teachers 

and other on-site professionals, it impacts the quality and effectiveness of the 

educational experience for students. 

The Appearance of School Climate 

In the 1970s, researchers used the term school climate in relation to the environment 

of a school (Hoy et al., 1991). Under many early definitions, school 

climate was the atmosphere of the school as teachers and administrators experience 

it. The atmosphere explanation described a teacher’s or administrator’s 

“perception of routine behavior that affected the attitudes and behavior in the 

school” (Hoy & Miskel, 2001, p. 159). Halpin and Croft (1963), pioneers in 

the study of school climate construct, studied the influence of leaders’ behaviors 

on organizational climates, specifically elementary schools, and concluded 

each school had a different feel or personality (Halpin, 1966). In their 1963 

study of school climate, Halpin and Croft identified six prototypic climate 

profiles from 71 elementary schools based on key components of teacherto-teacher 

and teacher-to-school administrator interactions. Halpin and Croft 

used these components to develop the Organizational Climate Description 

Questionnaire (OCDQ), which provided a measure of school climate in elementary 

schools (as cited in Hoy & Tarter, 1997). 

Halpin and Croft (1963) identified eight dimensions of school climate. 

Four of the dimensions refer to the characteristics of the group or faculty: 

(a) disengagement, where teachers are not committed to the task at hand; 

(b) hindrance, where teachers feel the principal burdens them with unnecessary 

duties and work; (c) esprit, the morale of the group grows from a sense of 

satisfaction of social needs and task accomplishment; and (d) intimacy, where 

teachers perceive the social relations with others in the school as warm and


friendly. The remaining four dimensions pertain to the behavior or characteristics 

of the leader: (e) aloofness, where the principal shows informal and 

impersonal behavior and maintains social distance from subordinate faculty; 

(f) production emphasis, where the principal supervises closely, is highly directive 

and not sensitive to faculty feedback; (g) thrust, where a dynamic 

principal personally sets the example to move the organization; and (h) consideration, 

where the principal is warm, friendly, and tries to be extra helpful 

to the faculty (Hoy et al., 1991). Hoy et al. (1991) noted that the dimension 

descriptions “suggest the behavior that each taps” (p. 11). 

The eight dimensions defined six climate types arranged along a continuum 

from open to closed: open, autonomous, controlled, familiar, paternal, 

and closed (Hoy et al., 1991). The OCDQ provided the basic framework 

for studying school climate for 25 years (Hoy et al., 1991). The instrument 

received criticism for neglecting secondary students and focusing only on elementary 

schools (Rafferty, 2003). 

Researchers studied Halpin and Croft’s (1963) work and extended the 

concept of school climate into high schools to address limitations in the 

original instrument (Hoy et al., 1991). The Organizational Health Inventory 

(OHI)-Secondary emerged, seeking to capture the health of interpersonal 

relationships in schools (Hoy & Tarter, 1997). The OHI had a basis in the 

theoretical work of Parsons (1951) in the area of organizational social systems. 

Parsons (as cited in Hoy et al., 1991) stated all organizations, including 

schools, had four functional imperatives or problems to be solved if they 

were to grow and survive: (a) acquiring sufficient resources and working cooperatively 

within the external environment, (b) setting and implementing 

goals, (c) maintaining a sense of unity, and (d) creating and maintaining a 

distinctive value system. According to Parsons, each organization had three 

levels of authority over three basic functions: (a) technical, (b) managerial, 

and (c) institutional. 

The instrument in Hoy and Tarter’s (1997) study focused on the health 

of the organization. Following Parsons’ organizational levels of authority, 

school health possessed three levels of conceptualization: (a) institutional, 

(b) administrative, and (c) teacher. The three levels representing the basic 

needs of the school were (a) helping others adapt to the environmental 

demands, (b) achieving goals and satisfying the needs of all parties, and 

(c) creating cohesiveness in the community. 

Hoy and Tarter (1997) found a healthy school was free from outside pressures 

from parents and the community. The county board protected the school 

from distinctive forces (high institutional integrity). The healthy school’s principal 

was a dynamic leader integrating various styles of leadership, focusing


on both tasks and relations with others (high consideration and initiating 

structure). The healthy school’s principal also influenced decision-makers 

within the system so his or her school was able to get what it needed to operate 

effectively (high influence). 

The “teachers in a healthy school were committed to the students and 

the process of learning” (Hoy & Tarter, 1997, p. 52). These teachers set high 

standards and were encouraged by a serious and orderly environment (high 

academic emphasis). The principal provided teachers with the classroom supplies 

and instructional materials needed for their classes (high resource support). 

Finally, teachers in a healthy school worked well together and trusted 

one another. They were enthusiastic about teaching and excited about their 

school (high morale; Hoy & Tarter, 1997). 

In a healthy school environment, administrators, teachers, and students 

had positive relationships with one another (Hoy, Smith, & Sweetland, 2002). 

The principal was perceived as positive, supportive, and friendly to staff and 

students and had high expectations for teachers while helping in any way possible. 

In healthy school environments, teachers worked well with colleagues, 

and enjoyed their students and jobs. The teachers pushed students to academic 

excellence and believed students could be successful (Hoy et al., 2002). 

Extensive research has identified components of school climate (Halpin, 

1966; Hoy & Miskel, 2001; Hoy et al., 2002; Hoy & Tarter, 1997; Hoy et al., 

1991; John & Taylor, 1999; McIntyre, 2004; Rogers Gerrish, 2005). School 

leaders are demarked as the most critical component of an effective learning 

environment (Kelley et al., 2005; Mitchell & Castle, 2005; Mulford et al., 

2004; Waters et al., 2004). Effective leadership behaviors of school principals 

are critical to the climate of the school, as their choices influence student 

achievement (Halverson, 2004; Johnson & Uline, 2005; Norton, 2002; 

Quinn, 2002). There is a significant gap in the literature exploring the relationship 

between perceived servant leadership behaviors of the elementary 

school principal and school climate. The current study helps fill the void in 

the research. 

Method 

To enhance both reliability and validity, the current study employed a mixedmethod 

approach of conducting research. The strength of a mixed-method 

design is through implementing the best features of both types of data collection. 

“That is, quantitative data provides for generalizability, whereas qualitative 

data offers information about the context or setting” (Creswell, 2005, 

p. 515). The purpose of this mixed-method research study was to determine


the extent that servant leadership was correlated with perceptions of school 

climate to identify the relationship between the practice of servant leadership 

and perception of school climate. First, the research study consisted of gathering 

quantitative survey data from a sample of elementary school principals 

and teachers. Second, post-survey qualitative data were gathered from 10% of 

the sample, as determined by implementing a nonprobability sampling technique 

or until no new theme emerged. For the purpose of the current study, 

the independent variable was principals’ and teachers’ perceptions of whether 

and how servant leadership principles were implemented by the principals in 

the elementary schools in a Catholic school board in Ontario. The dependent 

variable was the school climate of the same schools. The purpose of using a 

mixed-method design was to enhance confidence in the findings rather than 

using a single methodology. When conclusions support data collected from 

multiple sources, validity is enhanced (Creswell, 2005). The current study addressed 

the following research questions: 

1. 

2. 

What is the correlation, if any, between perceptions of servant leadership 

practices and perceptions of school climate by elementary principals 

and full-time teachers of a Catholic school board in Ontario? 

What types of experiences, if any, do elementary principals and fulltime 

teachers have that indicate the perception of servant leadership 

practices and perception of school climate? 

Instrumentation 

Organizational Leadership Assessment. The OLA (Laub, 1998) was the 

best suited servant leadership instrument for measuring servant leadership 

at the school level of analysis. The OLA is comprised of 66 survey questions 

measured on a 5-point Likert Scale (0 = No response or Undecided, 1 = 

Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree). The OLA is 

divided into six distinct constructs or subscales of servant leadership: values 

people, develops people, builds community, displays authenticity, provides 

leadership, and shares leadership. Each of these constructs includes between 

9 and 12 questions. Table 1 provides a sample of response items from the 

OLA.


Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire-Revised. The 

Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire-Revised for Elementary 

Schools (OCDQ-RE; Hoy et al., 1991) is a 42-item organizational climate instrument 

based on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = No Response, 1 = Rarely Occurs, 

2 = Sometimes Occurs, 3 = Often Occurs, 4 = Very Frequently Occurs). The 

OCDQ-RE is divided into six dimensions or subscales of school climate: 

supportive principal behavior, directive principal behavior, restrictive principal 

behavior, collegial teacher behavior, intimate teacher behavior, and disengaged 

teacher behavior. Each of these dimensions includes between 4 and 9 

questions. Table 2 provides sample items of the OCDQ-RE. The OCDQ-RE 

survey has been the most widely used elementary school climate assessment 

tool in the literature for a generation of researchers (Hoy & Tarter, 1997).


Focus group interviews. The focus group interviews concentrated on the 

perceptions and lived experiences of principals and teachers from the sample 

elementary schools to understand better the servant leadership constructs and 

applications that had the greatest impact on creating a school environment 

that maximized the potential for student achievement. The data were collected 

by conducting three focus group interviews; each group consisted of 

between 6 to 10 principals and teachers from the same school. Twenty-four 

members in all were interviewed. 

The semistructured interviews were guided by the statements from the 

OLA and OCDQ-RE. The responses and information shared in the face-toface 

discussions allowed the participants to share their perceptions of their 

lived servant leadership experiences in the school. A group’s synergy allowed 

the participants to draw from one another or to brainstorm collectively with 

other members of the group. The recording and transcription of the focus group 

interviews allowed participants to review the accuracy of the transcripts.


Reliability and Validity 

In past studies (Anderson, 2005; Laub, 1999; Miears, 2004; Thompson, 2002), 

the OLA demonstrated high levels of reliability, indicating its usefulness for 

further research in servant leadership. Laub (1999) indicated the OLA had a 

reliability of .98. The reliability alpha coefficients of the six dimensions for 

the OCDQ-RE instrument are relatively high: supportive (α = .94), directive 

(α = .88), restrictive (α = .81), collegial (α = .87), intimate (α = .83), and disengaged 

(α = .78; Hoy et al., 1991). 

Construct validity refers to the nature of the construct, or characteristic 

being measured, with the measurement established through empirical evidence 

supporting the instrument. In reference to the construct validity of the 

OCDQ-RE, Hoy et al. (1991) stated, 

the index of teacher openness correlated positively with the original general 

school openness index (r = .67, p < .01) as did the index of principal openness 

(r = .52, p < .01). Moreover, the factor analysis supports the construct validity 

of organizational climate. (p. 35) 

The focus group interviews add a parallel form of reliability by giving 

the same group of participants a different form of the same instrument. In 

this study the two sets of scores, the survey data, and the focus group data, 

were correlated with each other. The interview protocol was standard for all 

three groups, further enhancing the reliability. The moderator for all the interviews 

was the same person. She guided the discussion by using the response 

items from the OLA and OCDQ-RE. The moderator ensured that the group 

remained on task for the allotted time, and did not allow any one person to 

dominate the discussion. 

Participants 

The target population who served as a source for the sample were the fulltime 

elementary teachers and principals on active assignment in elementary 

schools in an Ontario English Catholic School Board. The target population 

included 37 elementary schools with 998 full-time elementary teachers. Of 

the 37 elementary schools, 375 full-time teachers from 12 schools were randomly 

selected to participate in the current research study. To be more specific, 

among the 998 full-time elementary teachers, a sample size of 375 should 

result in a margin of error level of 4% (0.04) and confidence interval of 95%. 

Of the 375 full-time teachers randomly selected, 246 teachers from the 12 

schools participated.


All 246 participants who completed the Informed Consent Form are included 

in the summary of demographic statistics in Table 3. The n varies by 

item, as some respondents did not complete all items. Two hundred thirtyseven 

participants were included in the OCDQ-RE analysis. The final number 

of participants to complete the OLA was 181. Only 155 participants who 

responded to both the OLA and OCDQ-RE were considered for the canonical 

correlation analysis. Twenty-four individuals from the sample participated in 

the focus group surveys. 

Data Collection 

The OLA and OCDQ-RE surveys were completed online through the school 

board’s intranet service. Each school participating in the study had a different 

PIN number to access the site. Only full-time teachers and principals who 

completed the Informed Consent Form had access to the survey site. The 

qualitative data gathering consisted of asking participants to explain, in their 

own words, the thoughts or feelings contributing to their responses on various 

statements from the OLA or OCDQ-RE. The sessions were 60 minutes 

in length. The teachers participated for the entire session and the principals 

joined the sessions 30 minutes into the interviews. The focus groups consisted 

of teachers and the principal from the same school. The data were collected 

3 months after the participants’ completion of the survey and within 

the same school year. 

Data Analysis 

The SAS software program was used to analyze the data obtained from the 

teachers’ demographic data, the OLA instrument, and the OCDQ-RE instrument. 

Teachers’ demographic data were summarized through descriptive


statistics. Means, ranges, and standard deviations were determined for the 

variables of age, number of years of teaching experience, and number of 

years teaching at their current school. The demographic data were summarized 

for the gender distribution. 

Data from the OLA and the OCDQ-RE were summarized with descriptive 

statistics. The OLA has six unique constructs, and the OCDQ-RE has 

six dimensions: three principal and three teacher. The teachers’ and principals’ 

perceptions about servant leadership and school climate were analyzed 

separately. The two sets of perception data were compared to determine if 

they differed significantly. Analyses of principal and teacher perceptions at 

each school and aggregate level (while considering all schools altogether) 

was an important part of the current research. Each school that participated 

in the study was provided with an individual analysis of its school’s data to 

reflect on the strengths and areas of growth within the respective schools. 

After categorizing individuals per OLA constructs, construct scores (values 

people, develops people, builds community, displays authenticity, provides 

leadership, shares leadership), not individual’s raw scores, were used for 

final analysis. 

The purpose of the study was to determine how well individuals within the 

school have been implementing the principles of servant leadership. Based on 

the overall score on the OLA, participating schools were classified into one of 

the six categories established by Laub (2003). Table 4 provides a brief explanation 

of each of the six organizational categories. A servant-minded organization 

is represented by the highest power, abbreviated as Org 6 . A power level 

is associated with each of the six diagnostic categories. According to Laub, 

power levels acknowledge the exponential difference between the categories 

and represent different ways to consider organizational growth and change. 

An autocratic mind-set is characterized as organizational inertia (Org 1 

– Org 2 ), resulting in the inability to change and grow (Laub, 2003). The paternalistic 

mind-set conceives of the leader as parent, putting the needs of the 

organization first, yet treating others as children. The organizational health at 

the paternalistic level advances to limited and moderate levels (Org 3 – Org 4 ). 

Based on OLA research, Laub reports that the majority of organizations are 

paternalistic. A servant-oriented mind-set (Org 5 – Org 6 ) requires a quantum 

shift, an entirely new way to conceive of organizations and practice leadership. 

Organizational health advances to excellent and optimal, characterizing 

a leader as steward of the organization, acknowledging the needs of others, 

and treating others as partners (Laub, 2003). 

Correlational coefficients determined relationships between the six 

constructs of the OLA and the six dimensions of the OCDQ-RE to identify


Table 4 

Laub’s Six Organizational Categories, OLA Score Ranges, and Organizational Health 

Organizational Category 

OLA Score Ranges 

Organizational 

Health 

Org 1 Absence of servant leadership characteristics 60.0 – 119.4 Toxic 

Org 2 Autocratic organization 119.5 – 170.4 Poor 

Org 3 Negatively paternalistic organization 179.5 – 209.4 Limited 

Org 4 Positively paternalistic organization 209.5 – 239.4 Moderate 

Org 5 Servant-oriented organization 239.5 – 269.4 Excellent 

Org 6 Servant-minded organization 269.5 – 300.0 Optimal 

Note: From Laub, 2003. 

relationships between the perceived practice of servant leadership and school 

climate. The technique of canonical correlation explicated the strength and 

direction of correlation between the perceptions of servant leadership and 

the perceptions of school climate for principals and teachers. The process of 

canonical correlation analysis began with finding a linear combination of the 

OLA constructs and another linear combination of OCDQ dimensions where 

values of coefficients are selected in such a way to maximize the correlation. 

The resulting linear combination produced a canonical variable from each 

set of variables called the first canonical variable. The square of the first canonical 

correlation is the first eigenvalue. The residuals are then analyzed in 

the same fashion to find a second pair of canonical variables, whose weights 

are chosen to maximize the correlation between the second pair of canonical 

variables, using only the variance remaining after the variance due to the first 

pair of canonical variables has been removed from the original variables. The 

process continued until the maximum number of six pairs was found. 

Analysis of the qualitative data obtained through the post-survey qualitative 

focus group interviews followed established methods using QSR NVivo 

7. The focus group interviews were transcribed and evaluated for themes and 

textual descriptions of lived experiences using the qualitative assessment 

tool QSR NVivo 7 to find the frequency of data reported by the participants. 

The QSR NVivo 7 software helped group the focus group interview data into 

themes, patterns, ideas, and textural descriptions. Coded data allowed for answers 

to the research questions to be converted into numerical data to reflect 

the frequency of common terms and themes.


Presentation and Analysis of Data 

Canonical Correlation Analysis 

The overall canonical correlation analysis, which combined the teachers and 

principals in the same analysis, suggested a significant positive relationship 

between the perceptions of servant leadership practices and perceptions of 

school climate. The cross-correlation analysis revealed the supportive, intimate, 

and collegial dimensions of the OCDQ-RE (school climate dimensions) 

and the builds community, values people, and displays authenticity 

constructs of the OLA (servant leader constructs) were the most important 

contributors in the association between the OLA and the OCDQ-RE with an 

overall 92% of variation explained. The greatest degree of association between 

servant leadership and school climate were values people from the 

OLA and supportive from the OCDQ-RE, with a canonical correlation of .66. 

The second strongest degree of association was builds people and collegial, 

with a canonical correlation of .54. The results suggest that in schools where 

the traits valuing and developing people are perceived to be demonstrated by 

teachers and principals, the school climate is more likely to be perceived as 

supportive and collegial. The strength of the association between the servant 

leadership traits and a positive school climate suggest that principals who 

wish to improve their school climate should follow the model of servant leadership. 

Table 5 displays the top three pairs of canonical variables and the reported 

canonical correlation. 

Table 5 

Canonical Variables with Strongest Relationship 

Degree of 

Association 

OLA Construct OCDQ-RE Dimension Canonical Correlation 

1 Values people Supportive 0.66 

2 Develops people Collegial 0.54 

3 Displays authenticity Intimate 0.36 

The data further revealed a variation in the principals’ and teachers’ perceptions. 

The association or correlation between OLA and OCDQ-RE was 

around 98% for the principals, whereas the association between teachers’ perceptions 

was around 65%. Principals and teachers delineated their own organizational 

leadership profiles through expressing their perceptions of servant 

leadership in the OLA constructs. Table 6 provides a comparison of the principals’ 

and teachers’ perception scores on the six OLA constructs. As reflected 

in the scores, the principals and teachers are not aligned in their perceptions


of the servant leadership tenants being implemented throughout the school. 

The results indicated principals outweighed the teachers in all aspects of the 

OLA constructs. In other words, the principals reported that the members of 

the school community exhibit excellent levels of servant leadership characteristics 

within the school community. In contrast, teachers were not as satisfied 

as the principals in their perceptions of servant leadership within the 

organization. The teachers reported that the members of the school community 

exhibit moderate levels of servant leadership characteristics within the 

school community. 

The perception of servant leadership was addressed with the data from 

the OLA. The results obtained through the OLA demonstrated a rating of 

226.71 out of a possible 300, or 75.57% of the potential score. The score 

placed the participating schools collectively in the study in the category of a 

positively paternalistic organization, according to Laub’s (2003) interpretation 

scale. Rating a score of 226.71, or 75.57% of the potential score of the 

OLA, did not allow for the elementary schools in the Catholic school board 

in the current study to be classified as servant-oriented organizations. The 

score placed the schools only 4.43% below the 240 benchmark score, and 

above most organizations studied for servant leadership practices. The scores 

derived from these studies are presented in Table 7 for visual comparison. 

The table includes a thicker line indicating the benchmark score of 240 where 

organizations cross over from being a “positively paternalistic organization” 

to being classified as a “servant-oriented organization” (Laub, 2003). 

Braye’s (2000) study was conducted among women-led businesses and 

achieved a rating of 252.60 or 84.20% of the potential OLA score. Braye acknowledged 

a significant limitation of the study because the response rate was 

only 2% of those invited to participate in the study. Anderson’s (2005) study 

of the Church Educational System of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday 

Saints, with a score of 247.08, placed the organization in the category of 

a servant-oriented organization according to the interpretation guide given for 

the OLA. The study examined high school and college teachers and administrators 

and had an impressive 78% response rate from 550 individuals invited


to participate. Anderson concluded that followers of Christian traditions are 

more likely to implement principles of servant leadership than people in other 

organizations. Both the Franciscan-supported university and the churchrelated 

college studies reported lower scores, which does not support the 

notion that all organizations with religious affiliation are more likely to follow 

a servant leader model. Nevertheless, the Ontario Catholic School District’s 

score, although not as high as the Church Educational System, lends support 

to Anderson’s claim. The findings further demonstrate that Christ-centered 

followers are perhaps more likely to practice the principles of servant leadership 

because of the doctrines and teachings that promote these behaviors in 

their everyday living. 

Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire-Revised (OCDQ-RE) 

The climate of all the schools in this study was open, according to the principals’ 

perceptions. Teachers were “highly open and professional in their 

interaction with each other” (Hoy et al., 1991, p. 147). Using the OCDQ- 

RE descriptors, the principals’ characterized the schools’ environments as 

highly intimate with low disengagement. That is to say, a climate where 

individuals “demonstrate[d] a strongly cohesive and substantial network of 

social support, and [were] quite engaged in meaningful professional activities” 

(Hoy et al., 1991, p. 147). Table 8 summarizes the principals’ perceptions 

of school climate. 

Teachers perceived the school climate as less open than the principals. 

Data from the OCDQ-RE revealed that the principals perceived their behavior 

as supportive by showing a genuine concern for the teachers. Using


Table 8 

OCDQ-RE: Principals’ Perceptions 

OCDQ-RE 

Score 

Principals’ behavior 

Supportive behavior 628.52 (Very high) 

Directive behavior 630.95 (Very high) 

Restrictive behavior 633.33 (Very high) 

Principal openness 454.74 (Below average)* 

Teachers’ behavior 

Collegial behavior 628.50 (Very high) 

Intimate behavior 627.77 (Very high) 

Disengaged behavior 375.00 (Very low) 

Teacher openness 627.09 (Very high)** 

Note. * ((Sds for S) + (1000 – Sds for D) + (1000 – Sds for R))/3 

** ((Sds for C) + (Sds for In) + (1000 – Sds for Dis))/3 

the OCDQ-RE dimension continuum, the teachers perceived the principals’ 

behavior as more directive rather than supportive; the teachers characterized 

the principal as “task oriented” and “maintain[ing] close and constant 

control over all the teacher and school activities” (Hoy et al., 1991, p. 135). 

Although teachers exhibited average levels of collegial and intimate behavior, 

they characterized themselves as less engaged in their assigned activities 

as perceived by the principal. Table 9 summarizes the data for the teachers’ 

perceptions of school climate. 

Table 9 

OCDQ-RE: Teachers’ Perceptions 

OCDQ-RE 

Score 

Principals’ behavior 

Supportive behavior 486.94 (Slightly below average) 

Directive behavior 488.09 (Slightly below average) 

Restrictive behavior 483.33 (Slightly below average) 

Principal openness 505.17 (Average)* 

Teachers’ behavior 

Collegial behavior 487.00 (Slightly below average) 

Intimate behavior 487.67 (Slightly below average) 

Disengaged behavior 516.67 (Slightly below average) 

Teacher openness 486.00 (Slightly below average)** 

Note. *((Sds for S) + (1000 – Sds for D) + (1000 – Sds for R))/3 

**((Sds for C) + (Sds for In) + (1000 – Sds for Dis))/3


The results from the OCDQ-RE data in the current study support the 

notion that in a healthy, open school environment, administrators, teachers, 

and students have a positive relationship with one another (Hoy et al., 2002). 

The principal was perceived as positive, supportive, and friendly to staff. In 

healthy school environments, teachers work well with colleagues and enjoy 

their students and jobs (Hoy et al., 2002). 

Focus Group Interviews 

The individual experiences shared during the focus group interviews were 

significant for addressing the research question about the types of experiences 

elementary principals and full-time teachers had, indicating the perception 

of servant leadership practices and perception of school climate. Organizing 

data into coherent categories is “the crux of qualitative analysis” (Taylor- 

Powell & Renner, 2003, p. 2). Categorizing data from the current study involved 

a coding process to break the transcripts into paragraphs, sentences, 

or phrases and grouping the data into common themes. The servant leadership 

constructs and the school climate dimensions aided the organization of the 

focus group interview transcriptions by emergent themes or patterns (Patton, 

2002). A pattern refers to the different ways in which people discussed the 

same construct. The servant leadership constructs with the greatest number 

of patterns were values people (6 patterns), develops people (6 patterns), and 

shares leadership (5 patterns). The school climate dimensions with the greatest 

number of responses were supportive principal behavior (6 patterns), intimate 

teacher behavior (5 patterns), and collegial teacher behavior (1 pattern). 

During the focus group interviews, principals and teachers described many of 

the constructs of servant leadership, including community, team, and sharing, 

and school climate dimensions such as mentor, welcome, and collaboration. 

Aligning with the values people trait, a teacher participant shared her 

personal experience in a focus group interview. In a school with a large population, 

she noted she would understand how one might get lost in the shuffle, 

but at her school she felt appreciated. She stated, “There is always something 

in your mail—a personal note, a special acknowledgment—and that 

just makes you feel that someone noticed. Definitely, you feel appreciated.” 

Examples of develops people experiences included a discussion in one of 

the interviews that converged on the theme of support in terms of recognition, 

encouragement, or affirmation. One of the teachers during the interview 

noted how she was inspired when the principal worked to improve herself. 

The teacher explained that the principal participated in the same professional 

development sessions to improve instructional practices as the teachers. The


teacher stated, “You try to get better because of that, because you feel valued 

and you feel important. We all need that positive reinforcement.” She continued 

the discussion by sharing her thoughts: “We are human beings, just like 

children. If you say to a student, ‘I love the way you do that,’ you can see a big 

smile on their face. We are the same way, we are like children ourselves.” 

The principals participating in the focus group interviews agreed shared 

leadership was essential to the success of the school. One principal shared her 

experience of shared leadership: “I could not do what I do in this school as far 

as the goals and progress that we make with our school improvement plan if 

I did not have shared leadership.” She praised her supportive staff for taking 

on leadership in areas such as discipline. A principal in another focus group 

believed that sharing leadership “allows me to do what I believe administration 

is moving towards and that is curriculum leadership.” She continued 

by describing her staff as a team and herself as an “open book” because she 

shared everything with them, including data. In turn, the school community 

“knows where they are going.” 

Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Data 

According to the cross-correlation analysis of the canonical correlation analysis, 

the builds community, values people, and displays authenticity constructs 

of the OLA and the supportive, intimate, and collegial dimensions of the 

OCDQ-RE were the most important contributors in the association between 

the OLA and OCDQ-RE. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed in-depth 

descriptions for the servant leadership constructs, including values people, develops 

people, and shares leadership. The school climate dimensions reported 

during the in-depth descriptions were supportive principal behavior, intimate 

teacher behavior, and collegial teacher behavior. Combining the data revealed 

four of the six items were the same, with values people and supportive principal 

behavior as the most dominate characteristics of the organizations. The 

purpose of the focus group interviews was to add depth to quantitative findings. 

Results from the qualitative interviews added confidence to the original 

data proffered by the OLA and OCDQ-RE. 

Discussion 

The overall canonical correlation analysis, which combined the teachers and 

principals in the same analysis, reported a significant positive relationship 

between the perceptions of servant leadership practices and perceptions of 

school climate. The strong relationship suggests that when servant leadership


is perceived to be present, the perceptions of the school climate are positive. 

The cross-correlation analysis revealed the supportive, intimate, and collegial 

dimensions of the OCDQ-RE and the builds community, values people, and 

displays authenticity constructs of the OLA were the most important contributors 

in the association between the OLA and the OCDQ-RE. 

Lambert (2004) conducted the only research identifying a relationship 

between servant leadership and school climate. Lambert examined the correlation 

between servant leadership and school climate and the overall academic 

success of the school. Lambert’s study revealed a significant relationship 

between servant leadership and school climate. The difference between 

Lambert’s study and the current research is that Lambert used only the OLA 

as a means to measure both the teachers’ and principals’ perceptions of servant 

leadership and school climate. The job satisfaction items from the OLA 

served as the school climate indicator. The current study measured servant 

leadership behaviors and the school climate dimensions separately, with two 

different survey instruments, contributing to both the validity and reliability 

of the study. Additionally, Lambert’s study focused on secondary schools; the 

current study used the elementary panel as the sample population. 

Research supports the notion that there is a positive correlation between 

leadership behaviors and organizational climate in schools, as perceived by 

members of the organization (Fullan, Cuttress, & Kilcher, 2005; Kelley et al., 

2005; Mitchell & Castle, 2005; Mulford et al., 2004; Waters et al., 2004). The 

present study begins to fill the void in empirical evidence supporting the relationship 

between servant leadership behaviors and school climate. 

To date, little research on servant leadership in the context of Catholic 

elementary schools has been conducted. This study highlights the correlation 

between servant leadership and school climate. As noted earlier, research supports 

the correlation between a positive school climate and improved student 

achievement. Some research has been done on the connection between the 

principal’s role as spiritual leader and servant leadership in Catholic schools 

(Dreliszak, 2000; O’Hara, 2000). Schafer (2005) supported the notion of servant 

leadership as an appropriate leadership model for the role expectations 

for principals and pastors of Catholic elementary schools. In Schafer’s words, 

“Because of its thematic unity with the Christian Gospels and its congruence 

with the life of Jesus, servant leadership merits the attention, consideration, 

and reflection of leaders in every aspect of Catholic life—parishes, [and] 

schools” ( 24). This study and previous research supports the notion that 

principals following the tenants of servant leader have the potential to be both 

curriculum and faith leaders in Catholic schools. Servant leader principals


have the potential to preserve the value and purpose of Catholic schools as 

faith communities. Servant leader principals can be prophets and leaders of 

worship and prayer and curriculum leaders improving student achievement in 

Catholic schools. 

The empirical data collected from the present research study contribute to 

the practical application of a theoretical dialogue regarding servant leadership 

in several key areas. First, correlational analysis from the current study provides 

insight into practical implications for how principals might implement 

servant leadership principles to affect a positive school climate. For example, 

incorporating the results from the study—noting that the traits values people 

and develops people were the strongest connection in the correlation between 

servant leadership and school climate—and using the statements from the 

OLA may provide a guide to appropriate leadership behavior. A principal 

wishing to optimize the school climate by improving the culture of the school 

and the morale and commitment of the teachers could begin by developing 

relationships using the statements from values people and develops people as 

a guide for effective servant leadership behavior. 

Second and currently in practice, the study provides insight into areas of 

emphasis for individuals responsible for developing effective leadership programs 

using servant leadership principles. For example, the teachers’ perceptions 

of their organization’s servant leadership practices rated the constructs 

of develops people and provides leadership as the weakest areas. Principals 

in the current study included the data in their school improvement plan with 

strategies to address these concerns. Third, the current research contributes to 

the construction of the concept of servant leadership. Data collected from the 

focus group interviews provides specific examples of servant leadership behaviors 

by principals in schools for each servant leadership trait. Fourth, correlational 

analyses using the OLA assessment instrument may provide greater 

confidence in the validity of the instrument to strengthen claims the OLA accurately 

assesses servant leadership principles (Anderson, 2005; Laub, 1998; 

Miears, 2004; Thompson, 2002). 

Implications 

The current study provides evidence to support the effectiveness of implementing 

servant leadership principles to create a positive school climate 

in Catholic schools. Previous research supports the concept that a positive 

school climate influences student achievement. In a culture of faith-centered 

education, Catholic school leaders can influence the school’s climate and student 

achievement by adopting the theory of servant leadership to guide their


behavior. Current and future Catholic school leaders face significant challenges, 

including high-stakes evaluation programs, reduced fiscal and staffing 

resources, and increased public expectations for students’ achievement. 

Catholic school principals implementing the theory of servant leadership is 

an appropriate combination of faith and curriculum leadership. Principals 

and teachers using the tenants of servant leadership, which align with the 

Catholic doctrine and traditions inspired by Jesus Christ, Christian teachings, 

and the Catholic community, will be able to sculpt a vision of Catholic 

schools to provide a holistic education for all students. Servant leader principals 

and teachers working together in Catholic schools will be able to provide 

an environment for students that nurture the whole child by developing 

and fostering children’s intellectual, physical, emotional, social, moral, and 

spiritual growth. 

Recommendations 

The data produced from the present study contributes to the knowledge base 

in general leadership studies with specific application in the field of servant 

leadership and school climate. More research needs to be undertaken in the 

field of servant leadership and education at the elementary, secondary, and 

postsecondary levels to enhance understanding of the implications servant 

leadership has on education. Further research will add to the body of knowledge, 

enabling educators to make informed decisions to improve the education 

of our children and all learners. Research exploring the specific servant 

leadership behaviors of principals and teachers in a school community would 

assist in providing a guide for Catholic principals to follow to improve their 

schools’ climate. An extension of the specific behaviors research is the development 

of appropriate professional development and training for current and 

future principals to improve their servant leadership skills. 

Further research is recommended for studies within similar and different 

populations in order to verify the claim that there is a significant positive correlation 

between servant leadership practices and school climate. Additional 

studies are also recommended among populations of differing cultures, national 

origin, and religious and nonreligious educational institutions to compare 

the implementation of servant leadership principles among the various 

populations. These future studies could provide data to demonstrate whether 

effective servant leadership is limited to religious organizations or by those 

individuals who can effectively implement the principles of servant leadership 

within an organization. These additional studies could demonstrate other 

factors not related to religion that positively affect the implementation of the


principles of servant leadership. A generation of research has provided evidence 

demonstrating improved academic achievement goals can be attained 

by effective school leaders attending to the needs of school organizations 

(Kelley et al., 2005; Mitchell & Castle, 2005; Mulford et al., 2004; Waters et 

al., 2004). The future growth of the theory of servant leadership is dependent 

on expanding the research of servant leading in educational and other organizations 

with a range of culturally diverse populations. 

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bullying: Results from the 2001 school crime supplement to the national crime victimization survey 

(NCES 2005-310). Washington, DC: Author. 

Van Tassell, M. (2006). Called to serve: Servant-leadership perceptions at a Franciscan-sponsored 

university correlated with job satisfaction. Dissertation Abstracts International: 67(08), 187. 

Waters, T. J., Marzano, R. J., & McNulty, B. (2004). Leadership that sparks learning. Educational 

Leadership, 61(7), 48-51. 

Woolfe, L. (2003). The Bible on leadership: From Moses to Matthew. New York, NY: MJF Books.


Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 

Glenda Lee Black is an assistant professor, Faculty of Education at Nipissing University, North 

Bay, Ontario, Canada. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Dr. Glenda Lee 

Black, P.O. Box 5002, 100 College Drive, North Bay, Ontario, P1B 8L7, Canada. E-mail: glendab@ 

nipissingu.ca

IN DEPTH 

PIVOTAL EDUCATION 

Transforming 

behaviour 

We talk to Paul Dix about the Pivotal 

Education approach to excellent 

behaviour in schools 

TS: You deliver training sessions 

on the “habits of amazing teachers”. 

Can you sum up some of these habits? 

Stand at the door, smile at your 

children, give them a handshake, a 

high five, a fist pump, a hug, make 

them feel like they’re welcome, 

they belong – it’s an essential habit. 

And it’s an essential habit for every 

teacher, I’d say actually for 

every member of staff 

working at the school 

to do that at least once 

16 

a day. In some secondary schools 

they’re doing it at the beginning of 

every lesson. 

But I think even just at the 

beginning of the day that connection 

is critical. It’s very difficult to start 

your lesson in a negative way if your 

first act is to smile and say good 

morning and notice something and 

have a conversation with every 

child. It does make the first five 

or ten minutes flow much easier. 

So there’s a very practical 

reason why teachers need 

these routines. 

I’d say that using a 

recognition board is 

a habit of an amazing 

teacher. So that they’re 

not putting naughty 

names on the board, 

which is totally 

redundant and every 

piece of research on 

it has shown that it 

just encourages poor 

behaviour. To actually 

recognise the children 

who are doing the right 

thing, and to give them 

some public recognition. 

Finally, I’d say there 

needs to be habits 

in dealing with the most difficult 

situations. If a child behaves very 

badly and you improvise, that 

doesn’t help the chaos at all. What 

we need are planned approaches. 

So we [Pivotal Education] teach 

teachers what we call a 30-second 

intervention. This is a scripted 

intervention so that the child is 

protected, the adult is protected, 

they know what’s going to be said, 

they know the tone and pace and 

how long it’s going to take. And 

we don’t end up with these sort 

of endless power plays between 

children and adults that end up 

with “I ain’t doing it, yes you are, 

I ain’t doing it, yes you are!” 

The scripted intervention means 

that everything is planned and 

everything is routine. 

When I see meet and greet, 

recognition boards and scripted 

interventions in a classroom I know

“Stand at the 

door, smile at your 

children, give them 

a handshake, a high 

five, a fist pump, 

a hug, make them 

feel like they’re 

welcome, they 

belong – it’s an 

essential habit” 

that the teacher is starting to build 

up those habits, those relentless 

routines that children need so that 

behaviour isn’t exhausting. 

TS: You give advice on developing a 

whole-school ethos built on kindness, 

empathy and understanding. Why do 

you think kindness is so important? 

It’s too easy in a school to default to a 

sharp word or a shout, or an instant 

judgement, and small kindnesses 

that are planned into the school day 

are deliberate attempts to change 

adult behaviour and make it visible. 

If somebody is being kind to 

you, it’s almost inhuman to act in 

a consistently poor way to it. And 

children make choices about who 

they behave poorly for. They often 

choose to misbehave appallingly for 

the teachers who show them least 

kindness. It doesn’t mean we’re all 

skipping around and everything’s 

perfect, but it means that when 

we meet distressed behaviour our 

default is kindness. When we have 

to remove a child from a class we 

do it with care, consideration and 

kindness, not with anger. 

TS: Many schools are beginning 

to follow an approach where 

relationships and awareness of adverse 

childhood experiences (ACEs) are at 

the centre. Is such an approach in line 

with your own? 

Absolutely it is. Excellent behaviour 

is an essential foundation because 

you can’t do excellent teaching 

and learning without it. Too many 

schools try to do innovative teaching 

and learning but the discipline 

is such that the children are not 

focused, there’s too much chaos, 

and if you lay innovative teaching 

and learning on poor foundations of 

behaviour it’s like sinking sands. 

Eventually you find that the 

innovation dries up because the 

teachers say “I can’t do this kind 

of teaching because the basics 

are not there yet”. Being traumainformed 

and being ACE-aware is so 

important, not because you excuse 

behaviour or allow it to destroy your 

classes, but so you can understand, 

connect on a better level and have 

better conversations with children. 

What’s going on in Scotland just 

now is so interesting for me because 

the work that we do does mirror that. 

We’re not dealing with children with 

extreme behaviour, we’re not dealing 

with naughty children. The children 

who concern us most as teachers 

are distressed children. They are 

children who have experienced 

trauma, they are children who are 

not able to trust adults anymore 

because of what’s happened outside 

of school. 

17

IN DEPTH 

PIVOTAL EDUCATION 

TS: How difficult is it for adults to 

change their behaviour and can it be 

achieved using a top-down approach? 

Pivotal programmes are not topdown 

approaches and I worry 

so much when I stand on a stage 

and do an hour-long keynote that 

people are thinking, right I’m going 

back to school on Monday morning 

and we’re going to announce 

all these changes. Let’s do this 

properly. You get one shot as a 

headteacher to cause a revolution 

in behaviour so you better get it 

right and it can’t be a top-down 

flash in the pan. 

This is why we’ve got 215 

podcasts on our website, and this 

is why the book has gone crazy. 

Because as a headteacher what 

do you want to do? Do you want 

to stand up in front of everyone 

and say this is what we’re doing, 

or do you want to wait until staff 

are knocking on your door saying 

can we do this. So the amount of 

schools that have started pivotal 

programmes by doing a reading 

club, by getting some books into 

the library, by making sure that 

the people on the ground get it, 

understand it, and want it. That’s 

when you get real long-term 

embedded change. Headteachers 

who just try to demand and insist – 

I’ve seen it before, where teachers 

were told, we’re doing the Paul Dix 

thing, we’re doing the Pivotal thing, 

you will stand on your door and 

shake the hand of every child. I’ve 

never seen so many unenthusiastic 

handshakes. So many teachers just 

going through the motions. 

The Pivotal Education 

programme is amazing but it’s 

hard work and it’s grind and 

you’ve got to grind it out every 

day, put on that smile, hold 

out your hand, build those 

relationships on the days when 

you yourself feel that that’s the 

last thing that you want to do. 

It’s got to come from the ground 

up. So what we do is we work with 

staff and we go slowly. We feed 

18 

faculty meetings with tips and 

ideas, and video clips. We make 

sure people have read the book, got 

the ideas and principles, and then 

we start, very slowly and gradually 

bringing in the training, bringing 

in the train-the-trainer scheme and 

gearing the school up to take the 

big step and for everyone to launch 

it together. 

If you look at Portobello High 

School (see page 30) and the 

absolute transformation they’ve 

had since September, and working 

with the Pivotal project, you’d 

think actually this hasn’t taken a 

great deal of time, but it has taken 

great leadership and it has taken a 

great deal of commitment from 

the staff to do it. 

You’ve got lots of great 

leaders in Scotland, but 

it’s our programme plus 

the leadership. It’s not a 

programme on its own, 

you can’t just throw it into 

a school. But when you 

have great leadership, 

people that get it, 

the programme 

runs alongside that 

great leadership. 

ABOUT PAUL 

Paul Dix is a speaker, 

author and notorious 

teacher-wrangler in huge 

demand. He is founder and 

Executive Director of Pivotal 

Education. 

As a teacher, leader and 

teacher trainer, Paul has 

been working to transform 

the most difficult behaviour 

in the most challenging 

schools, referral units and 

colleges for the last 25 years. 

Paul is Chair of the Board 

of Directors of a Multi 

Academy Trust and 

co-hosts the www. 

pivotalpodcast.com 

His bestselling book 

When the Adults Change, 

Everything Changes was 

published in June 2017.

http://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papafrancesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html 

ENCYCLICAL LETTER 

LAUDATO SI’ 

OF THE HOLY FATHER 

FRANCIS 

ON CARE FOR OUR COMMON HOME 

Saint Francis of Assisi 

10. I do not want to write this Encyclical without turning to that attractive and compelling figure, 

whose name I took as my guide and inspiration when I was elected Bishop of Rome. I believe that 

Saint Francis is the example par excellence of care for the vulnerable and of an integral ecology lived 

out joyfully and authentically. He is the patron saint of all who study and work in the area of ecology, 

and he is also much loved by non-Christians. He was particularly concerned for God’s creation and for 

the poor and outcast. He loved, and was deeply loved for his joy, his generous self-giving, his 

openheartedness. He was a mystic and a pilgrim who lived in simplicity and in wonderful harmony 

with God, with others, with nature and with himself. He shows us just how inseparable the bond is 

between concern for nature, justice for the poor, commitment to society, and interior peace. 

11. Francis helps us to see that an integral ecology calls for openness to categories which transcend 

the language of mathematics and biology, and take us to the heart of what it is to be human. Just as 

happens when we fall in love with someone, whenever he would gaze at the sun, the moon or the 

smallest of animals, he burst into song, drawing all other creatures into his praise. He communed 

with all creation, even preaching to the flowers, inviting them “to praise the Lord, just as if they were 

endowed with reason”.[19] His response to the world around him was so much more than intellectual 

appreciation or economic calculus, for to him each and every creature was a sister united to him by 

bonds of affection. That is why he felt called to care for all that exists. His disciple Saint Bonaventure 

tells us that, “from a reflection on the primary source of all things, filled with even more abundant 

piety, he would call creatures, no matter how small, by the name of ‘brother’ or ‘sister’”.[20] Such a 

conviction cannot be written off as naive romanticism, for it affects the choices which determine our 

behaviour. If we approach nature and the environment without this openness to awe and wonder, if 

we no longer speak the language of fraternity and beauty in our relationship with the world, our 

attitude will be that of masters, consumers, ruthless exploiters, unable to set limits on their 

immediate needs. By contrast, if we feel intimately united with all that exists, then sobriety and care 

will well up spontaneously. The poverty and austerity of Saint Francis were no mere veneer of 

asceticism, but something much more radical: a refusal to turn reality into an object simply to be 

used and controlled. 

12. What is more, Saint Francis, faithful to Scripture, invites us to see nature as a magnificent book in 

which God speaks to us and grants us a glimpse of his infinite beauty and goodness. “Through the 

greatness and the beauty of creatures one comes to know by analogy their maker” (Wis 13:5); 

indeed, “his eternal power and divinity have been made known through his works since the creation 

of the world” (Rom 1:20). For this reason, Francis asked that part of the friary garden always be left 

untouched, so that wild flowers and herbs could grow there, and those who saw them could raise 

their minds to God, the Creator of such beauty.[21] Rather than a problem to be solved, the world is 

a joyful mystery to be contemplated with gladness and praise.

http://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papafrancesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html 

My appeal 

13. The urgent challenge to protect our common home includes a concern to bring the whole human 

family together to seek a sustainable and integral development, for we know that things can change. 

The Creator does not abandon us; he never forsakes his loving plan or repents of having created us. 

Humanity still has the ability to work together in building our common home. Here I want to 

recognize, encourage and thank all those striving in countless ways to guarantee the protection of the 

home which we share. Particular appreciation is owed to those who tirelessly seek to resolve the 

tragic effects of environmental degradation on the lives of the world’s poorest. Young people demand 

change. They wonder how anyone can claim to be building a better future without thinking of the 

environmental crisis and the sufferings of the excluded. 

14. I urgently appeal, then, for a new dialogue about how we are shaping the future of our planet. 

We need a conversation which includes everyone, since the environmental challenge we are 

undergoing, and its human roots, concern and affect us all. The worldwide ecological movement has 

already made considerable progress and led to the establishment of numerous organizations 

committed to raising awareness of these challenges. Regrettably, many efforts to seek concrete 

solutions to the environmental crisis have proved ineffective, not only because of powerful opposition 

but also because of a more general lack of interest. Obstructionist attitudes, even on the part of 

believers, can range from denial of the problem to indifference, nonchalant resignation or blind 

confidence in technical solutions. We require a new and universal solidarity. As the bishops of 

Southern Africa have stated: “Everyone’s talents and involvement are needed to redress the damage 

caused by human abuse of God’s creation”. [22] All of us can cooperate as instruments of God for the 

care of creation, each according to his or her own culture, experience, involvements and talents. 

15. It is my hope that this Encyclical Letter, which is now added to the body of the Church’s social 

teaching, can help us to acknowledge the appeal, immensity and urgency of the challenge we face. I 

will begin by briefly reviewing several aspects of the present ecological crisis, with the aim of drawing 

on the results of the best scientific research available today, letting them touch us deeply and provide 

a concrete foundation for the ethical and spiritual itinerary that follows. I will then consider some 

principles drawn from the Judaeo-Christian tradition which can render our commitment to the 

environment more coherent. I will then attempt to get to the roots of the present situation, so as to 

consider not only its symptoms but also its deepest causes. This will help to provide an approach to 

ecology which respects our unique place as human beings in this world and our relationship to our 

surroundings. In light of this reflection, I will advance some broader proposals for dialogue and action 

which would involve each of us as individuals, and also affect international policy. Finally, convinced 

as I am that change is impossible without motivation and a process of education, I will offer some 

inspired guidelines for human development to be found in the treasure of Christian spiritual 

experience. 

16. Although each chapter will have its own subject and specific approach, it will also take up and reexamine 

important questions previously dealt with. This is particularly the case with a number of 

themes which will reappear as the Encyclical unfolds. As examples, I will point to the intimate 

relationship between the poor and the fragility of the planet, the conviction that everything in the 

world is connected, the critique of new paradigms and forms of power derived from technology, the 

call to seek other ways of understanding the economy and progress, the value proper to each 

creature, the human meaning of ecology, the need for forthright and honest debate, the serious 

responsibility of international and local policy, the throwaway culture and the proposal of a new 

lifestyle. These questions will not be dealt with once and for all, but reframed and enriched again and 

again.

Bereavement 

In Our 

Catholic Schools 

"I am the resurrection and the life. The one who 

believes in me will live, even though they die” 

John 11:25 

Bruce Rodrigues 

Director of Education 

Anne Andrachuk 

Chair of the Board 

1

Introduction 

As members of a Catholic School community, we are called to witness our faith in 

times of joy and sorrow, and to support one another; especially in a time of crisis. 

When a member of the community dies, it is important that the community respond 

in an appropriate way. A different response may be necessary depending on 

whether it be a death of a student, a staff member or any other member of the 

school community. 

A celebration of the life of the deceased is important and there are many possible 

ways that a school community can gather together to do this. It is important to 

have some key scripture passages and appropriate hymns to be used in any prayer 

or liturgical celebration. As already mentioned, much depends on who the person is 

that has died; a student, a staff member, a parent etc. as does the nature of the 

death; sudden or prolonged. Prayers are offered not only for the deceased 

individual but for the members of their family and friends who are suffering from 

the loss. 

During the Bereavement process, it is important to provide opportunities for ritual 

and liturgy as a means of dealing with the death as well as healthy theological 

perspectives on life, death and the afterlife. 

Moreover, it is important for the Catholic school to provide emotional support for 

the bereaved members of the school in order to assist with the healing process. 

This is the purpose of the pages that follow: 

2

What to do the “Day Of” a crisis and beyond 

Ideas for how to respond in remembrance: … what can 

the students do? 

Prayers and reflections can be offered over the PA the first morning of the 

first day, and thereafter as seen appropriate 

An Assembly, by division, can be organized on the first day after or in the 

days immediately following the death, to have a short prayer and ritual - 

this builds community 

Note: gathering the entire school may cause a less effective result as 

younger students may be upset by the grief expressions of older students 

– later on, the entire school can be part of a prayer service or memorial 

A prayer box can be made for different students/teachers/parents to 

contribute to (please edit contents for anything too disturbing or 

inappropriate if passing the box on to the family of the one that died). 

A prayer book to write messages or sign names may be displayed 

Acknowledgement of the one who died on the classroom prayer table may 

be comforting – keep it simple, a picture or the person‘s name 

A school liturgy can be planned in memory of the person who died. (See 

guide available from your Religion / Family Life resource teacher.) 

A memorial table can be set up near the office for the first few weeks 

Including: a framed photograph, a bible, and a candle, a flower or plant 

(this idea is appropriate for a student or teacher who was part of the 

school community) 

Opportunities should be provided for the students to express their 

thoughts and feelings. This can be done with verbal and nonverbal 

expressions such as through art, journaling, poetry or letter writing, 

writing a prayer, making something for the family, going to the funeral 

home, funeral or memorial celebration, visiting the burial place, talking 

about the person and praying for the person and their family. 

Through memory activities like a ―Remembering Quilt‖ or a ―Memory 

Book‖, students can continue expressing the relationship they have with 

the person who died. The students‘ responses can be sparked with 

prompts like ―you were special to me/us because…I remember this story 

3

about _______... I can draw about my memory. This can later be given 

to the family who is grieving, if appropriate. 

Later on, a more permanent memorial could be established. 

For instance – a framed, inscribed picture for the wall, a tree planting, or 

rose bush in memory of the deceased. 

Spiritual Dos and Don’ts 

What to say to a student will depend on his/her age and experience as well as the 

situation. Always be as truthful as possible with age-appropriate language. Where 

the family has requested details not be given, this must be respected. Being as 

honest and open as possible will however encourage the student to share their 

feelings and fears. It is often more supportive and valuable to listen to, rather than 

to talk to the students. There may be some misconceptions that surface. Approach 

these with care. The following are some suggestions of what to say and not say to 

students. 

*Contact the Religious Education Department or Catholic Teachers‘ Centre with any 

questions about the theological language pertaining to death and the afterlife. 

“DO” What to Say to Students about Death: 

(Note simplified language is for use with any grade and for clarity—big words don‘t 

work here) 

The person died of an accident, illness or natural causes. 

The person‘s body no longer works. They can no longer feel, see, hear, and 

think anymore. 

Tell them only the details they need to know. 

They are not sleeping; they are no longer alive. 

Sleeping is good for your body, it is a healthy time. 

We believe their spirit or soul is alive and with God. 

They will not become alive on earth again. 

They are at peace with Jesus and no longer in any pain. 

When we remember them, they will feel close to us. 

The love we feel for them will continue to live in our hearts. 

We can remember times we shared with them. 

This remembering will make us feel different feelings/emotions. 

We may also feel happy, loving and peaceful when we remember moments we 

shared with this person. We should tell someone how we feel. 

4

It is OK to feel like, laughing and smiling when we remember the person who 

died. 

It is OK to remember the good moments and funny times and be happy about 

them. 

It is OK to show this joy. 

It is OK to feel like having fun, smiling and laughing about other things too, 

even in the midst of grieving and feeling sad. 

It is OK for the family of the one who died to smile and laugh too. They can‘t 

show how sad they are all the time even though the sadness doesn‘t go away 

for a long time. 

It is good to do something to show how you are remembering the person who 

died. 

“DON’T” – What Not to Say to Students about Death: 

The person was so good that God needed him/her as an angel (instills 

fear of God taking me if I‘m good) 

The person didn‘t have a quality of life and so it‘s better not to live 

(doesn‘t help student make sense out of or accept suffering as having any 

value) 

The person will come back to be around you (children think the spirit is 

like a ghost) 

The person is sleeping in heaven (instills fear of going to sleep and of 

parents sleeping) 

The person chose to be with God because they were ready to die (may 

cause resentment and feeling of abandonment) 

God decided the person was going to die (fosters an image of God that is 

negative and based on ‗bad theology‘- sets up student to want to blame 

or be angry with God and therefore is not able to pray well or find any 

comfort in God‘s love) 

Note: Don’t give more details about the illness or accident than is necessary 

(some facts can trigger visual images that will traumatize the student) 

Respond to what they are actually asking or acting out (listening to 

and watching them are powerful tools to guide teacher responses) 

5

Supporting Students who have experienced Death 

in your School Communities 

In the Elementary School 

In the past, people have sometimes underestimated the impact of death upon 

young children. While it is true that their understanding of death develops over a 

prolonged period of time, it is clear that young children can suffer deeply as a result 

of the death of a member of their family. This suffering is more intense when they 

do not have opportunities to talk or to grieve openly, and do not feel that those 

close to them recognize their feelings - even though they themselves may not yet 

have the words to express them. 

Reactions to bereavement can include withdrawal, open distress, tears, panic, 

aggression, anxiety, fear or other signs of stress. Bereaved children may act 

out this stress in unexpected ways, such as nervous giggling, bravery, aggression, 

becoming the class clown, or total denial - all these are normal grief reactions. They 

may also become extremely tired, to the point of exhaustion, as so much emotional 

energy goes into dealing with the loss and the stress of the changes in the family. 

For some children, there may be additional complications; if the death has been 

referred to as ‗falling asleep' or ‗being taken', then it is sometimes the case that 

children become afraid of going to bed or to sleep. Words like ‗loss' or ‗lost' can put 

fear into a young child's mind, too. 

How the School can help: 

It is essential that all staff know about the bereavement, so that they can respond 

sensitively. 

When the report of a death first comes to school, it may be appropriate for the 

teacher, to talk to the class, to create opportunities for them to ask questions and 

discuss how they can help their bereaved classmate. On the child's return to school, 

even close friends may need encouragement to voice difficult feelings, to say, ―I'm 

6

sorry your brother died‖. One of the key ‗hurts' which bereaved children recall is the 

feeling that few people, if any, acknowledged their loss. 

Most children welcome the opportunity to talk privately to an adult about their loss. 

Even if the child cannot verbalize his or her feelings, it is helpful for a trusted 

teacher to show sympathy (without saying ―I know how you feel‖), and to use 

words like sad, lonely, upset, afraid, so that the child realizes the school knows 

about the death. The family may be so overwhelmed by the trauma that little 

individual acknowledgement is given to the child's feelings when they are at home. 

Some children need a retreat when grief overtakes them, and it helps if the school 

accepts a pupil's need to express their grief, providing a ‗safe place' and a trusted 

adult to be with them. Once the bereaved child returns to school routine, it is 

helpful to share concerns with parents so that they know how he or she is coping in 

school. Most families appreciate some sort of direct communication from the school, 

especially if the child who has died was a former pupil. 

Books, stories, music and art can be very helpful in exploring loss, both with the 

class and with the bereaved child. There are many excellent books written on 

bereavement for different ages of children, both in the fact and fiction sections, now 

available from shops, libraries or the web, and many school libraries have a 

selection of such recommended publications. We have included a bibliography 

of books and DVD’s from Joseph’s to help you when making your choices of 

books etc. that will be used. Sensitivity is needed so that deep grief is not 

triggered at an inappropriate time. 

The grief caused by the death will be long-lasting, and schools need to recognize 

that anniversaries and celebrations will be difficult - especially the first birthday and 

Christmas or other religious festivals. It will help if key dates and times are noted 

and passed on to the next class teacher or next school, along with other records 

and information. As children mature, the death is felt and questioned at new levels, 

emotionally and intellectually, often causing renewed grief and distress. 

Classmates, especially close friends of the bereaved child, or of the child who has 

died, will suffer varying grief reactions. Their teachers will probably need the 

support of colleagues at this time; they might need to be reassured that their ideas 

for giving comfort to the children are wise, and that they will be of benefit to those 

in their care. Many younger teachers themselves may not have experienced 

bereavement, especially of this kind, before. 

7

If the dead child was a pupil at your school, you might feel it appropriate to send a 

representative to the child's funeral or a Memorial or Thanksgiving service – if the 

family is in agreement with this idea. Also, in these circumstances, the child's books 

and work should be kept carefully and returned to the family by a teacher at a 

suitable time. 

In the Secondary School 

Much of the above applies equally to older children; however, while being older may 

make it easier to comprehend the permanence of death, additional burdens affect 

the adolescent. Family relationships may already be strained by approaching 

adulthood, and the bereavement may bring older children more responsibilities. 

School staff need to accept that there are many different ways of grieving; pupils 

may develop their own support structures and choose not to share these with an 

adult. 

Embarrassment may make it hard for teenagers to acknowledge deep feelings while 

at school. Much will depend on the quality of the relationship which a class or 

pastoral tutor has with the pupil. The worst thing that the school can do is to keep 

silent, failing to acknowledge the loss and the pain. Friends may need 

encouragement to talk openly about the death, and sometimes boys find it 

especially hard to express their sympathy in words. Sadly, it is a recognized fact 

that, especially among teenagers, problems can arise as a result of what they see 

as unfair attention given to a bereaved member of their school community. 

Resentment builds up and bullying can replace concern and support. These issues, 

hopefully, should be less difficult to deal with when the school has a teaching 

program in tutor group periods, Religious Studies or Personal Health and Social 

Education that includes regular work on loss, death, emotions and life skills. 

How the school can help (in addition to the suggestions in the Elementary 

section) 

Communication is a vital issue. School policies should cover systems for sharing 

information about personal traumas with all those who have contact with the pupil. 

It is helpful to have the Chaplaincy Leader available and a key member of staff to 

take direct responsibility for talking to the pupil (and to their friends), to be 

available when needed, to make crisis contingency arrangements, and to pass on 

information to relevant people. 

8

School routines, music and drama, sport and homework may actually offer a feeling 

of security and normality to a grieving teenager, especially when the family home is 

in turmoil. However, grief often brings additional problems of both exhaustion and 

lack of concentration that may affect their work for some time to come. 

Communication with the family is still important, though it may be less direct or 

frequent when children are older. It is necessary to remember the bereavement on 

occasions such as Open Evening, when progress is discussed. When the 

bereavement is recent, the taking of exams, or some of them, may need to be 

postponed until a pupil is better able to cope with the additional stress. Long-term 

awareness and communication are necessary as the pupil progresses through the 

school, especially when large numbers of staff are involved. 

School responses to the death of one or more pupils 

While all the issues raised earlier will apply, a death within the school community 

raises whole-school issues that need careful thought and consideration. Schools 

should develop a plan for their community early in the year and it should include 

phone trees, key contact people, Morning Prayer etc. 

The key issues seem to be: 

The need to tell all pupils and staff what has happened so that rumour is 

dispelled and everyone is in possession of the facts. Class, year group, or 

whole-school assembly is usually the most appropriate way to do this. 

Direct communication with parents informing them of the situation and 

alerting them to the distress their children may be suffering. The 

Communications department may be of assistance with helping you to 

prepare this letter for parents. 

Pastoral/emotional support for those most closely affected; 

The need to give thought to the attendance of pupils and staff at the 

funeral(s); 

The healing effects of a later occasion when the school community can come 

together to pray and remember, mourn and celebrate the life of the 

individual(s); 

The setting-up of a permanent memorial such as an award, a tree, or special 

place helps to acknowledge the event in the future. 

9

Education for loss, death and grief 

Schools today place pastoral care high on their agenda. There is concern not only 

for the academic and intellectual development of children, but also for their social, 

emotional, physical and their spiritual needs as well. The school that has considered 

the issues by planning for loss within the community will be better prepared and 

able to support their pupils if tragedy strikes. When loss and death are part of 

integrated teaching program, considered in school and class assemblies, and when 

staff have formulated policies and discussed their own responses to bereavement, 

when the need to acknowledge feelings and emotions is an accepted part of the 

school ethos, then the school community will be supportive towards a bereaved 

child. Bereaved parents (and grandparents) appreciate the thoughtfulness, planning 

and effort that go into the care of their children, especially at times of great distress 

for all in their family. 

10

Prayer Resources 

God, we come for comfort in our 

grief. The absence of [name] 

creates within our lives an 

emptiness that hurts. The darkness 

of grief clouds our vision and hides 

your light. Come to us. Hold us, 

heal us and strengthen our weak 

spirits with sure faith in the 

Resurrection. Amen 

Most merciful God, 

whose wisdom is beyond our 

understanding, surround the family 

of N. with your love, that they may 

not be overwhelmed by their loss, 

but have confidence in your 

goodness, and strength to meet 

the days to come. We ask this 

through Christ our Lord. 

R. Amen. 

Lord of all gentleness, 

surround us with your care 

and comfort us in our sorrow, 

for we grieve at the loss of N. 

As you washed N. in the waters of 

baptism and welcomed him/her 

into the life of heaven, 

so call us one day to be united with 

him/her and share forever the joy 

of your kingdom. 

We ask this through Christ our 

Lord. 

R. Amen. 

PRAYERS OF INTERCESSION 

Response: Lord, Hear our 

Prayer 

In his great love, 

the God of all consolation gave us 

the gift of life. 

May God bless us with faith 

in the resurrection of his Son, 

and with the hope of rising to new 

life. 

All: Lord, hear our prayer. 

To us who are alive 

may God grant forgiveness, 

and to all who have died 

a place of light and peace. 


As you believe that Jesus rose from 

the dead, so may you live with him 

forever in joy. 


May almighty God bless us, 

In the name of the Father, and of 

the Son and of the Holy Spirit. 

Amen 

11

PRAYERS OF INTERCESSION 

Leader: Lord we have loved N. in 

this life and will sorely miss 

him/her. Out of that love we pray 

that you take him/her to yourself, 

forgive his/her sins and give 

him/her eternal joy with you. 

Lord hear us 

All: Lord, graciously hear us. 

Leader: As we grieve we know 

that at this very time others are 

grieving great losses too. Teach us 

to be sensitive to the sufferings 

and pains of others. Help us to 

take strength from the community 

of our brothers and sisters in the 

faith. 

Lord hear us 


Leader: We pray for those others, 

whom we may not know, whom XX 

touched during his/her life. May we 

all be united one day in the joy of 

Heaven. 

Lord hear us 


Leader: We pray for anyone whom 

XX offended against during his/her 

life. We pray that you will heal 

their hurt. Lead us all to the 

harmony and peace of God‘s 

children. 

Lord hear us 


Leader: We pray for the whole 

people of God. Give us all the 

grace, in our own neighbourhood 

and throughout the world to be a 

light of truth, justice and love. 

Lord hear us 


Leader: Let us pray together in 

the words that Jesus taught us. 

All: Our Father… 

All: Glory be to the Father… 

Leader: Let us pray: 

Lord God, you are compassion and 

love; Our loved one, N, has been 

called home to you. 

Welcome him/her into the love of 

heaven; console us in our loss and 

make us truly grateful for all 

he/she was to us in life. 

Fill our home now empty with 

his/her loss with your love and 

care. 

12

Through Christ our Lord. All: Amen 

SCRIPTURE READINGS: OLD 

TESTAMENT 

ECCLESIASTES 3:1-11 

There is a season for everything, a 

time for every occupation under 

heaven: 

A time for giving birth, 

a time for dying; 

a time for planting, 

a time for uprooting what has been 

planted. 

A time for killing, 

a time for healing; 

a time for knocking down, 

a time for building. 

A time for tears, 

a time for laughter; 

a time for mourning, 

a time for dancing. 

A time for throwing stones away, 

a time for gathering them; 

a time for embracing, 

a time to refrain from embracing. 

A time for searching, 

a time for losing; 

a time for keeping, 

a time for discarding. 

A time for tearing, 

a time for sewing; 

a time for keeping silent, 

a time for speaking. 

A time for loving, 

a time for hating; 

a time for war, 

a time for peace. 

PSALM 62 

In God alone is my soul at rest; 

my help comes from him. 

He alone is my rock, my 

stronghold, my fortress; I stand 

firm. In God alone be at rest, my 

soul; for my hope comes from him. 

He alone is my rock, my 

stronghold, my fortress; I stand 

firm. In God is my safety and 

glory, the rock of my strength. 

Take refuge in God, all you people. 

Trust him at all times. 

Pour out your hearts before him 

for God is our refuge. 

PSALM 23: The Lord is my 

Shepherd 

The Lord is my shepherd; I shall 

not want. 

In verdant pastures he gives me 

repose; beside restful waters he 

leads me; he refreshes my soul. 

He guides me in right paths 

for his name‘s sake. 

Even though I walk in the dark 

valley I fear no evil; for you are at 

my side with your rod and your 

staff that give me courage. 

You spread the table before me 

in the sight of my foes; 

You anoint my head with oil; 

my cup overflows. 

Only goodness and kindness follow 

me all the days of my life; 

And I shall dwell in the house of 

the Lord for years to come. 

13

PSALM 103 

The Lord is compassion and love, 

slow to anger and rich in mercy. 

He does not treat us according to 

our sins nor repay us according to 

our faults. As parents have 

compassion on their children, 

the Lord has pity on those who fear 

him; for he knows of what we are 

made, he remembers that we are 

dust. As for us, our days are like 

grass; we flower like the flower of 

the field; the wind blows and we 

are gone and our place never sees 

us again. But the love of the Lord 

is everlasting upon those who hold 

him in fear; his justice reaches out 

to children‘s children when they 

keep his covenant in truth. 

SCRIPTURE READINGS: NEW 

TESTAMENT 

A Reading from the First Letter 

of John 

Think of the love that the Father 

has lavished on us, 

by letting us be called God‘s 

children; and that is what we are. 

Because the world refused to 

acknowledge him, therefore it does 

not acknowledge us. My dear 

people, we are already the children 

of God but what we are to be in the 

future has not yet been revealed; 

all we know is, that when it is 

revealed we shall be like him 

because we shall see him as he 

really is. 

This is the Word of the Lord. 

A Reading from the Holy Gospel 

According to John 

There are many rooms in my 

Father‘s house. 

Jesus said to his disciples: 

―Do not let your hearts be 

troubled. 

Trust in God still, and trust in me. 

There are many rooms in my 

Father‘s house; if there were not, I 

should have told you. I am going 

now to prepare a place for you, 

and after I have gone and prepared 

you a place, I shall return to take 

you with me; so that where I am 

you may be too. You know the way 

to the place where I am going.‖ 

Thomas said, ―Lord, we do not 

know where you are going, so how 

can we know the way?‖ Jesus said: 

―I am the Way, the Truth and the 

Life. No one can come to the 

Father except through me.‖ 

This is the Gospel of the Lord. 

14

A PRAYER SERVICE 

BY: JEANNE HUNT 

(for praying alone or with others who share your loss) 

Preparation: Place a candle (unlit), a photo and a few personal mementos of 

the deceased on a prayer table. Before the wake, ask everyone to write a 

brief memory of the deceased. 

OPENING SONG 

OPENING PRAYER 

God, we come for comfort in our grief. The absence of [name] creates within 

our lives an emptiness that hurts. The darkness of grief clouds our vision 

and hides your light. Come to us. Hold us, heal us and strengthen our weak 

spirits with sure faith in the Resurrection. 

SCRIPTURE 

Matthew 11:28-30 

―Come to me, all you that are weary and are carrying heavy burdens, and I 

will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me; for I am 

gentle and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my 

yoke is easy, and my burden is light.‖ 

RITUAL 

Light the candle and share a brief history of the life of the deceased. 

Remember in silence for a few minutes. 

You are invited to share your memory of [name]. 

When sharing has ended, the leader prays: 

May the choirs of angels come to greet you. 

May they speed you to paradise. 

May the Lord enfold you in his mercy. 

May you find eternal life. 

Amen. 

http://www.catholicireland.net/pages/index.php?nd=121&art=155 

15

Joseph’s 

Bereavement Resource Books and DVDs 

Books 

• I Am My Grandpa's Enkelin. Wangerin Jr., Walter. ISBN9781557254689. The original tale is told 

by a granddaughter (Enkelin, in German), looking back in loving memory at all that her German- 

American grandpa taught her. A useful book to talk with children in preparation for, or after, 

they have experienced grief from the death of a grandparent. ($21.95) 

• If Nathan Were Here. Bahr, Mary. ISBN 0802852351. Named a "Best Children's Book 2000" by 

the Association of Theological Booksellers, this gentle picture book explores the grief of a young 

boy whose best friend has died. ($10.95) 

• The Next Place. Hanson, Warren. ISBN 0931674328. A classic, "The Next Place" brings gentle 

verse revealing a safe and welcome destination free from earthly hurts and filled with wonder 

and peace. A comforting message of hope and a gift of compassion for the bereaved.($20.00) 

• Badger's Parting Gifts. Varley, Susan. ISBN 0688115187. All the woodland creatures love old 

Badger and when he dies, they are overwhelmed by their loss. They then begin to remember 

and through their memories, the animals find the strength to face the future with hope. ($9.50) 

• Tear Soup: A Recipe for Healing After Loss. Schwiebert, Pat; DeKlyen, Chuck. ISBN 0961519762. 

In this modern-day fable, a woman who has suffered a terrible loss cooks up a special batch of 

"tear soup", blending the unique ingredients of her life into the grief process. Along the way she 

dispenses a recipe of sound advice for people who are in mourning. ($23.95) 

• The Gift of a Memory: A Keepsake to Commemorate the Loss of a Loved One. Richmond, 

Marianne. ISBN 097414651X. A one-of-a-kind keepsake, The Gift of a Memory commemorates 

the loss of a special life. Through a heartfelt poem and beautiful illustrations, the book recounts 

the emotional journey of loss and offers a wish for comfort and for hope in life again. ($18.95) 

• The Fall of Freddie the Leaf: A Story of Life for All Ages. Buscaglia, Leo. ISBN 9780943432892. 

This story is a warm, wonderfully wise and strikingly simple tale about a leaf named Freddie. 

How Freddie and his companion leaves change with the passing seasons, finally falling to the 

ground with winter's snow, is an inspiring allegory illustrating the delicate balance between life 

and death. ($18.95) 

16

• Nana Upstairs and Nana Downstairs. DePaola, Tomie. ISBN 0698118367. Four-year-old Tommy 

loves visiting the home of his grandmother, Nana Downstairs, and his great-grandmother, Nana 

Upstairs. But one day Tommy's mother tells him Nana Upstairs won't be there anymore, and 

Tommy must struggle with saying goodbye to someone he loves. ($7.95) 

• Talking about Death: A Dialogue Between Parent and Child. Grollman, Earl. ISBN 0807023612. 

This is a classic guide for parents helping their children through the death of a loved one. With a 

helpful list of do's and don'ts, an illustrated read-along dialogue, and a guide to explaining 

death. This redesigned and updated edition explains what children at different developmental 

stages can and can't understand about death; reveals why it's crucial to be honest about death; 

helps you understand the way children express emotions like denial, grief, crying, anger, and 

guilt; and discusses children's reactions to different kinds of death, from the death of a parent to 

the death of a pet. ($23.95) 

• The Tenth Good Thing about Barney. Viorst, Judith. ISBN 0689712030. In simple phrases 

narrated by a child whose cat, Barney, has just died, the author succinctly and honestly handles 

both the emotions stemming from the loss of a beloved pet and the questions about the finality 

of death which naturally arise in such a situation. ($7.99) 

• A Grieving Teen: A Guide for Teenagers and Their Friends. Fitzgerald, Helen. ISBN 0684868040. 

In this wise, compassionate, pragmatic book, the author turns her attention to the special needs 

and concerns of adolescents face during the grieving process. ($17.95) 

• Lifetimes. Mellonie, Bryan. ISBN 0553344021. A pet, a friend, or a relative dies and it must be 

explained to a child. This sensitive book is a useful tool in explaining to children that death is a 

part of life and that, eventually, all living things reach the end of their own special story. 

($16.95) 

• When a Friend Dies: A Book for Teens about Grieving & Healing (Revised and Updated). 

Gootman, Marilyn. ISBN 1575421704. This revised edition of Gootman's helpful guide includes 

new resources and a new section on losing a friend through violence. Recommended for parents 

and teachers of teens who have experienced a painful loss. ($11.50) 

• I Wish I Could Hold Your Hand...:A Child's Guide to Grief and Loss. Palmer, Pat; Burke, Dianne 

O'Quinn. ISBN 0915166828. A best friend has moved away, Dad no longer lives with the family, 

or a favourite pet has died. This warm, comforting book gently helps grieving children identify 

their feelings and learn to accept and deal with them. ($10.95) 

• When Dinosaurs Die: A Guide to Understanding Death (Dinos Die #1). Brown, Marc Talon; Little 

Brown & Company; Krasney, Laurene; Kelly, Chuck. ISBN 061371802X. For use in schools and 

libraries only. Explains in simple language the feelings people may have regarding death of a 

17

loved one and the ways to honour the memory of someone who has died. ($21.00) 

• Someone I Love Died. Tangvald, Christine Harder. ISBN 143470291X. Once a child graphs the 

concept of death, it becomes one of their greatest fears in life. "Someone I Love Died" provides 

a positive approach for children to deal with the death of a friend or loved one in a comforting, 

non-threatening way and points them to Jesus Christ, the ultimate source of comfort and 

security. ($14.95) 

• Someday Heaven (Revised). Libby, Larry. ISBN 0310701058. Explaining the mysteries of Heaven 

to a child can be a difficult task. But "Someday Heaven" gives simple, comforting answers to 

difficult questions that children age 4 to 8 often have concerning heaven. 'Excellent for 

Homeschool Use' ($14.95) 

• What Does Dead Mean?: A Book For Young Children to Help Explain Death and Dying. Jay, 

Caroline. Thomas, Jenni. ISBN 1849053553. This is a beautifully illustrated book that guides 

children gently through 17 of the 'big' questions they often ask about death and dying. ($18.50) 

• When Mom or Dad Dies: A Book for Comfort for Kids (Elf-Help Books 

for Kids). Grippo, Daniel. ISBN 9780870294150. When Mom or Dad dies, children grieve 

deeply, but we can show our care and love for them by encouraging them to share their feelings 

of sorrow and loss. ($8.95) 

• When Your Grandparent Dies: A Child's Guide to Good Grief (Elf-Help 

Books for Kids). Ryan, Victoria. ISBN 0870293648. Explaining what happens from a child'seye 

view, the elves depict the difficult days before, after, and beyond a grandparent's death. 

They explore the meaning of death and heaven, as well as how to stay close in spirit with a 

grandparent who has died. Includes questions for discussion.($9.50) 

• When Someone You Love Has Cancer: A Guide to Help Kids Cope (Elf-Help Books for Kids). 

Lewis, Alaric. ISBN 9780870293955. This book touches on topics such as cancer, bereavement, 

religious aspects, Christianity, grief in children, adjustment (psychology), communication in 

families and more. ($8.95) 

• Will I See My Pet in Heaven? Wintz, Friar Jack. ISBN 1612610986. Popular writer and friar Wintz 

offers many reasons why he believes the whole family of creation is included in God's plan of 

salvation, answering questions about the future, after death, of beloved animals. ($17.95) 

• Daily Prayer for Times of Grief. Hamilton, Lisa B. ISBN 1612611281. Drawing on her own 

experience of losing her young husband to cancer, in this poignant offering, Lisa B. Hamilton 

accommodates the practice of fixed-hour prayer for those who mourn. ($17.25) 

18

• I Feel Sad. Gross, Cathy; McKeever, Sharron; Debly, Mary Ann Takacs. ISBN 9782895078300. This 

compassionate, user-friendly resource offers information and helpful suggestions for guiding 

primary and junior students through a range of losses, from death of someone important to 

changing schools, from bullying to parents' divorce, from the loss of a pet to not being chosen 

for a team. ($9.95) 

• Praying Our Goodbyes: A Spiritual Companion Through Life's Losses and Sorrows (Revised). 

Rupp, Joyce. A compassionate, spiritual work about soothing the sting of any kind of loss--a job 

change, the end of a friendship or of youth, or the death of a loved one. This thoughtful work 

focuses on the "spirituality of change". Sister Joyce Rupp offers topics for reflection and 

discussion, as well as specific prayers, to heal the hurts of everyday life and death. ($18.75) 

DVDs 

• Journey Through the Shadows: Hope for healing after someone you love has died by suicide. 

[50 mins.] Suicide deeply affects the lives of those who are left behind by the one who has died. 

($68.00) 

• Helping Children Grieve. [55 mins.] This profound new resource offers helpful information to 

adults (parents, caregivers, professionals) on how to help children of all ages grieve with hope 

and heart. You will meet two experts: Khris Ford and Paula D'Arcy, whose personal experiences 

with death give them intimate knowledge and compassion. ($68.00) 

• Helping Parents Grieve: Finding New Life After the Death of a Child. [60 mins.] Khris Ford and 

Paula D'Arcy have built this new resource creating tremendous support for helping parents and 

family members grieving the death of a child. ($68.00) 

• When A Loved One Dies: Walking Through Grief As A Teenager. Grief is always difficult, but 

never more than when you are a teenager. This is a compassionate and practical primer for 

teens and adults who live and/or work with youth. ($45.95) 

• A Cry for Help: How to Help A Friend Who Is Depressed or Suicidal. [20 mins.] In the wake of a 

suicide, family members and friends wonder what they could have done to help, how they could 

have prevented this tragedy. Made for a teen audience, A Cry for Help educates young people to 

recognize the signs of depression and suicide in their peers. Featuring Sue Eastgard, President of 

The American Association of Suicidology, and groups of teens, this video talks about how to 

intervene and get help when a friend is contemplating suicide. A Cry for Help prepares young 

people to listen and care in one of the most challenging situations they might ever face: 

19

stopping a friend from taking his or her own life. ($52.00) 

• We Will Miss You: Support for Grieving the Death of a Pet. For the first time, a video of support 

for those who grieve the loss of a beloved animal companion. ($45.00) 

• A Place Prepared: Helping Children Understand Death and Heaven. This resource helps adults 

answer children's questions about death, funerals, and heaven as it lovingly prepares them for 

the inevitable losses they will experience. The viewer hears from professionals and children, 

ages 3-14. ($35.00) 

• Caring for a Loved One with Alzheimer's: An Emotional Journey. This dynamic video offers 

insight, hope, and understanding for anyone who cares for a loved one. ($68.00) 

• Bullying: What Every Adult Needs to Know [30 mins.] As long as there have been schools, there 

have been bullies teasing, threatening, punching, and kicking their peers. But we know today 

that bullying has serious consequences for both the victims and the bullies, ranging from low 

self-esteem to suicide. Young people need guidance from the adults in their lives to deal with 

bullying in a healthy way. Bullying: What Every Adult Needs to Know gives adults the tools they 

need to prevent and stop bullying among young people. ($45.00) 

“Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.” 

Matthew 5.4 

. 

#39/40-2721 Markham Road, Toronto ON M1X 1L5 | T: 416.291.1772 | F: 416.291.1378 

info@josephsinspirational.ca | Toll Free: 1.877.756.7374 

www.josephsinspirational.ca 

20

McKinney, S.J. and Hall, S.T. (2016) Nurture groups: inclusion of the most vulnerable 

children and young people in Catholic schools. Pastoral Review, 12(4), pp. 28-33. 

There may be differences between this version and the published version. You are 

advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. 

http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/120485/ 

Deposited on: 25 September 2017 

Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow 

http://eprints.gla.ac.uk

Nurture Groups –Inclusion of the Most Vulnerable Children and 

Young People in Catholic Schools. 

By 

Stephen J. McKinney and Stuart T. Hall 

Abstract 

Catholic schools in Scotland have a long and successful history of caring for the 

poor, whether it is material, emotional or spiritual poverty. This article examines the 

success of a nurture group initiative in Trinity High School in South Lanarkshire in 

Scotland. The nurture group cares for some of the most vulnerable children and 

young people in the school in way that is consistent with the local, national and 

international vision of the aims of a Catholic school. 

Introduction 

There are many important aims of contemporary Catholic schools. An aim that is 

often highlighted is the care for the poor and this can be traced back to the Vatican II 

era. Section nine of Gravissimum Educationis (1965) focuses on the role of Catholic 

schools in caring for the needs of the poor: 

This Sacred Council of the Church earnestly entreats pastors and all the 

faithful to spare no sacrifice in helping Catholic schools fulfill their function 

in a continually more perfect way, and especially in caring for the needs of 

those who are poor in the goods of this world or who are deprived of the 

assistance and affection of a family or who are strangers to the gift of Faith. 1 

Gerald Grace in Catholic Schools. Mission, Markets and Morality (2002) refers to this 

as one of the great strengths of contemporary Catholic schools: 

…showing a preferential option for the poor in ethnically mixed and poor 

urban communities’ (p.113). 2 

In the same work, he refers to the ‘Catholic schools principle of preferential option of 

the poor’ (p.181). This preferential option for the poor can be expressed in various 

ways: care for the materially poor, care for those who experience emotional poverty 

and care for the spiritually poor. The Catholic schools in Scotland have a long history 

of care for the poor and deprived. One of the first major initiatives in Catholic school 

education in the Post-Reformation period was The Catholic Schools Society. This was 

formed in 1817 in Glasgow to establish Catholic schools for the children of the 

growing Catholic population. 3 The Catholic community, for the most part, had 

increased due to the steady influx of Irish Catholics seeking employment. The 

Catholic schools were founded to preserve the faith but also to address the high levels 

of illiteracy and innumeracy within the predominantly impoverished Catholic 

community. 4 The contemporary Catholic schools in Scotland continue to care for the 

materially poor, the emotionally poor and, in the current context, have an increasing 

and pressing role in the care for the spiritually poor. This is described by the 

Congregation for Catholic Education (2014) as spiritual poverty and religious 

ignorance or illiteracy. 5 This short article examines one of the ways in which Catholic 

1

schools can care for the most vulnerable children and young people who experience 

one or more of these types of poverty. These children find daily attendance at school, 

engaging with teachers, socialising with other children and concentration on 

schoolwork especially challenging. Nurture groups aim to help children who face 

these challenges and have been established in the UK since 1969. This article focuses 

on the nurture group in Trinity High School, a Catholic secondary school in South 

Lanarkshire. This is the first secondary school in Scotland to be awarded the Marjorie 

Boxall Quality Mark Award from the Nurture Group Network. 

This article commences with a brief introduction to nurture groups in the UK 

followed by an explanation of the nurture group in Trinity High School. The article 

will continue with a report of the voices of the children and young people in the 

nurture group in Trinity High School as they articulate their experience of the group. 

The article will then examine the ways in which the nurture group in Trinity High 

School is coherent with some of the aims of Catholic school education on a local, 

national and international level and the article will end with some concluding 

remarks. 

Nurture Groups 

Nurture groups originated in London in 1969 and were developed by Marjorie Boxall, 

an educational psychologist. 6 She sought to include children at primary school level 

who had severe social, emotional and behavioural difficulties into mainstream 

schooling. Many of these difficulties are a result of an impoverished early nurturing 

and these children find school life very challenging (intellectually and socially) and 

struggle to trust the teachers and develop friendships with other children. Marjorie 

Boxall’s solution was to form nurture groups. These are: 

In-school, teacher-led psychosocial intervention of groups less than 12 

students that effectively replace missing or distorted early nurturing 

experiences for both children and young adults; they achieve this by 

immersing students in an accepting and warm environment which helps 

develop positive relationships with both teachers and peers. 

There are currently 2114 nurture groups in schools throughout the UK, 1876 in 

primary schools and 238 in secondary schools. There are 321 nurture groups in 

schools in Scotland. 7 They provide an opportunity for the most vulnerable children 

and young people to be supported within school and remain in school. The Marjorie 

Boxall Quality Mark Award is an accreditation scheme that recognizes excellence in 

nurturing. 

The Nurture Group in Trinity High School 

Trinity High School is a comprehensive, state-funded Catholic secondary school in 

South Lanarkshire in the diocese of Motherwell. The school states that it aims: 

…to create an inclusive community based on our Catholic Christian values, 

and work with our parents, to provide a learning environment which offers the 

highest quality of education for all our pupils. 8 

2

The mission statement of the school states that it is the intention of Trinity High 

School to offer to all students education of the highest quality by: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

fostering a community of faith, whereby all students are informed of the 

teachings of the Christian Catholic Tradition, and are encouraged to celebrate 

their faith through prayer and the sacraments of the Church; 

encouraging and enabling each student to achieve his/her full potential; 

promoting the intellectual, physical and emotional development of the 

individual by encouraging responsible and co operative attitudes; 

providing a secure, stable, disciplined environment in which effective learning 

and teaching can take place; 

providing a range of courses/experiences which satisfy the individual needs of 

students regardless of age or aptitude; 

ensuring equality of opportunity; 

providing coherence, progression and continuity in the curriculum to meet 

national and local authority policies. 

The nurture group in Trinity High School was first established in 2009. The group 

provides support on a daily basis for children and young people who have 

experienced deep emotional upset or who come from families that have experienced 

poverty, deprivation, trauma, and even violence and are at risk of suspension and 

exclusion. Over the years, the nurture group has included children and young people 

who have experienced abuse/neglect; are school refusers; require learning support; 

practice self-harm; have behavioural difficulties; have been looked after outside of 

home and have poor academic progress. 9 

The establishment and maintenance of a nurture group requires the allocation of 

considerable resource. The first requirement is a designated room that is furnished 

with an area for work and an area of comfortable soft furnishing for social interaction. 

There is also the facility in Trinity High School to make snacks and hot drinks. The 

second requirement is the selection and specialized training of teaching and support 

staff to work in the nurture group and provide the necessary pastoral care. This 

allocation of resource requires the commitment and dedication of the school 

leadership team, led by the head teacher, Mr. Peter Bollen. 

The nurture group in Trinity High School has achieved quite remarkable success. It 

has enabled children and young people to remain in mainstream education and 

become more integrated in the daily life of the school. As previously noted it is the 

first nurture group in a secondary school in Scotland to be awarded the Quality Mark 

Award (currently only three primary schools in Scotland have received the award). 

The school has positioned itself as a nurture hub for other schools in the local area. 10 

There has been increased participation from members of the school teaching staff and 

steady growth in the engagement of parents of children and young people in the 

nurture group. The percentage of pupils who have attended the nurture group in the 

early stages of their secondary school career and who have progressed to an initial 

positive school leaver destination is an impressive 96%. 

Voices of the Children and Young People 

3

We engaged in small-scale research with the nurture group in Trinity High School as 

part of the School Improvement Partnership Programme, a programme evaluated by 

the Robert Owen Centre for Educational Change, School of Education, University of 

Glasgow. 11 This programme is funded and led by Education Scotland. 12 We 

conducted three sets of interviews with small groups of the children and young people 

attending the nurture group to explore their experiences of the group. Understandably, 

these were very sensitive interviews as we had to establish a relationship of trust with 

these vulnerable children and young people and while most of them engaged in the 

process, some preferred to contribute very little or disengage altogether. Their 

experiences of the nurture group have been very positive and the group has been of 

considerable support to them. We have categorized the main themes that emerged 

from the interviews as follows: (1) a safe space; (2) quality of relationships with 

teachers and (3) positive outcomes. The nurture group provides a safe space, a place 

where pupils are able to take time out from the school day when they are having a bad 

day and ‘go and talk about feelings’ (female pupil, second year). It is also a place 

where the children and young people can learn how to establish and sustain 

friendships with others. They feel that in the group they can: ‘talk about friendship, 

learn how to treat friends properly’ (male pupil, third year). The nurture group 

promotes a higher quality of relationship between the pupils and the teaching staff 

who are assigned to the group. The pupils state that they feel comfortable 

communicating with these teachers. The teachers are: ‘someone to trust’ (female 

pupil, second year). These teachers are adults who have ‘time to speak to you’ (male 

pupil, second year) and ‘are easier to talk to’ than other teachers (male pupil, fourth 

year). The combined effect of the safe space and the quality of the relationships helps 

to produce positive outcomes for the children and young people. The nurture group 

helps them ‘to prepare for other classes’ (female pupil, first year) and get them 

through the day. It gives them more confidence and enhances their self-esteem: 

‘makes us feel better about ourselves’ (female pupil, first year). It also helps them 

cope with some of the serious emotional challenges that they have encountered in 

their lives: ‘helps you get over losses in the family’ (female pupil, second year). 

The Nurture Group Supporting the Aims of the Catholic School 

The nurture group in Trinity High School, as has been seen above, has been very 

successful as a nurture group and has been recognized with the Quality Mark Award. 

Nurture groups do not necessarily have to be located in Catholic schools – they did 

not originate primarily in Catholic schools and there is scope for them in almost any 

type of school. Further, they are not the only means for inclusion and care of 

vulnerable children and young people. The leadership of Trinity High School, 

however, has been very explicit in stating that the Nurture Group is coherent with the 

aims of their Catholic school and has been instrumental in helping them to realize 

these aims in the every day life of the school. This can be understood using three 

levels of analysis: micro (at the level of the aims of the school), meso (at the level of 

the aims of the wider network of Scottish Catholic schools) and macro (at the level of 

the international network of Catholic schools). At the micro level of the school, the 

nurture group helps the children and young people to meet many of the aims of the 

school. The children and young people are supported to ‘achieve their full potential’ 

and the group is structured to promote their ‘intellectual and emotional development’. 

The nurture group provides a special ‘secure, stable, disciplined environment in which 

effective learning and teaching can take place’. The secure and stable environment of 

4

the group is particularly important for these children as this helps them to focus on 

their learning. The group provides a ‘range of courses/experiences which satisfy the 

individual needs of students regardless of age or aptitude’. The nurture group is able 

to provide support for the learning in the timetabled classes and also provide extra 

learning experiences for the participating pupils. The nurture group provides 

‘coherence, progression and continuity in the curriculum to meet national and local 

authority policies’. The nurture group has helped many of the children and young 

people progress to acquire national qualifications and skills. 

At the meso level of the aims of the wider network of Scottish Catholic schools, the 

nurture group has helped the school to achieve some of the key aims of the Charter 

for Catholic schools in Scotland, promoted by the Scottish Catholic Education 

Service. 13 The nurture group has helped the school to realize the aim of a: 

…commitment to the integrated education and formation of the whole person, 

in close partnership with parents as the first educators of their children. 

The nurture group aims to integrate the children and young people intellectually and 

socially in the school and support them in their progress through secondary school. 

The nurture group has been a means to enhance the participation of the parents of the 

children who use the nurture group. The nurture group has emphasised the lived 

experience of another aim: 

…inclusive ethos which aims to honour the life, dignity and voice of each 

person, made in the image of God. 

The leadership of Trinity High School and all of the staff involved in the nurture 

group are committed to perceiving the success of the nurture group within the 

understanding of the children and young people created in the image of God and 

called to share a covenant relationship with God. 14 

The nurture group is also coherent with a third aim: 

…commitment to communicate Catholic social teaching and thereby to 

promote social justice and opportunity for all. 

Arguably, the nurture group does more than promote social justice and opportunity 

for all – it assists the school in its efforts to construct and sustain a culture of social 

justice and opportunity for all. At the macro level of the international network of 

Catholic schools, the nurture group has been successful in providing an example of 

exercising the preferential option of the poor in a Catholic school. The nurture group 

supports the most vulnerable children, not only the ones who are materially poor, but 

the ones who may experience emotional poverty and lack support from their families. 

Concluding Remarks 

This article has explained the success of the nurture group in Trinity High School 

within the local authority and within the nurture group network. The article has also 

examined the ways in which the nurture group helps the school to meet and live the 

school aims, the aims of the Charter for Catholic schools in Scotland and support the 

5

school to exercise the preferential option for the poor. The school has demonstrated 

its commitment to create an inclusive community based on our Catholic Christian 

values. This is a school community that recognizes Christ in all members of the 

community and actively strives to include and retain the most vulnerable and those 

most likely to disengage. 

Stephen J. McKinney is a professor in the School of Education, University of 

Glasgow. Stuart T. Hall is a senior researcher in the Robert Owen Centre for 

Educational Change, School of Education, University of Glasgow. 

1 Pope Paul V1 (1965) Declaration on Christian Education, Gravissimum Educationis. Available at: 

http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vatii_decl_19651028_gravissimum-educationis_en.html 

2 Grace, G. (2002) Catholic Schools. Mission, Markets and Morality. Oxford: Routledge Falmer. 

3 FitzPatrick, T.A. (1986). Catholic Secondary Education in South-West Scotland before 1872. 

Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. Gallagher, T. (1987) Glasgow. The Uneasy Peace. Manchester: 

Manchester University Press. Skinnider, M. (1967) Catholic Elementary Education in Glasgow 1818- 

1918. In T.R. Bone (Ed.), Studies in the History of Scottish Education 1872-1939. London: University 

of London Press. 

4 

Anderson, R.D. (1995) Education and the Scottish People. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Skinnider 

(1967). 

5 Congregation for Catholic Education (2014) Educating Today and Tomorrow: A Renewing Passion. 

Instrumentum Laboris. Available at: 

http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20140 

407_educare-oggi-e-domani_en.html 

6 

The Nurture Group Network (2016) What is a Nurture Group? Available at: 

https://www.nurturegroups.org/introducing-nurture/what-nurture-group-0 

7 

The Nurture Group Census (2016) Nurture Group Census. Available at: 

https://www.nurturegroups.org/what-we-do/research-and-evidence/nurture-group-census 

8 

Trinity High School (2016) Welcome to Trinity. Available at: 

http://www.trinity.s-lanark.sch.uk/our-school/welcome-to-trinity/ 

9 

Chapman, C., Lowden, K., Chestnutt, H., Hall, S., McKinney, S., Hulme, M. and Friel, N. (2015) The 

School Improvement Partnership Programme (2015) Using Collaboration and Enquiry to Tackle 

Educational Inequity. Report to Scottish Education, August 2015. Available at: 

http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/SIPPFinalReportSep2015_tcm4-871371.pdf 

10 Chapman, C., Lowden, K., Chestnutt, H., Hall, S., McKinney, S., Hulme, M. and Friel, N. (2015) 

11 Robert Owen Centre for Educational Change. Available at: 

http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/education/robertowencentre/aboutus/ 

12 Education Scotland (2016) The School Improvement Partnership Programme. Available at: 

http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/learningandteaching/partnerships/schoolimprovementpartnership 

programme/intro.asp 

13 

Scottish Catholic Educational Service (2016) Charter for Catholic Schools. Available at: 

http://sces.org.uk/charter-for-catholic-schools/ 

14 

Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (2004) Compendium of Social Doctrine of the Church, 

section 108. Available at: 

http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/justpeace/documents/rc_pc_justpeace_doc_200 

60526_compendio-dott-soc_en.html 

6

Back to school self care: putting your oxygen mask on first 

This week’s guest blog post was written by Michael & Nita Creekmore. Michael and Nita are 

married with 4 children. Michael is currently a Professional School Counselor for 4th and 5th 

grades, and has been a Licensed Professional Counselor for 16 years. Nita is currently an 

Instructional Coach, was a teacher for 13 years, and has been in the field of education for 16 

years. 

For educators, the beginning of the school year is one of the most stressful times of the year. 

It’s filled with anxiety, the unknown, the unpredictable — but also holds all the promise of 

what could be a great school year. However, this year is a little different. Let’s add a global 

pandemic to the equation and watch our anxieties rise to unprecedented levels. The 

politicization of public education has always existed, but rarely front and center on life-anddeath 

discussions. 

Unfortunately, this year educators have been involuntarily placed on a collision course with 

COVID-19. Caring for our students, maintaining school culture, and providing effective 

instruction are likely going to be more challenging than ever for many of us. But there’s one 

element we often neglect while we’re focused on the well-being of our class: whether you 

are teaching virtually, face to face, or in some combination, you will still need to check in 

with yourself! 

While we're all grounded by the pandemic, it wasn't so long ago that we looked forward to a 

"reset" by hopping on a plane during a school break. In many ways starting the school year 

can feel like getting ready for take-off. And just like when we get ready for flight, we all need 

to sit down, buckle up, and remember this important message: 

“Should the cabin lose pressure, oxygen masks will drop from the overhead area. Please place 

the mask over your own mouth and nose before assisting others.” 

Of course we understand the rationale for that statement. However, we don’t always follow 

recommendations. The majority of educators enter the field with the intention of helping 

everyone. Unfortunately, we educators often help others at great expense to our personal 

health and well being. This year will undoubtedly push educator stress levels beyond 

previous years, so what can be done to mitigate the stress before we burn out? 

PUTTING YOUR MASK ON: BUILDING YOUR SELF-CARE RECIPE 

Do not wait until the start of the school year — implement self-care now! When you do this, 

it becomes a part of your daily routine and not crisis care, which occurs when educators are 

on the verge of burnout. Crisis care is brief triage to help you return to your baseline level of 

functioning. Let’s look at some ingredients you should include in your self-care recipe, in no 

particular order. 

Identify an accountability partner 

Find someone who will “call you in” when you need to take care of yourself and seem to be 

falling short. It needs to be someone you trust and who supports you. 

Exercise 

Get moving each day and find an exercise routine that you love. Do you like the relaxation 

and stress release of yoga? Or do you like the fun and dance found in Zumba? It could even 

be High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) or a good old walk/run around the 

neighborhood.

Join an educator virtual support community 

This could be virtual or socially-distanced in your school community. Venting, getting fresh 

ideas, and feeling seen are all benefits of educator support groups. 

Establish work cut-off times 

This time calls for educators to work three times more than we usually do at the beginning 

of the year. Especially if you are virtual, you have to establish times to begin and end each 

day. 

Find a laugh every day 

Whether it’s a movie, a show on Netflix, reading a book, or a Zoom with family and friends, 

find time to laugh. Laughter is good for the soul! 

Feel your feelings, don’t deny them 

Your feelings are your feelings, and they are valid. Get a journal and write. If something is 

bothering you, speak up. Don’t allow the weight of this time to bring you down by 

suppressing your feelings. 

Minimize social media consumption 

Social media can be a gift and a curse! It can be amazing, and it can also cause an extreme 

amount of anxiety. If you start feeling swallowed up by social media, take a break. 

Enjoy the outdoors 

Being outdoors with the sky above and the green grass below does something to you. The 

breathing in and out of fresh air is Mother Nature’s remedy for all of those uncomfortable 

feelings. Get outside and enjoy it. 

Broaden your horizons, learn something new 

Educators are forever learners. We love learning. Take time to learn something different. 

Have you always wanted to learn how to play an instrument? What about learning how to 

knit? Do it! What better time than the present? 

Maintain a routine 

Take time to write out how you want your day to go. Your day may not go exactly as 

planned, but it helps to maintain some control — a sense of normalcy, which can be calming 

during times of frequent change. 

Breathe, and embrace all that is right 

Begin a gratefulness journal. Each morning write about what you are grateful for and what 

is going right. Humans naturally try to think about how to fix the wrong. Let’s take this time 

to embrace what is going well. Embrace the right. 

See a therapist 

When your emotions start to impact your daily functioning, therapy may be recommended. 

There’s no shame in seeking therapy, and it’s one of the most responsible actions one can 

take when feeling overwhelmed with stress or other discomforting emotions and thoughts. 

After all, where else can you go to have someone listen and help with zero judgment? 

Although there is a large push to get back to business as usual, refusal to take the necessary 

precautions can be deadly. Running in and out of a grocery store used to be a quick task. 

Going to the gym was second nature, barbershop and hair salon visits were routine 

scheduled appointments; Sunday morning service was a tradition, and the virtual world 

was only for video games. A lot has changed. The reality is... life. is. different. We are all doing 

our best to manage this unthinkable time in history. Our students aren’t immune from the 

chaos and hysteria gripping the country and they need our help to navigate this bizarre 

world — but let’s put our masks on first! 

https://www.peardeck.com/pear-deck-blog/2020/8/13/back-to-school-self-care-putting-youroxygen-mask-on-first

http://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/messages/lent/documents/papafrancesco_20191007_messaggio-quaresima2020.html 

MESSAGE OF HIS HOLINESS POPE FRANCIS 

FOR LENT 2020 

“We implore you on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God” (2 Cor 5:20) 

Dear Brothers and Sisters, 

This year the Lord grants us, once again, a favourable time to prepare to celebrate with 

renewed hearts the great mystery of the death and resurrection of Jesus, the cornerstone of 

our personal and communal Christian life. We must continually return to this mystery in 

mind and heart, for it will continue to grow within us in the measure that we are open to its 

spiritual power and respond with freedom and generosity. 

1. The paschal mystery as the basis of conversion 

Christian joy flows from listening to, and accepting, the Good News of the death and 

resurrection of Jesus. This kerygma sums up the mystery of a love “so real, so true, so 

concrete, that it invites us to a relationship of openness and fruitful dialogue” (Christus Vivit, 

117). Whoever believes this message rejects the lie that our life is ours to do with as we 

will. Rather, life is born of the love of God our Father, from his desire to grant us life in 

abundance (cf. Jn 10:10). If we listen instead to the tempting voice of the “father of lies” 

(Jn 8:44), we risk sinking into the abyss of absurdity, and experiencing hell here on earth, 

as all too many tragic events in the personal and collective human experience sadly bear 

witness. 

In this Lent of 2020, I would like to share with every Christian what I wrote to young people 

in the Apostolic Exhortation Christus Vivit: “Keep your eyes fixed on the outstretched arms 

of Christ crucified, let yourself be saved over and over again. And when you go to confess 

your sins, believe firmly in his mercy which frees you of your guilt. Contemplate his blood 

poured out with such great love, and let yourself be cleansed by it. In this way, you can be 

reborn ever anew” (No. 123). Jesus’ Pasch is not a past event; rather, through the power of 

the Holy Spirit it is ever present, enabling us to see and touch with faith the flesh of Christ in 

those who suffer. 

2. The urgency of conversion 

It is good to contemplate more deeply the paschal mystery through which God’s mercy has 

been bestowed upon us. Indeed, the experience of mercy is only possible in a “face to face” 

relationship with the crucified and risen Lord “who loved me and gave himself for me” 

(Gal 2:20), in a heartfelt dialogue between friends. That is why prayer is so important in 

Lent. Even more than a duty, prayer is an expression of our need to respond to God’s love 

which always precedes and sustains us. Christians pray in the knowledge that, although 

unworthy, we are still loved. Prayer can take any number of different forms, but what truly 

matters in God’s eyes is that it penetrates deep within us and chips away at our hardness of 

heart, in order to convert us ever more fully to God and to his will. 

In this favourable season, then, may we allow ourselves to be led like Israel into the desert 

(cf. Hos 2:14), so that we can at last hear our Spouse’s voice and allow it to resound ever 

more deeply within us. The more fully we are engaged with his word, the more we will

http://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/messages/lent/documents/papafrancesco_20191007_messaggio-quaresima2020.html 

experience the mercy he freely gives us. May we not let this time of grace pass in vain, in 

the foolish illusion that we can control the times and means of our conversion to him. 

3. God’s passionate will to dialogue with his children 

The fact that the Lord once again offers us a favourable time for our conversion should 

never be taken for granted. This new opportunity ought to awaken in us a sense of 

gratitude and stir us from our sloth. Despite the sometimes tragic presence of evil in our 

lives, and in the life of the Church and the world, this opportunity to change our course 

expresses God’s unwavering will not to interrupt his dialogue of salvation with us. In the 

crucified Jesus, who knew no sin, yet for our sake was made to be sin (cf. 2 Cor 5:21), this 

saving will led the Father to burden his Son with the weight of our sins, thus, in the 

expression of Pope Benedict XVI, “turning of God against himself” (Deus Caritas Est, 12). 

For God also loves his enemies (cf. Mt 5:43-48). 

The dialogue that God wishes to establish with each of us through the paschal mystery of 

his Son has nothing to do with empty chatter, like that attributed to the ancient inhabitants 

of Athens, who “spent their time in nothing except telling or hearing something new” 

(Acts 17:21). Such chatter, determined by an empty and superficial curiosity, characterizes 

worldliness in every age; in our own day, it can also result in improper use of the media. 

4. A richness to be shared, not kept for oneself 

Putting the paschal mystery at the centre of our lives means feeling compassion towards the 

wounds of the crucified Christ present in the many innocent victims of wars, in attacks on 

life, from that of the unborn to that of the elderly, and various forms of violence. They are 

likewise present in environmental disasters, the unequal distribution of the earth’s goods, 

human trafficking in all its forms, and the unbridled thirst for profit, which is a form of 

idolatry. 

Today too, there is a need to appeal to men and women of good will to share, by 

almsgiving, their goods with those most in need, as a means of personally participating in 

the building of a better world. Charitable giving makes us more human, whereas hoarding 

risks making us less human, imprisoned by our own selfishness. We can and must go even 

further, and consider the structural aspects of our economic life. For this reason, in the 

midst of Lent this year, from 26 to 28 March, I have convened a meeting in Assisi with 

young economists, entrepreneurs and change-makers, with the aim of shaping a more just 

and inclusive economy. As the Church’s magisterium has often repeated, political life 

represents an eminent form of charity (cf. Pius XI, Address to the Italian Federation of 

Catholic University Students, 18 December 1927). The same holds true for economic life, 

which can be approached in the same evangelical spirit, the spirit of the Beatitudes. 

I ask Mary Most Holy to pray that our Lenten celebration will open our hearts to hear God’s 

call to be reconciled to himself, to fix our gaze on the paschal mystery, and to be converted 

to an open and sincere dialogue with him. In this way, we will become what Christ asks his 

disciples to be: the salt of the earth and the light of the world (cf. Mt 5:13-14). 

Rome, at Saint John Lateran, 7 October 2019 

Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary 

Francis

https://www.gtcs.org.uk/News/teaching-scotland/online-exclusive-teacher-leadership-and-collaborative-professionalism.aspx 

Teacher leadership and collaborative 

professionalism 

Following up on his Opinion piece on middle leadership in Issue 72, 

Dick Lynas discusses the importance of leadership and 

collaboration in closing the poverty related attainment gap 

For me, school leadership is, at its simplest, a relationship between at least 

two people in which one influences the nature of, and offers direction and 

purpose to, the behaviour of the other. 

So all teachers are leaders in that they seek directly to build pupil-teacher 

relationships and to use their teaching skills to raise the quality of learning, 

and hence levels of attainment and achievement, for all pupils in their 

timetabled classes. There can be little doubt that the quality of work carried 

out by teachers in individual classrooms is the single most significant school 

variable in raising pupil attainment. Children remember what their teachers 

were like, not what school, local authority or national policy was like. 

School inspections and school surveys of one kind or another indicate, 

however, that the quality of teaching in Scotland, though excellent in places, is 

variable. So the fundamental purpose of stage, departmental or school 

leaders must be to promote consistency in the classroom work of teachers, 

ensuring that the quality of learning and teaching to be found in the best of 

classrooms can be found in every classroom for which they have an 

overviewing role. 

This is where one specific characteristic of school, middle or teacher leaders 

comes into focus: their openness and willingness to engage in collaborative 

professionalism, whereby they share with colleagues their experience and 

expertise in the work that they do in order to improve not only their own 

teaching skills but also to provide a consistency of teaching quality to the 

pupils whose learning needs they serve. 

International research suggests that such collaborative professionalism is one 

of the most powerful ways of promoting the development of teaching skills. 

But it cannot be forced. As change expert Michael Fullan stated some years 

ago: you cannot mandate school improvement from above. It all depends 

ultimately on what teachers say and do. His views were endorsed by 

Professor Richard Elmore of Harvard University when he stated on a visit to 

Scotland that if you cannot see change in the classroom then it did not 

happen. If, however, school leaders can persuade their teaching colleagues to 

collaborate in improving the quality of the service that they provide then we 

can create a synergy in schools whereby the impact of the efforts of all 

teachers to raise pupil attainment will be greater than the impact of individuals.

https://www.gtcs.org.uk/News/teaching-scotland/online-exclusive-teacher-leadership-and-collaborative-professionalism.aspx 

None of us is as smart as all of us, as Ken Blanchard, situational leadership 

guru, once remarked. 

There remains one slight problem. School leaders are in no position to 

guarantee that they will have sufficient numbers of the right kind of teachers - 

or sufficient non-class contact time - to ensure that, even when teachers are 

willing and ready to share their expertise with colleagues, there will actually be 

sufficient opportunities for them to gather together to do so. Without wishing to 

get bogged down in a morass of statistics, I found it interesting that the 2017 

OECD 'Education at a Glance' report indicated that Scottish teachers spend 

eight hundred and fifty five hours per 38-week year in actual teaching time 

whereas in Finland, so highly regarded for the effectiveness of its education 

system for so many years, teaching time varies between five hundred and fifty 

hours per 38-week year for teachers working with upper secondary school 

pupils to six hundred and seventy seven hours for teachers working in primary 

schools. 

So it looks as if there is an argument for providing more non-contact time in 

Scottish education's working time agreements in an effort to increase the 

possibility of more collegial working, so to improve that consistency in the 

quality of teaching that best enhances pupil learning. The problem in that, of 

course, is that you need more teachers of the proper quality to be able to 

provide more non-contact time. Still, we can look at Finland again for a 

possible solution to that problem. There, salaries and conditions of service are 

such that teaching is a highly regarded destination for top graduates. 

Anecdotal evidence indicates that this is no longer the case in Scotland. 

Time, perhaps, for radical reflection on the part of the government as to why 

that should be the case before doing something about it. The increased 

funding flowing into schools in order to close the attainment gap between 

deprived and privileged children is certainly welcome. But school leaders and 

their teaching colleagues desperately need more time to be able to get 

together to share their thinking about how best to utilise enhanced funding. 

Otherwise, the variability of teacher quality to which I referred earlier will 

remain. And attainment gaps will never be closed.

Standard for CLPL 

Review the reflection questions on page 23 of The Catholic School: Developing in Faith

Eucharist and School Leadership 

The Catholic School as the Body of Christ 

John Bollan 

There is a widely recognised ‘crisis of leadership’ in Catholic schools in this 

country. This is not so much a crisis of quality of leadership – since most 

school leaders are men and women of the highest calibre – as it is a problem of 

recruitment. Clearly there are parallels which could be drawn between the slow 

uptake of priestly vocations and the relatively low numbers of candidates 

putting themselves forward for positions of leadership in our schools. The 

underlying causes of this reluctance to lead are various, ranging from workload 

issues to financial pressures. There is also, in some environments, a struggle 

with the specifically Catholic quality of leadership required in our schools. In 

those areas where qualifications for Headship are offered, the existence of ‘bolt 

on’ components for aspiring Catholic leaders may give some the impression 

that the leadership of a Catholic school community requires some additional 

responsibilities, rather than something which rests at the core, the heart, of the 

school. 

In his address to religious and teachers at St. Mary’s University College, Pope 

Benedict reminded them that 

the life of faith needs to be the driving force behind every activity in 

the school, so that the Church’s mission may be served effectively, 

and the young people may discover the joy of entering into Christ’s 

“being for others” (Spe Salvi, 28). 

But just how is that ‘life of faith’ to be understood in practical terms, so that it 

does indeed find expression in ‘being for others’? How does a Head Teacher 

map out the distinctive, yet utterly indispensable, features of Catholic 

leadership? How can a school give expression to its Catholicity when a 

significant proportion of staff and pupils may not be Catholic themselves? Pope 

Benedict himself offers one such template. In his post-synodal document on the 

Eucharist in the Life of the Church, Sacramentum Caritatis, the Holy Father 

sketches out what may be described as ‘the Eucharistic shape of the Christian 

life’ (cf. Sacramentum Caritatis, 76). The Eucharist offers a distinct form to the 

life of every Christian – something which is especially valuable in a world with 

increasingly blurred margins. It is for this reason that Catholic schools should 

be ever more centred on the Eucharist. That does not necessarily mean that, in 

view of falling Mass attendance, schools should see themselves as ‘Mass 

centres’ – although the celebration of the Eucharist should have a place in the 

life of every school. Rather it should be the case that the shape of the 

Eucharistic liturgy should also, in some sense, inform the relationships and 

activities within the school itself. 

The Eucharist: a template for life 

1

There is an extraordinarily rich body of teaching on the place of the Eucharist 

in the life of the Church. St. Augustine clearly perceived the link between what 

we see enacted liturgically and what we give ourselves over to in the 

celebration of the Mass: estote quod videtis; accipite quod estis (‘Be what you 

see, and receive what you are are’). The Eucharist presents both a model of life 

to be imitated and a reality which we must become: Augustine’s injunction to 

be what we are is, at its deepest level, a call for authenticity. It is worth 

remembering the very real link between authority and authenticity; for words to 

carry weight, they must flow from one who is recognised as living out what 

they profess. So, in the setting of a school for example, this translates into not 

asking others to do what you are not seen to do yourself. 

The Eucharist opens a way into the heart of Christian life because of its 

intimate connection with suffering, death and new life. Often the shape which it 

gives to our lives owes as much to planing as planning: we are joined in the 

Eucharist to the redemptive suffering of Christ. As a result, we should have 

fewer rough edges in our dealings with others; we find ourselves better placed 

to embrace their ideas, their gifts and yes, even their own splintered selves. We 

are, in a sense, schooled to see beyond the surfaces of things and yet also be 

aware of power of symbolic gestures to speak to the heart. In this way, Catholic 

leadership develops an almost sacramental quality whereby the outward signs 

draw us into something deeper. 

John’s Gospel famously replaces the synoptic institution narrative of the 

Eucharist with the washing of the feet (John 13:1-17). The mandatum, as the 

liturgical re-enactment of this gesture on Holy (Maundy) Thursday is properly 

called, places this gesture alongside the Eucharist: one illuminates the other. A 

mandate to lead is, in the language of liturgy, a commandment to serve. 

Authentic leadership is so closely bound up with service of the community that 

an attitude of lordship threatens to empty it of all its moral and spiritual force. 

Of course the Eucharist is not merely a concept; it is embedded in a series of 

actions which direct the liturgical celebration of the through a process of 

transformation. These discrete ‘moments’ also offer a template for our own 

reflection on leadership in a school setting which, it is hoped, should also be 

places of transformation in their own right. 

Epiclesis 

The gesture which really sets in motion this Eucharistic transformation is the 

epiclesis, the ‘calling down from above’ of the Holy Spirit. At Mass the hands 

of the priest almost imitate the dynamic of descent, outstretched hands held 

wing-like over the gifts as he prays for them to be sanctified by that same 

Spirit. From the outset, the Holy Spirit is invoked as the means by which the 

raw materials of the Eucharist are given a new identity, becoming something 

new. Schools should also be places where the Spirit is invoked each day. While 

adjectives such as ‘inspirational’ and ‘charismatic’ are often applied to 

2

successful leaders, we should remember that these ideas take on a particular 

resonance when used in a Catholic context. What a good leader does for the 

community is breathe life into it, animating it and directing it. It does not 

belittle their influence if I say that this breath is borrowed; it is by consciously 

invoking the Holy Spirit - asking God to touch the community and spark it into 

life - that the community becomes an authentic school of the Gospel. This is 

where the prayer life of the school comes into its own: while chaplains are an 

invaluable resource, we should not overlook the vital contribution made by the 

leadership of a school to its spiritual tone and outlook. 

Anamnesis 

Central to the celebration of the Eucharist is the act of remembering: Do this in 

memory of me. The word for Eucharistic remembering, anamnesis, literally 

means ‘a lack of forgetting’. At first sight, this curious negative definition 

actually commands of us something which is radically positive. Memory can 

easily fall prey to nostalgia, a selective recall of people and events which draws 

us back to an unreal past and cuts us adrift in a half-lived present. By the same 

measure vivid memories, drenched in emotion, can simply fuel resentment. The 

past continues to cast its shadow over the present moment, keeping old wounds 

fresh. Anamnesis on the other hand, this sacred memory, points to those things 

we should not forget but, through the action of grace, makes the encounter a 

source of life and healing. The Eucharistic re-presentation of the death of Jesus 

breaks apart the arid sequentiality of time and brings past – and future – 

together. So too with the school: the leaders of a school need a sense of its 

shared history in order to bring the best of the past to life today. Again, this 

must not be a false nostalgia but a recognition of what should not be forgotten, 

even if only because of the hard lessons which have been learned. The 

phenomenon of new or merged schools poses a particular challenge: here the 

work of memory is all the more important. Although a memory cannot (and 

should not) be fabricated, inspired leaders will know how to embed a ‘new’ 

tradition. 

Consecration 

Sacred memory is essential to the act of consecrating and the word itself 

evokes a particular solemnity. It should be remembered that ‘to consecrate’ 

means ‘to set apart’ for a particular purpose - usually a holy one. The ancient 

Romans understood the consecration of a person as marking him out as the 

property of a god; the said transaction was effected by taking the life of the 

unfortunate ‘consecree’. This was not human sacrifice, however, merely an 

extreme form of punishment. Despite its bloody and unpromising origins, 

consecration has remained the distinct term for the selection and 

commissioning of Christian leaders. Bishops at their consecration are anointed 

as authentic teachers, shepherds of the flock entrusted to their care. Their 

‘promotion’ (in worldly terms) is more of a ‘setting aside’ than a ‘setting over’. 

It is a pity that Catholic educational discourse has bought into the secular idea 

3

of promotion when, ideally, we should be thinking of leadership as a 

‘consecrated’ post. 

Of course the word ‘consecration’ directs our gaze towards the altar and the 

moment in which, according to Catholic theology, the substance of bread and 

wine yield their place to the Body and Blood of Christ. The technical finessing 

of transubstantiation may leave us a little cold, but there is a profound truth at 

work here: something can only be one thing at a time. Part of the frustration 

which attends the efforts of under-pressure heads is the sense that a culture of 

multi-tasking has occasionally morphed into a routine of multi-being. When 

you have so many tasks to accomplish and so many people to satisfy, there is 

inherent risk of losing the ‘substance’ of one’s own self. Mark 8:36 warns us 

against the gain of the world at the price of the soul, and this is equally true of a 

Head or Principal. If I surrender myself to the competing demands of others 

and only half grasp Saint Paul’s ‘I became all things to all men’ (1 Corinthians 

9:22), then there is a real possibility that I may end up merely managing the 

decline of the community. People quickly sense a lack of substance, of 

authenticity and, as we said above, the absence of authority. 

Real Presence 

‘Absence’ is, per contra, an invitation to reflect on that other pillar of Catholic 

Eucharistic theology: real presence. The real presence of Christ in the 

Sacrament is the clearest assurance of his ‘being with us all days’ – according 

to his promise (Matthew 28:20). There is, I think, a clear analogy between the 

real and living presence of Jesus in the Eucharist and the kind of presence 

which is rightly expected of those who lead our schools. Physical presence is 

not necessarily a guarantee of truly being-with others. Sometimes those who 

pride themselves on being ‘hands-on’ are unaware that their personal touch is 

not always an indicator of really being there for the school community. Much 

more crucial is a kind of empathic presence, whereby the leader leaves you in 

no doubt that you are noticed, needed, spoken with and, just as importantly, 

listened to. 

That is not to say that a physical presence in and around the school is not a 

good thing. Indeed, when it is motivated by the desire to encourage and 

support, it is as close as we get to the image of the Good Shepherd at work in 

the school: ‘I know mine and mine know me’ (John 10:14). 

Doxology 

The Eucharistic Prayer is subsumed into the climactic song of praise to the 

Trinity: 

Through him, and with him, and in him, 

O God, almighty Father, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, 

4

all glory and honour is yours, for ever and ever. 

In the doxology all the words which have gone before are channelled towards 

the inner ‘space’ of God’s own life, simultaneously bringing them to a 

conclusion but also opening them outwards in an eternal, never-ending cycle of 

praise. Praise is the Church’s business and praise is a language which we 

should all speak fluently. While worship of God is unique, there is a need for 

us to recognise the ecstatic, transforming power of praise in other contexts. The 

giving of sincere – and merited – praise is, as everyone knows, a key motivator: 

we all like to be recognised for those things we do well. What makes praise 

even more essential to the flourishing of schools, however, is the fact that 

praise rebounds. A successful student will, most times, have been well taught; a 

school which is conspicuous for its love and service will be a credit to those 

who lead it and a source of pride to the community which supports it. Praise 

recognises the agency and contribution of others. While the ability to bestow 

deserved praise is a requisite of leadership, there is also a skill, or perhaps an 

acquired habit, of accepting praise and using it fruitfully. Every doxology 

needs an ‘Amen’, an affirmation and acceptance. 

Communion 

‘Amen’ is also the word which accompanies reception of the Eucharist in Holy 

Communion. ‘Amen’ is, in the context of the Eucharist, a word of unparalleled 

richness: the ‘yes’ we utter has so many facets, mirroring the layers of 

connectedness which meet in that moment. We accept and affirm our belief in 

the Body of Christ and the actions of the Church, which is also his Body on 

parish, diocesan and universal levels, in offering us this sacrament of 

communion. All these moments find an echo in the life of the Catholic school 

which is only as alive as its relationships show (both internal and external) it to 

be. A community is not necessarily a communion, but, if it is, its oneness of 

mind and heart will lend it a resilience which comes from being part of 

something great – indeed universal. It is that transcendent dimension which 

should come to the help of Catholic schools which are part of beleaguered 

communities: pastoral engagement and outreach are expressions of a millennial 

tradition of charity and social action. We do these things because we aspire to 

be saints and share in their communion, just as they support the work of the 

Church by their prayers and example. 

Assimilation is a word with loaded connotations for many Catholics. For some, 

it recalls the temptation to ‘blend in’ which confronts every minority in search 

of a place in society and a quiet life. Others would argue that assimilation is an 

opportunity for mutual enrichment and does not necessarily flow in one 

direction: sometimes wider communities can grow more like the vibrant 

minorities they host – provided, of course, that their values are manifestly a 

good thing. As far as debates about the place and purpose of Catholic schools 

go, these are questions for another time. There is, however, one sense in which 

assimilation is essential to the work of the Catholic school. Here too we owe a 

debt to Pope Benedict’s rich teaching on the Eucharist. In his homily for 

5

Corpus Christi 2011, the Holy Father drew our attention to the revolutionary 

dynamic of the Eucharist: 

St. Augustine helps us to understand the dynamics of Holy Communion 

when referring to a kind of vision he had, in which Jesus said to him: "I 

am the food of the mature: grow, then, and you shall eat me. You will not 

change me into yourself like bodily food; but you will be changed into 

me." (Confessions, VII, 10, 18) Therefore, while the bodily food is 

assimilated into the body and contributes to its sustenance, the Eucharist 

is a different bread: It is not we who assimilate it, but it assimilates us, so 

that we become conformed to Jesus Christ, members of His body, one 

with Him. 

In a few lines, the Pope sketches out the potential ‘Eucharistic miracle’ which 

lies at the heart of the Catholic school. By living out these Eucharistic moments 

in our day-to-day tasks, the school environment which we create will be ever 

more assimilated to Christ: the values which we proclaim will be precisely 

those values of transformation which make the face, the heart, the love of 

Christ a lived reality in our midst. 

6

Firing on all cylinders: 

What makes an effective middle leader? 

Sam Baars, Meena Parameshwaran, Loic Menzies and Charleen Chiong 

2015-2016

Sam Baars is a Research Associate at LKMco. He has particular interests in youth research, 

area-based inequalities and social science impact, and has experience using a range of 

quantitative and qualitative methods, from film-based work in schools to rapid research 

reviews and large-scale survey analysis. Sam believes that robust, innovative social research 

is the key to tackling the barriers that prevent some young people from making fulfilling 

transitions to adulthood, and he channels this belief into a range of research projects at 

LKMco. Sam holds a PhD in Social Change from the University of Manchester. 

Meena Parameshwaran is a former Research Associate at LKMco. She is a sociologist with 

research interests in educational inequality, social class, ethnicity, and compositional 

effects. She is a quantitative researcher and has published work on identity, diversity and 

social cohesion. Meena has worked as a researcher at The Runnymede Trust and Teach 

First, and has held academic positions at the universities of Manchester and Oxford. She is a 

qualified maths teacher, school governor and student mentor, and is now a researcher at 

the FFT Education Datalab. She holds a PhD in Sociology from the University of Oxford. 

Loic Menzies is Director of LKMco, a Tutor for Canterbury Christ Church University’s Faculty 

of Education and a trustee of the charity Changemakers. He was previously Associate Senior 

Manager and Head of History and Social Sciences at St. George’s R.C. School in North West 

London. Before that he was a youth worker involved in youth participation and young 

person-led community projects. He now specialises in education policy, youth development, 

social enterprise and school-based teacher training. He holds a degree in Politics, 

Philosophy and Economics from Magdalen College, Oxford. 

Charleen Chiong is a Junior Researcher at LKMco whilst working on her PhD at the Faculty of 

Education, Cambridge University. Her PhD is exploring how the socio-cultural and political 

contexts of schooling in different countries shape learning opportunities for children of 

varying socio-economic backgrounds. Her interests span comparative education, children’s 

psycho-social well-being, social justice and educational inequality. She also holds a Masters 

in Comparative and International Education from Oxford University. 

This report was written by the education and youth development ‘think and action tank’ 

LKMco. LKMco is a social enterprise - we believe that society has a duty to ensure children 

and young people receive the support they need in order to make a fulfilling transition to 

adulthood. We work towards this vision by helping education and youth organisations 

develop, evaluate and improve their work with young people. We then carry out academic 

and policy research and advocacy that is grounded in our experience. 

www.lkmco.org.uk / @LKMco / info@lkmco.org 

This report was written for the education charity Teaching Leaders. Teaching Leaders’ 

mission is to address educational disadvantage by growing a movement of outstanding 

middle leaders in schools in challenging contexts. We design and deliver leadership 

development programmes for those leaders on the front line in the most challenging 

schools: middle leaders. Our high-potential and whole-school middle leader programmes 

transform the impact that leaders can make on pupil outcomes, retain them in their schools 

and build a talent pipeline for the future. 

www.teachingleaders.org.uk // @teachingleaders // enquiries@teachingleaders.org.uk // 

0203 846 5808 

2

Firing on all cylinders: 

What makes an effective middle leader? 

Contents 

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... 4 

Executive summary ................................................................................................................................ 5 

The research ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Findings ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 

Building blocks of effective middle leadership ................................................................................................................. 7 

1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 8 

2 Literature review .............................................................................................................................. 9 

2.1 Between two worlds: the role and priorities of middle leaders.............................................................................. 9 

2.2 The broad consensus from Ofsted and academic research .................................................................................. 10 

2.3 Personal characteristics and behaviours ............................................................................................................... 11 

2.4 Enabling factors and barriers ................................................................................................................................. 11 

2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................................................ 13 

3 Data and methods .......................................................................................................................... 14 

3.1 Stage 1 data and methods ..................................................................................................................................... 14 

3.2 Stage 2 data and methods ..................................................................................................................................... 15 

4 Findings .......................................................................................................................................... 17 

4.1 Stage 1 findings ...................................................................................................................................................... 17 

4.2 Stage 2 findings ...................................................................................................................................................... 25 

5 Summary and recommendations ..................................................................................................... 32 

6 Literature review references ........................................................................................................... 33 

Appendix 1 Online survey for fellows and alumni ............................................................................... 35 

Appendix 2 Interview schedule for middle leaders ............................................................................. 40 

Appendix 3 Interview schedule for colleagues .................................................................................... 41 

Appendix 4 Department meeting observation rubric .......................................................................... 42 

3

Foreword 

James Toop: Chief Executive Officer, Teaching Leaders 

Teaching Leaders believes that middle leaders are the key to closing the achievement 

between disadvantaged pupils and their peers. It matters much more who teaches you 

than which school you go to. 75% of the gap comes from variation in pupil performance 

within the same school. To close the gap, we need to reduce the variation within the 

school and the way we do that is through consistently excellent teaching and learning in 

every department of the school. It is our middle leaders, the engine room of the school, 

who deliver that. You cannot have a great school without great middle leadership. 

We commissioned LKMco to write this report because we wanted to get inside the ‘black box’ of middle leadership: 

to understand what the best middle leaders do to deliver maximum impact for pupils. By using the results of this 

report we can ensure middle leaders focus their time on the aspects of their role that deliver greatest impact and 

that our programmes disproportionately develop these skills. We were inspired by Doug Lemov’s “Teach Like A 

Champion” which has identified the key skills that teachers can practise and master. This report starts the same 

conversation about middle leadership. 

If we are to truly eradicate the inequity of outcomes in our education system, we need our best middle leaders firing 

on all cylinders. This report gets to the heart of what differentiates good from great middle leadership. 

4

Executive summary 

In this report we identify the behaviours, characteristics, enabling factors and barriers that 

contribute to or hinder a middle leaders’ success. 

Identifying these is crucial since, as Mike Cladingbowl 1 argues, leadership of teaching may have 

“the biggest single impact on standards” (2013: 5). 

The research 

The research was funded by Teaching Leaders and carried out by LKMco. It took place in two stages: the first drew 

on GCSE attainment data and combined this with data on the performance of 209 fellows according to the Teaching 

Leaders Leadership Competency Framework and survey responses from 123 Teaching Leaders fellows and alumni. 

Taking this large scale data as its starting point, the second stage involved more detailed qualitative analysis of data 

from interviews with twenty four teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders in eight schools. These elements were 

supplemented with a detailed literature review. 

Findings 

Stage one 

Factors affecting middle leaders’ effectiveness highlighted in stage one fell under three broad headings: 

1. Team and interpersonal 

Organisation, planning and resources 

3. Vision and purpose 

Two sets of factors were found to have a particular influence on middle leaders’ effectiveness: 

Effective middle leaders are particularly good at managing their team 

Departments that did particularly well relative to other departments in the same school (in terms of GCSE results) 

tended to be led by middle leaders who were rated particularly highly in terms of their ability to manage a team by 

their line managers. Meanwhile, when asked an open survey question about the personal characteristics and 

behaviours that helped make them effective, middle leaders also identified team competencies and team-level 

factors as some of the most important factors in underpinning their effectiveness. 

Effective middle leaders attach importance to planning and resource management 

Leaders of (relatively) high performing departments tended to attach particular importance to planning and resource 

management. It is notable that resource pressures were also one of the most commonly cited barriers to effective 

middle leadership. 

Stage two 

Detailed interviews with middle leaders, their line managers and those working in their departments backed up 

findings from stage one (relating to the particular importance of managing teams and resources) and added valuable 

detail. They also highlighted a third important area. 

Team and interpersonal 

Three characteristics and behaviours in this area were particularly salient: 

1. Being open, consultative and collaborative 

2. Communication and diplomacy 

3. Knowing, developing and building a team 


1 

Mike Cladingbowl was previously Ofsted’s national director for schools and is now Executive principal of Knutsford Multi-Academy Trust 

5

In terms of organisation, planning and resources, stage two highlighted the particular importance of ‘procedures and 

systems’ in ensuring that middle leaders were able to get the best out of their departments. 

Professional practice 

As well as underlining the importance of team-level factors and leaders’ organisation and management abilities, 

stage two also highlighted an additional set of behaviours and attitudes which we describe as ‘professional practice’ 

which includes being professionally informed and leading by example. 

Not everyone has the same perspective on middle leadership 

Stage two exposed subtle differences in the notions of ‘effective middle leadership’ between teachers in different 

roles. 

Teachers were more likely to focus on the importance of delegation whereas senior leaders focused more 

being results-driven. 

Middle leaders of relatively high performing departments were particularly likely to exhibit characteristics 

relating to being professionally informed and being bold, innovative and resourceful. 

6

Building blocks of effective middle leadership 

This report highlights 31 characteristics of effective middle leaders. Of those, the following appear to be particularly 

salient and distinctive to high performing middle leaders. That is not to say other features are not important, indeed, 

middle leaders may not be effective without those features too. However the following features stand out as being 

most pronounced amongst effective leaders. 

Team and 

interpersonal 

Communication and 

diplomacy 

Open, consultative 

and collaborative 

Knowing and 

developing a team 

Organisation, 

planning and 

resources 

Procedures and 

systems 

Informed and 

innovative 

Bold, innovative 

and resourceful 

Professionally 

informed 

7

1 Introduction 

“If England is to compete with the very best, then strong leadership is absolutely critical.” 

Ofsted 2012: 9 

Middle leaders are “those who have responsibility for leading subjects, key phases, pastoral care, or other aspects of 

the school’s work” (National College 2013: 5). The National College for Teaching and Leadership distinguishes 

between Middle Leadership and Senior Leadership by describing senior leaders as those who have broader, crossschool 

and whole-school responsibilities, while middle leaders have more specific, localised responsibilities within 

the school. Types of middle leadership roles include: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subject/curriculum leader; 

Head of key stage; 

Head of department; 

Pastoral leaders, for example, head of year or head of house; 

SENCO; 

Gifted and talented co-ordinator; 

Assessment co-ordinator, and 

Careers co-ordinator. 

NCTL 2013 

From nearly 25,000 inspections carried out between 2011 and 2012, Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector Sir Michael 

Wilshaw concluded most of Ofsted’s inspection findings were attributable to strengths and weaknesses found in the 

leadership of educational institutions (Ofsted 2012: 9). Cladingbowl argues that the leadership of teaching has “the 

biggest single impact on standards” (2013: 5) and that all of the most recent Ofsted subject survey reports 

emphasise the centrality of effective leadership in achieving success. While quality of teaching most strongly affects 

student motivation and achievement, it is the quality of leadership that influences the quality of teaching and 

teachers’ motivations. As such, effective leadership has an indirect yet powerful influence on school effectiveness 

(Fullan, 2001; Segiovanni, 2001). 

Much research has assumed the ‘great man’ theory of leadership, where ‘leadership’ is defined as headship of an 

entire system or school (Murphy, 2000). Recently, there has been increasing recognition that leadership more broadly 

defined, or ‘distributed leadership’, is the most powerful engine for change (Harris and Muijs, 2015). Consequently, 

there is a small but emerging literature on the role of middle leaders and the factors that influence their effectiveness. 

The next section of the report reviews this literature. 

8

2 Literature review 

There are many ways of framing what ‘effective middle leadership’ looks like. This section reviews the existing 

literature base and defines ‘effective middle leadership’ from four angles. These are: 

1) The role and priorities of middle leaders 

2) The broad consensus from Ofsted and academic research 

3) Personal characteristics of effective middle leaders 

4) Wider contextual factors behind effective middle leadership – what we call ‘enabling factors and barriers’ 

While these four angles have been drawn out from literature, it is crucial to recognise that the dispositions, skills and 

contexts that support effective middle leadership overlap and reinforce each other in complex ways. 

2.1 Between two worlds: the role and priorities of middle leaders 

2.1.1 The role of middle leaders 

While there is only a small existing base of academic literature on the role of middle leaders, think-pieces by leadership 

training organisations often describe the middle leader’s position as being caught in the ‘cross-fire’ between the 

expectations of different levels in the school hierarchy (NCSL, 2003; NCSL, 2013). The effectiveness of middle leaders 

hangs on their ability to navigate and negotiate these tensions (NCSL, 2013). For instance, tensions exist between: 

being active contributors to strategic and policy discussions, versus being merely implementers of policy 

(NCSL, 2013); 

spending time on administration and management, versus spending time teaching (NCSL, 2003); 

focusing on managing ‘upwards’ to senior management, versus managing ‘downwards’ with team members 

(NCSL, 2013); 

 

 

loyalty to the whole school, versus loyalty to their own department (Bennett et al, 2007), and 

line managing departmental colleagues and holding them to account, whilst retaining a collaborative team 

ethos (Bennett et al, 2007). 

Ambiguity stems from different views across schools on where middle leaders should position themselves in relation 

to these binaries. Some of these tensions have emerged from conflicts between the traditional role of middle leaders 

as advocates for their department, and external national policy pressures (such as from Ofsted) to take on a wholeschool 

focus (Bennett et al, 2007). 

Despite ambiguity and variation across schools, middle leaders overwhelmingly perceive their role to be ‘buffer and 

bridge’ (NCSL, 2003). In other words, middle leaders are responsible for the translation of school policies into practice. 

This involves forging and maintaining connections between their department and the wider school community by 

filtering external demands and representing their department’s needs and expectations (Harris and Muijs, 2015; NCSL, 

2003). Generally, terms such as ‘advocacy’ and ‘brokering’ are used in describing the job of middle leaders (Harris and 

Muijs, 2015; NCSL, 2003; Wise, 2001; Glover et al, 1999); middle leaders tend to be ‘mediators’ rather than 

‘originators’ of school culture and policy (NCSL, 2003; Adey, 2000). 

In addition to important management tasks, middle leaders also tend to have significant teaching commitments. They 

are “close to teaching and learning and may hold the greatest subject expertise” (NCSL 2013, p. 5). Beyond this, the 

following additional responsibilities of the middle leader are identified as: 

 

 

 

Curriculum management: maintaining an up-to-date understanding of developments in their subject, drawing 

up programs of work, decision-making concerning which resources to use and for which level, evaluating and 

improving the curriculum. 

Administration: creating orderly and secure environments for teaching to take place. 

Supervising and monitoring: monitoring colleagues for policy implementation, and consolidating and 

reporting on students’ assessment records to keep track of pupil performance. 

9

Cultures of professionalism: Role-modelling best practice to maintain professionalism in the field they 

oversee. 

NCSL, 2003 

2.1.2 Priorities of middle leaders 

One way of defining the middle leader’s role is by surveying their own assessments of their priorities, and the way 

they spend their time. Wise (1997) and Wise and Bush (1999) find that ‘teaching’ is identified as a top priority; Toop 

(2014) also suggests that middle leaders place high priority on the teaching and learning process, ranking “leading 

teaching and learning” as their second most important task. Wise’s (1997) study finds the ranking of priorities to be as 

follows: 

1) Teaching 

2) Managing the curriculum 

3) Implementation of school policy 

4) Supervising and monitoring colleagues to ensure policy is implemented 

5) Monitoring pupil records 

6) Whole-school planning 

Across the literature, the least prioritised functions tend to be staff development and liaising with agencies beyond 

the school (NCSL, 2003; Wise, 1997), and whole-school management (Toop, 2014). However, turning from middle 

leaders’ stated priorities to the ways in which they report spending their time, Toop (2014) found that the top three 

activities middle leaders spent the most time on were: 

1) Managing data 

2) Assessment 

3) Planning/resource management 

In terms of time priority, ‘leading teaching and learning’ came only fourth. Taken together, the academic literature on 

middle leadership – though limited – may reflect the growing impact of managerialism and accountability on middle 

leaders’ roles. 

2.2 The broad consensus from Ofsted and academic research 

Cladingbowl (2013), in a review of remarks on leadership in Ofsted reports, argues there is no single ‘best’ or formulaic 

way of achieving effective middle leadership. However, the literature does converge on five common features of 

effective middle leadership: 

1) Effective middle leaders have a clearly thought through, clearly communicated and ambitious vision (Ofsted, 

2013b; Ofsted, 2012; Bennett et al, 2003; Harris, Jamieson and Russ, 1995) and provide a “clear sense of 

direction and purpose” (Ofsted 2012) 

2) Vision-setting is underpinned by accurate and careful evaluations on areas for development (Ofsted, 2012). 

One Ofsted report alluded to “constructive use of performance data” and “well-developed assessment 

strategies as the foundation for good planning and realistic but aspirational target-setting” (Ofsted 2012, p. 

34). These evaluations were substantiated by: 

self-evaluations (Cladingbowl, 2013); 

a range of measures to closely monitor staff and student performance (Cladingbowl, 2013; Bennett et 

al, 2003); 

lesson observations (Ofsted 2013a); 

views of pupils, parents, staff, carers (Ofsted, 2013a), and 

a clear understanding of contemporary developments in their field (Cladingbowl, 2013) 

3) Effective middle leaders are both knowledgeable and enthusiastic about their field (Cladingbowl, 2013; 

Ofsted 2012). Robinson, Hopeha and Lloyd’s (2009) meta-analysis found that departmental leaders’ expertise 

10

in pedagogic methods related to their subject distinguished high-achieving schools from low-achieving schools 

that had similar student background characteristics 

4) Effective middle leaders encourage exploration and innovation, both in curriculum planning (Ofsted 2012) 

and amongst their team members (Cladingbowl 2013) 

5) Effective middle leaders are strong leaders. They have an ability to confidently delegate tasks as a ‘leading 

professional’ and build a culture of collegiality (Ofsted 2012), where there is frequent dialogue sharing 

professional information and best practice. This leads to professional development (Cladingbowl, 2013; Harris, 

Jamieson and Russ, 1995), the respect of staff (Rhodes et al, 2008) and high trust between colleagues (Harris, 

Jamieson and Russ, 1995) 

2.3 Personal characteristics and behaviours 

There is little existing research on the specific personal characteristics and behaviours behind effective middle 

leadership (Bennett et al, 2003). However, two prominent themes emerge from the literature: 

1) Effective middle leaders have strong relationships with their team members 

2) Effective middle leaders are both knowledgeable and able to implement their knowledge appropriately 

2.3.1 Relations with team members 

Rhodes, Brundrett and Nevill (2008) find a shared view between classroom teachers, subject leaders and head teachers 

that the most important characteristics of effective leaders are good people skills and good communication skills. 

Interpersonal and team-building skills are also seen as most important in studies by Bennett et al (2003) and Bennett 

(2006). Skilful management of human relationships leads to greater relational trust between team members 

(Robinson, Hohepa and Lloyd, 2009; Bennett et al, 2003) and consequently, an overall culture of innovation, 

collaboration and trust (Bennett et al, 2003). The ability to build relational trust is comprised not only of integrity and 

personal regard for others, but also competency in teaching and leading, as incompetence can lead to corrosion of 

relational trust (Robinson, Hohepa and Lloyd, 2009). A further component to relational trust is ‘openness’– that is, 

leaders tactfully but honestly sharing their views and encouraging teachers to raise concerns (Robinson, Hohepa and 

Lloyd, 2009). Rhodes et al. (2008) find that the skilful management of relationships is ranked most highly by all teachers 

and leaders as a characteristic of effective middle leadership. Related characteristics and behaviours, such as having 

the respect of teachers and pupils, is rated next most highly after good people and communication skills. 

2.3.2 Implementing knowledge 

A ‘pedagogical focus’ involves knowledge about effective pedagogy (i.e. how students learn and what quality teaching 

looks like), and the ability to implement this knowledge. Robinson, Hohepa and Lloyd (2009) find that generic leaderfollower 

relationships and a ‘pedagogical focus’ in leadership are closely related, but pedagogical focus – while not as 

frequently perceived by middle leaders to be important – leads to greater effect sizes on student outcomes than 

generic interpersonal skills. Underlying a ‘pedagogical focus’ is the ability to solve complex problems (i.e. possessing 

creative thinking and ‘cognitive flexibility’), and a willingness to seek external help where necessary (Robinson, Hohepa 

and Lloyd, 2009). 

2.4 Enabling factors and barriers 

The research base also considers how middle leaders’ effectiveness is shaped by factors beyond their own 

characteristics and behaviours. Relatively few studies have sought to account for contextual factors, and even fewer 

have sought to rank contextual factors in terms of importance. Nonetheless, the literature identifies five broad 

contextual factors: 

1) Head teachers and senior management team 

2) Institutional culture 

3) Team members 

4) Professional development 

11

5) Time pressures 

2.4.1 Head teachers and senior management 

NCSL’s (2004) overview of Ofsted inspection findings notes that the general “quality of leadership at a senior level has 

a strong influence on the quality of leadership at middle leader level” (p. 17). Failures of school-level leadership tend 

to percolate down to middle-level leaders. Hence, the NCSL (2004) recommends strengthening of relationships 

between head teachers, senior management and middle leaders, to allow the effective functioning of accountability 

and support for middle leaders. Thus, there are certain characteristics of senior management teams that are 

particularly important to cultivating effective middle leadership, namely: a collaborative culture and leadership style, 

and the extent to which expectations are clear (Bennett et al, 2003). 

2.4.2 Institutional culture 

Many studies argue that a ‘collaborative’ and ‘collegial’ culture is instrumental to effective leadership (Muijs and 

Harris, 2007); conversely, the inhibiting effect of strongly hierarchical structures (Bennett et al, 2003) and the 

dominance of ‘top-down’ leadership models in schools (rather than ‘dispersed leadership’) has been well-documented 

(Harris and Muijs, 2015). 

The precise definition of a ‘collaborative’ or ‘collegial’ culture varies across studies, however. On the one hand, some 

research points to the primacy of professional autonomy and value given to ideas of middle leaders, even to the extent 

that ‘collegiality’ is a term that actually implies freedom of speech and action, autonomy and individuality (Bennett et 

al, 2003). On the other, different studies emphasise the idea of collective responsibility and accountability. Robinson, 

Hohepa and Lloyd (2009) argue that a context of collective responsibility is critical in achieving school effectiveness 

for several reasons: 

1) Figuring out what works pedagogically is difficult and requires input of a team 

2) Students’ learning is contingent on what is learned not just in one class but across classes 

3) A sense of group responsibility is an unobtrusive, helpful way to build accountability 

On the whole, the literature argues that the optimal conditions for effective leadership is a context whereby there is 

a balance between building collective responsibility and maintaining a degree of openness and idea-sharing, 

underpinned by trust (Muijs and Harris, 2007). 

2.4.3 Team members 

Research persuasively suggests that departmental effectiveness depends crucially on the cohesiveness of the team 

(Bush, 2002; Harris, 1998). This is because middle leaders find their affirmation as leaders more often from teammembers, 

rather than from their formal title or position (Bennett et al, 2003; Bennett et al, 2007) or from heads and 

senior management (Bennett et al, 2007). 

2.4.4 Professional development 

The literature identifies that professional development can occur through both external means to the school (e.g. 

being part of a professional leadership network, attending workshops), and internal means (whether formal, such as 

mentoring, or informal, such as seeking advice from senior management). Mentoring and coaching can play a 

significant role in helping middle leaders gain confidence and knowledge in their leadership role (Muijs and Harris, 

2007). 

2.4.5 Time pressures 

The diversity and number of tasks and activities middle leaders are expected to handle places great time pressures on 

them (NCSL, 2013; Bush, 2002; Wise and Bush, 1999), and they often cite lack of time as one of the greatest problems 

in their role (NCSL, 2013; Bush, 2002). Bennett at al (2003) argue these time pressures are strongly related to policy 

pressures to perform, such as the National Curriculum and Ofsted inspection framework, which have both tightened 

the degree of departmental accountability, forming a hindrance to professional autonomy and thus effective 

leadership. 

12

2.5 Summary 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The role of an effective middle leader is not clear-cut and identical across schools. However, most middle 

leaders see their role as ‘buffer and bridge’ – as a mediator between senior management and their team 

members. 

While middle leaders see teaching and learning as of high importance, research suggests that most of their 

time is taken up by administration and management. 

Broadly, effective middle leaders tend to: 

o Have a clear, ambitious vision 

o Draw on careful evaluations of departmental needs and potential 

o Be knowledgeable and enthusiastic about their field 

o Encourage exploration and innovation 

o Be strong leaders who can build a collegial culture 

The two most important personal characteristics of effective middle leaders are an ability to build strong 

relationships with team members, and being knowledgeable and able to implement that knowledge 

appropriately in relevant contexts to achieve effective teaching and learning. 

Contextual factors that can help or hinder effective middle leadership include: 

o Characteristics of senior management teams 

o The nature of institutional culture 

o The supportiveness of their team members 

o Internal and external professional development 

o Time pressures. 

Contextual factors and personal characteristics, skills and dispositions interact in complex ways in producing 

an effective middle leader, and there is no one strict formula for effective middle leadership. 

13

3 Data and methods 

The research was conducted in two stages. Stage 1 was based on analysis of the Leadership Competency Framework 

(LCF) scores and survey responses of a sample of Teaching Leaders fellows and alumni, alongside departmental 

performance data. Stage 2 consisted of in-depth case studies based on interviews with a small sample of middle 

leaders and their colleagues. 

3.1 Stage 1 data and methods 

The first stage of the research had two aims. 

1. To generate some hypotheses about the characteristics, behaviours, enabling factors and barriers to 

effective middle leadership that could be investigated further during Stage 2 of the research. 

2. To identify a sample of the most effective middle leaders on the Teaching Leaders programme who could be 

studied in more detail during the second stage of the research. Analysis consisted of three components 

which are considered here in turn. 

3.1.1 Leadership Competency Framework scores 

Firstly we analysed 209 middle leaders’ Term 1 Leadership Competency Framework (LCF) scores, drawing on selfassessments 

and line manager assessments of competencies for middle leaders who are currently in a Head of 

Department role in a core subject and for whom we were able to calculate a 2013 relative department performance 

score (see section 2.1.3). Figure 1 and Figure 2 outline the composition of our sample by cohort and subject. We 

excluded the 2008 and 2009 cohorts from our analysis due to insufficient sample size. 

Figure 1 – Distribution of fellows by cohort 

Cohort year N= % 

2010 12 5.7 

2011 16 7.7 

2012 41 19.6 

2013 62 29.7 

2014 78 37.3 

209 

Figure 2 – Distribution of fellows by subject taught 

Subject taught N= % 

English 80 38.3 

Science 70 33.5 

Maths 59 28.2 

209 

Due to changes to the LCF between 2008 and 2014 we conducted separate analyses for the 2010-2013 cohorts and 

the 2014 cohort. Our analysis of the 2010-2013 cohort did not include line manager assessments for the 2010 cohort 

as this data was unavailable. 

3.1.2 Survey responses 

Secondly, we designed a survey to capture the views of Teaching Leaders fellows and alumni on: 

- the aspects of their role they feel are most important; 

- the activities they spend most time on; 

- the personal characteristics and behaviours they feel are most important to their effectiveness, and 

- the broader school- or system-level factors that help and hinder them in being effective. 

14

We received responses from 123 fellows and alumni, including subject leaders and pastoral leaders, and were able 

to match departmental performance scores to 49 of these respondents. We derived our ‘categories of activity’ from 

existing research conducted by Teaching Leaders 2 . The survey was administered online and the full text of the survey 

is provided in Appendix 1. 

3.1.3 Department-level performance data 

Finally, we used departmental performance data as a measure of middle leaders’ effectiveness by calculating a 

‘relative performance’ score for a given middle leader’s department. This relative performance measure compares 

the 2013 average points score for a given core department with the average of the points scores of the other two 

core departments in the same school in that year. By comparing the scores of core departments within the same 

school, our measure of departmental performance controls for pupil-level variation in order to attribute as much 

variation as possible to differences in middle leadership. 

Relative performance served two purposes in our Stage 1 analysis. 

1. We measured the association between departmental performance and different behaviours, characteristics, 

supporting factors and barriers. This allowed us to identify the factors that appear to be most strongly 

associated with effective middle leadership. We used individual identifiers to link LCF scores and survey 

responses to department performance data. 

2. We identified core departments led by a TL fellow with the highest relative performance, in order to compile 

a shortlist of ‘high performing’ middle leaders to approach for the case studies which constitute Stage 2 of 

the research. 

We screened selected middle leaders to ensure that those we approached had been in place on or before the 

2012/13 academic year in order to support some degree of inference between their leadership and the 

department’s relative performance. However, we acknowledge that this method of identifying high performing 

middle leaders has a range of limitations: 

- the performance of a department may be affected by the preceding middle leader, particularly where a 

change of middle leader has taken place relatively recently; 

- a department’s performance is affected by the quality of its teaching team as well as the middle leader in 

charge, and 

- a high or low relative performance may be more attributable to the performance of the other two core 

departments in a school than the performance of the core department in question. 

For these reasons, we used a department’s relative performance in 2013 as a starting point for our analysis and are 

suitably cautious when we draw any distinctions between our high performing and random sample. 

3.2 Stage 2 data and methods 

The second stage of the research set out to conduct a more detailed analysis of the personal characteristics, 

behaviours, enabling factors and barriers to effective middle leadership identified in the first stage of the research. 

Ranking Teaching Leaders fellows and alumni by their 2013 relative departmental performance, we identified two 

sets of middle leaders: one containing the highest performing middle leaders and one containing a random sample 

of the remaining fellows and alumni in our data. We conducted case studies with four teachers from the high 

performing set and four from the random sample. Case studies consisted of semi-structured, face-to-face interviews 

and in order to triangulate to the fullest extent they included: 

- the middle leader; 

- a senior leader with responsibility for the middle leader, and 

- a teacher within the middle leader’s department. 

2 

Toop, J (2014) The Changing Face of Middle Leadership. Available at: 

http://www.cfbt.com/~/media/CfBTCorporate/Files/Resources/inspiring-leadership-2014/workshop-James-Toop-Middle-leadership-ischanging.pdf 

[Accessed 1st September 2015] 

15

Where possible, we also conducted an observation of a departmental meeting led by a middle leader. Interview 

schedules were designed to explore teachers’ views of the key features of effective middle leadership as well as 

the behaviours and characteristics of the particular Teaching Leader fellow. 

Interview schedules and meeting observations were structured around a core set of themes based on the three 

broad types of behaviours and characteristics identified in the first stage of the research. However, they were 

also designed to highlight any additional behaviours or characteristics, enabling factors and barriers not 

identified in our stage 1 analysis. Interviews lasted an average of 22 minutes and were recorded, transcribed and 

analysed in NVivo. Interview schedules and a meeting observation rubric are provided in Appendixes 2 to 4. 

16

4 Findings 

4.1 Stage 1 findings 

Our analysis of LCF data and the responses to our survey identified a wide range of factors that appear to facilitate 

effective middle leadership including particular competencies, priorities, activities, individual characteristics and 

behaviours, as well as wider supporting and hindering factors both inside and outside of school. Drawing together 

insights from all our first stage findings three particular elements stand out: 

1. The relationship between middle leaders and their team 

Line managers’ assessments of middle leaders’ team competencies correlate significantly with a 

department’s relative performance. Meanwhile team competencies and team-level factors were also 

identified by middle leaders as one of the most important factors underpinning their effectiveness. 

2. Planning and resource management 

The level of importance middle leaders attach to planning and resource management correlates 

significantly with relative departmental performance, and effective middle leaders tended to report that 

they spend a large proportion of their time on this element of their role. Meanwhile, resource pressures 

were one of the most commonly cited barriers to effective middle leadership in our survey. 

3. Performance management 

Although the level of priority middle leaders attach to performance management appears to be 

significantly correlated with their department’s relative performance, in general middle leaders attach 

only a middling level of priority, and relatively little time, to this aspect of their role. 

4.1.1 Leadership Competency Framework (LCF) analysis 

Line managers’ assessments of fellows’ organisation, personal characteristics, behaviours and team competencies 

were significantly correlated with their department’s relative performance and the two strongest predictors of a 

department’s relative performance were the ‘behaviours’ and ‘team’ competencies. Other factors from the LCF were 

not significantly correlated with relative departmental performance. 

We analysed the correlations between line manager and self-assessed LCF scores and department-level performance 

for the 2010-13 and 2014 cohorts. The only significant correlations were attached to line manager-assessed factors 

from the 2014 cohort, as outlined in Figure 3. Of the 2014 LCF competencies we found to have the strongest 

correlation with departmental performance, all were significant at the .05 level. We cannot reliably infer a causal link 

between 2014 LCF scores and relative departmental performance, in part because our measure of performance is 

taken from the preceding year. As a result, the analysis here is best interpreted as an indication of the LCF 

competencies that appear to be linked most strongly with a department’s performance. 

17

Figure 3 - Summary of LCF elements significantly correlated with department performance 

Cohort Factor Correlation with department performance (r) Significance 

2014 Line manager: ‘organisation’ .346 .013 

2014 Line manager: ‘personal characteristics’ .300 .032 

2014 Line manager: ‘behaviours’ .365 .009 

2014 Line manager: ‘team’ .467 .001 

The ‘team’ competency has the strongest correlation with department performance, and this association is 

illustrated in Figure 4. The correlation is moderate-to-strong, and just over a fifth of the variation in departmental 

performance can be accounted for by line managers’ assessments of this competency. 

Figure 4 - Scatterplot of departmental performance by line manager’s assessment of 2014 LCF 'Team' competency 

The ‘behaviours’ competency has the second strongest correlation with departmental performance. The correlation 

is moderate in strength, and as Figure 5 shows, line managers’ assessments of this competency account for just over 

13% of the variation in middle leaders’ departmental performance. 

18

Figure 5 – Scatterplot of departmental performance by line manager’s assessment of 2014 LCF ‘Behaviours’ competency 

4.1.2 Survey analysis 

4.1.2.1 Middle leaders’ assessments of the importance of different aspects of their role 

The survey of middle leaders revealed that respondents considered setting vision and direction and leading teaching 

and learning to be the most important aspects of their role. Meanwhile, the level of importance middle leaders 

placed on managing data, planning/resource management, performance management, and leading literacy were all 

significant predictors of how well their department performed compared to the other core departments in their 

school. 

The survey revealed a clear gradient in middle leaders’ assessments of the importance of different elements of their 

role. As Figure 6 shows, while three quarters of respondents felt leading teaching and learning and setting vision and 

direction were very important, fewer than one in five placed this level of importance on leading outside school and 

using research/evidence. 

19

Figure 6 - Middle leaders' assessments of the importance of different aspects of their role 

We used analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the association between the performance of middle leaders’ 

departments and the importance they placed on different elements of their role. The variation in four of these 

elements was significantly associated with departmental performance, as shown in Figure 7. Of course, we cannot 

reliably infer a causal link between these self-reported priorities and departmental performance and, in any case, 

this causation could flow both ways: for instance it may be that prioritising data management lays the foundation for 

stronger departmental performance, or on the other hand, that stronger departmental performance allows middle 

leaders to focus less on front-line activities such as lesson observations, and re-allocate their time to activities such 

as managing data. 

Figure 7 – Middle leaders’ self-reported priorities with a significant association with departmental performance 

Factor: importance of… Proportion of relative dept. performance explained (eta 2 ) Significance 

Managing data 22% .011 

Planning/resource management 20% .016 

Performance management 21% .014 

Leading literacy 21% .033 

20

4.1.2.2 Middle leaders’ time use 

Not all middle leaders divide up their time in the same way but the activities that survey respondents generally spend 

most time on are assessment/APP and planning/resource management. In comparison, middle leaders generally 

reported spending the least time on leading outside school, lesson observations and feedback and performance 

management. Time spent on self-evaluation was one area of activity that appeared to be strongly correlated with a 

department’s relative performance. 

In the same way that middle leaders value different activities to different extents, there is also a clear gradient in 

how much time they allocate to different activities in an average week. As Figure 8 shows, while around four in ten 

respondents told us they spent more than four hours a week on assessment/APP and planning/resource 

management, less than 3% reported spending this much time on leading outside school and lesson observations and 

feedback. 

One observation appears to stand out here: although the level of priority middle leaders attached to performance 

management appears to be significantly correlated with their department’s relative performance, in general this is 

an area that is of only middling importance to Heads of Department and they spend relatively little time on it. 

Figure 8 – Time spent on middle leadership activities 

We assessed the association between relative departmental performance and differences in the amount of time 

they dedicated to different parts of their role. The only factor to be significantly associated with departmental 

performance was the amount of time spent on self-evaluation. This association was strongly significant, and 

accounted for around 30% of the variation in departmental performance. 

21

Figure 9 - Fellows' self-reported behaviours with a significant association with departmental performance 

Factor: time spent on… Proportion of relative dept. performance explained (eta 2 ) Significance 

Self-evaluation 30% .003 

4.1.2.3 Enabling behaviours, characteristics, factors and barriers 

When asked an open question about the personal characteristics and behaviours that helped make them effective 

Fellows were most likely to identify communication skills and relationships with their team. When it came to factors 

inside and outside school that helped them be effective middle leader a supportive team and broader professional 

network, alongside effective lines of communication were considered most important. Conversely, time and resource 

pressures were considered the most important barriers to success. 

Free-text elements of the survey enabled us to identify the themes most commonly raised by middle leaders in 

relation to: 

the personal characteristics or behaviours that help to make them an effective middle leader; 

the factors inside or outside school that help them to be an effective middle leader, and 

the factors inside or outside school that hinder them from being an effective middle leader 

These themes are summarised in Figure 10, 

22

Figure 11 and Figure 12. 

Figure 10 - Enabling characteristics and behaviours identified in survey responses 

Theme Number of responses 3 Examples 

Communication skills 

Communication 16 

Clear/effective lines of communication with other staff 

Supporting your team 

Engaging your team 

Team 14 

Knowing your team; being approachable 

Having a good relationship with your team 

Leading by example 12 

Instilling vision 

Vision 11 

Setting vision 

Having clear strategic direction 

3 

123 total respondents. Some middle leaders identified more than one factor in their responses. 

23

Figure 11 - Enabling factors inside and outside school identified in survey responses 

Theme Number of responses Examples 

Having a strong/hard working team 

Team 20 

Support from department team and senior leadership 

A team that shares the middle leader’s vision and values 

Good communication with other departments, middle leaders 

Communication 17 

and senior leadership team 

Clear communication of goals and expectations 

Supportive line manager/SLT 

Peer support 

Support 17 

Effective admin support 

Supportive family and friends 

External support and training 

Time to reflect and plan 

Time with departmental team 

Time 14 

CPD time 

A reduced teaching timetable 

Time management skills 

Clear school vision from Head/SLT (vision from above) 

Vision 10 

Working with staff who share my vision (vision from below) 

Figure 12 - Hindering factors inside and outside of school identified in survey responses 

Theme Number of responses Examples 

Lack of time in general 

Lack of time with team 

Time 73 

Teaching/marking/timetabled workload leaves little time for middle 

leadership tasks 

Time spent on admin/evidencing practice 

Lack of experience/initiative/motivation from colleagues (human 

Resources 49 

resources) 

Lack of funding (financial resources) 

Micromanagement/lack of autonomy/opportunities to be creative 

Inconsistent behaviour management 

Management 18 

Poor line management 

Time management skills 

Government-led changes to curriculum and assessment 

Change 17 

Changes to school policy and procedures 

Colleagues’ unwillingness to change 

24

4.2 Stage 2 findings 

Thirty-one specific factors were identified which appeared to shape middle leaders’ effectiveness. These factors 

broadly align with those identified in Stage 1. Three of the factors that appeared to be particularly important related 

to the ‘team and interpersonal’ set of behaviours and characteristics, namely: 

being open, consultative and collaborative; 

communication and diplomacy, and 

knowing, developing and building a team. 

A fourth crucial factor- procedures and systems, falls within the ‘organisation, planning and resources’ set of 

behaviours and characteristics. These findings therefore broadly corroborate findings from stage 1 by highlighting 

the role of team-level factors as and those related to organisation and management. However, an additional area 

was also identified that can be described as ‘professional practice’. 

Case studies allowed detail to be added to these broad categories and also shed light on a range of additional factors 

that were not identified in Stage 1. They also highlighted subtle differences in the notions of ‘effective middle 

leadership’ between different types of teacher. 

In order to provide a broad guide for our case studies, we grouped together the variety of factors identified in 

section 3.1 and distilled these into three broad themes which formed the basis of our interviews and observations. 

Figure 13 summarises this process. 

Figure 13 – Distillation of Stage 1 themes into Stage 2 themes 

25

4.2.1 Overview of the factors identified by the case studies 

Analysis of the 24 case study interviews and two departmental meeting observations identified 31 specific factors 

shaping middle leaders’ effectiveness. Whilst these factors largely mapped onto the three-part framework of 

behaviours and characteristics, an additional set of behaviours and characteristics - broadly clustered around the 

notion of ‘professional practice’ also arose from the case studies. Figure 14 summarises the final set of 31 factors. 

Figure 14 - Behaviours, characteristics, supporting and hindering factors identified by the case studies 

Behaviours and 

characteristics 

Supporting factors 

Hindering factors 

Vision and purpose 



Professional practice 

Results driven 

Personal ambition 

High standards 

Moral purpose 

Consistency 

Know, develop and build 

Communication and diplomacy 

Managing up 

Open, consultative and collaborative 

Motivating demeanour 

Assertive 

Delegating 

Bold/innovative/resourceful 

Forward-looking/strategic 

Oversight and monitoring/holding to 

account 

Procedures and systems 

Teaching expertise 

Leading by example 

Professionally informed 

Personal development/growth 

mindset 

Supportive SLT 

Strong departmental team 

Professional networks 

Community/parents 

Curriculum and accountability 

measures 

Time constraints/workload 

School policies 

Pressure of being a core department 

Funding 

Teacher supply 

Administrative burden 

The factors we have distilled here, from both stages of the research, clearly map onto those identified in the existing 

literature (see section 2.2). Some of the factors identified in the literature, such as establishing vision and leading 

people, map onto the broad ‘sets’ of behaviours and characteristics we have identified in the middle column of 

Figure 14. Meanwhile we found that other factors identified in the literature, such as teaching expertise and 

monitoring and evaluation, arose in our case studies as specific sub-factors, identified in the right hand column of 

Figure 14. 

26

4.2.2 Principal factors identified in the case studies 

4.2.2.1 Team and interpersonal 

Three of the four most frequently cited factors fell within the ‘team and interpersonal’ set of behaviours and 

characteristics, reflecting the existing literature on effective middle leadership (see section 2.3). The three specific 

factors we identified here were: 

1. being open, consultative and collaborative; 

2. communication and diplomacy, and 

3. knowing, developing and building a team 

In this section we explore these in more detail. 

i) Being open, consultative and collaborative 

All twenty four interviews made reference to this factor when considering what made specific middle leaders 

effective, and eleven made reference to it when considering effective middle leadership in general. Interviewees 

identified three main dimensions to this factor. Firstly, teachers argued that effective middle leaders make 

themselves available to other staff – particularly those in their team. 

“A door is always open and even if they are facing that way answering 100 emails in a morning then they’re very 

open to spinning the chair around to anybody who comes in.” 

Secondly, interviewees said that effective middle leaders consult their team when making decisions. This behaviour 

was often mentioned when we asked teachers how issues were dealt with in their department, and how vision was 

set. As one teacher explained: 

“You always feel consulted, you always feel like you’re always communicating ideas and they take those on-board 

for you to discuss if you feel like something’s wrong. You definitely find them approachable enough to actually 

voice those concerns and then we discuss it and then if it’s something for the benefit of the department or like I 

said, the vision or the goals, then we implement those changes.” 

A number of our interviewees also explained how effective middle leaders consult with pupils and staff in order to 

identify issues within their department. One middle leader described how this consultation can consist of everyday 

informal conversations, as well as more structured tools: 

“I want to know how people feel in my department, both the teachers and the students. Both formally and 

informally I’ll survey students and teachers so I can get feedback on how things are going; if we make a change or 

just an annual survey.” 

Finally, the teachers highlighted effective middle leaders’ collaborative style of working. This was most often cited in 

relation to the way in which effective middle leaders work with those in other departments to share systems, 

resources and insights about the pupils they teach. As one middle leader explained: 

“I’m now at the stage where I’m sharing that out with other heads of department that I think would benefit… I get 

a knock on the door about five or six times a week – “Please can you help?” – which is really nice, it’s really nice 

because we’re all working with the same children.” 

ii) Communication and diplomacy 

Twenty interviews made reference to this factor when considering specific middle leaders, and twelve made 

reference to it when considering effective middle leadership in general. The first dimension to this factor is a middle 

leader’s ability to communicate effectively. One teacher explained that communication was vital in ensuring a team 

understands the rationale behind day-to-day decisions: 

27

“You can justify why you do certain changes or implement certain things because that’s when you have your team 

behind you, when they know you’re doing something for a certain reason.” 

Meanwhile, a middle leader at a different school explained how, in their view, establishing vision and purpose is 

impossible without effective communication: 

“I think being able to say to people, remind them why we’re doing it which is for the pupils. So I think you have 

to… convey that sense of purpose and I’d like to think that in our department, that’s what we, as a team, we are 

quite focused on delivering excellent results for our students.” 

The second aspect of this factor – diplomacy – captures a specific way in which our interviewees felt effective middle 

leaders communicate. As one senior leader explained it is “the ability to have difficult conversations with people 

without alienating them.” In a number of interviews teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders alike emphasised 

that crucial activities such as giving feedback, managing up and reviewing performance relied on a middle leader’s 

ability to be diplomatic. 

iii) Knowing, developing and building a team 

Twenty interviewees made reference to this factor when considering specific middle leaders, and twelve made 

reference to it when considering effective middle leadership in general. The first aspect of this factor centres around 

how well middle leaders know their team – primarily in terms of their skills and strengths, but also in terms of any 

difficulties they may be experiencing inside and outside of school. As one middle leader explained, knowing their 

team is central to deploying staff efficiently and ensuring the department is makes the best use of its human 

resources: 

“I think it’s about knowing your team members, knowing their strengths and weaknesses and being able to 

develop them and know who’s suitable for what task so you can get the best out of each one.” 

Meanwhile another middle leader felt a key component of their effectiveness was their ability to provide support, 

inspiration and challenge to their team members at just the right times, and that this relies on “being perceptive” 

and “understanding how they are feeling”: 

“If someone is particularly stressed, knowing to go and support, if someone is feeling de-motivated, knowing that 

you need to kind of inspire them in some way. Or if someone is feeling a bit complacent, giving them 

responsibilities so they feel stretched and challenged. So I think understanding people and how they work is one of 

my strengths.” 

The second aspect of this factor was voiced by a number of senior leaders who felt that effective middle leaders 

develop their team as part of their succession planning. In this respect effective middle leaders are responsible for 

supporting ambitious teachers into middle and senior leadership, for instance by delegating responsibility and 

making sure teachers within the department do not become fixed in their roles. 

The final aspect of this factor captures the broader sense in which an effective middle leader builds a ‘sense of team’ 

within their department. As one senior leader commented: 

“They sit in that office, they eat together, they work together, they plan together, it’s a very strong unit and that’s 

about [the middle leader].” 

A teacher at a different school explained how their middle leader has built a cohesive team by recruiting carefully, 

seeking new members of staff who “buy into the team ethos and want to be part of the team.” One middle leader 

emphasised that this team-building function, if carried out poorly, can lead to a department becoming insular and 

28

weakening its relationship with the wider school. From the interviews it appears the most effective middle leaders 

can build a team in a way that fosters close collegiate relationships within their department, without hampering 

their ability to collaborate with other departments and ‘manage up’. 

4.2.2.2 Organisation, planning and resources 

The fourth most frequently cited factor – procedures and systems – falls within the ‘organisation, planning and 

resources’ set of behaviours and characteristics. 

Procedures and systems 

Twenty one interviews made reference to this factor when considering specific middle leaders, and fourteen made 

reference to it when considering effective middle leadership in general. Broadly, this factor captures the importance 

of having good organisational skills and time management – a recurring theme in the majority of interviews. 

However, three more specific elements of this aspect of effective middle leadership emerged during the interviews. 

Firstly, a number of interviewees felt that effective middle leaders had to have good systems for managing data. One 

middle leader explained that they had introduced automated systems for analysing data within the department – 

cutting the workload for their staff and ensuring data was gathered in a uniform format for analysis. A senior leader 

at a different school explained how managing data in this way was the key to allowing middle leaders to “know what 

they’ve got to do for very specific children.” 

Secondly, a number of middle leaders and senior leaders emphasised the importance of having procedures in place 

for overseeing the department’s day-to-day activity and holding staff to account. As one senior leader explained: 

“It’s okay to have the vision… but you’ve got to get people doing things that are important at the right time… 

planning lessons, delivering lessons within a structure… making sure that people are following behavioural 

systems, that if there’s a particular methodology to how things should be taught, they’re following that, checking 

up on that. But also getting people marking the books, you know, getting people doing the things around routines 

that are vitally important to the running of the school.” 

Finally, the interviews drew attention to the way in which systems and procedures established by the middle leader 

help to free up time for their department teachers so they can focus their efforts on supporting students. This was 

clear when one teacher explained how their middle leader had coordinated a coursework day: 

“It was all just organised. We didn’t really have to think about it. It was just done. So we were all able to go in 

there, it’s all organised by [the middle leader] so we were just able to go in there and deliver the coursework day 

for the students so that they could just get on with their exams.” 

4.2.3 Specific and abstract notions of effective middle leadership 

On balance there do not appear to be any systematic differences between interviewees’ abstract and specific notions 

of an effective middle leader: that is, the factors that were considered to make the middle leaders in our sample 

effective appear to broadly align with the factors that are considered to make for effective middle leadership in 

general. 

The interviews were designed to identify whether teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders identified different 

aspects of effective middle leadership depending on whether they were considering ‘what an effective middle leader 

looks like’ in the abstract, or the question of ‘how a specific middle leader in my school is effective’. The four factors 

discussed in section 3.2.2 appeared most frequently in both interviewees’ ‘abstract’ and ‘specific’ notions of an 

effective middle leader. 

Nonetheless, some factors were relatively more likely to be identified when we asked about the abstract notion of 

an effective middle leader, such as being results-driven and having a motivating demeanour. Meanwhile, some 

factors were more likely to be identified when interviewees were asked about specific middle leaders within schools, 

29

such as being forward-looking/strategic and being professionally informed. However, on balance there do not 

appear to be any systematic differences between interviewees’ abstract and specific notions of an effective middle 

leader. 

4.2.4 Variation by role 

Interview data suggests that teachers tend to be more likely to see effective middle leaders as those who can 

delegate, while senior leaders tend to be more likely to see effective middle leaders as results-driven. The data also 

suggest that middle leaders are more likely than teachers and senior leaders to identify factors that hinder and 

support their effectiveness 

Two main differences emerged between the factors identified by teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders during 

the interviews. Firstly, senior leaders appeared to be more likely than middle leaders and teachers to define effective 

middle leaders as results-driven. Meanwhile, teachers appeared to be more likely than middle and senior leaders to 

identify the delegating role of middle leaders as significant to their effectiveness. These patterns are a plausible 

reflection of senior leaders’ ultimate responsibility for their school’s results, and teachers’ desire for professional 

autonomy. 

Secondly, middle leaders appeared to be more likely to identify factors that hinder and support their effectiveness. 

Five of these factors were identified in half or more of the interviews with middle leaders, with time 

constraints/workload mentioned in all eight of our interviews with middle leaders. Meanwhile, the majority of these 

factors were identified by only one or two of the interviews with senior leaders, and one or none of the interviews 

with teachers. At face value this is not a surprising finding: middle leaders are more likely to identify the factors that 

hinder and support them in their role as they encounter these factors on a daily basis. However, it does suggest that 

teachers, and perhaps more importantly senior leaders, are not as alive to these barriers and supports as they could 

be. 

4.2.5 Variation by departmental performance 

Our case studies suggest that the highest performing middle leaders appear to be more likely to engage with 

developments in research and policy, and to be bold and innovative – often using research evidence to trial new 

teaching methods. 

As outlined in section 3.2, we divided our case studies evenly between schools with a middle leader whose 

departmental performance was relatively high compared to the other core departments in their school, and those 

drawn from a random sample of the remaining middle leaders in our dataset. Despite the caveats to our approach to 

identifying these ‘high performing’ and ‘random sample’ middle leaders which we outline in section 3.1.3, we did 

observe some differences in the propensity with which themes emerged between the two types of case study. The 

greatest differences related to being professionally informed (mentioned in 9 interviews from the high performing 

sample and 1 interview from the random sample) and being bold, innovative and resourceful (mentioned in 8 

interviews from the high performing sample, and 2 interview from the random sample). 

In our analysis, being ‘professionally informed’ captures the way in which middle leaders keep up to date with 

research and policy, from changes to accountability measures to pedagogical developments and academic research 

in their field. As one middle leader from our high performing sample described: 

“I’m very interested in the wider picture… keeping abreast of research and policy changes and just the general 

kind of what’s going on in education nationally at the moment and I do that through, mainly online actually 

through Twitter and blogs and things like that. That’s a really big thing for me, keeping abreast of current issues.” 

Meanwhile, being ‘bold, innovative and resourceful’ covers a range of activities, from trialling new teaching methods 

to seeking grant funding to support extra curricular opportunities. A senior leader we interviewed highlighted how 

being professionally informed and being bold, innovative and resourceful are closely related. When their middle 

30

leader wanted to introduce mixed ability setting, they presented “firm evidence… a huge amount of research” to 

make the case for the change, which has since led to improvements in pupils’ attainment. Both the middle leader 

and their line manager explained how, without the weight of research evidence, it would have been harder to see 

the justification for taking this risk. In short, being professionally informed can provide a foundation for being bold 

and innovative. 

While these dimensions of middle leadership do appear to provide the biggest distinction between the ‘high 

performing’ middle leaders in our data and those we sampled randomly, we cannot infer that they are necessary 

features of being an effective middle leader – merely that being professionally informed and bold, innovative and 

resourceful appeared to be more commonplace among the higher performing middle leaders in our data. 

4.2.6 Drawing together the findings from Stage 1 and Stage 2 

Taken together, the findings from the second stage of the research appear to broadly corroborate those from the 

first stage in two main ways. Firstly, the team-level factors whose significance was established in Stage 1 were also 

found to be significant in the teacher, middle leader and senior leader interviews. Secondly, factors related to 

organisation and management – also identified as significant in Stage 1 – were also found to be significant in the 

second stage of the research. 

The case studies help to unpack and add detail to the broad groupings of behaviours and characteristics. In relation 

to ‘team and interpersonal factors’ the most important elements appear to be: 


communicating effectively; 

being diplomatic, and 


Meanwhile in relation to ‘organisation, planning and resources’, the most significant factor appears to be the use of 

procedures and systems. 

As well as supporting the broad thrust of the first stage of the research, our case studies also shed light on a range of 

additional factors that were not identified in Stage 1. Some of these appeared more frequently than others in the 

interviews, such as: 

being results-driven; 

having a motivating demeanour; 

being forward-looking and strategic; 

being professionally informed/using research evidence; 

having a supportive SLT, and 

being embedded in professional networks both within and beyond school. 

Finally, the case studies suggest that although there is a relatively tight consensus surrounding the factors that make 

an effective middle leader there is a small degree of variation according to interviewees’ role, with teachers focusing 

on the importance of delegation and senior leaders focusing on the importance of being results-driven. In addition, 

leaders of relatively high performing departments appeared to be more likely to be professionally informed and 

bold, innovative and resourceful. 

31

5 Summary and recommendations 

This report set out to identify the behaviours, characteristics, enabling factors and barriers that contribute to the 

success of middle leaders on the Teaching Leaders Fellows programme. The research consisted of two stages. 

The first stage of the research combined data on relative departmental performance with Teaching Leaders 

Fellows’ Leadership Competency Framework (LCF) scores and their responses to a survey in order to identify 

broad sets of factors that appear to be associated with particularly effective middle leaders. The second stage 

was based on twenty four interviews with teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders in eight schools, which set 

out to explore the factors identified in the first stage of the research in more detail. 

The first stage of the research identified two broad sets of factors that appear to influence middle leaders’ 

effectiveness: 

the relationship between middle leaders and their team, and 

planning and resource management 

The second stage of the research built on these findings. We identified 31 specific factors that shape middle 

leaders’ effectiveness, with each of these factors mapping clearly onto those identified in existing research. Four 

factors appeared to be particularly significant. Three fell within the ‘team and interpersonal’ set of behaviours 

and characteristics, reflecting the findings of existing research. These factors were: 


communication and diplomacy, and 


The fourth factor – procedures and systems – fell within the ‘organisation, planning and resources’ set of 

behaviours and characteristics. 

The findings from the second stage of the research largely corroborated those from the first stage, particularly in 

emphasising the importance of team and interpersonal factors and those relating to organisation and 

management. However, the case studies added further detail and nuance. They revealed additional, specific 

factors that appear to be related to middle leaders’ effectiveness. The data from our case studies suggest that 

two of these factors – being professionally informed and being bold, innovative and resourceful – seem to 

feature more prominently with middle leaders in relatively high performing departments. Alongside strong team 

management and organisational skills, particularly effective middle leaders engage with research and policy and 

using this as a basis for driving innovation within their departments. 

32

6 Literature review references 

Adey, K. (2000). Professional Development Priorities: The views of Middle Managers in Secondary Schools. 

Educational Management and Administration, 28(4), 419-431 

Bennett, N., Woods, P., Wise, C., & Newton, W. (2007). Understandings of middle leadership in secondary schools: a 

review of empirical research. School Leadership & Management, 27(5), 453–470 

Bush, T. (2002). Middle Level Leaders Think-Piece. Nottingham: National College for School Leadership 

Cladingbowl, M. (2011). The key role of middle leaders – an Ofsted perspective. Teaching Leaders Quarterly, 3(13) 

Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a Culture of Change. San Francisco: Jossey Bass 

Glover, D., Miller, D. Gambling, M., Gough, G. & Johnson, M. (1999). As Others See Us: Senior management and 

subject staff perceptions of the work effectiveness of subject leaders in secondary schools. School Leadership and 

Management, 19(3), 331-344 

Harris, A., Jamieson, I., & Russ, J. (1995). A study of “effective” departments in secondary schools. School 

Organisation, 15(3), 283–299 

Harris, A. and Muijs, D. (2003). Teacher Leadership: A Review of Research. Retrieved 11 November 2015 from: 

http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/8139 

Hohepa, M., & Lloyd, C. (2009). School leadership and student outcomes: Identifying what works and why. Summary 

of the Best Evidence Synthesis (BES) conducted nby Viviane Robinson, Margie Hohepa and Clair Lloyd. Coventry: 

CUREE 

Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2007). Teacher Leadership in (In)action: Three Case Studies of Contrasting Schools. 

Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(1), 111–134 

National College for School Leadership [NCSL]. (2013). Leadership Curriculum. Nottingham: NCSL 

National College for School Leadership [NCSL]. (2003). The role and purpose of middle leaders in schools. 

Nottingham: NCSL 

National College for School Leadership [NCSL]. (2004). Tackling within school variation: a leading practice seminar 

report. Nottingham: NCSL 

National College for Teaching & Leadership [NCTL]. (2013). International Programme for Middle Leaders: delivery 

partner prospectus. Manchester: NCTL 

Ofsted. (2012). Moving English Forward. London: Ofsted 

Ofsted. (2013a). Getting it right first time: Achieving and maintaining high-quality early years. London: Ofsted 

Ofsted (2013b). Not yet good enough: personal, social, health and economic education in schools. London: Ofsted 

33

Rhodes, C., Brundrett, M., & Nevill, A. (2008). Leadership Talent Identification and Development: Perceptions of 

Heads, Middle Leaders and Classroom Teachers in 70 Contextually Different Primary and Secondary Schools in 

England. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 36(3), 311–335. 

Robinson, V., Hohepa, M., & Lloyd, C. (2009). School Leadership and Student Outcomes: Identifying What Works and 

Why. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Education. 

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1999). Refocusing Leadership to Build Community. The High School Magazine, September 1999, 

12-15. 

Toop, J. (2014). The Changing Face of Middle Leadership. London: Teaching Leaders. 

Wise, C. (1998). The Role of the Academic Middle Manager in Secondary Schools. Retrieved 11 November 2015 from 

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000470.htm 

Wise, C. (2001). The Monitoring Role of the Academic Middle Manager in Secondary Schools. Educational 

Management and Administration, 29(3), 333-341 

Wise, C. & Bush, T. (1999). From Teacher to Manager: The role of the academic middle manager in secondary 

schools. Educational Research, 41(2), 183-195 

34

Appendix 1 

Online survey for fellows and alumni 

35

36

37

38

39

Appendix 2 

Interview schedule for middle leaders 

#" Question" Probes" 

1" In"your"opinion,"what"does"an"effective"middle"leader"look"like?" Vision"and"purpose" 

Organisation"and"resources" 

Team"and"interpersonal" 

2" What"personal"characteristics"and"behaviours"help"you"to"be"an"effective" Vision"and"purpose" 

middle"leader?" 



3" What"factors"inside"and"outside"of"school"help"you"to"be"an"effective" Vision"and"purpose"(of"others)" 

middle"leader?" 


Team"and"interpersonal"" 

4" What"factors"inside"and"outside"of"school"hinder"you"from"being"an" Vision"and"purpose" 

effective"middle"leader?"" 



5" How"do"you"go"about:" 

Specific"examples?" 

Setting"vision"and"purpose?" 

Organising"and"managing"resources?" 

Managing"your"team/relations"with"other"staff?" 

6" Are"there"any"ways"in"which"you"differ"from"the"other"middle"leaders"in" " 

your"school?" 

7" Can"you"give"specific"examples"of"ways"in"which"you"differ"from"other" 

middle"leaders?" 

" 

" 

40

Appendix 3 

Interview schedule for colleagues 

#" Question" Probes" 

1" In"your"opinion,"what"does"an"effective"middle"leader"look"like?" Vision"and"purpose" 



2" How"typical"is"[middle"leader]"of"other"middle"leaders"in"your"school?" Overall"effectiveness" 

Personal"characteristics" 

and"behaviours"shaping" 

that"effectiveness" 

3" In"what"ways"is"[middle"leader]"different"from"other"middle"leaders"in"your" Vision"and"purpose" 

school?" 



4" What,"if"anything,"makes"[middle"leader]"particularly"effective?" Vision"and"purpose" 



5" What,"if"anything,"hinders"[middle"leader]"from"being"an"effective"middle" Vision"and"purpose" 

leader?"" 



6" How"does"[middle"leader]"go"about:" 

" 

Setting"vision"and"purpose?" 

Organising"and"managing"resources?"" 

Managing"their"team/relations"with"other"staff?" 

7" Can"you"give"specific"examples"of"how"they"do"that?" " 

8" How"typical"are"these"behaviours/characteristics"of"other"middle"leaders"in" 

your"school?" 

" 

41

Appendix 4 

Department meeting observation rubric 

Purpose 

These observations aim to identify any examples of the characteristics and behaviours that effective middle leaders 

exhibit, based on our findings from Stage 1 of the project. The key elements are: 




What might the different elements look like? 


Sets a clear vision for the department 

Communicates and instils this vision in the team 

Sets goals for the department that are clearly founded on a broader, coherent vision 

Uses their vision for the department to motivate themselves and their teaching staff 


Good time management and organisation of the meeting 

Knowledge of the department’s resources and resource constraints including staff, finances and time 

Makes decisions strategically, based on long term plans for the department 


Communicates clearly and seeks agreement from team 

Demonstrates good rapport; is supportive and understanding 

Provides clear leadership; makes decisions and communicates their rationale 

Approach 

The aim is to gather data which can be analysed 

Notes should therefore describe not judge i.e. comments should be about what you see happening: what are 

middle leaders saying? What are they doing? How are their colleagues reacting? 

Refer only to what you know is happening - avoid inference 

Tick all that apply 

Time 

Leave blank 

if 

throughout 

Description 

What have you seen? 

Team and 

interpersonal 

Organisation, planning 

and resources 


42

This report was written for the education charity Teaching Leaders. Teaching Leaders’ mission 

is to address educational disadvantage by growing a movement of outstanding middle leaders 

in schools in challenging contexts. We design and deliver leadership development 

programmes for those leaders on the front line in the most challenging schools: middle 

leaders. Our high-potential and whole-school middle leader programmes transform the 

impact that leaders can make on pupil outcomes, retain them in their schools and build a 

talent pipeline for the future. 

In November 2016, Teaching Leaders will join forces with The Future Leaders Trust. Together 

we will provide outstanding professional development to leaders at all levels in schools in 

challenging circumstances 

www.teachingleaders.org.uk // @teachingleaders // enquiries@teachingleaders.org.uk // 

0203 846 5808. 

This report was written by the education and youth development ‘think and action tank’ 

LKMco. We believe society has a duty to ensure children and young people receive the support 

they need in order to make a fulfilling transition to adulthood. We work towards this vision by 

helping education and youth organisations develop, evaluate and improve their work with 

young people. We then carry out academic and policy research and advocacy that is grounded 

in our experience. 

www.lkmco.org.uk // @LKMco // info@lkmco.org // +44(0)7793 370459

Research summary: 

Effective leadership at all levels 

Ambition School Leadership’s mission is to develop exceptional 

leadership at all levels to transform the lives of the children 

who need it most. 

As the importance of middle leadership grows and new levels 

of executive leadership emerge, it is all the more important 

that school leaders know which actions drive the greatest 

impact. Here, we have collated the latest research on what the 

best leaders do at each level. 

Our research has found that the best middle leaders build 

strong teaching teams, inform themselves professionally with 

the latest evidence and research, and manage their resources 

to get the best out of their team. The best heads have a clear 

vision of what they want to achieve in a school, understand it 

will take time to deliver and work systematically to transform 

the school step by step. 

Executive leadership roles are evolving and vary widely 

depending on context. Executive heads typically focus on 

strategic leadership across more than one school, spend time 

mentoring or coaching heads of school, and try to foster 

collaboration across the schools so all benefit. Multi-academy 

trust (MAT) chief executives, who lead groups of schools, must 

translate their vision into reality through developing and 

implementing a clear operating model. 

Through knowing which actions taken by leaders at different 

levels drive better outcomes for pupils, more school leaders 

can prioritise those which have the greatest impact, 

transforming their schools and pupils’ life chances. 

We run development programmes for leaders at all levels, 

which are informed by current research like that outlined in 

this report. If you lead in a school in a challenging context and 

want to find out more, visit ambitionschoolleadership.org.uk 

Every child. Every school. 

Same opportunities. 

1 Ambition School Leadership

Middle leadership 

What makes 

an effective middle leader? 

LKMco’s 2016 1 report, commissioned by Teaching Leaders, 

investigates which behaviours, characteristics, enabling factors 

and barriers contribute to or hinder a middle leader’s success. 

The strengths of 

a great middle leader 

Effective middle leaders are 

particularly good at management, 

especially building and managing 

their teams. They see team 

competencies and dynamics as 

important factors in underpinning 

their effectiveness as well as 

attaching importance to planning 

and resource management. 

Three key characteristics seen in 

an effective middle leader are: 

1. Strong teamwork and 

interpersonal skills. 

2. Assured organisation, 

planning and resource 

management ability. 

3. Being professionally informed. 

Enabling/limiting factors 

for middle leaders 

The report’s literature review 

identifies five main enabling/ 

limiting factors for middle leaders. 

1. Quality of senior management: 

some characteristics of senior 

management teams are 

particularly important to 

cultivating effective middle 

leadership, including a 

collaborative culture and the 

extent to which expectations 

are clear. 

2. Institutional culture: good 

leadership at all levels is more 

likely where the culture is 

collegial rather than strongly 

hierarchical. 

3. Team members: departmental 

effectiveness depends crucially 

on the cohesiveness of the team, 

in part because middle leaders 

find their affirmation as leaders 

more often from team members 

rather than from their formal 

title or position, or from senior 

management. 

4. Professional development: 

development, either as part 

of a professional leadership 

network or through mentoring 

and coaching from senior 

management in the school, 

is critical to helping middle 

leaders gain confidence 

and knowledge in their 

leadership role. 

5. Time pressures: middle leaders 

often cite lack of time as the 

biggest constraint on their 

effectiveness due to the number 

and diversity of tasks they are 

expected to handle, in addition 

to policy pressures to perform. 

1 

Baars, S., 

Parameshwaran, 

M., Menzies, 

L. and Chiong, C. 

(2016) ‘Firing on all 

cylinders: what 

makes an effective 

middle leader?’ 

LKMCo and Teaching 

Leaders. 


Headship 

School leadership: Why isn’t 

educational reform working? 

A recent study by the Centre for High Performance 2 found that 

there are five different types of headteacher, but that only one 

is truly effective. The architect leader is the least well-known 

and rewarded, yet most successful leadership approach. 

Architect headteachers’ schools 

offer a model of long-term, 

sustainable improvement; while 

their results tend to improve more 

slowly, their impact is deeply 

embedded and lasts even after 

they leave. 

What does an architect 

headteacher do? 

Architects quietly redesign 

their schools and transform the 

communities they serve. They look 

at long-term goals to achieve the 

greatest benefit for all children. 

Importantly, they also support their 

teaching staff, offering coaching, 

mentoring and development 

programmes. 

Who are architect headteachers? 

Typically architects are more likely 

to have experience in industry 

outside of education. They consider 

a child’s whole educational journey, 

and so look to work with or expand 

into other phases. For example, 

secondary heads often set up 

primary or sixth form provision. 

They believe in the benefits of 

holistic support, and invest in 

engaging with the local community 

to bring students’ attention to the 

opportunities around them. 

Why isn’t the architect 

headteacher celebrated? 

Architects’ examination results do 

not start improving until their third 

year, and so they do not deliver 

immediate, dramatic results. 

Unlike surgeon headteachers, they 

exclude very few pupils but instead 

put them on a separate pathway 

offering tailored support. 

Adjusting how we measure success 

for schools would be one way of 

recognising the value of these 

leaders. Instead of looking just 

at exam results and spend per 

child, we should also consider how 

leaders achieve these results and 

their added value and investment 

in society. 

Our programmes encourage 

leaders to develop and implement 

a long-term vision for their 

school which delivers the best 

outcomes for every child. They 

give headteachers the skills 

to use a range of leadership 

styles to deliver this, including 

many of those seen in architect 

headteachers. 

2 

Hill, A., Mellon, 

L., Laker, B., and 

Goddard, J. (2016) 

‘School Leadership: 

Why isn’t educational 

reform working? 

How can we fix it?’ 

Centre for High 

Performance. 


Executive headship 

Executive headteachers: 

What’s in a name? 

An executive headteacher (EHT) “directly leads two or more 

schools in a federation or other partnership arrangement”. 3 

In a 2016 report, ‘Executive headteachers: What’s in a name?’, 4 

the National Governers Association, National Foundation for 

Educational Research and The Future Leaders Trust looked into 

the new, evolving and variable role. 

The report found that, broadly, 

an EHT post will have one of three 

priorities: 

1. Improvement: turning around 

‘failing’ schools by filling 

temporary posts for rapid turn 

around; expanding 

headteachers’ roles to take on 

failing school(s); absorbing 

schools into federations and 

MATs through new EHT posts. 

2. School/site expansion: 

overseeing large (sometimes 

multi-school) sites. 

3. Partnership leader/partnership 

growth: building and growing 

new partnerships between 

schools, to a greater degree than 

school/site expansion above. 

Characteristics of the executive 

headteacher role 

Unlike the role of the traditional 

headteacher, that of the EHT is 

more strategic. Many EHTs take 

responsibility for coaching and 

mentoring the staff (particularly 

senior staff) in their schools. In 

training and mentoring staff EHTs 

can empower headteachers to 

better fulfil their roles, allowing 

the EHTs to withdraw from the 

operational side of running schools. 

Ensuring consistency across a 

group of schools demands sharing 

best practice, and collaboration 

between staff on different sites. 

EHTs take on a wide outwardfacing 

remit, dealing with ‘politics’ 

and external meetings. 

Enabling/limiting factors for 

executive headteachers 

Having an effective EHT in place 

with clear lines of responsibility 

can help with establishing good 

governance and accountability. 

They must ensure that each role 

in the group of schools is clearly 

defined and communicated. 

Centralised practices and 

processes across schools aid 

consistency, efficiencies and 

improvements. Other group-wide 

roles, such as executive business 

manager or leader of teaching 

and learning, ensure consistency 

of these areas across a number of 

schools, sites or phases. 

The role is new and evolving, and 

requires very different skills to 

those of standalone headteachers. 

Executive headteachers must find 

ways to develop these skills in 

order to have the greatest impact. 

3 

Department for 

Education (2015). 

School Workforce 

Census 2015: Guide 

for School-employed 

Staff. London: DfE 

[online]. Available: 

https://www.gov.uk/ 

government/ 

uploads/system/ 

uploads/ 

attachment_data/ 

file/448625/ 

School_Workforce_ 

Guide_2015_v1_ 

school_return.pdf 

4 

Lord, P., Wespieser, 

K., Harland, J., 

Fellows, T. and 

Theobald, K.(2016). 

‘Executive 

Headteachers: 

What’s in a Name? 

A Full Report 

of the Findings’. 

Slough, Birmingham 

and London: 

National Governers 

Association, National 

Foundation for 

Educational 

Research and The 

Future Leaders Trust. 


Academy trust chief executives 

Successful multi-academy trusts 

The MAT chief executive (CEO) role is so new that there is no 

formal research on their impact. We have collated the most 

common practice-led examples of great MAT CEOs from the 

Executive Educators MAT Success Framework and the National 

Schools Commissioner’s model of the nine characteristics of 

successful trusts. 5 

Characteristics of a successful 

MAT CEO 

The strongest MAT CEOs keep 

pupil outcomes and school 

improvement at the core of their 

approach. They underpin this with 

a focus on: 

1. Setting a clear vision and 

unifying purpose for the trust. 

2. Translating their vision into 

reality through a clear operating 

model with a defined role for 

the trust’s central office, 

supported by quality assurance, 

governance and risk processes. 

3. Building leadership capacity, 

retaining talent and succession 

planning. 

Building on success 

Challenges of the CEO role 

While many of the responsibilities 

of a MAT CEO appear similar to 

those of a headteacher, leadership 

as a CEO looks very different. 

Successful CEOs realise this and 

are able to let go of behaviours 

which made them successful as 

headteachers but hinder their 

performance as CEOs. This 

includes: shifting from school-level 

governance to understanding 

‘corporate’ governance; creating 

the conditions and resources 

to enable others to lead school 

improvement rather than doing 

it themselves; and leading across 

multiple schools and communities 

where it is impossible to know 

everyone personally. 

5 

Department for 

Education (2015) 

‘Characteristics of 

successful Multi- 

Academy Trusts’. 

Available: 

http://www. 

newschoolsnetwork. 

org/academyresource-hub/ 

resources/ 

characteristics-ofsuccessful-multiacademy-trusts 

Growth is a key priority for 

successful MAT CEOs. The highest 

performing CEOs are encouraged 

to grow their trusts, whether from 

starter, established, national or 

system MATs. Knowing how to 

lead change and manage through 

growth transitions and key turning 

points is a vital skill for successful 

CEOs to master. 


Every child. Every school. 

Same opportunities. 

School leaders at every level 

need development in order to 

have the greatest impact on 

their pupils and communities. 

Our programmes are proven 

to improve outcomes for 

disadvantaged students, and 

we can work in partnership 

with you to deliver 

improvement where your 

school most needs it. 

Flagship programmes 

Teaching Leaders 

Teaching Leaders is our one- or 

two-year leadership development 

programme for high-potential 

middle leaders in schools in 

challenging contexts with tailored 

primary and secondary pathways. 

Blending intensive coaching, 

face-to-face training and online 

learning, Teaching Leaders retains 

and develops staff and improves 

pupil outcomes. Participants to 

form a powerful peer group of 

like-minded, optimistic and 

collaborative leaders. 

Future Leaders 

Future Leaders is a selective 

two-year programme for leaders 

who are close to headship. 

The programme incorporates 

intensive leadership development 

training with ongoing mentoring 

and coaching to fast track 

participants with the talent 

and commitment to make an 

impact and reach headship. 

This programme is subject to 

confirmation of government funding. 

Executive Educators 

Our flagship executive leadership 

offer, with tailored programmes 

for aspiring or serving executive 

headteachers and chief executives 

of multi-academy trusts. 

Training enables executive leaders 

to implement sustainable 

improvement across a group of 

schools. Participants will learn from 

education and business experts, 

as well as like-minded peers. 

Other programmes 

Aspiring Leadership 

Programme 

For groups of teachers preparing 

for their first leadership roles. 

Middle Leadership Programme 

(with NPQML) 

Tailored leadership development 

for a school’s whole middle 

leadership team. 

Senior Leadership Programme 

(with NPQSL) 

For senior leaders ready for wholeschool 

responsibility. 

Headship Programme 

(with NPQH) 

For senior leaders preparing to 

reach headship in 12-18 months or 

headteachers looking for further 

development. 

Visit ambitionschoolleadership.org.uk to find the right 

programmes for you and your staff. 

Formerly

Good Shepherd Career Long Professional Learning Academic Papers

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