Final_MSS_121504_2014_10_21_Main Project Paper

Water Availability and Rice Production: A Study on Khulna

District

Sabekun Naher

Economics Discipline

Social Science School

Khulna University

Khulna, Bangladesh

October, 2014


District

…………………………..

Sabekun Naher

Student Number: MSS 121504

Session: 2013-14

Supervisor

....................................................

(Mohammed Ziaul Haider, Ph.D)

Professor


Khulna University

Khulna, Bangladesh

A Project Paper submitted to Economics Discipline, Social Science

School, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh in partial fulfillment

for the MSS in Economics degree

October, 2014


District

..................................................

Mohammed Ziaul Haider, Ph.D

Head


Social Science School

Khulna University

Khulna, Bangladesh

October, 2014

Statement of Originality


District

The findings of this Project Paper are entirely of the candidate’s own

research and any part of it has neither been accepted for any degree nor is

it being concurrently submitted for any other degree.

.........................................

Sabekun Naher


Session: 2013-14

October, 2014

Acknowledgement

A project paper preparation is really a tough work in my little knowledge. I have tried

to make this hard task. Undoubtedly my limitless gratitude to Almighty Allah who has

created me and who loves all things equally. I would like to express my heartiest debt

to my respective parents who always help me mentally and financially and my

respective brothers who help me different issues and ways. I am highly grateful to my

honorable supervisor Mohammed Ziaul Haider, Ph.D, Professor of Economics

Discipline, Khulna University, who helps me by giving his valuable instructions,

systematic supervision, constant guidance, cordial behavior and patience for every

steps of this task. I am also grateful to all the teachers of Economics Discipline who

guides me by providing their knowledge. I want to thank the modern information and

technology system which helps to get any type of information. I wish to extend my

thanks and gratitude to Md. Sariful Islam, Lecturer of Economics Discipline, Khulna

University, Sujan Kumar Ghosh, Training Officer, Bangladesh Institute of Bank

Management (BIBM) and Md. Razib for their cooperation during the data analysis

period. I also would like to give thanks to the farmers of Rupsha and Batiaghata

Upazila and my cousin for their friendly help in data collection. Finally, I should be

grateful towards my friends who always help me in every situation.

………………………..

Sabekun Naher



Khulna University, Khulna

October, 2014

i

Abstract

Rice production highly depends on irrigation water availability. Agricultural sector is

the predominant water user sector in Bangladesh. Rice is our staple food and paddy

production is the key source of food security. The purpose of the study is to assess the

impact of water availability on rice production. This study tries to trace out the

difference between output levels of water scarcity and water availability group of

farmers. The study area consists of Rupsha and Batiaghata Upazila of Khulna District

in Bangladesh. This study defines water availability group of farmers on the basis of

shallow machine user for pumping irrigation water. This study tries to draw

relationship between irrigation water availability and rice production comparing with

land, labour, fertilizer, pesticide and seed. There exists significant relationship

between explained and explanatory variables. The rice output of water availability

group of farmers is 3 percent, 25 percent and 28 percent higher than that of water

scarcity group of farmers which is estimated by using dummy variable in case of

Translog, Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic production functions correspondingly. This

study also compares the output level of water availability and water scarcity group of

farmers through hypothesis testing. The rejection of null hypothesis also indicates that

there is larger difference of paddy output between water scarcity and water

availability groups of rice farmers. Therefore, it may be concluded that irrigation

water scarcity negatively influences rice production.

Key words: Water availability; Water scarcity; Irrigation; Value of paddy output

ii

Table of Contents

Title

Page No.

Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................... i

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... ii

List of Tables ............................................................................................................... vi

List of Figures ............................................................................................................. vii

Abbreviation ............................................................................................................. viii

Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1-5

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Objective of the Study .......................................................................................... 3

1.3 Research Question ................................................................................................ 3

1.4 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 3

1.5 Scope of the Study................................................................................................ 4

1.6 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 4

1.7 Organization of the Paper ..................................................................................... 5

Chapter Two: Literature Review ............................................................................ 6-9

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Water Availability and Demand in the World ..................................................... 6

2.3 Concept of Water Scarcity ................................................................................... 7

2.4 Relationship between Agriculture and Water Availability in Bangladesh .......... 7

2.5 Impact of Irrigation Water Availability on Rice Production................................ 8

Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................. 10-21

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10

3.2 Topic Selection ................................................................................................... 10

3.3 Methodology in Brief ......................................................................................... 11

3.3.1 Study Area .................................................................................................. 11

3.3.2 Sampling Technique and Data Collection .................................................. 13

3.3.3 Sources of Data ........................................................................................... 14

3.3.4 Indicators..................................................................................................... 14

3.4 Descriptive Analysis .......................................................................................... 14

3.5 Analytical Framework ........................................................................................ 15

3.5.1 Estimation of Translog Production Function .............................................. 15

3.5.2 Impact Analysis of Water Scarcity on Rice Production ............................. 18

3.5.3 Hypothesis Testing...................................................................................... 19

3.6 Variable Identification........................................................................................ 20

3.7 Data Analysis Tools ........................................................................................... 21

iii

3.8 Report Writing.................................................................................................... 21

Chapter Four: Irrigation System and Rice Production in Bangladesh ........... 22-29

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 22

4.2 Concept of Irrigation .......................................................................................... 22

4.3 Devices of Irrigation........................................................................................... 23

4.4 Methods of Irrigation ......................................................................................... 25

4.5 Irrigated Area by Various Technologies in Bangladesh .................................... 26

4.6 Irrigated Area of Rice Production in Bangladesh .............................................. 27

4.7 Rice Production in Bangladesh .......................................................................... 28

Chapter Five: General Aspects of the Study Area ............................................ 30-46

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 30

5.2 Overview of the Study Area ............................................................................... 30

5.2.1 Population Distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila ....................... 31

5.2.2 Land Distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila ................................ 32

5.2.3 Educational Institutions of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila ....................... 34

5.2.4 Health and Social Welfare of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila ................... 34

5.2.5 Transportation and Communication System of Batiaghata and Rupsha

Upazila ................................................................................................................. 35

5.3 Socio-economic Profile of the Paddy Farmers ................................................... 35

5.3.1 Age Distribution of Paddy Farmers ............................................................ 35

5.3.2 Sex Ratio of the Paddy Farmers.................................................................. 36

5.3.3 Education Level of Paddy Farmers ............................................................. 36

5.3.4 Area of Paddy Cultivated Land................................................................... 36

5.3.5 Cropping Pattern of Paddy Farmers ............................................................ 37

5.3.6 Income of the Paddy Farmers ..................................................................... 38

5.3.7 Consumption Expenditure of the Paddy Farmers ....................................... 39

5.3.8 Access to Electricity of Paddy Farmers ...................................................... 39

5.3.9 Sources of Drinking Water ......................................................................... 39

5.3.10 Credit Information of Paddy Farmers ....................................................... 40

5.3.11 Training Facility of Paddy Farmers .......................................................... 40

5.4 Water Availability Condition of the Study Area ................................................ 41

5.4.1 Distance of Paddy Field from Home .......................................................... 41

5.4.2 Distance of the River from the Plots ........................................................... 42

5.4.3 Distance of the Deep Tube-well from the Field .......................................... 42

5.4.4 Distance of the Shallow Tube-well from the Plots ..................................... 43

5.4.5 Distance of the Normal Tube-well from the Plots ...................................... 43

iv

5.4.6 Distance of the Paddy Field from Water Sources ....................................... 44

5.4.7 Availability of Electricity nearby the Plots ................................................. 44

5.4.8 Availability of Irrigation Water (Boro Season) .......................................... 45

5.4.9 Water Logging and Salinity Problem ......................................................... 46

Chapter Six: Water Availability Assessment ..................................................... 47-52

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 47

6.2 Result of Translog Production Function Estimation .......................................... 47

6.3 Output and Result of the Regression Analysis ................................................... 50

6.4 Hypothesis Testing ............................................................................................. 51

Chapter Seven: Concluding Remarks ................................................................ 53-57

8.1Introduction ......................................................................................................... 53

8.2 Findings of the Study ......................................................................................... 53

8.3 Policy Recommendation .................................................................................... 55

8.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 56

8.5 Future Research Option ...................................................................................... 56

List of References ....................................................................................................... 58

Appendix I ................................................................................................................... ix

Appendix II ................................................................................................................ xvi

Appendix III ............................................................................................................. xvii

v

List of Tables

Table No. & Title

Table 3.1: Sample Size

Table 3.2: List of Variables for Production Function Estimation (Boro Season)

Table 3.3: List of Variables for Regression Analysis (Boro Season)

Table 4.1: Irrigated Area by Different Techniques in Bangladesh

Table 4.2: Irrigated Area under Different Rice Crops

Table 4.3: Rice Production in Bangladesh (Thousand Metric Tons)

Table 5.1: Population and Literacy Rate of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Table 5.2: Population by Religious Groups in 2011

Table 5.3: Area of Land in 2011

Table 5.4: Land Distribution by Tenure

Table 5.5: Land Utilization (area in acres)

Table 5.6: Educational Institutions of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Table 5.7: Age Pattern of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.8: Education Level of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.9: Area of Cultivated Land of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.10: Trend of Cropping Pattern of Paddy Farmers (Boro Season)

Table 5.11: Income of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.12: Consumption Expenditure of Paddy Farmers

Table 6.1: Translog Production Function Estimation

Table 6.2: Result of Regression Model

Table 6.3: Hypothesis Testing

Page No.

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20

20

27

27

28

31

32

32

33

33

34

35

36

37

37

38

39

47-48

50

51

vi

List of Figures

Figure No. & Title

Figure 3.1: Batiaghata Upazila of Khulna, Bangladesh

Figure 3.2: Rupsha Upazila of Khulna, Bangladesh

Figure 5.1: Sources of Drinking Water

Figure 5.2: Information about Credit

Figure 5.3: Sources of Training

Figure 5.4: Distance of Farm Land from Home (km.)

Figure 5.5: Distance of the River from Plots (km.)

Figure 5.6: Distance of Deep Tube-well from Plots (km.)

Figure 5.7: Distance of Shallow Tube-well from Plots (km.)

Figure 5.8: Distance of Normal Tube-well from Plots (km.)

Figure 5.9: Distance of Paddy Field from Water Sources (km.)

Figure 5.10: Distance of Paddy Field from Electricity Sources (km.)

Figure 5.11: Sources of Irrigation Water

Page No.

12

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40

40

41

41

42

42

43

44

44

45

45

vii

Abbreviation

BADC

BBS

BRRI

CES

DTW

GDP

GoB

HYV

IRRI

IWMI

KMT

LLP

LV

MV

mm

MT

NGO

OLS

PSU

sq. km.

STW

SYAP

UN

UNEP

UNESCO

VIF

WB

WHO

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

Bangladesh Rice Research Institution

Constant Elasticity of Substitution

Deep Tube-well

Gross Domestic Product

Government of Bangladesh

High Yielding Varieties

International Rice Research Institution

International Water Management Institute

Kilo Metric Ton

Low Lift Pump

Local Variety

Modern Variety

Millimeter

Metric Ton

Non Government Organization

Ordinary Least Square

Primary Sampling Unit

Square Kilometer

Shallow Tube-well

Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific

United Nations

United Nations Environment Programme

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Variance Inflation Factor

World Bank

World Health Organization

viii

Water Availability and Rice Production: A Study on Khulna District

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Water is essential for life. It is crucial for existence and socio-economic

development. It affects all social and economic sectors. Scarcity of water threatens the

sustainability of healthy ecosystem. For growing population, the demand for fresh

water rises. This vast population leads to intensify food demand. There is a critical

linkage between water and agriculture. But, water is now a concerning risk factor

because of scarcity of clean water. Both agriculture and non-agricultural sector

demand huge amount of water in the world each year. In Asia, per capita water

availability is usually lower (Pereira, 2005).

According to UN Water (2007), water scarcity arises from imbalances

between water availability and demand. Water scarcity has its root in water shortage.

Water shortage arises both for natural causes such as climate variability, drought,

natural aridity, salinity and man-made desertification and water quality degradation.

Water quality degradation is one of the major causes of water scarcity. Pereira (2005)

demonstrates that water quality is degraded by return flows after use and vast part of

the available water resources is polluted for many uses. And, polluted water is also a

source of water related diseases.

Water scarcity is one of the key challenges facing the world in the 21 st

century. Water scarcity risk takes place due to insufficient water to meet basic needs.

Global population is likely to be increased by three billion people. Hence, the demand

for water for irrigation to feed these extra mouths increases as food consumption

patterns changes (Orr et al., 2009). In 48 countries, more than 2.8 billion people will

face water stress or scarcity conditions by 2025 (UNEP, 2002). Seven billion people

in 60 countries could be facing water scarcity by the middle of this century

(UNESCO, 2003).

Agricultural sector is the dominant water user at the global scale which is

accounting for 74 percent (Orr et al., 2009). Water is crucial for the economy. It

maintains agriculture and thus our food chain. There is a huge population pressure in

developing countries. These countries use more than 90 percent of water (Morrison et

al., 2009). SYAP (2007) also state that because of population growth and economic

development, agricultural and industrial demand for water increases. Agriculture

1


accounts for more than two-thirds of global water use including as much as 90 percent

in developing countries. Wild et al. (2007) shows that worldwide freshwater

consumption is more than twofold since World War II and is projected to rise another

25 percent by 2030. Much of the growth of fresh water demand is the consequence of

expected rise in the world population from 6.6 billion at present to about 8 billion by

2030 and over 9 billion by 2050.

Use of Irrigation water increased heavily during the past century to feed the

ever growing population. The irrigated area has grown more than 5 times and the

water use for agriculture will increase near 5 times within 2025 (Pereira, 2005).

Agriculture is the major water-using sector in Bangladesh. Water is the scarcest in the

south-west and the north-west regions during the dry season due to low yearly

rainfall. In our country, at least 40 million people do not have a square meal. Being a

country of 140 million inhabitants, agricultural sector plays a vital role in order to

feed a growing population (Chowdhury, 2010).

In Bangladesh, almost 80 percent of population lives in the rural areas, with 54

percent of them employed in agriculture. The rural economy contains significant

component of the national GDP. And, agriculture is the single biggest producing

sector of the economy since it contributes 18.6 percent of GDP and employs 45

percent of labour force. The performance of this sector has an impact on food

security, employment generation, poverty alleviation and human resources

development (Wikipedia, 2014). Chowdhury (2010) also states that in the dry winter

season, demand for both surface and ground water for irrigation rises more than 58.6

percent. Sauer et al. (2008) demonstrates that rising levels of irrigation will increase

the cost of water. In many regions, this may cause severe problems of water scarcity.

Since water scarcity rises, inefficient allocation of water results increasing costs to

society.

Bangladesh is mostly an agrarian economy. So, agricultural sector is one of

the predominant sectors of our country. Water is the vital input for production. But,

shortage of water is now one of the burning questions in economic and environmental

research. The south-west region of Bangladesh faces severe water shortage in paddy

production due to extreme salinity, water quality degradation and getting down of

water layer. This water scarcity affects severely on paddy production cause’s loss of

output. Loss of output creates economic loss with food insecurity. Thus, water quality

development is closely related to poverty reduction particularly for low income

2


countries. So, water availability and agricultural sector are interlinked issues in

economics. Food security and economic development are closely associated with

paddy production.

1.2 Objective of the Study

This study tries to show the scope and conditions of water availability in

Khulna district of Bangladesh, irrigation system of this area, and opportunity to water

quality development. In view of the above information, this paper traces out the

following objective:

‣ To assess the impact of water availability on rice production

Irrigation water is an important element in paddy production. This objective

explores how availability of water influences rice production in the study area.

Shortage of irrigation water may decrease the productivity growth of rice production.

1.3 Research Question

The author attempts to answer the following question by addressing the

relationship between water availability and paddy production.

‣ How does water scarcity affect rice production?

This research question serves whether water scarcity affect rice production or

not in the study area. The author wants to detect the sources of irrigation water and

related water cost that influence rice production. So, the author would like to use the

Translog production function, OLS regression and hypothesis testing for exploring the

answer of this research question which shows the impact of water scarcity on rice

production in the study area.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

Bangladesh is one of the developing countries in the world which is primarily

dependent on rural agricultural economy. It is a densely populated country. With the

rising population, demand for water will increase for paddy production. Emerging

demand for water create new source of water scarcity. Water scarcity problem

becomes worse as a result of expansion and diversification of agricultural production

for maintaining food security in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is much vulnerable to

climate change impacts. Its economy is highly dependent on agriculture and natural

resources which are sensitive to climate change. It is prone to natural disasters,

3


salinity, and heavy rainfall during monsoon and drought in winter season that requires

available water for irrigation in order to support paddy production. In dry season,

farmers of our country faces water shortage problem because of little rainfall and low

river flow to protect High Yielding Varieties (HYV) rice production from these

extreme climate changes. Water availability is a crucial determinant for agricultural

development thus leading to ensure food security. In that situation, scarcity of water

plays vital role for agro production. In this south-west coastal region, water is

severely affected by salinity intrusion, arsenic contamination, drainage congestion and

high cyclonic risks leading to shortage of adequate pure water for production. So,

water scarcity is one of the vital problematic issues which attract attention of both

economists and environmentalists.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The extent of this study mostly focuses on the impact of water scarcity in

agricultural production. Water scarcity has both economic and environmental impacts

on the earth. Water scarcity hampers agricultural production which causes loss of

output. On the other hand, agricultural inputs contaminate water and thus water

quality despoiled. This study basically covers several villages of Khulna district in

Bangladesh. In this paper, the author tries to explain the connection between water

availability and agricultural production, specifically paddy production in this area.

1.6 Limitations of the Study

The author faces some sorts of problems throughout data collection and

analysis process while preparing this paper. This study basically tries to deal with

abstract issues as water availability and water scarcity and its impact on paddy

production. For that reason, it takes Khulna district as a study area. But Khulna

district covers vast area and data collection from this vast area is really a hard task to

the author.

The author takes water accessibility as the proxy variable of water availability

for this study. However, in order to define water availability and its impact on rice

output and food prices needs more variable and information. But, this study cannot

add this information for this study.

4


This study is mainly relied on primary data. Sometimes, farmers are busy with

their works when interviewers go for data collection. And, they are less interested to

co-operate with the surveyors.

Respondents of the household many times hide their actual condition and try

to present worst situation for being paid assistance because they thought this survey is

from NGOs. As a result, there is a possibility of vagueness in collected data that may

create problems in getting desired result.

Preparing a research paper is really a hard task which needs lot of knowledge.

Because of limited knowledge and time for data collection, the author faces some

difficulties. In spite of these limitations, the author tries to identify important findings.

1.7 Organization of the Paper

This task consists of seven chapters. First chapter describes preface,

objectives, statement of the problem, scope of the study and organization of the paper.

Second and third chapter involve literature review and methodology of the study

respectively. Fourth chapter includes water availability conditions and irrigation

system in Bangladesh. Overview of the study area is shown in fifth chapter. The

chapter six presents impact analysis of water availability and paddy production. And,

the last chapter focuses on findings and concluding remarks that enables to better

address water scarcity issues.

In conclusion, it can be said that water is the driving force of agricultural and

economic development. But shortage of clean water affects production leading to

increase food prices. The south-west coastal region of Bangladesh faces severe water

scarcity problem due to extreme salinity intrusion, low river flow and little rainfall.

For that case, water scarcity is an alarming phenomenon. Agricultural sector is the

major sector for food security and income-employment generation in Bangladesh

which largely relies upon water availability. So, the ultimate path of this paper is to

trace out the relationship between water availability and agricultural production.

5


Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Agriculture requires large amount of water for irrigation. Water is the key

issue of the food security. Now, water scarcity is one of the burning questions in the

globe. This chapter illustrates a review of the available literatures for identifying the

related issues about water availability and paddy production.

2.2 Water Availability and Demand in the World

Water is the crucial factor in the existence of humankind on this planet.

Groundwater aquifers hold over 95 percent of this water, whilst rain, rivers and lakes

make up the remaining 5 percent. Human population has increased from 1.7 billion

people to 6.6 billion people in the last century. On the globe, only 1700 metric ton

(MT) of water exists for every person. World Health Organization (WHO) has

reported that 1 billion people face lack of enough water to just meet their basic needs.

The World Bank (WB) report that 80 countries now have water shortage and 2 billion

people lack access to fresh water. Water usages vary extensively between developing

and developed ones.

Developing countries use 90 percent of their water for agriculture, 5 percent

for industry and 5 percent for urban areas. On the other hand, developed countries

utilize 45 percent of their water for agriculture, 45 percent for industry and 10 percent

for urban areas (Alois, 2007).

The world situation relative to water resources differ among regions of the

world. Per capita water availability in the Northern African countries is below the

1000 metric ton (MT) considered threshold for water scarcity. Water availability has

decreased in Western and Central Asia. The total water availability is greater in Asian

regions but population is so vast that makes per capita water availability close to

water scarcity (Pereira, 2005).

In South East Asia, water withdrawals were 99 kilo metric ton (KMT) and

760 KMT in 1900 and 2010 respectively and projected increase is 949 KMT in 2025

(Bruinsma, 2003).

6


2.3 Concept of Water Scarcity

The term ‘water scarcity’ is defined as the point at which aggregate impact of

all users impose on the supply and quality of water under existing institutional

arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including environment,

cannot be satisfied completely (UN Water, 2007). Shiklomanov (2000) also states that

water scarcity is an actual problem which tends to enlarge in future because of

enormous withdrawals of water from 1900 to 1995 and that trend to continue in

future. Again, UN Water (2007) states that water scarcity arises when high population

densities meet up with low availability of fresh water and water quality degradation is

one of the vital reasons for water scarcity.

2.4 Relationship between Agriculture and Water Availability in Bangladesh

Agricultural water use accounts for more than 70 percent of anthropogenic

water extraction in the global dimension (Bruinsma, 2003). Like the Asian countries,

Bangladesh also faces water scarcity problem (Chowdhury, 2010). Bangladesh’s

economy depends on agriculture and most of the people earn money from it. In

agricultural sector, rice is the principal crops in Bangladesh which depends on a

number of factors of production like fertile soil, ample water supply, labour

availability, efficient use of fertilizers (Wikipedia, 2014).

Amin (2007) focuses that Bangladesh’s economy will remain mostly

agricultural in foreseeable future. It produces more than 22 percent of nation’s GDP,

employs 7 out of 10 people and accounts for significant export earnings sector. Due to

rapid population growth, per capita food intake and nutrition is already at low levels.

This shortfall in food production has been overcome by import, modernization of

agriculture together with efficient irrigation system.

As watercourses, the vital sources of irrigation are canals, both in natural and

man-made and rivers (Wikipedia, 2014). Again, Amin (2007) shows that water

resources play a vital role for economic development in Bangladesh. The three main

components of it are rainfall, stream flow and ground water storage. In our country,

annual rainfall varies significantly over time and location. Average yearly rainfall is

2,600 millimeter (mm) in the south-east and 1,700 mm in the south-west parts of the

country. Stream flow is another largest component of water supply. In addition,

ground water demand increases over last 37 years and 70 percent of irrigated area and

7


60 percent of net cultivable land uses it. UN Water (2007) focuses that in most of the

countries, agricultural sector is the major water using sector.

2.5 Impact of Irrigation Water Availability on Rice Production

UN Water (2007) shows that irrigated agriculture plays a vital role for

developing rural economies and poverty reduction. Additionally, it is the first sector

which is affected by water shortage that leads to reduce per capita food production.

Agriculture is affected by population growth through increased demand for food.

Water resources and food production are interdependent to each other.

Now, it is an important economic issue which may constrain food production,

energy generation and other economic activities. But, these water resources have been

hampered by environmental, political, technical and economic improvement (Sauer et

al., 2008).

Since the independence of Bangladesh, food production becomes tripled from

10 million to 30 million metric tons over last three decades. And, this agricultural

production depends on water resources. But, this water resource faces severe

competition between rural and urban areas leading to water scarcity (GoB, 2010).

Water and food are the vital element for human being. Sometimes water scarcity

raises food import but too much water creates adverse impact on agricultural field as

flood and water logging (Yang et al., 2001).

Similarly, irrigation is the crucial factor for food security and sustainable

livelihoods especially in developing countries. It stabilizes food production and prices

through controlling greater production and enabling scope for crop diversification.

But, water becomes scarce and challenging issues because of increasing cost of

developing new water, soil degradation in irrigated areas, ground water depletion, and

water pollution, degradation of water-related ecosystem and wasteful use of already

developed water supplies (Rosegrant et al., 2002).

Recently the world food trade has happened to roughly a proxy trade in water

known as ‘virtual water’. Also, food demands are growing against the limits of its

production because many countries are up against the limits of water supply. Supply

of agricultural products declines in world trade due to water shortage. Due to booming

economics like China and India, demand for agricultural products increase in the

world. Thus, this local water shortage can circle all over the world creating food crisis

that leads to higher food prices (Pearce, 2008).

8


On the other hand, Covalla et al. (2001) shows that agriculture is affected by

water scarcity. While, agricultural operation affects both the quality and quantity of

water resources and particularly impact on groundwater overdraft and surface water

diversion. Carruthers et al. (1996) examine that small shortfalls in crop productivity

growth would lead to rising food prices and worsening malnutrition.

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that irrigation water

availability has great influence on rice production. Agricultural sector significantly

depends on water availability. But, the above literature shows general aspects of the

relationship between water availability and rice production. Rice production is

severely affected by water scarcity. There are many definition of irrigation water

availability. This study tries to define water availability on the basis of shallow

machine user. This study assumes the paddy farmers who do not use shallow machine

for pumping irrigation water as water scarcity group of farmers. This study tries to

make logical conclusion about the impact of water scarcity on rice production through

econometric analysis.

9


Chapter Three

Methodology

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the author has focused on the methods and procedures for the

study. It also justifies the reason of addressing the objective of the study. Firstly, it has

begun with topic selection and proceeded with concrete objective formulation.

Secondly, study area has been selected. Thirdly, this chapter describes the process of

data collection and sampling method chosen for the data collection. Fourthly, it talks

about the analytical framework on which the analysis of the study is examined. It also

focuses the outline of the variables used in the analysis. Fifthly, after collecting data,

those are analyzed, sorted and presented in an organized way. Then, paper has been

written and draft copy has been submitted to the honorable teachers. Lastly, the final

version of the paper has been prepared after incorporating the received comments and

observations from the honorable supervisor. The topic of the research work is ‘Water

Availability and Rice Production: A Study on Khulna District’. The author of this

study is concerned to investigate the impact of water scarcity on rice production in the

study area.

3.2 Topic Selection

Agriculture plays an important role for socio-economic development in

Bangladesh. Bangladesh is one of the developing countries with huge population

pressures. Rice is a main staple food in our country. In order to feed this growing

population, food security has to be obtained. The south-west region contributes much

in paddy production. Paddy production is based on several factors like land, labour,

fertilizer, seed, pesticide and water. Bangladesh is the major disaster prone nation.

The south-west region faces the effects of climate change recently. The vital effect of

climate change is water quality degradation which creates water shortage. Water in

this region becomes saline. Paddy fields are decreased due to salinity intrusion.

Because of huge population, demand for food is increasing. But, there is a limited

resource in our country. Due to scarcity of resources, input use has to be efficient in

case of production. Water is the crucial factor for rice production. Water quality and

quantity is affected badly by natural and man-made causes that create water scarcity.

10


Cereal production faces shortage of water which leads to loss of output. So, at present,

water availability is one of the burning questions in the world for food security. That

is why, it attracts researcher to investigate and deal with this vital issue.

3.3 Methodology in Brief

This study deals with a specific objective: to assess the impact of water

availability on rice production. To address this objective, this study follows both

descriptive and quantitative approaches. Overview of the study area and scope of

irrigation is presented with the help of descriptive analysis. Then, the relationship

between water availability and paddy production has been addressed by the

quantitative analysis. In this paper, the author has applied some logical and relevant

procedures. To fulfill the objective, the writer acquires some idea about variables and

modeling from several authors like (Chowdhury, 2010; Sauer et al., 2008; Yang et al.,

2001; Haider and Hossain, 2013; Iglesias and Quiroga, 2007; Azuara et al., 2012). To

accomplish the objective, the author needs to gather some requirements. Among these

requirements, observation of study area, sample size, sampling technique, outline of

data, used software tools are so much important. The following section explains the

required process used for this study.

3.3.1 Study Area

In any research work, study area selection is an imperative undertaking. In this

study, the author has chosen Khulna District as the study area. Bangladesh is an agrobased

country. Khulna District plays an important role in agricultural sector. This

region is also a climate vulnerable area. Khulna District is located in the Khulna

Division. It has an area of 4,394.45 square kilometer (sq. km). It is surrounded on the

north by the Jessore and the Narail District, on the south by the Bay of Bengal, east by

the Bagerhat District and west by the Satkhira District (Mallik, 2012). In view of that,

Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila of Khulna district are selected as the study area for

this project. Paddy production is one of the vital agro-products in these two Upazila.

The area of Batiaghata Upazila is 248.32 sq. km, located in between 22°34´

and 22°46´ north latitudes and in between 89°24´ and 89°37´ east longitudes. It is

bounded by Kotwali and Sonadanga thanas and Dumuria Upazila on the north,

Dacope, Paikgachha and Rampal Upazila on the south. Again, Rampal, Fakirhat and

Rupsha Upazila on the east and Dumuria and Paikgachha Upazila on the west. The

11


total population of this Upazila is 1,40,574. Batiaghata Thana was formed in 1892 and

it was turned into an Upazila in 1984. This Upazila consists of 7 unions and 176

villages. Agriculture is the main source of income (57.45 percent) of the people in this

Upazila. The main crops are paddy, oil seeds and vegetables (BBS, 2001). The

following figures present the map of Batiaghata Upazila:

Figure 3.1: Batiaghata Upazila of Khulna, Bangladesh

Source: Banglapedia, 2012

On the other hand, Rupsha Upazila is located in Khulna and it is located in the

north-eastern part of Khulna District. The area of the Upazila is 120 sq. km. It has 5

Unions with 64 villages with 40,956 households. The population is around 1,75,137.

Peoples of this Upazila depend on agriculture, fishing and small enterprise business.

12


Figure 3.2: Rupsha Upazila of Khulna, Bangladesh

Source: Banglapedia, 2012

3.3.2 Sampling Technique and Data Collection

This study uses semi-structured interview schedule using convenience

sampling method to collect data from the study area. Firstly, the author selects 2

Upazila from Khulna District. Then, the author goes to data collection from 2 villages

from each Upazila. These 4 villages represent the Primary Sampling Units (PSU) of

this study. The author selects 60 farm households from the 4 PSUs taking 15 farmers

from each villages using convenience sampling method. This study considers Rupsha

Upazila as water availability group and Batiaghata Upazila as water scarcity group.

Table 3.1: Sample Size

Study Area Villages Frequency

Rupsha Upazila

Batiaghata Upazila

Aijganti

Rajapur

Tetultala

Gajalmari

Total 60

Source: Author’s Compilation

15

15

15

15

13


3.3.3 Sources of Data

Data collection is a vital part of any research work. A fruitful research work

depends on successful data collection. It also takes longer time compare to other

work. This study depends on both primary and secondary data. In order to fulfilling

the objective, these two types of data are equally important. Data collection

procedures are discussed below:

a) Primary Data

This task basically relies on primary data. Field level primary data have been

collected from farmers through questionnaire survey. The author has prepared a

structured questionnaire for collecting the required information of the study. The

collected data from field survey has been processed in order to achieve the objectives

of the study.

b) Secondary Data

Besides primary data, this study also takes secondary data. The author has

collected information from several published documents such as articles, journals,

thesis paper, reports, working paper, books and other internet documents. The author

has also chosen data from different organization such as Bangladesh Agricultural

Development Corporation (BADC), Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) and

Bangladesh Rice Research Institution (BRRI) as sources of secondary data.

3.3.4 Indicators

In this study, the main indicators are Irrigation, value of paddy output, water

availability and water scarcity. To fulfill the objective, the author uses some other

indicators. These are land amount, labour cost, expenditure on fertilizer, pesticide and

seed for securing the relationship between water availability and agricultural

production.

3.4 Descriptive Analysis

Firstly, this study tries to show the present scenario of water availability, water

sources, irrigation system and paddy production in Bangladesh briefly. To complete

this work, the author has collected information from secondary sources. The author

14


has collected information from IWMI, BADC, BBS, IRRI, BRRI and other web and

internet sources. After collecting data, this study has tried to present the picture of

water availability condition, condition and constraints of irrigation, trend of paddy

production in our country through chart, graph and tabular form using MS Excel

application software. Again, the overview of the study area has been shown with the

help of field survey, information from Statistics Department of Batiaghata and Rupsha

Upazila Parishad.

3.5 Analytical Framework

This study is based on specific objective with research question. The author

has tried to find out the factors determining the productivity of rice. Several sociodemographic

factors like age, sex, education, experience, farm size, and distance from

farm land as well as economic factors like land, labour, seed, fertilizer, irrigation and

pesticides affect on rice production directly or indirectly. Firstly, this study draws

Translog production function for estimating performance of the irrigated rice farms.

Then, it also runs multiple regression equation for checking the influence of water

availability on rice production with hypothesis testing. The corresponding procedures

are explained below:

3.5.1 Estimation of Translog Production Function

The Cobb-Douglas functional form of production functions is widely used to

represent the relationship of an output to inputs. It was proposed by Knut Wicksell

and tested against statistical evidence by Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas. This study

was published in 1928 in which they modeled the growth of the American economy

during the period 1899-1922. They considered a simplified view of the economy in

which production output is determined by the amount of labor involved and the

amount of capital invested. The function they used to model production was of the

form:

Y i (L, K) = bL α K β … … … … … … … … . (1)

Where,

Yi= total production (the monetary value of all goods produced in a year)

L= labor input (the total number of person-hours worked in a year)

15


K= capital input (the monetary worth of all machinery, equipment and buildings)

b= total factor productivity

α and β are the output elasticity’s of labor and capital respectively. These values are

constants determined by available technology (Stewart, 2008 and Border, 2004).

Cobb-Douglas production function is used to represent the technological

relationship between the amounts of two or more inputs. Translog production function

is a generalization of the Cobb-Douglas production function. It stands for

‘Transcendental Logarithmic’ (Boisvert, 1982). The form of the Translog production

function considered the proposal made in 1967 by J. Kmenta is:

lnY = lnA 3 + α 3 . lnK + β 3 . lnL + x 3 . ln 2 (K⁄ L) … … … … … … … (2)

Grilichs and Ringstad proposed new forms of production function in 1971.

The first one was obtained by imposing the condition that α+β=1. Therefore, the

production function becomes in fact a labour productivity function:

ln(Y⁄ L) = lnA 2 + α 2 . ln(K⁄ L) + x 2 . ln 2 (K⁄ L) … … … … … … … … (3)

The above form of production function was defined in conditions of relaxing

the constraints imposed to the parameters in the Kmenta function. In order to test the

homotheticity assumptions, the function was written as:

ln(Y) = lnA KL + α K . lnK + α L . lnL + β k 2. ln 2 K + β L 2. ln 2 L

+ β KL . lnK. lnL … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)

Actually, the same production function was used by Sargant in 1971 and

called a log-quadratic one. It is important to reveal that the term ‘transcendental

logarithmic production function’ was proposed by Christiansen, Jorgensn and Lau in

two papers published in 1971 and 1973. This function dealt with the problems of

strong seperability and homogeneity of Cobb-Douglas and CES (Constant Elasticity

of Substitution) production functions and their implications for the production

frontier. The generalized form of Translog production function, which takes into

account a number of n inputs, can be expressed as:

16


n

lnY = lnA αi, β ij

+ ∑ α i . lnX i + ( 1 2 ) . ∑ ∑ β ij . lnX i . lnX j … … … … (5)

i=1

n

n

i=1 j=1

So, the Translog production functions represent in fact a class of flexible

functional forms for the production functions. The concept of the Translog production

function permits to pass from a linear relationship between the output and the

production factors to a nonlinear one (Pavelescu, 2010 and Boisvert, 1982).

In this study, the author has considered six explanatory variables to estimate

the production functions. Now the new function in view of Translog production

function is given below which is used in this paper to model production of the form:

ln(Y) = ⨍(L, LB, I, F, S, C) … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (6)

ln(Y) = ln(A) + α L ln(L) + α LB ln(LB) + α I ln(I) + α F ln(F) + α S ln(S)

+ α C ln(C) + b L 2(lnL) 2 + b LB 2(lnLB) 2 + b I 2(lnI) 2 + b F 2(lnF) 2

+ b S 2(lnS) 2 + b C 2(lnC) 2 + b LLB lnL ∙ lnLB + b LI lnL ∙ lnI + b LF lnL

∙ lnF + b LS lnL ∙ lnS + b LC lnL ∙ lnC + b LBI lnLB ∙ lnI + b LBF lnLB

∙ lnF + b LBS lnLB ∙ lnS + b LBC lnLB ∙ lnC + b IF lnI ∙ lnF + b IS lnI ∙ lnS

+ b IC lnI ∙ lnC + b FS lnF ∙ lnS + b FC lnF ∙ lnC + b SC lnS

∙ lnC … … … … . . (7)

Where, A= total factor productivity, Y= dependent variable which shows total

output of rice farms

Explanatory variables are L= Land; LB= Labour; I= Irrigation; F= Fertilizer; S= Seed;

C= Chemicals (insecticides)

This study also considers Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic production function

using the same variables in order to comparing with the results of Translog production

function.

The Cobb-Douglas production function with these variables can be estimated

as a linear relationship using the following expression:

ln(Y) = α 0 + ∑ α i ln(I i ) … … … … … … … … . . (8)

i

Y = Output of paddy farms; Ii = Inputs (land, labour, irrigation, fertilizer, seed

and chemicals); αi.. … α6 = coefficients

The Quadratic production function is given below:

ln(Y) = β 0 + β 1 lnL 2 + β 2 lnLB 2 + β 3 lnI 2 + β 4 lnF 2 + β 5 lnS 2 + β 6 lnC 2 +

μ i … … … … … … … … … (9)

Y = Output of paddy farms; β1 . . . β6 = Coefficients; µi = the error term

17


3.5.2 Impact Analysis of Water Scarcity on Rice Production

This study uses multiple regression analysis to verify the impact of water

scarcity on rice production. For the econometrics analysis, the following equation has

been employed. This equation estimates the relationship between water availability

and output of rice production:

VP = β 0 + β 1 L + β 2 Lb + β 3 ExpendF + β 4 ExpendP + β 5 ExpendS + β 6 WC

+ μ i … … … … … … (10)

Here,

VP = Value of paddy output

L = Land amount

Lb = Labour cost

ExpendF= Expenditure on fertilizer

ExpendP = Expenditure on pesticides (Insecticides)

ExpendS = Expenditure on seed

WC = Water cost

β0 = Intercept term

β1 . . . β6 = Coefficients

µi = the error term

The above equation helps to check the relationship between rice production

and water availability with land, labour, fertilizer, pesticides and seed. This study

assumes the variable water cost as a proxy of how much water is available for

irrigation. It is also assumed that if farmers have to pay much for irrigation water then

water becomes scarce and vice versa. In addition, water availability is defined on the

basis of shallow machine users. The farmer, who uses shallow machine for irrigating

field, is included in water availability group of farmers and vice versa.

18


3.5.3 Hypothesis Testing

This study tries to investigate the effects of water scarcity on rice production

in the study area. By making comparison of output level of water availability and

water scarcity groups, the author can examine the answer whether water scarcity level

affects productivity or not. These groups are identified by using dummy variables.

Paddy farmers who use shallow machine are considered as water availability group of

farmers and take the dummy value 1. And, Paddy farmers who do not use shallow

machine are considered as water scarcity group of farmers and take the dummy value

0.

This study hypothesizes that there is no statistically significant influence of

water availability on rice production. If the hypothesis is true, water scarcity does not

affect output. But, if the null hypothesis is rejected, water scarcity affects rice

production significantly. A t-test is used to check the statistical significance of mean

difference between two groups.

Null Hypothesis, H 0 : β = 0

No mean difference of output level between water availability and water scarcity

group of farmers

Alternative Hypothesis, H 1 : β ≠ 0

Existence of mean difference of output level between water availability and water

scarcity group of farmers

The same is tested through Translog production function estimation and OLS

regression.

19


3.6 Variable Identification

The author has collected essential data from primary and secondary sources as

stated above. The overview of data with its measurement unit and source is shown in

the table 3.2 and 3.3 below.

Table 3.2: List of Variables for Production Function Estimation (Boro Season)

Variable Name

Output (Y)

Land (L)

Labour (LB)

Irrigation (I)

Fertilizer (F)

Seed (S)

Chemicals (C)


Variable Description

Amount of paddy output

Land holding of the respondent

Human labour

Number of irrigation

Quantity of fertilizer

Quantity of seed

Plant protection insecticides

Unit of

Measurement

Mound/bigha

Bigha

Human days/bigha

Number/bigha

Kg/bigha

Kg/bigha

Litres/bigha

Table 3.3: List of Variables for Regression Analysis (Boro Season)

Variable Name

Unit of

Variable Description

Dependent Variable

Measurement

Value of Paddy Output

(VP)

Price of paddy production

BDT/per mound

Explanatory Variables

Land Amount (L) Amount of land Bigha

Labour Cost (Lb) Wages of labour BDT/per day

ExpendF Cost of fertilizer BDT

ExpendP

Cost of pesticides (Insecticides) BDT

ExpendS Cost of seed BDT

Water Cost (WC) Sum of irrigation related cost BDT


The idea of variables for estimating production function and regression

analysis are obtained by (Haider and Hossain, 2013; Shantha et al., 2012; Narala and

Zala, 2010).

20


3.7 Data Analysis Tools

Analysis of the data and presentation of the task depends on various tools.

This study uses different packages of software for data analysis, compilation and

presentation. The author uses Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel for analyzing and

presenting data, STATA 12 and E-views for econometric analysis.

3.8 Report Writing

A draft copy of project paper has been submitted to the teachers after

completing analysis of the data. Then, a final version of the paper is prepared after

incorporating received comments and observations from supervisor.

From the above discussion, it can be said that this study basically follows both

descriptive and quantitative approach. The author tries to maintain a well organized

procedure. The author has collected and analyzed data very carefully. This study tries

to take correct indicators and variables in order to finding answer of the research

questions. Thus, all the procedures of methodology have facilitated to fulfill the

objective of the study.

21


Chapter Four

Irrigation System and Rice Production in Bangladesh

4.1 Introduction

Food security depends on agriculture and agriculture provides the main source

of livelihood and economic growth. Agricultural sector requires extensive amount of

water. Irrigation is one of the success factors for agricultural development. Most of

the countries in the world rely on irrigation for food production. Irrigation is the vital

component for sustainable rice production and food security in Bangladesh. Irrigation

system faces lack of investment on irrigation infrastructure, increased competition for

water and huge water withdrawals from ground water that hamper sustainability of

food production. There is a demand for and supply of water in each irrigation region.

The demand for water depends on the types of crops, soil quality, land status,

geographic area and climatic condition. But, reducing supply of water has great

impact on food security. This chapter focuses concept of irrigation, various irrigation

methods and rice productivity in Bangladesh.

4.2 Concept of Irrigation

According to Islam (2012) irrigation is the artificial water supply for dry

agricultural land by means of dams, barrages, channels or other devices. It is also used

in wetter areas to grow rice crops. The FreeDictionary (2014) state that irrigation is to

supply dry land with water by means of ditches pipes or streams artificially.

According to Merriam-Webster (2014) irrigation is the watering of land by artificial

means to foster plant growth. It is a critical element of modern agriculture. Irrigation

can compensate for the naturally variable rate of water and volume of rain. Water is

pumped from natural ponds, lakes, streams and wells where basin systems and dams

hold back larger streams and annual floods. According to Chait (2014) irrigation

means the action of applying water to land in order to supply crops and other plants

with necessary water. Sometimes nutrients may be applied via irrigation. So,

irrigation means supply of water to dry land unnaturally to facilitate soil quality,

remove salinity and foster the crops growth of the land.

22


4.3 Devices of Irrigation

Irrigation devices means mechanical appliances used for lifting water either

from surface or sub-surface sources for irrigation and domestic purposes. Irrigation

water lifting devices range from age-old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient

pumps. Water lifting device selection depends on the economic status of the farmer,

characteristics of the source of water, amount of water to be lifted, type and amount of

power available in the particular area. The irrigation devices particularly used in

Bangladesh may be categorized into two main parts:

a) Manual Pumps

Dhone, swing basket, BRRI diaphragm pump, rower pump, treadle pump,

hand tube-well, hand sprinkler and tub are common devices of irrigation under

manual pumps in Bangladesh.

Dhone

It is a manually operated boat-shaped wooden channel and one person is

enough to operate it. It is closed at one end and open at other. The closed end is tied

with a rope to a long wooden pole which is rotated as a handle on a post. The open

end is hinged to the discharge point. It is about 2.4 to 3.6 meter or 8 to 12 fit long. It

can lift water up to 0.90 to 1.2 meter or 3 to 4 fit. This device is appropriate for small

and marginal farmers to irrigate smaller areas with surface water.

Swing Basket

It is another ancient water lift device. At least two persons are needed to

operate this device. They stand facing each other and swing the basket to fill in water.

It consists of a basket or shovel like scoop which is attached by four ropes. The device

is made of bamboo. It uses surface water. It can lift water from 0.9 meter to 1.2 meter

or 3 to 4 fit below the crop field level.

BRRI Diaphragm Pump

The capacity of lifting water is about 80 gallon per minute by using of this

device. It utilizes both surface and subsurface water sources. It consists of two metal

boxes sealed with some rubber sheet and made air tight which creates a vacuum that

helps to lift water. Operation of this pump is controlled by two persons.

23


Rower Pump

It uses to lift both surface and subsurface water if the water level does not

exceed the suction limit. It makes of metal pipe with a piston inside. This instrument

is similar to the hand tube-well. It is fixed on the soil surface in leaning position. It is

cheaper than a hand tube-well.

Treadle Pump

Capacity of water lifting is almost the same as that of a hand pump. It is used

to pump ground water. The farmer uses his legs to operate the pump. The cost of

using treadle pump is less than a hand pump.

Hand Tube-well

It can also apply for irrigation although it is usually used for domestic purpose.

The capacity of hand tube-well depends on the efficiency of the operator. It pumps

under-groundwater. The operator uses his hands to control the pump.

Hand Sprinkler

Hand sprinkler is one kind of can. It is made of light metal and has a plunger

punch at the top. It sprays over the crop through the needle. It is used to irrigate

generally small kitchen gardens.

Tub

Tub can be used for light irrigation. This device utilizes only surface water to

irrigate smaller areas. It is a light metal dish used to lift water up to 30 to 60

centimeters or 1 to 2 fit.

24


b) Motorized Pumps

Deep tube-well, shallow tube-well and low lift pump are important devices

under motorized pumps in Bangladesh.

Deep Tube-well (DTW)

Deep tube-well is the largest water lifting tool for pumping groundwater for

irrigation. The well length is 60 to 90 meter or 200 to 300 fit. The engine Horsepower

is 20 to 30 and the discharge is 56 to 84 litres/sec or 2 to 3 cusecs water per second.

The diameter of the pipe varies from 15 to 25 centimeters.

Shallow Tube-well (STW)

Shallow tube-wells are used intensively in all parts of Bangladesh presently. It

is one kind of motorized irrigation device used to irrigate many areas. The well length

is less than 100 fit. The engine Horsepower is 4 to 8 and the water lifting rate is less

than 1 cusec or 28 litres/per second. The pipe diameter is 10 to 12 centimeter.

Low Lift Pump (LLP)

It is one kind of machine used to pump surface water for irrigation. The

capacity of this pump is higher than that of a shallow tube-well. This device also uses

a centrifugal pump which cannot be worked when the water surface of the source

exceeds the suction level.

4.4 Methods of Irrigation

In Bangladesh, following irrigation methods are commonly used:

a) Basin Method

In this method, water is abounding from one side of the plot. The entire plot is

flooded with 5 to 7 centimeter standing water. This scheme is generally used for

irrigation in Bangladesh. This method is suitable for level land.

25


b) Border Method

This scheme is appropriate for slightly sloping land. Strong bunds are

constructed across a plot of land at a certain interval to hold water whole parts of the

plot. These bunds avoid amassing of water at the lower part of the land.

c) Furrow Method

In this scheme, water is supplied through the channel in between the lines.

This method is appropriate for line sown crops like potato, sugarcane.

d) Sprinkler Method

Water is applied through pipes and sprayed over the crops through the plunger

in the type of rain. This method is suitable for undulated land, very light soil and for

hilly areas.

4.5 Irrigated Area by Various Technologies in Bangladesh

Irrigation plays a vital role for the crops production in Bangladesh. The major

sources of irrigation are surface and ground water in Bangladesh. Various irrigation

technologies are used to extract water from these two sources. Water lifting from

surface water basically depends on LLP, canal and traditional means of technologies.

On the other hand, ground water irrigation relies on DTW and STW. DTW and STW

are significant modern irrigation technologies significantly replaced by LLP.

At the initial period, LLP got importance for extracting water in case of

irrigation technologies development. In that time, irrigation mainly depended on

surface sources. Later, ground water irrigation got emphasis under DTW scheme

which was initiated by Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC).

But, DTW project failed to attract farmers because it was not economically and

socially viable. Then, STW irrigation method covers many areas instead of DTW

irrigation rapidly because it is most appropriate to socio-economic status of the

farmers.

Table 4.1 presents the various irrigation technologies applied for irrigating

farm land. This table shows the irrigated area covers with different irrigation methods

from 1980-1981 to 2009-2010 periods. Water lifting by LLP is higher than other

sources of methods in 1980-1981. This indicates that uses of surface water increases

much for irrigating land than ground water. In contrast, STW irrigation method covers

26


double areas in 1990-1991 and this trend continues to increase in the later periods.

This trend depicts that ground water irrigation increases drastically than surface water

in Bangladesh.

Table 4.1: Irrigated Area by Different Techniques in Bangladesh

Area in ‘000’ hectare

Year LLP DTP STW Canal Traditional

1980-81

1985-86

1990-91

1995-96

2000-01

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

665.80

608.70

674.80

677.50

756.75

887.04

810.21

817.48

820.45

964.90

259.50

358.50

615.50

676.80

677.43

801.21

800.43

799.41

801.12

773.32

99.20

534.50

1,131.11

1,680.00

2,437.39

3,001.62

3,024.50

3,021.34

3,028.47

333.67

150.30

163.10

172.90

154.00

177.25

144.25

142.57

146.78

148.52

174.12

464.20

432.90

433.70

365.60

354.09

432.39

473.35

478.19

482.20

401.86

Source: BRRI (2013)

4.6 Irrigated Area of Rice Production in Bangladesh

Rice is the staple food in our country and main source of food security.

Among different types of rice boro rice needs much water for growing. Table 4.2

shows the irrigated area under different rice crops in Bangladesh from 1980-1981 to

2009-2010. This table indicates that boro rice production covers largest irrigated area

in Bangladesh. The trend of irrigation in boro crops is drastically rising over the

period 1980-1981 to 2009-2010 in Bangladesh.

Year

Table 4.2: Irrigated Area under Different Rice Crops

1980-81

1985-86

1990-91

1995-96

2000-01

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

Source: BRRI (2013)

Area in ‘000 hectare

Aus Aman Boro

119.79

140.40

998.60

164.50

190.00

1,258.90

137.66

214.55

2,127.46

114.80

295.60

2,530.10

93.48

316.06

3,196.97

97.34

470.45

3,870.45

95.23

472.53

3,872.50

96.45

474.00

3,879.00

96.49

477.01

3,880.12

94.82

546.15

4,239.68

27


4.7 Rice Production in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, aus, aman and boro types of rice crops are mainly available.

Rice is our main food and food security is directly related with rice production.

Among these three types of rice crops, boro rice contains largest share of total rice

production in Bangladesh. The production of boro crops is higher than other rice

crops because it is relatively free from weather hazard.

Table 4.3 depicts the trend of rice production (aus, aman and boro) in

thousand metric tons during 1980-1981 to 2012-2013. The scientific method of rice

production is applied to fulfill the demand for food in our country. The production of

both Modern Variety (MV) and Local Variety (LV) is adopted in all types of rice

production. At initial stage of production, the production of LV shows increasing

trend in both aus and aman rice production from 1980-1981 to 1990-1991 and next

year’s shows decreasing trend. The production of aus and aman rice with MV

indicates increasing trend during 2005-2006 to 2012-2013.

In contrast, the production of boro rice with MV shows alone increasing trend

from 1980-81 to date. Boro rice produces in rabi season and it directly depends on

irrigation. The table also shows that the productivity of boro crops is higher than that

of other rice crops in Bangladesh. So, the production of MV of aus, aman and boro is

better than that of LV. The production of boro crops grows more and it can be a

source of obtaining food security in our country.

Year

1980-81

1985-86

1990-91

1995-96

2000-01

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

Table 4.3: Rice Production in Bangladesh (Thousand Metric Tons)

MV

1,075

922

631

702

935

1,081

996

1,099

1,448

1,316

1,739

2,042

2,034

LV

2,214

1,906

1,630

974

981

664

516

408

447

393

394

291

336

Aus Aman Boro

Produ

ction

of MV

(%)

32.68

32.60

27.91

41.89

48.80

61.95

65.87

72.93

76.41

77.00

81.55

87.53

85.82

MV

2,061

2,438

4,246

4,681

6,938

7,505

7,867

7,715

9,075

9,403

10,142

10,706

11,278

LV

5,903

6,104

4,921

4,109

4,311

3,305

2,974

1,947

2,538

2,804

2,649

2,092

2,022

N.B.: MV refers Modern Variety and LV refers Local Variety

Source: BRRI (2013)

Prod

uctio

n of

MV

(%)

22.10

24.46

41.78

48.86

56.82

65.83

69.33

77.55

75.16

73.61

76.25

80.80

82.09

MV

1,990

3,219

5,950

6,852

11,554

13,628

14,709

17,536

17,589

17,845

18,514

18,661

18,623

LV

640

452

407

369

367

347

256

226

218

214

102

98

137

Product

ion of

MV (%)

75.67

87.69

93.60

94.89

96.92

97.52

98.29

98.73

98.76

98.81

99.45

99.48

99.27

28


So, irrigation is one of the key factors for attaining food security in

Bangladesh. Boro rice production plays crucial role for making the country selfsufficient

in rice production compared to that of aus and aman rice production. This

chapter shows that the production of boro rice highly depends on irrigation.

Therefore, there is a critical linkage between irrigation and boro rice production.

Water lifting from ground water is higher than other sources and it gets emphasis

from both government and individual farmer. Therefore, ground water irrigation

contributes much for achieving food security and alleviating rural poverty in

Bangladesh.

29


Chapter Five

General Aspects of the Study Area

5.1 Introduction

Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila are historically very important part of greater

Khulna District. Batiaghata Upazila is situated on the bank of river Kazibachha

whereas Rupsha Upazila is on the bank of river Rupsha. The economy of these

Upazila is based on agriculture. Agricultural sector basically paddy production of

these two Upazila plays vital role to fulfill the food demand in Khulna District. People

of these two Upazila depend on fishing and small enterprise business besides

agriculture. Two Upazila are abounded with a lot of resources. Paddy, oil seed and

vegetables are the main crops of these two Upazila. The main fruits of these two

Upazila are mango, coconut and betel nut. But, the socio-economic condition is poor

in Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila. Most of the house is mud-made in these areas. The

road condition is poor and narrow. In Rupsha Upazila, most of the land goes under

water due to overflow in the river. Annual rainfall and soil quality gives support to the

crops production, mainly paddy production. But, Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila also

face the impact of climate change like cyclone, salinity, water scarcity and river

erosion. The paddy production of Batiaghata Upazila faces extreme water scarcity

problem than Rupsha Upazila. Rice is our main staple food and conserving the good

environment for rice production is one of the vital issues. These Upazila are

developing gradually like other Upazila in Bangladesh. This chapter focuses overview

of the study area, socio-economic status of the farmer and the picture of water

availability and water scarcity condition the study area briefly. This general aspects of

the study area helps to making analysis easily.

5.2 Overview of the Study Area

In this study, Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila are considered as study area. The

brief description about population distribution, land distribution, education, literacy

rate, and transportation system and health and welfare services has been presented in

this part.

30


5.2.1 Population Distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Bangladesh is a densely populated country. Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

are also populated area in Bangladesh. According to BBS (2013), number of

households are 40,779 and density per sq. km. is 691 in Batiaghata Upazila. On the

other hand, number of households are 41,895 and density per sq. km. is 1,494 in

Rupsha Upazila. The population density of Rupsha Upazila is higher than that of

Batiaghata Upazila. So, Rupsha Upazila faces much population problem than

Batiaghata.

5.2.1.1 Population and Literacy Rate of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Table 5.1 depicts both the population information in thousand and literacy

rate in percentage of Batiaghata Upazila and Rupsha Upazila from 1981 to 2011. The

growth of population and literacy rate is increasing trend in both Upazila. The total

population was 114 thousand (one lack fourteen thousand) and 124 thousand (one

lack twenty-four thousand) in Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila respectively. This table

focuses that the population is growing rapidly from 1981 to date in both areas.

Literacy rate was 29.8 and 32.0 percent in Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

correspondingly. It is also increasing together with population. In 2011, the total

population was 172 thousand in Batiaghata. In 2011, the total number of population

was 180 thousand in Rupsha Upazila. Therefore, population problem is much critical

in Rupsha Upazila than that of Batiaghata. Literacy rate of Rupsha Upazila is also

comparatively higher than Batiaghata.

Table 5.1: Population and Literacy Rate of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Year

Population

(Thousand)

1981

1991

2001

2011

Source: BBS (2013)

Batiaghata

114

128

141

172

Literacy Rate (%)

29.8

37.7

53.0

54.9

Population

(Thousand)

Rupsha

124

150

168

180

Literacy Rate

(%)

32.0

40.4

54.7

58.2

31


5.2.1.2 Population Distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila According to

Religion

Majority of the people of Bangladesh is Muslim. Besides, there are a lot of

Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other tribal group live together in peace with their

own religious practices. This characteristic is almost same all over the country.

Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila are not out off this feature. Table 5.2 depicts total

number of population according to religion. The table presents the largest number of

population is under Muslim community in both Upazila. In both Upazila, the number

of Hindu population ranks second among all other religious people. The lowest

number of population is Buddhist in Batiaghata Upazila and there is no Buddhist

person in Rupsha Upazila.

Table 5.2: Population by Religious Groups in 2011

Religion

Batiaghata

Rupsha

(No. of Population)

(No. of Population)

Muslim

Hindu

Buddhist

Christian

1,09,591

61,708

6

386

1,52,641

26,494

0

345

Total 1,71,691 1,79,480

Source: BBS (2013)

5.2.2 Land Distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Land distribution of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila on the basis of area,

tenure and utilization has been presented below:

5.2.2.1 Land Distribution According to Area

The following table 5.3 focuses the total area of Batiaghata and Rupsha

Upazila. The total land area of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila are divided into three

parts i.e., housing and crop area, reserve forest and river area.

Table 5.3: Area of Land in 2011

Land Type Batiaghata (in sq. km.) Rupsha (in sq. km.)

Housing and Crop Area

Reserve Forest

River Area

211.19

0

24.03

117.73

0

2.47

Total 248.31 120.15

Source: BBS (2013)

32


The total land area is 248.31 and 120.15 sq. km. in Batiaghata and Rupsha

Upazila respectively. Table 5.3 shows that among total land area housing and crop

area is the highest in both Upazila. The river area of Batiaghata Upazila is more i.e.,

24.03 sq. km. than Rupsha Upazila i.e., 2.47 sq. Km. There is no reserve forest in

these Upazila.

5.2.2.2 Land Distribution by Tenure

Table 5.4 portrays the land distribution on the basis of tenure system. In both

Upazila, owner holds highest acres of land among all holding. In Batiaghata Upazila

owner grasps 23,643 acres of land and in Rupsha Upazila owner holds 21,304 acres of

land. Owner cum tenant holds almost same in both Upazila. Tenant holding of Rupsha

Upazila is higher than that of Batiaghata.

Table 5.4: Land Distribution by Tenure

Tenure System Batiaghata (area in acres) Rupsha (area in acres)

Owner Holding

Owner cum Tenant

Tenant Holding

23,643

7,488

3,495

21,304

6,646

13,070

All Holding 34,626 41,020

Source: BBS (2013)

5.2.2.3 Land Area on the Basis of Utilization (area in acres)

Table 5.5 shows land distribution on the basis of utilization in acres. Under

this allotment, the land area is separated into permanent cropped area and temporary

cropped area. This separation is based on variation of crop cultivation. Permanent

cropped area is the highest in Rupsha Upazila.

Upazila

Batiaghata

Rupsha

Table 5.5: Land Utilization (area in acres)

Permanent

Cropped

Area

1,468

2,799

Temporary Cropped

Area

Single Double Triple

27089

10657

14,039

6,247

1,778

2,384

Current

Fallow

14

710

Productivity

of Crop (MT)

Total 4,267 37,746 20,286 4,162 724 344

Source: BBS (2013)

187

157

33


This table also shows that the area of single crop cultivation land is the highest

in both Upazila under temporary cropped area. In Rupsha Upazila, current fallow land

is larger than that of other. Crop productivity is almost same in both Upazila.

5.2.3 Educational Institutions of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

There are many educational institutions in Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila.

Table 5.6 lists the total educational institutions in both Upazila. There is 67 and 46

government primary school in Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila respectively among

other institutions. There is highest number of primary school in both Upazila. In both

Upazila, there is no government secondary school and government college.

Table 5.6: Educational Institutions of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

Institutions

Government Primary School

Registered Primary School

Kindergarten School

NGO School

Government Secondary School

Non-government Secondary School

Government College

Non-government College

Madrasah

Technical and Vocational Institution

Batiaghata

(No. of Institution)

67

48

2

18

0

26

0

7

24

2

Rupsha

(No. of Institution)

Total 194 160

Source: BBS (2013)

46

19

31

19

0

19

0

6

17

3

5.2.4 Health and Social Welfare of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

In Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila, there are many government health complex

and social welfare organizations. In Batiaghata, number of bed is 31 and doctor is 14

under government health complex. The number of bed and doctor are 31 and 7

respectively in Rupsha Upazila. The number of private hospital and diagnostic centre

is one in both Upazila. Total numbers of physicians are 329 and 83 Batiaghata and

Rupsha Upazila respectively (BBS, 2013).

On the other hand, number of government office is 21, post office is 16, bank

is 5 and NGOs are 16 in Batiaghata Upazila. In Rupsha Upazila, number of

government office is 28, post office is 16, bank is 6 and NGOs are 18 (BBS, 2013).

34


5.2.5 Transportation and Communication System of Batiaghata and Rupsha Upazila

According to BBS (2013), length of metalled road is 79 km., semi metalled

road is 135 km. and kacha road is 343.4 km. among total length of road in Batiaghata

Upazila. Whereas, in Rupsha Upazila, length of metalled road is 149 km., semi

metalled road is 125 km. and kacha road is 446 km. among 720 km. length of road.

There is no embankment road and canals in Batiaghata Upazila. But, in

Rupsha Upazila, there are 38 km. embankment road to protect land for flooding and

29 km. canals uses for transportation. There are 14 and 15 bridges in Batiaghata and

Rupsha Upazila respectively.

5.3 Socio-economic Profile of the Paddy Farmers

Socio-economic status of the paddy farmers represents the actual condition of

the paddy farmers and study area. This socio-economic condition is assumed to be

representative of the study. Socio-economic profile includes age pattern of the sample

paddy farmers, sex ratio of the farmer’s households, year of schooling of the sample

peasant, farmer’s income, consumption expenditure, electricity condition, area of

cultivated land, cropping pattern of the peasant, amount and sources of credit in the

study area.

5.3.1 Age Distribution of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.7 shows the age distribution of the sample paddy farmers in the study

area. All age’s people (21-70) are involved in paddy farmers. Table 5.7 explains that

the average age of the paddy farmers is 48.48 years.

Table 5.7: Age Pattern of Paddy Farmers

Age (Year) No. of Paddy Farmers Paddy Farmers (%)

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

61-70

11

8

19

7

15

18.33

13.33

31.67

11.67

25

Total 60 100

Mean 48.48

Maximum 70

Minimum 25

Source: Author’s Compilation Based on Field Survey, 2014

35


The minimum age of paddy farmers is 25 and maximum is 70 years old. Most

of the paddy farmers fall in the age category 41-50 years covering 32 percent.

5.3.2 Sex Ratio of the Paddy Farmers

There are only male farmers in the sample paddy farmers in the study area. In

Rupsha and Batiaghata Upazila, generally male people are engaged in paddy

production. So, there are 100 percent male rice farmers in the sample farmers.

5.3.3 Education Level of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.8 presents the education level of the paddy farmers in Rupsha and

Batiaghata Upazila. This table describes the education level of the sample rice farmers

according to year of schooling. The average year of schooling of paddy farmers is

eight years. The maximum year of schooling of the sample paddy farmers is twelve

years and minimum is zero years that means only can sign. The highest number of

paddy farmers falls in the category 6-10 years of schooling.

Table 5.8: Education Level of Paddy Farmers

Year of

Schooling

No. of Paddy Farmers Paddy Farmers (%)

0-5

6-10

11-16

18

37

5

30

61.67

8.33

Total 60 100

Mean 8

Maximum 12

Minimum 0


5.3.4 Area of Paddy Cultivated Land

Table 5.9 narrates the area of paddy cultivated land in the study area. The

average area of paddy cultivated land is 2.71 bigha. The minimum amount of paddy

cultivated land is 1.1 bigha and maximum amount of land is 7 bighas. The highest

numbers of paddy farmers cultivate 3.01-5.0 bighas of land in both Batiaghata and

Rupsha Upazila.

36


Table 5.9: Area of Cultivated Land of Paddy Farmers

Land Area

(Bigha)


1.01-3.0

3.01-5.0

5.01-7.0

48

10

2

80

16.67

3.33

Total 60 100

Mean 2.71

Maximum 7

Minimum 1.1


5.3.5 Cropping Pattern of Paddy Farmers

Table 5.10 focuses cropping pattern trend of the sample paddy farmers in the

study area. This table presents the historical picture of the cropping pattern of the rice

farmers. Paddy farmers of the study area cultivate two times in a year i.e., aman and

boro. This study consider only boro season because boro rice highly relies on

irrigation. In boro season, paddy farmers cultivate IRRI rice. Besides IRRI rice, they

also produce various vegetables and mole. Cropping pattern of the study area is

divided into four categories as presented in the following table 5.10. This table shows

the cropping pattern trend of boro season from 1990 to 2013 year. From 2000 to

2012, rice farmers cultivated the lowest amount of vegetables or mole in the paddy

field. In the time period 1990 to 2013, paddy farmers cultivated the largest amount of

IRRI rice crop in their field. Among these years, 90 percent IRRI crops were

produced in the year 2010. But, this trend is decreasing during 2011 to 2013 due to

scarcity of irrigation water. In 2013, paddy farmers try to cultivate IRRI rice together

with vegetables in order to overcome losses.

Table 5.10: Trend of Cropping Pattern of Paddy Farmers (Boro Season)

Cropping Pattern

Year (%)

2013 2012 2011 2010 2000 1990

Vegetables or mole 0 3.33 3.33 1.67 3.33 0

IRRI 66.67 63.33 71.67 90 71.67 71.67

Both vegetables and

IRRI

33.33 33.33 25 5 0 5

No production 0 0 0 3.33 25 23.33


37


Production of IRRI rice needs huge amount of available irrigation water and

its’ production is costlier than that of other rice crops. According to the field survey,

paddy farmers give their attention to produce vegetables, sunflower and mole together

with IRRI rice because production of these crop need very little amount of water for

irrigation. This trend is increasing from 1990 to 2013. In 2000, 25 percent of the

farmers could not cultivate any crops due to increasing salinity in the river. Paddy

farmers were highly dependent on the river for irrigation water.

5.3.6 Income of the Paddy Farmers

Income is a significant socio-economic parameter which has a great influential

capacity on the living standard. The following table 5.11 shows income of the paddy

farmers in the study area. The mean income of the sample paddy farmers is 10,080

BDT per month. The minimum income of the paddy farmers is 5,500 BDT and

maximum is 70,000 BDT per month. The highest number of rice farmers falls in the

income range 1,000-10,000 BDT per month that means 85 percent.

Table 5.11: Income of Paddy Farmers

Income Range

(BDT/month)


1,000-10,000

10,001-20,000

20,001-30,000

30,001-40,000

40,001-50,000

50,001-60,000

60,001-70,000

51

7

1

0

0

0

1

85

11.67

1.67

0

0

0

1.67

Total 60 100

Mean 10,080

Maximum 70,000

Minimum 5,500


38


5.3.7 Consumption Expenditure of the Paddy Farmers

From the table 5.12 it is observed that per month average consumption

expenditure of the sample paddy farmers is 7,812 BDT.

Table 5.12: Consumption Expenditure of Paddy Farmers

Consumption

Expenditure Range

(BDT/month)

1-5,000

5,001-10,000

10,001-20,000


5

52

2

1

8.33

86.67

3.33

1.67

20,001-30,000

Total 60 100

Mean 7,811.88

Maximum 27,500

Minimum 2,400


The minimum consumption expenditure is 2,400 BDT and maximum is

27,500 BDT per month. It is found that 52 rice farmers families’ consumption

expenditure lies within 5,001-10,000 BDT ranges which are the highest percent of all.

5.3.8 Access to Electricity of Paddy Farmers

In the study area, access to electricity is 73.33 percent only. From the survey

viewpoint, almost 66.67 percent of the sample paddy farmers have access to

electricity and about 33.33 percent of the households have no access to electricity.

The sample paddy farmers who have not access to electricity, 21.67 percent uses solar

module and 11.67 percent utilizes kerosene lantern for their lighting.

5.3.9 Sources of Drinking Water

Figure 5.1 shows the sources of drinking water of the sample paddy farmers in

the study area. The figure 5.1 shows that the highest amount (90 percent) of sample

paddy farmers consumes deep tube-well water for drinking. About 6.67 percent of the

sample paddy farmers uses supply water for drinking and the lowest portion utilize

normal water.

39


Figure 5.1: Sources of Drinking Water

6.67% 3.33%

90%

Supply Water

Normal Water

Deep Tube-well


5.3.10 Credit Information of Paddy Farmers

Figure 5.2 presents credit information of the sample rice farmers in the study

area. Among the sample paddy farmers, only 11.67 percent of farmers take credit and

88.33 percent farmers does not receive credit. Among the credit taker, only 3.33

percent of the sample paddy farmers use their credit to irrigation purposes and 100

percent of the sample paddy farmers get credit from NGOs.

Figure 5.2: Information about Credit

11.67%

88.33%

Credit Taker Credit don’t Taker


5.3.11 Training Facility of Paddy Farmers

Figure 5.3 portrays the sources of agriculture related training facility which

have been taken by paddy farmers in the study area. According to the survey, 56.67

percent of paddy farmers receive training. Among the training receiver, about 52.94

percent of paddy farmers receive training from government agricultural department

and about 41 percent is from Upazila parishad. The lowest numbers of paddy farmers

receive training from NGOs.

40

Percentage


Figure 5.3: Sources of Training

Government

41.18%

5.88%

52.94%

NGO

Upazila

Parishad


5.4 Water Availability Condition of the Study Area

In this section of this chapter focuses the irrigation water related information

of the study area. Distance of the different water sources, plots electricity information

and sources of irrigation water are the vital parts of this section.

5.4.1 Distance of Paddy Field from Home

Figure 5.4 shows the distance between paddy field and farmers’ households in

kilometer (km.). About 93.33 percent of farm land lies within 0-4 km. and about 6.67

percent of paddy field situated inside 5-10 km. from home.

Figure 5.4: Distance of Farm Land from Home (km.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

93.33

6.67

0-4 km. 5-10 km.

Distance (km.)


41

Percentage


5.4.2 Distance of the River from the Plots

Figure 5.5 presents distance of the river from the plots of the paddy farmers.

River is the important source of irrigation always. About 96.67 percent of farm land is

situated within 0- 5 km. distance from river. The lowest portions of paddy fields are

placed within 6-10 km. distance.

120

100

80

Figure 5.5: Distance of the River from Plots (km.)

60

40

20

0

96.67

3.33

0-5 km. 6-10 km.

Distance (km.)


5.4.3 Distance of the Deep Tube-well from the Field

Figure 5.6 shows distance of the deep tube-well from the plots. The highest

portion of paddy field lies 0-1.5 km. far from deep tube-well and about 3 percent farm

land lies within 6-10 km. distance from this well.

Figure 5.6: Distance of Deep Tube-well from Plots (km.)

0-1.5 km. 1.6-5.0 km. 6-10 km.

8% 3%

89%


42

Percentage


5.4.4 Distance of the Shallow Tube-well from the Plots

Figure 5.7 renders the distance between shallow tube-well and plots of the

paddy farmers. At present, shallow tube-well is the most important irrigation

instrument in Bangladesh and most of the paddy farmers are highly dependent on it

for irrigation.

In Rupsha Upazila, there are five schemes for shallow machine pumping and

total paddy fields are included under these five schemes. Paddy farmers are divided

into these schemes for their irrigation and pay one-fourth of their output to the owner

of the pump machine or the owner of the scheme.

According to the survey, almost 50 percent of the paddy farmers use shallow

tube-well for irrigation purposes in the study area. About 86.67 percent of paddy land

is situated within half km. (0.5 km.) far from shallow tube-well. About 10 percent of

paddy land lies within 0.25 km. distance from shallow tube-well and the lowest

portion lies within 1.0 km far away from this well.

Figure 5.7: Distance of Shallow Tube-well from Plots (km.)

100

80

60

40

20

0

86.67

10

3.33

0.25 km. 0.5 km. 1.0 km.

Distance (km.)


5.4.5 Distance of the Normal Tube-well from the Plots

Figure 5.8 portrays distance of the normal tube-well from the plots. Among

the sample paddy farmers, 10 percent of farmers do not use normal tube-well water

for their activities. Almost 88.89 percent of paddy field is situated within 2-5 km.

distance from normal tube-well and only 11.11 percent of paddy field lies within 0-1

km. far from normal tube-well.

43

Percentage


Figure 5.8: Distance of Normal Tube-well from Plots (km.)

11.11

0-1 km.

88.89

2-5 km.


5.4.6 Distance of the Paddy Field from Water Sources

Figure 5.9 depicts the distance of the paddy field from water sources in the

study area. The highest portion of paddy field is situated within 0.5 km. far from

water sources and about 6.67 percent of farm land lies by 2 km distance from water

sources. This implies that paddy farmer’s faces irrigation problem and incurs huge

cost for irrigation purposes.

Figure 5.9: Distance of Paddy Field from Water Sources (km.)

80

60

40

20

0

0.25

km.

0.5 km. 0.75

km.

1.0 km. 1.5 km. 2.0 km.

Distance (km.)


5.4.7 Availability of Electricity nearby the Plots

Figure 5.10 depicts how far from the plots, electricity is available for the

paddy farmers. Almost 80 percent of paddy field is located within 0-4 km. far from

the electricity sources. About 20 percent of paddy field lies within 5-10 km. distance

from electricity.

44


Figure 5.10: Distance of Paddy Field from Electricity Sources (km.)

Percentage

5-10 km.

20

0-4 km.

80


5.4.8 Availability of Irrigation Water (Boro Season)

Figure 5.11 represents the sources of irrigation water for the sample paddy

farmers in the study area. Irrigation sources are divided into four categories i.e., rain

water, river water, canal water and shallow machine pumping. The lowest amount of

water is needed to irrigation of rice production in aman season and it depends on rain

water. But, IRRI rice production needs huge amount of water for irrigation. Almost 50

percent of paddy farmers use shallow machine for pumping irrigation water in the

study area. About 38.33 percent of rice farmers apply canal water and the lowest

portion depends on river water for irrigation. There are no paddy farmers using rain

water for irrigation in boro season.

Figure 5.11: Sources of Irrigation Water

Percentage

0 11.67

38.33 50

Rain Water River Water

Canal

Shallow

Machine

Pumping


45


5.4.9 Water Logging and Salinity Problem

Almost 18.33 percent of paddy farmers face water logging problem in this

study area and duration of water logging in the plots is two to maximum six months in

the study area. Paddy farmers were highly depended on river water for irrigation in

the decade 1990. Due to increasing salinity of the river water, about 17 percent of the

paddy farmers stopped up their rice production in the decade 2000. According to the

field survey (2014), water and soil salinity hampers rice production that leads to

reduce rice productivity.

In conclusion, it can be expressed that this chapter focuses on the overview of

the study area, socio-economic profile of the paddy farmers and water availability

condition for irrigation in the study area. More people live in Rupsha Upazila than

that of Batiaghata Upazila. Hence, it creates enormous population problem in Rupsha

Upazila. In Batiaghata Upazila, housing and crop land cover most of the land area

compared with that of other Upazila. In both Upazila, there is the largest number of

people in comparison to Muslim community people than other religions. Road and

transportation system is better in Rupsha Upazila than Batiaghata. Most of the paddy

farmers’ age ranges within 41 to 50 years and average year of schooling are 6 to10

classes. There are 100 percent male paddy farmers in the study area. Average income

of the paddy farmers is 10,080 BDT per month and consumption is near about 7,800

BDT per month. This study only considers boro season for analysis that is why IRRI

crops plays vital role for this study. Shallow machine is one of the vital mechanisms

in this study area for pumping irrigation water.

46


Chapter Six

Water Availability Assessment

6.1 Introduction

Irrigation availability affects significantly on rice production but it varies from

place to place on the basis of water availability. This chapter tries to present the

relationship between irrigation water availability and value of paddy output that

shows the actual condition of the study area. Therefore, this study applies econometric

analysis with the help of regression models. The result of these models explains how

much the existing irrigation water availability of the study area influence on the rice

production.

6.2 Result of Translog Production Function Estimation

To estimate the relationship between rice output and water availability, the

author uses Translog production function estimation which is run through STATA. By

using the same dataset, the author runs other two production function i.e., Cobb-

Douglas production function and Quadratic production function for comparing results.

The dependent and independent variables which are used to Translog, Cobb-

Douglas and Quadratic production function estimation are presented below:

The dependent variable is Y= Output of rice farms and the independent

variables are land (L), labour (LB), irrigation (I), fertilizer (F), Seed (S) and chemicals

(C). The results of three types of production function are presented in table 6.1:

Table 6.1: Translog Production Function Estimation

Variable Name Variable Description Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

lnland Land -1.49

(1.74)

lnlb Labour -0.08

(1.88)

lnirr Irrigation 0.25

(2.58)

lnfer Fertilizer 0.45

(1.82)

lnseed

Seed -2.67

(1.58)

lnche Chemicals (insecticides) 0.99

(0.59)

0.50 ***

(0.10)

0.34 ***

(0.13)

0.06

(0.16)

0.09

(0.11)

0.06

(0.09)

0.03

(0.04)

-0.42

(0.33)

1.34 *

(0.72)

-4.71 ***

(1.67)

-0.60

(0.72)

0.79 *

(0.46)

0.06

(0.05)

47


Variable Name Variable Description Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

d Dummy variable 0.03

(0.10)

lands Square terms of land 0.03

(0.22)

lbs Square terms of labour 0.16

(0.40)

irrs

fers

Square terms of irrigation

-0.84

(0.58)

Square terms of fertilizer -0.01

(0.22)

ss Square terms of seed 0.04

(0.21)

ches

Square terms of chemicals 0.00

(0.03)

lnlandlnlb Land share with labour 0.77 *

(0.40)

lnlandlnirr Land share with irrigation -0.06

(0.66)

lnlandlnfer

0.18

Land share with fertilizer

(0.30)

lnlandlnseed

Land share with seed -0.17

(0.30)

lnlandlnche Land share with chemicals -0.35 ***

(0.10)

lnlblnirr Labour share with irrigation 0.99 *

(0.52)

lnlblnfer Labour share with fertilizer -0.55

(0.66)

lnlblnseed Labour share with seed -1.07 **

(0.41)

lnlblnche Labour share with chemicals 0.41 *

(0.22)

lnirrlnfer

0.17

Irrigation share with fertilizer

(0.70)

lnirrlnseed Irrigation share with seed 1.58 ***

(0.57)

lnirrlnche Irrigation share with chemicals -0.47

(0.28)

lnferlnseed Fertilizer share with seed -0.00

(0.32)

lnferlnche Fertilizer share with chemicals -0.02

(0.14)

lnseedlnche Seed share with chemicals 0.08

(0.14)

_cons

_

3.69

(4.59)

0.25 **

(0.09)

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

1.27 ***

(0.38)

0.28 ***

(0.10)

0.48 ***

(0.17)

-0.26

(0.17)

0.77 ***

(0.27)

0.09

(0.09)

-0.20 *

(0.12)

0.01

(0.03)

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

8.69 ***

(2.62)

N Number of observations 60 60 60

R 2 0.94 0.80 0.85

adj. R 2 0.89 0.77 0.81

F 17.59 29.96 19.78


N.B.: Standard Errors in Parentheses (*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1)

48


From the perspective of Translog production function (Model 1) it is found

that, the estimates of constant land share with respect to labour; constant labour share

with respect to irrigation, labour share with respect to chemicals (pesticides) and

constant irrigation share with respect to seed are significant. As the values are positive

so it indicates that for any change in these factors the output level of the small firms

also changes in the same direction. So the value of R 2 of Translog production function

0.94 states that 94 percent variation of in paddy output occurs due to the variation in

explanatory variables.

From the above table, it is noticed that in case of Cobb-Douglas production

function (Model 2), land and labour affects the production level. This result indicates

that land has a positive and significant effect on the output of the paddy farmers. The

impacts of labour on production are also positive at 1 percent significant level. The R 2

value is 0.80 that means the explanatory variables can explain 80 percent of the

variation of dependent variable.

Model 3 of table 6.1indicates the result of Quadratic production function. In

this model, only land and irrigation influences the production level. The R 2 value is

0.85 that implies 85 percent variation of in output occurs due to the variation in

independent variables. Comparing the R 2 value of these three models, Translog

production function estimation is best fitted.

But, the result of these models gives contradictory result due to very lower

degrees of freedom. The result of the Translog production function can be significant

but due to the small dataset, the analysis yields such insignificant result for paddy

farmers.

The R squared values of these three models are very high. For that reason, this

study goes to Multicollinearity test and result shows VIF (Variance Inflation Factor)

is so high in case of Translog production function. Due to very lower degrees of

freedom and existence of lot of square terms of variable, there exists such higher

Multicollinearity problem. In case of Quadratic production function, VIF is lower

than that of Translog production function. Among these three models the VIF of

Cobb-Douglas production function is 2.64 that mean there is no Multicollinearity

problem in this model [For details see appendix II]. So, Cobb-Douglas production

function is best fitted among these three models.

49


6.3 Output and Result of the Regression Analysis

In this study, the OLS regression model is run through E-views. The value of

both explained and explanatory variables produces the values of coefficients and other

related econometric parameters. The model finds that by using value of paddy output

as dependent variable in OLS regression analysis, the explanatory variables are highly

significant which is shown in the table 6.2.

The model describes 89 percent of significant of relationship among explained

and explanatory variables and this is highly significant. Probability is also good as it

near to 0.00 which means that this model shows the significant positive relationship

among explanatory and explained variables. Standard error of this model is also very

low except labour (L).

Dependent Variable: VP

Method: Least Squares

Included observations: 60

Table 6.2: Result of Regression Model

Variable Variable Description Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.

C Constant term 536.96 1,995.96 0.27 0.79

EXPENDF Expenditure on fertilizer -1.15 3.09 -0.37 0.71

EXPENDP Expenditure on pesticides 1.09 2.10 0.52 0.61

EXPENDS Expenditure on seed 2.11 1.10 1.91 0.06

L Amount of land 3,008.72 752.41 3.99 0.00

LB Labour cost 2.24 0.96 2.33 0.02

WC Water cost 2.01 0.24 8.29 0.00

R-squared 0.91 Mean dependent var 25,008.33

Adjusted R-squared 0.89 S.D. dependent var 14,580.16

S.E. of regression 4,732.17 Akaike info criterion 19.87

Sum squared resid 1.19E+09 Schwarz criterion 20.12

Log likelihood -589.14 Hannan-Quinn criter. 19.97

F-statistic 84.51 Durbin-Watson stat 1.68

Prob(F-statistic) 0.00


This model finding shows that with 1 unit increase in fertilizer, pesticides,

seed, land, labour and water cost, value of paddy output correspondingly changes 1.15

units negatively, 1.89 units, 2.11 units, 3008 units, 2.24 units and 2.01 units

positively. The R 2 value is 0.91 that means the explanatory variables can explain 91

50


percent of the variation of explained variable. This model result also shows that there

is no auto correlation as D-W statistics test is near to 2.

6.4 Hypothesis Testing

In this study, to trace the variation of output level between water scarcity and

water availability group of paddy farmers, the author takes the help of hypothesis

testing. The assumptions of null and alternative hypothesis for identifying the

difference of output level and corresponding outcomes are portrayed below:

Null Hypothesis, H 0 : β = 0

No mean difference of output level between water availability and water scarcity

group of farmers

Alternative Hypothesis, H 1 : β ≠ 0

Existence of mean difference of output level between water availability and water

scarcity group of farmers

These water availability and water scarcity groups of farmers are divided on

the basis of shallow machine user which is indicated by dummy variable.

Table 6.3: Hypothesis Testing

Variable

Water

Availability

Group (30)

Water Scarcity

Group (30)

Difference

Standard

Error

t-

value

Output

40.97 21.67 19.30 4.01 4.82

(Mound/bigha)


Table 6.3 shows the result of t-test on the basis of output of water availability

and water scarcity group of farmers. The null hypothesis of this study is rejected

which means that there is a significant difference between the output level of

irrigation water scarcity and water availability group of farmers. The table illustrates

that paddy output of water availability group increases 19.30 mound than water

scarcity group of farmers. This study finds that the calculated t-value 4.82 is greater

than the tabulated t-value 1.67 at 5 percent significance level. [For details see

appendix III]

51


In the same way, this study identifies that the output of shallow machine user

that means water availability groups of farmers’ is 25 percent higher in case of Cobb-

Douglas, 28 percent higher in case of quadratic and 3 percent higher in case of

Translog production function than that of water scarcity group of farmers. This result

is presented to the shaded area in table 6.1.

So, this chapter shows the result of Translog, Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic

production function, OLS regression and hypothesis testing. In case of Translog

production function, land share with labour, labour share with irrigation, labour share

with pesticides (chemicals) positively influence paddy output at 10 percent significant

level and irrigation share with seed influences at 1 percent level of significant level.

But, due to lower degrees of freedom, Translog production function yields some

insignificant results. That is why; the author tries to compare the result through

running Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic production function. In case of Cobb-Douglas

production function, land and labour affects the production level positively and in

case of Quadratic production function, land and irrigation influences production level

positively. The OLS regression result also shows that the explanatory variables can

explain 91 percent of the variation of explained variable. This study also identifies

that there is a significant difference between output level of irrigation water

availability and water scarcity group of rice farmers through hypothesis testing.

52


Chapter Seven

Concluding Remarks

8.1Introduction

This chapter focuses on overall findings of the study. Irrigation is the vital

production input because performance of the irrigation farmers has profound effects

on the food prices and welfare of a country. This study addresses Translog production

function, Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic production function, regression analysis and

hypothesis testing for locating the relationship between paddy output and irrigation

water availability in the study area. By considering these econometrics tools, a logical

conclusion has been drawn about whether water scarcity affects the rice production or

not.

8.2 Findings of the Study

Bangladesh is an agro-based country with overpopulation. Irrigation

significantly influences rice production and self-sufficiency in food production plays

vital role for feeding up this huge population in our country. Irrigation water scarcity

is now one of the burning questions in Bangladesh because it is one of the emerging

climate hazard regions in the world.

This study defines irrigation water availability on the basis of water related

cost and shallow machine pumping. The paddy farmers who use shallow machine for

pumping irrigation water are considered as water availability group of farmers and

vice versa. This study considers Rupsha and Batiaghata Upazila as the study areas

because paddy production of these area contribute significant portion of total

production in local area.

There are 100 percent male paddy farmers in the study area and family

members of the sample paddy farmers give their labour to every steps of rice

production. In Rupsha Upazila, paddy farmers cultivate boro rice in most of the land

compared to that of Batiaghata Upazila in this particular season. Paddy farmers of this

area use shallow machine for pumping irrigation water. According to the survey,

production of rice is higher in Rupsha Upazila than that of Batiaghata Upazila.

Although shallow machine pumping incurs much cost than other irrigation instrument

but it lessen water scarcity problem in this area.

53


In Batiaghata Upazila, paddy farmers do not use shallow machine for

irrigation purposes. They collect their irrigation water from canal and nearby river for

rice production because paddy farmers face various difficulties for collecting

irrigation water in this way.

In Batiaghata Upazila, boro rice production is decreasing day by day because

of shortage of irrigation water. There arises conflict among paddy farmers and shrimp

farmers in time of collecting irrigation water from canal. Shrimp farmers lease canal

for shrimp farming in this area and they do not want to give water to paddy farmers.

That is why, paddy farmers of this area faces extreme water scarcity problem for boro

rice production. The majority of the paddy farmers of this area cultivate aman rice

only. Due to this water shortage, boro rice production is starting to shut down in this

area. Most of the paddy farmers of this area give their attention to produce various

vegetables, sunflower and mole production in boro season. So, this Upazila is water

scarce area for rice production. This is one of the vital findings of this study.

In aman season, paddy production in this study area depends on rain water for

irrigation. But, in boro season, about 50 percent of the paddy farmers depended on

shallow machine for pumping irrigation water during last three years. About 23

percent and 7 percent paddy farmers relied on canal and river water for irrigation

respectively in the year 2013, 2012 and 2011.

In 2010, about 50 percent of paddy farmers used river water for irrigation but

due to increasing salinity of the river this trend is decreasing in the latter years and

most of them now depend on shallow machine pumping. But, still river water salinity

creates water scarcity problem in this area. River water salinity increases soil salinity

also and this problem creates negative impact on the rice production in this area.

The author of this paper maps out the relation between paddy output and

production inputs with the help of Translog production function. The outcome in this

context is the values of the coefficient of land share with labour, labour share with

irrigation and irrigation share with seed are significantly related with output of the

rice firms which are under consideration of this study. But, due to lower degrees of

freedom, Translog production function creates some insignificant results.

In the paper the author finds that, paddy production inputs like land, labour,

pesticide, fertilizer, seed and water cost have significance influence on value of paddy

output in this study area through regression analysis. Expenditure on fertilizer

54


negatively, land amount, expenditure on pesticides, expenditure on seed, labour cost

and water cost positively influence the paddy output of this area.

Due to insignificant result of Translog production function, the author runs

Cobb-Douglas and quadratic production function based on the same data set in order

to comparing result of the models. This study uses dummy variables for dividing

water scarcity and water availability group of farmers and use this information in

order to running models.

In Cobb-Douglas production function’ estimation, the result shows that output

of water available group of paddy farmers is 25 percent higher than that of the water

scarce group of paddy farmers. In quadratic and Translog production function, output

is 28 percent and 3 percent higher respectively for the water available group

compared to water scarce group of farmers. So, there is significant difference between

output level of water availability and water scarcity group of farmers.

Therefore, it may be concluded that irrigation water scarcity negatively

influences the productivity of rice output in the study area. According to the field

survey, Batiaghata Upazila faces more irrigation water scarcity problem than that of

Rupsha Upazila.

8.3 Policy Recommendation

Bangladesh faces extreme negative impact of climate change during last

several years. Due to huge population pressure, water pollution is increasing

continuously together with other problems that lead to increase of irrigation water cost

and food prices. Actions to cope with water scarcity are required at various levels:

There is a conflict between paddy farmers and shrimp farmers for irrigation

water. At local level, better management practices are needed to overcome conflict

among various water user groups.

It will be better to change rice cultivation management technique for saving

irrigation water that leads to enlarge rice yield.

In Bangladesh, it is needed to improve various water-saving irrigation

techniques through considering crop varieties that might lead to decreasing production

cost.

Water contamination might be decreased in order to increasing amount of

irrigation water.

55


8.4 Conclusion

Water and food are the fundamental elements for livelihood. Agricultural

sector is the largest water user sector in the world. There is a strong relationship

between irrigation water availability and rice production in Bangladesh as it is an

agro-based country. Self-sufficiency in food production has a significant socioeconomic

impact on the country. This study focuses on the impact of irrigation water

availability on the rice production of the study area. This study considers the paddy

farmers of Rupsha and Batiaghata Upazila as respondents. This study finds significant

relationship between explained and explanatory variables. Land, labour, seed,

pesticide, and water cost positively influence the value of paddy output but fertilizer

influences the output negatively. This study tries to identify the differences in the

output level between water scarcity and water availability group of farmers. This

study finds that there exists a larger and statistically significant difference of output

level between irrigation water availability and scarcity group of paddy farmers. The

output of water available group of paddy farmers is 3 percent, 25 percent and 28

percent higher than that of water scarce group of paddy farmers which is estimated by

Translog, Cobb-Douglas and Quadratic production function correspondingly. So,

water availability generate positive impact on paddy output and irrigation water

scarcity generate negative influence on the rice production that leads to decrease in

rice production, creates food shortage and increases food prices.

8.5 Future Research Option

This study can be directly applicable in other regions of Bangladesh for the

agro production. The findings of the study may be compared among various regions.

The future studies may also consider other inputs that are not considered in this study.

Defining water availability is one of the very difficult issues in the world because it is

difficult to count numerically. This study tries to define it on the basis of irrigation

related cost and user of shallow machine pumping. There are a lot of other modern

instruments in order to defining water availability in the region like precipitation,

annual rainfall, sea level measurement but this incurs huge cost. That is why, this

study cannot move this way but the researchers can further study considering these

issues and might find better and précised result than this study. This study

methodology, data collection, analysis and hypothesis testing process can be used as

an example for similar studies in manufacturing sectors to estimate the relation

56


between production and inputs. Accordingly, the researchers might develop new

policy recommendation to overcome the short comings of collecting irrigation water

in the concerned sector.

57

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61

Appendix I

Questionnaire for Research on

‘Water Availability and Rice Production: A Study on Khulna District’

Economics Discipline, Khulna University

(Only for study purpose)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sample no.: ………………

01. Name of the respondent:

Part A (Personal Information)

02. Address: Village: …………….. Union: ……………….

03. Family profile:

Sl.

no.

Name

1.*

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

[* Indicate head of the family]

Code box for Occupation

Age

(Years)

Sex

(M/F)

Education

(Year of

schooling)

Occupation

(Use code)

Date: ……………

Income

(BDT/month)

Student 1 Farmer 2 Businessman 3

Service Holder 4 Housewife 5 Motor cycle driver 6

Daily labour 7 Van/rickshaw puller 8

Shopkeeper 9 Others (Specify):………………. 10

04. Information about consumption expenditure:

1.Food

2.Cloths

3.Housing

4.Education

5.Electricity

6.Transport

7.Fuel

8.Festival

9.Health

Sectors

Expenditure (BDT /per month)

ix

05. Have electricity available in the village? a) Yes b) No

0.6 Does the household use electricity? a)Yes b) No

If not, then the private sources are: (0) Lamp (1) Kerosene lantern (2) Solar module

(3) Candle (4) Others (Specify):………………

Part B (Production Information)

07. How many plots of land do you have and how many times (per year) do you

cultivate?

Plot no. 1 2 3 4 5

Area in acres

or Bigha

Cultivated

times (per

year)

08. What kind of crop do you cultivate in the following time period?

Cropping

pattern

(Year)

2013

2012

2011

2010

2000

1990

Boro (IRRI)

Aman

Plot-I Plot-II Plot-I Plot-II

x

09. Information about paddy cultivation in the two biggest plots in Boro season:

09.1 Land information (in Boro season): (The farmers who have own land; the lease cost of the

adjacent land is considered for them as land cost)

Plot no. Plot-I Plot-II

Area in acres

Lease cost (BDT)/Year)

Distance to paddy field from home (km)

Distance of the river from the plots (km)

Distance of the deep tube-well from the plots

(km)

Distance of the shallow tube-well from the

plots (km)

Distance of the normal tube-well from the

plots (km)

Distance to paddy field from water sources

(km)

How far from the plots electricity is available

(km)

Duration of water logging in the plots

(month)

*The land which is drowned with water at least two months considered as water logging.

09.2 Agricultural return (in Boro season):

Quantity (Mon)

Particulars Plot-I Plot-II

Market price (BDT/Mon)

Total (BDT)

09.3 Labor information (in Boro season):

Production

step

Plough

Plantation

Harvesting

Biggest

two plot

Plot-I

Plot-II

Plot-I

Plot-II

Plot-I

Plot-II

Family

Hired

Man Woman Man Woman

No. Wage

BDT

/day

No.

Wage

BDT

/day

No.

Wage

BDT

/day

No.

Wage

BDT

/day

xi

09.4 Information about irrigation (in Boro season):

09.4.1 What are the sources of water in the locality and which sources are used by the

respondent in biggest two plots?

Sources of drinking water

Sources of irrigation water

Plot-I

Plot-II

09.4.2 Sources of irrigation water over different seasons:

Water

sources

(Year)

2013

2012

2011

2010

2000

1990

Boro season

Boro (Plot no.)

1 2 3 4 5

Water

sources

(Year)

2013

Aman season

Aman (Plot no.)

1 2 3 4 5

2012

2011

2010

2000

1990

xii

Water

sources

(Year)

2013

Aush season

Aush (Plot no.)

1 2 3 4 5

2012

2011

2010

2000

1990

09.4.3 Irrigation water information (in Boro season):

Particulars Plot I Plot II

1. Is irrigation needed in this

considered season?

2.Number of Irrigation

(Number/per plot)

3. Amount of diesel used for

cultivation (Liters/per plot)

4. Estimation of water cost Plot I Plot II

4.1Energy expenditure of pumping

water (BDT/per plot)

4.2 Time used for pumping water

(Hours/per plot)

4.3 Cost of hiring pump machines

(BDT/per plot)

4.4Cost of collecting water from

other sources (BDT/per plot)

4.5Electricity expenditure for

pumping shallow machine

(BDT/per plot)

09.4.4 Any production loss for water scarcity in last production year?

a) Yes b) No

If yes, then how much loss incurred (BDT)?

xiii

09.5 Information about fertilizer (in Boro season):

Name Amount (kg) Price (BDT/kg) Total cost (BDT)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Plot-I Plot-II Plot-I Plot-II Plot-I Plot-II

09.6 Information about seed (in Boro season):

Particulars Plot I Plot II

1. Amount of seed (kg/per plot)

2. Price of seed (BDT/kg)

09.7 Information about plant protection insecticides (in Boro season):

Name Amount Price (BDT) Total cost (BDT)

Plot-I Plot-II Unit Plot-I Plot-II Plot-I Plot-II

1.

2.

3.

4.

10. Did you receive any credit for your rice production purpose?

Yes

No

If yes, how much (in BDT) and from where?

2013 Government

(Amount in BDT)

Amount of credit

use in irrigation

purpose

Others (Specify):

NGOs

(Amount in BDT)

Others (Specify):

………………….

(Amount in

BDT)

…………………..

xiv

11. Have you received any production technique related training facility?

Yes

No

If yes, from where? a) Government b) NGOs

c) Others (Specify): ………………..

12. Any harassment and problems faced during getting irrigation water:

13. What are the causes of water scarcity in the study area? (Respondent thinking)

14. Have you taken any initiatives for managing irrigation water?

15. Other problems you have faced during production of rice:

Signature of the Interviewer

......................................

Date: ………………….

Thank you

xv

Appendix II

Multicollinearity Test Result

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Variable VIF 1/VIF Variable VIF 1/VIF Variable VIF 1/VIF

lnirrlnfer

lnlblnfer

irrs

lnirrlnseed

lnfer

fers

lnlblnirr

lnlandlnirr

lnferlnseed

lnirr

lnlb

lnirrlnche

lnseed

lbs

lnland

lnlblnseed

lnlandlnfer

lnche

lnferlnche

lnlandlnlb

lnlblnche

ss

lnlandlnseed

lnseedlnche

lands

lnlandlnche

9269.33

7345.17

3371.09

3209.15

2470.82

2176.68

2085.5

1810.72

1757.68

1753.99

1491.09

1452.3

1361.35

1186.46

879.61

865.69

618.06

584.42

454.33

389.63

366.96

345.23

209.53

122.8

60.59

18.83

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.003

0.003

0.004

0.008

0.016

0.053

lnfer

lnirr

lnlb

lnseed

lnche

lnland

ches

4 0.249

MeanVIF 1691.15 MeanVIF 2.64 Mean VIF 143.46

3.92

3.3

3.11

2.49

1.55

1.45

0.255

0.303

0.322

0.401

0.646

0.691

lnirr

irrs

lnfer

fers

lnlb

lbs

lnseed

ss

lands

lnland

lnche

ches

429.18

421.53

228.35

214.63

131.06

127.9

65.34

59.98

19.62

19.33

2.83

1.71

0.002

0.0023

0.004

0.005

0.008

0.008

0.015

0.016

0.051

0.051

0.353

0.584

xvi

Appendix III

Unpaired t test

Group obs Mean Std. Err. Std. Dev. [95%Conf.Interval]

waterscar(0) 30 21.66667 1.809511 9.911099 17.9658 25.36753

wateravail(1) 30 40.96667 3.575293 19.58269 33.65437 48.27896

combined 60 31.31667 2.350441 18.20644 26.61345 36.01989

diff -19.3 4.007125 -27.3211 -11.2789

diff = mean(0) -mean(1) t = -4.8164

Ho: diff = 0 degrees of freedom = 58

Ha: diff < 0 Ha: diff !=0 Ha: diff > 0

Pr(T < t) = 0.0000 Pr(T >t)=0 Pr(T > t) = 1.0000

xvii

Final_MSS_121504_2014_10_21_Main Project Paper

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