Composer Profile - Activefolio

Track Title/Composer/Performer
Music to Your Ears
CD Tracks/Music Examples/Performers
1. Gregorian Chant, Lumen ad revelationem gentium (anonymous).
Performed by Trigon
2. Oganum, Hodie beata virgo Maria (anonymous).
Performed by Trigon
3. Section of the Mass, “Qui Tollis,” from Pope Marcellus Mass, Giovanni Palestrina.
Performed by the Vienna Choir
4. Madrigal, Si Ch’io vorrei morire, Claudio Monteverdi.
Performed by Il Canto
5. Fugue in g minor (“Little”), Johann Sebastian Bach.
Performed by David Shrader
6. “Hallelujah” Chorus from Messiah, George Frideric Handel.
Performed by Bach Collegium Japan/Suzuki
7. Symphony #40 in g minor, K. 550, 1st movement, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Performed by the Zurich Chamber Orchestra/Griffiths
8. Symphony #5 in c minor, 1st movement, Ludwig van Beethoven.
Performed by the Orchestre National Bordeaux Aquitane/Lombard
9. Lied, Erlkönig, Franz Schubert.
Performed by H.J. Hammel-tenor and L. Holmeier-piano
10. Prelude in e minor, Frederick Chopin.
Performed by Ivan Moravec
11. Symphonie Fantastique, 5th movement, Hector Berlioz.
Performed by the Czech Philharmonic/Kosler
12. Prelude, Tristan and Isolde, Richard Wagner.
Performed by the Budapest Symphony/Jancsovics
13. Symphony #8 (“Symphony of a Thousand”), Finale, Gustav Mahler.
Performed by the Gothenberg Symphony Orchestra and Chorus/Järvi
14. Clair de Lune, Claude Debussy.
Performed by Roland Pontinen
15. Piano Piece, Opus 33a, Arnold Schoenberg.
Performed by Grete Sultan
16. Lt. Kije Suite, “Wedding of Kije,” Serge Prokofiev.
Performed by the Malmo Symphony/DePriest
17. Rodeo, “Hoedown,” Aaron Copland.
Performed by the Sinfonia Varsovia/Smolij

Track Title/Composer/Performer
Music to Your Ears
CD Tracks/Music Examples/Performers
1. Gregorian Chant, Lumen ad revelationem gentium (anonymous).
Performed by Trigon
2. Oganum, Hodie beata virgo Maria (anonymous).
Performed by Trigon
3. Section of the Mass, “Qui Tollis,” from Pope Marcellus Mass, Giovanni Palestrina.
Performed by the Vienna Choir
4. Madrigal, Si Ch’io vorrei morire, Claudio Monteverdi.
Performed by Il Canto
5. Fugue in g minor (“Little”), Johann Sebastian Bach.
Performed by David Shrader
6. “Hallelujah” Chorus from Messiah, George Frideric Handel.
Performed by Bach Collegium Japan/Suzuki
7. Symphony #40 in g minor, K. 550, 1st movement, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Performed by the Zurich Chamber Orchestra/Griffiths
8. Symphony #5 in c minor, 1st movement, Ludwig van Beethoven.
Performed by the Orchestre National Bordeaux Aquitane/Lombard
9. Lied, Erlkönig, Franz Schubert.
Performed by H.J. Hammel-tenor and L. Holmeier-piano
10. Prelude in e minor, Frederick Chopin.
Performed by Ivan Moravec
11. Symphonie Fantastique, 5th movement, Hector Berlioz.
Performed by the Czech Philharmonic/Kosler
12. Prelude, Tristan and Isolde, Richard Wagner.
Performed by the Budapest Symphony/Jancsovics
13. Symphony #8 (“Symphony of a Thousand”), Finale, Gustav Mahler.
Performed by the Gothenberg Symphony Orchestra and Chorus/Järvi
14. Clair de Lune, Claude Debussy.
Performed by Roland Pontnien
15. Piano Piece, Opus 33a, Arnold Schoenberg.
Performed by Grete Sultan
16. Lt. Kije Suite, “Wedding of Kije,” Serge Prokofiev.
Performed by the Malmo Symphony/DePriest
17. Rodeo, “Hoedown,” Aaron Copland.
Performed by the Sinfonia Varsovia/Smolij

M
usic to Your Ears
An Introduction
to Classical Music
Dr. Richard L. McGee
Dr. Joan B. McGee
Professors at the Community
College of Southern Nevada
KENDALL/HUNT PUBLISHING COMPANY
4050 Westmark Drive Dubuque, Iowa 52002

Copyright © 2003 by Richard L. McGee and Joan B. McGee
ISBN 0-7575-0234-2
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company has the exclusive rights to reproduce this work,
to prepare derivative works from this work, to publicly distribute this work,
to publicly perform this work and to publicly display this work.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retreival system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopyiong, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents
Preface vii
1 What Is Music? 1
Introduction 1
Music Really Is the Universal Language 1
How Music Is Created 2
Ancient Music 3
Music History Timeline 4
The Building Blocks of Musical Sound 4
PITCH—How high or low a sound is 5
Musical Notation, or how to tell a musician which note
to play on the instrument 5
DURATION—The length of time that a sound lasts 6
DYNAMICS—How loud or soft a musical sound is 7
TIMBRE—The kind or quality of a musical sound 8
Summary 9
Key Terms 10
Review 11
2 Musical Instruments 13
Modern Instrumental Families 13
The Woodwind Family 14
The Brass Family 16
The String Family 17
The Percussion Family 19
Keyboard Instruments and Electronic Instruments 20
The Symphony Orchestra 21
Other Ensembles 22
Summary 22
Key Terms 22
Review 23
iii

3 Music of the Middle Ages 25
Music History Timeline 25
Christianity and Music 25
Gregorian Chant 26
The Rise of Polyphonic Music 27
Secular Music in the Middle Ages 29
Summary 30
Key Terms 30
Review 31
4 The Renaissance 33
General Characteristics of Renaissance Music 33
The Mass 35
The Reformation and the Counter Reformation 36
Secular Vocal Music 37
Instrumental Music 40
Key Terms 41
Review 43
5 Music of the Baroque 45
The Ages of Absolutism and Science 45
Major and Minor Modes 46
Dynamics, Tempo, and Structure 47
From Renaissance to Baroque: Opera 47
Baroque Vocal Music: Opera, Oratorio, Cantata 48
Baroque Instrumental Music 50
The Baroque Orchestra 50
The Concerto Grosso 51
The Suite 52
Baroque Keyboard Forms: Prelude, Toccata, and Fugue 54
The End of the Baroque: Rococo 55
Key Terms 56
Review 57
6 The Classical Period 59
Social Trends 59
The Piano 60
The Mannheim School 60
The Classical Orchestra 60
Structure and Symmetry in Music 61
The Classical Sonata 62
The Symphony and String Quartet 62
The Concerto 66
Opera in the Classical Period 67
Summary 70
Key Terms 70
Review 71
iv

7 Beethoven and the Transition to Romanticism 73
Cultural Overview 73
Beethoven’s Life 74
Beethoven’s Music 75
Beethoven’s Symphonies 76
Summary 80
Key Terms 80
Review 81
8 The Early Romantic Period 83
Introduction 83
Romantic Thinking 84
Cultural Perspective 85
Musical Trends 85
The Enlargement of Forms 85
Rubato 86
The Lied 86
The Character Piece 88
Clara, Fanny, and the Role of Women in the Romantic Period 90
Giaocchinno Rossini: Early Romantic Opera Buffa 95
Summary 95
Key Terms 95
Review 97
9 The Late Romantic Period 99
Introduction 99
Cultural Perspectives 100
Conservatives vs. Radicals 100
Opera in the Late Romantic 101
Symphonic Trends of the Late Romantic Period 105
Nationalism 110
From Romantic to post-Romantic 113
Summary 113
Key Terms 113
Review 115
10 10 The Twentieth Century 117
Introduction 117
Five Major Stylistic Trends in the Twentieth Century 118
Impressionism 119
Expressionism 121
Neo-Classicism 123
Neo-Romanticism 124
Modern 129
Summary 131
Key Terms 132
Review 133
v

11
11
11 Beyond Classical Music 135
Introduction 135
From Ragtime to Jazz 135
The Big Band Era 137
From Bebop to Cool School 137
The Blending of Styles in Jazz 139
Rock Music and Other Popular Styles 139
Summary and Closing Statement 141
Key Terms 141
Review 143
Glossary 145
Bibliographic References 163
Index 165
vi

Preface
The purpose of this book is to introduce the lay reader or beginning music student
to the history and evolution of classical music in the western hemisphere. Every
attempt has been made to relate the events and significant musical trends in plain English,
without excessive musical terminology. As a result, the text is designed to be
useful for students at a high school or collegiate reading level without any requirement
that they be able to read music. Aimed primarily for non music majors, the book nevertheless
provides a clear, concise overview of the history of western music from the beginning
of the Medieval period to the present day. Though not the primary focus of this
book, a brief outline of the development of jazz and rock musical styles is provided.
Basic musical terms are discussed and defined within the book, which are helpful
for any person who wishes to discuss music intelligently. In addition, a compact disc
recording containing representative examples of various musical styles is included. Brief
descriptions of the recorded examples are provided in the appropriate chapters. As was
stated earlier, these musical descriptions are presented in general terms so that people
who do not read music can still benefit from the descriptions and analyses.
It is our hope that those who read this book will be inspired to continue their
musical studies. We strongly feel that good music should be a part of everyone’s life, and
that the key to enjoying classical music rests in understanding how and why composers
and musicians did what they did. There is a wealth of classical music out there full of
spirituality, passion and outright fun.
We truly hope that this book will provide a foundation for a lifetime of appreciation
and enjoyment of great music.
vii
Dick and Joan McGee

1
Introduction
What Is Music?
For thousands of years, perhaps as long as humans have been on Earth, music has
been a part of every culture. Some have called music “the universal language,”
and though the phrase might sound corny, it is essentially correct. Music reaches
across language barriers and political boundaries. It is timeless; even if music sounds old
or out of date to a literate listener, he or she can almost always understand the composer’s
intent. Music is the one form of communication that speaks directly from the soul of the
composer to the soul of the listener. Even if a piece of music was written by someone
from another century, another country or who spoke a different language than
the listener, any listener can realize what the composer wanted to convey, if some of the
basic concepts of music are understood. Understanding music is therefore not only
desirable, it is necessary in order to truly understand the nature and history of mankind.
There is another reason why studying music is such a valuable way to spend your
time. Many, many studies have tried to correlate the relationships between students who
study and play music, and those students’ performance on standardized tests, tests of
spatial reasoning and many others. Even rats who train to run through mazes increase
their abilities when listening to classical music as compared to more current popular
music. So as you study classical music during this term, you may also be expanding your
brain and allowing the concepts of this type of communication to further your abilities
in other areas.
Music Really Is the Universal Language
We are lucky in the twenty-first century to be alive in a time when all kinds of music are
readily available. In fact, sometimes it’s difficult to escape music. We are surrounded by
it in cars, stores, sporting events, television, movies, elevators, on the phone while on
hold, you name it. Life would not be the same without music. Try watching a movie
without a musical soundtrack, or imagine a movie with the “wrong” kind of music
accompanying it. The twentieth century was also the first time in history when people
could actually capture performances through recordings. As a result, most of us have
libraries of music in our homes. We take the ability to collect musical performances for
granted, but no earlier generation had that luxury. As a result of our constant exposure
to music, our ears have learned to tolerate, and even to understand many types of sounds
1

2 Chapter 1
that might have puzzled our ancestors. Consider the following listening example, and
see if you can guess what type of scene the composer had in mind while composing the
piece:
How Music Is Created
Listen to This
Track #17
Try to listen to this piece without finding out any other information about it.
Play a little game and see if you can tell, strictly by the sounds, what the
composer had in mind. First, be conscious of the music’s energy; is it happy or
sad, energetic or contemplative? Second, listen to stylistic features; can you get
an idea of the nationality of the music? Third, as the music progresses try to
determine whether or not the composer was actually depicting a scene or story.
This is an important distinction because you will learn that many pieces of music
attempt to paint a picture while many others do not. Finally, where might you
expect to hear this music? Do you think it was written for a party, a dance, an
opera, a funeral, a wedding, a play or just for fun?
Don’t feel like there are absolute answers for any of these questions. However,
composers of this type of music usually did have something in mind when
they wrote it. One of the fun things about listening to orchestral music is trying
to get inside the head of the composer. Once you understand what the composer
was attempting to do, that is the first step toward understanding the music.
Later in this book we will revisit this specific piece and Aaron Copland.
By the way, the piece is Aaron Copland’s “Hoedown,” from Rodeo.
Music, like the example you just heard, doesn’t come into existence by chance. A composer
will spend years perfecting his or her craft, and produce compositions through
work that is tedious and sometimes exhausting. Since the language of music has no
words, the sounds themselves must convey the desired thought. This might seem like an
elementary concept, but knowing which notes should follow others, and in what measure
of time, can be difficult, to say the least. The sequence of sounds themselves might
be arranged into a melody, and this melody is usually crafted into a structure of musical
phrases. Like words grouped into sentences and paragraphs, notes of a melody tend to
make more immediate sense when grouped into a sequence of phrases and sections.
Similar to certain types of poetry, some music seems to benefit from areas of repetition.
In addition, much classical music is divided into sections, called movements, just as
books are divided into chapters. How music is organized, along with how it is created to
begin with, are all concepts this book will deal with later.
Complicating the issue is the fact that the instrumentation chosen as the performance
medium for the work will have a huge influence on the overall effect. Indeed, the
art of choosing which specific instruments or voices to use in a piece is a difficult skill to
master. Should a melody be played on a trumpet, or perhaps a guitar, or perhaps the
melody should be sung? Whatever instrument plays the melody will have to be assisted
by accompanying instruments. How many, and of what type? Should the accompaniment
be thick or thin, loud or soft, energetic or lyrical? These questions and many more
enter into the decisions that every composer must make.

Ancient Music
What Is Music? 3
Once the music is composed for instruments or voices, then what? Musicians perform
the music, of course. We have seen the development of an amazingly diverse collection
of instruments over the past several centuries, and a musician is a person who
specializes in the performance of music on an instrument, or through singing. Using
the instructions provided by the composer, musicians interpret and perform the music.
If they are successful, the composer’s intended message is transmitted to the audience.
As you can well imagine, music is performed in almost every type of setting, and by
a very wide range of ensembles. Solo performance is very common, especially on certain
instruments such as the piano and the guitar. Other instruments are particularly well
suited to performing in groups. Bands, orchestras, and combos each have their own
sounds and uses. Depending on the period in history, the popular musical style of the
time might favor large orchestras or small bands. Nowadays, almost every type of ensemble
has its own group of followers, and almost all styles are popular to some degree.
The audience might seem to be an unessential part of the music-making process,
but nothing could be further from the truth. The listener completes the chain in the
music experience. Without the listener or the audience, there is no reason to create
music in the first place. When real communication between the musicians and the audience
is taking place during a performance, the effect is very special and personal to all
who are involved. For the last century or so, the listener has held an even more important
position in the music industry. As a consumer of music, the listener dictates musical
trends, and indirectly determines the style of music that the composer will ultimately
write. This is particularly true in popular or commercial music, where public tastes change
rapidly, and a composer can reap a large financial reward for pleasing the public.
The ability of music to communicate across years and cultures is what gives it the
nickname, “the universal language.” The actual reasons that Copland’s images are so
vividly depicted through music are incredibly complex, involving the speed and pulse of
the music, the manner in which the chords progress and relate to one another, the
dynamics or loudness of the music, and many other factors. These factors combine to
create an acoustic representation of an actual scene. As unbelievable as that sounds, that
is the purpose of much of the music one hears today. This also explains why a wellconceived
film score can be so valuable to the impact of a movie, and why a poorly
written score can be a distraction.
The earliest music was probably vocal, but the use of primitive instruments is almost as
old as civilization itself. Percussion instruments were developed, including logs, sticks,
and even clapping or hitting the human body. Other more melodic instruments evolved,
including conch shells, bow strings, animal horns, skins, and hollowed bones. These
everyday items were the predecessors of most of our contemporary wind and string
instruments. Evidence of these instruments has been found in late Paleolithic deposits
from Europe, around 30,000 years ago.
Among the great early civilizations, music was obviously very important though
we have no written records of the music itself. The music of these times was almost
exclusively used for religious purposes. Descriptions of the instruments of the time are
common, and we know that the principal instruments of the Sumerian era (beginning
about 3,000 B.C.) were descendents of the harp. Later, around 2,000 B.C. predecessors
of the oboe, flute, lute, and drum were widely used. Wall art in Egyptian tombs
dating back to 1400 B.C. shows musicians performing with lutes. By the year 800 B.C.,
evidence suggests that the Assyrian civilization was being introduced to instruments
from other countries.

4 Chapter 1
Writings from the Greek civilization had much to say about music, and music
certainly had an important place in Greek culture. However, only around twenty actual
examples of Greek music have ever been found, and these are only fragments. From
what we know, Greek music sounded very different than music of Eastern and Middle
Eastern cultures, but we don’t know much more than that. Far more information is
available about the practices of Greek musicians and the instruments they used. Greeks
used music for all sorts of occasions, both secular and religious. Music was used to
complement poetry and drama, as well as for social events such as parties and banquets.
The lyre, the aulos (a predecessor of the oboe), and the human voice seemed to be the
dominant instruments, though others were certainly used.
Perhaps the greatest musical contribution of the Greeks came in the form of scientific
research. The study of acoustics reached a high level of sophistication during the
period around 550 B.C. The discovery of the octave, the development of many musical
scales, and the description of intervals as ratios were all attributed to the Greek thinkers
of the time, especially Pythagoras. These discoveries have served as the first real research
into the science of music and sound, an area of study that is still very much alive today.
Music History Timeline
As mentioned before, this book deals specifically with music development in Western
civilizations. With that in mind, there are six major musical periods that will be discussed
in detail in chapters 3 through 10. For now, just titles and a few of the major composers
from each period will be listed. (Remember period dates are approximate.)
First period Medieval—which lasted until approximately 1450
Main Composer: Machaut
Second period Renaissance—which lasted from 1450 to 1600
Main Composers: Dufay, Des Prez, Palestrina, Gabrieli,
Monteverdi
Third period Baroque—lasting from 1600 to 1750
Main Composers: J.S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Purcell
Fourth period Classical—which lasted from 1750 to 1800
Main Composers: Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven
Fifth period Romantic—lasting from 1800 to 1900
Main Composers: Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Berlioz, Liszt,
Mahler, Wagner, Verdi, Rossini, Tchaikovsky and many more
Sixth period 20th Century—lasting from 1900 to the present time
Main Composers: Debussy, Ravel, Poulenc, Stravinsky, Gershwin,
Copland, Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, Shostakovich, Prokofiev,
Elgar, Cage, Berio, Boulez, and many more
Though the focus of this text is primarily historical, a brief look at the building
blocks of music and musical sounds is important to fully understand how music works.
Some basic musical terminology will also be discussed, so that the reader will be able to
communicate with other musicians and music lovers in real musical terms.
The Building Blocks of Musical Sound
When one hears a musical sound, several characteristics of that sound can be described,
and even measured. For musicians, it is critical to be able to define these characteristics;
this is why written music was developed. For purposes of simplicity, we will divide the

What Is Music? 5
characteristics of musical sounds into four main areas: pitch, duration, dynamics, and
timbre. Some of these characteristics can be written down on the musical page, and
others must be addressed separately.
PITCH—How high or low a sound is
Some composers feel that any sound, even silence, can be musical. This is true, yet what
we normally think of as musical sounds tend to be more coherent and “pure” than
everyday sounds such as traffic noise. In any event, all sound, whether musical or not, is
caused by vibrations. Note that vibrations CAUSE sound, but vibrations are not sound.
In order for vibrations to be heard as a sound, they must travel through a medium, such
as air, so that the ear can sense them. The sensation of vibrations by the ear is what we
define as “sound.” Vibrations that cycle at a more or less steady rate are often heard as
musical tones. The slowest rate of vibration that people sense as a musical note is about
20 cycles per second. People with good hearing can sense notes that vibrate as fast as
20,000 cycles per second. The faster the vibrations you hear, the higher the perceived
pitch to your ear. The speed at which a sound vibrates is called the frequency. For
example, a note with a frequency of 400 cycles per second would sound “higher” than
a note that vibrates at 200 cycles per second. In fact, those two notes mentioned above
have a special relationship. Any time two pitches have frequencies that are double or half
of one another, they are said to be octaves. Octaves have a uniquely similar sound that
is very useful in music.
Musical Notation, or how to tell a musician which note to play on the instrument:
In our system of music notation, pitches are represented as notes on a staff. Notes are
circular shapes that are placed on the lines and spaces of the staff. The higher the placement
of a note on the staff, the higher the pitch. In our system of music, pitches are said
to proceed up or down in steps. Sequences of eight notes moving in steps represents a
scale. The steps of the scale are named after letters of the alphabet, from “A” through
“G” (see Figure 1). Notes that are raised in pitch one half step above the natural pitch
have a sharp placed in front (to the left) of the note in music to signify the change (see
Figure 2). Likewise, a natural note that is lowered one half step has a flat placed in front
of the note. To identify a pitch, one must first look at the clef on the left side of the staff.
Figure 1
C# D# F# G# A# C# D#
or or or or or or or
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb
C D E F G A B C D E

6 Chapter 1
Figure 2
The treble clef denotes the upper range. High-pitched instruments, most female voices,
and boys or men singing in falsetto, operate in the treble clef. The lower pitched instruments
and most male voices use the bass clef. Other clefs exist, such as tenor clef or alto
clef, which combine lines from the treble and bass clefs, but they are not as common as
bass and treble clefs. All of the clefs employ a five-line staff.
The system of representing pitches which has evolved over the last fifteen hundred
years is by no means perfect, but at least a mechanism exists to record the relative pitches
of a piece of music.
DURATION—The length of time that a sound lasts
The general category of duration is actually comprised of two major categories: rhythm
and tempo. Though they address two distinct areas of music, they are related since both
categories relate to the existence of musical sounds in time.
Rhythm is shown on the musical staff by changing the appearance of notes, as
shown. In short, the location of a note on a line or space determines its pitch, and the
shape of the note determines its duration. Notice that none of the notes has a specified
number of beats; one can only tell the relative duration of the notes. For example, a
whole note is twice the length of a half note, a half note is twice the length of a quarter
note, and so on. The number of beats that a note represents can only be determined
when a time signature is applied to the music. Think of a time signature as a “key to the
code.” The upper number of the time signature shows how many beats are in a measure
of music, and the bottom number tells what kind of note gets one beat. The top number
could really be any value, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, but the bottom number must stand for
a note type: 1 for whole note, 2 for half note, 4 for quarter note, 8 for eighth note, etc.
Once a time signature is established the musician can apply beats to the notes to give
them the appropriate value.

What Is Music? 7
Time signatures fall into a few basic categories, depending upon where the strong
beats in the music seem to fall. Measures have a specific number of beats which determines
its meter. The most common arrangement is to have beats grouped in measures
of two or four beats each. This grouping is called duple meter, and the top number of
the time signature would be a 2, 4, or 8. A somewhat less common, but still frequent,
type of meter groups the measures into three beats each. This type of music is said to be
in triple meter, and time signatures in a triple meter would have a 3, 6 or 9 as the top
number. Music that seems to have elements of both duple and triple meters is said to
have a compound meter. Time signatures with a 6 or a 12 as the top number are
compound meters.
The speed at which the beats occur is called the tempo. Unlike pitch and rhythm,
tempo cannot be “written in” to the notes themselves, but must be shown on the music
by means of a tempo marking. These markings are words, traditionally in Italian, which
signify a general idea for the speed of the musical pulses or beats. See Figure 3 for some
common tempo markings. These markings are placed above the musical staff, at the
beginning of a piece or a section of a piece, in the case of tempo changes.
Largo broadly, slowly
Grave grave, solemn
Lento slowly
Adagio slowly, at ease
Andante on the slow side, literally walking tempo
Moderato moderate tempo
Allegro fast, cheerful
Vivace quick, lively
Presto very fast
Prestissimo as fast as possible
Figure 3 Tempo
DYNAMICS—How loud or soft a musical sound is
Dynamics, or the loudness or softness of a sound, were not always described on written
music. However, historians now know that common performance practices demanded
changes in the loudness of music as far back as the late Middle Ages. Instructions for the
relative loudness or softness of music started appearing in the Renaissance Period. As in
the case of tempo, modern music notation has no means by which to show dynamics on
the musical staff. Therefore, words or symbols are placed below the staff, which show
the dynamic level, or changes to the dynamic level. Figure 4 illustrates the most common
dynamic markings. Keep in mind that these dynamic levels are relative; there is no
quantifiable value for “soft” or “loud.” Again, as in the case of tempo markings, the
traditional language to use for these terms is Italian.
The metronome, invented in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel, gave musicians
the ability to quantify exactly the pulse of a piece. The metronome clicks regularly with
a readout that describes the clicks in beats per minute. With this instrument in widespread
use, the composer could show his intended tempo in much more finite terms
than the Italian descriptors. Rather than saying “allegro,” he might show the marking
=144, indicating that beats (represented by quarter notes) occur 144 times per minute.

8 Chapter 1
Often a musician will find both an Italian tempo marking, for instance Allegro—
meaning fast, and a metronome marking on the printed music, leaving no doubt as to
the composer’s intent.
pianissimo pp very soft
piano p soft
mezzo piano mp medium soft
mezzo forte mf medium loud
forte f loud
fortissimo ff very loud
crescendo cresc. gradually louder
decrescendo decresc. gradually softer
Figure 4 Dynamics
TIMBRE—The kind or quality of a musical sound
Timbre is the general term that refers to the overall “tonal quality” of a sound. Vague as
it seems, timbre is a very important aspect of musical sound, because it is the term that
addresses a sound’s individuality. For example, if you and a friend sing the same pitch,
for the same duration, and at the same dynamic level, you will still sound different. The
properties of musical sounds that we have discussed so far, pitch, duration, and dynamics,
cannot describe the timbre of a musical sound. Another example might be to have a
trumpet and a violin play the same pitch, duration, and dynamic level. What is it that
gives each instrument, and each human voice for that matter, its own uniqueness? This
is the concept of timbre, and it is a subject that is difficult to describe in words, and
almost impossible to properly indicate on a musical page.
For musicians intimately familiar with all the instruments, they can tell the difference
by hearing only a note or two. It would be the same with hearing a voice on the
phone. If the person is someone you know quite well, a parent, child or sibling for
instance, you need only to hear them say “hi” and you know who it is. If you listen long
enough to the separate instruments, it would be the same. A bassoon has such a unique
sound that it cannot be confused with a trombone as an example, even if the two players
play exactly the same note at the same dynamic level. It is due to the kind of sound each
instrument produces, and that unique quality is called timbre.
On the printed page, a musician might encounter words from the composer indicating
a suggested timbre, such as “brightly,” or “warmly.” The musician would then
adjust his sound accordingly. Yet the essence of timbre in musical sounds rests in the
science of acoustics. Though it is not within the scope of this text to discuss the physics
of musical sounds in detail, the principles of the acoustic properties are interesting, and
are tied to the subject of musical instrument design.
When one hears a musical note, we may describe it by its frequency as discussed in
the above section on pitch. However, almost never do we hear a pure musical tone.
Every musical instrument, every vocal chord, every loudspeaker, and even our own ears
contribute something to the fundamental frequency. These added components fall into
two main groups: harmonics and distortion. Distortion is the name given to sonic
artifacts that are added to a musical tone, either intentionally or unintentionally. Harmonics
are a normal part of all sounds produced in nature; they are readily measurable
and even predictable. A system of sympathetic vibrations known as the overtone series
is present every time a person sings or an instrument is played. When a guitar string is

Summary
What Is Music? 9
plucked, we hear the string vibrating its entire length. The tone we hear is called the
fundamental. What we may not be aware of is that at the same time the fundamental is
sounding, the string is also vibrating at half of its length, a quarter of its length, etc. The
individual overtones, called harmonics or partials, co-exist with the fundamental, but at
a much lower volume. The harmonics are heard only to the extent that they blend to
create a tonal character, or timbre, for the note being played. The relative volumes of
these harmonics are unique to every voice and every instrument, so that no two people
or instruments are precisely the same. This property is what gives every instrument and
voice its unique timbre. Interestingly, the uniqueness of the overtone series is the property
that makes voice print identification possible.
The terms consonance and dissonance refer to the popular perception of combinations
of notes that either sound pleasing or displeasing to the ear. This perception
changes of course, as history progresses, but usually it is seen as a blending of two or
more notes played simultaneously that feel at ease for consonance. In the case of dissonance,
it is groupings that seem to need resolution to some sort of consonance.
When musical instruments are designed and manufactured, careful attention is
paid to the materials used and the construction techniques, because every facet of the
process affects the overtone series, and therefore the timbre of the instrument. When
one hears about famous instruments, such as the string instruments built by Stradivarius,
the one thing that makes these instruments so valuable is the timbre. The unique timbre
of these instruments is a complex combination of the wood, glue, and varnish used,
along with the shape and the construction methods. Even with today’s advances in
technology and our understanding of acoustics, manufacturers can only approximate
the sound of a Stradivarius instrument.
Music, like air, is familiar to all of us, yet most of us cannot describe its origin or its
components. People seem to need music, as evidenced by the fact that every civilization
ever studied has had music as a major aspect of its culture. Yet the only large body of
written music comes from the post-Roman civilizations of the Western Hemisphere.
That does not mean that other cultures did not have sophisticated music performance
practices, only that Western cultures evolved along different lines.
The four properties of musical sounds, pitch, duration, dynamics, and timbre, are
the raw materials from which music is constructed. Though we will only occasionally
refer to these properties as our study of music history progresses, remember that the
music we hear cannot be discussed or written down without knowing them.
Now that you understand more about how music is created and composed, you
can think back to the Hoedown which you listened to earlier and think about how
you would describe it now. Did you feel like yelling yee-ha? Did it sound American?
Why did it sound like cowboys? All these concepts are taken into consideration when a
composer wants to make music that promotes a specific image. Copland did a fantastic
job of creating just the right timbre, pitch, duration and dynamics in all of the instruments
of the orchestra to make his listeners share his vision.

10 Chapter 1
Key Terms
adagio mezzo forte
allegro mezzo piano
andante moderato
compound meter overtone series
consonance pianissimo
crescendo piano
decrescendo pitch
dissonance presto
duple meter prestissimo
dynamics rhythm
forte tempo
fortissimo timbre
frequency time signature
grave triple meter
harmonics vivace
lento

Name Date
Chapter 1 Review
What Is Music?
1. The highness or lowness of a sound is called .
2. The loudness or softness of a sound is called .
3. Most musical terms are in what language?
4. What term indicates gradually getting louder?
5. Which dynamic level is softer, piano or pianissimo?
6. Besides adagio, what is another Italian term for slow?
7. Which tempo is faster, andante or allegro?
8. What acoustic property makes all different instruments and voices sound unique?
9. Music with strong beats on every third beat is said to be in a meter.
10. Briefly explain how the shapes of notes relate to their duration, and how a time signature gives
helpful information to the performer.
11

2
Musical Instruments
Evidence exists that tells us musical instruments were in use from the earliest
times of tribal cultures. Early drums and animal horns were played as a part of
everyday rituals, and for long distance communication. As civilizations developed,
musical instruments developed with them. The Bible speaks of string, wind, and
brass instruments being played in religious celebrations. Although the human voice is
always available, man has consistently tried to create new and different tools for creating
musical sounds.
The development of modern instruments surged forward during the Renaissance
(1450–1600). During this period, many instruments were either invented or greatly
improved from earlier designs. Another time of great progress was during the nineteenth
century. The Industrial Revolution provided improved assembly techniques plus
technical improvements in instrument design through greater knowledge of physics and
engineering. The result of this surge in instrument quality is that most cultures around
the world now have highly developed instrumental resources. Because of globalization
and improved communication, many instruments are achieving universal popularity.
Because the instruments themselves are becoming common all over the world, many
cultures are also adopting ensembles first developed in the Western Hemisphere.
For the uninitiated, seeing an orchestra perform live can be a little like watching a
football game if one doesn’t know the rules. Much of the time, the viewer is confused as
to who is doing what. Once one understands the rules, however, the game is much
more enjoyable. Likewise, a music listener will enjoy the orchestra more if he or she
understands what the instruments are, how they work, and why instruments are grouped
together the way they are. Let’s take a look at the instruments that comprise the modern
symphony orchestra, as well as the types of ensembles they comprise.
Modern Instrumental Families
In earlier times, instruments of one type were built in many sizes, to cover the large
pitch ranges that would be impractical for one instrument to play. These groups of one
type of instrument are called consorts. Consorts were designed to cover the traditional
vocal ranges of soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, and bass. A few modern instrument types
are still built in complete consorts, but in most cases that practice has died away. Now,
one or two instruments from the old consorts might remain popular, and these instruments
are grouped with others into families. The common element that constitutes an
instrumental family is similarity in how sound is produced. For many years, instruments
were grouped into four families: woodwinds, brass, strings, and percussion. A fifth
13

14 Chapter 2
family, the keyboard instruments, must also be recognized and addressed, though
many keyboard instruments, such as the piano and the pipe organ, share fundamentals
of music production with other instrumental families. In the last century, a sixth family,
electronic instruments, has appeared. Electronic instruments actually synthesize the
vibrations that cause sound, thereby creating a completely new category of instrument.
With the development of digital technology and newer, cheaper microprocessors, electronic
instruments are becoming both better and less expensive. They will almost certainly
be an extremely important musical instrument family during the twenty-first century
and beyond.
The Woodwind Family
The woodwind family contains instruments made from silver, gold, brass, plastic, and
yes, sometimes even wood. Obviously, the term woodwind doesn’t apply to the construction
materials, at least not any more. Most woodwind instruments use some kind
of reed to create the sound, but the flute consort does not. All woodwind instruments
do have one thing in common though, and that is that they all employ the acoustic
principle of the divided air column. So, the overall principle of how sound is produced
on all woodwind instruments is similar, and different than the production method for
other families of instruments.
The main instruments in the woodwind family are
the flutes, clarinets, saxophones, oboes, and bassoons.
They are grouped into three subcategories, based upon
whether or not the instrument uses a single reed, a
double reed, or no reed at all.
The flute consort uses no reed, and in fact has no
mouthpiece per se. The flute is comprised of a cylindri-
flute
principle that one might experience when blowing
air across an open bottle. Holes in the side of the
flute are covered with the fingers, in order to create
the longest pipe, and therefore the lowest note.
By opening the holes, the pipe is shortened, and
the pitch is raised. The shorter the column of air,
the higher the pitch. Early flutes were extremely
simple instruments, but in the nineteenth century,
improvements were made which included many different
mechanisms used to cover the holes instead
of using the fingers directly for all holes. These
mechanisms, called keys, allowed for faster playing
and alternate fingerings.
clarinet
cal tube that is closed at one end. The player blows air
across an opening near one end of the instrument, causing
the air inside the tube to resonate. This is the same
piccolo
Clarinets belong to the single reed category, thus
named because a single piece of wood is shaved and connected
to a mouthpiece. By blowing air through the
mouthpiece, the reed vibrates and a sound is produced.
This sound is amplified and sweetened when placed into
the body of the clarinet. The clarinet body is a cylindrical
pipe of very dense wood or plastic. Mouthpieces are
also usually made of plastic. Like the flute, a system of

saxophone
Musical Instruments 15
holes and keys allow the player to lengthen or shorten the
effective length of the pipe.
The saxophone consort is the youngest group within
the woodwind family, having been invented by Adolphe
Sax in the 1840s. Actually the design is similar to the clarinet,
in that it is a single reed instrument. However, two
large differences are apparent. First, the instrument uses a
conical pipe, which is a tube with an interior diameter, or
bore, that gradually increases over its length. Second, saxophones
are made of metal rather than wood or plastic. In
addition, the longer length of most saxophones requires
that the pipe be bent in some sort of fashion so that the instrument can easily be held
and played. The complete consort continues to be manufactured today, and includes
the soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass saxophones. The soprano and the bass
saxophones are the least commonly used of this consort. The original intent of the
inventor was for the saxophones to be used in military bands and ensembles where more
delicate woodwind instruments were impractical. For many years, serious composers
shunned saxophones. In the early twentieth century however, saxophones began to find
a place in the concert hall and have since become particularly popular in bands and jazz
ensembles.
The double reed instruments include the oboe
and bassoon consorts. On first glance, the oboe looks
very much like a clarinet, but is actually much different.
The body of an oboe, which is made of wood or
plastic, is conical rather than the cylindrical clarinet,
and the mouthpiece is noticeably absent. Instead, a
double reed is placed directly into the instrument. By
blowing through a small opening between two pieces
of curved bamboo wood bound together by thread, a
powerful vibration is created, causing the unique sound
to be produced. The mechanisms on the oboe are similar
to the other woodwind instruments, which allow
holes to be opened and closed creating different pitches. A larger cousin of the oboe,
known as the English horn, shares a similar design, but is larger in all respects. Because
of its increased size and length the sound is lower than
the oboe. English horns have large pear-shaped bells, and
utilize a curved piece of metal called a bocal to attach the
double reed to the instrument. The sound of an English
horn is more plaintive and mournful than an oboe, and
provides an orchestra a unique sound color when used.
Larger still is the bassoon, which shares the double
reed concept with the oboe and the English horn but
uses a much larger cylindrical pipe. The bassoon, usually
bassoon
oboe
made of wood, has a uniquely warm sound and huge dynamic
and pitch ranges that make it compatible with both
woodwinds and instruments of the brass family.

16 Chapter 2
The Brass Family
One might assume that the instruments in the brass family are all made of brass. Many of
them are, but some are not. The material with which they are made does not define the
family. For example, most saxophones are made of brass, but since the sound of a saxophone
is produced by a reed and uses the divided air column principle for changing
pitches, they are considered woodwind instruments. Likewise, the unifying feature of all
brass instruments is the way that sound is produced, not the construction materials.
Musicians create sounds on brass instruments by buzzing their lips in a mouthpiece
shaped like a cup or cone. This buzzing sound is amplified and improved as it
travels through a long metal tube. The tube has a large flange, called the bell, at the end
opposite the mouthpiece. If the tube is short, less than two feet long, the sound of the
instrument will be nothing more than a louder buzz. But a fascinating thing happens if
the tube that is used is three feet or longer. Not only is the buzzing sound warmer and
richer, but the player can literally pick out harmonics above the fundamental pitch by
simply buzzing the lips faster. This acoustic principle explains why military bugles, with
no holes or valves, can play more than one note. The longer the length of the tube, or
the farther the air has to travel, the lower the instrument can play. Though most of the
following brass instruments were once built in many sizes, only selected sizes are in
common use today.
The highest-pitched member of the brass family is
the trumpet. The trumpet consists of a mouthpiece and a
metal tube between three and four feet long, when straightened
out. This cylindrical tube is curved in an oblong fashion,
and terminates in a bell of moderate size. Early
trumpets, called natural trumpets, had no means of lengthening
the tube and therefore had only the notes of one
harmonic series available to it. However, modern trum-
trumpet
pets have three or four valves in the center of the instrument.
Each valve is connected to a specific length of tubing.
By pushing down one or more of the valves, the player can
increase the overall length of the tube by half steps, so that all pitches within its range
can be played. Although entire consorts of trumpets were once manufactured, only a
few sizes remain today. Almost all of these instruments operate in the soprano range.
Trumpets have been one of the most popular of all brass instruments, being employed
in virtually every type of musical ensemble, and fitting well into every style of
music. Trumpets are just as popular in jazz and popular music as they are in the classical
genres. A relative of the trumpet, called the cornet, is similar in design but uses a tube
with an interior diameter, or bore, that gradually increases over its length. This style of
tubing, called a conical bore, alters the sound of the instrument slightly. Cornets were
very popular in band music in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, both in Europe
and the United States.
The horn, often called the French horn, is unique
because of its shape and range. The horn is capable, due
to its very long tube and narrow conical bore, of playing
just about as low and high as all of the other brass instruments
put together. The tubing is bent into several concentric
circles, terminating in a very large bell that faces
away from the audience while being played. Like the trumpet,
early horns had no valves and were limited to one
horn
harmonic series. Modern horns use valves in a similar fashion to the trumpets, so that
the player can select the length of tubing he or she wants. The horn is designed for the

Musical Instruments 17
musician to operate the valves with the left hand. It is also a common practice for the
player to place the right hand just inside the bell while playing, which smoothes out
the sound somewhat and allows the musician to make fine pitch adjustments. The horn,
though capable of playing very low and very high, finds itself serving as the alto member
of the brass consort much of the time.
The trombone is instantly identifiable because of its
slide, which has a large bend in the tubing that is actually
two overlapping sections. The player can extend the slide,
thereby lengthening the tube and lowering the pitch of
the instrument. Therefore, the trombone needs no valves
to play the entire chromatic scale. The trombone is a tenor
instrument, capable of playing into the alto and bass range.
The design of the trombone has changed relatively little
trombone
since its first appearance in the late Medieval period. Trombones
with a larger bore, called bass trombones, technically
operate in the same range but are designed to make
it easier to play into the bass range. Most bass trombones have one or two valves to
facilitate playing in the extreme low register.
The euphonium and the tuba are of similar design,
with the euphonium operating in the tenor range like the
trombone, and the tuba operating in the bass range. These
instruments have a conical bore, similar to the cornet, which
gives the instrument a warm, rich timbre. Both instruments
are widely used in bands, but the euphonium is quite rare
in orchestras. The tuba is the largest of the brass instruments,
and the lowest pitched as well. With a conical shape
and three to five valves, tubas come in three sizes—the tenor
tuba, the bass tuba and the double-bass or contrabass tuba.
The double-bass tuba is pitched an octave below the tenor
tuba. Tubas are used to give a solid fundamental bottom
sound to chords in an orchestra or band, and due to their
size require a great deal of air to get all the way through
the long, large bores.
The String Family
violin
tuba
The instruments of the string family obviously use vibrating
strings to create their sounds. They are in three main
groups which include the violin consort, the harp and the
guitar category.
The violin consort is the heart and soul of an orchestra.
From highest to lowest pitched instruments, it includes
the violin, the viola, the cello and the bass. All these instruments
use a bow to draw the sound from the instrument,
or are sometimes plucked with the fingers. The bow
is essentially a long stick to which long synthetic filaments
or horsehairs are attached. When drawn across the strings
of the violin the abrasive surface of these strands cause the
strings to vibrate. The bodies of the string family resonate
as the strings are made to vibrate by using the bow or the
fingers. The violin body is the smallest, and uses four separate
strings tightly attached at the top and bottom of the

18 Chapter 2
cello
instrument. The body of the viola is very similarly held and played, but
has slightly larger dimensions and sounds a little deeper in timbre. The
cello’s design looks similar to the violin and viola, but due to its much
larger size and weight is set on the ground and held between the knees.
The string bass is the largest and is set on the ground in a similar fashion
to the cello, but the player must stand or sit on a tall stool in order to
reach and play the instrument in a comfortable manner.
In addition to these similarly designed instruments,
another unique stringed instrument in this
family is the harp. Harps can be documented as far
back as approximately 3,000 B.C. as some of the
oldest types of instruments. In Ireland, harps were
found as long ago as the year 1,000. From there,
harps spread throughout Europe, and mention is
made of their popularity by troubadours, minnesingers
and trouvéres. The typical harp played in
modern orchestras was first used around 1810
when Sebastien Erard introduced it. Sounds are made from the
triangular-shaped body of the harp by plucking or strumming the
many octaves of strings strung tightly between the curved neck
down toward the soundboard. A system of pedals was introduced
around 1720 by Hochbrucker, which enabled the performer to
change the tuning of a particular set of strings. There is usually one
harp found in the modern orchestra of today, but occasionally a
second one is used in some larger works especially during the Impressionistic
period with composers such as Debussy and Ravel.
The guitar is a modern instrument that has roots dating back
to ancient civilizations hundreds of years before the birth of Christ.
A predecessor of the guitar, called the lute, used a rounded body
string bass
and long neck, and varieties of this instrument were known to be used in Mesopotamian
times around 2,000 B.C. In more recent times, the lute was extremely popular in sixteenth
and seventeenth century Europe. A variety of this stringed instrument, called a
cittern, had a flat body and was the direct predecessor of the
guitar. In most cases, the guitar uses six strings, which are
stretched along the neck of the instrument. The body of the
instrument has rounded sides, but a flat front and back.
In modern times, guitars are often acoustic, meaning
that they have a relatively large hollow body that amplifies
the string vibrations naturally, or electric, which indicates that
the string vibrations are amplified electronically.
Many offshoots of the guitar have been developed, especially
instruments that have special ethnic or cultural derivations.
The banjo, the ukelele, and many other instruments
belong to the same general category as the guitar, though
the timbre and usage of these instruments varies widely.
harp

The Percussion Family
timpani
Musical Instruments 19
There are many instruments classified in the percussion
family. The one property that binds all percussion instruments
together is that striking something produces the
sound. The “thing” that is struck could be a stretched
membrane, a wood or metal instrument, or any number of
other types of objects. Generally, percussion instruments
fall into two categories: pitched instruments and unpitched
instruments.
Among pitched instruments, the only drums that truly
fit into this category are the timpani. Timpani are sometimes
referred to as “kettle drums” because of the large
rounded shape of the copper drums themselves. A membrane,
or drum head, is stretched over the polished kettles,
and the resonant sound that is produced by striking the
head is so clear that exact pitches can be played. By tightening or loosening the head,
the pitch can be changed higher or lower. Nowadays, changing the pitch of a timpani
head is accomplished by a foot pedal at the bottom of the drum. The pedal is attached
to the rim of the drum, which can be pulled down or loosened by simply moving the
pedal. Timpani are very common in many types of ensembles. Most composers have
used timpani in orchestras since the end of the eighteenth century.
Other pitched instruments in the percussion family
use wooden or metal bars or tubes that can be tuned to
specific pitches. As seen in the photos, these instruments
have the bars or tubes arranged in a keyboard-like pattern.
The most popular of these instruments include the
xylophone, which normally uses rosewood bars and very
short resonator tubes. The marimba is similar to the xy-
lophone, but is usually larger and employs longer resonator
tubes, giving it a more
mellow sound. The vibra-
vibraphone
phone also uses long resonator tubes, but has metal bars
and a motorized device that can add vibrato to the sounds
that are produced. Orchestra bells are a smaller instrument
that also uses metal bars without resonator tubes.
Chimes are sometimes referred to as tubular bells, and
are long tubes of varying lengths, which are struck with a
rawhide hammer. The sound produced by chimes is similar
to some church bells.
Unpitched percussion instruments include all varieties of drums
except the timpani, and a variety of ethnic instruments such as maracas,
claves, castanets, wind chimes, tambourines, triangles, woodblocks,
and many more. One of the most interesting and widely used of the
unpitched percussion instruments is the cymbal. Cymbals are metallic
discs made from exotic alloys that produce a variety of useful sounds,
from soft wisps of sound to loud crashes. Cymbals are very old instruments,
dating back over a thousand years, but are still used in virtually
every type of music currently being produced.
glockenspiel
snare drum

20 Chapter 2
Keyboard Instruments and Electronic Instruments
Keyboard and electronic instruments are grouped together for this discussion only because
they fall on the fringes of “regular” orchestral instruments. Indeed, the case could
easily be made that these groups represent the future of all instrumental development.
In the last century, the only instruments that have been developed were electronic in
nature, and most used some kind of keyboard to select pitches. Some musicologists
believe that no new wind or string instruments will ever be developed, since the capabilities
of electronic instruments are so vast. Whether or not this prediction turns out to
be true, the fact remains that keyboards and electronic instruments are extremely popular,
and have been since their earliest incarnations.
Probably the earliest keyboard instruments were organs of very limited range, in
use around 900 A.D. These instruments were heavy and cumbersome, but by about
1300 the range had increased, as well as their mechanical sophistication. Pipe organs of
the Baroque period were among the most elaborate and impressive of all musical instruments.
Although pipe organs are still built today, they are very expensive and are often
specified for installation in a particular building where they will reside permanently.
The harpsichord and its cousin the clavichord were
the first keyboard instruments to use strings to produce
sounds. In the harpsichord, the keys are part of a mechanism
that plucks the strings with a quill, setting the string
in motion in much the same way that a guitarist would
with a guitar pick. The harpsichord was most popular between
the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, and huge
amounts of music were composed for the instrument, including
many works by such eminent composers as Johann
Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel.
The harpsichord’s popularity fell off rather quickly
after the invention of the piano in the mid eighteenth century.
Like the harpsichord, the piano used strings to create
harpsichord
the sound. Unlike the harpsichord, however, the keys would
trigger hammers that would strike the strings. By using
this method, the player had the ability to control the dy-
namic range of the sound to a far greater degree than had ever been possible before.
Indeed, the original name of the piano was pianoforte, meaning soft-loud, because of its
huge dynamic range. Musicians and composers fell in love with the instrument, and
almost since its invention, the piano has been the dominant keyboard instrument in the
Western Hemisphere.
The synthesizer category is a large, diverse group of instruments that have only
one basic principle in common; that is, the sound is produced by electronic means.
Perhaps the earliest electronic instrument was the Telharmonium, invented around 1904
by Thaddeus Cahill. Today, synthesizers are inexpensive, their sound-producing capabilities
enormous, and their usage is extremely widespread. Many synthesizers use keyboards,
but many others, called modules, are metal boxes that resemble stereo
components. In either case, the future of synthesizers is bright, since they create a vast
palate of new sounds and can, to some degree, emulate the sound of many traditional
instruments.

The Symphony Orchestra
Percussion
Harp
2nd Violins
1st Violins
Figure 5 The Orchestra
Symphony orchestra—Las Vegas Philharmonic
Brass
Woodwinds
Conductor
Musical Instruments 21
The typical symphony orchestra is a group of approximately 70–80 musicians. The instrumentation
is fairly consistent for orchestras everywhere; that is, one will find roughly
the same numbers of violins, violas, cellos, string basses, and other instruments no matter
what orchestra one might see or hear. This standardized instrumentation did not
occur by accident. Rather, many decades of experimentation by composers through the
Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras produced the grouping of instruments that we
still use today. Notice in Figure 5 the locations of the various instrumental families.
From the viewpoint of the audience, the strings are closest, with the woodwinds in the
center of the stage. To the rear of the orchestra is the brass section, with the percussion
most commonly to the side, or also in the rear. The placement of instruments is done for
acoustic and balance purposes, not for appearance. If the brass or percussion were closest
to the audience, the strings would not be heard well enough.
Viola
Cello
String
Bass

22 Chapter 2
Summary
It’s fascinating to note that, although orchestras have been around for at least two
hundred years, they are still incredibly popular throughout the world. Literally hundreds
of orchestras are active in the United States alone; around the world, professional
orchestras number in the thousands. In addition, the music of the great masters is not
the only music that orchestras routinely perform; most modern film scores are performed
and recorded by orchestras very similar to the type that Beethoven used.
Other Ensembles
Almost any grouping of instruments, whether or not they come from the same family,
can get together and make music. Certain types of groups have shown particular popularity
over the years, however. Bands, such as concert bands and marching bands, are
familiar and loved throughout the world, especially in Europe and North America. Essentially,
bands use the woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments of an orchestra,
but have no strings. Jazz bands, such as those made popular during the 1930s Swing
era, use saxophones, trumpets, trombones, string bass, guitar, piano, and drums. All
bands are widely used in schools as educational ensembles, but have remained popular
in the professional world as well.
Chamber music is performed by smaller ensembles, often using just two to five
musicians. String quartets, woodwind quintets, brass quintets, and other small groups
have been very popular, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These
groups would perform compositions written especially for that instrumentation, when
the composer knew that the performance would be in a smaller location than could be
served by an orchestra.
Instruments developed simultaneously in many cultures, and have been shared among
civilizations for many hundreds of years. It is interesting to note that people tend to
welcome new or unusual instruments, and assimilate them into their own types of music.
The same is true for musical styles. The more a cultural group is exposed to new or
different musical trends, the more likely it is they will use aspects of those trends and
make them their own. Music is a very personal art, and historically, the instruments used
to produce music are among the most prized of all cultural artifacts.
Key Terms
bore—cylindrical and conical keyboard family—know the instruments
brass family—know the instruments percussion family—know the instruments
consort single reed
divided air column string family—know the instruments
double reed woodwind family—know the instruments

Name Date
Chapter 2 Review
Musical Instruments
1. How is the sound produced in a brass instrument?
2. List three instruments that use double reeds.
3. Name the only drum that is truly tunable.
4. Name three woodwind instruments.
5. Name three string instruments.
6. Which family of instruments uses a divided air column to produce the sound?
7. Name three brass instruments.
8. Name two mallet percussion instruments.
9. Which woodwind consort uses no reeds?
10. Briefly discuss why instruments are grouped into families.
23

3
Music of the Middle Ages
Music History Timeline
As we proceed through our study of the history of Western music, a timeline will
be shown like the one below. This illustration is designed to give you a general
idea of the musical periods in history, and the relative location of our present
area of study.
Notice in the timeline that there are six overall periods of music, but remember
that within each major period, many important trends or “styles” may exist. A major
goal of any music appreciation course is for the student to be able to recognize the
stylistic features of music within each one of the periods shown in the timeline.
Music History Timeline
Medieval Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic 20th Century
313–1450 1450–1600 1600–1750 1750–1800 1800–1900 1900–present
Christianity and Music
In 313 A.D., shortly after Emperor Constantine of Rome converted to Christianity, he
decreed that Christianity be recognized as a legitimate religion in the Roman Empire.
Constantine, by this act, raised the level of Christianity to that of a national religion.
This point in history marks the beginning of our study of music of Western civilizations.
Since most of the worship service in the new Roman Catholic Church was sung, it was
natural that church officials sought to control the performance of music, both inside
and outside the church. Officials of the church knew that music was a powerful tool for
affecting the mood and attitude of all who heard it, and they forbade all music except
that which glorified God. In short, the only music permitted by the Church was sacred,
meaning music related to the church. According to the church, secular (non-religious)
music had no place in society, and was strongly discouraged.
As the years passed, priests throughout Europe continued to perform chants in
worship services the way they were taught by their predecessors. However, major differences
in the sound and performance practices of these chants developed, since no definitive
way existed to write down the music. By 600 A.D., chants in one area of the Roman
Empire became unrecognizable to priests in other areas. It became obvious that some
method of transcribing musical sounds to the written page had to be devised. Pope
25

26 Chapter 3
Gregorian Chant
Gregory, who led the Catholic Church from 590 to 604, made it the predominant
purpose of his term as Pope to bring consistency to the music of the Catholic Church.
Legend has it that Pope Gregory single-handedly composed all the chants and responses
for Catholic masses. In actuality Gregory and his people assembled the best and most
useable chants into several liturgical books. These books represent a great treasure of
medieval art and form the basis of our musical heritage.
Out of respect for Pope Gregory, chants used in the Catholic services
were referred to as Gregorian chants. As mentioned earlier,
Gregory did not compose these chants, but the name is still frequently
used. Once assembled into the books, they were copied
and distributed among the churches throughout Europe. All Catholic
services were required to use chants from the collection, thereby
assuring the consistency among churches that Pope Gregory envisioned.
Two other names also describe the chants from the same period:
plainsong and plainchant. These three names are used interchangeably.
They all refer to music from the Catholic Church that
have a sacred Latin text, no regular meter, are unaccompanied by
instruments, used Medieval modes and are monophonic. Monophonic
(“one sound”) music has a single melodic line. Keep in
Library of Congress: LC USZ62-
106737
Pope Gregory
mind when you hear a monophonic plainchant, you might hear a large chorus of singers
performing it. As long as they are singing the same melodic line, with no harmony, this
is still considered monophonic.
The pitches used in creating these chants have their roots in antiquity. As far back
as the Greek civilization, experiments in music existed in which the interval of the octave
was divided into musical steps and half steps. A series of four pitches containing two
whole steps and one half step is called a tetrachord. Two of these tetrachords, placed end
to end, are called a scale, or mode. An eight-note mode, created in this fashion, has two
half steps and five whole steps contained in it. By moving these half steps to different
locations within the scale, profound changes in the emotional flavor can be produced.
These different scales are called modes, and all Gregorian chants were constructed using
these modes. Modes are still used in modern music, but major and minor (the two most
widely used), were not commonly employed until well after the time of Pope Gregory.
Even the major and minor modes have traditional emotional labels, with major sounding
more optimistic and minor sounding more serious.
When listening to Gregorian chants, it is striking to realize that most of the properties
we assume all music possesses are absent. There is no real rhythm. There are no
chords. There are no written instrumental parts (though instruments sometimes improvised
along with the chants). Still, this music has a certain quality, a haunting yet serene
beauty that made it perfect for its use in the Church.
We know that other types of music, including secular music, did exist at the same
time as Gregorian chants. But these types were rarely discussed in writing; the Church
forbade secular uses of music. Some writings, which do exist from people within the
church, demonstrate their own secret passion for the beauty of music. Many times these
priests and monks showed a real fear for being caught discussing or composing secular
music, but they were so mesmerized by the full power of music in all forms that they
actually questioned their faith. This is because the purpose of music at that time was to
serve the text. But many who heard this music found themselves really listening only
to the beauty of the music. These people felt they had sinned because they missed the

Music of the Middle Ages 27
point of having the words sung. Yet it also demonstrates that many people began to
think about music for its own sake. This would eventually lead to advancements in
music theory in later generations. If any musicians of the time were brazen enough to
get together with others and compose or even discuss music not authorized by the
Church, they had to do it in secrecy. This is another reason why we know so little about
secular music during this time; if it existed, it was not openly discussed or played.
Listen to This
Track 1 Gregorian Chant
Anonymous Lumen ad revelationem gentium
This is an excellent example of monophonic sacred music from the mid-
Medieval period. This is from the thirteenth century Notre Dame School.
Notice the almost unusual sounding scale (this is sung in one of the church
modes), and the lack of regular beats. The music seems to flow almost as a
prayer would.
Translation:
The Rise of Polyphonic Music
A light to lighten the Gentiles,
And the glory of your people Israel.
Lord, now let your servant depart in peace,
According to thy word.
A light to lighten the Gentiles,
And the glory of your people Israel.
Try to imagine that the only songs you hear and learn are the ones your parents knew,
and your parents learned their songs from their parents, and so on for over eight generations.
Those who really like music would find that circumstance to be stifling, to say the
least. Yet that was the state of European music in the sixth through the eighth centuries
A.D. People, especially clergymen who were involved in music, became increasingly
frustrated with the restrictions placed on musical expression by the Church. Whatever
experimentation and improvisation might have occurred during this time is anyone’s
guess; the fact is that no one left any written evidence of musical progress during these
centuries. The penalties for the misuse of music during this time were severe. Starting in
the ninth century however, certain developments occurred which gave musicians some
room for creativity. The first of these developments was the introduction of polyphony
in music. Polyphonic music refers to music with more than one melodic line occurring
simultaneously. Whether it is two, three or more melodic lines, is unimportant; what is
important is that these melodic lines retain some degree of independence. As you will
learn in chapter 4, certain types of multi-voiced music have supporting harmonizations
that tend to simply support a primary melodic line. This is not the case with true polyphonic
music, where each line is more or less equal in importance.
The first polyphonic form was called organum. First appearing around 900 A.D.,
the organum was in common usage from the year 1000 to about 1300. The earliest type
of organum used one or more lines that moved in parallel motion with a Gregorian
chant melody. Using a plainchant as the primary melody was crucial to satisfy the

28 Chapter 3
requirements of the Church. The parallel melodic lines were spaced at the interval of a
fourth or a fifth above or below the chant. An organum that contained two independent
lines was called organum duplum; one with three lines was called organum triplum.
When listening to the following example you will notice that there is no clearly
defined rhythm, and no changes to the Latin text in any voice. So, an organum may
seem like a very small advancement after three centuries of monophonic chants, but it
was a first step toward the development of much more complex music. Moreover, it was
a wonderful creative outlet for those composers with a deep passion for music.
Over the next two centuries the organum itself expanded as a form. Later versions
experimented with multiple lines moving in contrary motion to the chant melody, and
eventually the chant melody itself went through something of a disappearing act. By
slowing down the rate at which the chant notes change, and by placing more notes in
the other polyphonic lines, the chant melody is obscured and the organum sounds like
a totally new piece of music. Experiments with many different varieties of this concept
occurred in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. One place where musical study and
experimentation flourished was the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. That famous church,
built in 1163, became a hotbed of activity among musicians. Theorists and musicians
from all over Europe would travel to Notre Dame to participate in discussions, share
ideas, and hear the latest musical developments. Two of the leading composers from the
Notre Dame “school” were Leonin and Perotin. Both of these composers produced
many of the most sophisticated and beautiful examples of the organum form. Many of
these later examples of the organum introduced the concept of rhythm to the music, yet
the mechanisms for writing them down were not yet fully developed.
Listen to This
Track 2 Parallel organum
Anonymous Hodie beata virgo Maria
The title of this organum is the first line of text. Translated it says “Today the
blessed Virgin Mary . . . (presented the boy Jesus in the temple).” In
the excerpt the singers never get beyond the words “Today the . . .” because the
intent of an organum was to obscure the melody and text of the original
Gregorian chant. The lower voice is singing the notes of the original chant, but
each pitch is elongated in duration. The upper voice contains newly composed
material, but the text moves in time with the lower voice. Therefore, in this
excerpt which is one minute long, the singers only make it through two words.
From a musical standpoint, notice the preponderance of “open” consonant
intervals. A newer innovation, rhythm, is evident at times in the upper
voice.
In 1325 Philip de Vitry, a French theorist, wrote a treatise entitled Ars Nova (“new
art”). In it, de Vitry described in detail the latest movements in musical technique, and
referred to the music of the Notre Dame School as ars antiqua (“old art”). His teachings
called for more freedoms in the treatment of the musical text, and a final solution
for the problem of defining and writing down rhythms. The musical form that received
the most attention was the motet, a form that had been around for some time, but
gained increasing popularity after about 1200. Briefly, a motet is a polyphonic vocal
work based on a sacred Latin text, but could have either sacred or secular texts added to

Music of the Middle Ages 29
it. Motets still used a segment of Gregorian chant melody at their core, yet the chant was
usually obscured through a variety of techniques. The pre-existing chant melody in the
motet, as well as in all music of this period, was called the cantus firmus.
The latest examples of motets from the Medieval period were very complex pieces
of music, even by today’s standards. In the “ars nova” tradition, the original chant text
could be “supplemented” by a freely composed melody and sacred text that would be
sung simultaneously with the chant. Yes, that means that two different sets of lyrics
would be sung at the same time. Usually, the second text would be a sacred Latin poem,
newly composed, but referring to the words used in the cantus firmus. As the popularity
of the motet grew, a third melody was often incorporated into the piece. An independent
melody with secular lyrics, often a love poem in French, would be woven into the
fabric of the motet, making three the total number of different melodies and lyrics being
heard. Obviously, this music is often so complex as to be very difficult for the average
listener to follow.
On the other hand, the very complexity of the motet gave composers the opportunity
to develop many interesting musical techniques. One such technique was the hocket,
in which a rhythmic idea was traded among the different lines in the motet. Often, the
rhythmic idea might have been no more than a couple of beats or rests arranged in an
identifiable pattern, which was then treated sequentially among the different melodic
lines. In this way, the hocket served to bind the independent lines together, and therefore
the entire work. The technique became so popular that many works so constructed
were often simply called “hocket.” From the hocket, it is easy to understand how music
became more rhythmically sophisticated, and how counterpoint, the study of the rhythmic
and harmonic relationship between two or more polyphonic lines, developed in
later periods of music.
Another clever rhythmic development during the ars nova was the isorhythmic
motet. An isorhythm was originally a repeated rhythmic treatment of the Gregorian
melody in a motet or other work of the period. Eventually, other voices in the motet
were given this treatment. Entire melodic lines would be given a repeated rhythm throughout
the work. Often, the composer would take liberties with the isorhythmic patterns by
doubling or halving the duration of each note. In this way, the work would have an
organic “sameness” which gave it unity.
By far the most well known composer of the late medieval period was Guillaume de
Machaut. Machaut was a brilliant intellect, who composed motets containing the most
fervent sacred texts, as well as heartfelt love poetry. He combined these seemingly unrelated
texts into motets with surprising emotional drive through the use of rhythmic
devices like the hocket and isorhythmic treatments. Machaut also had an astute sense of
harmonic effects when different melodic lines were blended together. If you listen to a
motet, you will notice the rhythmic interplay among the separate melodic lines, as well
as the way in which they periodically join in harmony to form chords.
Secular Music in the Middle Ages
As mentioned earlier, it would be incorrect to assume that secular music did not exist
through the Middle Ages. However, little evidence exists of such music until around
800 A.D. The reason for the lack of written secular music stems from the overwhelming
power of the Catholic Church over common people of the time. Wealthy landowners
and nobility were less intimidated by the Church, and often employed musicians as
entertainers. Indeed, some people of noble blood became poet-musicians themselves,
and worked alongside commoners in their passion for expressing love through poetry
and music. They traveled from town to town, sometimes setting up temporary

30 Chapter 3
Summary
residences at the estates of their employers, and at other times simply performing in
public areas.
The first country that witnessed a flourishing of secular music was France. Troubadours
from southern France, and trouvéres from northern France, were the genesis of
“legitimized” secular music. Though still frowned upon by the Church, these poetmusicians
gradually enjoyed the freedom to travel as they pleased. By the fourteenth
century, the popularity of secular music and poetry had spread throughout Europe.
Minnesingers, German poet-musicians usually of noble birth, became the primary ambassadors
of German secular music during this period. Jongleurs and minstrels were
professional instrumentalists who traveled and worked throughout central Europe and
England with the minnesingers, troubadours, and trouvéres.
The music of the secular poet-musicians served to frame the stanzas of poetry that
these artists had written. This is not the only time in history when the music has taken a
back seat to the text. Unfortunately however, many of the poems of troubadours and
trouvéres have no surviving written music to accompany the text. Only about two thousand
melodies have survived, sometimes in notation that is barely understandable. This
total is less than a fourth of the total number of secular song texts that have been discovered.
Because of the verse structure of the poetry, the melodies by necessity would repeat
as the stanzas of the poem repeated. This method of writing music and poetry, called the
strophic technique, is a direct predecessor of popular and folk song structures of later
times. Usually the tunes were easy to learn and remember, and the repetition of verses
made the melodies even more familiar. Instruments often accompanied these secular
songs, though music was rarely if ever composed for instrumental accompaniment. The
use of regular meter was common, though the written evidence of this usage is inconsistent.
Secular songs by the troubadours, trouvéres, and others, were extremely popular at
the time, and seemed to captivate the imaginations of many in the clergy as well. Many
transcriptions of secular songs have been found in monasteries, as well as secular compositions
by the clergy. It is assumed that the original works were not intended to be found
by outsiders.
The Medieval period ended without flourish or fanfare. Gradual improvements in the
lives of common people caused a reawakening of interest in nature, life, science, the arts,
and the world around them in general. The Church, at the end of the Medieval period,
lost its tremendous stranglehold on people’s actions in everyday life. Though the Middle
Ages saw some important developments musically, the dawn of the Renaissance was a
welcome period for positive change in all areas of life.
Key Terms
Gregorian chant plainchant
hocket plainsong
isorhythm polyphonic
jongleurs sacred
minnesingers secular
minstrels strophic
monophonic troubadours
motet
organum
trouvéres

Name Date
Chapter 3 Review
Music of the Middle Ages
1. Christianity was made the religion of the Roman Empire around the year .
2. Examples of common use of the first form of polyphony remain from approximately the year
3. Two other names for plainsongs are and .
4. Explain the difference between the terms sacred and secular.
5. Pope Gregory assembled the traditional church forms around the year .
6. Which term refers to one melodic line?
7. Which term refers to two or more melodic lines?
8. Music with two or more melodic lines, and different texts is called a .
9. List the characteristics of a Gregorian chant that deals with instruments.
10. Explain the difference among the terms troubadours, trouvéres and minnesingers.
31
.

4
The Renaissance
Music History Timeline
Medieval Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic 20th Century
313–1450 1450–1600 1600–1750 1750–1800 1800–1900 1900–present
As shown in the timeline above, the Renaissance dates from 1450–1600. However,
the political and social changes that brought about the Renaissance had
been in progress for some time before 1450, so the actual dates are approximate.
Still, this was an exciting time in European history. The gradual loosening of
restrictions by the Church, the growth of scientific research and discovery, the rise of a
social middle class, the development of guilds, and much more, all contributed to an
increased standard of living for the average person. This was the time of Columbus,
DaVinci, and Copernicus. It was a time of great thinkers and a complete reassessment of
man’s place on earth. Many Italians, in particular, became preoccupied with trying to
recapture the glories of the ancient Roman and Greek empires.
Because of these social developments, an explosion of artistic activity occurred
during the Renaissance. Literature and drama flourished with geniuses like William
Shakespeare. Visual art had, by 1450, reached a peak of realism and power with the
works of Raphael and Michelangelo. Likewise, music enjoyed tremendous growth as an
art form that transformed forever the way it was used and constructed. The Catholic
Church lost much of the power it had over people’s use of music. No longer were
composers required to employ Gregorian chants as the basis for sacred musical compositions.
Secular music was extremely popular now that the Church tolerated it. Composers
and poets poured their energies into artistic celebrations of life, love, happiness, and
beer. The Renaissance was the first time in over a thousand years in which people were
allowed, even encouraged, to explore and express their emotions and the world around
them.
General Characteristics of Renaissance Music
Musical styles tended to progress along two fronts during the Renaissance. On one
hand, harmonic development was in full swing. The concepts of chords and chord progressions
were increasingly welcome to the ear, and composers of all types of music
33

34 Chapter 4
began to build supportive harmonies to support their melodic lines. The sonority of
sounds within music became increasingly important. This trend gave rise to homophonic
music, in which a primary melodic line is supported rhythmically and harmonically
by other lines. Generally, the accompanying parts in homophonic music use a similar
rhythm to the melody and “fill out” chords or intervals to make the music sound more
pleasing. The concept of homophony is therefore quite different from polyphonic music,
in which there may be more than one melodic line, and every melodic line retains a
certain amount of independence from one another. Polyphonic music tends to sound
more complex than homophonic music, and highlighting the differences in texture
between the two styles becomes an important tool for the Renaissance composer.
A special device used by composers in polyphonic music was imitation. The concept
of imitation is simple enough; one melodic line is mimicked by one or more other
lines. The roots of imitation in music date back even before the isorhythmic motets of
the Medieval period, but Renaissance composers took the concept quite a bit further.
Often, entire phrases were imitated in their entirety. Imitative techniques are challenging
to any composer, since he must maintain harmonic integrity in the music while
faithfully imitating the original melodic line. In its most radical form, an entire melody
could be repeated note for note by an accompanying voice. This total form of imitation
is called a canon, and is only occasionally used because of the restrictions the form places
on itself. The folk song “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” when performed with two or
three parts, is a perfect example of a canon.
The second front of musical development in the Renaissance is in the area of word
painting. During this period, great efforts were made, particularly in secular music, to
have the music reflect the text. Much thought was given to discovering ways to illustrate
words or phrases through music. For example, if a line of text described someone running
through a meadow, the music should somehow reflect the idea of rapid motion. A
line such as this might be a good area for the composer to employ a polyphonic musical
phrase with fast-moving rhythms, indicating the speed of running. Obviously, a myriad
of different musical representations would be developed to describe words, actions, and
feelings.
In musical periods after the Renaissance, even in our own time, music is often
called upon to enhance a poem. Somewhat less often are words chosen to complement
a pre-existing melody. During the Renaissance, many of the harmonic and structural
developments in music can be traced directly to efforts by composers to cleverly accentuate
the lines of text through musical means.
One might conclude that, since secular music was now accepted in open society,
that sacred music composition would taper off. Actually, the exact opposite occurred.
Religious composers were now free to explore the depths of their religious passion and
bring these feelings forth openly through musical expression. Since composers were free
to compose original works for the Church, a flood of new sacred compositions were
written. Hundreds of young composers produced works that revitalized the old Catholic
Church services. The Gregorian chant, ironically, was far from dead. Composers
often used portions of chants as thematic material for sacred works, and instead of elongating
the rhythms to obscure the chant, composers found beautiful, sonorous ways to
display the chant prominently.
In writing music for the Church, composers developed many musical devices that
carried over into the secular music of the day, and advanced the art and theory of music
significantly. To properly understand the importance of the work that musicians accomplished
during the Renaissance, it is helpful to take a brief look at the construction of
the principle form of Catholic worship, the mass.

The Mass
The Renaissance 35
Since before the time of Pope Gregory, the text contained in the Catholic mass has
changed very little. As a means of worship, the mass contains a series of recitations,
responses, and prayers. These components of the mass were sometimes sung to the
congregation by the priest, and sometimes (in the case of Psalms or responses), they
were alternating between the priest and the congregation. In many ways, the Catholic
mass is very similar to worship services in other religions, in that the leader of the worship
service directs the activities of the congregation through a defined set of “ritualistic”
behaviors. In the Catholic mass, some chants and recitations change from week to
week, depending on the week’s location on the Church calendar. Other components of
the service remain the same from week to week, giving the service a certain familiarity
and continuity. In the mass, those parts that remain the same from week to week comprise
the Ordinary of the mass. The portions that change depending upon the season
make up the Proper of the mass. The table below illustrates the sections of a typical
mass, with the segments of the Ordinary interwoven with the sections of the Proper.
Ordinary of the Mass Proper of the Mass
Kyrie (”Lord, have mercy . . .”) Introit
Gloria (“Glory to God in the highest . . .”) Gradual
Credo (“I believe in one God . . .”) Alleluia or Tract
Sanctus (“Holy, holy, holy . . .”) Offertory
Agnus Dei (“Lamb of God . . .”) Communion
Ite missa est Collect (spoken)
Epistle (spoken)
Gospel (spoken)
Secret (spoken)
Preface (spoken)
Post-Communion (spoken)
Musically, the distinction between the Ordinary and Proper is important, because
a composer in the Renaissance could elect to write music for the Ordinary of the mass
knowing that music could be used for any time in the church year. Many such masses
indeed only had music for the Ordinary. On the other hand, a composer might be
inspired to write music for a special week of the Church calendar—Easter, for example,
and create special music for that season. Either way, the composer had great latitude to
set the text of the mass to music in an original way. Many masses were “freely invented,”
with no reference to earlier Gregorian chant melodies. However, the majority of Renaissance
masses, surprisingly, had chant material included, often as a cantus firmus in several
sections. Certain masses had names given to them to represent special services. A
requiem mass, for example, was a mass specifically designed to eulogize the dead. A
passion was a mass specifically dealing with the subject of the death of Jesus Christ.
One of the early masters of the Renaissance mass was Guillaume Dufay (c.1400–
1474). A French composer who spent over 20 years working in Italy, Dufay is perhaps
the most famous of the early Renaissance composers. His settings of the sections of the
mass clearly demonstrated the techniques of imitation in his polyphonic sections, alternating
with chordal, homophonic phrases. In fact, with the works of Dufay, the technique
of imitation reached a peak. When listening to Dufay’s music, one is immediately

36 Chapter 4
struck with how “normal” and pleasing the music is to our ears, as compared with the
music of the Medieval period. More than anything else, this effect is the result of progress
in composing music that satisfies the listener’s expectations in sonority and harmonic
tendency. Chords are created that naturally lead to other chords, driving the musical
phrase toward a point of conclusion, called a cadence. Listen for not only the homophonic
and polyphonic textures of the following mass excerpt, but also how the phrases
make harmonic sense to your ears.
The Reformation and the Counter Reformation
In 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses, or complaints, about the abuses
and mismanagement within the Catholic Church. It would be years before he truly
realized that in doing so, he had started an entirely new movement within Christianity,
the German Reformed or Protestant church. While the historical significance of the
Protestant Reformation is obvious, its impact on music is sometimes overlooked. One
of the central issues of the Protestant church was the role of music in the church service.
Martin Luther, himself an accomplished musician, understood the importance of music
in the worship service. Luther, however, went a step further by involving the congregation
more directly in the music. One way that Luther accomplished this was through the
widespread use of the hymn. Hymns were a type of sacred tune that had been around
for centuries. Briefly, they were based on repeated stanzas of a prayer, sacred poem, or
psalm. Martin Luther used the hymn, later developed into the chorale, as the main type
of music in the Protestant church service. These chorales were sung in the vernacular, or
native language of the land, rather than Latin. They were simple tunes, and easy to
learn, so that common people in the congregation could participate in the singing of
chorales whether or not they had musical training. Indeed, the whole idea of congregational
participation became a hallmark of the Protestant service. People flocked to the
new Protestant churches because they enjoyed the feeling of being active participants in
the musical portions of the worship service.
As in any other business, the loss of “market share” in the Catholic church during
the time of the Reformation alarmed its leadership. By 1540, the situation had worsened
to the point that an international conclave of Catholic leadership, known as the
Council of Trent, was convened. The result of the Council of Trent was a renewed
effort to revitalize, not reinvent, the Catholic Mass. This movement to bring people
back to the Catholic church became known as the Counter-Reformation. The main
musical figure of the Counter-Reformation was Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525–
1594). Palestrina was a brilliant musician who composed over a hundred masses, as well
as other sacred and secular works. His later masses became some of the most revered of
all Renaissance Catholic church music for their sheer musical beauty and clear, understandable
settings of the text.
Palestrina’s most famous sacred work was entitled the Pope Marcellus Mass, thus
named because it was specifically written to prove to the Church leadership that the old
Latin text could be set in an understandable, yet musically advanced way. In the following
example, notice how Palestrina’s judicious use of imitation highlights the significant
phrases of text without obscuring them.

Listen to This
The Renaissance 37
Published in 1567, this work is scored for six vocal parts. The texture is mostly
homophonic, though there are sections of moderate imitative polyphony.
Palestrina was considered to be one of the very finest composers of Renaissance
sacred music. The harmonies and sonorities are as fresh today as they were
over 400 years ago.
Latin English
Qui tollis peccata mundi, Thou that takest away the sins of the
world,
miserere nobis. have mercy upon us.
Qui tollis peccata mundi, Thou that takest away the sins of the
world,
sucipe deprecationem nostram. receive our prayer.
Qui sedes ad dexteram Patris, Thou that sittest at the right hand of
the Father,
miserere nobis. have mercy upon us.
Quonium tu solus sanctus For thou alone art holy.
Tu solus Dominus. Thou only art the Lord.
Tu solus Altissimus Thou alone art most high.
Jesu Christe, cum Sancto Spiritu Jesus Christ, along with the Holy Spirit
in gloria Dei Patris. in the glory of God the Father.
Amen. Amen.
To a great extent, the Counter-Reformation succeeded in its aim of strengthening
the Mass and slowing the exodus of people to the Protestant Church. However, the new
branch of Christianity was here to stay, and its philosophy regarding the role of music in
the worship service would change the course of music history. For the new importance
of this music would inspire later composers, such as Bach, Handel, and a host of others,
to find new musical ways to glorify God.
Secular Vocal Music
Track 3 Excerpt from “Gloria” of the Mass
Palestrina, “Qui Tollis” from “Gloria” of Pope Marcellus Mass
The explosion of new sacred compositions in the Renaissance was matched by a proliferation
of secular works during the same period. Poet-musicians were finally free to
pursue their craft openly, and hundreds of new secular works were composed, employing
many of the techniques used in religious music. Word painting, in particular, was
central to the efforts of composers of secular music. As mentioned earlier, a primary aim
of music during the Renaissance was to reflect the text as realistically as possible. Usually,
secular vocal music in the early Renaissance was highly polyphonic, with free use of
imitation. Probably the earliest secular vocal form in the Renaissance was the chanson,

38 Chapter 4
which flourished in France in the fifteenth century. Machaut was a major composer of
the chanson, and used imitative polyphony to frame the love poetry which normally
comprised its text.
The most advanced secular vocal form of the Renaissance was the madrigal, which
sprang up in Italy and England. Its influence spread throughout Europe by the late 16th
century, and the madrigal became the dominant form through which to express Renaissance
secular poetry. The stylistic features of the madrigal embodied all of the popular
practices found in other types of Renaissance music, including alternation between homophonic
and polyphonic sections, word painting, and extensive use of imitation.
Characteristics of the Renaissance Madrigal
1. Music set to short love poem, usually one stanza.
2. 3 to 6 vocal parts, with one singer per part.
3. Alternating homophonic and polyphonic sections.
4. Music follows and supports text.
5. Unaccompanied voices (a capella).
6. Extensive use of imitation among parts.
The madrigal in Italy went through several stages of development, with the final
stage occurring in the late sixteenth century with the works of Luca Marenzio, Carlo
Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643). Monteverdi’s latest madrigals embodied
advanced ideas for word painting, including astute use of dissonance and chromaticism
to accent the meaning of the text. Often, the texts of late Italian madrigals
were highly sensuous in nature; the tension applied by the use of chromaticism only
heightened the romantic tension of the poetry.
Composer Profile
Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643)
Claudio Monteverdi was born in Cremona, Italy, in 1567, and displayed an
early aptitude for music. He learned to play the organ and viol, and published
his first composition at age fifteen. Also a singer, he worked with the
Duke of Mantua for many years, composing madrigals and other miscellaneous
secular works. He was the first successful composer of operas, producing Orfeo
in February of 1607. The success of this opera was due to Monteverdi’s use of
arias and dramatic recitatives, making the entire work much more palatable for
the average listener. Monteverdi’s early operas helped establish the differences
among recitatives, arias, and ensemble pieces as separate forms. In addition,
Monteverdi composed nine books of madrigals, often employing the latest trends
in chromaticism and harmony. In 1632, Monteverdi took the holy orders, and
spent much of the rest of his life composing sacred works, including the famous
Vespers. He died in Venice in 1643, and is remembered as one of the most important
musical figures to bridge the Renaissance and Baroque musical periods.

Listen to This
Track 4 Renaissance Madrigal
Monteverdi—Si, chio vorrei morire
The Renaissance 39
Monteverdi set this sensuous poetry by Lodovico Sforza to music and had it
published, as part of his fourth book of madrigals, in 1603. This work is an
excellent example of words dominating the music. Notice how at the beginning
and end the text is sung in a homophonic texture. This style gives the words
“How I would like to die” a staightforward, declamatory feel. On the fourth line,
the word “Ah” is sung in a somewhat dissonant interval, followed by a highly
imitative sequence that builds in tension until such time that the subject “perishes
on her breast.” The end of that sentence is the lowest pitch of the phrase;
in fact, every time the words “die” or “death” are uttered, the music has sunk to
its lowest notes. The middle of the text repeats several lines; these are treated
to a very polyphonic, imitative texture. Near the end, the phrases referring to the
mouth, kisses, and tongue again develop tension as the pitches rise. In a beautiful
piece of craftsmanship, Monteverdi ends as he began, with a simple declamation
of the title line.
Italian English
Si, ch’io vorrei morire, How I would like to die,
Hora ch’io bacio, amore Love, now that I kiss
La bella bocca del mio amato core the lovely mouth of my beloved,
Ah! cara e dolce lingua! Ah! dear, sweet tongue,
Date mi tant’ humore give me such moisture
Che di dolcezza in questo sen m’estingua that of sweetness I perish on her
breast.
Ahi, vita mia! Ah, my life!
In questo bianco seno. To your white bosom,
Deh stringete mi fin ch’io venga meno. oh, hold me close until I die.
In questo bianco seno. To your white bosom
Deh stringete mi fin ch’io venga meno. oh, hold me close until I die.
Ahi bocca, ahi baci, ahi lingua Ah, mouth! Ah, kisses! Ah, tongue!
Torne dire: I say again:
Si, ch’io vorrei morire! How I would like to die!
English madrigals tended to be more lighthearted in overall character, and composers
such as Thomas Weelkes and Thomas Morley composed scores of these works,
which often included the use of syllabic phrases like “fa-la-la,” and other syllables with
no real meaning. The familiar Christmas carol “Deck the Halls” is a Renaissance work
employing this characteristic. The use of these phrases gave a rhythmic boost to the
music, and tended to unify the work by giving similar endings to the phrases.

40 Chapter 4
Instrumental Music
The compositional techniques of imitation, homophony, and polyphony that distinguished
Renaissance vocal music were just as evident in the instrumental music of the
period. Though Renaissance composers were largely preoccupied with vocal music and
word painting, this was the first historical period in which significant quantities of music
were composed strictly for instrumental performance. Think of the Renaissance as “setting
the stage” for an explosion of instrumental music in the next period, the Baroque.
The idea of an orchestra, as we now think of it, was still decades away. The instincts
of musicians of this period led them to compose music for similar types of instruments.
Though there are obviously exceptions, composition for consorts was the most popular
style of the day. By the late Renaissance, many instruments had reached a fairly high
degree of sophistication and technical workmanship. The musicians who played these
instruments often formed guilds designed to assist in education and professional development.
The instrumental music of the Renaissance reached its zenith with the works of
Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554–1612). Gabrieli composed canzonas and sonatas for instrumental
ensemble, usually brass, which employed homophonic and polyphonic sections
similar to the vocal music of the period. He also mastered the use of antiphonal
(“opposing sounds”) writing for brass ensembles. By placing separate performing groups
in two, three, or even four areas of the performance space, Gabrieli was able to achieve
a variety of special effects. By using imitative polyphony, these antiphonal brass choirs
could create echo effects, call and answer sections, and then suddenly combine in a
homophonic texture to create an impression of great power and space.
Composer Profile
Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554–1612)
Giovanni Gabrieli was born into a very musical family sometime between
1554 and 1557, in Venice, Italy. He was trained by his uncle, Andrea Gabrieli,
who was himself a celebrated composer and organist. Giovanni became a great
organist and the most important composer of the late 16th century in Venice. He
was a pioneer in the use of multiple choirs and employment of free imitation
among the choirs. He was among the first to compose works for choir and specified
instrumental accompaniment. Many of his sacred works actually included
entire compositions for instruments alone (Sacrae Symphoniae). Gabrieli’s instrumental
works, including instrumental canzonas for brass and other instruments,
were ground-breaking compositions that are still often performed today. His
German pupils, particularly Heinrich Schutz, established the German styles of
instrumental composition, which would eventually lead to the works of later
German composers, such as Johann Sebastian Bach. He died in Venice in 1612.
Other instrumental forms existed during the Renaissance, with the main focus
being in the area of dance music. Instrumental dances of this time were tied to a specific
tempo and meter. The title of the dance, therefore, gave the listener a complete picture

The Renaissance 41
of the dance steps, with the appropriate music to accompany that dance. Several dance
types are listed below, but many more existed.
Renaissance Dance Forms
Allemande Moderato dance in duple meter
Courante Moderato or Allegro dance in triple meter
Sarabande Andante or adagio dance in triple meter
Gigue Allegro dance in duple or compound meter
Bourrée Andante dance in duple meter
Minuet Moderato dance in triple meter
Pavane Andante or adagio dance in duple meter
Galliard Moderato dance in triple meter
Renaissance dances were short pieces with regular repeated phrases and melodies.
The structure of these dances were similar in many respects to popular tunes of today.
Each dance, however, expressed only one tempo or style. By combining dances into
suites, or collections of dances, the composer could write music for a variety of different
moods and styles within the same larger work. Usually, the instrumentation was not
specified; in rare cases, the dances called for specific consorts or instruments. Often,
improvisation was employed, both by embellishing the melodies and augmenting the
accompaniments.
Much has been written about Renaissance philosophy, and the attempts by people
of the time to recapture the glory of the great ancient empires of Greece and Rome. The
culmination of this thinking was a combination of the arts, which will be discussed in
the next chapter. The result of this combination became known as opera.
Key Terms
antiphonal madrigal
canon mass
chanson Ordinary (of the Mass)
chorale polyphonic
consort Proper (of the Mass)
Counter Reformation Protestant Reformation
homophonic suite
hymn
imitation
word painting

Name Date
Chapter 4 Review
The Renaissance
1. The Renaissance period lasted from to .
2. The term homophonic means .
3. What composer composed most of the music for the Counter Reformation?
4. Martin Luther led the .
5. Name several sections of the ordinary of the typical Catholic Mass.
6. The was the effort to bring people back to the Catholic Church.
7. The Italian was considered to be the most advanced vocal form in
the Renaissance.
8. The first truly great opera masterpiece was titled
and was composed by .
9. Name several dance forms common to Renaissance instrumental music.
10. Discuss the experimentation Givanni Gabrieli conducted that was the precursor of stereo sounds.
43

5
Music of the Baroque
The name Baroque was not a complimentary term during the late Renaissance.
In fact, it literally meant “grotesque,” “in bad taste,” or of irregular and disproportionate
shape. However, the term was applied first to art and architecture,
and later it was attached to the music of the period from 1600–1750. Of all the definitions
that have been applied to the term Baroque, perhaps the only one that has some
relevance to music of the time refers to art that is ornate or overly-embellished. One
might also marvel at the interesting ways in which social and cultural trends of this
period are mirrored in its music.
The Ages of Absolutism and Science
Historians typically think of the period of 1600–1750 as the Age of Absolutism. This
was a time when monarchs believed that God chose them to rule. “The divine right of
kings” was the doctrine of the day, and to some, such as Louis XIV of France, this
doctrine gave them the right to do whatever they wished. Rulers could be both merciful
and ruthless; either way, they believed that they had absolute God-given authority over
their lands and their subjects. In this time, music often inherited the role of glorifying
royal occasions, events, or the monarchs themselves. Music was required for virtually
every function, from banquets (Tafelmusik), to hunts and other activities, both ceremonial
and private. Musicians were usually well paid and treated as prized servants, as long
as they provided music that impressed the monarchy and the court.
Ironically, the same period is known to many scholars as the Age of Science. This
period, dominated by absolute rulers, was also the time of Sir Isaac Newton and the
development of calculus and the theory of gravity. The scientific process was developed
and nurtured, becoming man’s preferred means of problem solving. Logic and deductive
reasoning were vital in all forms of education and research. The philosophy of empirical
thinking espoused by Descartes and Locke led people to embrace rationality and
experimentation to prove their ideas. The adoption of these systems and philosophies
had a direct influence on much of the music of the Baroque, just as the Age of Absolutism
did.
These two historical currents obviously contradicted each other on many levels,
but both still found manifestation in the music of the Baroque period. Baroque music
could be at once coldly logical and calculated, and just as suddenly become lavishly
ornamental and pompous. The conflict between these two opposing forces defined
Baroque music and art.
45

46 Chapter 5
One direct musical benefit of the Age of Science was in the field of musical instrument
design and construction. Instruments were developed to a very high degree of
sophistication during the Baroque period, to accommodate the demands of the musicians
of the day. The violins, violas, cellos, and basses of Antonio Stradivarius (1644–
1737) are among the finest and most expensive instruments in the world even today,
with prices averaging well over a million dollars. Other instrument makers, most notably
Gottfried Silbermann (organs) and Francois Etienne Blanchett (harpsichords) set standards
of craftsmanship that have yet to be surpassed.
Major and Minor Modes
Music theory and practice evolved in almost every way during the Baroque. The common
modes of major and minor, which had been implied for decades, were finally
perfected and subsequently became the standard scales for virtually all music in the
Baroque period and the centuries following. Briefly, the major scale is similar to other
scales or modes in that it contains a stepwise progression of eight notes. However, half
steps in the major scale occur between the third and fourth notes, and the seventh and
eighth notes. The sound of this sequence was (and is) quite appealing to musicians,
and the major mode became the scale of choice in most Baroque music. The minor
mode, or scale, was likewise found to be very attractive to the Baroque musicians, who
chose it as the perfect counter to the sound of the major mode. Whereas the major
mode might be characterized as “happy” or optimistic, the minor mode sounds “serious”
or melancholy. Technically, the only difference between major and minor is the
location of the half steps along the scale.
Major and Minor Modes
Scale Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Major W W H W W W H
Minor (pure) W H W W H W W
W = whole step H = half step
Three different types of minor scales exist, but only one, the pure or “natural”
minor scale, uses the step arrangement shown above. Two modifications of the minor
scale were developed, and became more commonly used in music than the pure minor
scale. The harmonic minor raises the seventh tone one half step, so that a half step exists
between the seventh and eighth tones, but one and a half steps occur between the sixth
and seventh tone. The melodic minor scale is even more closely related to major. Ascending,
the half steps are between the second and third tones and the seventh and
eighth tones. Therefore, the scale “sounds” major from the fourth tone up. However,
the scale reverts to the natural form as it descends. By far the most commonly used form
of the minor scale in the Baroque period was the harmonic minor.
Chords that accompanied melodies in the major and minor modes became standardized,
and were arranged to create logical sounding chord progressions and cadences.
Procedures for the most effective means of moving from one chord to the next were
adopted, as were specific chord progressions used to end musical phrases. These ending
progressions, called cadences, provided logical resting points in the music, and gave a
feeling of order to the musical phrases and larger forms. In fact, the methodology of

Music of the Baroque 47
chord progressions developed during the Baroque period are still the underpinnings of
tonal music structure today, both in serious music and commercial genres.
Dynamics, Tempo, and Structure
The great interest in instrumental music that started during the Baroque period continues
to this day. During this period, the roots of modern formal structures that influence
musical development for the next four hundred years were spawned. These forms and
structures grew out of a necessity to organize instrumental music, which lacked the
natural boundaries of the text in a vocal composition. Instrumental and vocal works, for
a variety of reasons, became sectional, and were often divided into sections called movements
(like chapters in a book). In this way, a composition could have many movements,
each one encompassing a specific mood, meter, and tempo.
Two musical properties manipulated by Baroque composers to achieve variety and
unity in their music were dynamics and tempo. The predominant way of thinking during
this period was that a piece of music should contain only one tempo, and dynamic
levels that were constant, at least through phrases. The days of written crescendos in
music were still decades off, and the idea of suddenly changing volume within a phrase
would have been quite surprising to most listeners. To achieve dynamic contrast therefore,
a composer would vary the number and types of instruments playing during a
piece. If changes in dynamics were called for within a movement, they were usually
“shelved,” meaning that each change would be followed by a period of dynamic
stability.
From Renaissance to Baroque: Opera
Depending on which book you read, the development of opera is either a late Renaissance
trend or an early Baroque development. Exact period placement is not really important,
but it is important to note that certain composers, most notably Claudio
Monteverdi, served to “bridge” the two musical periods together. The birth of opera
falls exactly on the dividing line between the Renaissance and the Baroque eras, around
1600. The purpose of opera was to combine the fine arts of music, dance, literature,
drama, and visual art into one integrated type of entertainment. Early attempts at opera
were not entirely successful, with performers basically singing their way through a script
(called a libretto in an opera) with little action or real musical structure. It was not until
the development of the recitative and the aria that opera as a form could begin to
flourish. A recitative is a section of an opera during which dialogue is sung with the
timing and inflections of regular speech. It is during recitatives that action could take
place and the plot could be moved forward. Since the timing of phrases had to closely
match normal speech, there was little if any instrumental accompaniment and no strict
rhythm during a recitative. In other words, two different interpretations of a recitative
might have totally different durations for the notes, just as one might expect in spoken
dialogue.
Recitatives tend to lead toward songs in an opera that would allow the performer
to express his or her feelings about a particular person or emotion. An aria is such a
song, performed as a vocal solo with the accompaniment of an instrumental ensemble.
Unlike recitatives, arias tend to have a regular meter and fuller instrumental accompaniment.
Arias with two or more singers are called duets, ensembles, or choruses, in the
case of a large number of people singing.
Preceding the opera, an overture was performed in order to get the audience and
the cast ready to perform and create the proper mood. Often, thematic ideas from the
entire opera were included in the overture. When the overture finished, the curtain

48 Chapter 5
would open and the opera would begin. An overture is a direct ancestor to the “main
title” music one finds preceding movies and television shows today.
The first successful opera was Orfeo, first produced in 1607 and composed by
Claudio Monteverdi. Orfeo was among the first operas to employ separate arias, recitatives,
and choruses. In doing so, Monteverdi avoided the dullness of the earlier attempts at
opera by crafting many shorter pieces of music that served the needs of the particular
scene in the opera. Orfeo was such a success that opera became a dominant musical force
in Italy within a very few years. In 1637, the first public opera house was constructed in
Venice, giving virtually anyone the opportunity to experience this new form of entertainment.
Indeed, opera was the first real “multi-media” experience for audiences. Today,
fans of all types of visual entertainment from movies to television and even some
video games owe a debt of gratitude to the developers of opera for first combining the
visual and aural arts into one integrated form.
The use of overtures, arias, recitatives, and choruses in operas continued for over
two hundred years with relatively little change, until the works of Wagner in the late
nineteenth century reexamined the role of music in opera. To a great extent, many
elements of early opera still exist today in Broadway musicals, except that the sung
recitatives are usually discarded in favor of spoken dialogue.
Baroque Vocal Music: Opera, Oratorio, Cantata
The use of arias, recitatives, and choruses in vocal music pervaded Baroque vocal composition.
If opera is the secular spectacle of the Baroque, its sacred counterpart is the
oratorio. An oratorio is a large-scale work for chorus, vocal soloists, and orchestra, just
as an opera is. However, important differences exist between them. An oratorio is always
religious in nature, based on Christian scripture or a religious story. In addition, an
oratorio is never staged; it is performed as a concert work. In other words, there are no
costumes, sets, or dramatic action. Certainly the most famous of all oratorios is Messiah
by Handel, though Handel, Bach, and other Baroque composers wrote many others.
A cantata is also composed of arias, recitatives, and choruses, but it is a smaller
scale work. Typically, cantatas range in duration from fifteen minutes to a half an hour,
whereas the average opera or oratorio can easily last two hours or more. The text of a
cantata was often religious, though many secular cantatas exist. If a cantata uses a religious
text, it is typically called a “church” cantata. Cantatas, both sacred and secular,
were extremely popular in the Baroque. The Baroque composer Alessandro Scarlatti
(1660–1725) composed over 600 cantatas, mostly secular. Johann Sebastian Bach composed
about 300 cantatas, mostly sacred, of which only about 200 have been found.
Though cantatas are still composed even today, their popularity fell off rapidly after the
Baroque period. As in the case of oratorios, all cantatas are designed to be performed
without costumes or staging.
An opera or oratorio usually begins with an overture; however, a cantata may or
may not have one due to its compact dimensions. Handel was the master of opera in the
Baroque, Bach the master of the church cantata, and both were geniuses in the oratorio
form.
Opera, Oratorio, Cantata
OPERA long staged secular
ORATORIO long unstaged sacred
CANTATA short unstaged sacred or secular
All of the above forms employ arias, recitatives, and choruses

Music of the Baroque 49
Astute readers might note that some operas, particularly in the late Romantic era,
do indeed deal with religious topics (Samson and Delilah by Saint-Saëns, or Salomé by
Richard Strauss, for example). However, keep in mind that these operas are secular
dramatizations of a Biblical tale, not a religious work designed to enhance worship.
Listen to This
Track 5 Handel “Hallelujah Chorus” from Messiah
Handel’s Messiah, first performed in 1742, is one of the best known Baroque
works of all time. The famous “Hallelujah Chorus” is actually not the
finale, but occurs roughly two-thirds of the way through the oratorio. This was
scored for a large choir and a Baroque orchestra that included both trumpets,
oboes, timpani, harpsichord and organ. Handel’s ingenious use of texture is evident
in his astute use of homophony and polyphony. After a brief introduction,
notice that the words hallelujah are always sung in homophonic style, which
strongly projects the words. During this movement notice how polyphonic sections
take place in areas of the text where it is appropriate, returning to homophony
when special emphasis is called for in the text. In the middle of the
movement, a short fugal section ensues on the words “And he shall reign forever
. . . ” Throughout, the orchestra complements what the singers are doing. When
the singing style is polyphonic, the accompaniment follows the singers.
When the singing style is homophonic, the accompaniment is not imitative but
adopts an independent attitude.
Composer Profile
Geor George Geor ge F FFrideric
F rideric Handel Handel (1 (1685–1 (1 85–1 85–1 85–175 85–1 75 759) 75 9)
Born in Halle, Germany on February 23, 1685, George
Frideric Handel was the son of a wealthy surgeon
who had a genuine aversion to musicians. He wished
for his son George to study law, but somehow (no one
knows exactly how) he learned to play the organ. At the
age of seven, he played for the Duke of Weissenfels,
who was so impressed that he strongly advised George’s
father to get him proper music instruction.
George could not have been more fortunate than
to become the student of Friedrich Wilhelm Zachau, an
extraordinary musician who taught young Handel the
keyboard and composition. After his father’s death and
a brief stint in law school, Handel went to study in Hamburg,
the center of German opera. Later, Handel trav-
Library of Congress: LC-USZC-4-2480
Handel
eled to Italy, hoping to find fertile ground for his growing skills as an opera
composer. He worked in several cities, having great success in Florence and
Venice. While in Italy, diplomats of the English government heard Handel’s

50 Chapter 5
music and invited him to travel to the British Isles. Eventually, Handel accepted
the invitation, and spent most of the remainder of his life there.
England had no real musical hero since the death of Henry Purcell in 1695.
Handel filled the void handsomely when he arrived in 1710, and composed dozens
of operas, which delighted the English audiences. He befriended King George
I and wrote many works to please him, including his famous suite, Water Music.
In 1720, Handel was named by King George to head the Royal Academy of
Music, a post that he held for eight years.
Handel’s operas, composed in the Italian style, gradually fell out of favor
with British audiences, who began to prefer light “ballad operas” sung in English.
After 1738, Handel turned his attention to the oratorio. Israel in Egypt (1739),
Messiah (1742), and Samson (1743), stand out among the dozen oratorios that
Handel composed.
In 1749, Handel accepted an invitation from King George II to compose
music for a victory celebration of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. There was to be
an immense fireworks display with a huge “victory temple” constructed to commemorate
the event. Handel was given an orchestra of over one hundred musicians,
and cannons were brought in to add to the spectacle. Thousands of people
came to witness the great event. The fireworks failed and the temple caught on
fire; the only positive thing that can be said about the event was that it spawned
one of Handel’s most enduring instrumental compositions, the Royal Fireworks
Music.
Handel was ill with gout and other maladies caused by his great weight,
and by 1753 was totally blind. However, he continued to play the organ brilliantly,
performing his works by memory almost up to the time of his death.
Shortly after a performance of Messiah in 1759, he collapsed. Handel died on
April 14, 1759, and was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside England’s kings
and queens.
Baroque Instrumental Music
Indeed, the Baroque period was a time when musicians were exploring the technical
limits of themselves and their instruments. For perhaps the first time in history, instrumental
music was composed specifically to display the skills of the performer. A musician
with performing skills of the highest order was known as a virtuoso.
Though organs had been in use for hundreds of years, the Baroque is the first
period that showed an almost universal appetite for keyboard music. The three principal
types of keyboard instruments at this time were the organ, the harpsichord, and the
clavichord. The harpsichord was extremely popular, not only as a solo instrument, but
also as accompaniment to instrumental ensembles. Typically, the harpsichord (or organ
in sacred works) would improvise a chordal accompaniment to the instrumental work
with the aid of a system of numbers called figured bass. With only a bass line written on
the staff and the numbers written below, the player could deduce the intervals above the
bass and therefore the chord to be played. This improvised keyboard part became common
in Baroque instrumental music, and was known as the basso continuo.
The Baroque Orchestra
The term orchestra normally refers to a large ensemble of instruments, but the term is
merely relative; a large ensemble by Baroque standards does not seem very large today.
Instrumental ensembles had been playing together for many years by the beginning of
the Baroque period. Prior to 1600, however, instrumental ensembles tended to be smaller
in nature, intended for chamber applications. Some large ensembles were used for

Music of the Baroque 51
special occasions, but these instances were somewhat rare. The instrumentation of these
groups was seldom specified until the late Renaissance, with the music of Giovanni
Gabrieli and others.
Musicians had long been aware of the unique timbres that could be created by
mixing instrumental families, but no set group of instruments was adopted to serve the
composers’ requirements. The instrumentation of the typical orchestra after 1600 became
a little more predictable, with a group of strings (violins, violas, cellos, and a string
bass) along with a keyboard (harpsichord or organ) playing the basso continuo part. To
this core group, winds could be added, though they were usually few in number and
type. Timpani were also added on occasion, especially in larger scale works, such as
oratorios and operas.
The Concerto Grosso
Typical Baroque Orchestra (8–20 players)
4–8 violins
2–4 violas
1–2 cellos
1 string bass (doubling basso continuo part)
Optional additions (1 or 2 of the following):
Flutes (recorders), oboes, trumpets, horns
timpani
The earliest attempts at what would become “orchestral” music were probably instrumental
canzonas and sonatas. A concerto, in its earliest form, literally meant a “competition”
between large and small groups of instruments or singers. As the concerto evolved,
small ensembles of “solo” instruments, called the concertino, were arrayed against a
larger ensemble, known as the ripieno. As they played, the ripieno and concertino would
alternate phrases, and occasionally join together. This method of producing contrasts of
dynamics and timbre, called concertato, or in some cases ritornello style, was extremely
effective. Eventually, the idea of combining movements of contrasting tempi into a
single work became popular. Thus, the concerto grosso was born. The earliest attempts
had several movements, which alternated between fast and slow. Stradella and Corelli
were the early masters of the concerto grosso, but it was Giuseppe Torelli (1658–1709)
who standardized the order of movements. The concerto grosso of Torelli and later
composers had three movements, alternating in a fast-slow-fast tempo scheme, and usually
employed the ritornello style of alternating groups in the first and last movements.
Baroque Concert Grosso
1st Movement 2nd Movement 3rd Movement
Fast (Allegro) Slow (Adagio, Andante) Fast (Allegro)
Concertato style Usually not concertato style Concertato style

52 Chapter 5
The Suite
As composers became more involved in the new orchestral forms, a renewed interest in
the dance suite was building. Composers such as Froberger, Bach, and Handel composed
many suites for all types of solo instruments and ensembles. Subtle differences
among dances from England, France, and Italy inspired composers, especially Bach, to
experiment in each of the genres. Bach composed suites in each of those national styles,
and more. Handel composed the suites Water Music and Royal Fireworks Music to provide
very English-sounding dance music for the pleasure of the English monarchs. Essentially,
the dance forms contained within a suite did not change significantly from the
dances described in the Renaissance (chapter 4). It is safe to say that most dance suites of
the Baroque period were written for listening, not dancing. Still, the suite was very
popular as utility music for social occasions.
Composer Profile
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750)
Many scholars feel strongly that Johann Sebastian
Bach is the single greatest composer who ever
lived. Considering the lives and contributions of people
like Mozart and Beethoven, the determination of who is
the greatest will probably never be settled. Without question,
Bach was certainly one of the most intelligent men
who was ever involved in music, and the sheer quantity
and quality of his compositional output is almost beyond
belief.
Born on March 21, 1685, in Eisenach, Germany,
Johann Sebastian was the son of Johann Ambrosius
Bach, himself a fine musician. In fact, the Bach clan domi- Library of Congress: LC-D420-2392
nated music in the various localities in northern Ger-
Bach
many. Members of the extended Bach family held no
fewer than thirty musical positions of significance in Germany over several generations
prior to Johann Sebastian’s birth.
Though certainly no prodigy, Bach received his first musical training from
his father, then later from one of his brothers. He showed a remarkable gift as
an organist and singer, and at fifteen he landed his first steady employment as a
boy soprano at Luneburg. Here, Johann Sebastian was exposed to French and
Italian musical styles that would influence some of his later compositions. In
1702, he moved to Weimar, then to Arnstadt, Muhlhausen, then eventually back
to Weimar, and with each move, his reputation as an organist grew. It was not
long before he was regarded as one of the finest organists in Germany, with
amazing technique and an uncanny ability to improvise on any tune.
During these early years, probably at Arnstadt, Bach began composing in
earnest. Mostly, his compositions were related to his job responsibilities, to produce
cantatas and other music for Protestant services. Johann Sebastian, a stubborn,
pious man, felt that his greatest mission in life was to glorify God through
music. He did not think of himself as better than any other tradesman. He tended
to be rather brusque with employers and others who tried to get him to do the
more mundane tasks associated with his jobs, such as training choirboys to

Music of the Baroque 53
sing. Occasionally, his temper got him into trouble and at least once it landed
him in jail.
Bach married his cousin, Maria Barbara Bach, and they had seven children.
Two of these children, Wilhelm Friedmann Bach and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach,
became famous musicians in their own right. In an attempt to improve his income
to support his growing family, he accepted a secular post as Kappelmeister
in the city of Cothen. It was a step up for Bach, but it kept him from his first love,
that of composing religious music. Still, many of Bach’s greatest secular compositions
were composed at Cothen, including his six Brandenburg Concertos and
the first of two books of preludes and fugues entitled The Well-Tempered Klavier.
The forty-eight works contained in The Well-Tempered Klavier stand as one of the
great monuments of keyboard music to this day.
Bach made many short excursions to other towns in the region, to try out
organs or to perform for special occasions. After one trip, he returned to find
that his wife had died and was already buried. Trying to raise his children by
himself proved difficult, and about a year later, he married Anna Magdelena
Wilcken, a twenty-year-old singer. What began perhaps as a marriage of convenience
turned into a wonderful union. They had thirteen children together, and
Anna Magdelena remained Johann Sebastian’s steady and loving companion
until his death in 1750. Among Anna Magdelena’s children was another famous
musical Bach, Johann Christian.
Eventually, Johann Sebastian returned to the service of the Protestant
Church, being hired as a Cantor in the city of Leipzig. Though once again saddled
with duties he hated, such as choral training and the teaching of Latin, he flourished
in Leipzig as a composer. Most of his greatest religious works came from
Leipzig, including his passions St. John and St. Matthew, the B Minor Mass, and
most of his cantatas.
Johann Sebastian eventually visited Frederick the Great (Carl Philipp Emanuel
Bach was employed in Frederick’s court), and the King was hugely impressed by
the elder Bach’s amazing musical abilities. It was a high point in Johann
Sebastian’s life, and in gratitude he began composing a series of fugues based
on one of Frederick’s own melodies. This eventually became The Art of the Fugue,
but unfortunately it was never finished. Bach, who by then had already lost
most of his eyesight, next suffered a stroke. He died on July 28, 1750, in Leipzig.
Bach was buried in a poorly marked grave. At the time of his death, he was
a very respected musician throughout Germany, but he was hardly worldfamous.
Over time, he and much of his music were virtually forgotten. For the
next several generations, the name Johann Sebastian Bach was known only to
musicians who might have had the good fortune to study his few published
works, such as The Well-Tempered Klavier. In 1830, the great Romantic composer
Felix Mendelssohn produced Bach’s St. Matthew Passion. Practically overnight, a
renewed interest in Johann Sebastian Bach’s music was born. In 1850, the Bach
Gesellschaft was established, which was a society dedicated to the recovery and
publication of all of Bach’s works. The task was daunting; Bach had written over
a thousand compositions, but they were scattered among family descendants
and former places of employment. Almost a hundred years after his death, Bach’s
gravesite was rediscovered, upon which a very stark, simple monument was
erected.
Today, the name Johann Sebastian Bach resides with the very highest rank
of musicians. As a performer, he was without peer. As a composer, his music
shows an amazing depth of emotion, structure, and technical sophistication.
Over the centuries, many other musicians have adapted Johann Sebastian’s music
for their own purposes. Even today, pop and jazz musicians freely employ melodies
of Bach. Most musicians agree that Bach’s music is indestructible; the more
it is adapted and rearranged, the more one realizes how truly great Johann
Sebastian Bach’s music is.

54 Chapter 5
Comparison of Bach and Handel
Both were born in the same area of Germany in the same year, grew to prominence in the
music world, yet never met.
Bach Handel
Lived in the same area all his life. Cosmopolitan; traveled widely.
Composed in all genres except opera. Made much of his living composing
operas.
Composed for his conscience. Composed for his audience.
Married twice: twenty children. Never married.
Genius at all forms in which he composed. True genius rests in vocal composition.
Middle class level at best. Moved in wealthy circles; at times,
wealthy.
Both great composers ended their lives blind, and both used the same oculist.
Baroque Keyboard Forms: Prelude, Toccata, and Fugue
If Johann Sebastian Bach had not been such an incredible keyboard player, we would
probably have never been treated to the virtuoso works that he produced as a composer.
History has revealed however, that there was simply nothing he tried that he could not
master, either as a composer or as a performer. Bach was the last word in the polyphonic
keyboard music of the Baroque.
The toccata is a virtuoso, free-form keyboard form, which seems to have as its
mission simply to show off the skills of the performer. Most toccatas have no clearly
defined meter, but seem to have powerful chords that alternate with virtuosic, fast running
passages. The result was that the effect of a toccata was spontaneous, almost like a
vocal recitative. Though many composers used the toccata extensively, especially the
great German organist Dietrich Buxtehude, the toccatas of Johann Sebastian Bach are
by far the most familiar.
The prelude, as the name suggests, is a musical piece that is designed to precede
another piece. In the Baroque period preludes were invariably short, usually with regular
meter but sometimes more free, and were usually followed by a fugue or other
polyphonic form. The term prelude has been used throughout musical history, and by
the nineteenth century lost most of its meaning as an introductory piece due to its use in
naming many styles of short keyboard pieces.
The most advanced polyphonic form of the Baroque period was the fugue, and its
supreme master was Johann Sebastian Bach. A fugue is a work built around one thematic
idea, called a subject. The subject is presented as a single melodic line, which in
turn is replayed in many other lines. When played on a keyboard, the effect is similar to
threads being woven together into a fabric. This “fabric” can be extremely dense, complex,
and of course difficult to perform. Usually, after the original exposition of the
subject and the imitative entrances of the other voices, the fugue will go through alternating
periods of relative calm (episodes) and extremely complex imitative polyphony
(stretti). The study and practice of polyphony in Baroque music is called counterpoint,
and involves the skill of harmonizing note against note, while maintaining the integrity
of each melodic line. Nobody was better at counterpoint than Bach, and when he died,
the Baroque practice of fugal writing essentially died with him.

Typical Fugue Exposition (4-part)
Music of the Baroque 55
A special type of variation form deserves mention, the passacaglia. A passacaglia
(and its close relative, the chaconne) is a unique form of theme and variations, in which
a repeated bass line, called a ground bass, is the central theme. The ground bass is repeated
many times with little or no alteration, and the harmonic and melodic ideas that
are layered over the bass line comprise the variations. The passacaglia was somewhat
rare, but the Passacaglia in c minor of Johann Sebastian Bach is a supreme example of
polyphonic variation technique.
Listen to This
Track #6 Bach, Fugue in G minor
This compact fugue, sometimes known as the “Litte Fugue,” is one of Bach’s
most popular fugues for the organ. It is a four-voice structure. The subject is
a surprisingly simple melodic idea, which is answered fairly quickly in the other
voices. After the fourth voice enters (in the organ pedals) the exposition ends
quickly and an episode follows. In this fugue the differences between an episode
and a stretto are fairly subtle. Rather than try to find them, simply listen to Bach’s
imaginative way of interlacing pieces of the subject among the contrapuntal
lines. The piece ends with a flourish, but quickly, in keeping with its nickname.
The End of the Baroque: Rococo
Many composers in the late Baroque period sought to clarify formal structures, and
bring more order to the perceived excesses of the contrapuntal forms employed by Bach
and others. Two of Bach’s own children, Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian,
became exponents of the rococo style. This style, also called the gallant style, is characterized
by a homophonic texture with regular phrases and simpler melodies than the
complex polyphonic music normally associated with the Baroque. Several Baroque composers,
including Bach himself, sometimes chose to compose works, especially suites, in
the rococo or gallant style. Rococo ideals foreshadowed Classical and even some Romantic
concepts of musical style and timbre. As the forces of change gathered to end the
perceived excesses of Baroque polyphony, the next era, the Classical era, was born.

56 Chapter 5
Principal Baroque Composers
Henry Purcell, 1659–1695 English
Giuseppe Torelli, 1658–1709 Italian
Arcangelo Corelli, 1653–1713 Italian
Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1583–1643 Italian
Jean-Baptiste Lully, 1632–1687 French
George Frideric Handel, 1685–1759 German
Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685–1750 German
Antonio Vivaldi, 1678–1741 Italian
Francois Couperin, 1668–1733 French
Alessandro Scarlatti, 1660–1725 Italian
Domenico Scarlatti, 1685–1757 Italian
Key Terms
Age of Absolutism major
Age of Science minor
aria opera
Baroque oratorio
basso continuo overture
cadence prelude
cantata recitative
chorus ripieno
concertato tempo scheme
concertino toccata
concerto grosso
fugue
virtuoso

Name Date
Chapter 5 Review
Music of the Baroque
1. Baroque actually meant .
2. Which composer was well-traveled and famous?
3. A(n) is a solo section of an opera, and had orchestral
accompaniment and strict rhythm.
4. A large scale sacred vocal work, which also uses arias, recitatives and choruses is called a(n)
5. A(n) is a solo section of an opera, and had very little
if any accompaniment, no strict rhythm, and was half-singing, half-talking.
6. A smaller vocal work, composed of arias, recitatives and choruses, which can be either sacred or
secular is called a .
7. An opera is long, secular and .
8. List several comparisons of Bach and Handel.
9. A sacred cantata is called a .
10. Discuss the differences between the Age of Science and the Age of Absolutism.
57
.

6
Social Trends
The Classical Period
The term “classical” is somewhat overused in modern conversation. It often seems
as though any music written before the twentieth century is called “classical.”
Among musicologists however, Classical music refers to the works composed
during a specific period, between 1750 and approximately 1800. The music from the
Classical period has unique stylistic features, with its most important attributes being
clear structures, logical melodies, and an emphasis on beauty and symmetry. Classical
music may also be characterized as predominantly homophonic, with polyphonic sections
added for variety and development. Gone are the days of the complex polyphony
of Baroque fugues. If polyphonic sections are included in a work, they are there for a
structural purpose, not mere showmanship. Music of the Classical period was mainly
designed to sound pleasing, and to be primarily entertaining. Though one might think
that most music is aimed to please, the motivations and goals for composition vary
widely. Some music is meant to instruct, or to inspire, or to provoke a specific reaction.
Music from the Classical period occasionally does some or all of these things, but above
all it is meant to entertain and delight the senses.
The Classical period is the shortest period in our exploration of music history;
however the period is of pivotal importance in the development of music. During the
Classical period, the modern symphony orchestra is born, as well as standardized chamber
groups like the string quartet and woodwind quintet. The standard formal structures
of the symphony, concerto, sonata, and more were developed during this time.
The advent of the piano, and the lives of two giants of music, Mozart and Haydn, are all
contained within this brief time period.
The Classical period co-existed with, and was partially the product of, the Age of Enlightenment.
This was a time when rationality and reason, the foundations of the scientific
method, were applied to social structures. Organized religion played less and less of
a role in “enlightened” governance, being replaced by secular doctrines. The Declaration
of Independence proclaimed “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” as basic
rights. These were American words, but they resonated with contemporary intellectuals
throughout Western Europe. Philosophers of the time, including Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712–1778) and Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1694–1778), regularly criticized
the existing social structures. The rights of the individual were the yardstick by which all
59

60 Chapter 6
The Piano
governments were measured, and both the French Revolution and the American Revolution
represented bold forays into this brave new paradigm.
Enlightened leaders flourished, especially Emperor Joseph II of Austria, who reigned
from 1780 to 1790. Joseph initiated social reforms designed to reduce poverty and
elevate the lower classes. His reign saw unprecedented investments in the arts, most
especially in music. Joseph encouraged journalism and a free press. Musicians, philosophers,
authors, and artists flocked to Vienna to be in the fertile atmosphere of free
expression and exchange of ideas. The city of Vienna became the musical and intellectual
capital of Europe because of Emperor Joseph, a distinction that the great city would
hold for many decades to follow.
The piano, invented around 1750, became the darling of Classical composers, and replaced
the harpsichord within a very few years as the primary keyboard instrument for
solo performance. The piano, originally called the piano-forte, was so named because it
was capable of a far greater dynamic range than the harpsichord. The ability of the piano
to play loud and soft stemmed from its novel construction, which used hammers to
strike the strings, rather than the harpsichord’s quills which plucked the strings when
keys were depressed. The possibilities afforded by this new instrument fired the imaginations
of composers of the day, much in the same way that synthesizers excited a generation
of musicians in the late twentieth century. As the orchestras began increasing in
size and dynamic range, now composers had a keyboard instrument that could keep up
with them.
The Mannheim School
From approximately 1740, the town of Mannheim, Germany, was a principle center for
musical development in Europe. Along with Paris, Berlin and Vienna, Mannheim was
the location for several developments, both in musical form and the orchestra itself.
There were three main ways that the Mannheim school contributed to musical development
during the mid eighteenth century. They were in the areas of instrumentation,
symphony form and gradual dynamics. Symphonies composed in the Mannheim “school”
tended to use two themes that contrast with each other in the opening movement. The
symphony as an overall form grew from three movements to four, to include a minute
with trio third movement and a fourth movement in allegro.
The principle composer in the Mannheim school was Johann Stamitz (1717–1757).
He formed a virtuoso orchestra that became famous throughout Europe. The Mannheim
Orchestra became a template for orchestral instrumentation in the Classical period (see
classical orchestra diagram). Specifically, the Mannheim Orchestra became renowned
for its extraordinarily wide dynamic range. The orchestra achieved the softest pianissimos
and the loudest fortissimos, and was among the first ensembles to make written use
of crescendos. The use of gradual dynamic changes, specified in the music, became
a hallmark of the Mannheim school, and was used by composers thereafter all over
Europe.
The Classical Orchestra
As a result of the practices in the Mannheim school and other areas of Europe, the
instrumentation of the orchestra expanded and became somewhat more stable. Indeed,
most composers of the time readily accepted the new instrumentation and eventually
replaced the improvised basso continuo part with accompaniments in the strings that

The Classical Period 61
were clearly written out. The string section itself was expanded, as was the wind section.
Woodwinds and brasses were normally written in pairs, and although the instrumentation
occasionally varied from the diagram below, the combination of flutes, oboes, clarinets,
bassoons, and sometimes horns and trumpets became the standard palette of timbres
for Classical composers. The brass instruments, along with timpani, were optional, and
were primarily used for emphasis, cadences, and punctuation of phrases. The woodwinds
lent harmonic and melodic support to the strings, with occasional, brief soloistic
passages.
Other orchestral instruments, such as the harp, trombones, and other percussion
instruments, were not used in symphonic writing during the Classical period. Those
instruments were sometimes used in operas, but would not be added to the standard
orchestra for symphonic compositions until the time of Beethoven, after 1800.
The Classical Orchestra
Approximately 25–39 players
Structure and Symmetry in Music
Strings Woodwinds Brass (optional) Percussion
4–8 1st Violins 2 Flutes 2 Horns Timpani
4–8 2nd Violins 2 Oboes 2 Trumpets
2–4 Violas 2 Clarinets
2–4 Cellos 2 Bassoons
1–2 String basses
Much of the emphasis in the Classical period centered on proportion, symmetry, and
logical structures in music. This emphasis has its roots in an attempt by Classical thinkers
and musicians to recapture the proportional symmetry of classical Greek and Roman
art and architecture. When applied to music, the need for symmetry rendered the earlier
forms such as the fugue and toccata basically useless, since these were relatively open,
free structures. In particular, musicians in the Classical period were enamored with the
three part structure containing statement, contrast, and restatement. This progression
serves as the root justification for many classical forms in music.
Normally, discussion of melodic structure and form is reserved for music theory
courses. However, a basic knowledge of how melodies are assembled will help the casual
music student realize the underlying inspirations for the larger forms that are discussed
in the Classical period.
At the smallest level, melodic ideas are built into phrases, which are roughly analogous
to a clause in grammar. Two phrases (or occasionally more) placed together form
a period, when the phrases work together to form a complete musical thought. Musicians
often chart melodic periods by using letters of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.). Thus,
a graphical representation of a melody can be made with the aid of these letters, which
represent groups of phrases or periods in a song. The most basic song forms are twopart
form (A-B), called binary, and three-part form (A-B-A), called ternary. Ternary
form, as mentioned above, was particularly attractive to musicians of the time. The old
tune Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star is a perfect example of ternary form. Both the melody
and the lyrics follow a symmetrical A-B-A pattern:

62 Chapter 6
A. (statement) Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are.
B. (contrast) Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.
A. (restatement) Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are.
In order for a tune to be classified as ternary, the final “A” phrase must be an exact,
or nearly exact, restatement of the first phrase. If only a partial restatement of the first
phrase is written, the form is usually called a rounded binary form. Its structure will
look like this: A-B-a’. The old folk tune The Camptown Races is an example of rounded
binary form. The most pure two-part song form is simply called binary form, with a
pattern A-B. Either the “A” or the “B” section may or may not be repeated; the form is
still considered to be binary. America the Beautiful is an example of pure binary form,
since the second half of the tune is equal in length with the first half, but contains totally
new melodic material.
The concepts of binary and ternary structures, along with the principles of proportion
and symmetry, serve as the foundations for the larger forms that were developed
during the Classical period.
The Classical Sonata
The term sonata had been around for generations before the Classical period, and the
meaning of the word evolved over the years. In its earliest usage, a sonata meant literally
“sound-piece,” implying an instrumental composition to be played. During the Baroque
period, the sonata was an instrumental composition in three or four sections or
movements, each of which had a clearly defined tempo structure. By the Classical period,
most sonatas were three movements only. The first movement was a lively piece marked
allegro, and adhered to a specific formal structure (see sonata-allegro form below). The
second movement was slower, usually marked Andante or Adagio, and could incorporate
various forms, from a simple ternary song form to a theme and variations. The final
movement was again a fast movement, usually marked Allegro, and was typically either a
sonata-allegro form or a rondo.
The Classical sonata was a solo composition for piano, unless otherwise indicated.
Normally, a work that mentioned another instrument, such as “violin sonata,” was designed
for that instrument with piano accompaniment. If no instrument was mentioned,
it was assumed that the piece was a piano solo. Sonatas were composed for most orchestral
instruments, and one can assume that they are solo works for that instrument, along
with the piano as accompaniment. Some composers, particularly Haydn, composed trio
sonatas. These were three-movement works, like any other Classical sonata, for two solo
orchestral instruments, usually violin and cello, along with the piano. The important
points to remember are that the sonata was usually a three-movement work during the
Classical period, with a specific tempo structure as mentioned above, for one, two, or
sometimes three instruments.
The Symphony and String Quartet
The greatest orchestral achievement of the early Classical period was the development of
the symphony as a form. As shown in the diagram below, the symphony is a fourmovement
structure, as developed in the Mannheim school and other music centers
throughout Europe. The tempo scheme was set, and was followed fairly consistently.

The Classical Period 63
The first movement was fast, the second movement slow, the third movement a moderato
minuet with trio, and the fourth movement fast. Think of a symphony as a full musical
meal, or a complete musical journey. Symphonies during the Classical period were composed
for the pleasure of patrons for their use at parties and other social events. The days
of regular concerts for the general public were still a few years away. The symphony as a
form made perfect sense to the musicians of the day. It contained adequate contrasts of
tempo and style, while maintaining a certain symmetry by starting and ending with
allegro movements.
The Classical Symphony (Form)
1st Movement 2nd Movement 3rd Movement 4th Movement
Tempo: Allegro Adagio Moderato Allegro
Form: Sonata-Allegro Theme and Minuet with Rondo or
Variations Trio Sonata-Allegro
It should be pointed out at this juncture that the term “symphony” is sometimes
confusing, because it now refers to more than one thing. In modern language, “symphony”
refers to both the ensemble of players and the form of the composition. For
example, one might go hear the Chicago Symphony perform a Mozart symphony. That
statement literally means that the listener will hear a specific group of players from Chicago
perform a four-movement orchestral composition of Mozart.
A similar form to the symphony was simultaneously being developed in the Classical
period. This form, called a string quartet, shares the same four-movement structure
as a symphony. The essential difference is in the group of performers. Whereas a symphony
is composed for a full orchestra of thirty players or more, the string quartet is
composed for a set group of four players: two violins, one viola, and one cello. As in
the case of the word “symphony,” the term “string quartet” has come to define both the
form and the ensemble. Thus, one might go to hear the Juilliard String Quartet perform
a Haydn string quartet. The dual use of the term can sometimes be confusing.
In both the symphony and the string quartet, the form for each of the four movements
is clearly defined. The first movement of any Classical symphony or string quartet
uses the sonata-allegro form as its structure. In this form, three main sections can be
found: the exposition, the development, and the recapitulation. The exposition and
the recapitulation are very similar, while the development provides contrast to the outer
sections. This type of symmetrical structure (A-B-A) was very appealing to musicians of
the day, as mentioned in the discussion of melodic form. Note that in the diagram
below, the exposition contains two themes; these themes are melodies that contrast with
one another in both style and tonal center. The entire exposition is then repeated. The
development section is an area of contrast, in which the composer can have some fun
with the themes. Usually either Theme 1 or Theme 2 is selected for development, and
the ensuing few moments are devoted to exploring every musical possibility presented
by the theme. The melody is repeated in segments, chopped up, put through sequences
and modulations, tossed around among the instruments of the orchestra, until the composer
feels that the time is right to return to more familiar territory. At that point, the
recapitulation begins, which is a general restatement of the exposition, except that
the two main themes remain in the tonic key.

64 Chapter 6
The Symphony
First Movement
Sonata-Allegro Form
Form for the first movement (and sometimes the last movement) of symphonies, string
quartets, sonatas, and concertos*.
A. Exposition
Optional slow introduction (common in some symphonies, especially by Haydn)
Theme 1 (tonic key)
Transition (modulates to new key)
Theme 2 (new, contrasting key)
Closing section (may contain new thematic material)
Repeat of entire exposition
B. Development
Statement of a portion of Theme 1, Theme 2, or closing section, which is followed
by “development” devices, including rapid modulations, fragmentation of
the theme, sequential repetition of theme fragments throughout the ensemble,
etc.
A. Recapitulation
Theme 1 (tonic key)
Transition (no modulation, may sound significantly different than transition in
exposition)
Theme 2 (tonic key)
Closing section
Coda (final phrases and ending chords; optional)
*Note: Concertos use a special adaptation of sonata-allegro form called “double
exposition” sonata-allegro form. See the diagram under the concerto heading.
At the end of the movement, a coda section is often played, which contains closing
phrases and chords. This section may last anywhere from a few seconds to well over a
minute. Recognizing a coda is fairly easy; as you listen, you will hear a point in the music
when the end of the music seems inevitable. At that point, the coda has begun. A very
short coda is sometimes called a codetta, but the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
Codas and codettas can occur at the end of any movement, not just movements in
the sonata-allegro form. Keep in mind, however, that not all movements have codas or
codettas; they are employed when the composer wishes to establish a more climactic or
final-sounding finish than a normal phrase ending can accomplish.
Listen to This
Track #7 Sonata-Allegro Form
Mozart, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, first movement
T his familiar work by Mozart is actually named a “serenade,” but on studying
the work, one realizes that this delightful piece is actually a full four-movement
symphony for strings alone. The first movement begins with an immediate
statement of the first theme, which leads quickly to a transition to the dominant

The Classical Period 65
key. The second theme is contrasting yet very short, and leads to a closing section
with its own unique thematic material. The exposition is repeated in its
entirety.
The development seems to be centered around the first theme; an attempt
is made to change mode and key in the first measures. However, it is the closing
section of the exposition that gets treated to a development. Bits of the closing
“theme” are put through rapid modulations which eventually lead around to the
dominant, then home to a recapitulation. In the recapitulation, the transition to
the second theme is quite similar to the exposition, yet the piece remains in G
Major. The movement ends with a short but satisfying coda.
The second movement of a symphony or a string quartet is always a contrast to the
first movement. It is almost always in a contrasting key, and is played at a significantly
slower tempo, usually adagio or andante. The movement may be a simple ternary song
form, repeated as needed to express the complete musical message. Often however, a
theme and variations form is used. Usually, a theme and variations employs a melody
in binary form, which is repeated several times. On each repeat, some aspect of the
melody is altered. The alterations may be in the form of pitch or rhythmic changes,
changes in instrumentation, mode, or chord progression. When the composer feels that
the theme has been subjected to enough variations, the movement ends, usually without
drama or a long coda.
The third movement in a symphony or a string quartet is always a minuet with
trio. This form is actually a dance form which dates back to the late Renaissance, and
was incorporated into the symphony near the beginning of the Classical period. The
most identifiable feature of the minuet is its triple meter, played at a moderato tempo.
The melody of the minuet may either be a three part ternary song form, or a rounded
binary form. In either case, the first section of the melody is repeated, then the remainder
of the melody is also repeated. The trio is similar in structure to the minuet; in fact,
it really is just a contrasting minuet form. The trio, like the minuet, is in a moderate
triple meter, but it usually contrasts with the minuet in terms of instrumentation and
texture. If the minuet is heavy, the trio will be undoubtedly be light.
The Symphony
Third Movement
Minuet with Trio
Form for the third movement of symphonies and string quartets.
A. Minuet: Simple melody in ternary form or rounded binary form. Distinctive triple
meter, moderate tempo. Note repeats.
“A” period, repeated.
“B-A” period, repeated.
B. Trio: New melody, same meter and tempo, but usually lighter in character and
instrumentation. Note that the repeats are the same as minuet section.
“C” period, repeated.
“D-C” period, repeated.
A. Minuet: Same music as earlier minuet, but this time performed without repeats.
“A, B-A” melody, played one time without repeats.

66 Chapter 6
The Concerto
The fourth movement of the symphony and the string quartet is in many cases
another sonata-allegro form. However, most often the formal structure is a rondo. The
essential characteristic of the rondo is that a central theme alternates with other sections,
each one different from each other and the original theme. Each statement of the central
theme serves as a launching point for new and different melodies. As shown in the
accompanying chart, there are many different structures that are considered to be rondos.
However, each one has the fundamental property essential to all rondos; the central
theme always returns after each new section.
The Symphony
Fourth Movement
Some Common Rondo Forms
A – B – A – C – A
A – B – A – C – B – A
A – B – A – C – A –D – A
A – B – A – C – A – D – A – E – A
Note: Each letter in the above structures represents an entire melody or section.
In any rondo, a coda or codetta may be added at the end of the form. The rondo
form is commonly used in symphonies and string quartets, and is particularly popular as
the final (third) movement form for sonatas and concertos.
As discussed in chapter 5, the term concerto literally implies a competition between large
and small groups of instruments. By the Classical period however, the term refers to a
composition featuring one solo instrument with an orchestra. All Classical concertos are
cast in three movements, with a fast-slow-fast tempo structure as in the Baroque concerto
grosso. As in the Classical symphony, the forms for the three movements are very
organized and sophisticated.
In general, the concerto employs the same overall forms as the symphony, with the
deletion of the third movement minuet with trio. What remains is a first movement in a
variation of the sonata-allegro form, a second movement that is an andante or adagio
movement in an expanded ternary form, or perhaps a theme and variations. The third
(final) movement is usually a rondo, but a sonata-allegro form is sometimes used. Therefore,
in overall structure, the Classical concerto is similar to the sonata; each is in three
movements with similar forms for each movement.
The Concerto
Formal Structure
1st movement, Allegro Sonata-Allegro (Double-Exposition):
Exposition first time (orchestra alone)
Exposition repeat (orchestra plus soloist)
Development
Recapitulation
Cadenza (soloist alone)
Coda
2nd movement, Andante Ternary form (ABA) or theme and variations
3rd movement, Allegro Rondo form, or sonata-allegro form

The Classical Period 67
A unique feature of the Classical concerto involves the adaptation of the conventional
sonata-allegro form in the first movement, to accommodate the addition of a solo
instrument. This new form, called the double-exposition sonata-allegro form, has significant
changes from the conventional sonata-allegro form. As shown in the chart above,
the orchestra plays the opening exposition alone, while the soloist waits. On the repeat
of the exposition, the soloist enters and plays the main theme as a solo with orchestral
accompaniment. Thus, the repeat of the exposition is not an exact repeat; in fact, composers
will often start developing the themes shortly after the entrance of the solo instrument.
The development does eventually lead to a recognizable recapitulation, and
the orchestra and soloist sometimes play as a unit, and sometimes compete for the spotlight.
Shortly before the end of the first movement, the orchestra will hold a chord and
stop playing, inviting the soloist to play a cadenza. A cadenza is a free-form, often
improvised section of a concerto in which the soloist may play without accompaniment
or regular meter. The cadenza is designed to allow the performer to display his or her
technical and improvisation skills. At the end of the cadenza, the orchestra rejoins the
soloist, and proceeds directly to a coda or codetta.
Concertos were written to feature virtually all orchestral instruments; however, the
piano concerto has always been the most common type. Mozart for example composed
twenty-seven piano concertos, far more than his other concertos combined.
Opera in the Classical Period
Baroque opera tended to be serious in nature, with principal characters who were usually
royalty or mythological beings. By the Classical period however, opera seria was
giving way to a lighter type of entertainment, containing characters more closely associated
with regular people. A new type of comic character appeared; a jovial basso profundo.
Because this character often played a comic buffoon, the term opera buffa was born.
Subjects and plots were usually drawn from daily life. Although we tend to think of
opera buffa as being Italian in origin, similar developments were occurring in other
countries as well. Many composers, especially Mozart, composed operas in both the
Italian opera buffa style and the more serious German style. In each case, Mozart’s
works represented the pinnacle of operatic composition during the Classical period. In
the serious style, Mozart composed Idomeneo and The Mercy of Titus. In the Italian
opera buffa style, he wrote The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovani and Cosi fan Tutte.
Mozart also composed a comic opera in the German singspiel style, The Magic Flute.
Singspiel operas are popular comedy like the Italian opera buffa style, but use spoken
dialogue in many sections. Singspiel had been considered to be a somewhat lower form
of artistic expression than regular opera, but The Magic Flute elevated the status of
German operas to that of the Italians.
Most composers during the Classical period tried their hand at composing operas.
Haydn composed twelve operas and Mozart wrote about twenty. The fact is, opera was
incredibly popular throughout Europe and continued undiminished during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.

68 Chapter 6
Composer Profile
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
To say that Mozart was a great prodigy does
not do him justice. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
was perhaps the most brilliant prodigy who ever lived.
Born on January 27, 1756, in Salzburg, Austria, Mozart
began to show his musical inclinations at the age of
three. Mozart’s father, Leopold Mozart, was a wellknown
composer who soon recognized the special
gifts of young Wolfgang. He took it upon himself to
train the boy in music. When Wolfgang was four years
old, he was taken on his first tour to perform for the
public and for the royalty. He was a sensation.
Wolfgang had a tremendous memory and formidable
skills on the keyboard. He composed his first works
for keyboard at age four, his first symphony at eight,
Mozart
portrait
Library of Congress: LC-D420-2370
Mozart
and his first complete opera at age twelve. As a child, his father took Wolfgang
on several concert tours around Europe. His fame spread rapidly, as royalty and
the general public were very curious to witness firsthand Mozart’s extraordinary
talents. He was constantly given musical tests and challenges, all of which he
passed without apparent effort. On a trip to Italy, when Wolfgang was 14, he
heard Gregorio Allegri’s 9-part vocal work Miserere twice, and later wrote down
the entire score from memory, without mistakes. It seemed that there was nothing
the young master could not accomplish musically.
The only problem with being a famous child prodigy is that eventually you
must grow up and compete with other people on an even playing field. This
proved extremely difficult for young Wolfgang. Having been told his whole life
how great he was, Mozart exuded a confidence in his abilities that was often
mistaken for arrogance. He was not equipped to handle the battles for commissions
and jobs that he would soon encounter. He sometimes found complete
indifference to his presence and his music, because an adult looking for a job is
not nearly as interesting as a young boy with dazzling technique. A new Archbishop
who did not care about Mozart or his music replaced the Archbishop of
Salzburg, Mozart’s long-time employer. The next few years were very difficult for
the young Mozart; the new Archbishop paid him poorly and was often abusive
in his treatment. Eventually Mozart left the Archbishop and his hometown of
Salzburg for good in 1781, and moved to Vienna.
In Vienna Mozart had high hopes of finding stable employment. He married
Costanze, the sister of his former girlfriend, and together they had one son.
His imagination was incredibly fertile, and he turned out masterful works at a
fantastic pace. The Viennese musical establishment however was not prepared
to receive Mozart with open arms. Some composers, to be sure, had profound
respect for Mozart. Haydn in particular was a great friend and admirer of his,
and virtually all musicians in the area recognized his immense gifts. In fact,
Haydn was quoted as saying that Mozart “is the greatest composer I know,
either personally or by name.” However, some composers were jealous of Mozart’s
abilities and were further dismayed by his lack of humility. Antonio Salieri, perhaps
the most prominent composer in Vienna at the time, erected many roadblocks
to try and stop Mozart from mounting some operas and getting hired for
profitable employment posts.

Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-107147
Mozart in Vienna
The Classical Period 69
In spite of these obstacles, Mozart composed
an impressive number of compositions
during his years in Vienna. Many of these works,
including his operas, symphonies, concertos, and
chamber works, have since been regarded as the
ultimate musical expressions in each form that
the Classical period had to offer. In 1788, Mozart
did secure a post as a chamber composer to the
Emperor, but he never reached a state of financial
independence. His love of people and parties,
and his penchant for staying out late, playing
games and socializing, put strains on his mar-
riage, his health, and his pocketbook.
His health failing, he began work on a commission for a Requiem mass. As
he worked on the piece and his health further deteriorated, Mozart became
convinced that he was composing the Requiem for his own death. Sure enough,
he died before it was finished; the work was completed by his pupil Franz Xaver
Sussmayr. His death, on December 5, 1791, occurred while his wife was out of
town. Because he had no money, his funeral was simple and no headstone
marked his grave. Because a heavy rainstorm prevented any gathering at the
gravesite, its precise location was never exactly determined. Some years later, a
monument was erected in the general vicinity of Mozart’s grave, but even today
no one knows for sure where this magnificent genius of music rests.
Composer Profile
Franz Joseph Haydn
Franz Joseph Haydn, known often as “Papa Haydn”
and “Father of the Symphony,” was born on March
31, 1732, in Rohrau, Austria. Haydn did not come from
a musical family, and his childhood was comparatively
normal. He sang in a boys’ choir in Vienna beginning
in 1840. When he was older, he assumed duties as an
accompanist. He gradually became known to several
influential musicians of the time, including Gluck. As
a young adult, Haydn worked for several patrons,
eventually becoming Vice Kappelmeister for the
Esterhazy family in 1761. He became Kappelmeister in
1766 and remained in the service of this very wealthy Library of Congress: LC-D420-2393
and influential family until 1790. After leaving the
Haydn
Esterhazy palace, Haydn traveled to England on two
different occasions for extended visits. His music was
extremely popular with the British people, and Haydn’s reputation spread as
one of the greatest symphonists of the time.
During these later years, Haydn established a reputation as a great teacher
and mentor for the next generation of composers. Even Beethoven sought out
Haydn in 1792 to study with the old master. His gentle nature and humorous
spirit were evident in both his relationships and his music. He died in Vienna on
May 31, 1809.

70 Chapter 6
Summary
Haydn’s symphonic output was prodigious; he composed no fewer than
104 complete symphonies. His consistent use of the four-movement layout, and
his adherence to the standard forms in each movement, helped to galvanize
symphonic form and earned him the title of “Father of the Symphony.”
Most of the structures and forms that are employed through the nineteenth century
were developed during the Classical period, including the symphony, concerto and the
string quartet. In addition, the advent of the piano, and ensembles such as the string
quartet and the modern symphony orchestra are products of this brief but crucial period
in music history. The Classical period was the home of Mozart and Haydn, two of the
brightest stars in all of music. Though only 50 years in length, the world of music was
changed forever.
Key Terms
binary period
cadenza recapitulation
coda rondo
concerto rounded binary
development sonata
double exposition sonata allegro
exposition string quartet
Mannheim school symphony
minuet and trio ternary
opera buffa
opera seria
theme and variations

Name Date
Chapter 6 Review
The Classical Period
1. Symphonies are typically how many movements?
2. The third movement of a symphony is always what form?
3. The first movement of a symphony is always what form?
4. When did Mozart live? Born: , died:
5. Sonatas and concertos both have movements.
6. Two-part song form is called form.
7. Who is considered the Father of the Symphony?
8. What is a prodigy?
9. Define a cadenza.
10. Diagram a typical sonata allegro form.
71

7
Cultural Overview
Beethoven and the
Transition to Romanticism
Most scholars agree that it was inevitable that the Classical
period would be relatively short. Human nature
being what it is, it was only a matter of time before
the constraints placed on composers by the structures of the day
became too constricting. Over time, more and more liberties were
taken with Classical forms and structures, to the point that some
compositions broke even the most basic rules. As we will discover
in chapter 8, it’s not so much that Romantic composers
rejected formal structures, it’s just that some of them used classical
forms more as a point of departure rather than as a strict plan.
This chapter focuses on one man, who more than anyone
else ushered the musical world out of the comfortable embrace Library of Congress: LC-USZC4-9589
of the Classical period and into the turbulent waters of the Ro- Beethoven
mantic. He single-handedly gave the world an expanded musical
language and for that reason many consider him to be the greatest composer who ever
lived. His name was Ludwig van Beethoven.
This is the only chapter in the book to focus on one man rather than a musical period.
Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out some political and cultural trends that helped
shape Beethoven’s life and his thinking. As mentioned in chapter 6, the late eighteenth
century was a time of political upheaval and revolution. The rights of the individual and
the growing popularity of secular, rationalist governments fired the imaginations of young
people everywhere. So it was with young Beethoven. He followed the unfolding revolution
in the New World closely, and was particularly interested in the French Revolution
that started with the storming of the Bastille in 1789. Passionate prose and philosophy
flourished during this time, as writers struggled to capture the spirit of this proud new
generation. Beethoven’s private letters were filled with discussions of the political news
of the day, whereas Mozart’s correspondence never mentioned world affairs at all. As an
activist, Beethoven was truly a product of his times and his generation.
Like most composers, Beethoven knew instinctively that music could speak directly
to the heart in a way that no other language could. The range of emotions and the types
of messages conveyed through music were inadequate for Beethoven’s plans, however.
For music to be able to convey his feelings accurately, the descriptive power of music
73

74 Chapter 7
Beethoven’s Life
would have to be greatly expanded. Beethoven entered the world of music at a time
when musical structures were very well developed and concertos and symphonies were
mature forms that offered great opportunities for powerful personal expression. Beethoven
embraced these forms, but through the sheer force of his imagination, infused them
with expressive potential that had not previously been attempted or heard.
Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany on December 16, 1770. His father,
Johann, was a choir singer and an alcoholic, and upon seeing young Ludwig’s talents
for music sought to turn him into another Mozart prodigy for his own gain. Needless to
say, Beethoven’s childhood was not particularly happy. Although he loved music, he was
forced to practice endless hours each day. He was beaten when he made mistakes, and
sometimes was forced to practice all night. His mother was tender, caring, and encouraging,
but she too was dominated by Johann.
Still, Beethoven did develop considerable expertise on the keyboard and attracted
the attention of many leading musicians in Bonn. Even Haydn, who was on his way
home from London, stopped to hear young Beethoven play. He was impressed enough
to invite Ludwig to Vienna to study with him. Beethoven’s first visit to Vienna in 1790
was cut short by the death of his mother. This was obviously a devastating blow to the
young, sensitive musician, and left him in charge of the family household. Beethoven
worked hard to care for his younger siblings and to keep his father, now a complete
drunkard, out of trouble. In 1792, he left home for Vienna, this time for good.
His studies in Vienna were only moderately successful. Haydn respected Beethoven’s
gifts, but was impatient with the young composer’s unwillingness to stick to the traditional
theoretical practices of the day. Soon, Beethoven went on to study with other
great composers in Vienna, including Albrechtsberger and Salieri. They also had little
success in containing Beethoven’s musical impulsiveness. This mattered little to Beethoven
however. He was beginning to gain a reputation around town as a bright young star, as
both pianist and composer, and before long, commissions started pouring in. Though
his first concerts received poor reviews from critics who did not understand Beethoven’s
idiosyncrasies, he forged ahead until he became perhaps the busiest composer in Vienna.
Shortly before 1800, Beethoven realized that he was losing his hearing. This affliction
was the worst possible nightmare for him, as it might well be for any musician. The
deafness was very slow in developing; still, after about 1810, Beethoven stopped his
piano performances for the public. He did everything he could to hide the severity of
his hearing loss from other people. He became a good lip reader, and used an ear trumpet
long after he had any hope of hearing anything. As he wrote in his letters, he could
not imagine a more terrifying fate. In one of his letters to his brother, known as the
Heiligenstadt Testament, Beethoven wrote,
“O ye men, who think or say that I am malevolent, stubborn, or misanthropic,
how greatly do you wrong me? I must live like an exile; if I approach near to
people a hot terror seizes me, a fear that I might be subjected to the danger of
letting my condition be observed. . . . what a humiliation when one stood
beside me and heard a flute in the distance and I heard nothing or someone
heard the shepherd’s song and again I heard nothing—such incidents have
brought me to the verge of despair; but little more and I would have put an
end to my life. Only art it was that withheld me, it seemed impossible to leave
the world until I had produced all that I felt called upon to produce . . . O
Providence, grant me at last but one day of pure joy—it has been so long since
real joy echoed in my heart . . . .”

Beethoven’s Music
Beethoven and the Transition to Romanticism 75
Still, his growing deafness did not stop him from being productive as a composer.
The first decade of the 1800s witnessed many of Beethoven’s greatest works, including
his Third, Fifth, and Sixth Symphonies, the Emperor piano concerto, the Moonlight
piano sonata, and many chamber works.
Beethoven’s popularity spread. The raw emotionalism of his music struck a positive
nerve with the younger population, and he rarely had to actively seek commissions
for the rest of his life. Indeed, Beethoven was the first composer who was able to make
a comfortable living as a free-lance composer without ever having a steady patron or
employer. He was a very recognizable figure around Vienna, short, rather brusque in
manner, always taking walks with his familiar overcoat and hat. In fact, these walks,
along with excursions into the country, became Beethoven’s primary source of joy and
inspiration. His love of nature spilled over into several compositions, most notably his
Sixth Symphony, which depicts a day in the country.
As Beethoven got older he became more withdrawn from society. His nephew,
Karl, had come to live with Beethoven after his brother died, and this situation was not
particularly good for either person. The nephew was ungrateful and lazy; Beethoven
really did not have the right personality for being a parent, and the whole affair caused
even more anguish in Beethoven’s life. From a musical standpoint, he wrote fewer compositions,
but these compositions had a maturity and introspective character that make
them very special in music history. His final set of string quartets and his Ninth Symphony,
in particular, are far ahead of their time in structure, harmony, and emotional
content. Compositions from this time in Beethoven’s life are even more remarkable
when one considers that he never heard them, except in his own imagination.
In 1826, Beethoven developed pneumonia from a common cold. He grew increasingly
ill and weak, and it became obvious to Beethoven and others that he was not going
to get better. He got his affairs in order, signed his will, and on March 26, 1827, he
died. Reportedly, he shook his fist angrily at the heavens with his last breath, and fell
back into his bed. All of Europe, especially Vienna, was shocked at the loss of this great
artist. Over twenty thousand people lined the streets of Vienna for the funeral procession,
and many schools and businesses were closed for the day. The world was acutely
aware of the importance of Beethoven’s life and work, unlike the fate that plagued many
other artists. He did nothing less than open the door to a broader understanding of
musical language for all mankind.
On first glance, it appears that Beethoven did not compose much music, as compared
with Bach, Haydn, or Mozart. True, Beethoven published fewer than two hundred
compositions during his lifetime, far fewer than many earlier composers. But, Beethoven
was trying to find an unattainable ideal for expression in each one of his compositions;
each work took on a special importance in his life; therefore, he struggled with them in
a way that the Baroque and Classical masters did not struggle with theirs. This statement
in no way is meant to minimize the value of music of the earlier masters, but it points to
the difficulty that Beethoven had in his own composing. He was truly aware that he was
attempting to create a new expressive language with his music.
Beethoven’s compositional life is commonly divided into three periods: Imitation,
Experimentation, and Reflection. During each period, one can see the influences of his
surroundings. In the first period, Imitation, Beethoven was following the guidelines set
forth by his teachers, including Haydn, which reflected Classical ideals. Indeed,
Beethoven’s early works could easily be mistaken for music of Haydn, so successful
was he at producing works in Classical style. Even during this time, however, there was
ample evidence of Beethoven’s independent spirit and impulsive nature.

76 Chapter 7
Beethoven’s second stylistic period, Experimentation, was the most productive in
terms of sheer quantity of music. This was also the period during which the full power of
Beethoven’s imagination came through in his compositions. Virtually no component
of Classical style was safe in Beethoven’s hands; he used Classical structures, but changed
them whenever he felt that the music called for it. As seen in the accompanying chart,
most of his symphonies were composed during this period, along with a large percentage
of his sonatas, concertos, and chamber music.
Beethoven’s Compositional Periods
Imitation Experimentation Reflection
Symphonies #1 & 2 Symphonies #3–8 Symphony #9
Piano Concertos #1–3 Piano Concertos #4 & 5 late String Quartets
The third period, Reflection, occurred when Beethoven was totally deaf. His music,
especially his last set of string quartets, exhibited a depth of feeling and soul-searching
never before heard in any music. Harmonically, the music was very ahead of its time;
often, extremely chromatic in character, with many phrases blurred in an almost Wagnerian
manner (Wagner was a composer who was a full generation after Beethoven). His
Ninth Symphony was a culmination of Beethoven’s whole life. The symphony is a full
seventy minutes long; every form within the movements is stretched and expanded. The
final movement, based on Schiller’s Ode to Joy, reflects Beethoven’s youthful passion for
universal brotherhood and love.
Beethoven’s Symphonies
One could study any genre within Beethoven’s output and trace his journey into Romanticism.
His early string quartets exhibit Haydn’s purity and humor; his late quartets
are dark and profound. His first two piano concertos could easily be viewed as an extension
of Mozart’s catalog, but his Emperor Concerto (#5) is a truly heroic work, well
beyond Classical thinking in both scope and power. Beethoven’s thirty-two piano sonatas
trace an almost linear path of his development from a classical student to a mature
master of Romantic thought. However, reviewing Beethoven’s symphonies gives the
most tangible evidence of the real changes that he made in music in order to achieve his
expressive aims. Let’s take a brief look.
As shown in the chart above, the first two symphonies pay homage to Haydn, his
mentor of the time. Both are relatively standard in form and length. Still, some remarkable
features stand out in these works. The First Symphony (1799) was not well received
by critics. They questioned his extensive use of winds in relation to strings, and they
hated the fact that, though the work is supposed to be in C Major, the introduction
wanders through several tonalities before finally settling in. These facets of the music
were early indications of Beethoven’s independence of formal conventions, because he
would take many more liberties over the course of his career. The Second Symphony
continues in the Classical vein, with one important exception. The third movement,
traditionally a minuet with trio in the music of Mozart and Haydn, was replaced with a
scherzo. The term scherzo means literally “musical joke.” Although the music of a
scherzo may not actually cause you to laugh, it is funny when compared to the stately
stuffiness of the classical minuet. The scherzo in Beethoven’s hands is blindingly fast,
impossible to dance to, with odd accents on weak beats to further ward off those who
might be so bold as to actually try to dance to it. It seemed that Beethoven was pointing

Beethoven and the Transition to Romanticism 77
out, in his own way, how ludicrous it was to require dance music in a concert work.
After Beethoven’s Second Symphony, he and almost all later composers essentially abandoned
the minuet as part of a symphony.
The Third Symphony, the Eroica, was composed in 1803 and is considered to be
the first truly Romantic symphony. Originally dedicated to Napoleon (who Beethoven
admired greatly) and subtitled the Bonaparte symphony, the symphony was crafted to
heroic proportions. Shortly before Beethoven sent the work in to the publisher, word
came that Napoleon had crowned himself emperor. The story goes that this news infuriated
Beethoven and shattered his impression of Napoleon as a crusader for the people.
He reportedly tore out the dedication from his score and angrily retitled the work Eroica,
“dedicated to the memory of a great man.” Whether this account is accurate or not,
does not diminish the importance of this great symphony or its innovations. The string
section was virtually doubled in size to augment the dynamic capabilities of the orchestra.
The scope of each movement was enlarged greatly. The symphony grew to over fifty
minutes in length, and the form for each movement became less clear because of the
expanded nature of the work. The first movement, loosely based on a sonata-allegro
form, is now almost twenty minutes long. The second movement, a funeral march, is
over fifteen minutes of dark, brooding music that eventually unravels and dies. The
third movement is an exuberant, almost manic scherzo, and the fourth movement recaptures
the heroism of the first. The power of this music changed symphonic writing
forever.
After the Fourth symphony (1806), which was a return to a simpler, more superficial
style, Beethoven composed two giant works, the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies. Composed
in rapid succession and premiered on the same concert in 1808, they each brought
something entirely new to symphonic writing. The Fifth Symphony was the first work of
its type to contain a psychological connection among its four movements. Indeed, the
Fifth symphony, for the first time, treated the four movements of a symphony as parts of
a single progression of thought. One can easily hear the emotional progression from
frustration (first movement), through introspection (second movement), defiance (third
movement), and then finally to triumph (fourth movement). This connected progression
is accomplished through several devices Beethoven pioneered. First, the rhythmic
idea of short-short-short-long, as stated in the familiar opening of the first movement,
pervades every part of the entire symphony. Sometimes the rhythm is instantly apparent,
sometimes it is buried within the music, but it is always there, and the idea (sometimes
called the “fate” motive) binds the work together in an organic way. Second, the music
follows a very logical emotional journey, which many people experience when confronted
with adversity. The music illustrates how man can overcome adversity and fundamentally
change fate from defeat to victory. Indeed, the fate motive is evident in the
last movement as well as the other movements, but its character is no longer ominous—
it is celebratory. The addition of trombones for the fourth movement gives the orchestra
added power for the finale. Also, the transition between the third and fourth
movements proceeds without pause, contributing to the effect that the triumphant culmination
of the journey is inevitable. Movements played without pause are said to be
performed segue which means no break between movements. Though many hear the
first few notes of the Fifth symphony and think, “oh yes, I’ve heard this before,” listening
closely to the entire work can be an extraordinary, almost life-changing experience.

78 Chapter 7
Listen to This
Track #8 Beethoven, Symphony #5, 1st movement
Notice that the familiar four-note idea that starts the symphony forms the
basis of the first theme. This movement is a fairly standard first-movement
form. Theme 1 is full of anger and frustration, with the four-note idea pervading
everything. After a short transition, Theme 2 is strikingly different, but quite
lyrical and short lived. As is the case with all classical works, the exposition is
repeated. The development section shows Beethoven’s true genius. Perhaps no
composer has ever had a better mind for development than Beethoven. He
takes the four-note idea and first expands it into a longer melodic idea after
which he dissects it. By the end of the development, the four-note idea has been
chopped in half and chopped in half again so that only one note is left. It is a
short development, but a miraculous display of Beethoven’s imagination. The
recapitulation proceeds in a fairly predictable manner until the end. The closing
section actually expands into a third theme, finally terminating in an abrupt,
forceful coda.
The Sixth Symphony, composed around the same time as the Fifth, is almost as
important in music history. Entitled the Pastoral symphony, it could not be more different
in character than the Fifth. Whereas the Fifth is an emotional trip from frustration to
fulfillment, the Pastoral symphony is a simple, beautiful account of a day in the country.
Indeed, this symphony is often regarded as the first truly successful symphonic example
of program music, which can be defined as music that depicts or describes something.
Although much music had been written before that made such attempts, such as Vivaldi’s
Four Seasons, the effect of these earlier works fell short of communicating the intended
subject. With the Pastoral symphony, Beethoven was arguably the first composer to
accurately evoke not only the images of the subject, but also the emotions of each moment
in the story.
The Sixth symphony is set in five movements, each with a subtitle that is designed
to prepare the listener for a part of the outing in the country. The movements are:
1. “The Awakening of Joyful Feelings Upon Arrival in the Country”
2. “By the Brook”
3. “A Merry Gathering of Country Folk”
4. “The Storm”
5. “Shepherd’s Song: Glad Feelings After the Storm”
The third, fourth, and fifth movements are connected as one, giving the listener a seamless
journey through a picnic (third movement) which is interrupted by a thunderstorm
(fourth movement), and the aftermath of the storm (fifth movement). Beethoven’s innovative
use of five movements and performing movements without pause are further
evidence that he considered the emotional impact of the music as his first priority. Adherence
to formal structures, while not entirely ignored, took a back seat to dramatic
considerations.
The Seventh and Eighth Symphonies, while crowd-pleasing favorites, broke no
new ground from a compositional standpoint. However, the Ninth symphony stands
as a pivotal work in music history. The Ninth, subtitled the Choral symphony, is a

Beethoven and the Transition to Romanticism 79
mammoth work, about seventy minutes in length. Although it is set in the traditional
four movements, and has no specific program, one can easily hear how the different
movements depict various aspects of Beethoven’s own musical life. Beethoven switched
the order of movements; after the long, restless first movement, the scherzo follows as
the second movement. The third movement is a wonderful adagio and contains some of
the most serene music Beethoven ever wrote. The fourth movement is a monumental
structure, and requires some explanation. The fourth movement provided something of
a challenge for Beethoven, who had long been a fan of Schiller’s hymn “Ode to Joy”
and its message of universal brotherhood. Only the addition of chorus and vocal soloists
could communicate the message of this grand finale. However, connecting the choral
finale to the other three movements proved troubling to the great master. He solved the
problem by beginning with a long orchestral introduction, which both recalls the earlier
movements and introduces the famous hymn melody. On the repeat of the introduction,
the voices are finally added, beginning one of the most spectacular sets of variations
in symphonic literature. The journey that follows includes vocal solos, huge choruses,
two grand fugues and a march that introduces full percussion to a symphony for the first
time. The finale is truly an exhaustive demonstration of Beethoven’s absolute mastery.
Standard procedures and compositional
practices not followed by Beethoven
Standard Procedure
Work in which Beethoven
altered procedure
Starting a composition in the tonic key Symphony # 1, first movement
Third movement of a symphony is a
minuet
Symphonies #2–#9 use Scherzo
Ending a composition in the tonic key Symphony # 5, fourth movement
Breaks between movements Symphony #5, Symphony #6
Utilizing the 4-movement symphony
form
Symphony #6 has five movements
Tempo names for movement names Symphony #6 uses subtitles
Sonata movements are fast-slow-fast Moonlight Sonata is slow, medium, fast
Compositional practices Beethoven initiated
Traditional minuet movement changed to extremely fast scherzo (Sym. #2)
Second movement was exaggeratedly slow, as a funeral march (Sym. #3)
Included trombones for the first time in a symphony (Sym. #5)
Tied all four movements together with a common thematic idea (Sym. #5)
Programmatic symphony (Sym. #6)
Used descriptive subtitles for movements instead of tempo markings (Sym. #6)
Included a large choir and percussion section in a symphony (Sym. #9)

80 Chapter 7
Summary
Beethoven vastly increased the language of music. Beginning with Beethoven and those
composers who followed, music became able to convey and inspire more emotions than
had ever been considered before. Music of Mozart was certainly awe-inspiring, profoundly
spiritual and moving, but Beethoven created something totally new. No matter
what language the composer spoke, no matter what century the composer was in, and
no matter the age of the composer or the listener . . . the emotions were conveyed quite
clearly. Beethoven opened the doors and windows to a whole new world of descriptive
music and composers who followed him had more possibilities in compositional techniques
than at any time up until then. The limitations for composers were gone. The
Romantic Period had begun, and composers were able to have their own unique styles,
different from all other composers. In the Classical Period, it was difficult for the average
person to tell the difference between a Haydn composition and a Mozart composition,
but in the Romantic Period composers were allowed to let their own personalities
come through. For instance there was a unique “Chopin sound” and a very understandable
“Schubert sound.” Music became much more personal and listeners began hearing
the differences and feeling emotions in the music more so than ever before. Welcome to
the Romantic Period.
Key Terms
program music
scherzo
segue

Name Date
Chapter 7 Review
Beethoven and the Transition to Romanticism
1. When did Beethoven live? Born: Died:
2. Beethoven bridged the and the periods.
3. The finale of the Ninth Symphony was based on the hymn
.
4. Beethoven changed the typical third movement of a symphony from a minuet to a
meaning musical joke.
5. Which symphony has five movements?
6. The first truly Romantic symphony was Beethoven’s Symphony.
7. The latest subtitle for the above symphony is .
8. Segue means .
9. What is program music?
10. Briefly describe why you think Beethoven was so important to music history.
81

8
Introduction
The Early Romantic Period
The life and career of Beethoven towered over the music world for many years
after his death. His influence was easily heard in the music of his successors, and
in the lifestyles of later musicians. We have now come to a time in music history
when composers attempted, sometimes successfully, to make a living simply by writing
music as free-lance artists. Beethoven expanded musical language to the point that later
musicians considered it simply part of their craft to exhibit their emotions or even their
very personalities in the music they composed. This was a good time for music: a time
when composers dug deep into their imaginations and souls for the proper sounds to
communicate their feelings. The standard forms of the symphony, concerto, sonata,
string quartet, and other forms continued to be popular, but they were freely adapted in
some cases to serve the composers’ needs. The goal that was paramount in most artists’
minds was to be able to freely and explicitly bare their souls through music, and to be
able to communicate the depth of their feelings directly to the listener. Though expression
of deep feelings through music had long been a composer’s aim, the musical vocabulary
now existed to exhibit feelings fairly accurately, thanks in no small part to
Beethoven’s example.
As seen in the timeline below, the Romantic Period lasted from about 1800 to
around 1900. Because of the number of composers who made significant contributions
during this period, we will divide the study of the Romantic period into two sub-periods,
the Early Romantic and the Late Romantic. Though it makes the process of learning
easier to proceed in this manner, it should be noted that several composers, such as
Liszt, Verdi, and others, actually worked through much of the entire century. These
composers will be classified as to the relative advancement of their work.
Music History Timeline
Medieval Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic 20th Century
313–1450 1450–1600 1600–1750 1750–1800 1800–1900 1900–present
83

84 Chapter 8
Romantic Thinking
The study of the early Romantic period will center on brief accounts of some of the
major composers and their works. The development of a new form or the expansion of
an old one will be addressed as we discuss the composer who had the greatest impact on
that form. Because this is an era of “personalities” more than anything else, a list of some
major composers from the Romantic period is shown below.
Some Principal Composers from the Nineteenth Century
1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900
[Ludwig van Beethoven 1770–1827]
[Giaocchino Rossini 1792–1868
[Franz Schubert 1797–1828 ]
]
[Hector Berlioz 1803–1869 ]
[Felix Mendelssohn 1809–1847 ]
[Robert Schumann 1810–1856 ]
[Frederick Chopin 1810–1849 ]
[Franz Liszt 1811–1886 ]
[Richard Wagner 1813–1883 ]
[Giuseppe Verdi 1813–1901 ]
[Clara Schumann 1819–1896 ]
[Cesar Franck 1822–1890 ]
[Anton Bruckner 1824–1896 ]
[Bedrich Smetana 1824–1884 ]
[Johannes Brahms 1833–1897 ]
[Georges Bizet 1838–1875 ]
[Modest Mussorgsky 1839–1881 ]
[Peter Tchaikovsky 1840–1893 ]
[Antonin Dvorak 1841–1904 ]
[Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov 1844–1908
[Gabriel Fauré 1845–1924
]
[Gustav Mahler 1860–1911 ]
[Edward MacDowell 1861–1908
[Richard Strauss 1864–1949
]
The term “romantic” was a term that had already been in use for years to describe
certain types of art and literature. It tended to mean different things to different people.
Many musicians, among them Robert Schumann, were not particularly fond of the
label. However, like the term “classical,” the term “romantic” came to represent both
the age and the mindset of the artists of the time. Romantic thinking involved several
components that can be found in the music of the time.
1. A preoccupation with death, mythology, and the macabre. The Romantic artist
felt compelled to describe and bring forth the most profound feelings through music.
Since the musical vocabulary now existed to describe strong emotions in musical
terms, composers took advantage of this ability. Why would they take a listener on an

The Early Romantic Period 85
emotional roller coaster? The answer is, frankly, because they now could. In particular,
subject matter that dealt with death, ancient myths, the supernatural, the paranormal,
or any topic that might stir strong, primal emotions were favorites with
Romantic artists of all types, and especially musicians.
2. The rise of program music. Loosely defined, program music depicts or describes
something. That “something” could be a simple feeling or series of moods, a picture
or scene, or a complete story. In any case, this trend was related to the infatuation
that Romantic composers had with depicting emotional subjects through music.
Instrumental music reached a high level of descriptive power, since many composers
felt that program music should not be limited by a written text.
3. The rise of individualism in music. Beethoven was the prototype: the suffering
artist struggling to bring forth his inner thoughts through music. Classical composers
sought to entertain; logic and form were their allies. On the other hand, Romantic
composers strove to express their individuality through music. One can easily hear
real differences in the styles of Schubert, Wagner, Chopin, and others. Though most
composers of this time had no quarrel with the structural conventions set up during
the Classical period, the importance of adhering to these structures was secondary.
Personal expression was the primary focus, and if achieving that goal meant
that some time-honored procedures would be broken, then so be it. We will see that
symphonies, concertos, sonatas, operas, and other older forms were still extremely
popular during the Romantic period. However, none of those forms survived the
Romantic period unscathed. Generally, forms became longer, more melodramatic,
and more symbolic in their efforts to communicate emotions and imagery.
Cultural Perspective
The biggest single societal change that affected music was a continued rise in the size
and influence of the middle class. These people wanted arts and entertainment, and
were prepared to pay for it. Public concerts and recitals became commonplace. Symphony
orchestras sprang up throughout Europe and the United States. The Boston
Symphony and the New York Philharmonic were founded during the mid-nineteenth
century. Middle class people funded these orchestras in large part by ticket sales and
donations. Composers after Beethoven usually attempted to build their careers through
commissions from orchestras and individuals. Popular composers developed a “fan base”
similar to popular musical stars of today. Many composers barely survived financially.
Some, like Schubert, never made a lot of money at music but had a very enthusiastic
group of fans that provided financial support. In a way, this subsistence type of lifestyle
actually enhanced the “struggling artist” image that eventually defined the Romantic
period.
Musical Trends
The Enlargement of Forms
As a general trend, the orchestral music of the Romantic period became larger in scope
and size. Over time, orchestras were enlarged even beyond that used by Beethoven in
his Ninth Symphony. Symphonic forms were elongated and sometimes modified further
to accommodate the expressive needs of the composer. For example, Berlioz’s
Symphonie Fantastique employs an orchestra of ninety and his five-movement symphony
lasts nearly an hour. The solo concerto became much more of an event rather than
simple entertainment. Concertos of forty-five minutes in duration became commonplace.

86 Chapter 8
Likewise, chamber music and solo piano forms that carried over from the Classical
period grew in length and expressive power. String quartets and sonatas were more
popular than ever, and while the structures remained pretty much intact, the dramatic
power and scope of the music increased substantially. The piano sonatas of Liszt, Schubert,
and Chopin are among the most serious and dramatic works of their kind in the literature.
The Trout Quintet of Schubert expanded upon the traditions established by Mozart,
Haydn, and Beethoven in their string quartets.
Rubato
Rubato is the concept of a subtle, gentle fluctuation of tempo in music. The idea of
rubato implies stretching or changing tempi for the sake of dramatic impact. In the
Romantic period, this technique was particularly evident in piano music. Character pieces
and sonatas during the Romantic period used rubato to accentuate the dramatic impact
of musical peaks in the music. Listen to the piano piece by Chopin on the accompanying
disc, and you will notice that the tempo varies considerably throughout the work. By
slightly delaying the resolution of a phrase, or by accelerating into another phrase, the
composer was able to achieve a variety of dramatic effects. Rubato rapidly became a key
feature of Romantic music.
The Lied
A lied is defined as an “art song,” which is a solo vocal composition with piano accompaniment.
The text for the song was a love poem or other secular or sacred poem,
usually written by someone other than the musical composer. Though lieder had been
around for many years, the form found its ultimate expression in the works of Franz
Schubert. His lieder were products of Romantic thought and his own keen imagination.
He elevated the importance of the piano part far above that of mere accompaniment.
Indeed, Schubert’s lieder made the piano an equal partner with the voice. Whereas
earlier lieder might have been beautiful, Schubert’s lieder often had the piano actively
reflecting the mood and even the action of the story that was being told.
Composer Profile
Franz Schubert (1797–1828)
F ranz Schubert was born in Vienna, Austria on January 31, 1797. His father
taught Schubert at an early age, and they played duets together when Franz
became proficient. His brother Ferdinand taught him the piano. Franz learned
viola, piano and organ, and also studied voice. Auditioning before Antonio Salieri
for the Chapel School of the School of the Imperial and Royal Court Chapel
when he was only 11, he succeeded in gaining an invitation to enroll. Schubert
was enthralled by the music of Mozart and Haydn, but the music of Beethoven
changed his life. He began composing music and in one year alone composed
146 songs, along with two symphonies, an opera, four operettas, four sonatas,
and two masses, several choral works and some keyboard pieces.
Schubert was small, timid and shy. Friends did not come easily to him, but
the friends he did have supported him throughout his life. Schubert’s admirers
were fiercely loyal and had an insatiable appetite for his music. They even formed

The Early Romantic Period 87
“Schubertiads” or groups of fans that would congregate for performances devoted
exclusively to Schubert’s music.
He composed over 600 lieder, German art songs, and over 800 works in
all. Composing music came easily to Schubert. His composition Erlkönig, probably
Schubert’s most famous lied, was composed at a single sitting, after reading
the poem of the same name. Others after Schubert composed lieder; some, like
Brahms and Mahler, were masters of the genre. None, however, surpassed the
quality or quantity of Schubert’s works. Much of his music was not well received
however, and Franz was very upset by this. His life was mostly full of poverty,
rejection and illness. There were the occasional high points, but most of his
music was unknown to the world until long after his death. The death of his idol
Beethoven in 1827 brought him to the brink of despair. Though he was not
particularly healthy, he insisted on being a pallbearer at Beethoven’s funeral.
Franz Schubert died the very next year in Vienna on November 19, 1828, at the
age of 31. His last wish was granted: to be buried near his idol—Ludwig van
Beethoven.
Listen to This
Track #9 Schubert, Erlkönig
This is one of Schubert’s most famous works, and is a classic example of a
Romantic lied. The text is a poem by the famous poet Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe. Goethe was a favorite poet for Romantic composers to use, and
Schubert set many of Goethe’s poems to music. In Erlkönig (“The Elfking”), the
action focuses on a father who is frantically trying to get his sick son to a doctor.
Four characters are heard in the story: a narrator, the father, the son, and the
elfking. First, one is struck by the accompaniment, which reminds the listener of
a horse at full gallop. The triplet figures used to depict the galloping horse pervade
most of the piece, providing a constant reminder of the urgency of the
situation. The son tells the father that a strange elfking is beckoning him to
come and play. The father, aware of the son’s serious illness, tries to make the
son feel better by telling him that his visions of the elfking are imagined. At first
the elfking tries to entice the boy to follow him for games and treats. As the
work progresses, the elfking eventually threatens the child. The father, knowing
that time is short, tries unsuccessfully to comfort the boy. By the time they reach
the home of the doctor, the boy is dead.
When listening to Erlkönig, notice how the range and style of the music
changes, depending upon which character is speaking. The father sounds masculine
and reassuring, the son has a higher voice full of the dissonance that goes
with pain, and the elfking beckons softly in a major key. The ever-present sound
of hooves in the background propels the work and gives the music amazing
energy and descriptive power.
Translation:
Erlkönig, “The Elfking”
Narrator: Who rides so late through the night and wind?
It is the father with his child.
He holds the youngster tight in his arm,
Grasps him securely, keeps him warm.

88 Chapter 8
The Character Piece
Father: “Son, what makes you afraid to look?”
Son: “Don’t you see, father, the Elfking there?
The King of the elves with his crown and train?”
Father: “Son, it’s only a streak of mist.”
Elfking: “Darling child, come away with me!
I will play the best games with you;
Many bright flowers grow by the shore;
My mother has many golden robes.”
Son: “Father, Father, do you not hear
What the Elfking is softly promising me?”
Father: “Calm yourself, be calm, my son:
The dry leaves are rustling in the wind.”
Elfking: “Well, you fine boy, won’t you come with me?
My daughters will wait upon you.
My daughters lead the nightly round,
They will rock you, dance for you, and sing you to sleep!”
Son: “Father, Father, do you not see
The Elfking’s daughters there in the dark?”
Father: “Son, my son, I see only too well:
It is the gray gleam in the old willow trees.”
Elfking: “I love you, your beauty allures me,
And if you are not willing, then I shall use force.”
Son: “Father, father, now he is seizing me!
The Elfking is hurting me!”
Narrator: Fear grips the father, he rides like the wind,
He holds in his arms the moaning child;
With effort and toil he reaches the house;
In his arms the child was dead.
The piano was perhaps the perfect instrument for Romantic music. Possessing a far
greater dynamic range than the harpsichord that preceded it, the piano was capable of
communicating the subtlest nuances of shading. This made the instrument perfect for
Romantic music. Sonatas were still popular, with many composers, including Schubert,
Schumann, Liszt, and Chopin, contributing monumental sonatas to the literature. Even
more popular however, was a shorter, simpler type of piano music known as the character
piece. Character pieces were short, single-movement works for solo piano that conveyed
a single mood or emotion. These works generally were not programmatic, but
might display a simple Romantic idea that was often indicated in the title. As shown in
the list below, character pieces were usually “pure” music, titles which were generally
descriptive of the meter, tempo, form, or mood. Most Romantic composers tried their
hands at character pieces; several, including Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, and Mendelssohn
established the character piece as the most popular instrumental genre in the Romantic
period.

Some Common Character Piece Titles
Waltz: Moderato piece in triple meter
Scherzo: Lively piece, often in triple or compound meter
The Early Romantic Period 89
Etude: Literally, a “study”; usually addresses a technical problem
Nocturne: “Night music”; slow, relaxing, serene music
Prelude: Short work based on a single idea or motive
Mazurka: Polish folk dance in triple meter
Polonaise: Polish dance in triple meter, in a stately moderato tempo
Ballade: Slow to moderate tempo; often rhapsodic
Impromptu: Features extemporaneous, almost improvisatory style
Composer Profile
Robert Schumann, The Complete Romantic
In some ways, Robert Schumann embodied the
Romantic spirit more than any other composer did.
A true Renaissance man in the best sense, Schumann
was a gifted performer, composer, writer, critic, and producer.
He had a great career and a great marriage. Still,
his soul was tormented to the point that he had to be
committed to an asylum for the last two years of his life,
and eventually died there.
Born on June 8, 1810, in Zwikau, Saxony, Robert
fell in love with music early on. His father did not wish
for his son to pursue the precarious living common to
musicians, and demanded that he attend law school.
He did as his father wished, at least at first, but soon
Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-99820
Schumann
turned his attention to musical study. His dream was to be a concert pianist, and
he began to study with Friedrich Wieck, a prominent teacher. Before long, Robert
fell in love with Wieck’s daughter, Clara, herself a brilliant pianist. They married
against her father’s wishes. Robert’s piano career came to a sudden end
when he injured his hand by trying to improve his strength and stretch on a
machine that he had developed. His attention turned toward composition and
music journalism. In 1834, Schumann founded the critical music journal Neue
Zeitschrift fur Musik, a periodical that is still published today. Because of the journal’s
wide circulation, Schumann became one of the most influential personalities in
the early Romantic period. He was able to help promote the careers of many
musicians; most notable was his support of Johannes Brahms.
Schumann composed in many different genres. He wrote four symphonies
(which show Beethoven’s influence), concertos for piano, violin, and cello, and
many smaller works. Some of his most beautiful compositions were his piano
character pieces, many of which were composed for his wife, Clara. Several
lengthy sets of character pieces, especially Scenes of Childhood and Carnival, are
still extremely popular.

90 Chapter 8
Schumann began showing signs of mental illness in his early forties. He
exhibited a dual personality syndrome, which was translated directly into music
at times. He would sometimes sign compositions Florestan, which was his aggressive,
masculine side, and at other times would sign Eusebius, which was a
tender, more feminine alter ego. In 1854, after fits of depression and one attempted
suicide, Robert committed himself to an asylum near Bonn, Germany.
He died there on July 29, 1856.
Clara, Fanny, and the Role of Women in the Romantic Period
Women had a great influence on musical art from the Medieval period to the present.
However, customs and expectations often made it difficult or impossible for a woman to
pursue her musical ambitions. For example, it was usually acceptable for a woman
to play certain instruments, such as the piano, or to sing. On the other hand, composing
seemed to be frowned upon as a vocation for women. This was very frustrating for many
women, including Clara Schumann (1819–1896). Wife of Robert Schumann, Clara
outlived her husband by forty years. She was a brilliant concert pianist and composer,
and after Robert’s death, she also managed the music journal that he founded. Though
she composed many works including character pieces and chamber music, it is only
recently that she has received the credit she deserved as an outstanding composer.
Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel (1805–1847), older sister of Felix Mendelssohn, was
also a gifted pianist and composer. Being part of a wealthy German banking family,
Fanny found that it was not socially acceptable to pursue a career as a composer. However,
being an amateur pianist was somehow okay, as long as it did not interfere with the
expectations of a lady of her social standing. She often performed with her famous little
brother, and they shared an extremely close bond throughout their lives. Still, because
of her gender, it was impossible for her to achieve the public image and fame that Felix
enjoyed.
Composer Profile
Felix Mendelssohn, A Charmed Life
F elix Mendelssohn was born on February 3, 1809, in Hamburg, Germany. He
was born into a wealthy banking family, and received the finest musical
training available at a very early age. The precocious Felix rapidly gained a
reputation as the most brilliant prodigy since Mozart. Indeed, as a pianist, he
was performing at the highest levels at age nine. By age eleven, he had already
written over sixty compositions. As a teenager, he befriended the celebrated
opera composer Carlo Maria von Weber and the philosopher Goethe. He often
performed with his older sister Fanny, herself a virtuoso pianist and a fine composer.
It seemed that he led a charmed life; wherever he traveled, he was successful.
Wherever he lived and worked, he was happy and productive. He made
six visits to London, where audiences throughout the city adored him. He also
toured Italy, Switzerland, France, and indeed most of Europe. At every stop, he
made new friends and impressed his audiences.
In 1828, he began rehearsing the Saint Matthew Passion of J.S. Bach, and
the next year he conducted two performances of the work. These events sparked
a feverish interest in the life and works of the mighty Baroque master—an

The Early Romantic Period 91
interest that has endured to this day. In 1837 when he was twenty-eight, he
married seventeen-year-old Cecile Charlotte Sophie. Their marriage was extremely
happy, and they had five children, all of whom Felix openly adored.
Mendelssohn composed in every genre from piano music and chamber
music, to symphonies and operas. He held several important conducting posts,
especially as conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra of Leipzig, and was one of
the founders of the Leipzig Conservatory.
Early in 1847, upon learning of the sudden death of his beloved sister,
Mendelssohn fell to the floor in shock and broke a blood vessel in his head. He
never fully recovered from that incident. Finally, on November 4, 1847, Felix
Mendelssohn died after suffering two serious strokes. He was thirty-eight years
old. He is still remembered for his prodigious talent and his happy, outgoing
personality. Among his most famous works are five symphonies, a violin concerto,
incidental music to Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the opera
Die Hochzeit des Camacho, and many chamber works for a variety of ensembles.
He is also credited with developing the idea of the concert overture, a single
movement work that does not precede an opera, but which might be used in an
orchestral concert as strict entertainment.
Composer Profile
Frederic Chopin, Poet of the Piano
S ometimes the right person gets teamed up with the right instrument at the
right time in history. So it was with Frederic Chopin (1810–1849), the piano,
and the Romantic period. Born near Warsaw, Poland on March 1, 1810, Chopin
was a fine child-pianist; not a prodigy, but a solid player nonetheless. After showing
some interest in composition, his parents hired Joseph Elsner, the finest composition
teacher in Warsaw, to coach Chopin.
When Chopin was in his late teens, he traveled to a few cities such as Berlin
and Vienna, but he eventually settled permanently in Paris. Chopin made his
living by teaching private lessons and publishing his works for piano. He had no
love for large concert halls; he preferred to perform in the salons of Paris high
society. He soon became recognized as one of the finest musicians of his time.
Franz Liszt was extremely impressed with Chopin, as were Schumann and others.
Chopin had a talent for drawing subtle nuances of dynamic shading out of
the keyboard. He could play simple melodies and inject into them a poetry and
artistry that made them irresistible. Chopin also knew how to play to his strengths
as a composer; after a couple of early piano concertos and some lesser works,
he concentrated solely on sonatas and piano character pieces. The small dimensions
of character pieces were perfect for his poetic, intimate style.
The elite society of Paris adored him. He was small and frail looking, but he
had no lack of female company. Eventually he embarked on a romantic affair
with Madame Aurore Dudevant, who was a feminist and a very successful novelist
with the pen name of George Sand. Their passionate affair was stormy to
say the least, and the couple looked quite strange: the thin, frail Chopin accompanied
by Dudevant, who often wore men’s clothing and smoked cigars. Still,
they remained together for ten years. After that, Chopin’s health began to

92 Chapter 8
decline rapidly. He was suffering from tuberculosis, which was a common killer
of young adults in those days. He traveled to England during the last two years
of his life, but his health became so bad that he was eventually confined to bed.
He passed away on October 17, 1849.
Listen to This
Track #10 Chopin, Prelude in E minor
One can listen to any character piece of Chopin and sense immediately that
this is music that speaks directly from the composer’s heart. The Prelude
begins simply, with a regular beat in the left hand, over which a very simple
melody unfolds. The remarkable thing about this and so many of Chopin’s other
works is how much musical communication occurs that can’t be written on the
page. The melody is stated only once; it is a strikingly simple, symmetrical tune.
However, the way it is framed by the accompaniment, and the manner in which
it is customarily performed, gives the listener real insight into the heart and soul
of Chopin. His extraordinary gift for writing memorable tunes, and his delicate
arrangements of those tunes, makes even a short work like this prelude an extraordinary
experience.
Composer Profile
Hector Berlioz, and The Art of Orchestration (1803–1869)
H ector Berlioz was the ultimate Romantic, with all the emotions, creativity
and uniqueness of that period of music. He was born in La Cote-Saint-
Andre, France, on December 11, 1803. Berlioz’s father wanted Hector to be a
physician like himself, and Berlioz tried to fulfill his father’s dream. However,
from an early age Berlioz found himself attracted to music, with all its eccentricities
and possibilities. Beethoven inspired him and with that, Berlioz became infatuated
with the new world opened to him. After finally convincing his father
that he no longer wanted to study medicine, but wanted instead to concentrate
on his music, he enrolled in the Paris Conservatory. With no success at first, his
father abandoned his support, and Hector had to survive on his own.
When he was but 24, Berlioz met up with the woman who was to change
his life. Henrietta Smithson was performing the role of Ophelia in Hamlet, and
when Hector had the opportunity to watch her perform for the first time, it was
love at first sight for him. He composed works for her, which she was not aware
of, and performed them hoping she would attend. Eventually, they courted and
were married, even though the marriage was beset with troubles. They didn’t
have much money, and each was temperamental and inflexible. Hector remained
at her side when Harriet became an invalid near the end of her life, but he
remarried soon after. Berlioz’s second marriage was no better than the first. His

The Early Romantic Period 93
life ended up frustrating and unhappy. His only son died before Hector did, and
Berlioz could not recover from that tragedy. The funeral march Berlioz composed
as part of his Symphonie funèbre was the requiem used for his own funeral
after his death in Paris on March 8, 1869.
He was known as the greatest orchestrator of his time, which can be defined
as a musician who uses or combines instruments in unique ways to produce
different sounds from an orchestra. A good example of this is the “skeleton
dance” in his Fifth movement of his Symphonie Fantastique, subtitled “An Episode
in the Life of an Artist.” The string players turn their bows upside down and clack
them against the strings of their instruments to simulate the sounds of bones
and dancing skeletons (refer to “Listen to This,” below).
Among Berlioz’s major works are his monumental Symphonie Fantastique,
the Symphonie Funèbre et Triomphale, several overtures including La Carnaval
Romain, three operas, music to Romeo and Juliet, a Te Deum, a requiem, and
many marches and smaller works. His imagination was formidable, and he
brought many new sounds to the orchestra that other composers imitated in
future generations. Berlioz was certainly ahead of his time as an orchestrator,
employing combinations of sounds that could easily have been at home in twentieth
century works.
Listen to This
Track #11 Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique,
Fifth Movement, “Witches’ Sabbath”
B erlioz’s masterpiece, Symphonie Fantastique, is a program symphony about
a young lovesick musician who overdoses on opium in an attempt to commit
suicide. This programmatic symphony describes the dreams that the young
artist experiences. Cast in five movements, Berlioz has a specific program that
he wrote that describes the story behind each movement. Binding the work
together is a fixed musical idea, or idée fixe, which represents the girl of his
dreams. She appears in each of the first three movements in a different setting.
In the fourth movement, The March to the Scaffold, he dreams he has killed his
beloved. Near the end of the movement, just before his head is chopped off, he
sees the girl for the last time, and we hear the fixed idea. The fifth movement
The Witches’ Sabbath, begins ominously, keeping the listener in suspense. Finally,
the timpani signal a new tempo and the wild dance begins. The fixed idea returns,
but this time it is distorted and grotesque. The love of his life is dancing
and mocking him along with other witches and goblins. The dance ends suddenly
and chimes usher in a famous Gregorian chant called the Dies Irae played
by the horns and bassoons. This chant becomes a secondary theme for the
movement and returns in various guises before the movement ends. Next, Berlioz
treats us to two different fugal sections, which help to bring the movement to a
thundering climax. Shortly before the coda Berlioz introduces an interesting technique
in the strings. This technique, called col legno (or “with wood”), contributes
to the macabre effect he wished to convey. The string players turn their bows
upside down and literally play with the wooden parts of the bows. This unique
effect is used by other composers in later works, primarily to conjure up images
of ghostly skeletons dancing.

94 Chapter 8
Composer Profile
Franz Liszt, The Complete Virtuoso (1811–1886)
F ranz Liszt is sometimes referred to as “the greatest pianist who ever lived.”
That’s a pretty strong statement to make without evidence, especially considering
the caliber of pianists we’ve studied so far in this book. How could
anyone really be better than Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, or Chopin? Still,
the persona of Liszt persists—dazzling technique, consummate showmanship, and
dashing looks. He truly was an icon in the music world during his long, successful
career.
Liszt was born in Raiding, Hungary, on October 22, 1811. His father worked
at the estate of the Esterhazy family near Vienna, and that is where young Franz
received his early musical training. At age eleven, he gave his first concert, met
Beethoven, and began to compose and publish music. Much of the music he
composed were piano arrangements of other people’s music, including Beethoven
symphonies, Schubert songs, and opera excerpts of Mozart. These pieces were
often incredibly difficult to play, adding to the reputation that young Liszt enjoyed
as a player of extraordinary technical skill. Add to that his charm, showmanship,
and unique looks, and Liszt quickly developed an international
reputation as a ladies’ man. He had dozens of documented love affairs with
women of nobility, and one special relationship with the Countess Marie d’Agoult.
They never married, yet she bore him three children. One of these, his daughter
Cosima, would one day become the wife of Richard Wagner.
Liszt made a fortune as a concert soloist. Yet, he made a change in his
career and began to devote more time to conducting and composing. In 1848,
he became the principal conductor at the Court of Weimar in Germany, a very
prestigious post. He did not really need to publish much music to survive financially.
In fact, his compositions were often criticized for being too bombastic, or
sacrificing emotional substance for technical fireworks. Still, there were important
features in his career as a composer. First and foremost was the sheer quantity
of his output. He composed or arranged over 1300 works, making him one
of the most prolific composers of all time. Liszt was loyal to his Hungarian heritage,
and composed a set of Hungarian Rhapsodies that used melodies and rhythms
in the Hungarian folk style. He also invented the symphonic poem, which is a
single-movement, free-form work for orchestra that centers on one program or
musical idea. His famous symphonic poem Les Preludes became a staple of the
orchestral repertoire and a template for later composers. Indeed, symphonic
poems would become a favorite form for many composers in the late Romantic
period, including Tchaikovsky and Richard Strauss.
Ample success and complicated relationships with too many women made
Liszt yearn for a simpler life. In 1861, Liszt moved to Rome and five years later
became an unordained priest. He spent much of the rest of his life there, and
though he still taught and performed on occasion, he did not take money for
those services. Late in his life, he composed several large masses and other
works for the Church.
Liszt was always friendly and gracious, and was considered a “grand old
man” of the music world when he died on July 31, 1886. He remains one of the
most interesting and beloved personalities in the world of music.

Giaocchinno Rossini: Early Romantic Opera Buffa
Summary
The Early Romantic Period 95
Rossini holds a special place in music history. On one hand, he dominated opera in the
early nineteenth century. On the other hand, he was slow to embrace Romantic trends
in music. Other than his trademark use of the crescendo, Rossini’s music is very much
rooted in classical traditions. Most of his forty operas were light comedies with frilly
plots, and engaging arias and choruses. Operas of this type are called opera buffa, named
after the “buffoon” basso profundo who tended to have leading roles in these works.
Rossini’s operas were extremely well received, to the extent that even the great master
Beethoven felt somewhat threatened by this popularity. Among Rossini’s most famous
works are The Barber of Seville, La Cenerentola, La Gazza Ladra, and William Tell.
Interestingly, many of Rossini’s operas are no longer performed, but the overtures are
performed regularly in concerts. This is the case with other early Romantic opera composers
as well. Great masters such as Carlo Maria von Weber and Franz von Suppé have
written some of the most famous overtures in history yet their operas are rarely performed.
Many of the composers discussed in this chapter continued to work in the last half of the
nineteenth century. The differences between early and late Romantic composers are
subtle. As we shall see, certain factors such as nationalism play a greater role in the
composer’s ability to project personality through the music. Most of the forms developed
during the early Romantic continued to be popular throughout the entire Romantic
period. In particular, the piano character piece and the symphonic poem earned
a permanent place in the repertoire. Beethoven created the door to a whole new era of
music, and the early Romantic composers went through it to create their own styles.
These early Romantic composers displayed a wonderful ability to communicate personal
intimate thoughts to the listener. As we shall see in the next chapter, this technique
continued to be developed.
Key Terms
character piece lied
col legno orchestrator (or orchestration)
concert overture rubato
Dies Irae
idée fixe
symphonic poem

Name Date
1. What is a lied?
2. Who was the Polish master of piano music?
3. Who invented the symphonic poem?
Chapter 8 Review
The Early Romantic Period
4. Which German composer was also an important journalist?
5. Name two important female musicians of the early Romantic period.
6. Who was the master of early Romantic opera buffa?
7. Berlioz was considered a master of , which is the ability to
combine or use instruments to create unique sounds from an orchestra.
8. Who was the wealthy German composer who invented the concert overture and rekindled an
interest in Bach’s music?
9. was considered by many to be the best pianist of the
time, and composed or arranged over 1300 works.
10. Briefly discuss some of the inspirations for early Romantic music.
97

9
Introduction
The Late Romantic Period
Library of Congress: LC-USZC4-683
Bierstadt’s “Sunset”
The currents that created Romanticism around 1800 were still in full force during
the latter half of the nineteenth century. As composers’ abilities increased to
describe reality and fantasy through music, forms and structures became more
pliable to serve the composers’ needs. The venerable symphony, while still very popular,
became even elongated in many cases. Orchestras got larger and larger to handle
the dynamic range required for the massive works that were often composed. Some
symphonies of Mahler for example, required an orchestra of well over a hundred players.
In many cases, symphonies became major dramatic events on a par with an opera or
oratorio.
Symbolism, mythology, surrealism, and an obsession with the spiritual world were
prevalent characteristics found in the art and music of the late Romantic. Add to those
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100 Chapter 9
characteristics an increased effort to exhibit nationalism through the music, and one
can see that the late Romantic period is a time of profound complexity. Nationalism can
be described as the presence of cultural, folk, or literary references in music that reflect
a particular nation or culture. Many works of early Romantic composers are nationalistic
in character. The Hungarian Rhapsodies of Liszt and the polonaises and mazurkas of
Chopin are popular examples of early Romantic nationalism. The forces of nationalism
became more widespread as the nineteenth century progressed.
As in chapter 8, this chapter will focus on the lives of several composers who shaped
the musical landscape of the late nineteenth century. In many ways, this was a unique
time for music: the last time when musical art could be said to be progressing along one
front. When the twentieth century began, with the accompanying technical advancements
of radio and recording, the music world fragmented into many musical styles.
Music was never quite the same after that point, both in its sound and role in society. So
in a way, the late nineteenth century was something of a “golden age” for the traditional
genres of symphonies, concertos, operas, and chamber music.
Cultural Perspectives
One only needs to scan the pages of a world history book to see that the nineteenth
century was an amazing time, but also a dangerous time. The American Civil War, as
well as several conflicts overseas, probably contributed to the nationalistic tendencies of
many composers. Technological and social advancements abounded, with the telegraph,
photography, and the transcontinental railroad in America. The proliferation of steamboats,
and the creation of true industrial societies in the United States and many countries
in Europe, changed the makeup of societies. A larger, more affluent middle class
demanded the benefits of an equally affluent society. Nightlife, travel, and the acquisition
of material things dominated the lives of middle class people on both sides of the
Atlantic.
Conservatives vs. Radicals
As we progress through our study of Romantic composers, it is interesting to note that
they seemed to form into two separate categories. One group contained composers who
did not break new ground, such as creating new forms or pushing compositional techniques
forward. They simply built on existing sounds and ideas; therefore, we call them
conservative composers. Another group, which we will call radical composers, initiated
new forms or styles, “pushed the envelope,” or in some way advanced the art of music in
a new, often controversial way. Both contained composers who were great, but they
disagreed vehemently sometimes as to the “best” way to convey music in the Romantic
period. As one can see by the chart below, composers from the early Romantic, as well as
principal composers from the late Romantic, are included to give an overview of these
two categories.
What did it take to be a radical in the early or late Romantic? Well, in the early
Romantic period, it was enough if one was a composer of an amazing programmatic
symphony like Berlioz, or if you created a new form like Liszt’s symphonic poem. In the
late Romantic, however, it was not enough to simply like program music. To be a true
radical, you had to also venture into the fringes of harmony like Wagner or Richard
Strauss, or to stretch formal structures to the limit like Mahler. Radicals also tended to
embrace a greater use of chromaticism in music. Simply put, chromaticism in this period
was the use of more pitches and chords outside of the key of a piece, in an effort to
evade traditional harmonic tendencies. Wagner and Richard Strauss were champions of

Principal Romantic Composers
Conservative Radical
Schubert Beethoven
Schumann Berlioz
Mendelssohn
Chopin
Rossini
Liszt
Brahms Wagner
Dvorak Mahler
Tchaikovsky The Russian Five
J. Strauss II
Smetana
Bizet
Verdi
R. Strauss
The Late Romantic Period 101
this idea, and while most composers of the time used chromaticism to some degree, the
“radical” composers stretched traditional ideas of tonality almost to the breaking point.
The distinction between conservative and radical composers begins to explain why,
in the late Romantic, a rift between composers began to appear. The conservatives, with
Brahms as their unofficial leader, did not care for the formal and harmonic trends initiated
by Wagner, or the programmatic ideas advanced in compositions of many Romantic
composers. These differences became much more open and antagonistic as the late
Romantic period progressed.
Opera in the Late Romantic
The early Romantic period saw not only the proliferation of Italian opera buffa, but
many serious works as well. Rossini, as well as Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826),
Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835), and Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) established Romantic
opera in both Italy and Germany. In Italy, the trend of bel canto opera developed
and was carried on by late Romantic composers including Guiseppi Verdi
(1813–1901). Bel canto literally means “beautiful song,” and operas composed in this
style have clear, straightforward arias with clear forms. The inspiration for bel canto style
comes all the way from the Classical period, in which clarity of form and simple, beautiful
melodies are the most prized qualities. In Germany, an infatuation with all things
supernatural led to subjects that were completely fantastic compared to the more
“grounded” subject matter in the Italian operas. For example, Weber’s opera Der
Freischutz (1821) marks the beginning of German Romantic opera. The story of Der
Freischutz deals with a man who sells his soul to the devil. This type of paranormal
subject matter became a hallmark of the greatest of the German opera composers, Richard
Wagner.
Though Wagner began composing operas in the 1830s, he did not enjoy great
success with them until the mid 1840s. His first truly successful opera, The Flying Dutchman
(1843), takes place in medieval times and deals with legendary mythical characters.
Wagner wrote the libretto for this and all of his later operas. Like The Flying Dutchman,
most of his stories dealt with legends or mythology. Later, Wagner had a string of successes,
including Tannhauser, Tristan and Isolde, Lohengrin, and Parsifal. Certainly
Wagner’s greatest achievement, however, was the four-opera serial known as The Ring of

102 Chapter 9
the Nibelung. These operas represented the essence of Wagner’s vision for opera, that
operas should and could be far more moving sources of inspiration if the music propels
the dramatic action forward. Wagner’s ideas for retooling opera included the use of
leitmotif in several of his works. Leitmotif is a term that refers to melodies that stand for
specific characters or things in an opera. For example, in The Ring of the Nibelung, over
four dozen leitmotifs are used. The golden ring (which is the central “thing” in the
series) has its own melody or leitmotif, as does each of the main characters. Even if a
character is not on stage, the leitmotif is woven into the orchestral score at those moments
when the character is being discussed. Many composers have used the leitmotif
technique after Wagner, all the way to the present day. For example, the famous Star
Wars series of motion pictures, with music by John Williams, uses the leitmotif technique.
Most characters (Darth Vader, Yoda, Leia, the Emperor, etc.) and even “The
Force” have their own themes which occur in the music as they reflect the action on the
screen. This technique is directly attributed to Wagner’s ideas from more than a century
earlier. Though others, including Berlioz, had developed the concept of describing a
character through the use of a specific melody (refer to idee fixe in chapter 8), Wagner
was the first to refine the idea. His music presented the idea that motifs could be altered
to enhance the dramatic tension in the story, or interwoven with other motifs to create
a variety of effects.
Another Wagnerian influence in opera and indeed in all music was the concept of
endless melody. This concept evolved from Wagner’s frustration with the regular points
of rest and resolution that tended to occur in all tonal music. In most “regular” melodies,
the chord progression will lead inevitably to the tonic, or the tonality that is central
to the music. In music theory, this central tonality is called the key. By delaying or
eliminating the ultimate resolution of a phrase to its tonal center, Wagner discovered
that he could build tension in the music and sustain it for a long period of time. In this
way, Wagner could direct the resting points in music to coincide with dramatic events
on stage. The two major aspects of an opera, music and drama, could be interlaced in
this way. This led to the music drama, Wagner’s new term for his restructured serious
operas.
Listen to This
Track #12 Wagner, Tristan and Isolde, Prelude
T his famous instrumental work is the overture to Wagner’s music drama
about eternal love. Premiered in 1865, Tristan and Isolde is a masterpiece of
unified dramatic composition. In this example, listen how each phrase ends with
an unresolved cadence, a classic example of endless melody. Each phrase tends
to ask a question, and the succeeding phrase answers with another question.
Every phrase of music delicately unfolds into the next, and almost subliminally
begins to build tension. The listener’s ear begins to long for harmonic resolution,
but Wagner holds the resolution off until called for in the stage action.
When these points of resolution arrive later in the opera, they are sublimely
satisfying. Note that during the entire ten-minute prelude, no cadence exists
that gives the listener the feeling that the music is finished.
Wagner deliberately designs the periods of tension and resting points in
the music to enhance the dramatic effects of the whole story line. In a way,

The Late Romantic Period 103
formal structures of music and regular phraseology take a back seat to other
considerations in the opera. This fact is precisely why some composers, most
notably Brahms, did not care for Wagner’s techniques. Thus, the integration of
music, literature and drama occur with each art form as equal partners.
Wagner dreamed of “a total work of art,” in which the various components of
operas, music, drama, literature, and visual art, would be fused into a completely new
and unique art form. No one component would exist without the others, in order to
communicate the message in the most profound manner possible. Wagner’s quest for
the total unification of the arts in opera became his obsession for most of his career.
Richard Wagner is quite probably the most important of all composers after Beethoven.
His revolutionary ideas for reinventing opera changed the way later musicians viewed
music in general.
Composer Profile
Richard Wagner (1813–1883)
R ichard Wilhelm Wagner was born in Leipzig, Germany, on May 22, 1813.
The exact identity of his parents is in doubt. His mother was probably
Johanna Patz, the daughter of a baker, who married Ludwig Geyer. A year after
Wagner’s birth, Johanna married Ludwig, who might well have been Wagner’s
biological father. Wagner began his musical study rather late, falling in love with
Weber’s Der Freischutz at age 13. In 1831, Wagner began to take private lessons
in theory and composition. By 1834, he completed his first opera, Die Feen. This
work was not produced until after his death. He held several conducting posts in
Leipzig, Riga, and Paris, finally landing the music director position of the Saxton
Court at Dresden, which he held from 1843 to 1849. Having accumulated enormous
debts, he left Dresden, stopping at Weimar, where he met Franz Liszt. Liszt,
along with Robert Schumann, were two of the few influential musicians of the
time who recognized the genius of Wagner’s works. During the 1840s Wagner
not only conducted, but also composed several operas, including The Flying Dutchman
and Tannhauser. The young conductor Hans von Bulow, who was an ardent
admirer of Wagner’s, became a close collaborator and friend. Wagner, who was
married at the time, fell in love with Von Bulow’s wife Cosima. She also happened
to be the daughter of Franz Liszt. On hearing of the affair with Cosima,
Liszt broke off all contact with Wagner and his daughter for many years.
Wagner spent much of his career evading creditors and manipulating friends.
It can honestly be said that he was probably not a very nice person, though he
felt passions very deeply and had an unmistakable genius for artistic expression.
He wrote several books on the art of musical expression, morality, and
even politics. Some of his works were critical of Jewish music and musicians
(especially Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer), claiming that Jews could never be great
because they “had no homeland” of their own. It seemed that the ideals of nationalism
pervaded even Wagner’s thinking. Still, his comments were used sixty
years later as propaganda during the Nazi movement.
Wagner’s ultimate masterpiece, The Ring of the Nibelung, was twenty years
in the making. The series of four epic operas (Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried,
and Gotterdammerung) represented the grandest undertaking ever for an operatic
composer. The series also firmly established the principles of Wagner’s

104 Chapter 9
music drama as “a total work of art.” Wagner directed every detail of the production,
from writing the music and the libretto, to costuming, set design, and even
the pyrotechnics that were employed in the productions for special effects. He
dreamed of the ultimate performance venue to properly produce the works, and
began work in earnest doing conceptual design work for the facility. After many
years of promoting his idea, the opera house at Bayreuth was finally opened.
The first works performed at Bayreuth were the four music dramas of the Ring,
during August of 1876. The opera house was truly a marvel of engineering, and
is still in use today.
During the period that the Ring was gestating, Wagner also composed two
other important works. One music drama, Tristan and Isolde (1859), was a masterpiece
of his principles of endless melody and music drama technique. Another,
Die Meistersinger (1867), is actually a delightful comic opera, devoid of
Wagner’s usual darkness and symbolism. Later, Wagner’s final music drama,
Parsifal, was completed in 1882.
Late in Wagner’s life, his friendship with Franz Liszt was re-established. By
that time, Cosima and Wagner had been married for many years, and the relationship
had produced four children. Wagner died in Venice on February 13,
1883. For over forty years after Wagner’s death, Cosima ran the Bayreuth opera
house with great success, and “Wagnerianism” spread steadily across the Western
world.
Not everyone was a fan of the Wagnerian approach to opera. In fact, many great
musicians, most notably Brahms, were vehemently opposed to the music drama philosophy.
In the view of Brahms and others, one cheapens music by forcing it into a
subordinate role as Wagner did in his music dramas. Music should live for its own sake,
and the poetic qualities that make music a unique art form are lost in Wagner’s integrated
approach to the arts, according to critics. In any event, Wagner’s impact on the
music world was huge; music would never be the same.
In spite of Wagner’s great influence on music, undoubtedly the most popular and
beloved of opera composers in the late nineteenth century was Guiseppi Verdi (1813–
1901). Verdi embraced the bel canto style of writing in most of his operas, though he did
try his hand at Wagner’s endless melody approach in one or two of his later works, particularly
Otello. In all, Verdi was one of the most beloved composers in history. In addition
to his success as a composer, he was also successful as a statesman and a farmer.
Composer Profile
Giuseppi Verdi (1813–1901)
B orn in Le Roncole, Italy on October 10, 1813, Giuseppe Verdi was considered
the last Italian opera master, in the line that started with Monteverdi in
the early seventeenth century. His operas are still often performed today, and
considered a part of the standard repertoire of any opera house. His melodic
arias are well known even to non-musicians, and used for background music in
many televised and cinematic productions. Knowing that the small town of Le
Roncole held no one qualified to teach his gifted son, Giuseppe’s father sent him
to the neighboring town of Busseto to get the education he needed. Verdi learned
a great deal studying with Vincenzy Lavigna, after being turned down for

The Late Romantic Period 105
admission to Milan’s Conservatory. He was told the reasons were threefold: he
was too old (he was older than the maximum age of 14), his lack of previous
training in theory and harmony, and the fact that he had not shown enough
evidence of talent, they said, to waive the admission rules.
His first opera, Oberto, was very successful and Verdi was awarded a threeopera
contract with the La Scala Opera House. However, his first comic opera
attempt, Un Giorno di Regno, was composed during a time when both his wife
and his son died. It was not successful at all and made Verdi think twice about
continuing with his ambition as a composer. Fortunately for us all, he persevered
and his next opera Nabucco made him one of the most popular composers
of the time. He went on to compose many more, such as Aida, Rigoletto, La
Forza del Destino, Don Carlos, two operas based on Shakespeare’s works Otello
and Falstaff, and Il Trovatore.
Verdi had become rich and famous with all these operas, and lived long
enough to become a real part of Italy’s heritage. When Verdi’s wife died in 1897,
Verdi himself gave up the will to live. He died in Milan, Italy on January 27, 1901.
One of the most long-lived composers, he was 88 when he died, and an entire
nation turned out for his funeral. A special session of the Rome Senate was
called to hear eulogies of Verdi, and the local schools closed for the day. Almost
250,000 people gathered throughout the streets when they transported Verdi’s
body to its final resting place.
Other major figures in late Romantic opera included the French composer Georges
Bizet (1838–1875), who composed Carmen (1875), one of the most approachable
operas of all time. Bizet’s realistic story of a Spanish cigarette girl, set in Seville, was in
direct contrast to the mythological plots of Wagner. The melodies were clear, distinct,
and immensely popular. The Spanish flavor, complete with a Habañera and The Toreador
Song, captured an exotic, international spirit.
Comic opera (known in France as opera comique) was tremendously popular during
the latter half of the nineteenth century. The French composer Jacques Offenbach
(1819–1880) composed the satirical Orpheus in the Underworld (1858). The Austrian
composer Johann Strauss Jr. (1825–1899), was most famously known as “The Waltz
King.” He composed lots of waltzes, as one might expect from The Waltz King, but also
composed extremely popular operas. Most notable were his operettas Die Fledermaus
(“The Bat”) and Die Zigeunerbaron (“The Gypsy Baron”). Incidentally, his most famous
piece, a waltz entitled An der Schönen Blauen Donau (“On the Beautiful Blue
Danube”), was composed in 1867 and has been used for several feature films including
2001: A Space Odyssey and Roxanne.
The popularity of opera comique spread to England with the works of W.S. Gilbert
and Arthur Sullivan, whose light operas included The Mikado (1885). The composers of
opera comique did as much to popularize opera as Wagner’s philosophies did to expand
the scope of the genre.
Symphonic Trends of the Late Romantic Period
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony still provided a formidable obstacle for many composers
of the late Romantic period to overcome. Many composers, including Wagner and
Brahms, simply could not help letting Beethoven’s influence appear in their symphonic
works. Though Wagner composed few symphonic works, he often went back to the
mighty Ninth Symphony for inspiration. Brahms probably became the real successor to
Beethoven’s symphonic legacy. Each of Brahm’s four symphonies were “normal” in
their four-movement makeup, but each contains the romantic fervor that made

106 Chapter 9
Beethoven’s music so attractive. Brahms’ First Symphony, in particular, seems to pick up
where Beethoven left off. In Brahms’ music, melody and structure were everything;
programmatic concerns were non-existent. His preference for pure music, though not
unique, were interesting in light of the Wagnerian trends toward musical symbolism.
Composer Profile
Johannes Brahms (1833–1897)
Johannes Brahms was an anomaly within the
Romantic period. A contemporary of Liszt and
Wagner, he was born into a life of hardship not too unlike
that of Beethoven. It was on May 7, 1833, that he
was born in Hamburg, Germany. His parents fought constantly,
and were unable to provide adequate support
for their children; Johannes many times went hungry.
He didn’t like his studies in school, but his enthusiasm
and talent for music was evident early on. Brahms
learned the piano around the age of 10, but still had no
means of developing his skills to their utmost. It was not Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-122749
until another musician, Eduard Reményi of Hungary, was
Brahms
introduced to Brahms that he was able to get the break
he deserved. Brahms and Reményi toured together, with Brahms as the accompanist,
and that afforded him the opportunity to meet many of Germany’s most
well known musicians. Fortunately, Brahms gained many admirers and fans
during this tour. It was also on this tour that Brahms met the family that was to
change his life the most, Robert and Clara Schumann. With the exposure Robert
Schumann could provide for Brahms via his music magazine “Neue Zeitschrift
fur Musik,” Brahms was on his way to stardom, and a lifelong friendship with
these two supporters. After the death of Robert, Johannes and Clara remained
ardent friends for forty years. They never married, but it was evident that Brahms
was in love with her.
Brahms composed in all formats except the opera and the symphony, until
his first symphony finally emerged. Johannes composed this first symphony in
1876. His Symphony #1 was described by one prominent musician as
“Beethoven’s Tenth Symphony” and as the greatest first symphony ever written
by a composer. It took Brahms four years to write it, and he was already 43
when it was completed. That is one example of the odd characteristics of Brahms,
as compared to other composers of his time.
As an anomaly, the second characteristic Brahms exhibited was that he
composed along strict classical period lines, while living as a contemporary of
the very radical Wagner and Liszt. He even went so far as to sign a proclamation
against the radical nature of the programmatic and grandiose compositions of
Liszt and Wagner. Due to the fact that Brahms was considered to be looking
backwards for his styles of composition, he was seen as old-fashioned, but within
the confines of the Classical period and its parameters, Brahms’ compositions
were tremendously romantic. That is why some consider him to be the successor
to, and following in the footsteps of, the master of symphonic literature up to
that time—Beethoven.
Following a performance of his Fourth Symphony that he attended in 1897,
the liver cancer that had been afflicting Brahms got worse. During this last performance
he was healthy enough to attend, many in the audience realized that

The Late Romantic Period 107
this would be their last opportunity to be in the presence of the great German
master. Everyone at that concert gave Brahms a standing ovation at the end of
each and every movement of the performance, until tears streamed down the
face of the beloved composer, and those in attendance felt the admiration filling
the hall. Brahms died one month later on April 3, 1897.
Some of his major piano works are his Variations on a Theme by Paganini,
Variations on a Theme by Handel, Hungarian Dances and many waltzes. Major well
known orchestral works are his four symphonies, the Academic Festival Overture
and Tragic Overture, along with several concertos for violin, piano and others.
Brahms also composed great choral music pieces including A German Requiem,
Song of Fate for chorus and orchestra, Gypsy Songs for four voices and piano, a
Rhapsody for alto voice, men’s chorus and orchestra and approximately 200
songs (lieder) for solo voice and piano such as his world-famous “Lullaby.”
Brahms was not alone in his love of the symphony as the ultimate means of musical
expression. Anton Bruckner (1824–1896) idolized both Beethoven and Wagner, yet his
symphonies are usually compared with Brahms. Bruckner’s ten symphonies are fairly
conservative in structure (each has four movements), yet they each attempt to capture
the grandeur of Beethoven’s Ninth, and they also show a great melodic influence of
Wagner. Bruckner suffered from being overshadowed by Brahms, and his critics often
dismissed him as being a second-rate follower of Wagner. These criticisms do not do
Bruckner justice, however, as his works were a wonderful synthesis of the conservatism
of Brahms, the power of Beethoven, and the lushness of Wagner.
In Russia, nationalistic trends drove much of the composition of music during this
period. However, its greatest symphonic composer, Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (1850–
1893), was a product of Germanic musical ideals. His six symphonies directly reflected
the influence of Beethoven and Brahms. Though sometimes programmatic and even
nationalistic, Tchaikovsky’s symphonic works retained the conservative four-movement
structure. His natural gifts for melody and orchestration lifted these symphonies, particularly
the last three, to the very highest ranks of popularity. Even today, Tchaikovsky
continues to rank among the most well-known of symphonic composers.
Composer Profile
Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (1840–1893)
Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (spellings vary from book
to book, especially for his first name) was born on
May 7, 1840, in the small town of Votinsk in Russia. His
life was both tragic and great at the same time. He was
in torment from things he could not put into words, and
his life was spent trying to ignore and hide from his
innermost feelings. He had to suffer through several nervous
breakdowns and even tried to commit suicide. But
the most troubling of his problems stemmed from the
fact that he was a homosexual, which he tried to hide
from everyone. In an attempt to cover up this fact with
a marriage, he created more problems as the woman,
Antonina, ended up in an insane asylum for the last
Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-128254
Tchaikovsky

108 Chapter 9
twenty years of her life. That marriage in 1877 was fraught with problems from
the very first night, and after a very short time, Tchaikovsky ran away from that
entire relationship and never saw her again. He thought his “tendencies” were
some form of sickness, and his entire life was spent trying to fight them and
dreading his secret might be discovered.
Tchaikovsky was a very sensitive and delicate child. He fell in love with
music at an early age, but the law was chosen for him as his career. Once he
started as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice, he was totally unhappy, and lacked
any sort of ambition to make the law his life’s work. When he started studying
composition, his energies returned and becoming a proficient musician motivated
him greatly.
His first great work was completed in 1869, Romeo and Juliet. From that,
Tchaikovsky gained an ardent supporter in the patroness Nadezhda Filaretovna
von Meck. For thirteen years she and Tchaikovsky wrote letters of admiration
for each other, under the stipulation from von Meck that he never attempt to
contact her. With his unease around women, this was the perfect relationship
for him. They would occasionally meet in a concert hall, but officially, they kept
the relationship a very distant one. She supported him, and he found the inspiration
and the encouragement he needed. He was able to confide in her his
most secret torments and she was able to appease his financial worries. Madame
von Meck even went so far as to pay some of the requested money that
Tchaikovsky’s estranged wife was asking from him.
Tchaikovsky’s music however, was boldly dramatic, and is considered some
of the finest Russian music ever composed. He is not considered a nationalist,
but his music is definitely Russian in flavor and mood. He was influenced and
encouraged by the Russian Five composers, even though they were at odds
most times about nationalism and how to promote Russia’s music in the best
fashion. Tchaikovsky, the Russian Five claimed, was too influenced by
the culture of the West, his works too sophisticated, and did not represent the
brutal realism found in true nationalistic Russian music.
His sixth symphony is regarded as biographical in nature, and ends with
one of the most somber moods of any symphony ever written. In the low brass
and timpani can be heard the dying heartbeat of Tchaikovsky himself. It was
said that Tchaikovsky composed it as a last will and testament, and as a requiem
for his own funeral. In it can be found a premonition of his death in a
certain hidden phrase from a well known Russian melody “And Rest Him with
the Saints.” Only days after Tchaikovsky himself conducted its premiere on October
28, 1893, the great Russian master died of cholera, just as his mother had.
With a raging epidemic of cholera in full swing, it is only supposition that when
he drank the tainted, unboiled water, he was attempting to commit suicide one
more time. No one knows for sure, but his life of great sorrow and fears was
finally put to rest. On November 6th of that same year he passed away, with a
great funeral procession celebrated by people from all over Russia.
Some of Tchaikovsky’s most famous pieces were: Capriccio Italien, six symphonies,
the symphonic poems Romeo and Juliet, Francesca di Rimini, 1812 Overture
(commissioned in 1880), Marche Slav, and famous concertos for violin and
piano. Tchaikovsky set the standard for late Romantic dance music with the
ballets Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty and The Nutcracker.
The last of the great symphonists in the late Romantic period was undoubtedly
Gustav Mahler. Though some of his symphonies date from the early twentieth century,
Mahler’s works represented the culmination of the Romantic ideals. He breathed new
life into symphonic works with his nine symphonies (a tenth symphony was unfinished
at his death), and to this day his grandiose second, third, and eighth symphonies are
unmatched in their scope and sentimentality. His 1st Symphony, The Titan, was said to

The Late Romantic Period 109
be the sound of nature in Mahler’s own words. The 2nd Symphony, Resurrection, calls
for a pipe organ, four off-stage horns and trumpets, choir, soloists, church bells and a
large orchestra. Mahler said the subject of the second symphony was the hero of his first
symphony being taken to the grave. The ending is glorious, as if triumph conquers
misery. The massive 3rd symphony used melodies and texts from some of Mahler’s own
songs, and Nietzsche’s Also sprach Zarathustra. It was an epic work; indeed, Mahler
compared composing a symphony to “creating a world.” The subtitle of his 8th Symphony
was “Symphony of a Thousand” due to the large numbers of orchestral and vocal
musicians required for the performance. Again, the finale of this symphony is extremely
uplifting, as if Mahler himself realized that life is indeed worth living, despite all the
tragic events that humans have to endure.
Composer Profile
Gustav Mahler (1860–1911)
G ustav Mahler was born in Kalischt, Bohemia on July 7, 1860. Tragedy surrounded
Mahler beginning even in his youth. Five of his siblings died in
infancy of diphtheria. Another died of a lingering illness at the age of 12, and an
older sister suffered and succumbed to a brain tumor after a short but tumultuous
marriage. Another sister died after imagined periods of impending death.
One of his brothers committed suicide, while another was a criminal. Surrounding
this was the turbulent marriage of his parents, and the abuse suffered by his
mother at his father’s hands. To add insult to injury, his own daughter died of
scarlet fever in 1906, which almost put Mahler over the edge. Only three years
earlier he had composed a set of elegies for dead children entitled
Kindertotenlieder. He seemed to accept some responsibility for his daughter’s
early death, which was not deserved.
At the age of 15 Mahler’s musical talents were rewarded by his enrollment
at the Vienna Conservatory. His conducting talents became evident soon after,
and he received a great deal of praise from leading musicians of the time. His
desire for perfection ranked him among the most admired or hated conductors
of his time. His goal was to create musical performances true to the ideals of
their composers, and he restored the idea of discipline and strictness. He was a
Jew, and for that, some hated him. He was also a genius, and was both hated
and respected for that as well. He showed anger and contempt for any seeming
lack of perfection—in himself or others. He was given the task of restoring the
Vienna opera company to its former greatness. He did exactly that, but in
the process, he summarily dismissed many of the singers, musicians, and support
personnel. He was extraordinarily intent on seeking perfection, and had no
patience for those who did not share that passion. Many people plotted against
him for his unmerciless treatment of his subordinates.
Mahler was extremely successful as a conductor, but equally frustrated as a
composer. His works were rarely received enthusiastically; in fact, his nine symphonies
were widely criticized for being too long and pretentious. An exception
to this was the warm reception he received for the premiere of his Symphony #8.
However, it seemed that his music, for whatever reason, was ahead of its time.
Actually, his symphonies did not become really popular until thirty years after
his death. His lieder were lovely, sentimental works; they are considered today
to be among the finest works in this genre since Schubert. Among the song

110 Chapter 9
Nationalism
cycles he composed were Das Lied von der Erde, Kindertotenlieder, and many
others with orchestra or piano accompaniment. He composed no other chamber
music or works for solo instruments.
He traveled to the United States in 1907 to conduct at the Metropolitan
Opera House. It was there on January 1, 1908, that he conducted for the first
time in America, with a performance of Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde. Soon after,
he also took on the task of conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.
The everyday duties with the New York Philharmonic accelerated a decline in
his health; he finally collapsed in February of 1911. He sensed that the end was
near, and returned to Vienna for his final days. Mahler never regained his health.
Interestingly, the last word he spoke before dying on May 18, 1911, was “Mozart.”
Listen to This
Track #13 Mahler, Symphony #8, finale excerpt
This massive work, sometimes known as The Symphony of a Thousand, represented
the ultimate melding of choral and orchestral music. Composed in
1906, it was premiered in Munich in 1910 where it actually did have a force of
1,039 performers on stage. The score calls for a huge orchestra with piano and
pipe organ, auxiliary brass choirs, two double choruses, a boys’ choir, and eight
vocal soloists. The symphony’s text is a very unusual combination of the Latin
Pentecost hymn, Veni Creator Spiritus (“Come, Holy Ghost, Creator”), and the final
scene of Goethe’s Faust II. The final section that we will hear begins with a soft
chorale setting of the hymn, which builds as the different groups of performers
are added. At one point, the chorale is repeated, this time fortissimo, with pipe
organ accompaniment. The final phrases are beyond texts and words, and at
that point, antiphonal brass choirs join the orchestra, lifting the music and the
spirits heavenward.
Text:
Alles Vergangliche All things transitory
Ist nur ein Gleichnis; are but parable;
Das Unzulangliche, here insufficiency,
Hird wird’s Ereignis; becomes fulfillment;
Das Unbeschreibliche, here the indescribable,
Hier ist’s gaten; is accomplished;
Das Ewig-Weibliche the ever-womanly
Zeiht uns hinan. Draws us heavenward.
Nationalism, as mentioned earlier, was a trend in the Romantic period in which music
reflected the heritage of a country or culture. In addition to works of early Romantics
Liszt and Chopin, the work of Russian composer Mikhail Glinka represented, in his
1836 opera A Life for the Czar, early evidence of nationalism through music. In many

The Late Romantic Period 111
countries throughout Europe, nationalistic composers proudly displayed the musical
traits of their homelands by incorporating them into their own works.
In Russia, the influence of nationalism literally vaulted their music into the world
spotlight. The Russian Five (see description below) dedicated themselves to the promotion
of Russian nationalism, in contrast to Tchaikovsky, who seemed to embrace the
“Germanic” traditions of symphonies and concertos. Ironically, Tchaikovsky composed
three works which helped Russian nationalism as much as anything that the Russian Five
produced: the symphonic poem Marche Slav, his famous 1812 Overture, which
Tchaikovsky didn’t particularly like, and his second symphony, subtitled The Little Russian.
Both works contain either direct quotes of Russian folk music, or at least approximate
the style and flavor of Russian culture.
Composer Profiles
The Russian Five (or the Mighty Handful)
The Russian Five were brought together because of their common passion
for Russian nationalism. They were Cesar Cui (1835–1918), Nikolai Rimsky-
Korsakov (1844–1908), Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Modest Mussorgsky
(1839–1881) and Mily Balakirev (1837–1910). Together they had meetings, discussed
music, and encouraged each other. Not all of them were well-trained
musicians, with only Balakirev having formal music training. Borodin was a chemist,
Mussorgsky a civil servant clerk, Rimsky-Korsakov enlisted for a short navy
career but later became a composition professor and conductor. In fact, Rimsky-
Korsakov became such an accomplished orchestrator that he published a text
on the subject that is still in print today. Their music had an enormous impact
upon the world’s recognition of Russian and Slavic culture. Many, if not most, of
their works related directly to some aspect of Russian folklore or history. Some
of the works of the Russian Five are still very popular today, including the
Polovtsian Dances by Borodin, Pictures at an Exhibition, Night on Bald Mountain and
the opera Boris Godunov by Mussorgsky, and Capriccio Espagñol, Russian Easter
Overture and Sheherazade by Rimsky-Korsakov.
In Norway, Edvard Grieg (1843–1907) quickly put his homeland on the map with
nationalistic works like his Lyric Pieces for piano, and his setting of Ibsen’s play Peer
Gynt. In Spain, Isaac Albeniz (1860–1909) and Enrique Granados (1867–1916) composed
works with a Spanish flavor, including Granados’ Danzas Espanolas, and Albeniz’s
Iberia and Cordoba. In Bohemia, Bedrich Smetana (1824–1884) immortalized the landscape
with his six-poem set entitled Ma Vlast. Included in this set was the famous symphonic
poem Die Moldau, which programmatically traced the mighty river from its
source through the country. Smetana’s light-hearted opera, The Bartered Bride, paints a
somewhat sentimental picture of Bohemian peasant life. Antonin Dvorak (1841–1904),
also a Bohemian, composed Slavonic Dances for orchestra and spoke passionately around
the world about the need for nationalism in music.

112 Chapter 9
Composer Profile
Antonin Dvorak (1841–1904)
Antonin Dvorak was born in a country that used to be called Bohemia (now
the Czech Republic), in the small town of Mülhausen on September 8, 1841.
He was predominantly self-taught, though he did study a little with his uncle. His
father wished for Antonin to become innkeeper, but that was not to be. As a
young adult, he worked as a violinist in Prague during the 1860s. He became
organist at the St. Adalbert’s Church in Prague in 1873. His reputation as a musician
and teacher grew, and in 1890 began teaching at the Prague Conservatory.
Dvorak received an invitation to move to the United States to direct the
National Conservatory of New York from 1892–1895. While in the United States,
he spent several months in Spillville, Iowa, a small Bohemian village. While living
there he became infatuated with the Negro spirituals and other folk music
he heard. His last symphony, From the New World, was motivated by this untamed
land full of folk songs and music, and contained songs which sounded as
though they originated in the deep South. As Dvorak himself said, “In the Negro
melodies of America I discovered all that is needed for a great and noble school
of music.” Dvorak tried to convince American composers to embrace the folk
music of their own homeland, including spirituals and music of native Americans
as source material for their works.
Dvorak carried on the nationalism of Smetana in his music, composing
several Slavonic Dances, which freely adapted Bohemian folk song styles into the
symphonic setting. His fame spread, and he rapidly became one of the most
well known musical figures in Europe. Though conservative in style, Dvorak’s
music charmed music lovers everywhere.
Dvorak died after an apoplectic stroke at the dinner table in 1904. The
nation of Bohemia, as well as the entire musical world, mourned his death. His
funeral, a national day of mourning in Bohemia, was held on May 5, 1904. His
works included nine symphonies, including the famous New World Symphony,
several operas, symphonic overtures and poems, Slavonic Dances and rhapsodies,
concertos for piano, violin and cello, and many string quartets and other
pieces.
Nationalistic trends persisted into the twentieth century. Though not within the
confines of the Romantic period, the great Spanish composer Manual de Falla (1876–
1946) carried on the work of Albeniz and Granados. In England and America nationalistic
trends were very strong though they did not develop fully until the early twentieth
century. Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) and Sir Edward Elgar (1857–1934),
among others, created a distinctly English sound in their music through the use of folk
melodies and different modes from major and minor. In America, composers such as
George Gershwin (1898–1937) and Aaron Copland (1900–1990) exhibited American
nationalist styles through two different means. Gershwin employed jazz idioms in his
music whereas Copland adapted American folk melodies and rhythms in his works.
These composers will be discussed in more detail in chapter 10.

From Romantic to post-Romantic
Summary
The Late Romantic Period 113
As we will see in chapter 10, musical advancement begins to fragment and move along
different lines. Symphonic music had become so long and melodramatic that it lost its
appeal to growing numbers of musicians. The symbolism of Wagner and the epic symphonies
of Mahler were not for everyone, yet symphonic development did continue.
The principal figure who carries orchestral music from the Romantic period into twentieth
century-post Romanticism is Richard Strauss (1864–1949). Strauss, an admirer of
Wagner and a colleague of Mahler, brought the symphonic poem to its greatest complexity.
He also composed operas including Salome and Elektra, which pushed tonality
to the breaking point. The barbaric subjects and musical sounds bordering on anarchy
were a lot for audiences to bear. Later in his life he actually backed away from those
dissonant works and produced operas in a much more familiar style. His 1911 opera
Der Rosenkavalier is a delightful comedy that rivals the Barber of Seville in its charm.
Strauss’ symphonic poems carried on the tradition Liszt began. His most symphonic
poems were Death and Transfiguration (1889), Don Juan (1889), Don Quixote
(1897), Till Eulenspigel’s Merry Pranks (1895) and Also Sprach Zarathustra (1896).
Other symphonic works that almost defy description are his huge tone poem Ein
Heldenleben (1898), Sinfonia Domestica (1903), and Alpine Symphony (1915). Each is
a brilliant example of orchestration and programmatic thought.
Strauss lived well into the twentieth century, and was regarded widely as the finest
composer in Europe. Unfortunately he and his music were used by the Nazi movement
as an example of the superiority of the “master race.” Strauss had the unenviable task of
moving forward with his career in spite of the horrible distractions of his government.
However, he did have the opportunity to speak his mind to Nazi party officials about
the ridiculous posture of their government, which he did in several letters. Because of
his stature, there was little the Nazis could do.
Richard Strauss represented the last of the Romantic German symphonic composers.
This was a noble line that started with Haydn and continued through Beethoven,
Schubert, Schumann, Brahms and Bruckner. To visualize the symphony as it grew through
the Romantic period, one comes to understand the evolution of musical thinking. Early
symphonies were pure entertainment, but the influence of romantic passions gave rise
to symphonies that exhibited more raw emotion and symbolism than the genre could
previously have allowed. Indeed, musical philosophy itself changed to embrace far more
than Haydn or Mozart could have ever dreamed. Haydn and Mozart perfected the
structure, Beethoven redefined it, giving all the later Romantic composers the license to
imbed their personalities, heritage and emotions into their music.
Key Terms
bel canto music drama
chromaticism nationalism
endless melody
leitmotif
Ring Cycle

Name Date
Chapter 9 Review
The Late Romantic Period
1. Wagner reinvented serious opera and called it .
2. What was the purpose of the Russian Five?
3. What was Wagner’s term for extending phrases and delaying resolutions?
4. Name the members of the Russian Five (last names are fine).
5. What Russian composer wrote the ballets Swan Lake and Nutcracker?
6. Name two Bohemian nationalist composers.
7. What is leitmotiv?
8. Who was the greatest of the late Romantic Italian opera composers?
9. What does bel canto mean?
10. Discuss the differences between conservatives and radicals in the late Romantic.
115

10
Introduction
The Twentieth Century
The dawn of the twentieth century saw major changes in technology and an
upheaval in the history of musical art. The invention of the radio, and the advent
of sound recording and the phonograph forever changed the role of music
in society. The music world fragmented along several lines. Some composers and performers,
for the first time in history, chose to specialize solely in the music of earlier
ages. Many who were frustrated with contemporary musical trends became experts in
music of the Baroque for example, or some other age.
For better or worse, many types of music became products that were marketed and
packaged to sell. For the first time in history, musical producers instead of composers
had the final say on many aspects of composition, including the duration of a work and
its style. Many talented musicians chose to work in the “commercial music” vein in the
twentieth century. Technology drove much of the structure of this music. For example,
the capacity of most early recording devices was very limited. The earliest phonographs
with their wax cylinders could hold only a few minutes of music. Recording a symphony
was basically impractical. Early records were not much better in this respect. Seventyeight
rpm records could hold about eight minutes of material, so some classical works
could be recorded, but a major symphony or concerto would take several discs to hold
all of the music. Therefore, many music-recording companies simply opted to record
only music that would fit on the devices of the day. This left many classical music lovers
without recordings of the music that they loved. Though classical works were indeed
recorded, and many timeless performances were preserved, the recording technology of
the time simply favored shorter pieces. Thus, the commercial music industry was born,
and those musicians who favored symphonic music found themselves with a shrinking
audience.
Chapter 11 will briefly outline some of the commercial music trends in the twentieth
century, so this chapter will deal solely with the outgrowths of the Romantic movement.
117

118 Chapter 10
Music History Timeline
Medieval Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic 20th Century
313–1450 1450–1600 1600–1750 1750–1800 1800–1900 1900–present
As one can see from the timeline, we will classify the twentieth century as the name
for the period stretching from about 1900 all the way to the present day (even though
we are already into the twenty-first century). The results of the expansion of orchestral
forms in the works of Mahler and Richard Strauss forced a “rethinking” of the direction
music was going. Even without the invention of recording, many musicians were beginning
to wonder if music had grown too huge, too melodramatic, too symbolic, to be
really useful as an expressive tool. For these musicians, the works of Mahler and Richard
Strauss represented excess in the worst way. Others respected the work that they began
along harmonic frontiers, and sought to continue their ultra-chromatic concepts. Eventually,
these composers would discover ways to avoid tonality altogether. This concept,
called atonality, would dominate much of the music in Germany in the early twentieth
century. Some musicians were not as ambivalent about the music of the late Romantic,
but nevertheless tried to modify music’s descriptive qualities to some extent. Still others
were essentially disciples of Romanticism and nationalistic music, and continued along
the path paved by Mahler, Strauss, and others.
Five Major Stylistic Trends in the Twentieth Century
At different points in the twentieth century, certain styles developed which seemed to
address the changing needs and tastes of musicians in different regions of Europe and
the United States.
Twentieth Century General Styles
Style Description Major Composers
Impressionism vague, dreamy imagery Debussy, Ravel
Expressionism atonal, serial or 12-tone technique Schoenberg, Webern,
Berg
Neo-Classicism smaller ensembles, stricter forms Honegger, Milhaud,
Stravinsky (middle
period)
Neo-Romanticism continuation of Romantic traditions Stravinsky (early period),
Elgar, Holst, Vaughan
Williams, Copland,
Gershwin, Prokofiev,
Rachmaninoff,
Shostakovich, Bartok
Modern avant-garde, sometimes avoiding Cage, Berio, Glass,
conventional instruments and
notation
Crumb

Impressionism
The Twentieth Century 119
Impressionism was a term given to a stylistic movement, which started in France near
the end of the nineteenth century. Its principal exponent was Claude Debussy (1862–
1918). Debussy did not like the term impressionism as it was applied to music, especially
his music. Nevertheless, the term was freely used to describe music that shared a
relationship to “impressionistic” art and photography of the same time. Paintings of
impressionists such as Monet, Renoir, and Degas, used muted colors, blurred lines and
vague imagery when depicting scenes. Some music of the same time seemed actually
very similar in style. Images or programmatic ideas tended to be implied, rather than
explicit. Formal structure was there, but often the dividing lines between phrases and
periods were blurred because of efforts made to lend ambiguity to the tonal center of
much of the music. Progressions were not abrupt or even necessarily predictable, due to
the use of several melodic and harmonic devices. A liberal use of parallel chords, and
frequent dominant seventh and ninth chords played in sequence blurred the tonal center.
Likewise, the use of exotic scales, such as the whole tone scale, pentatonic, and
diminished scales further kept regular harmonic tendencies at bay. From a harmonic
standpoint, much Impressionistic music can be enjoyed by simply savoring the sonorities
of each instant, rather than searching for key relationships and logical chord progressions.
Impressionistic compositions many times used instruments such as the flute and
the harp to symbolize the images and scenes they chose. Sometimes music of Debussy
and other Impressionistic composers captured a unique serenity and calmness. This
quality contributed to the characterization that Impressionism meant vagueness, or
dreamy imagery. Indeed, many titles of Debussy’s works contribute to this stereotype,
including Clouds, Moonlight, Reverie, Images, and others.
Library of Congress: LC-D416-57
Monet, “Waterloo Bridge”

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The Impressionistic period was dominated in large part by Claude Debussy, but
other Impressionists who helped to define the style include:
Maurice Ravel (1875–1937) France
Paul Dukas (1865–1935) France
Ottorino Respighi (1879–1936) Italy
Frederick Delius (1862–1934) England
Manuel de Falla (1876–1946) Spain
Composer Profile
Claude Debussy (1862–1918)
Claude Achille Debussy, born in a town near Paris called Saint-Germain-en-
Laye on August 22, 1862, was the son of a sailor. That fact influenced his
entire life. Many of Debussy’s works have themes relating to water, and he was
fascinated by anything having to do with water for most of his life. As a student,
he studied with many well-known teachers, including Cesar Franck. His preference
for non-traditional harmonies and melodies brought very discordant reactions
from his music teachers. Still, he followed his own instincts and gained a
widespread reputation as an innovator in orchestral and piano composition. He
became world famous after the production of his first opera Pelléas et Mélisande
in 1902. However, he was not able to truly enjoy that fame for long. Cancer
developed, and the last years of his life were spent battling its effects. Though he
was still productive, the outbreak of World War I also affected him greatly, especially
the assault on his beloved Paris. He finally succumbed to his cancer in
Paris on March 25, 1918.
Some of Debussy’s more famous works include the opera Pelléas et Mélisande,
orchestral works including Jeux, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, Nocturnes, La
Mer, Images, chamber music, and many piano works including the Suite
Bergamasque (which contains the famous tune “Clair de lune”) and many others.
Listen to This
Track #14 Claude Debussy, Clair de Lune
T his is an orchestral arrangement of a piano work that was part of a collection
entitled Suite Bergamasque. The piece is fairly conventional in structure,
in an “A-B-A” form, contradicting some opinions that Impressionistic music is
formless. Nothing could be further from the truth. As you listen however, notice
how the uses of descending parallel chords in the accompaniment suspend the
need for harmonic resolution. This progression provides the effect that the music
“floats,” with no real direction. This effect is responsible for both the allure of
Impressionistic music and the reason for its comparison with visual art of the
time.

The Twentieth Century 121
Though form is present in the music, Debussy sought to “break the bonds”
of music being tied to strict formal structure. The emphasis in this piece is on
sensuous beauty for its own sake, not strict adherence to structure in order to
satisfy someone’s academic requirement.
During Debussy’s life and long after his death, Impressionism had a great influence
on the harmonic language that composers used in their music. Even non-Impressionists
conceded the obvious beauty of the melodic and harmonic innovations of
Debussy, Ravel, and others. A renewed interest in alternate scales and chordal relationships
influenced seemingly unrelated musical genres, especially jazz. Maurice Ravel (1875–
1937), a jazz lover himself, employed some jazz idioms in several works. Likewise, many
jazz musicians (especially bandleader Stan Kenton) were enamored with the fresh harmonies
used by Impressionists, and particularly Ravel’s ingenious orchestrations. Ravel’s
ballet Daphnis and Chloe, composed in 1912, is an orchestration masterpiece. His tremendous
skill at combining different instruments to create a huge range of orchestral
colors inspired and instructed many later composers. His familiar tone poem Bolero
(1927) employs the saxophone, an instrument that Ravel was eager to embrace before
most other composers.
The Impressionists were not all from France. The Spanish composer Manuel de
Falla (1876–1946) used many Impressionistic traits in his works for orchestra. His ballet
The Three Cornered Hat (1919) employs many of the chordal innovations of Debussy, as
well as the muted structures common to Impressionism. In Italy, Ottorino Respighi
(1879–1936) was perhaps best known for his three tone poems dedicated to Rome. The
Fountains of Rome (1917), The Pines of Rome (1924), and Feste Romane (1929), each
are masterpieces of Impressionistic construction and orchestration. In England, many
of the early twentieth century composers from that country tried their hands at Impressionistic
effects in their music. Gustav Holst’s The Planets, though classified as a Neo-
Romantic work, actually is Impressionistic in spirit and tone color. Ralph Vaughan
Williams’ Symphony #2 (“London”) captures the English spirit in a uniquely Impressionistic
manner. Most loyal to the Impressionists, however, was Frederick Delius (1862–
1934). He was a true disciple of the Debussy school, and for a time, lived in France.
Orchestral works of Delius, including Brigg Fair (1907), and On Hearing the first Cuckoo
in Spring (1912) are true Impressionistic works in the best tradition of Debussy and
Ravel.
Expressionism
After World War I in Germany, a movement started that was to have a permanent influence
upon all musicians. Though the style never gained great commercial popularity,
Expressionism nevertheless opened many doors for composers who were striving to
create new sounds, different from the traditional harmonic practices. The principal architect
of the style, Arnold Schoenberg, developed the twelve-tone system, sometimes
referred to as serial technique. Briefly, serial technique stems from a desire to eliminate
tonality entirely, by treating all tones of the chromatic scale equally. To insure this,
Schoenberg’s method involved creating a tone row comprised of all twelve notes of the
chromatic scale. The order of pitches in the tone row is completely up to the composer,
but once established, all music in the composition must follow the tone row. No pitch in
the row could be repeated out of sequence until all twelve pitches had been played. In
this way, no one pitch would become dominant and begin to take on the function of a
tonal center. Once the tone row was composed, Schoenberg suggested many permutations
of the row that could be used.

122 Chapter 10
2 4 7 9 11
1 3 5 6 8 10 12
The keyboard shown above has numbers representing each of the twelve pitches.
Although the examples shows the pitch “C” as pitch number one, the tone row could
begin on any pitch. To manufacture a tone row, the composer simply creates a new
order of pitches other than the chromatic scale. Within Schoenberg’s procedures, the
tone row could be performed backwards (retrograde), in an intervolic inversion of itself,
or both (retrograde inversion). Pitches in the tone row could be sounded simultaneously,
and of course the overall rhythms and structures of the piece were totally up to the
composer. The entire tone row could be transposed; therefore beginning on any other
pitch, but using the same pattern or sequence.
Schoenberg’s outstanding pupils Alban Berg (1885–1935) and Anton Webern
(1883–1945) continued Expressionistic traditions through their compositions and their
teachings.
Listen to This
Track #15 Schoenberg, Piano Piece, Opus 33a
This work is considered to be a masterpiece in the 12-tone style. Without
analyzing its internal structure or the permutations of the tone row, simply
listen to the colors and the textures that are provided by serialism. Dissonance is
not considered in the same way that it is in tonal music; its purpose is not to
resolve to consonance, but to create and sustain tonal instability.
The emotional effect of compositions written in serial technique was a certain uneasiness
in the listener that stemmed from the lack of harmonic rest. This effect was used
in programmatic works to frame uncomfortable subjects. In Alban Berg’s opera, Wozzeck
(1925) for example, the darkness of mood surrounding the subjects of murder and
death are intensified in the 12-tone writing that gives the listener no “rest.” In fact,
intense anxiety builds in the work precisely through the use of this technique.
One cannot say that Expressionism found a home in the popular repertoire. However,
one can say that Expressionism found a home in every serious composer’s vocabulary.
For it is in Expressionism that one can find, not only the deeper, darker moods
inherent in much of its music, but also an amazing range of sonorities and textures that
were previously unexplored. Most modern composers of film for example, have used
Expressionistic techniques at one time or another.

Composer Profile
Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951)
The Twentieth Century 123
Arnold Schoenberg was born in Vienna on September 13, 1874. He studied
violin as a child, but started showing an interest in composition very early.
Schoenberg had very little formal musical training. Through his teacher Alexander
von Zemlinsky, Schoenberg was introduced to the music of Wagner, which inspired
him to eventually compose his sextet Transfigured Night (1899).
Schoenberg’s astute use of chromaticism mixed with romanticism helped him
develop a reputation as an innovator. In the early 1900s he became a successful
music teacher and his students were fiercely loyal to their mentor. In 1903 he
had the opportunity to work with Gustav Mahler. World War I caused a break in
Schoenberg’s career. He joined the army and for several years composed very
little music. In 1923 Schoenberg began composing with his revolutionary new
style called 12-tone technique. This technique, often called serialism, was taken
up by his two star pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webern. The three of them
became the core of the Expressionism movement.
When the Nazi movement began to take hold in Germany in 1933,
Schoenberg moved to the United States. He, like many other German composers,
sought out the artistic freedom that America provided. He joined the faculty
at the University of Southern California and later taught at UCLA. He eventually
gained U.S. citizenship and stayed in this country the rest of his life teaching,
composing and lecturing. He died in Los Angeles on July 13, 1951.
Though Schoenberg is known primarily for his works in the 12-tone style,
he never completely lost sight of his romantic roots. Among his most famous
compositions are his Three Piano Pieces Opus 11, Song Cycle, Pierrot lunaire (1912),
numerous chamber works including four string quartets and the string sextet
Transfigured Night (1899). His large-scale works include the opera The Blessed
Hand (1913), Variations for Orchestra (1938), and the choral work Jacob’s Ladder
(1922).
Ironically, the facet of Expressionism that spelled its end as a musical trend was not
that the sounds were too random. It was the fact that the structures were too restrictive
that caused composers to move beyond Expressionism. Though many composers saw
valid uses for the sounds of serial technique, most did not want to be tied to the conventions
of the technique throughout entire compositions. Therefore, one tends to see and
hear Expressionism in current compositions when the distinctive flavors of that style are
needed within a larger composition, such as a film score.
Neo-Classicism
Neo-Classicism is considered to be a nationalistic style of the French composers after
Debussy and Ravel. It was a reaction to the perceived excesses of the Romantic movement
culminating in the works of Mahler and Strauss. Briefly, Neo-Classicism refers to a
return to smaller ensembles and classical structures. The principal composers within this
style became known as “Les Six.” This term, coined about 1920, referred to Arthur
Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Louis Durey, Germaine Tailleferre, and
Georges Auric. These musicians were devotees of the music of Erik Satie (1866–1925).

124 Chapter 10
Music composed in the Neo-Classic style, both by Les Six and other composers,
tended to conform in spirit to classical ideals. Symphonies were short and concise, and
normally involved orchestras similar to those used by Mozart and Haydn. Suites
and sonatas were also commonly composed in this style, and in most cases the music had
no programmatic intent. As described earlier, absolute music exists purely for its own
listening qualities. Nonetheless, though the structure and instrumentation of Neo-Classic
music was traditional, its harmonies and rhythms were decidedly from the twentieth
century. One would never confuse a Milhaud chamber work with a similar work by
Mozart, though the structure and instrumentation might be identical. All twentieth
century music employed greatly expanded harmonic freedom and use of dissonance
than music from the Classical period. In addition, much music of the twentieth century
in all genres had rhythmic complexity that simply would never be found in earlier periods.
The infusion of jazz and nationalistic ideas further separate Neo-Classical music
from its predecessors.
Several well-known composers who predominantly wrote in other styles produced
occasional works in the Neo-Classical style. Sergei Prokofiev’s first symphony, subtitled
“The Classical Symphony,” strictly adheres to symphony form and instrumentation common
in the Classical period. Though thoroughly modern in its harmonic makeup,
Prokofiev hoped in his own notes that this work would be something that Haydn might
have composed if he had lived in the twentieth century. The most important of the
twentieth century composers, Igor Stravinsky, spent the entire middle part of his career
composing orchestral and chamber works in the Neo-Classic style.
Neo-Romanticism
Neo-Romanticism is closely linked with traditional romantic ideals and a continued
interest in nationalism. Essentially, Neo-Romanticism means a continuation of Romantic
forms as set forth in the works of Wagner, Tchaikovsky, Richard Strauss and others.
Though Strauss himself lived well into the twentieth century, younger composers built
upon his works and continued the evolution of the style.
The Neo-Romantic style is by far the most popular of the twentieth century trends
in “serious music.” Because of the presence of national tendencies, it is convenient to
approach Neo-Romantic composers based on their national origins.
Russia
After Tchaikovsky, the most well known Russian composer was
Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873–1943). His symphonies and concertos
were and are immensely popular as well as his works for
solo piano. His music was lush, and openly emotional. A few of
his works, including his tone poem Isle of the Dead (1907), are
overtly programmatic. All of his compositions share wonderfully
romantic warmth, colorful orchestrations and memorable melodies.
Rachmaninoff, himself one of the greatest piano virtuosos,
left Russia near the time of the Bolshevik revolution, and eventually
moved to the United States in 1935. Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-100471
Rachmaninoff

Listen to This
Track #16 Prokofiev, “Kije’s Wedding,” from Lieutenant Kije Suite
The Twentieth Century 125
Prokofiev composed music for the Russian movie “Lieutenant Kije,” in 1933.
The film was a satire on Czar Nicholas I and the military of his time. Because
of a mistake by the Czar, a fictitious soldier who was called Kije was “created.”
The military officials were afraid to tell the Czar that he had made a mistake, so
they kept Kije “alive” by reporting fictitious exploits of Kije to the Czar.
This movement is an excellent example of twentieth century Neo-Romanticism.
Two themes alternate: one proud, the other sentimental. Note the use of
tenor saxophone as a solo instrument in the “sentimental” theme. Prokofiev’s
fine gift for melody is in evidence, but listen to how the chord progression
surprises the ear at times. Harmonic surprises of this type are a trademark
of Prokofiev, and also clearly label the music as coming from the twentieth
century.
Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) and Dimitri Shostakovich (1906–1975) were the
next generation of Russian nationalist composers after Rachmaninoff. Prokofiev wrote
symphonies, concertos and several enchanting scores for film and ballet, including Lieutenant
Kije, Alexander Nevsky (1938), and Romeo and Juliet (1938). His tone poem
Peter and the Wolf composed for orchestra and narrator in 1936, is a delightful introduction
to instruments of the orchestra for children. It adapts the leitmotif concept of
Wagner to help tell his story. Prokofiev, like Rachmaninoff, believed strongly in the
importance of an engaging melody in all his music.
Dimitri Shostakovich also composed incidental music for films and ballets, but is
primarily known for his fifteen monumental symphonies, his string quartets and his
piano concertos.
Composer Profile
Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971)
I gor Stravinsky is considered to be the most important twentieth century composer
in the world. This distinction is given to him because of his early ballet
works and his persistent fame throughout his career. He was very outspoken
about the direction he felt music should be taking, and at least three times during
his career severely altered his compositional focus to incorporate what he
felt were the most worthwhile practices. He was born on June 17, 1882, in a
small town near St. Petersburg, Russia. He was the son of Feodor Stravinsky, a
well known opera singer at the time. Stravinsky studied law, but also had the
good fortune to study composition with Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov. His early fame
was established in three ballets he composed for Serge Diaghilev and the Ballet
Russes, The Firebird (1910), Petroushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913). The
Firebird and Petroushka both have nationalistic roots, being based on Russian
folk tales. The Rite of Spring, based on tribal pre-history, stands as one of the

126 Chapter 10
Spain
pivotal works of twentieth century musical art. Full of dissonance and primal
rhythms, the ballet depicts a tribe’s annual ritual of selecting a female human
sacrifice to celebrate the start of the growing season. The savageness of the
work, and Diaghilev’s choreography caused a riot to break out at its premiere in
Paris. Instantly, Stravinsky was a household name. Everyone wanted to hear the
music that had caused such an uproar in the ultra-civilized Parisian ballet society.
Stravinsky’s innovations in The Rite of Spring, both rhythmic and harmonic,
were quickly adopted by composers all over the world. These devices became
part of the permanent musical vocabulary and Stravinsky would have remained
a central figure in music even if he had composed nothing else.
Stravinsky lived in Switzerland during World War I, then moved to Paris,
where he lived from 1920 to 1939. Following that, he moved to Hollywood,
California becoming a United States citizen in 1945.
In the 1920s Stravinsky rejected his earlier Neo-Romantic works. He was
enamored with the freshness of Neo-Classicism, and adopted that style for the
next quarter century. While in this style, he composed several more ballets, Symphony
in C, Symphony in Three Movements and the Symphony of Psalms for orchestra
and chorus.
During the last few years of his life, he shocked his fans by delving into
various modern musical styles including serial technique. In fact, over his career
he employed every twentieth century technique except Impressionism. He even
composed a piano work in a ragtime style and Ebony Concerto for clarinet and
swing band, written for Woody Herman in 1946. He died in New York on April 6,
1971.
Manuel de Falla, discussed earlier in the Impressionistic section, deserves mention in
this Neo-Romantic section due to his importance in the Spanish national school. Many
of his works crossed boundaries between Impressionism and Neo-Romanticism yet contained
a uniquely Spanish flavor. Most notable among these works are Nights in the
Garden of Spain (1916), and his ballet El amor brujo (1915).
England
England’s greatest composer in two hundred years was Sir Edward Elgar (1857–1934).
In addition to many large scale works including oratorios and symphonies, his suite
entitled Enigma Variations (1899), and his six Pomp and Circumstance marches were
masterpieces of post-Romantic British art.
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) made extensive use of English folk songs in
many of his compositions. One can hear this influence in several of the nine symphonies
he composed, especially his London Symphony (#2 written in 1913), and his Pastoral
Symphony (#3, written in 1922). Additionally, the folk influence is also evident in many
other works including Fantasia on a Theme by Tallis (1910) and Folksong Suite for Band.
Gustav Holst (1874–1934) blurred the lines of Impressionism, Romanticism and
nationalism with his impressive suite The Planets (1927). His use of English folk music
is especially evident in his two suites for military band composed between 1909 and
1911.
Benjamin Britten (1913–1976) succeeded Elgar, Vaughan Williams and Holst as
the most influential English composer of the mid twentieth century. His opera Peter
Grimes (1945) and his War Requiem (1962) were especially important. His most popular
orchestral work, Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Purcell (1946), draws from the
English Baroque. With narrator, the work becomes the familiar Young Person’s Guide to
the Orchestra.

Hungary
The Twentieth Century 127
The music of the Hungarian national school was primarily represented by Zoltán Kodály
(1882–1967) and Bela Bartók (1881–1945). Both shared a keen interest in Hungarian
folklore. Kodály’s most famous composition in this style was the opera Háry János (1926).
Bartók’s popularity and influence reached a far wider audience. Bartók created his own
rhythmic and harmonic identity. His employment of complex rhythms was revolutionary,
making some of his works extremely difficult to perform. There was a freshness in
these rhythms however, that gave his music a captivating quality. His rhythmic imagination
was matched by his harmonic inventiveness. He fought against the “tyrannical rule
of the major and minor keys” and employed the free use of dissonance, polytonality and
modality. Bartók is most famous for his Concerto for Orchestra (1943), Music for Strings,
Percussion and Celeste (1936), his opera Bluebeard’s Castle (1918), six string quartets,
and his concertos for violin and piano. He also composed two ballets and six important
books of piano music titled Mikrokosmos (1926–1939).
America
It took a generation after Dvorak’s admonishment before American national styles began
to develop. When they did, the styles tended to advance along two paths. One path
involved the inclusion of jazz characteristics in serious music. Many composers, including
Ravel and Hindemith, used jazz rhythms and harmonies from time to time. However,
George Gershwin (1898–1937) became the principal composer of music with an
American jazz influence. His opera Porgy and Bess was the first work of its type to explore
the Black experience in America. His tone poems Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and An
American in Paris (1928) freely used blues and jazz harmonies and inflections throughout.
He also composed Concerto in F (1925) for piano and orchestra, which followed
the same influence and has become a staple of the modern repertoire. Even though
Gershwin’s remarkable career was cut short, it included dozens of popular tunes, and
several popular Broadway musicals and film scores.
Aaron Copland (1900–1990) is probably one of the most
important American composers. His music is representative of
many different roots, but he is most famous for his adaptation
of American folk styles into classical music. He experimented with
many different styles including jazz, Neo-Classical and even the
12-tone technique. His greatest compositions were composed
during the 1930s and ‘40s and these works vaulted both him
and American music into the world spotlight. His three ballets
Billy the Kid (1938), Rodeo (1942) and Appalachian Spring
(1944) capture the essence of the American frontier spirit. Though
these works quote very few real folk songs, these ballets “sound”
Library of Congress: LC-USZ62-1033
Copland
like western cowboy music in a unique orchestral setting. Copland’s ballet music was
both distinctively American and distinctively and uniquely his.
Copland’s efforts were not accidental; he even helped create a society dedicated to
promoting American nationalistic musical styles. The very sound of his music has become
synonymous with Americana and has been used behind numerous television ads
and other shows to depict American products or culture.
Perhaps the most popular of all American composers in the twentieth century is
John Philip Sousa (1854–1932). He composed over one hundred marches, the most
famous of which was The Stars and Stripes Forever written in 1897. Though most well
known for these marches, Sousa also composed other miscellaneous works for band and
even operettas. Interestingly, Sousa’s music is still among the most regularly performed

128 Chapter 10
American works by orchestras and bands outside the United States. Other famous marches
include The Washington Post, Semper Fidelis, and Liberty Bell.
Other influential American composers included Charles Ives (1874–1954) and
Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990). Ives, an insurance salesman by trade, was the son of a
band leader and this fact influenced some of his later music. He became a pioneer in
bitonality and polytonality which involves music containing two or more simultaneous
tonal centers. Many of his works draw heavily from church hymns and American themes.
He composed two orchestral sets, the first subtitled “Three Places in New England.”
He also composed five symphonies, winning the Pulitzer Prize for the third in 1947.
Two notable works for chamber orchestra include Central Park in the Dark (1906) and
The Unanswered Question (1908). He composed many other small works including the
sensational Variations on America for organ (1892).
Leonard Bernstein was equally popular as a conductor, composer and educator.
His greatest commercial successes came from his Broadway musicals which included On
the Town (1944), Candide (1956), and his masterpiece West Side Story (1957). He also
composed several large works such as Chichester Psalms (1965), and the beautiful film
score for the movie On the Waterfront (1954). In spite of his great contributions as a
composer, his real fame during his lifetime came from his decades as music director of
the New York Philharmonic. Bernstein’s Young People’s Concerts, produced while he
was with the New York Philharmonic, have served as a model for symphony orchestras
the world over.
William Grant Still (1895–1978) is yet another American composer who had an
influence on the music of the twentieth century. He was an African-American composer
from Mississippi who studied with Edgard Varèse. Most of his works include an African-
American influence, especially his Afro-American Symphony (1931), which includes notes
of the blues scale and a 12-bar blues structure in the first movement. He also composed
other symphonic works including Darker America (1924) and From the Black Belt (1926).
Finland
Listen to This
Track #17 Copland, “Hoedown” from Rodeo
This dance was part of a ballet composed in 1942. Copland had discovered
the secret of making music sound American without ever having to borrow
American folksongs. The Hoedown brings to mind a country celebration at the
end of the rodeo. Sound effects are incorporated into the score, including fireworks
and the sounds of horse hooves. This movement has been used extensively
as background music for television shows and commercials because of
the power of its imagery. Copland imitates the sound of country fiddling in the
violin section and uses syncopated rhythms that resemble cakewalks of the late
nineteenth century.
In Finland, the composer Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) composed many well known symphonies
and concertos, but had a particular fondness for Finnish folklore and mythology.
Three of his most famous works celebrating Finnish culture are Four Legends from
the Kalevala (1895), Swan of Tuonela (1893) and Finlandia (1899).

Germany
The Twentieth Century 129
In Germany, Richard Strauss lived well into the 1940s, and continued to be a major
influence in German post-Romanticism. His most influential works however, were composed
near the turn of the century.
Paul Hindemith (1895–1963) left Germany in 1938, eventually settling in the
United States. He was a gifted composer and teacher who became one of the world’s
authorities on music theory. His most well known compositions include the opera Mathis
der Maler (1935) and Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes of Weber (1943). He also
composed many works for instructional purposes as well as sonatas for virtually every
symphonic instrument.
Carl Orff (1895–1982) is best known for his elementary school teaching methods
which have become extremely popular. His one great masterwork for choir and orchestra,
Carmina burana (1936), is based on highly secular Latin songs from approximately
1300 that Orff assembled and adapted.
Modern
As used in this text, the term Modern encompasses a broad range of compositional
styles that many texts refer to as “new music.” All musical periods have had “new music,”
but the twentieth century witnessed a unique explosion of a variety of compositional
trends. All new music styles have one thing in common; they each are trying to
create something that had not been done before. Often these new approaches are subtle
in nature, as in the case of minimalism. Other styles try to avoid conventional notation,
and in some cases musical instruments. Still another style called chance music, strives to
free the performer and the listener from the constraints that traditional written music
requires. What follows is a brief outline of several influential new musical styles.
Chance—Sometimes called aleatoric music, chance music was a growing trend in Europe
and the United States from the late 1930s. Briefly, chance music involves the creation
of performance situations in which no two of these performances will ever be the
same. This is accomplished through the concept of indeterminacy. This principle involves
allowing the composer and performer to freely interpret parts or all of the composition.
Whereas other forms of music, even the most atonal forms, require adherence
to the notation on the page, chance music only establishes opportunities to produce
music through a very sparse framework.
The greatest exponent of chance music was John Cage (1912–1992). Early in his
career, Cage was interested in non traditional scales, percussion instruments of all types
and unconventional musical sounds including electronically produced sounds and the
sounds of nature. Cage would assure that much of his music was indeterminate sometimes
by literally allowing players to throw dice in order to make selections about how a
piece was to be played. Cage also further blurred the definitions of consonance and
dissonance, concluding that all sounds were musical depending on how they were framed
in a performance situation. The role of silence in music was extremely important to
John Cage. He wrote numerous articles and gave many interviews on the subject. In his
opinion, there was no such thing as totally empty space or time. In his words, “There is
always something to see, something to hear.” To prove this point, he devised a piece
entitled 4’33” which seemed to the audience to be a solo work for piano. The performer’s
instructions however, were to sit at the piano and play nothing for 4 minutes and 33
seconds. The audience is focused on the performer, and their senses are heightened as
they wait for the music to begin. Over time, the listeners become aware of all the ambient
sounds in the performance space. Eventually they realize (and this is Cage’s aim)

130 Chapter 10
that the sounds around the performance space constitute the performance itself. This
composition is a radical demonstration of two axioms of John Cage: any sounds in a
performance setting can be defined as music, and each performance in this genre will be
truly unique.
Cage was a pioneer in the alteration of conventional instruments to create new
musical sounds. In 1938, he invented the “prepared” piano which involved placing
various items (nuts, bolts, screws, combs and other objects) in the strings of a grand
piano to change its sound. John Cage’s music always polarized musicians and audiences,
yet his philosophies were and are extremely valid, because they force all musicians to
constantly redefine music.
Chance music can take on a variety of forms. Some composers have the performers
interpret various objects or shapes on the page instead of musical notes. Since there is no
corollary for these shapes in music, each performance will be vastly different. Other
composers leave the order of events in a composition, and the timing of these events, up
to the discretion of the performer. Besides John Cage other major composers of aleatoric
music include Pierre Boulez (1925–) and Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928–).
Electronic music—Boulez, Stockhausen, and others have also produced many compositions
in the realm of electronic music. In general terms, electronic music could be any
music produced electronically, but more often the term refers to music in which electronic
devices or computers share part of the tasks of composition as well. In some forms
electronic music involves unique and sometimes radical instrument designs. This might
include electronic pickups on non musical objects such as plants or furniture in order to
use sounds produced from striking these objects in a musical way. In other forms, electronic
music may involve computer programming to aid in composition or sometimes
takes over the task of composing completely. Indeed, many electronic compositions are
accomplished with no human presence at all, including the performance.
Probably the first pioneer in electronic music was Edgard Varèse (1883–1965).
Varèse was a French composer who moved to New York in 1915. He composed in a
variety of styles and genres, but always with the goal of exploring unique masses of
sound rather than conventional melodic development. Perhaps his most important work
from his early years was his Ionisation (1931) for percussion ensemble. In 1958 Varèse
premiered his Poème électronique at the Brussels exposition. This work involved electronic
sounds played through 425 speakers, which were placed in different locations in
a building he helped to design. The spatial relationships in these sound sources became
an important part of the musical experience.
Nowadays, it is rather common to experience electronic music; many composers
have written compositions which involve human interaction with computer-generated
sounds and/or musical sequences. Electronic music represents an open frontier with
many possibilities waiting to be explored.
Minimalism—Minimalism was an effort by many composers to simplify music and bring
a certain degree of order to compositions. Simply put, minimalism involves the repetition
of short, melodic or rhythmic ideas which change very slowly over time. The effect
of this music is that the sounds evolve from one type to another like the colors of a
sunset that change gradually. By the end of a piece the ideas and patterns that are played
may bear very little resemblance to the original idea, but the series of changes throughout
the piece are easy to recognize. Usually minimalist music is tonal and sometimes
quite simple in its harmonic structure. Some minimalist music had an incessant pulse
that can become bothersome to some listeners. Other works might contain more disjointed
ideas that gradually change in density or complexity over the course of the composition.

Summary
The Twentieth Century 131
The first composer whose music was considered minimalistic was Philip Glass
(1937–). Glass studied at Julliard and also in Paris with Nadia Boulanger. He also had a
keen interest in Indian sitar music, jazz, and the Beatles. His major works include the
opera Einstein on the Beach (1976), Glassworks (1983) and Satyagraha (1980).
Other composers in the minimalist style are Steve Reich (1936–) and John Adams
(1947–). Perhaps Reich’s best known composition is the five-movement suite City Life
(1995). This work uses a small chamber ensemble and two electronic samplers which
add sounds of the city including door slams, bus airbrakes, and car horns. Adams composed
his now-famous opera Nixon in China in 1987. His orchestra work Short Ride in
a Fast Machine (1986) is a wonderful hybrid of minimalism and electronic music.
Other Modern Trends
A myriad of other compositional directions were initiated in the twentieth century, some
were more successful than others. One style called total serialism took the serial techniques
of Schoenberg to an even greater extreme. All aspects of musical performance
including pitch, dynamics, duration and articulation were given numeric values and
treated the same as the tone rows of serial composers. Therefore, any event would be
pre-prescribed in all of those areas. Total serialism was extremely complex; its major
exponents were Pierre Boulez and Milton Babbitt (1916–).
Another trend by many modern composers involved the use of sounds by conventional
instruments but outside the chromatic scale. Composers used the term pitch
continuum to describe this technique. Krzysztof Penderecki (1933–) composed Threnody
for the Victims of Hiroshima (1960) for large string orchestra. Players were asked to
perform things like “highest pitch possible” or to move in quarter steps instead of a
chromatic scale. Gyorgy Ligeti (1923–) achieved a certain amount of fame when some
of his music was used in the science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Atmospheres
(1961) used a fairly large orchestra playing all notes of a chromatic scale through several
octaves simultaneously. The piece evolves and textures change as instruments selectively
drop out and rejoin.
It is important to remember that many composers within the twentieth century wrote in
more than one style. The examples and the styles above tell only part of the story;
composers and musicians in the twentieth century were constantly searching for new
sonorities and new means of expression. Certainly part of this attitude was based on a
frustration with nineteenth century romanticism, but equally important was the simple
fact that the twentieth century presented many unique opportunities for musicians.
Technological advancements including tape sampling, computers and synthesizers gave
musicians an arsenal of sounds and capabilities that early composers could not have
imagined. The language of music had expanded well beyond the bounds explored by
Mahler and Wagner. Add to this the world of commercial music, growing at the same
time as the styles mentioned above, and one can realize that musical art had achieved a
new place in our society. Music had become infused into our work, our social life and
our personal lives.
Again, the styles described above can be roughly placed into the five categories
at the beginning of the chapter (Impressionism, Expressionism, Neo-Classicism, Neo-
Romanticism and Modern).

132 Chapter 10
Key Terms
absolute music Neo-Classicism
aleatoric Neo-Romanticism
chance music Serialism
Expressionism tone row
Impressionism Total serialism
indeterminacy twelve-tone
Minimalism

Name Date
1. What stylistic trend employed tone rows?
Chapter 10 Review
The Twentieth Century
2. Two main composers of Impressionism were
3. A desire for smaller ensembles and stricter forms led to the style known as
4. The most influential composer in all of twentieth century was .
5. The principal composer in the Impressionistic style was .
6. Another name for chance music is .
7. The first major composer of chance music was .
8. refers to a melody or tone row that is played backwards.
9. Stravinsky’s 1913 ballet which ushered in modern music was called
10. Briefly discuss the differences between Neo-Romanticism and Neo-Classicism.
133
.
.
.

11
Introduction
Beyond Classical Music
While the intent of this text is “an introduction to classical music,” it is worthwhile
to discuss briefly the concurrent musical trends that developed in the
United States during the twentieth century. Because of the formidable economic
and artistic importance of these commercial trends, they had a significant impact
on “classical” composers that we have studied who lived and worked at the same time.
The outlines and discussions that follow are by no means intended to be detailed
histories of the development of commercial music. Rather, they can be viewed as brief
outlines that give a cursory overview, and point the direction for further study. Somewhat
more space in this chapter will be devoted to the development of jazz than other
forms. This is due to the close relationship that jazz has to classical music.
From Ragtime to Jazz
The argument can be made that once the twentieth century began, the mainstream of
musical advancement shifted from symphonic and harmonic to commercial development.
Around 1900, ninety percent of middle class homes had a piano; that instrument
was a staple of family life during this time. However, most hobbyists were not adept
enough at the keyboard to play Liszt or even Brahms. A new industry was rapidly growing,
though without great fanfare, in which published sheet music and “piano rolls”
were being sold that were intended for the amateur. Among the styles of music that
were most popular were simplified arrangements of “classical” works, and piano arrangements
of American folk tunes. Many folk styles were popular sellers during this
time, especially the style of music called the cakewalk. The cakewalk had several trademark
rhythms in its dancelike structure, usually employing sixteenth and eighth notes in
a syncopated rhythmic pattern. Soon, a new style of music began to emerge as a huge
force in sheet music sales, using fresh rhythms derived from the cakewalk along with
folklike melodies and harmonies. This music was called ragtime.
Ragtime music got its name from the “rag” paper used for the early piano rolls, or
the paper on which the music was printed. At virtually the same time that Debussy was
crossing the harmonic boundaries into Impressionism, ragtime composer Scott Joplin
(1868–1917) was enjoying immense popularity among American households through
the proliferation of his published sheet music. Many of these works were quite difficult
to play accurately, but the engaging rhythms of the music were infectious, and Joplin’s
“rags” outsold all other composers in America around the turn of the century, both in
135

136 Chapter 11
sheet music and piano roll form. Commercial music was born. Ragtime was a musical
style born in the middle class and poorer neighborhoods of the central and eastern
United States, not the concert halls of Europe. Yet ragtime had its own type of musical
allure that was hard to ignore. Even composers such as Stravinsky and Debussy occasionally
used elements of ragtime and cakewalk rhythms in their own music.
But ragtime was not solely a pianistic form. Simultaneously with its growth as a
published genre, brass bands throughout the east, midwest, and south were playing
music in the style of cakewalks and rags. Many of the bands were composed of illiterate
musicians (both black and white) who would simply improvise the rhythms and melodies
that they heard in the music around them. These bands formed the immediate
predecessors of jazz music, a term that would be applied retroactively some years later.
Many people assume that jazz started in New Orleans, but that is not entirely true.
Everywhere that the brass bands worked, the beginnings of jazz were born. By the turn
of the twentieth century the improvised style of these bands, which would later be
termed “jass” (later spelled jazz), was fairly well established. In New Orleans, this music
flourished in the French Quarter (also known as Storyville at the turn of the century)
where prostitution was rampant, and clubs provided music all night. Some of the early
legends of jazz worked in these clubs and bands, including cornetists Buddy Bolden
(1868–1931) and Willie “Bunk” Johnson (1879–1949). As time progressed these bands
became more specialized and the jazz became more virtuosic. Perhaps the greatest of
the early jazz bands was led by Joe “King” Oliver. After playing and leading several
other bands, Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band made history in 1923 by being the first black
jazz group ever to make a series of records. Among the many well-known players in his
band was the great trumpeter Louis Armstrong (1901–1971). The term “Dixieland”
was applied at the time to bands from areas outside the South, particularly Chicago and
St. Louis. Soon, the term came to represent the entire genre.
Another highly celebrated jazz musician of this period was Ferdinand “Jelly Roll”
Morton (1885–1941). He set the standard for early jazz pianists, and ran several bands
throughout his career. Morton had a reputation as a self-promoter, and claimed that he
invented jazz in 1902. Nevertheless, he and others developed a pianistic style that would
carry jazz from its ragtime roots to the more advanced styles of boogie-woogie and
swing. Other instrumental soloists began to appear on recordings, and these players
established soloistic styles that had a lasting influence. In addition to Louis Armstrong,
trumpeter Bix Beiderbecke, trombonist Jack Teagarden, and pianists James P. Johnson
and Thomas “Fats” Waller, each contributed to formulating a permanent jazz solo style.
Jazz bands sprang up throughout the United States and
the popularity of this new music spread across the Atlantic. Most
of these bands were segregated though musicians seemed to have
mutual respect for one another. After King Oliver’s band, the
orchestras (in this genre “orchestra” and “band” were used interchangeably)
of Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington (1899–
1974) and Paul Whiteman (1890–1967) each had a huge impact
on jazz as a commercial art form. Duke Ellington rapidly became
known as one of America’s most prolific composers. His
band was a vehicle for many of his compositions, but he also
composed for a variety of other genres including full orchestra.
Paul Whiteman, on the other hand, attempted to “make a lady
out of jazz” by commissioning sophisticated arrangements in an
Library of Congress: LC-USZ262-
123232
Ellington
attempt to make the music sound more refined. In 1924, Whiteman’s orchestra premiered
George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue with the composer at the keyboard.

The Big Band Era
Beyond Classical Music 137
By the 1930s jazz bands were increasing in size and more emphasis was placed on
written arrangements. “Swing” was the term used to describe syncopated ensemble
arrangements, including written rhythmic passages for the winds and brasses called “riffs”
or “shout choruses.” One of the earliest successful swing bands was led by arranger
Fletcher Henderson. The sound of his band became a prototype for the flood of swing
bands that would follow in the late ‘30s.
Benny Goodman (1909–1986) had what might be regarded as the first nationally popular
swing band, also known as a big band. His phenomenal success in 1935 officially started
the “big band” era. Three years later, the Benny Goodman orchestra made history by
being the first jazz ensemble to perform in Carnegie Hall. Goodman, an accomplished
clarinetist, also set the standard for virtuosic jazz improvisation. After Benny Goodman,
jazz soloists pursued a high degree of technical skill. Later big bands including those of
Artie Shaw, Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey, Glenn Miller, Count Basie and many others
featured jazz soloists of exceptional skill. The big band era was a watershed time for
American instrumental musicians, the recording industry and the musicians’ labor movement.
Individual artists made successful solo careers, including saxophonist Coleman
Hawkins, and trumpeters Bunny Berigan and Harry James. Serious composers began to
realize how good these musicians really were. Many collaborations resulted, including
clarinet concertos by Aaron Copland for Benny Goodman, and by Igor Stravinsky for
Woody Herman.
World War II interrupted the big band era as many musicians went to war. After
the war, some of the innocence in American society was gone. Many bands reassembled,
but there were differences. For starters, musicians wanted to display their technical skills,
which dictated that longer solo sections be included in jazz arrangements. Though this
development was interesting, from a listening standpoint the extended “concert” versions
of jazz arrangements made the music more difficult for dancing. The big bands of
Woody Herman and Stan Kenton in the 1940s and ‘50s, though often used for dancing,
were actually concert jazz orchestras that showcased extraordinarily skilled jazz
improvisers. (Refer to the chart on page 138 for more detailed listing of jazz artists.)
From Bebop to Cool School
Some artists, such as saxophonist Charlie Parker and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, established
a new style based on melodic and harmonic virtuosity. This style, called bebop,
emphasized improvisational skill over all other musical attributes. Though successful as
an art form, bebop drove away much of the audience that had been fans of the big
bands. Therefore, just as serious musical trends in the twentieth century lost its popular
audience, so jazz lost “market share” as the music became more complex and sophisticated.
Most bebop groups were smaller than the big bands of the 1930s, though Dizzy
Gillespie led several large jazz orchestras during the 1950s. The typical bebop ensemble
was normally three to seven players, with bass, piano, drums, solo woodwinds and brasses,
and perhaps a guitar.
Bebop improvisational style was typified by highly complex, legato melodic lines
improvised over sophisticated chord progressions. Melodic and harmonic ingenuity
became the primary focus of the musicians; often the presence of an audience was almost
irrelevant. Students of jazz during the 1950s studied improvisation with as much
fervor and dedication as any musician of any other age. The desire to properly match
improvised solos with a variety of chords led to discoveries of relationships between
some chords and modal scales that had been used as far back as the Medieval period.

138 Chapter 11
Development of Jazz
Year Stylistic Trend Characteristics Main Figures
1890 Cakewalk Dance form with syncopation.
1900 Ragtime Derived from the cakewalk. Scott Joplin,
Tommy Turpin
1910 “Jass” Brass bands, piano, largely
improvised.
Jelly Roll Morton
1918 Dixieland Established rhythm section Joe “King” Oliver,
of bass, piano, drums; first Louis Armstrong,
great jazz soloists and records Jack Teagarden,
Bix Beiderbecke
1923 Dance bands Increased size of wind and Fletcher Henderson,
brass sections, strict written Don Redman,
arrangements, some open Paul Whiteman,
sections for improvisation. “Duke” Ellington
1935 “Swing” era More virtuosic soloists in Benny Goodman,
or Big Band era the dance band structure. Artie Shaw, Count
Basie, Tommy Dorsey,
Jimmy Dorsey, Ben
Webster, Coleman
Hawkins, Harry James,
Gene Krupa, Glenn
Miller, Bunny Berigan,
Buddy Rich
1945 Post-war Greater emphasis on concert Woody Herman, Stan
Big Bands arrangements, extended solo Kenton, early Dizzy
sections. Gillespie
Bebop Emphasis on greater technical Charlie “Bird” Parker,
facility, more improvisatory John Birks “Dizzy”
freedom; smaller bands. Gillespie, Bud Powell
1950 Cool Jazz More introverted, personal Miles Davis, John
style than bop, similar band Coltrane, Julian
size. Simple arrangements, “Cannonball” Adderly,
ample improvisatory freedom. Bill Evans, Stan Getz
1961 Progressive Jazz Experimental harmonic late John Coltrane,
structures, improvisational Elvin Jones, Ornette
styles; at times borders on
atonal, aleatoric styles.
Coleman, Stan Kenton
1970 Fusion Blending of jazz and rock Blood, Sweat, and
elements, in both small group Tears, the group
and big band settings. “Chicago,” late
Cannonball Adderly,
early Herbie Hancock,
big bands of Buddy
Rich and Woody
Herman
1980 Misc. Marriages with jazz and Tower of Power,
other styles, such as rhythm Pat Metheny,
and blues, Latin, etc. Yellowjackets, Dave
Grusin

Beyond Classical Music 139
This academic approach to jazz led to a sub-style of bebop called cool school. Initiated
by trumpeter Miles Davis, cool school jazz (or simply cool jazz) made slightly less use of
technical wizardry in favor of melodic inventiveness. Many of the finest jazz artists of
the ‘50s and ‘60s worked with Miles Davis including saxophonists Julian “Cannonball”
Adderly and John Coltrane, and pianist Bill Evans. Davis’ performance style, while engaging
on records, distanced himself from his audiences. He often turned his back to
the audience while playing, thus giving new meaning to the “cool” label. Several of the
musicians who worked with Davis established important solo careers for themselves.
John Coltrane, one of the most influential of all tenor saxophonists, pushed the boundaries
of tonal jazz in his later recordings. He epitomized the “progressive jazz” culture,
which emphasized tonal and technical experimentation. Some of his late works were
indeed in the realm of atonal or even aleatoric music. Bill Evans continued in the “cool”
vein, while Cannonball Adderly and others attempted to court the audience of rock and
roll.
The Blending of Styles in Jazz
By the mid 1960s the influence of rock made itself felt in jazz music. Cannonball Adderly
and other jazz greats composed and performed music with elements of rock rhythms
imbedded in them. Others such as virtuoso drummer Buddy Rich used rock rhythms
freely in many big band arrangements in the 1960s. The marriage of jazz and rock bore
fruit not only with jazz groups that used rock elements, but also with rock groups that
employed virtuoso jazz artists. The rock band Blood, Sweat and Tears featured a horn
section of accomplished jazz artists who were often given the opportunity to improvise
in a jazz style. The group Chicago used a similar horn section, and specialized in highly
technical, written horn section solos. The lines between rock and jazz blurred quite
often, and the term fusion was used to characterize this emerging trend.
Fusion bands flourished in the 1970s and ‘80s. Other characteristics crept into
much of this new music including blues and Latin influences. The group Tower of
Power is an example of a fusion band with a heavy blues influence. The guitarist Carlos
Santana and many groups including Spyro Gyra and Earth, Wind, and Fire mix jazz and
Latin influences in various proportions.
Mention should be made of an effort throughout the ‘50s, ‘60s, and ‘70s to bind
elements of jazz and classical music together. This effort, called third-stream (a term
coined by Gunther Schuller), was characterized by arrangements designed for large jazz
ensembles, often with strings. These compositions sought to bring jazz more fully in
line with other, more serious concert genres. Though third-stream never achieved great
popularity, it did influence musicians from both the classical and jazz camps. John
Coltrane’s explorations of less-structured jazz improvisation gave rise to the term “free
jazz,” which allowed jazz soloists the opportunity to improvise without the constraints
of a harmonic progression. Saxophonist Ornette Coleman was perhaps the leading proponent
of this avant-garde style. Coleman pioneered alternative jazz techniques including
playing multiple instruments simultaneously, and collaborated with John Cage.
Rock Music and Other Popular Styles
Since its inception as a stylistic trend in the 1950s, rock music has remained consistently
popular, whereas jazz and other serious genres waned in terms of a popular following.
This fact is true for two overriding reasons: first, rock music, though at times quite
complex, never lost sight of its initial mission as an art form for the masses. Secondly,
rock has remained primarily a vocal genre, employing populist lyrics that were simple
and direct in their meaning. “Rock and roll,” probably a humorous euphemism for

140 Chapter 11
sexual intercourse, was a direct outgrowth of the blues, and filled a gap left by the big
band era when jazz became more of a serious technical craft. While rock music’s development
is essentially linear, there are influences that simultaneously affected other forms
of music, including country and jazz.
A main influence on all popular forms of the twentieth century was the blues. Blues
musicians found themselves cut off from the jazz mainstream in the 1930s and ‘40s
because of their musical illiteracy. Unable to participate in the great commercial swing
movement, they continued to improvise strophic, ballad-style blues songs. Though technically
simple, these blues songs spoke in plain terms directly from the heart, in both
textual and musical terms. Referring to the chart below, one can see that blues artists
influenced the evolution of rock, jazz and country western music.
Rock and Roll Influences, Principal Styles
Before 1900 European Music American Folk Music Black Spirituals
Before 1950 Pop Music Country Western Rhythm and Blues
1954 Early Rock and Roll (Bill Haley and the Comets)
1954 Rockabilly (Elvis Presley, the Everly Brothers)
1958 Teen Idols (Dick Clark, Fabian, Frankie Avalon)
1961 The Surfing Craze and Car Songs (Beach Boys, Jan and Dean)
1961 Folk Revival, Protest Songs (Bob Dylan, Kingston Trio)
1964 British Invasion (Beatles, the Rolling Stones)
1964 Motown (Berry Gordy, The Supremes, The Temptations, The Four Tops)
1965 Acid Rock (Timothy Leary, The Grateful Dead)
1967 Psychedelic Blues (Jimmy Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Janis Joplin)
1970 70s Styles: Disco, Folk Rock, Soft Rock, Jazz-Rock (Blood, Sweat, and
Tears, Elton John, Stevie Wonder, Joni Mitchell)
1972 Heavy Metal (Alice Cooper) Funk (Sly and the Family Stone)
1975 Punk Rock (Sex Pistols, Johnny Rotten)
1980 The Music Video Age (Michael Jackson, Duran Duran)
1988 Rap, Hip-Hop (Snoop Doggy Dog, Public Enemy, LL Cool J)
1990s Techno Rock, Grunge, British Heavy Metal (Metallica)
Both blues and rock music share a common relationship with contemporary social
trends. These musical forms reacted to changes in the social climate of American society.
Indeed, rock music often was the mouthpiece for social commentary. Blues and country
music often served the same function, though not with the same regularity or fervor as
rock.
One can easily see from the chart that “crossover” styles among the jazz, rock, and
country styles occurred regularly. Rockabilly, jazz-rock, and other styles freely adapted
components of more than one major stylistic trend. As mentioned earlier, the main
constant in the development of rock was an almost single-minded consistency in its
purpose of communication with the widest possible audience. This statement could
probably be traced to the fact that record producers were constantly searching, not for
musical or technical innovation, but for musical ideas that would sell. As certain offshoots
of rock started to develop that might limit public acceptance, the priorities of
recording companies restricted such developments in favor of more mainstream efforts.
The conflict between producing music for personal satisfaction versus for public tastes

Beyond Classical Music 141
was nothing new; the same issue was true as far back as the Baroque period, with differences
in personal motivations for many Bach and Handel compositions.
As international influences make an ever larger impact on American popular styles,
one can already see that these styles are constantly evolving. Musical genres such as
reggae, ska, salsa, and others each contributed their own sounds to the musical vocabulary
that musicians used. The great promise of this evolution is that, as these different
styles merge to create new music, more effective ways of communicating our feelings
through music will result.
Summary and Closing Statement
From our vantage point in history, we can see how music has filled a need in every
culture and society. There have always been active participants in the creation and performance
of music, almost as if these people were driven to produce it. So the next
question is, why listen? What is it about music that compels one to make it a part of his
or her life? The answer lies in one word: growth. It has been said many times that every
contact with a musical piece, whether through performing it or simply hearing it, changes
one’s life forever. The more music that a person hears, the more one realizes the truth of
that statement. When a person hears great music such as Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony
or Miles Davis’ “Kind of Blue” album, in a very real way that person is changed forever.
Though often hard to put into words, the range of emotions we experience by even
hearing music stays with us and gives us new awareness of our own depth of feeling.
Therefore it is good that methods exist that teach all of us the reasons and means by
which the people who came before us tried to express themselves through music. Long
ago, musicians learned how to communicate emotions, passions and even stories through
musical sounds. We can receive those messages hundreds of years later, regardless of the
language we speak, the country we’re in, or the time in which we live. All it takes is the
willingness to be open to the experience, along with a little knowledge. This knowledge
makes us more aware of our common link as human beings, and allows us to grow
beyond the confines of our locale and age.
Key Terms
bebop ragtime
big band rhapsody
cool school rock music
Dixieland swing
fusion syncopated
jazz
progressive jazz
third-stream

Name Date
Chapter 11 Review
Beyond Classical Music
1. Scott Joplin was a prolific composer in what style?
2. Louis Armstrong played with what Dixieland band?
3. Which early band leader was also a prolific composer?
4. Whose swing band officially began the “big band” era?
5. Bebop music emphasized what musical attributes?
6. Miles Davis initiated what jazz style?
7. Who was one of the most influential tenor saxophonists to come from the “cool school” style?
8. What musical style was a major influence on all popular forms of music in the twentieth century?
9. What year did the British invasion begin?
10. Based on the information in Chapter 11, in what ways is jazz music similar to rock music?
143

Glossary
a cappella Vocal music that has no instrumental accompaniment.
absolute music Music that has no programmatic content. Also called pure music.
accelerando Gradually getting faster.
adagio Slow.
agitato Agitated, restless.
Agnus Dei Final musical section of the Ordinary of the Mass.
aleatoric Music in which chance and performer’s choice are integral parts. Also
called chance music.
allegro Fast, lively, cheerful.
allemande Renaissance and Baroque dance in moderate duple time.
alto Typically, the lowest of the female voices.
andante Walking speed, moderately slow.
antiphonal Compositional technique in which the performing group is divided into
two or more smaller groups. These groups are spaced apart in the performance
area with the music constructed so that the groups perform in alternation or
together.
aria Solo vocal song, usually with regular meter and orchestral accompaniment,
commonly found in operas, oratorios and cantatas.
arpeggio Broken chord; notes of the chord are sounded individually in succession.
Ars Nova “New art.” Title of treatise by Philippe de Vitry which became the name
for French music style in the fourteenth century.
a tempo Return to previous tempo.
atonality Rejection of a tonal center, lacking a tonic or a “key.”
ballade Originally a fourteenth century vocal form that set a secular poem of three
stanzas to music. Later composers used the term to denote English ballad poetry
set to music. In the nineteenth century the term ballade was used to denote a
piano piece.
145

146 Glossary
ballet A type of dance which involves a staged performance with music, scenery and
costumes.
Baroque Meaning overly ornate, grotesque.
baritone Male voice in a low range, usually between bass and tenor.
baritone horn See euphonium.
bass Lowest male vocal range.
bass clarinet Low-pitched member of the clarinet family, contrabass clarinet is
pitched one octave lower.
bass drum Largest orchestral drum, usually played with a soft mallet.
basso continuo “Continued bass” refers to keyboard accompaniment part typical in
Baroque orchestral music, in which the player improvises accompaniment with
the help of figured bass. Often the term refers to the keyboard accompaniment
plus a cello or string bass.
bassoon Double reed instrument in a tenor range. Contrabassoon is pitched one
octave lower.
bass violin See string bass or double bass.
beat Regular rhythmic pulse in music.
bebop Virtuosic jazz style of the 1940s and ‘50s. Principal exponents included
Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie.
bel canto “Beautiful singing” style in Italian vocal writing which involved beautiful
melodies with straightforward forms.
big band Jazz ensemble that began in the 1930s. Usually 12–18 players. Principal
ensemble of the swing era. Instrumentation includes trumpets, trombones,
saxophones, bass, piano, guitar and drums.
binary form Two-part (A-B) song form.
blues Popular music form of the twentieth century with African-American roots,
closely related to jazz.
Bonaparte Original title of Beethoven’s 3rd Symphony, later titled Eroica.
bore Can either be cylindrical or conical referring to the shape of the inner
measurements of the instrument.
bourrée French Baroque dance in fast duple meter.
brass family Musical instruments which employ a cup-shaped mouthpiece, and a
long metal tube that terminates in a flared bell. Modern examples include
trumpet, horn, trombone, euphonium and tuba.
brass quintet Chamber ensemble which includes two trumpets, horn, trombone
and tuba.
bridge Musical passage that connects two parts of a composition. Sometimes called
a transition.
cadence Chord progression which provides a musical resting point.

Glossary 147
cadenza Unaccompanied, virtuosic solo section of a concerto, usually near the end
of the first movement. Cadenzas occasionally occur in other movements of a
concerto or in other musical genres.
canon Most imitative form of polyphony, in which one musical line is strictly
imitated in its entirety, for example a round.
cantabile In a singing style.
cantata Secular or sacred (church cantata) vocal form, popular in the Baroque,
which consisted of arias, recitatives and ensemble sections.
cantus firmus “Fixed melody” meaning the underlying Gregorian chant melody
which serves as the basis for a composition.
celeste Keyboard member of the percussion family resembling a small piano in
which the keys strike pitched metal bars and sound like bells.
cello Tenor member of the violin family, also called violoncello.
chaconne Baroque theme and variations, based on a repeated chord progression.
chamber choir Small vocal ensemble, usually 20–24 members.
chamber music Generic term referring to compositions for small groups of players.
chance music Style within the twentieth century period characterized by the
avoidance of traditional notation, forms, instruments and the constraints of what
had come before. See also aleatoric.
chanson French polyphonic love song popular in the Renaissance.
character piece Short, single movement piano work, popular in the Romantic
period. Often used titles such as nocturne, scherzo, prelude, ballade, and waltz.
chimes Percussion instrument that is made up of long, vertical metal tubes, struck
with mallets at the top. Also called tubular bells.
choir Vocal ensemble consisting of various parts, with several singers per part.
chorale Baroque Protestant hymn.
chorale prelude Baroque organ work based on a chorale melody.
chord Combination of three or more pitches sounded simultaneously. Most chords
are built in successive intervals of the third.
chordal Musical texture featuring chords which provide a foundation and
framework for a melody.
chorus A section featuring many vocalists singing together as a choir.
chromatic Refers to the 12 pitches comprising an octave. Chromaticism in music
involves the use of several or all of these pitches in a successive pattern.
chromaticism The use of pitches outside the key of a piece in an effort to blur the
lines of traditional harmonic tendencies.
clarinet A single-reed woodwind instrument, with a wooden or plastic body built in
many sizes and pitch ranges.
clavichord Keyboard instrument popular in the Renaissance and Baroque periods,
with greater expressive capabilities than the harpsichord.

148 Glossary
clavier Generic term (French) for keyboard instruments.
coda Extended final section of a composition ranging in length from a few measures
to several minutes. Sometimes with added new material.
codetta Similar to a coda; a very short concluding section added to a composition.
col legno Meaning “with wood” string players can play on the strings of their
instruments with the wood side of their bows.
common time 4/4 time, in which music has four beats to every measure and a
quarter note representing one beat.
compound meter Type of meter (6/8, 12/8) in which beats are divisible by three
instead of two. Many times these meters have traits of both duple and triple
meter.
computer music Type of music in which computers assist in the composition and
performance of the works.
concertato Musical style in which groups of unequal size alternate within a
composition. This style forms the basis of the concerto grosso and the solo
concerto.
concert band Large instrumental ensemble made up of various woodwinds, brasses
and percussion. Other instruments are occasionally added such as piano, harp or
string bass.
concertino Small instrumental group in a Baroque concerto grosso.
concerto Orchestral composition, usually in three movements, which features a
soloist(s) with an orchestra.
concerto grosso Baroque instrumental form, usually in three movements. Typically
a concerto grosso features concertato style with alternating small (concertino)
and large (ripieno) groups within the ensemble.
concert overture Orchestral work in one movement that is designed to be a standalone
composition first associated with Felix Mendelssohn.
conductor The person who leads bands, orchestras, choirs or other ensembles in
rehearsals and performances. The conductor interprets the music of the
composer and keeps the ensembles together through a system of hand motions.
consonance Two or more tones sounded simultaneously that have a pleasing sound.
consort A grouping of instruments within a family that all have similar
characteristics and built to represent the traditional ranges of soprano, alto, tenor
and bass for an instrument.
contrapuntal Polyphonic texture using counterpoint.
Cool school Jazz style related to bebop made popular in the 1950s by Miles Davis.
cornet Brass instrument similar to the trumpet, but with a warmer sound.
Council of Trent Roman Catholic convention in the mid 1500s that led the
Counter Reformation.
Counter Reformation Movement in the Renaissance designed to bring people
back to the Catholic Church. A reaction to the Protestant Reformation.
counterpoint Polyphonic treatment of two or more melodic lines.

Glossary 149
country western Type of American commercial music, directly descended from
American folk music.
courante Baroque dance in moderate triple meter.
Credo Third section of the Ordinary of the Mass.
crescendo Gradually getting louder.
cut time 2/2 time, meaning two beats to every measure and a half note receiving
one beat, also called alla breve.
cymbal Percussion instrument that is a large metallic disc, either struck with a stick
or another cymbal of the same size.
da capo A term meaning to return to the beginning of the piece.
decrescendo Gradually getting softer.
development In sonata allegro form the middle section in which a theme or themes
are manipulated by means of modulations and other alterations.
diatonic Stepwise movement along the eight notes of a major or minor scale.
Dies irae Gregorian chant from the Requiem Mass concerning the Day of Wrath or
Judgment Day.
diminuendo Gradually getting softer (see decrescendo).
dissonance Discordant or strident sounds.
divertimento Instrumental chamber form from the Classical period. Composed for
a variable number of movements, and used for less serious entertainment
purposes than other chamber forms such as the string quartet.
divided air column Technique used to produce the sound in all woodwind
instruments, it is air being forced through a mouthpiece or reed assembly.
Dixieland A jazz style associated with New Orleans and other cities in the 1920s,
which featured improvised jazz solos and ensembles.
dodecaphonic 12-tone.
dolce Sweetly.
dominant Relating to the fifth degree of a major or minor scale.
double bass Lowest pitched member of the violin family, see also string bass.
double exposition A unique type of the sonata allegro form, used in a concerto, in
which the themes are first stated by the orchestra, and then by the soloist.
double reed Used by oboes and bassoons, it is a reed with wood at both the top
and bottom of the device and no mouthpiece.
double-stop Two pitches sounded simultaneously on a string instrument.
downbeat First beat of a measure.
duple meter Metric pattern with regular emphasis every two or four beats.
duration The length of time that a musical sound lasts.
dynamics The loudness or softness of a sound.

150 Glossary
embouchure The shape and arrangement of the lips, mouth and jaw in order to
focus the air to create the sound on a particular instrument.
encore French word for “again.” In response to applause, an additional work, or a
repeat of an earlier work by the performer.
endless melody A technique used by Wagner, this term describes the delaying or
eliminating of the final resolution of a phrase to its tonal center.
English horn A member of the woodwind family, and part of the oboe consort, it
uses a double reed and is pitched slightly lower than the oboe.
episode In a fugue, a section which is less complex and serves as a period of rest.
equal temperament The tuning system used today in which the octave is divided
into twelve equal half steps.
Eroica Later title of Beethoven’s 3rd Symphony, first dedicated to and titled
“Bonaparte.”
espressivo Expressively.
étude A study piece.
euphonium Tenor member of the tuba consort, part of the brass family. Also called
baritone horn.
exposition The opening section of a fugue in which the subject and its answering
phrases are presented. In sonata allegro form, the opening section in which the
themes are presented.
expressionism Style within the twentieth century characterized by the
compositional style of the 12-tone system. See also 12-tone music or serialism.
fantasia Free form instrumental piece, improvisatory in style, common in the
Baroque period.
figured bass Bass line in Baroque music that was used as a basis for improvised
accompaniment on a keyboard, usually harpsichord or organ. In addition to the
bass line, a system of numbers was used to indicate intervals above the bass that
gave the performer instructions for the chords to be played.
first-movement form See sonata allegro form.
flat Lowering a natural pitch by one half step, using the symbol (b).
flute A consort of woodwind instruments made of metal or wood that create their
sound by the blowing of air across a hole in the tube and thereby splitting the air
column.
form Structural framework for a piece of music.
forte (f ) Loud.
fortissimo (ff ) Very loud.
French horn See horn.
frequency Rate of vibrations of any device that the ear perceives as a pitch.
fugue Most advanced polyphonic form of the Baroque, employing one or more
themes called subjects.

Glossary 151
fusion A type of jazz that blended elements of jazz and rock groups, and showed
the effects of influences by blues and Latin cultures.
galliard French dance in moderate to allegro triple meter.
gavotte French Baroque dance in moderate 4/4 time.
genre Generic term referring to the form, type, or style of a composition.
gigue Renaissance or Baroque dance from France or Germany. In England, the
form was called a jig. Allegro, usually compound meter.
glissando “Sliding” from one pitch to another, singing or on an instrument.
glockenspiel A mallet percussion instrument using steel bars which are stuck,
producing a bright, metallic sound. Often portable, widely used in military
bands.
Gloria Second musical section of the Ordinary of the Mass.
gong Percussion instrument, essentially a large, thick cymbal struck with a large
mallet. Often called a tam-tam.
grace note Note printed to the left of another note, very close to that note and
much smaller. It is intended as an ornament, normally to be played out of
rhythm. During the Classical period, grace notes often were performed in time,
and the value of the grace note was subtracted from the note that followed it.
grave Grave, solemn, indicating a very slow tempo.
Gregorian Chant Also called plainsong or plainchant, name given to the
monophonic chants in free rhythm that were used in Roman Catholic services
during the Medieval period. Named after Pope Gregory I, who led the Catholic
Church from 590–604.
ground bass A repeated bass line, often used as the theme in variation forms.
Widely used in the Baroque period, often the central melodic line in the
chaconne and the passacaglia.
guitar String instrument, using six or twelve strings that are plucked with the
fingers. The body is of moderate size and is usually made of wood. The neck of
the guitar is fretted. Very popular and widely used in classical and popular music,
the guitar is employed as both a solo melodic instrument, and often as an
instrument to provide chordal support. In recent decades, guitars with electric
pick-ups (used to connect to amplifiers) have been popular. The predecessor of
the guitar was the lute. The “modern” guitar came into use during the late
eighteenth century.
habanera Cuban dance in moderate duple meter, employing dotted or syncopated
rhythms, and widely used among Spanish composers. A famous version was used
by Bizet in the opera Carmen.
half step The smallest pitch interval in Western music systems, created when the
octave is divided into twelve equal parts. Also called a semitone.
harmonica Very small and portable musical instrument that uses tiny pitched reeds
suspended in a metal case. Sound is created by blowing air directly through the
metal case. Also called a mouth-organ.

152 Glossary
harmonics In acoustics, extraneous sounds that are created as the byproduct of any
other tone or musical sound. Harmonics are natural, and are the building blocks
of a musical sound’s timbre. In string and brass instruments, harmonics can be
selected artificially and the playing of harmonics are a part of everyday technique.
harmony The simultaneous sounding of pitches, normally resulting in a consonant
sound.
harp Ancient member of the string family, in which tightly stretched strings in a
frame are plucked. Modern harps have a range of about six octaves, and employ
pedals to assist in the changing of pitches.
harpsichord Keyboard instrument, extremely popular during the Baroque period,
in which strings were plucked with “quills” when a key was depressed. In other
ways, the harpsichord is roughly similar to the piano, which tended to replace
the harpsichord in popularity in the late eighteenth century.
hocket A technique used in late Medieval polyphony that had a rhythmic idea being
traded among the different lines of the music.
homophonic Chordal texture in which a voice (usually the upper voice) assumes the
principal melodic function, and other sounds or voices tend to support the
principal voice in similar rhythm and consonant harmony.
horn Often called the French horn, a member of the brass family in which a conical
mouthpiece is placed into a very long metal tube. This tube, because of its great
length, is wound into several concentric circles, and terminates with a very large,
flared bell. Modern horns use valves to change the length of the tube and
therefore the pitches.
hornpipe English dance in fast triple meter.
hymn Religious song, usually set in short, repeated stanzas or verses, which is used
to praise God in church services. In Protestant church services, the hymn was a
central musical genre, and usually involved congregational participation.
idée fixe “Fixed idea.” A theme in a symphonic work that recurs usually
representing a central character or idea. First used by Berlioz in his Symphonie
Fantastique.
imitation Melody or motive that is stated in one voice and then restated in others.
Impressionism A term first used for late nineteenth century painting and came to
encompass the music of the same time. Impressionism is characterized by vague,
dreamy imagery and ambiguous tonality. Principal composers were Debussy,
Ravel, Respighi, Delius and de Falla.
improvisation Spontaneous creation of music by a performer during a
performance, common in the Baroque, solo concertos, and jazz.
incidental music Musical work composed to enhance or represent a play.
indeterminacy The method used by a performer to freely interpret some or all of a
composition. A concept associated with aleatoric music.
interlude A musical passage that connects two larger sections together.
interval the distance, measured in half steps, between two pitches.

inversion Mirror image of a melody or interval most often found in serial
compositions.
Glossary 153
isorhythmic motet Late Medieval form that featured repeating rhythmic patterns.
Italian overture Baroque overture in a three-part structure, usually in a fast-slowfast
tempo scheme.
jazz An American musical style with a distinct African-American influence, which
blended African elements with spirituals, blues and western musical practices.
jig Renaissance dance from England in a fast, compound meter, known as a “gigue”
in Europe.
jongleurs Traveling entertainers in the Medieval period.
kettledrums See timpani.
key Tonal center of a piece of music.
keyboard family Nickname for any one of several keyboard instruments including
organ, harpsichord, piano or synthesizer.
key signature A system of sharps or flats, placed at the beginning of a piece of
music, which denote the key.
klavier Piano, or sometimes referred to any stringed keyboard instrument such as
the harpsichord.
largo Broadly and slowly.
legato Connected, implies to play smoothly.
lento Slowly.
leitmotif “Leading motive” or the idea of themes that represent particular
characters or things in a Wagner opera.
libretto Script (text) of an opera.
lied German word for song. Solo vocal work with piano accompaniment.
lieder Plural of lied.
lute String instrument, with a round body, that is plucked like a guitar.
lyrics Words to a popular song.
lyrical Implies singing in a melodic, legato style.
madrigal Most advanced secular vocal form of the late Renaissance, usually a
cappella, which originated in England and Italy.
maestoso Majestic.
major scale Diatonic scale consisting of eight notes including the octave. Each of
the eight notes is a full step apart, except for half steps between the third and
fourth steps, and between the seventh and eighth steps.
Mannheim School A town in Germany that was a center for musical development
in the Classical period. It contributed to the development of the symphony
form, gradual dynamics and the instrumentation of the classical orchestra.
march Instrumental form similar to a dance form, in a lively duple meter. Popular in
bands to accompany marching.

154 Glossary
marimba Mallet percussion instrument usually employing rosewood bars and long
resonator tubes. The marimba has a darker more mellow sound than a
xylophone.
Mass Principal church service of the Catholic church.
mazurka Polish dance in triple meter.
measure In written music, the space between vertical bar lines.
melody An arrangement of pitches that express a complete musical thought.
meno Less.
meter Regular occurrences of strong beats in music, usually divisible by two (duple)
or three (triple).
metronome A machine that produces sonic beats, adjustable for speed, which is
used to measure the speed of music. Invented in 1812 by Dietrich Winkel.
mezzo forte (mf ) Moderately loud.
mezzo piano (mp) Moderately soft.
mezzo soprano Female vocal range, slightly lower than soprano.
MIDI Acronym for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. Communication system
for networking electronic musical instruments.
minimalism Twentieth century musical style made popular by Philip Glass, which is
characterized by slow development of small, repeated, melodic ideas or rhythms.
minnesingers Secular German poet-musicians from the Medieval period.
minor scale Diatonic scale consisting of eight notes including the octave. In its pure
form half steps occur between the second and third steps, and between the fifth
and sixth steps.
minstrels See jongleurs.
minuet and trio Dance form in a moderate, triple meter. Later adopted by classical
symphonists as the third movement of a symphony.
mode Scale. In addition to major and minor, any diatonic arrangement of seven
tones plus the octave that contain two sets of half steps.
moderato Moderate tempo.
modulation Changing from one tonal center or key to another.
molto Very.
monophonic One unaccompanied melody line; no harmony.
motet Medieval polyphonic vocal form that could be sacred or secular, and often
included multiple texts.
motive Short musical phrase or rhythmic idea.
movement A self contained piece of music, designed to be part of a larger work.
music drama Wagnerian term for opera.
nationalism The movement of musicians in a country to preserve and promote the
folk music and unique characteristics of that country’s music.

Glossary 155
Neo-Classical Strictly defined “new classical,” it is a style within the twentieth
century characterized by smaller ensembles and stricter forms. Unlike music from
the classical period however, Neo-classical music often employs twentieth
century harmonies and rhythms.
Neo-Romantic Strictly defined “new romantic,” it is a style within the twentieth
century characterized by larger ensembles, and a continuation of Romantic forms
and nationalistic influences.
neumes Medieval musical notes.
nocturne “Night piece.” Common type of character piece in the Romantic period.
non metric Music with a free rhythm and no regular meter.
non troppo Not too much.
oboe Double reed woodwind instrument in the soprano range.
octave Interval encompassing twelve half steps. The notes of an octave share a
unique relationship, since the vibrations of the upper pitch are exactly twice as
fast as the lower pitch. All octaves share the same pitch name such as A, B or C.
ode Secular composition originally used for royal occasions. Based on poems of
reverence. The term refers sometimes to the poem itself.
offbeat The weak beat in a rhythmic pattern or meter.
opera Started around 1600, it was an attempt to combine music, drama, literature,
dance and visual art into one genre.
opera buffa Italian comic opera.
opera comique French comic opera often containing spoken dialogue.
opera seria Serious or tragic Italian opera.
oratorio Musical genre containing arias, recitatives and choruses. Similar in
structure to an opera, but always sacred and unstaged.
orchestra Instrumental performing group consisting of diverse groups of
instruments.
orchestration The art of using or combining instruments to create unique sounds
from an instrumental ensemble.
Ordinary Those sections of a Catholic mass that remain the same throughout the
church year.
organ Keyboard instrument using pipes with reed assemblies that function similarly
to woodwind instruments in that air is forced through the openings, producing
sounds. Though ancient, the golden age of the organ was during the Baroque
period.
organum First form of polyphony in the Medieval period, characterized by simple
open harmonies above a plainchant melody. The organum became common
practice by approximately 1000 A.D.
overtone series Frequencies vibrating above the fundamental pitch that are
sometimes called sympathetic vibrations.
overture Instrumental form that precedes an opera or oratorio, often containing
thematic ideas from the larger work.

156 Glossary
passacaglia Baroque theme and variations in slow triple meter, based on a repeated
bass line. (See ground bass.)
Passion Oratorio based on the death of Christ.
pavane Renaissance dance in a moderate to slow duple meter.
pentatonic scale A five-note succession of pitches, resembling a diatonic scale,
derived from African and far eastern music.
percussion family Overall term relating to any instrument which produces sound
by striking something, either with a mallet, stick or the hand.
period Two or sometimes more phrases combined into a complete musical thought.
phrase A musical clause, which is combined with other phrases to create complete
melodies.
pianissimo (pp) Very soft.
piano 1. (p) Soft. 2. Originally known as the pianoforte, a keyboard instrument that
employs strings that are struck by hammers when keys are depressed.
pianoforte See piano.
piccolo Smallest member of the flute consort within the woodwind family, pitched
one octave higher than the standard flute.
pitch Highness or lowness of a musical sound, determined by the rate of vibrations
(frequency).
plainchant See Gregorian chant.
plainsong See Gregorian chant.
poco A little.
polka Bohemian term for moderate to fast dance in duple meter.
polonaise Polish dance in stately triple meter.
polyphonic More than one melodic line being sounded simultaneously.
polytonality Music that contains two or more tonal centers used simultaneously.
prelude Short instrumental piece designed to introduce a larger work.
prepared piano A piano that has been augmented by the insertion of foreign
objects into the strings in order to alter the timbre of the instrument.
presto Very fast.
prestissimo As fast as possible.
program music Instrumental music that depicts or describes something; music that
tells a story or describes a single event or feeling.
progressive jazz Experimental harmonic structures used for jazz music bordering
on atonal, aleatoric music.
Proper Those portions of the Catholic mass that change from week to week during
the church year.
Protestant Reformation Led by Martin Luther beginning around the year 1517,
this movement attempted to involve the congregation more directly in the music
of the church services including widespread use of hymns.

Glossary 157
pure music Music that has no programmatic content or meaning. See absolute
music.
ragtime A term coined from the “rag” paper used for piano rolls, this type of music
used folklike melodies, harmonies and catchy rhythms.
range Highest and lowest pitches available to an instrument or voice.
recapitulation Third section of the sonata allegro form. Restates the exposition, but
with no modulations.
recitative Solo vocal section of an opera, oratorio or cantata, sung in conversational,
free-rhythm, with little orchestral accompaniment.
recorder Woodwind instrument with a mouthpiece resembling a whistle and a
simple tubular body containing several finger holes to change pitches.
reed Thin piece of cane, shaved to exacting dimensions, attached to a mouthpiece
or metal tube and placed in a woodwind instrument. Sound is produced by
blowing air past the wood causing it to vibrate.
requiem Catholic mass for the dead.
retrograde Melody or tone row that is played backwards.
retrograde inversion Melody or tone row that is performed backwards and
inverted from the original.
rhapsody Used primarily in the nineteenth century, it refers to a piece of music with
nationalistic or heroic nature, typically in free form.
rhythm General term referring to time and pulse in music.
Ring cycle A shorter title referring to Wagner’s very long four-opera cycle titled
Ring of the Nibelung.
ripieno Large group in a Baroque concerto grosso.
ritardando Gradually getting slower.
ritornello form Style in the Baroque concerto grosso that features the alternation
of large and small ensembles.
rock music Commercial music form started in the mid twentieth century; a
derivation of blues, gospel, country, and jazz styles.
rococo Eighteenth century musical form that stressed elegance and prettiness, with
delicate textures, in reaction to the complexities of the Baroque.
rondo Formal structure for instrumental music, common in the Classical period, in
which a main theme (A) alternates with new material. (A-B-A-C-A, A-B-A-C-A-
D-A, etc.)
round A repeated canon, or melody that is strictly imitated in its entirety and
repeated (Row, Row, Row your Boat).
rounded binary Two-part musical structure in which the ending of the second part
restates some of the material from the first part.
rubato A Romantic practice in which the performer employs subtle variations in
tempo to achieve a dramatic effect.
sackbut (sagbut) Brass instrument, early ancestor of the trombone.

158 Glossary
Sacre du printemps, Le The Rite of Spring ballet, composed by Igor Stravinsky.
sacred Music relating to the church, religious in nature.
Sanctus The fourth section of the Ordinary of the Mass.
sarabande Baroque dance from Spanish origins, in triple meter, typical movement
from a Baroque suite.
saxophone A single-reed member of the woodwind family.
scale A series of ascending or descending notes in order.
scherzo Fast triple meter composition, typically found as the third movement of a
symphony; replaced the minuet and trio form in nineteenth century.
secular Music not relating to the church or religious in nature.
segue Going directly from one movement or section to another without a break.
semitone See half step, it is the smallest interval used in traditional Western music.
sequence A restating of a motive or musical idea starting on a different pitch.
serenade This term is used to depict a piece that fuses the ideas of symphonies and
chamber music into a classical instrumental work.
serialism Type of compositional style whereby musical elements of pitch, tempo,
dynamics, rhythm and others are set into a fixed series.
shawm Medieval woodwind instrument that is the ancestor of the modern day
oboe.
sinfonia Found in Baroque opera, this term refers to a short instrumental piece
played during scene changes.
single reed Used by clarinets and saxophones, it is the mechanism attached to a
mouthpiece to focus air into the instrument.
singspiel German comic opera with spoken words, led to Romantic German opera.
snare drum Member of the percussion family, it is a small cylindrical drum with two
heads played with drumsticks.
sonata Instrumental work typically comprised of three movements, for soloist or
small ensemble.
sonata allegro form The compositional form (used for every first movement of a
piece in the Classical period having more than one movement) that is comprised
of three sections: exposition, development and recapitulation. Also called the
first-movement form.
sonata da camera Baroque chamber sonata, it refers to a typical suite of dances.
sonata da chiesa Baroque instrumental piece usually performed in a church, it has
four movements and a tempo scheme of slow-fast-slow-fast.
song cycle Term referring to a grouping of songs that are tied together by the text
or by musical ideas.
soprano Highest pitched vocal range.
sousaphone Largest and lowest member of the brass family, used as a marching
version of a tuba, having a forward-facing bell.

Glossary 159
spiritual Sung by African-Americans and others, this is a traditional, devotional
genre of the United States.
sprechstimme This vocal style, developed by Arnold Schoenberg, is characterized
by spoken melody at inexact pitches rather than true singing on specific pitches.
statement See exposition.
string bass Lowest pitched member of the violin family (see double bass).
string family All instruments in this family are plucked or bowed. Sound is created
by vibrations of one or all strings. Includes instruments such as the violin, viola,
cello, bass, guitar and harp.
string quartet Chamber music string ensemble comprised of two violins, one viola
and one cello. It could also refer to the title of a piece composed for this group
of players.
strophic form A compositional style that uses the same music for every stanza of a
poem.
style How the elements of music are composed and presented such as melodies,
harmonies, rhythms, forms, tempos and dynamics.
subject Refers to the main theme or idea of a fugue.
suite Multiple-movement composition that combines contrasting dance movements
typically all in one key.
swing music Term given to dance music of the 1930s and 1940s, often used
interchangeably with “big band” music. Characterized by moderate to fast beat
in duple meter with lilting, dotted rhythms.
symphonic poem One movement, free form piece for orchestra that may be
programmatic and used to describe a scene or setting. First used in the Romantic
period. Also called tone poem.
symphony Large orchestral work normally in four movements.
syncopation A rhythmic practice of stressing some or all of the weak beats in a
measure, to achieve a deceptive rhythmic effect.
synthesizer Any electronic instrument that produces and modifies sounds with
sound generators and amplification.
tambourine A small percussion instrument consisting of a round drum with one
head and tiny metal plates attached around the drum, which is struck or shaken.
tempo How fast or slow a piece of music is.
tempo scheme One tempo per movement of a piece such as fast-slow-fast for a
three-movement concerto.
tenor Male voice of a fairly high range.
tenor drum A medium sized percussion instrument, similar but larger than the
snare drum.
ternary form Three part form (A-B-A), founded on the idea of statement,
contrasting material and restatement.
texture The relationship of harmonic and melodic musical elements.

160 Glossary
theme A melodic idea used as the foundation for building a composition.
theme and variations A compositional form which uses one theme and many
slightly altered versions of that theme. Alterations could be accomplished by
means of changes in mode, rhythm, style or harmony.
thorough-bass See figured bass.
three-part form See ternary form.
timbales Originating from Cuba and used commonly in Latin-American popular
music, these percussion instruments have shallow, single heads and are played in
pairs.
timbre The kind or quality of sound that is unique to every instrument or voice;
what makes instruments sound different from one another.
time signature A configuration of two notes at the beginning of a piece of music
that tells the player how many beats in a measure (top number) and what kind of
note gets one beat (bottom number referring to a kind of note).
timpani Tunable percussion instrument that is made from large half-round copper
shells with large heads. Has the ability to change pitches with a mechanism of
pedals that alter the tension of the heads.
toccata Similar to a recitative for voice, this is a free-form virtuosic composition for
keyboard. In the Baroque era many times it served as an introduction to fugues.
tone A specific pitch, also refers to quality or timbre of a sound.
tonal center The key of a piece of music. See also tonic.
tonality An organizational structure for music that bases its center around a “home
pitch.”
tone cluster A grouping of pitches played simultaneously that is extremely
dissonant.
tone poem See symphonic poem.
tone row A series of notes chosen from the twelve chromatic tones that is used to
build a twelve-tone composition.
tonic The first note of a scale, or used to refer to the tonal center for a piece of
music.
total serialism All aspects of musical performance including pitch, dynamics,
duration and articulation were given numeric values and treated the same as the
tone rows of serial composers.
transition See bridge.
transpose Shifting the tonal center of a piece of music.
triangle A small percussion instrument, struck with a small metal stick, made of
metal and shaped like a triangle.
trio sonata A Baroque chamber sonata composed in three parts requiring four
players: two playing melodic lines and the basso continuo (keyboard and bass
instrument).

Glossary 161
triple meter A metric pattern of one strong beat and two weak beats; three beats to
every measure.
trombone A brass instrument in the tenor range that is able to change pitches by its
mechanism of a sliding tube which lengthens or shortens the distance air has to
travel within the instrument. See sackbut.
troubadours Medieval musician-poets who came from southern France.
trouvéres Medieval musician-poets who came from northern France.
trumpet Highest pitched of the brass family instruments that changes pitches by
means of valve mechanisms.
tuba Lowest and largest of the brass family instruments that changes pitches by
means of valve mechanisms.
tubular bells See chimes.
tutti Italian term meaning “all.” Signifies that the whole ensemble should play.
twelve-tone Compositional technique from the twentieth century, by which tone
rows are chosen based on the twelve chromatic tones. Designed to avoid a tonal
center. See Expressionism.
two-part form See binary form.
unison Same notes played or sung simultaneously.
verismo “Realism” in opera. A style popular in Italy which attempted to bring a
sense of naturalism to lyric theatre.
vibraphone A percussion instrument made up of metal bars which produce vibrato
by means of electronically generated rotating propellers under each bar.
vibrato Small fluctuations of pitch or dynamics used as an optional expressive
device.
Viennese School The Classical period title given to Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn.
viola A middle-range string family instrument that is the second highest of the
violin family.
viola da gamba Renaissance consort of string instruments with six or more strings,
frets similar to the guitar, but held between the knees like a cello.
violin Highest-ranged member of the string family, bowed or plucked strings create
the sound.
violoncello Middle to low-ranged member of the string family with a darker, richer
sound and lower than the viola.
virtuoso Performer of extraordinary technique and skill, or a piece which shows off
the skills of the performer.
vivace Lively and fast.
vocalise A vocal melody with no words, for example a study piece.
volume See dynamics.
waltz A dance in triple meter.
whole step The interval consisting of two half steps.

162 Glossary
whole-tone scale Commonly found in French impressionistic music, this pattern of
notes contains all whole steps between octaves.
wind ensemble See concert band.
woodwind family Instrumental family made up of flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone,
and bassoon that all create their sounds by means of a divided air column.
woodwind quintet A group of five instruments consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet,
bassoon and French horn (oddly, not a woodwind instrument).
word painting A common practice in Renaissance madrigals, this term refers to the
compositional technique of having the music as descriptively as possible
represent the words, i.e. music notes going higher on a scale while singing about
climbing or flying.
xylophone A percussion instrument made up of tuned wooden bars held up by a
frame, organized into a keyboard pattern and hit with hard mallets.
zither A consort of instruments in the string family made with strings stretched over
a sound box. The sounds are created by bowing or plucking. Used in music in
Europe, Africa and Asia.

Bibliographic References
Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music. 2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Cambridge,
Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1972.
Brockway, Wallace and Herbert Weinstock. Men of Music—Their Lives, Times and Achievements.
New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1950.
Cross, Milton and David Ewen. Milton Cross’ Encyclopedia of the Great Composers and
Their Music, Volumes 1 & 2. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.,
1962.
Feather, Leonard. The New Edition of The Encyclopedia of Jazz. New York: Bonanza
Books, 1960.
Grout, Donald Jay and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music. 6th ed. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
Harewood, The Earl of, Ed. The Definitive Kobbé’s Opera Book. New York: G. P. Putnam’s
Sons, 1987.
Keepnews, Orrin and Bill Grauer, Jr. A Pictorial History of Jazz. New York: Crown
Publishers, Inc., 1966.
Kerman, Joseph. Listen. 3rd Brief edition. New York: Worth Publishers, 1996.
O’Connell, Charles. The Victor Book of the Symphony. New York: Simon and Schuster,
Inc., 1935.
Randel, Don Michael. Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, Mass.: The
Belknap Press, 1978.
Slonimsky, Nicholas. Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. 5th edition with 1971
Supplement. New York: G. Schirmer, 1971.
Ulrich, Homer. Symphonic Music—Its Evolution Since the Renaissance. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1952.
163

Index
a cappella, 38
absolute music, 124
adagio, 7
Adams, John, 130
Adderly, Julian “Cannonball,” 138–139
Age of Absolutism, 45
Age of Enlightenment, 59
Age of Science, 45–46
Agnus Dei, 35
Albeniz, Isaac, 111
Albrechtsberger, Johann, 74
aleatoric, 129
allegro, 7
allemande, 41
andante, 7
antiphonal, 40
aria, 47
Armstrong, Louis, 136, 138
Ars antiqua, 28
Ars Nova, 28, 29
atonality, 118
Auric, Georges, 123
Babbitt, Milton, 131
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 4, 20, 48, 52–56, 90
Balakirev, Mily, 111
ballade, 89
ballet, 108, 125–127
band, 22
Baroque, 4, 20, 25, 45
Bartók, Bela, 118, 127
bass, 17
basso continuo, 50–51
bassoon, 14–15
beat, 6
bebop, 137–138
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 4, 73–80, 84, 101
165
bel canto, 101
Bellini, Vincenzo, 101
bells, orchestra, 19
Berg, Alban, 4, 118, 122
Berio, Luciano, 4, 118
Berlioz, Hector, 4, 84–85, 92–93, 101
Bernstein, Leonard, 128
big band, 137
binary form, 61
Bizet, Georges, 84, 101, 105
Blanchett, Francois Etienne, 46
blues, 140
Bonaparte Symphony (Beethoven), 77
bore, 15–17
Borodin, Alexander, 111
Boulez, Pierre, 4, 130–131
bourrée, 41
Brahms, Johannes, 84, 101, 104, 106–107
brass family, 13, 16, 21
brass quintet, 22
Britten, Benjamin, 126
Bruckner, Anton, 84, 107
Buxtehude, Dietrich, 54
cadence, 36, 46
cadenza, 67
Cage, John, 4, 118, 129–130, 139
Cahill, Thaddeus, 20
canon, 34
cantata, 48
cantus firmus, 29, 35
canzonas, 40, 51
cello, 17–18
chaconne, 55
chamber music, 22, 50
chance music, 129
chanson, 37

166 Index
chant, 25–27
character piece, 88
chimes, 19
Chopin, Frederic, 4, 91–92, 101
chorale, 36
chord, 29, 33, 36
chordal, 35
chorus, 47, 79
chromatic, 17
chromaticism, 38, 100
Clair de lune (Debussy), 120–121
clarinet, 14–15
Classical, 4, 25
clavichord, 20, 50
clef, 5–6
coda, 64
codetta, 64
col legno, 93
Coltrane, John, 138–139
composer, 2
compound meter, 7
computer music, 130
concert overture, 91
concertato, 51
concertino, 51
concerto, 51, 66, 85
concerto grosso, 51
conductor, 21
consonance, 9, 129
consort, 13, 15–17, 40
Constantine, Emperor, 25
cool school, 138–139
Copland, Aaron, 2–4, 9, 112, 118, 127–128, 137
Corelli, Archangelo, 51, 56
cornet, 16
Council of Trent, 36
Counter Reformation, 36–37
counterpoint, 29, 54–55
Couperin, Francois, 56
courante, 41
Credo, 35
crescendo, 8
Crumb, George, 118
Cui, Cesar, 111
cymbal, 19
dance forms, 40–41, 52
Davis, Miles, 138–139
Debussy, Claude, 4, 18, 118–121
decrescendo, 8
Delius, Frederick, 120–121
Des Prez, Josquin, 4
development, 63–65
Dies irae, 93
dissonance, 9, 38, 129
distortion, 8
divided air column, 14, 16
Dixieland, 136, 138
Donizetti, Gaetano, 101
double exposition, 67
double reed, 14–15
drums, 19
Dufay, Guillaume, 4, 35
Dukas, Paul, 120
duple meter, 6
duration, 5–6, 8
Durey, Louis, 123
Dvorak, Antonin, 84, 101, 111–112
dynamics, 3, 5, 7–8, 20, 47
Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart), 64–65
electronic instruments, 14, 20
Elgar, Edward, 4, 112, 118, 126
Ellington,“Duke,” 136, 138
endless melody, 102
English horn, 15
episode, 54
Erlkönig (Elfking) (Schubert), 87–88
Eroica Symphony (Beethoven), 77
Esterhazy family, 69–70
étude, 89
euphonium, 17
Evans, Bill, 138–139
exposition, 54, 63–65
Expressionism, 118, 121–123
Falla, Manual de, 112, 121, 126
families, instrumental, 13–14, 17, 19, 21
Fauré, Gabriel, 84
figured bass, 50
first-movement form, 63–65
flat, 5
flute, 3, 14
forte, 8
fortissimo, 8
Franck, Cesar, 84
French horn, 16
frequency, 5
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 56
fugue, 54–55
fundamental, 8
fusion, 138–139
Gabrieli, Giovanni, 4, 40
galliard, 41
Gershwin, George, 4, 112, 118, 127, 136
Gesualdo, Carlo, 38
gigue, 41
Gillespie, Dizzy, 137–138
Glass, Philip, 118–131
Glinka, Mikhail, 118, 131
glockenspiel, 19

Gloria, 35–36
Goodman, Benny, 137–138
Granados, Enrique, 111
grave, 7
Gregorian chant, 26–29, 34
Gregory, Pope, 25–26
Grieg, Edvard, 111
ground bass, 55
guitar, 3, 17–18
half step, 5, 26, 46
Handel, George Frideric, 4, 20, 48–50, 52, 54, 56
harmonics, 8–9, 16
harmony, 34
harp, 3, 17–18
harpsichord, 20, 50
Haydn, Franz Joseph, 4, 62, 67, 69–70
Henderson, Fletcher, 138
Herman, Woody, 138
Hindemith, Paul, 127, 129
“Hoe-Down,” from Rodeo (Copland), 2, 9
hocket, 29
Holst, Gustav, 118, 121, 126
homophonic, 34
Honegger, Arthur, 118, 123
horn (French), 16–17
hymn, 36
idée fixe, 93
imitation, 34
Impressionism, 118–119
impromptu, 89
improvisation, 41, 136–139
indeterminacy, 129
instrumental families, 13–14, 17, 19, 21
interval, 4
inversion, 122
isorhythmic motet, 29
Ives, Charles, 128
jazz, 136, 138
jazz band, 22
jongleurs, 30
Joplin, Scott, 135, 138
Kenton, Stan, 137–138
kettledrums, 19
keyboard family, 14, 20
klavier, 53
Kodály, Zoltán, 127
Kyrie, 35
largo, 7
Las Vegas Philharmonic, 20
leitmotif, 102
lento, 7
Leonin, 28
libretto, 47
Liebestod (Wagner), 102
lied, 86
lieder, 86–87
Ligeti, Gyorgy, 131
Liszt, Franz, 4, 84, 94, 101
“Little” Fugue in G minor (Bach), 55
Lully, Jean-Baptiste, 56
lute, 18
Luther, Martin, 36
MacDowell, Edward, 84
Machaut, Guillaume de, 4, 29, 38
madrigal, 38
Mahler, Gustav, 4, 84, 101, 108–110
major scale, 26, 46
Mannheim School, 60
Marenzio, Luca, 38
marimba, 19
mass, 34–37
mazurka, 89
measure, 6–7
Medieval, 4, 17, 25, 29–30
melody, melodic line, 2, 26–27, 29, 34
Mendelssohn, Fanny, 90
Mendelssohn, Felix, 84, 90–91, 101
Messiah (Handel), 48–50
meter, 6–7
metronome, 7
mezzo forte, 8
mezzo piano, 8
Milhaud, Darius, 118, 123
minimalism, 130
minnesingers, 30
minor scale, 26, 46
minstrels, 30
minuet and trio, 41, 63, 65
mode, 26
moderato, 7
Modern, 118, 129
modulation, 63–65
monophonic, 26–27
Monteverdi, Claudio, 4, 38–39, 47
Morley, Thomas, 39
Morton, Ferdinand “Jelly Roll,” 136, 138
motet, 28–29
motive, motif, 102
movement, 2, 47, 62
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 4, 64, 67–69
music drama, 102
musician, 3
Mussorgsky, Modest, 84, 111
nationalism, 100, 110–112
Neo-Classical, 118, 123–124
Index 167

168 Index
Neo-Romantic, 118, 124
nocturne, 89
Notre Dame School, 27–28
oboe, 3–4, 14–15
octave, 5
ode, 76, 79
Offenbach, Jacques, 105
Oliver, Joe “King,” 136, 138
opera, 41, 47–49
opera buffa, 67, 95
opera comique, 105
opera seria, 67
oratorio, 48
orchestra, 21–22, 50, 60–61
Ordinary, 35
Orfeo (Monteverdi), 38, 48
Orff, Carl, 129
organ, 14, 20, 50
organum, 27–28
overtone series, 8–9
overture, 47–48
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 4, 36–37
Parker, Charlie, 137–138
passacaglia, 55
Passion, 35
Pastoral Symphony (Beethoven), 78
pavane, 41
Penderecki, Krzysztof, 131
percussion family, 13, 19, 21
period, 61
Perotin, 28
pianissimo, 8
piano, 3, 8, 14, 20, 88
Piano Piece opus 33a (Schoenberg), 122
pianoforte, 60
piccolo, 14
pitch, 5, 8, 14, 17, 19
pitch contiuum, 131
plainchant, 26–27
plainsong, 26
polonaise, 89
polyphonic, 27–28, 34
polytonality, 128
Pope Marcellus Mass (Palestrina), 36
Poulenc, Frances, 4, 123
prelude, 54, 89
Prelude in E minor (Chopin), 92
prepared piano, 130
prestissimo, 7
presto, 7
prodigy, 68, 90
program music, 78, 84
progressive jazz, 138–139
Prokofiev, Serge, 4, 118, 124–125
Proper, 35
Protestant Reformation, 36
Purcell, Henry, 4, 50, 56
Rachmaninoff, Sergei, 118, 124–125
ragtime, 135–136, 138
Ravel, Maurice, 4, 18, 118, 120–121, 127
recapitulation, 63–65
recitative, 47
reed, 14
Reich, Steve, 130
Renaissance, 4, 7, 13, 25, 33, 40
requiem, 35, 69
Respighi, Ottorino, 120–121
retrograde, 122
retrograde inversion, 122
rhythm, 6, 26–28
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nicolai, 84, 111, 125
Ring of the Nibelung (Wagner), 101, 103
ripieno, 51
Rite of Spring (Stravinsky), 125–126
ritornello form, 51
rock music, 139
rococo, 55
Romantic, 4, 25
rondo, 66
Rossini, Giaocchinno, 4, 84, 95, 101
rounded binary, 62
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 59
rubato, 86
Russian Five, 101, 111
sacred, 25, 27–29, 34, 36
Saint-Saëns, Camille, 49
Salieri, Antonio, 68, 74
Sanctus, 35
sarabande, 41
Satie, Erik, 123
Saxe, Adolphe, 15
saxophone, 14–16
scale, 4–5, 26–27
Scarlatti, Alessandro, 56
Scarlatti, Domenico, 48, 56
scherzo, 76, 79, 89
Schoenberg, Arnold, 4, 118, 121–123
Schubert, Franz, 4, 84–87, 101
Schumann, Clara, 84, 89–90, 106
Schumann, Robert, 84, 89–90, 101, 106
secular, 25–30, 33, 37
segue, 77
serialism, 121
sharp, 5
Shostakovich, Dimitri, 4, 118, 125
Sibelius, Jean, 128
Silbermann, Gottfried, 46
single reed, 14

Smetana, Bedrich, 84, 101, 111
snare drum, 19
sonata, 40, 51, 62
sonata allegro form, 62–67
Sousa, John Philip, 127
staff, 5–7
Stamitz, Johann, 60
Star Wars (Williams), 102
Still, William Grant, 128
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 130
Stradella, Alessandro, 51
Stradivarius, Antonio, 9, 46
Strauss II, Johann, 101, 105
Strauss, Richard, 49, 84, 101, 113, 129
Stravinsky, Igor, 4, 118, 124–126, 137
string bass, 17–18
string family, 13, 17, 21
string quartet, 22, 63
strophic form, 30
subject, 54–55
suite, 52
Suppé, Franz von, 95
swing, 137–138
symphonic poem, 94
Symphonie Fantastique (Berlioz), 85, 93
symphony, 62, 64, 66
symphony orchestra, 21
Symphony #5 (Beethoven), 78
Symphony #8 (Mahler), 110
syncopation, 135
synthesizer, 20
Tailleferre, Germaine, 123
Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyitch, 4, 84, 101, 107–108
telharmonium, 2
tempo, 6–7, 47
tempo scheme (structure), 66
ternary form, 61
tetrachord, 26
theme and variations, 65
third-stream, 139
timbre, 5, 8–9, 18
time signature, 6–7
timpani, 19
toccata, 54
tone row, 121
tonic, 63
Torelli, Giuseppe, 51, 56
total serialism, 131
trio sonata, 62
triple meter, 7
trombone, 17
troubadours, 30
trouvéres, 30
trumpet, 16
tuba, 17
twelve-tone, 121
Twentieth century, 4, 25, 117–131
Index 169
Varèse, Edgard, 128, 130
Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 112, 118, 121, 126
Verdi, Giuseppe, 4, 84, 101, 104–105
vibraphone, 19
vibrato, 19
Vienna, Austria, 60, 68
viola, 17–18
violin, 17–18
virtuoso, 50
Vitry, Philippe de, 28
vivace, 7
Vivaldi, Antonio, 4, 56
Vocalise (Rachmaninoff), 125
Voltaire, Marie Arouet de, 59
Wagner, Richard, 4, 76, 84, 101–104
waltz, 89
Weber, Carl Maria von, 90, 95
Webern, Anton, 4, 118, 122
Weelkes, Thomas, 39
Whiteman, Paul, 136, 138
whole step, 26, 46
Williams, John, 102
Winkel, Dietrich Nikolaus, 7
woodwind family, 13–15, 21
woodwind quintet, 22
word painting, 34, 37
xylophone, 19
Zachau, Friedrich Wilhelm, 49

104 Chapter 9
music drama as “a total work of art.” Wagner directed every detail of the production,
from writing the music and the libretto, to costuming, set design, and even
the pyrotechnics that were employed in the productions for special effects. He
dreamed of the ultimate performance venue to properly produce the works, and
began work in earnest doing conceptual design work for the facility. After many
years of promoting his idea, the opera house at Bayreuth was finally opened.
The first works performed at Bayreuth were the four music dramas of the Ring,
during August of 1876. The opera house was truly a marvel of engineering, and
is still in use today.
During the period that the Ring was gestating, Wagner also composed two
other important works. One music drama, Tristan and Isolde (1859), was a masterpiece
of his principles of endless melody and music drama technique. Another,
Die Meistersinger (1867), is actually a delightful comic opera, devoid of
Wagner’s usual darkness and symbolism. Later, Wagner’s final music drama,
Parsifal, was completed in 1882.
Late in Wagner’s life, his friendship with Franz Liszt was re-established. By
that time, Cosima and Wagner had been married for many years, and the relationship
had produced four children. Wagner died in Venice on February 13,
1883. For over forty years after Wagner’s death, Cosima ran the Bayreuth opera
house with great success, and “Wagnerianism” spread steadily across the Western
world.
Not everyone was a fan of the Wagnerian approach to opera. In fact, many great
musicians, most notably Brahms, were vehemently opposed to the music drama philosophy.
In the view of Brahms and others, one cheapens music by forcing it into a
subordinate role as Wagner did in his music dramas. Music should live for its own sake,
and the poetic qualities that make music a unique art form are lost in Wagner’s integrated
approach to the arts, according to critics. In any event, Wagner’s impact on the
music world was huge; music would never be the same.
In spite of Wagner’s great influence on music, undoubtedly the most popular and
beloved of opera composers in the late nineteenth century was Guiseppi Verdi (1813–
1901). Verdi embraced the bel canto style of writing in most of his operas, though he did
try his hand at Wagner’s endless melody approach in one or two of his later works, particularly
Otello. In all, Verdi was one of the most beloved composers in history. In addition
to his success as a composer, he was also successful as a statesman and a farmer.
Composer Profile
Giuseppi Verdi (1813–1901)
B orn in Le Roncole, Italy on October 10, 1813, Giuseppe Verdi was considered
the last Italian opera master, in the line that started with Monteverdi in
the early seventeenth century. His operas are still often performed today, and
considered a part of the standard repertoire of any opera house. His melodic
arias are well known even to non-musicians, and used for background music in
many televised and cinematic productions. Knowing that the small town of Le
Roncole held no one qualified to teach his gifted son, Giuseppe’s father sent him
to the neighboring town of Busseto to get the education he needed. Verdi learned
a great deal studying with Vincenzy Lavigna, after being turned down for
admission to Milan’s Conservatory. He was told the reasons were threefold: he
was too old (he was older than the maximum age of 14), his lack of previous
training in theory and harmony, and the fact that he had not shown enough
evidence of talent, they said, to waive the admission rules.

The Late Romantic Period 105
His first opera, Oberto, was very successful and Verdi was awarded a threeopera
contract with the La Scala Opera House. However, his first comic opera
attempt, Un Giorno di Regno, was composed during a time when both his wife
and his son died. It was not successful at all and made Verdi think twice about
continuing with his ambition as a composer. Fortunately for us all, he persevered
and his next opera Nabucco made him one of the most popular composers
of the time. He went on to compose many more, such as Aida, Rigoletto, La
Forza del Destino, Don Carlos, two operas based on Shakespeare’s works Otello
and Falstaff, and Il Trovatore.
Verdi had become rich and famous with all these operas, and lived long
enough to become a real part of Italy’s heritage. When Verdi’s wife died in 1897,
Verdi himself gave up the will to live. He died in Milan, Italy on January 27, 1901.
One of the most long-lived composers, he was 88 when he died, and an entire
nation turned out for his funeral. A special session of the Rome Senate was
called to hear eulogies of Verdi, and the local schools closed for the day. Almost
250,000 people gathered throughout the streets when they transported Verdi’s
body to its final resting place.
Other major figures in late Romantic opera included the French composer Georges
Bizet (1838–1875), who composed Carmen (1875), one of the most approachable
operas of all time. Bizet’s realistic story of a Spanish cigarette girl, set in Seville, was in
direct contrast to the mythological plots of Wagner. The melodies were clear, distinct,
and immensely popular. The Spanish flavor, complete with a Habañera and The Toreador
Song, captured an exotic, international spirit. In Italy, the spiritual successor to Verdi
was Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924), whose blending of Romantic realism and
Impressionistic orchestrational style made him one of the most successful opera
composers of the early twentieth century. Several of his works, including La Boheme,
Tosca, and Madam Butterfly, are still among the most popular operas of all time.
Comic opera (known in France as opera comique) was tremendously popular during
the latter half of the nineteenth century. The French composer Jacques Offenbach
(1819–1880) composed the satirical Orpheus in the Underworld (1858). The Austrian
composer Johann Strauss Jr. (1825–1899), was most famously known as “The Waltz
King.” He composed lots of waltzes, as one might expect from The Waltz King, but also
composed extremely popular operas. Most notable were his operettas Die Fledermaus
(“The Bat”) and Die Zigeunerbaron (“The Gypsy Baron”). Incidentally, his most famous
piece, a waltz entitled An der Schönen Blauen Donau (“On the Beautiful Blue
Danube”), was composed in 1867 and has been used for several feature films including
2001: A Space Odyssey and Roxanne.
The popularity of opera comique spread to England with the works of W.S. Gilbert
and Arthur Sullivan, whose light operas included The Mikado (1885). The composers of
opera comique did as much to popularize opera as Wagner’s philosophies did to expand
the scope of the genre.
Symphonic Trends of the Late Romantic Period
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony still provided a formidable obstacle for many composers
of the late Romantic period to overcome. Many composers, including Wagner and
Brahms, simply could not help letting Beethoven’s influence appear in their symphonic
works. Though Wagner composed few symphonic works, he often went back to the
mighty Ninth Symphony for inspiration. Brahms probably became the real successor to
Beethoven’s symphonic legacy. Each of Brahm’s four symphonies were “normal” in
their four-movement makeup, but each contains the romantic fervor that made