The Origins, Development and Future of the Malagasy Wine Industry ...

The Origins, Development and Future of the Malagasy Wine Industry 

Gwyn Campbell 

McGill University 

Des vignes, effectivement ! Le touriste ainsi que le géographe ne s’attendent pas 

forcément à trouver cette plante d’origine méditerranéenne sous les tropiques. Et 

pourtant ce végétal occupe des espaces dans le Betsileo, ainsi que quelques zones 

des Hautes Terres Centrales. La vigne représente plus qu’une simple « exportation 

» coloniale. Elle est devenue un véritable moyen de mise en valeur des terrains 

agricoles. Les ceps servent même comme plante ornementale. En effet, il est 

facile de constater que la façade du commissariat d’Ambohijatovo Atsimo à 

Antananarivo est recouverte d’une vigne. Plus au sud, à Fianarantsoa, le long de 

la rue commerciale, plusieurs maisons de particuliers arborent un pied de vigne 

sur le mur extérieur. Le raisin devient un motif de décoration pour l’artisanat 

malagasy (broderies, poteries, fer forgé …). La vigne demeure donc plus qu’une 

simple fantaisie, elle modèle des espaces sur l’Ile Rouge, ou du moins apparaît 

comme une culture exogène qui a trouvé une place parmi le système agricole des 

Hautes Terres malgaches. 1 

It is generally held that wine grapes require a temperate climate that includes 

predominantly winter rainfall, frost-free late spring, and warm to hot 

summers to ensure ripening. 2 Thus the global wine industry has been 

analysed predominantly in terms of Old World and New World wines from 

regions characterised by those criteria. However, this largely ignores the 

nascent frontier of New Climate wines, including the New Altitude wines of 

tropical zones. Between 1996 and 2006, the area under commercial grape 

cultivation in tropical zones in Africa, Asia and Central and South-America 

north and south of the equator, between the Tropic of Cancer (23.27°N) and 

the Tropic of Capricorn (23.27°S) increased by 155 per cent, from 55,000 ha 

to over 140,000 ha. The increase was most rapid in Asian countries like 

India, Thailand, Myanmar and Vietnam where new vineyards for table grape 

and wine production are established every day. 3 

However, grape cultivation has also expanded elsewhere in the 

tropics. This paper investigates one of the most interesting cases of new 

latitude wines; that of the island of Madagascar, the world’s fourth biggest 

island (587,841 km²) - larger than France and the Benelux countries 

combined. Approximately 1580 km long and 570 km at its widest, it lies in 

the western Indian Ocean between 12° and 25° south. 4 Agriculture 

constitutes the basis of the Malagasy economy, contributing 26.0 per cent of 

gross national product (GNP) in 2005. Rice, the staple food, occupies 72 per 

cent of the agricultural population, and accounts for nearly half of 

1

agricultural production. They also cultivate for the internal market manioc, 

sweet potatoes, potatoes, maize, haricot beans, tomatoes, carrots, 

cauliflower, onions and a wide range of fruits including oranges, madarins, 

pineapple, avocado, banas, mangoes and litchis. For the external market, 

they cultivate a number of cash crops, notably coffee, vanilla, pepper, 

tobacco, groundnut, sisal, clove and ylang-ylang. 5 

Economic Sectors : Workforce and GDP 6 

Sector Workforce (%) GDP (%) 

Agriculture 75 20 

Industry 10 10 

Services 15 70 

As is the case with other tropical wine producers, Madagascar’s wine 

industry is dependent on altitude where temperatures are lower than on the 

coast. The wines of Madagascar are located in the central highlands that are 

1,300 to 1,700 metres above sea level, and experience two distinct seasons: 

hot and humid from November to March and dry from April to November. 

July and August are particularly cool and windy. South-east trade winds 

prevail, although north- and south-westerlies are not unknown. Plateau 

temperature and rainfall are well below those of the east coast where tropical 

conditions prevail: wet and humid throughout the year, an average annual 

rainfall of 2,950 millimetres (mm) - almost double that at Antananarivo - 

and temperatures varying from an average of 24.3° in the north (Vohimara) 

to 22.8° in the south (Tolanaro). 7 The plateau is hit often by hailstorms and 

occasionally, between November and March, by cyclones travelling inland 

from the east coast. 8 

The grape vine is grown on some 3,000 ha to 4,000 ha of land at 

altitudes of between 750 and 1400 meters in the central highlands of Imerina 

and Betsileo. Production is currently concentrated in the vineyards in a 

granite basin in the Ambalavao region in a region to the south of 

Fianarantsoa, the chief commercial centre of a fertile agricultural region 

producing rice, coffee, potatoes, tobacco, and wine. Indeed, food processing 

is the town's chief industry. 9 The wine industry constitutes a miniscule 

proportion of total agricultural production in Madagascar but is nevertheless 

viewed as possessing considerable potential for development, notably in 

terms of exotic ‘wine tourism’ and in exports to overseas ‘exotic’ wine 

markets. 

2

Madagascar: Main Wine-Growing region 10 

This paper traces the development of the wine industry in Madagascar 

from the early nineteenth century to the present day, and discusses the 

problems it faces, and the potential for its future development. 

Origins of Wine Production in Madagascar 

The conventional view is that French Roman Catholic missionaries 

introduced the main wine-producing vines to Madagascar in the nineteenth 

century in order to produce the wine used at mass. 11 Jesuit missionaries 

established a rest station at Ambohimalaza, 30 km southwest of 

Fianarantsoa. Considering the local soil and climate appropriate to wine 

grapes, they in c.1905 imported grape vines from Alsace by boat to 

Mananjary, the nearest port on the east coast, from where it was carried 

overland to Fianarantsoa and used to found, at the start of the twentieth 

century, the first vineyard in Madagascar. 12 

3

However, the origins of vine cultivation and wine production in 

Madagascar pre-date the French conquest of 1895. According to the Roman 

Catholic father Montagnac, Perrier de la Bathie considered that the grape 

vine was introduced to Madagascar in the tenth century by the Arabs. 13 

Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier (1817) stated that the vine had long existed 

in Imerina and Anosy, in the Southeast of the island. 14 Their assertion, 

supported by Pierre Boiteau, was that all Malagasy vines were varieties of 

Vitis vinifera introduced to the Comoro Islands and southeast Madagascar by 

ancient Persian immigrants probably prior to the sixteenth century. 15 

However, the Grandidiers’ report was based on observation of only one type 

of vine taken to France that produced ‘enormous’ grapes with large white 

oblong seeds, that was reported to be close to the Frankenthal (or Black 

Hambourg) variety introduced in 1724 from Hamburg to Frankenthal on the 

Rhine in Bavaria and described as ‘The best of all black grapes and 

deservedly the most popular.’ 16 Boiteau commented of this variety that it 

spread rapidly in south Madagascar, and in west of the island where it 

matured during the dry season, but did not prosper on the plateau where it 

reached maturity during the rainy season. Boiteau declared in 1938 that by 

then it was very rare. 17 

In fact, there exist a number of types of wild vine endemic to 

Madagascar. These include Cardiospermum grandiflorum or the balloon 

vine and Cardiospermum halicacabum or lesser balloon vine, both of the 

Sapindaceae family and considered weeds, and Vigna vexillata et Vigna 

angivensis, both of which are legumes highly resistant to insect attack. 18 

Naturalists have also noted that at least eight species of lemur currently 

exploit eight species of native vine for food (eating the fruit, seeds and 

leaves). 19 The Malagasy differentiate between voalobokagasy (litt. 

‘Malagasy vine’) and voalobobazaha (litt. ‘European vine’), while James 

Richardson also noted under ‘vine’ the terms voaloboka (voa: ‘fruit;’ 

loboka: ‘cowl’) which he says alludes to both the introduced Vitis vinifera 

and ‘a climbing plant with edible fruit,’ and voalobokala (ala = forest), a 

species of forest vine. 20 

In the southeast of the island, Lazarist priests who accompanied the 

settlers at Fort Dauphin under Étienne de Flacourt (1607-60), tried to 

cultivate local vine for wine. However, in 1655 they reported that although 

the grape tasted the same as that of French vines (although Raombana in 

1853 reported that the grapes of indigenous vines were sour 21 ), it failed to 

produce wine: In 1688/89, Dellon commented of the French settlement at 

Fort Dauphin: “There are masses of grapes in Dauphine Island [Madagascar] 

from which however, no wine is made and which the Blacks don’t eat.” 22 

4

Vines introduced in the south also include Cissus quadrangularis (Vitaceae), 

a large vine from the forests of eastern Africa found in the gallery forests 

along the Mandrare and Menarandra rivers that is considered a pest to other 

types of vegetation. 23 

Louis-Laurent de Féderbe (1725-77), comte de Modave, governor of 

the renewed French colony in Fort Dauphin from 1768 to 1771, planted the 

European vine there, but was ordered to abandon the colony before it cold 

bring fruit. Again, in 1777, Nicolas Mayeur reported the vine in the 

Andrantsay valley of southern Ankaratra where ‘it grew uncultivated, but 

produced few grapes.’ 24 Also, in late 1822, David Jones, David Griffiths and 

John Canham reported many vines cultivated in the moats surrounding the 

town of Ambatolehivy [Ambatolaivy?], in western Imerina. 25 This vine, the 

Grandidiers note, was more widespread than the ‘Frankenthal’ variety, had 

smaller seeds and ‘grapes that tasted like cassis to which one had to become 

accustomed, but is reasonably appreciated by the Europeans of the centre [of 

the island].’ 26 

In 1802, André Michaux (1746-1803) introduced an American vine, 

Vitis labrusca (Vitaceae), into his transplant garden started in 1801 near 

Ivondro, south of Tamatave. Michaux died the following year, but Vitis 

labrusca spread to the highlands where it prospered. 27 Certainly in early 

1821, Hastie reported that the hilly land around Antananarivo produced 

grapes, 28 while the naturalists Charles Hilsenberg and Wenceslas Bojer who 

visited the island in 1822-3 considered the vine among the top thirteen 

agricultural products in Imerina. 29 Again, in 1831, Joseph John Freeman, 

an LMS missionary, introduced the edible sweet grape from South Africa to 

Imerina where it flourished. Raombana commented in 1853 that all officers 

of high rank in Imerina planted Cape vines in their Antananarivo gardens 

and in the grounds of their country residences: 

Revd J.J. Freeman, a late Missionary at Antananarivo… introduced the Cape 

Vines, which now [1853] grows in the greatest plenty, so that it is expected that 

the foreign Grapes, will soon get the ascendency of the old Grapes of the country 

as to produce its utter annihilation soon, for the old Grapes of the country is sour, 

whilst the new ones are very sweet. 

It is now the custom of all superior officers of Rank in Imerina to plant 

Cape Grapes in their Gardens and country Houses and by the above means, 

enormous quantity of vines has been planted and will be planted in this country, 

that in a very short time, they will be too plentiful. 30 

This vine, which like others in the highlands blossoms in September, had red 

seeds, a thick pulp and a particular strong taste. Jean Laborde also planted 

5

grape vines – reported by Milhet-Fontarabie, a French doctor on Réunion, 

who visited Imerina in 18158, to grow well but in small quantity 31 - from 

which he produced wine, at his plantations at Lohosaha. 32 However, in 

Imerina, the climate was inappropriate and most vines served to give grapes, 

not wine. 

In Imerina, there was an ambivalent attitude to alcohol, notably to 

imported rum. Considerable amounts of rum were imported from the 

Mascarenes from the late eighteenth century by Europeans wishing to lower 

the costs of trade, for the Malagasy generally demanded firearms, 

gunpowder or piastres in exchange for slaves, cattle and provisions. They 

attempted to make rum a staple import into Imerina, but after suffering the 

effects of one drunken session, Andrianampoinimerina banned the local 

manufacture of toaka, or the import of foreign spirits into Imerina except for 

foreigners. Henceforth, most indigenous distilleries catering fro the Merina 

market shifted to the borders of Imerina. 33 

Radama I (r. 1810-28) was however fond of drink. Raombana claims 

that brandy influenced his decision to execute the ringleaders of the female 

protest against the cutting short of his, and his officers’ hair in 1820. 34 

Coppalle noted in 1825 that Radama preferred gin to wine, 35 and alcohol is 

said to have hastened his death, Coroller commenting that ‘Towards the 

latter years of his life, he was addicted to feasting and drinking to excess.’ 36 

Radama I also permitted his wives to drink alcohol. The Weelsh 

missionaries David Griffiths and David Jones, who drank alcohol at home, 

also offered it to members of the royal family. For example, Ranavalona I 

recalled in 1840 that ‘from the time of RADAMA, she and the other wives 

of the King often went to his [Griffiths’] house, that M. GRIFFITHS 

customarily treated them well and gave them a lot of rum to drink.’ 37 He 

further wrote that ‘a great number of people’ had recounted to him the story 

that in the 1820s during Radama I’s reign, Ranavalona 

Accompanied by some of the King’s other wives (who were treated by Radama 

in the same manner as her) 38 went one day to visit Mr. Jones who was teaching 

Rakotobe and the nieces of Radama – Mrs. Jones treated them with some raw 

brandy which made them rather drunk and in going home to the palace, as they 

passed the door of the old judge Rainimahay, she (Ranavalona) cried, and called 

out in a loud voice to the old judge, that Radama treats her in the most shameful 

manner, for that he never lays with her, and bestows his embraces to other mean 

women, and that he (Rainimahay) ought to advise the King to lay with her. 39 

Radama’s response was to forbid both his wives from visiting Europeans, 

and Europeans and Creoles living in Antananarivo from giving spirits to his 

6

wives and sisters, and never to sell spirits to them upon pain of death. One 

Creole wife of a French national was subsequently expelled for disobeying 

this injunction. 40 

It would appear that this injunction was posted on the palace walls on 

31 March 1826: 

Antananarivou 21 adijady 1826. 

Ary houy Lahy-Dama manjaka ; Lazaikiou aminareo raha misy oulouna mividy 

touaka amy ny « vazaha very vady anianzanaka ; ary ny vazaha ividiany kiousa 

gadrana, dia terina amy ny tany «ny touirany » 

houy RADAMA. 

[‘Antananarivo, 31 March 1826. 

And Lahidam [Radama] declares : I say to you that if someone buys alchohol 

from a Vazaha he, his wife and children shall be enslaved; and the Vazaha who 

sells alcohol will be « kiousa gadrana » and be sent back to his own country. 

So says RADAMA.] 41 

Such attitudes also affected missionary use of communion wine. Thus, 

when Ranavalona I (r.1828-61) in 1831 permitted Merina converts to 

Christianity to be baptized and receive communion, David Griffiths 

commented of the first batch of communicants in May 1831: ‘the use of 

fermented wine was forbidden during the Lord’s Supper, for alcoholic drinks 

were contrary to the law of the land.’ 42 

However, Griffiths and Jones continued to be accused by their 

missionary ‘colleagues’ of indulging in alcohol, holding drunken parties for 

their Merina and French friends, and even of promoting the sale of alcohol. 43 

Moreover, in practice Ranavalona ordered large quantities of alcohol for 

palace consumption, it being noted that ‘even at the start of her reign, she 

customarily sent to his house for large quantities of rum for consumption by 

her officials when it was in short supply in the Palace.’ 44 

Current Wine Production: Problems and Prospects 

The centre of wine production is in the Ambalavao region of south central 

Betsileo in the southern highlands of Madagascar. It is concentrated in the 

mountain-fringed basin between Betroka and Tampoketsa of Betsileo, at an 

altitude of between 1,400m and 2,500 m. The land comprises chiefly an 

acidic clay-limestone, heavy rich moisture-retaining soils that characterise 

most favoured wine producing regions. It also possesses an appropriate 

microclimate, with prolonged sunlight, and protection (due to the 

7

Wine-Growing Region of Southern Betsileo 45 

surrounding mountains) from damaging winds. 46 The region experiences an 

average annual rainfall of between 900mm and 1200 mm, and a temperature 

that varies between 6°C and 35°C. It has two seasons: a hot wet rainy season 

between November and March and a cool but humid dry season from April 

to October. It has a number of small rivers flowing westwards, the chief ones 

being the Mananantanana and the Zomandao. 47 

8

Winegrowing Region of Upper Matsiatra 48 

Major Producers 

There exist about 700 vine-growers, with an average of 2 Ha of vineyard 

each, are centered on Fianarantsoa and Ambalavo 49 Ambalavao, with a 

population of some 20,000, is considered by some to be the ‘wine capital’ of 

Madagascar. 50 Currently, the chief wine producer with 18.25 per cent of 

total production is Lazan’i Betsileo. It was created in 1971 as Soaindrana (20 

km au sud de Fianarantsoa)the Centre viti-vinicole du Betsileo (CVVB), a 

project of official Malagasy-Swiss cooperation to teach small farmers of the 

Upper Matsiatra region how to cultivate the vine and produce wine. 51 Later 

privatized, it is one of the few Malagasy enterprises where the bulk (650) of 

shareholders is peasant-wine growers. Some 1,500 families are financially 

dependent upon the company’s activities, either in labouring in the 

vineyards, or producing or selling wine. It possesses 259 ha under vine 

cultivation and in 2007 produced 500,000 litres. It expects to harvest over 

700 tonnes of grapes in the 2008 season. 52 

9

Upper Matsiatra: Chief Wine Growers and Stockers (2003) 53 

Owners Caves 

Average 

Productive 

Capacity 

(litres) 

% of 

Total 

Capacity 

Locality 

Lazan’i Betsileo 5 178,333 18.25 Soaindrana – Fianarantsoa 

(F.F.M.V) Andoharanomaintso 

Alakamisy Ambohimana 

Nasandratrony 

Befeta 

Société des Vins et Spiritueux 

(SVS) 

1 108,666 11.12 Maroparasy – Ambalavao 

Mac & Frères (Clos Malaza) 1 105,541 10.80 Ambohimalaza-Andoharano/tso 

Coteau d'Ambavalao 1 104,190 10.66 Maroparasy – Ambalavao 

Soavita (Société Agricole 

1 94,000 9.62 Manamisoa – Ambalavao 

Viticole d'Ambalavao). 

Cotes d’Isandra 1 73,500 7.52 Isorana 

Zanatany 1 65,550 6.71 Sahamena – Fianarantsoa 

Chan Kam Hiou 1 53,185 5.44 Ifanirea 

Chan Foui & Fils 1 45,800 4.69 Tolongoina – Ambalavao 

Ecar Antsahamasina 1 40,166 4.11 Antsahamasina-Fianarantsoa 

Ecar Maromay 1 29,473 3.02 Maromby-Fianarantsoa 

Thierry Lock Sea Pou 1 20,000 2.05 Soaindrana – Fianarantsoa 

Dany Chan Hine Yone 1 20,000 2.05 Ivoamba Fianarantsoa 

Jean Edmond Rakoto 1 11,000 1.13 Tsaramasoandro Befeta 

Serge Razafimaharo 1 10,000 1.02 Ankofafalahy Fianarantsoa 

Njatotsiory 1 10,000 1.02 Maromby-Fianarantsoa 

Mathilde Lam Way Lane 1 6,000 0.61 Talatamaty Fianarantsoa 

Jean Christophe Sam Weng 1 1,810 0.19 Ambohitsoa Ambalavao 

TOTAL 22 977,214 100 

Distilleries 

Mac & Frères 1 15,000 54.74 Ambohimalaza Andoharano 

Chan Foui & Fils 1 12,400 45.26 Tolongoina Ambalavao 

TOTAL 2 27,400 100 

Another major producer is Clos Malaza which owns a 400 ha estate at 

Ambohimalaza, 30 km southwest of Fianarantsoa. 54 Originally run by 

Jesuits, the vineyard was in 1987 purchased by a private consortium, the 

major shareholders in which, Mac & Frères, bought out the others in 1996. 55 

Third comes Soavita (c. 30 ha) in the Ambalavao region. 56 

Major Varietals 

Following the French conquest of 1895, many new varietals were introduced 

both by individuals and by the official Service de l’Agriculture to resist 

phylloxera. However, few survived due to fungal attacks, and grapes could 

only be successfully harvested if the vine was treated with copper sulfate. 57 

Boiteau claimed that by 1938 there existed six 

varieties of grape in Madagascar. 58 The first, Vitis vinifera L., was the 

10

widespread European vine called locally Voalobobazaha. The second, Vitis 

berlandieri Planch, commonly known as ‘Spanish vine’ Boiteau described 

as a vine of Texan origin, although bit is also cultivated in New Mexico and 

Arkansas. It is a hardy decidious climber that can grow on sandy, loamy or 

heavy clay but well-drained soils in shaded (wooded) localities, and yields 

very large clusters of small berries that when ripe have a slightly bitter but 

pleasant taste. 59 The third, Vitis lincecumii Buckley, also known as Vitis 

astivalis lincecumii, or ‘Post-Oak Grape,’has the same soil and shade 

preferences, but its fruit (between 10 and 25mm in diameter) has a pleasant 

musky-free flavour. 60 A fourth vine was Vitis rupestris Scheele, which 

shares the same soil habitat preferences as the vines above-mentioned, and 

produces very sweet and pleasant flavoured grapes of 6mm to 12mm in 

diameter. 61 

A fifth vine was Vitis riparia Michx. ‘Riparia,’ the 

latin for ‘growing near river banks or lakes,’ indicates its preferred habitat, 

and it is the most widely distributed of indigenous North American grapes. 

Highly resistant to phylloxera, and moderately resistant to mildew, it 

produces small to medium-sized grapes with a highly acid, but not ‘foxy’ 

taste that when fully mature, or even over-ripe is widely liked. The excessive 

acid and low sugar content is corrected by adding water and sugar to the 

must, or freshly pressed grape juice. 62 

The last and most imporant was Vitis labrusca L., the 

American vine introduced by Michaux in the early nineteenth century, and 

which was known locally in Malagasy as Voalobobazaha and, by colonists 

as Isabella – in America one of the names, alongside Concord and Hartford, 

given to the northern fox grape (Vitis Labrusca) as opposed to the southern 

fox grape (Vitis vulpina) known as Scuppernong ( and probably Catawba). 63 

It was probably for this reason that Boiteau described it as possessing ‘a red 

seed, thick pulp and characteristically foxy taste’ 64 (my italics), although 

foxy is elsewhere described ‘a particular taste with a bouquet of 

strawberry.’ 65 By 1938, despite its dubious taste, Vitis labrusca L comprised 

the basis for the majority of local wine production which was considerable. 66 

The major varietals currently grown comprise the 

‘foxy’ Isabella (Vitis labrusca), and Couderc 13 (a Vitis lincecumii-Vitis 

vinifera hybrid) used to produce white wine, and, to a lesser degree Petit 

bouchet (a Cabernet Sauvignon hybrid from the ‘Aramon’ and ‘Teinturier’ 

varietals), 67 and Chambourcin or Johannès Seyve 26205 (most likely based 

on the better Seibel hybrids involving possibly eight American Vitis species 

that emerged in the 1970s). 68 

11

Methods 

The most widespread method of vine cultivation is contre-espalier in which 

the vine is supported by bamboo stakes. 69 The grapes are harvested in 

January and February, at the close of the hot wet season. 70 

Vineyards and Rice Fields, Madagascar 71 

Wine-making is characterised by a lack of mechanisation ; most tasks are 

performed by hand. Because of the inadequate rape sugar levels, sugar is 

generally added to the rape – forming 20 per cent or more of the total. 

Remontage is peformed once a week and the rape left in the fermentation 

vats (in contact with the air) for up to twenty days. 72 

Problems 

Tropical Conditions 

Climate plays a determinant role in the quality and quantity of wine. 

Because Madagascar is dissected by the Tropic of Capricorn, the vine (vitis 

vinifera) there is affected by higher temperatures, rainfall, and hygrometry 

than affect temperate zone, and solar radiation that lasts twelve hours a day. 

All this means that, in its natural state, the vine produces small grapes. It is 

also characterised by a lack of fertility. 73 

Varietals 

The major varietals grown, while resistant to phylloxera, produce wines of 

low quality because they contain higher levels of methanol than vitis 

vinifera. 74 For this reason, they were prohibited in Italy as early as 1931 and 

12

are currently banned in major wine growing countries. 75 

Management and Technical Expertise 

While some estates, such as Clos Malaza, have invested in modern 

machinery and training, 76 there is a general lack of technical expertise. This 

in part derives from poor education and training, and in part from 

multicropping. 

From 1940 to 1960 the ‘Conseil de Perfectionnement’ pushed the 

Institute Pasteur at Antananarivo (established in 1900) into accepting teams 

of researchers working to promote the economy, notably agriculture, and 

these included a team researching vine diseases. 77 Nevertheless, this was not 

successfully translated into practice and today grape cultivaters apply few 

phyosanitary measures. Mildew (oïdium) remains the chief blight of the 

vine in Madagascar, 78 although major damage is also caused by termites and 

birds. 79 

In addition, some estates have been plagued by a lack of access to 

finance - most systems of formal and informal credit are poorly structured 

and vary 80 - and by financial mismanagement. Only in 2007 did the peasantshareholders 

of Lazan’i Betsileo receive the sums owed to them and thus 

start to be paid immediately for their harvests. 81 

Theft and Fraud 

Theft, notably of vine-support stakes (échalas) and of grape harvests is 

another problem. 82 This is directly related to poverty: wood, even bamboo, 

on the plateau, notably for fuel, is in very short supply and thus expensive, 

whilst grapes can be consumed privately or sold on local markets. There 

have also been cases where poor quality products have been fraudulently 

sold as genuine wine products – as occurred to Lazan’i Betsileo. 83 

Cleanliness and Bottles 

The Malagasy wine industry is characterized by a lack of attention to 

cleanliness. Some tourists visiting Soavita winery in 2006 wrote: 

The first thing we saw, after the women delabeling and cleaning old wine bottles, 

was that they had many large concrete vats. Their process was roughly described 

to us: they press the grapes for six days in a mechanical press; the juice is put into 

the vats, along with sugar and some chemical, but no yeast, for six months (red 

wine gets some of the skins left in); they fill bottles. The woman telling us this 

asked if we wanted a taste, which of course we did. She took a (not very clean) 

drinking glass and leaned into one o the concrete vats and dipped out a sample of 

red wine, and handed us the glass. The best thing that can be said is that it did not 

13

taste like concrete. She then dipped the same glass (which we had each used) into 

the white wine. It had a slight bit of character. Neither had any hint of oak. 84 

This problem also affects bottles. Nevertheless, as in Madagascar bottles are 

produced specifically for the beer industry but are not for the wine industry, 

there exist problems of bottle supply, and while major efforts are made to 

recycle and re-use bottles, insufficient attention is paid to sterilisation of 

used bottles. Moreover, although Clos Malaza personalise the bottles they 

use through screen printing, 85 the majority practice of bottling Malagasy 

wines in a bottle already printed with the signature of a foreign wine is often 

off-putting to the consumer. 86 

Storage 

Although Fianarantsoa, is the chief commercial centre of a fertile 

agricultural region producing rice, coffee, potatoes, tobacco, and wine, and 

food processing is the town's chief industry, 87 the wine industry suffers from 

costs of storage. 88 

Taste 

Malagasy wines tend to taste “sharp” or “sour” following oxidation – a 

problem that appears linked to multiple factors, including lack of 

cleanliness, and lack of sustained technical expertise. These need to be 

addressed. At the same time, producers are concentrating on older vines, the 

grapes from which produce much better quality wines. 89 

Market 

Most Malagasy wine is sold on the domestic market where its consumption 

is primarily limited by the poverty of the Malagasy. According to a 2003 

report by the Institut national de la statistique (INSTAT) 77 per cent of the 

Malagasy population live in rural areas, as do 85 per cent of the 

impoverished. 90 This would indicate that the best markets for wine are the 

big cities. 

Urban Areas with Populations of over 40,000 (2005) 91 

Town Population Town Population 

Antananarivo 1,613,375 Antsiranana 80,001 

Tamatave 200,568 Antanifotsy 65,444 

Antsirabe 176,933 Ambovombe 63,032 

Fianarantsoa 160,550 Taolagnaro 42,944 

Mahajanga 149,863 Amparafaravola 48,284 

Toliara 113,014 

14

Madagascar Profile 92 

Criteria 2000 2005 2006 

A/ Overview 

Population, total (millions) 16.19 18.64 19.16 

Population growth (annual %) 2.9 2.8 2.7 

Surface area (sq. km) (thousands) 587.0 587.0 587.0 

GNI, Atlas method (current US$) (billions) 3.87 5.38 5.34 

GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) 240 290 280 

GNI, PPP (current international $) (billions) 12.09 15.30 16.58 

GNI per capita, PPP (current international $) 750 820 870 

B/ People 

Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 56 59 59 

Fertility rate, total (births per woman) 5.5 5.0 4.9 

Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19) 152 139 136 

Contraceptive prevalence (% of women ages 15-49) 19 .. .. 

Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total) 46 .. .. 

Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000) 137 119 115 

Immunization, measles (% of children ages 12-23 months) 56 59 59 

Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group) 36 58 57 

Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (%) .. .. 96 

Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49) .. 0.5 .. 

C/ Environment 

Forest area (sq. km) (thousands) 130.2 128.4 .. 

Agricultural land (% of land area) 69.6 70.2 .. 

D/ Economy 

GDP (current US$) (billions) 3.88 5.04 5.50 

GDP growth (annual %) 4.8 4.6 4.9 

Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %) 7.2 18.4 11.3 

Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) 29 28 28 

Industry, value added (% of GDP) 14 16 15 

Services, etc., value added (% of GDP) 57 56 57 

Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) 31 27 30 

Imports of goods and services (% of GDP) 38 41 41 

Gross capital formation (% of GDP) 15 23 25 

Revenue, excluding grants (% of GDP) 11.7 11.0 11.7 

Cash surplus/deficit (% of GDP) -2.0 5.7 9.9 

E/ States & Markets 

Time required to start a business (days) .. 38 21 

Military expenditure (% of GDP) 1.2 1.1 1.0 

Fixed line and mobile phone subscribers (per 100 people) 1 3 6 

Internet users (per 100 people) 0.2 0.5 0.6 

Roads, paved (% of total roads) 12 .. .. 

High-technology exports (% of manufactured exports) 1 1 1 

F/ Global Links 

Merchandise trade (% of GDP) 47 45 44 

Net barter terms of trade (2000 = 100) 100 77 77 

External debt, total (DOD, current US$) (millions) 4,691 3,466 1,453 

Short-term debt outstanding (DOD, current US$) (millions) 301 75 189 

Total debt service (% of exports of goods, services and income) 9.6 5.7 .. 

Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) (millions) 83 29 230 

Workers' remittances and compensation of employees, received (US$) (millions) 11 11 11 

Official development assistance and official aid (current US$) (millions) 322 914 754 

15

However, consumption of wine in Fianarantsoa, as in the surrounding 

region, has traditionally been low. 93 Moreover, while overall alcohol 

consumption and thus sales have declined since independence, and reached a 

nadir in the decades of World Bank and IMF-enforced austerity in the 1980s 

and 1990s, wine performed particularly badly. In 1998 the average annual 

per capita consumption of wine in Madagascar was 4.66 gallons, well behind 

France (16.14), Italy (14.51), Argentina (10.44), Uruguay (9.28) Croatia 

(12.59) and Greece (7.46) but ahead of Britain (3.76) America (1.97), 

Uzbekistan (1.81), Ireland (1.58), Azerbaijan (.91), Japan (.67), and Mexico 

(.04). 94 

This is in part a reflection of the quality: price ration; while Malagasy 

wines are much cheaper than imported wines from established wineproducing 

countries such as France and South Africa, they are of variable 

quality 95 and generally expensive compared to other locally-produced 

alcoholic drinks of much more uniformly good quality such as beer and rum 

(see appendix). 

Estimated Adult (15+) Per Capita Consumption of Alcohol, 1961-2001 96 

While the acreage under vines for wine rose from 250 ha to 550 ha 

between 1960 and 2000, it has dropped from a peak in the 1980s of over 800 

ha. The decline can in part be attributed to the ongoing impovershmnet of 

the Malagasy in the 1990s, but more particularly, given the elite market for 

16

wine, to the re-emergence of South African wines in external markets 

following the end of Apartheid. 97 

However, while some claim that the Betsileo have a distinct penchant 

for wine consumption 98 the reality is that for most Malagasy, including the 

Betsileo, the national drink is rum – which has long enjoyed a central role on 

both ritual and social occasions as a local Betsileo proverb emphasizes: Ny 

Betsileo tsa mba mamo fa ny toaka ro mahery (‘Ny Betsileo tsy mamo fa ny 

toaka no mahery’ or ‘The Betsileo are never drunk; rather it’s the rum which 

is too strong’ 99 ). 

Industrially manufactured rums of renkown include Dzamanzary 

(from Nosy Be), Ambilobe (Port Saint-Louis), and Maromamy 

(Brickaville). 100 They also include local artisanal rums (known as toaka gasy 

or, in Maroantsetra region as betsa-betsa). It was made chiefly from sugar 

cane, 101 of which at least 20 different varieties exist, but also from honey, a 

vast range of berries and fruit, satrana palm seed, and some tree barks (e.g. 

the Sakalava wild coconut palm). 102 Distillation methods varied widely, but 

the most common was on the lines of that used on the east coast. The cane 

was first laid on a log along whose length a groove had been chiselled. 

Another log was rolled over the cane, crushing it and causing its juice to 

flow along the groove into a collecting pan where it was left to ferment. 

Occasionally the juice was consumed following the initial fermentation. 

More often the fermented liquid was boiled in a large vessel and sealed save 

for a bamboo reed or iron pipe, fixed in a cask of cool water, which carried 

the condensed spirit to another pan. Imported opium equipment was also 

sometimes adapted to distil alcohol. 103 

Rum was also imported from the neighbouring Mascarene island. 

Thus, unlike Mozambique, where in the early twentieth century wine was in 

huge demand amongst the indigenous population, 104 in Madagascar there 

was an insatiable demand for imported rum. G.A. Shaw estimated in 1884 

that 10,000 barrels each of 40 to 50 gallons were imported on the east coast 

alone. He noted then: 

Frequently have I entered a village after sundown only to find every person in it 

drunk, and even the little children staggering in their play round the fire or in the 

moonlight. In the village to which I have conducted you there were on my first 

visit but six houses, each one of which was supplied with a large stock of rum. 105 

The liking for rum continues. Thus a recent visitor commented of locallyproduced 

rum: 

17

my god do they know how to make rum. Some of it should be investigated by 

NASA as a fuel for the shuttle it has such a kick. There is rum with lychees, rum 

with vanilla (particularly nice with a real vanilla pod), rum with ginger, rum with 

pineapple. In fact rum with anything, except rice. From what I can gather the 

music scene in Madagascar is fueled by rum also. The locals would turn up at 

night around our campfire with their drums and Tsaboky's (a small handmade 

guitar with an amazing sound). They would sit around in a shy fashion playing 

their instruments with their backs turned to us in some cases. As soon as the rum 

was passed around then the singing and dancing began and would go on until the 

early hours of the morning. 106 

Beer is also competitive, notably the locally produced Three Horses Beer – 

popularly called THB. It is a good quality malt liquor produced since 1957 

in Antsirabe by Brasseries Star Madagascar, and which prospers to the 

degree that it sponsors the premier football competition in Madagascar, the 

THB Champions League. Ity selles in 33cl and 65 cls bottles – the latter 

selling at between 1,500 and 4,000 ariary. Annual consumption has risen to 

4 litres per capita (an annual total of 800,000 hectolitres). In addition, 

Mauritius Breweries exports lager (Phoenix and Blue Marlin), Guinness 

(Extra Stout) and Warsteiner to Madagascar. 107 Amongst the other drinks 

are betsa - a fermented alcohol, trembo – a coconut toody, and litchel, an 

alcoholic drink with lychee juice. 108 

Transport 

Transport, a major factor in distribution and cost, is seasonally variable 

and expensive. 109 Both Fianarantsoa and Ambalavao are on the route 

nationale (RN7). 110 The road infrastructure declined rapidly from 1972. 

However, from 2002, road building and rehabilitation has been a priority 

and in 2005 alone, 8,982km of roads were rehabilitated or maintained. 111 

The region is also served by rail. Since 1936 a railway called FCE 

(Chemin de fer Fianarantsoa – Côte Est) has linked Fianarantsoa to 

Manakara, a small port on the Indian Ocean, 168 km away. The trip is 

done in seven to eight hours. However, the equipment is old and badly 

needs replacing with modern machinery, and the over 50 tunnels need to 

be upgraded and maintained. From 2000, steps have been taken to 

privatise Madagascar’s railway lines and this may lead to the required 

investment. 112 

18

Railway Line Fianarantsoa-Manakara 113 

The Future 

Nevertheless, the future looks promising given the growing significance of 

wines grown at altitude on favourable soils in the tropics. These include 

wines from India (Malabar Hills), the Kenya highlands, and Madagascar. 

Where Wine production has grown from 2.3 million gallons in 1998 to 12.5 

million in 2005 (when Madagascar was the world’s 48 th largest wine 

producer). 114 

Because of financial contraints, Malagasy wine-farmers have retained 

hybrid grape varieties producing poor quality wines. 115 However, domestic 

producers have already started to adopt measures to improve quality. For 

example, from 1996 Mac & Frères modernised the equipment and 

vinification process on their Ambohimalaza (Clos Malaza) estate, enlarged 

the variety of products from wine to local fruit-based organic apéritifs, 

eaux-de-vie and liqueurs, and widened its sales appeal through personalised 

silk-screen imprinted bottles. Moreover, it continues to invest in research, 

and search for further ways to diversify, through its association with the 

Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agronomique at Antananarivo and various 

Malagasy and international agricultural organisations. 116 

An excellent sign of change is the development of international 

cooperation, notably between the majority peasant-owned Lazan'i Betsileo 

and the Agriculteurs Français et Développement International (AFDI) of 

19

Bourgogne, in France. ) Jean-François Régis Rajomalahy, the Lazan'i 

Betsileo managing director, has led a delegation to Bourgogne. Technical, 

commercial and administrative personnel of the Malagasy company are to 

undergo training at Dijon in vine-growing and in wine production, while 

French wine technicians will in return visit the Lazan'i Betsileo estate to 

introduce new quality varietals, and improve the quality of existing 

hybrids. 117 The key transfer of knowledge here are rootstock varieties and 

grape cultivars that can perform best under the given short-day conditions of 

the tropics. 118 Account must also be taken of global warming. Higher 

temperatures may expand crop production generally in northern Europe and 

Canada and, with the use of modern chemical fertilisers and pest controls, at 

higher altitudes everywhere. 

The potential for wine tourism is certainly considerable. The number 

of foreign visors to Madagascar has almost quadrupled since 1996 and the 

Table Tourism: Number of Visitors, 1996-2007 119 

Year Foreign Tourists Year Foreign Tourists 

1996 85,000 2002 n.a. 

1997 110,000 2003 200,000 

1998 130,000 2004 220,000 

1999 138,000 2005 265,000 

2000 160,000 2006 280,000 

2001 180,000 2007 313,000 

Ministry of Tourism anticipates that they will rise to 500,000 by 2012. 

Tourism is a major earner of foreign currency ($US 200m in 2005). 

Currently, 58 per cent of visitors are French, followed by Germans (18 per 

cent), Italians, Swiss and Americans. 120 

The major vineyards, those around Ambalavao (Soavita, Chan Foui, et 

SVS - Société des Vins et Spiritueux), and Ambohimalaza (Clos Malaza), 30 

km south-west of the provincial capital of Fianarantsoa, 121 produces red, 

white, rosés and gris wines. 122 However, they are expanding their range. In 

2007, Lazan’i Betsilo produced from grapes ten types of alcolic drink; five 

table wines, an aperitif, a liqueur, a gin, a blanc moelleux and a sparkling 

wine. 123 Even small local wine-makers in Ambalavao use grapes to 

manufacture grape juice, and gin with an alcohol content of 40 per cent. 124 It 

might also be possible to experiment with fruits other than grapes for the 

production of wine. Several experiments with African tropical fruits, such as 

carambola (Averrhoa carambola), African bush mango (Irvingia 

var.gabonensis), black plum (Vitex doniana Sweet), palm wine, cashew and 

pawpaw have already illustrated the potential for this. 125 

20

The potential for wine tourism is considerable. Madagascar can never 

aspire to compete with major producers such as France where mass tourism 

is a huge generator of revenue. However, it can compete for the niche of 

superior unique ‘exotic’ and ‘eco-tourism’. The original vine plants were 

chosen for their resistance to certain vine-diseases, for their ability to adapt 

to the highland climate and pedology, and for their yield. They were thus 

hybrids rather than the so-called ‘noble’ wine varieties used by elite wineproducing 

countries. However, in like manner, many Malagasy cocoa and 

coffee growers retained the initially-imported (nineteenth century) cocoa and 

coffee varieties 126 which has given some Malagasy cocoa and coffee 

varieties a niche market, so Malagasy wines can secure a niche market as 

‘exotic’ wines, with their own inimitable characteristics. 

21

1 ‘“Ny Betsileo tsa mba mamo fa ny toaka ro mahery”’ - 

http://www.msha.fr/cervin/modules/archives/downloads/memoire_DEA_nico.pdf (29/05/08), pp.2, 5. 

2 W. McLennan, Year Book Australia, 1996 (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996), 414 

3 Wolfgang W. Schaefer , ‘Tropical Viticulture and Hot Climate Wine Making’ - http://www.tropicalviticulture.com/index.php?dir=information 

(28/05/08). 

4 Ministère de l’Agriculture, de L’Elevage et de la Peche, ‘La Vigne’ - http://www.maep.gov.mg/ 

(28/05/08). 

5 Vie Pratique, ‘Madagascar en bref’ - 

http://www.consulatmad.org/sommaire/6_madagascar_enbref/textes/vie_pratique.htm (28/05/08). 



7 Oliver, Madagascar vol.I, 285, 451-2; James Sibree, A Naturalist in Madagascar (London: Seeley, 

1915), 53; Charles Robequain, Madagascar et les bases dispersées de l’union française (Paris, 1958), 50- 

1. 

8 Hugon, ‘Aperçu de mon dernier voyage à ancova de l’an 1808’, BL.Add.18137, 11; Le Sage, ‘Mission to 

Madagascar’ (1816), 102 - PRO. CO.167/34; Oliver, Madagascar vol.I, 450 and vol.II, 3; GH (1928), 6- 

8, 30-9. 

9 ‘Fianarantsoa’ The Columbia Encyclopedia, (2004) - 

http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/fianarantsoa.jsp (28/05/08). 

10 M. Fiori, A. Cossu, P. Capece, G. Bianco, A. Delitala & S. Canu, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le 

développement de la viticulture a Madagascar’ - 

http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/index.asp (29/05/08), p.4. 

11 SAR, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le développement de la viticulture a Madagascar’ - 

http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/pag009.asp (30/04/08); M. Fiori, A. 

Cossu, P. Capece, G. Bianco, A. Delitala & S. Canu, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le développement de 

la viticulture a Madagascar’ - 

http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/index.asp (29/05/08), p.8-9. 

12 http://www.closmalaza.com/fshistorique.htm (29/05/08); 

http://membres.lycos.fr/closmalaza/historique.htm; http://www.fianarantsoa.com/FRA/index1.htm.. 

13 ‘Ny Betsileo tsa mba mamo fa ny toaka ro mahery,’ 5. 

14 Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 207, fn.1. 

15 Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 207, fn.1g; Pierre 

Boiteau, ‘Cours élémentaires de botanique appliqués à Madagascar et débutés à Tananarive, en octobre 

1938’ - http://www.ilerouge.org/spip/spip.php?article9 (19/01/08). 

16 Charles McIntosh, The Book of the Garden vol.II (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1855), 633; Alfred 

and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 207, fn.1g;. 

17 Pierre Boiteau, ‘Cours élémentaires de botanique appliqués à Madagascar et débutés à Tananarive, en 

octobre 1938’ - http://www.ilerouge.org/spip/spip.php?article9 (19/01/08). 

18 La diversité biologique de Madagascar’ (14-10-2003) - http://www.pnae.mg/chmcbd/implementation/services/biodiv/biodiv_terrestre_ecosyst.htm 

(01/05/08). 

19 C.R. Birkinshaw and I.C. Colquhoun, ‘Lemur Food Plants’ in Steven M. Goodman & Jonathan P. 

Benstead (eds.), The Natural History of Madagascar (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003),1216- 

7, 1219. 

20 Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 207, fn.1g; J. 

Richardson, Dictionary, 764. 

21 Raombana, Histoires (1853), 3 - Archives de l’Académie Malgache. 

22 Mr.Dellon, Nouvelle Relation d’un voyage fait aux Indes Orientales (Amsterdam: Paul Marret, 1699), 

31; see also Étienne de Flacourt, Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar, Ed. & annotée pa Claude Allibert 

(Paris: Karthala, 1995), 21, 54, 202, 519;; RH, 15-16; L. Busson, ‘La vigne à Madagascar’ Revue de 

l’Agriculture et de l’élevage à Madagascar 15 (1934); Laurence J. Dorr, review of Dictionnaire de 

biographie Mauricienne/Dictionary of Mauritian Biography 49 by R. d'Unienville, Guy Rouillard & P. J. 

Barnwell, Taxon 44. 1 (1995), 120. 

22

23 

P. Bingggeli, ‘Introduced and Invasive Plants’ in Steven M. Goodman & Jonathan P. Benstead (eds.), 

The Natural History of Madagascar (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 260-1. 

24 

Mayeur quoted in Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 

207, fn.1g. 

25 

William Ellis, History of Madagascar, II (1838), 293-4. 

26 

Alfred and Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire 4. 3 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1917), 207, fn.1g. 

27 

Pierre Boiteau, ‘Cours élémentaires de botanique appliqués à Madagascar et débutés à Tananarive, en 


28 th E. 

Hastie to Griffiths, Port Louis, 18 February 1821 – ALGC 19157 

29 Charles Theodore Hilsenberg and Wenceslaus Bojer, “A Sketch of the Province of Emerina, in the Island 

of Madagascar, and of the Huwa, its Inhabitants; written during a Year’s Residence” (1823) in William 

Jackson Hooker (ed.), Botanical Miscellany; containing Figures and Descriptions of such Plants as 

recommend themselves by their Novelty, Rarity, or History, or by the Uses to which they are applied in the 

Arts, in Medicine, and in Domestic Œconomy together with occasional Botanical Notes and Information 

vol.3 (London: John Murray, 1833), 251. 


31 Francis Riaux, ‘Notice Historique sur Madagascar’ in Ida Pfieffer, Voyage à Madagascar (Paris : 

Librarie Hachette, 1881), 18, fn. 

32 Deschamps, Histoire, 168. 



35 André Coppalle, ‘Voyage dans l'intérieur de Madagascar et à la capitale du roi Radame pendant les 

années 1825 et 1826,’ 32 - http://www.bextes.org/coppalle.pdf (15/10/07). 

36 Quoted in William Ellis, History of Madagascar (London: Fisher, 1838) vol.II, 401; see also ibid, 394. 

37 Ranavalona I quoted in Raombana, vol. VIII, B.1 (Archives de la Republique Malgache. Fonds 

Residence Generale de France), 36. 

38 This is probably a reference to Ramboandrenibe (from Anosimanjaka), Ramoma and Ravao (both from 

Imamo), by none of which Radama I had any children – HdR V, 1086. 

39 Raombana, Annales (March 1853), 176. 

40 Raombana, Annales (March 1853), 176. 

41 Coppalle, ‘Voyage dans l'intérieur de Madagascar et à la capitale du roi Radame pendant les années 

1825 et 1826,’ 42 - http://www.bextes.org/coppalle.pdf (15/10/07). 

42 Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar, 59. 

43 Freeman to Hankey, Antananarivo, 12 March 1829, SOAS/LMS MIL Bx.3 F.5; Lyall to Hankey, 

Antananarivo, 15 March 1829, SOAS/LMS MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.2; Freeman to Philip, Antananarivo, 12 June 

1832, SOAS/LMS MIL Bx.4 F.2 J.C; Freeman to Ellis, Antananarivo, 27 February 1834 SOAS/LMS 

MIL Bx.5 F.1 J.B. 

44 Ranavalona I, quoted (1840) in Raombana, vol. VIII, B.1 (Archives de la Republique Malgache. Fonds 

Residence Generale de France), 36. 

45 http://www.madagascardiplomatie.ch/files/Politique/Regions/haute_matsiatra/PRD%20HAUTE%20MATSIATRA_Annexes.pdf 

(28/05/08) 

46 http://www.closmalaza.com/fshistorique.htm (29/05/08). 


(28/05/08) 


(28/05/08) 

49 http://www.wine-searcher.com/regions/madagascar/1 (01/05/08). 

50 Madonline 29 mai 2008 - http://www.madonline.com/article.php?article_id=2472&date=2007-12- 

03&lang=fr&PHPSESSID=5b214050e0c55671ff5e288bffebcd62 (29/05/08). 

23

51 DEA, 5 ; Anastase, ‘Madagascar: Lazan'i Betsileo - Le vin 'made' in Madagascar est une bonne filière’ 

Midi Madagasikara (Antananarivo) 3 Mars 2008, publié sur le web le 4 Mars 2008 - 

http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200803040326.html (29/05/08). 

52 Anastase, ‘Madagascar: Lazan'i Betsileo - Le vin 'made' in Madagascar est une bonne filière’ Midi 

Madagasikara (Antananarivo) 3 Mars 2008, publié sur le web le 4 Mars 2008 - 

http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200803040326.html (29/05/08). 

53 

‘Valorisation de la bioversité’ - http://www.pnae.mg/tbe/tbe/matsiatra/biodiv/donnees/val_biodiv.htm 

(29/05/08). 

54 

M. Fiori, A. Cossu, P. Capece, G. Bianco, A. Delitala & S. Canu, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le 


http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/index.asp (29/05/08), p.8-9; 

http://www.closmalaza.com/fshistorique.htm (29/05/08). 

55 

http://www.closmalaza.com/fshistorique.htm (29/05/08). 

56 

M. Fiori, A. Cossu, P. Capece, G. Bianco, A. Delitala & S. Canu, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le 



57 

Pierre Boiteau, ‘Cours élémentaires de botanique appliqués à Madagascar et débutés à Tananarive, en 


58 

‘Index des plantes vivant à Madagascar, citées par Pierre Boiteau dans ses cours de Botanique [1938]’ - 

http://www.ilerouge.org/spip/spip.php?article62 (30/04/08). 

59 

‘Vitis berlandieri’ Plants For A Future: Database Search Results - http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgibin/arr_html?Vitis+berlandieri 

(30/04/08). 

60 

Vitis lincecumii - Buckley. Plants For A Future - 

http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Vitis+lincecumii (30/04/08). 

61 

Vitis rupestris Scheele. Plants For A Future - http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Vitis+rupestris 

(30/04/08). 

62 

Native North American Grapes. Vitis Riparia - http://winemaking.jackkeller.net/riparia.asp (30/04/08). 

63 ‘Fox’ The Project for American and French Research on the Treasury of the French Language 

(ARTFL) - http://machaut.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/WEBSTER.page.sh?page=591 (30/04/08). 



65 SAR, ‘Assistance agroclimatique pour le développement de la viticulture a Madagascar’ - 

http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/pag009.asp (30/04/08). 





http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/index.asp (29/05/08), p.8-9; “Les 

Boissons à Madagascar” - http://www.madagascarica.com/boissonsaMadagascar.html 

(27/05/2011).. 

68 Ministère de l’Agriculture, de L’Elevage et de la Peche, ‘La Vigne’ - http://www.maep.gov.mg/ 

(28/05/08) ; Mort Hochstein, ‘Chambourcin: A Versatile Hybrid’ Wine Business Monthly (01/09/2000) - 

http://www.winebusiness.com/html/MonthlyArticle.cfm?dataId=2613 (30/05/08). 




70 ‘Madagascar. Le Guide: le Sud’ - http://www.madagascarguide.com/fr/Pages/decouverte/sud/sud1/sud1.html 

(29/05/08). 

71 Ashkeling 2005/6 trip – Madagascar. 28-Jan-2006 Madagascar - To Ranomafana - 

http://www.ashkeling.com/05dub/madagascarc.html (01/05/08). 

24














77 Jean Roux, ‘L'Institut Pasteur de Madagascar. Un siècle d'histoire au service 

de la santé publique’ (1998) - http://www.pasteur.mg/ipmroux.pdf (01/05/08). 

78 Faramalala Miadana Harisoa, Carte de la végétation de Madagascar 1996 - 

http://www.lavoisier.fr/notice/frEURR3OOZX2FKLX.html (01/05/08) 




80 Chris Barret and Bart Minten, ‘Politiques, agriculture et pauvreté à Madagascar: Synthèse’ - 

http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/images/th5.4.pdf (28/05/08). 

81 Océane, ‘FILIERE VINICOLE . Lazan'i Betsileo veut se bonifier’ - http://www.foire-demadagascar.mg/page%20nouvelles5.htm 

(29/05/08). 





(29/05/08). 

84 Ashkeling 2005/6 trip – Madagascar. 28-Jan-2006 Madagascar - To Ranomafana - 

http://www.ashkeling.com/05dub/madagascarc.html (01/05/08). 




http://www.sar.sardegna.it/pubblicazioni/miscellanea/madagascar_fr/index.asp (29/05/08), p.8-9; 

Andriamihaja Nasolo-Valiavo, ‘Le ridicule ne tue pas’ L’Express de Madagascar 4017 (29-05-2008). 





89 “Le Vin malgache” - http://razafimalala.free.fr/Recette/vinmalgache.htm (27/05/2011). 



91 ‘2005 population estimates for cities in Madagascar’ - 

http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/2005_world_city_populations/Madagascar.html (01/06/08). 

92 Source: World Development Indicators database, April 2008: Madagascar - http://ddpext.worldbank.org/ext/ddpreports/ViewSharedReport?&CF=&REPORT_ID=9147&REQUEST_TYPE=VI 

EWADVANCED&HF=N/CPProfile.asp&WSP=N (04/06/08). 

93 Philippe Leymarie, ‘Vent d’autonomie sur les provinces malgaches’ Le Monde diplomatique (juillet 

2001) - http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2001/07/LEYMARIE/15362 (29/05/08). 

25

94 

Randal Caparoso ‘A World of Wines Awaits You. Wine & Food Advisory 

from the Melting Pot of the Pacific’ - http://www.wineloverspage.com/randysworld/world.shtml 

(01/05/08). 

95 

See e.g. Bruno Salgues, ‘Les vins malgaches’ (15 janvier 2008) - http://www.salgues.net/?p=1713 

(29/05/08). 

96 

WHO ‘Madagascar’ Substance Abuse, Country Profiles - 

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/en/madagascar.pdf (28/05/08). 

97 “Le Vin malgache” - http://razafimalala.free.fr/Recette/vinmalgache.htm (27/05/2011). 



99 ‘« Ny Betsileo tsa mba mamo fa ny toaka ro mahery »’ - 

http://www.msha.fr/cervin/modules/archives/downloads/memoire_DEA_nico.pdf 

(29/05/08), p.1. 

100 “Les Boissons à Madagascar” - 

http://www.madagascarica.com/boissonsaMadagascar.html (27/05/2011) 

101 It was also eaten raw 

102 Mayeur, ‘Voyage au pays d’ancove’ (1785), 223-4; Chapelier, ‘Manuscrits’, 48; Hastie, ‘Diary’ 

(1820), PRO.CO.167/50, 471; Oliver, Madagascar vol.II, 8, 95; Michel, Moeurs, 152; Copland, History 

of Madagascar, 12-13. 

103 Mayeur, ‘Voyage au pays d’ancove’ (1785), 212; Dumaine, ‘Voyage au pays d’ancaye, autrement dit 

des Bezounzouns, Isle de Madagascar’ (1790), BL.Add.18128, 256; Chapelier, ‘Manuscrits’, 48; Hastie, 

‘Diary’ (1824-25); Oliver, Madagascar vol.II, 9, 95; Michel, Moeurs, 152. 

104 ‘The " Kaffir " trade is largely in cheap wines of a highly deleterious character, blankets, hats and 

shoes, brass wire and Venetian beads. Immense quantities of cheap wine are bought by the natives.’ - 

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Portuguese_East_Africa#Commerce (01/05/08). 

105 G.A. Shaw, ‘Madagascar Rum and Religion’ New York Times (January 21, 1884) 

106 ‘Roots of the Sky’ - http://rootsofthesky.com/madagascar/people/food/index.html (01/05/08). 

107 Three Horses Beer’ - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Horses_Beer (01/05/08); 

‘African beer’ - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_beer (01/05/08); 

http://beer.trash.net/beerpage.php?beernum=2072 (01/05/08); “Les Boissons à 

Madagascar” - http://www.madagascarica.com/boissonsaMadagascar.html (27/05/2011). 

108 WHO ‘Madagascar’ Substance Abuse, Country Profiles - 

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/en/madagascar.pdf (28/05/08). 



110 ‘Madagascar. Le Guide: Le Sud’ - http://www.madagascarguide.com/fr/Pages/decouverte/sud/sud1/sud1.html 

(29/05/08). 

111 World Bank, Madagascar Action Plan 2007-2012 - 

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMADAGASCAR/Resources/MAP_en.pdf (04/05/08). 



113 ‘Moyens de ransport – Chemins de Fers’ DILAG-TOURS – Madagascar voyages (09.04.2008) - 

http://www.dilag-tours.ch/madagaskar-lexikon/pdf/lexique_moyens_de_transports_chemin_de_fer.pdf 

(28/05/08). 

114Randal Caparoso ‘A World of Wines Awaits You. Wine & Food Advisory 

from the Melting Pot of the Pacific’ - http://www.wineloverspage.com/randysworld/world.shtml 

26

(01/05/08); ‘List of wine-producing countries’ - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wineproducing_countries 

(01/05/08); http://www.wine-searcher.com/regions/madagascar/1 (01/05/08). 

115 http://www.fianarantsoa.com/FRA/index1.htm. 

116 http://membres.lycos.fr/closmalaza/historique.htm. 

117 Anastase, ‘Madagascar: Lazan'i Betsileo - Le vin 'made' in Madagascar est une bonne filière’ Midi 

Madagasikara (Antananarivo) 3 Mars 2008, publié sur le web le 4 Mars 2008 - 

http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200803040326.html (29/05/08); Océane, ‘FILIERE VINICOLE . Lazan'i 

Betsileo veut se bonifier’ - http://www.foire-de-madagascar.mg/page%20nouvelles5.htm (29/05/08). 

118 Wolfgang W. Schaefer , ‘Tropical Viticulture and Hot Climate Wine Making’ - http://www.tropicalviticulture.com/index.php?dir=information 

(28/05/08). 




http://www.consulatmad.org/sommaire/6_madagascar_enbref/textes/vie_pratique.htm (28/05/08); World 

Bank, Madagascar Action Plan 2007-2012 - 

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMADAGASCAR/Resources/MAP_en.pdf (04/05/08).. 

121 http://membres.lycos.fr/closmalaza/historique.htm. 

122 http://www.madagascar-guide.com/new/fr/Pages/decouverte/sud/sud1/sud1.html. 


(29/05/08). 



125 Grace Anim, ‘Suitability of carambola (Averrhoa carambola) fruit juice as a substrate for wine 

fermentation’ African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 4.2 (2004) - 

http://www.ajol.info/viewarticle.php?id=19855 (28/05/08); P.I. Akubor, ‘The suitability of African bush 

mango juice for wine production’ Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 49.3 (1996), 213-9; Raphael 

Nnajiofor Okigbo, ‘Fermentation of black plum (Vitex doniana Sweet) juice for production of wine’ 

Fruits 58.6 (2003), 363-9; O.U. Ezeronye, ‘Nutrient utilization profile of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae from 

palm wine in tropical fruit fermentation’ Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 86.3 (2004), 235-9. 

126 Gwyn Campbell, ‘Coffee production in Madagascar’ in William Gervase Clarence-Smith & Steven 

Topik (eds.), Coffee under Colonialism and Post-Colonialism:The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, 

Asia, and Latin America, 1500-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 67-99; Gwyn 

Campbell, ‘The Cocoa Frontier in Madagascar, the Comoro Islands and Réunion, c.1820-1970’ in W. G. 

Clarence-Smith (ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (London: Macmillan, 1996), 195-211. 

27

The Origins, Development and Future of the Malagasy Wine Industry ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?