Connecting Delta Cities (english) - Rotterdam Climate Initiative

Connecting
Delta Cities
S H A R I N G K N O W L E D G E A N D W O R K I N G O N A D A P T A T I O N
T O C L I M A T E C H A N G E

SHARING KNOWLEDGE AND WORKING ON ADAPTATION
TO CLIMATE CHANGE

P IET DIRC KE, Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences
JEROEN AERTS, VU University Amsterd am
ARNOUD MOLENAAR, City of Rotterdam
Connecting
Delta Cities
3

Colophon

Authors
We would like to thank all the authors who
contributed to this second CDC book and others that
helped us to make this a success. In particular we
would like to thank:
Alex Nickson (Greater London Authority), David
Waggonner (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Andy
Sternad (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Philip Ward
(VU University Amsterdam), Muh Aris Marfai (Faculty
of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta),
Aisa Tobing (Governor’s Offi ce, Jakarta), Pieter
Pauw (VU University Amsterdam), Maria Francesch
(City University of Hong Kong), Bianca Stalenberg
(ARCADIS | Delft Technical University), Yoshito
Kikumori (Japan National Institute for Land
and Infrastructure Management), Philip Bubeck
(VU University Amsterdam) and Professor
Ho Long Phi (HCMC University of Technology
(National University HCMC).
Chapters 1 and 3 of this second CDC book are largely
based on the material on the same topics (climate
adaptation in general and New York City) that were
presented in the fi rst CDC book. Most of the work
on these topics in the fi rst CDC book was carried
out by David Major of Columbia University and
Malcolm Bowman of Stonybrook University. David
and Malcolm as well, and their respective universities,
contributed signifi cantly to the success of the fi rst
CDC book.
Sponsors
This book has been sponsored by the City of
Rotterdam, the Rotterdam Climate Proof Initiative,
VU University Amsterdam, Rotterdam University of
Applied Sciences and ARCADIS. The Connecting Delta
Cities network has been addressed as a joint action
under the C40 initiative, a group of the world’s largest
cities and a number of affi liated cities committed to
taking action on climate change. For more information
on these initiatives and their relation to Connecting
Delta Cities, see: www.deltacities.com.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the generous support and
participation of Jim Hall (Tyndall Centre for Climate
Change Research, Newcastle University), Roger Street
(United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme),
Shoichi Fujita (Nagaoka University of Technology,
Japan), HCMC University of Technology (National
University HCMC) and Darryn McEvoy (Victorian Centre
for Climate Change Adaptation Research, Melbourne).
We would also like to thank everyone who contributed
in so many ways to make this second Connecting
Delta Cities book a success. In particular we would
like to thank Kim van den Berg, Gertjan Jobse, Jeanna
Blatt, Chantal Oudkerk Pool, Lissy Nijhuis, Liek Voorbij,
Rick Heikoop, Marijn Kuitert and Marco van Bodegom
(Beau-Design) for their support.
Copyright © 2010 City of Rotterdam / ISBN 978-90-816067-1-4
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 5

Contents

Colophon
Preface
1. Climate change in delta cities
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A changing global environment
2. Introducing CDC
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The CDC network k in practice
4
10
12
14
16
9
20
21
23
3. Rotterdam
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Present situation
3.3 Climate and flood fl risks
3.4 Climate adaptation
3.5 Rotterdam adaptation strategy
4. New York
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Present situation
4.3 Climate and flood fl risks
4.4 Climate adaptation
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 7
28
29
31
32
37
44
46
47
50
51
55

5. Jakarta
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Present situation
5.3 Climate and fl flood risks
5.4 Climate adaptation
6. London
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Present situation
6.3 Climate and fl flood risks
6.4 Climate adaptation
6.5 From strategy to delivery
60
61
63
65
67
72
73
75
76
79
81
7. New Orleans
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Present situation
7.3 Climate and fl flood risks
7.4 Climate adaptation
8. Hong Kong
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Present situation
8.3 Climate and fl flood risks
8.4 Climate adaptation
86
87
89
93
97
100
101
103
105
109

9. Tokyo
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Present situation
9.3 Climate and fl ood risks
9.4 Climate adaptation
10. Ho Chi Minh City
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Present situation
10.3 Climate and fl ood risks
10.4 Climate adaptation
114
115
117
119
123
126
127
129
131
135
11. Conclusions on best
CDC practices
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Best practices
11.3 Future outlook
References
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 9
138
139
140
146
6
154

D. Miller
Preface
A. Aboutaleb

The world is currently facing a new challenge. Climate
change will have a severe and inevitable impact, even
if we do succeed in substantially reducing its causes
and mitigating its eff ects. Water levels will rise, both in
the seas and in the rivers that run through our cities.
Precipitation levels will increase, and groundwater
levels will change. Preventing or limiting ensuing
damage will require a great deal of eff ort.
The delta cities described in this book are thoroughly
aware of the necessity to step up these eff orts.
Courage and leadership is required on the part of local
government to make decisions now that will fi ll our
children with pride in the future; and to take measures
to provide safety to our residents and to preserve the
economic appeal of our cities.
Of at least equal importance as decisive management
and leadership is the availability of scientifi c
knowledge. Certain measures that are needed fall
outside the scope of our current technological
ingenuity. Sharing and exchanging insights and
experiences with projects in the area of water
management and delta technology will contribute
to the development of the necessary new expertise.
It gives us great satisfaction to observe that, more
and more, cities are willing and prepared to share
knowledge and opportunities for improvement.
Rather than copying the insights that are gained,
other delta cities subsequently apply adapted versions
according to their own situation. This allows individual
cities to defi ne ambitious goals and actually realize
them. It is for this reason that Rotterdam can state with
confi dence that by 2025, the city will be fully climate
proof.
This book is a sequel on the fi rst Connecting Delta
Cities book and builds a bridge between delta cities of
global stature: New York, Jakarta, Rotterdam, London,
New Orleans, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh
City. These are just eight of the dozens of cities on this
earth that are confronted with the major challenge of
developing integrated climate adaptation strategies.
Each of these cities grapples with its own problems
and devises its own solutions. What binds these
cities, however, is their common determination to
win this fi ght and to become delta cities of the future;
sustainable and climate proof.
Hosts of the International Conference ‘Deltas in Times
of Climate Change’, Rotterdam, 29 September 2010:
A. Aboutaleb
Mayor of Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
D. Miller
Chairman C40 and Mayor of Toronto,
Canada
11

1
Climate change
in delta cities
by Jeroen Aerts and Piet Dircke
13

1
1
Introduction
Currently, more than half of the world’s population
lives in cities, especially in vulnerable delta cities. It
is estimated that more than two thirds of the world’s
large cities will be vulnerable to rising sea levels and
climate change, with millions of people being exposed
to the risk of extreme fl oods and storms. By the middle
of this century, the majority of the world’s population
will live in cities in or near deltas, estuaries or coastal
zones, resulting in even more people living in highly
exposed areas. Such socioeconomic trends further
amplify the possible consequences of future fl oods,
as more people move toward urban delta areas and
capital is continuously invested in ports, industrial
centres and fi nancial businesses in fl ood-prone areas.
It is also expected that the frequency, intensity and
duration of extreme precipitation events will increase,
as well as the frequency and duration of droughts.
At the same time, many delta cities suff er from
severe land subsidence. As a consequence of these
urban developments, trends and projections for land
subsidence and climate change, the vulnerability of
our delta cities is expected to increase in the decades
G1, G2
to come.
The issue of climate adaptation is very complex, and
there is no single readily available adaptation solution
applicable to all delta cities. Adaptation is partly a
matter of learning by doing of allowing experiments
and innovation. On the other hand, there is the need
to keep all options open because of the uncertainty
of future scenarios – one can never predict exactly
how the future will develop and what measures will
be needed. Hence, climate-robust and fl exible, noregret
or low-regret measures should be considered.
In addition, complicated issues like policy making,
stakeholder involvement and fi nancing new measures
may hinder the speedy implementation of adaptation
measures, and may cut ambitious plans to more
modest levels. It is therefore important to consider a
variety of possible measures in the planning process of
climate adaptation, and to learn from the experiences
of other areas and coastal cities.
Cities play an important role in the climate adaptation
process since they have already developed the ability
to adapt continuously to change and attract economic
activity and investment. One could say cities have
already been adapting to changing conditions for
many years or even centuries, and climate change is
an additional challenge that needs to be addressed
in cities’ planning, investments and regulations.
Many cities are gradually taking on the issue of
climate adaptation and there is a growing interest in

sharing and exchanging experience and knowledge
between cities. Since the choices made today will
influence fl vulnerability to climate risks in the future, it
is important to link k adaptation measures to ongoing
investments in infrastructure and spatial planning,
and to draw up detailed estimates of f the benefits fi
of f adaptation. In this way, adaptation becomes a
challenge rather than a threat, and climate adaptation
may initiate opportunities and innovations for
investors and spatial planners.
This book k explores the different ff aspects of f climate
adaptation in delta cities. It is an investigation of
comparable adaptation challenges and opportunities
and of f progress in adaptation plans and investments
in the eight Connecting Delta Cities (CDC) cities of
Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London, New Orleans,
Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh City. Other climate
adaptation networks like The Delta Alliance and recent
climate adaptation initiatives and events such as these
in Melbourne and Shanghai are also described in the
book.
The bookk is second in a series off CDC books. The first fi
CDC book, launched during the Henry Hudson 400
celebrations in New York, was published in 2009 and
described climate adaptation in NewYork, Rotterdam
and Jakarta. A third CDC book k is expected to cover the
implementation off climate adaptation strategies.
This second book k focuses on the expanding
Connecting Delta Cities network k and the experiences
off coastal cities on the topic of f climate adaptation
and flood fl risk. In this regard, each city faces different ff
challenges. One off the lessons off the Connecting
Delta Cities initiative is that while cities will follow
adaptation paths that may diff ffer, sometimes
substantially, each city can learn from other cities.
Moreover, while this book k focuses largerly on coastal
flooding, fl it is important to note that each off the CDC
cities is also affected ff by climate change in other ways,
including impacts that occur away from the coast.
Figure 1.1 The first fi Connecting Delta Cities book.
C L I M A T E C H A N G E I N D E L T A C I T I E S 15

1
2
A changing global
environment
The IPCC fourth Assessment Report states that it is
inevitable that flood fl risks and other climate change
impacts will continue to increase, and that adaptation
measures and policies need to be developed parallel
G3 tomitigation efforts. ff The question is not if, but how
quickly societies and cities will need toadapt.
Adaptation to changing climatic and socioeconomic
conditions is not new; cities have been adapting to
societal and environmental changes for centuries.
However, the world of f today is much more complex
than it was in the past, and interventions taken
to adapt to climate change in one sector have
significant fi impacts on other economic sectors and
on theenvironment. Adaptation toclimate change,
therefore, requires a holistic approach, where all
sectors and stakeholders participate in order to
include long-term adaptation planning in their daily
operations.
Existing climate policy documents statethat longterm
planning is the key to successful adaptation.
Eff ff ective land use planning is crucial for enhancing
the cities’ ’ adaptive capacities to climate change.
The role of f stakeholders in the development
and implementation of f adaptation measures is
a key ingredient. Eff ffective adaptation requires
the local implementation of f measures, and
requires collaborating with NGOs to improve
interrelationships with local institutions.
A participative approach ensures that stakeholders
can express their objectives, concerns and visions,
and stimulates the development and implementation
of f innovative ideas in the adaptation process. An
adaptation process also increases the commitment of
stakeholders to ensure new measures are accepted
and implemented.

The development of f adaptation strategies that focus
on opportunities, and that are based on a holistic
approach, requires strong leadership because it is
about more than just taking measures. It’s about a
long-term strategy as a framework k for short-term
action, a joint approach and vision development.
The significance fi off cities and municipalities in climate
change adaptation is increasing because climate
adaptation requires tailor made local measures
in which urban planning plays an important role.
Coastal mega-cities are influential fl and important for
sustaining the environment in which their citizens
live. Therefore it makes sense to have a CDC network.
In international forums, like the WWF World Water
forum, the cities appear more and more prominently
on the agenda (e.g. the WWF city summit and
champion cities network); not only when it comes to
local water management and climate change issues,
but also in the specific fi approach and steering of
global issues. Think k global and act local is more and
more a reality. Also in this sense, the CDC can become
a powerful network.
Urban development
Population growth and, as a consequence, urban
development, has an enormous impact on land use.
Studies carried out to assess the effects ff off population
growth and land use change in the lower Netherlands
show that flood fl risks have increased by a factor of
seven over the last fi fifty years due to urbanization and
land use change. Thus, even without climate change,
fl flood risk k in urbanized deltas will increase simply
because residents and businesses continue to settle
in vulnerable locations.
Furthermore, research shows that by 2025, loss
potentials among the world’s ten largest cities are
projected to increase by at least 22 percent (Tokyo),
and up to more than 50 percent in Shanghai and
Jakarta. A repeat in the year 2025 of f the fl floods
experienced in Jakarta in 2007 could cause
60 percent higher losses and affect ff 20 percent more
people because of f population and economic growth,
independent of f climate change. Since economic
growth and urban development in these areas is
inevitable, and the economic impacts of f climate
change may not be limited to the city boundaries
alone, rising sea levels could have devastating effects ff
on the worldwide population and economic activity
in the future.
Climate change, subsidence and sea levelrise
Sea level rise is a natural phenomenon, and historical
measurements in several delta cities such as New York
C L I M A T E C H A N G E I N D E L T A C I T I E S 17

and Rotterdam, show an increase in mean sea level
rise off 17-22 cm over the last hundred years. Prior to
the Industrial Revolution, sea level rise in New York
and Rotterdam could be attributed mainly to regional
subsidence of f the Earth’s crust, whichisstill slowly
readjusting to the melting off ice sheets since the end
of f the last Ice Age. G4, G5 For New York k and Rotterdam,
land subsidence accounts for 3-4 mm per year, mainly
due to these post-glacial geological processes. But
much higher subsidence rates occur as well. For
example in Jakarta parts of f the city are sinking at a
rate of f 4 cm per year, mainly due to groundwater
extraction.
Climate change, however, will accelerate natural
sea level rise through the thermal expansion off the
oceans, melting of f glaciers and ice sheets, changes
in the accumulation of f snow and melting of f the
ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland. It may also
change the paths and speeds of f major ocean
current systems. The Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change G6
projected anincrease in global temperature of
between 1.1°C and 6.4°C over the next century.
As a result, average sea levels could rise by up to
59 cm by 2100.
There are regional differences ff in projected sea level
rise, and it is expected that sea levels in the northeast
of f the Atlantic Ocean will rise by 15 cm more than the
world average by 2100. This can be explained through
the weakening of f the warm Gulf f Stream, gravitational
effects ff and the extra warming of f seawater at greater
depths. The projected sea level rise for Rotterdam
and New York, for instance, is estimated at around
50-85 cm by 2100. The most extreme, low- probability,
scenarios indicate a sea level rise off 108-140 cm. Large
uncertainty exists about the future behaviour of f the
large ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. Although
it is not well understood how quickly the ice sheets
will melt, a theoretical collapse of f the Greenland
and West and East Antarctica ice sheets through
accelerated glacier flow fl is expected to lead to a rise in
sea level of f several metres over the coming centuries.
Flood risk k vulnerability
Important elements of f fl flood vulnerability are: (1) the
probability off a fl flood occurring and (2) the possible
consequences off a flood fl in terms of f casualties, direct
economic damage (such as destruction off houses) and
intangible damage (such as production loss and loss
of f natural values). Furthermore, flood fl vulnerability is
also determined by (3) the adaptive capacity of f a city

or system following the event through evacuation,
recovery, fi nancial aid and insurance relief options.
Estimates of fl ood risk and fl ood vulnerability can be
further disaggregated into vulnerability to coastal
fl oods, vulnerability to river fl oods and vulnerability
to extreme rainfall. In all three cases the impact can
be very high with numerous casualties and much
damage to property.
Extreme fl ood events are relatively rare, with typical
return periods of one hundred years and higher.
Extreme precipitation events in non-tropical cities
rarely cause casualties, but do frequently cause
damage to property and infrastructure. Tropical
cities like Hong Kong, however, have interested
historic events recorded where extreme rainfall has
caused fl ash fl ooding and mud fl ows, leading to
casualties and fl ood damage in parts of the cities.
It should be noted that vulnerability is not a static
concept. If fl ood protection is improved or evacuation
plans are developed, vulnerabilities can be reduced;
and, with expected advances in scientifi c modelling
and prediction of storms and storm surges, improved
warnings can be brought to bear in alerting
communities at risk and in managing evacuations.
Sea level rise alone may cause a presently one in a
hundred years fl ood event to occur approximately
four times more often by the end of the century.
Moreover, by the end of the 21 st century, a current
500-year fl ood event may occur approximately once
every 200 years. G4
The amount of damage from a fl ood is dependent on,
among other factors, the size of the fl ooded area and
the water depth. Other factors include the duration
of the fl ood and fl ow velocities. Furthermore, the
rate at which the water rises and the time allowed
for evacuation largely determine the number of
casualties. G7
Flood damage and infrastructure
Looking at the most important consequences of
a fl ood for diff erent economic sectors, it appears
most CDC cities are subject to similar threats from
fl ooding, both from oceanic storm surges and from
inland sources. For most ports, both land-based
transportation and the use of inland waterways
are of importance to connect the port areas with
surrounding regions. These connections may be
threatened as the clearance levels of bridges decrease
during a fl ood. Train and subway stations may be
fl ooded, coastal highways inundated, emergency
and hospital services curtailed and communications
disrupted. Furthermore, fl oods cause direct economic
damage to infrastructure and property, with the
magnitude of the damage depending on the depth
and duration of the fl ood. Most estimates of fl ood
damage rely on studies that quantify the direct
economic damages only. However, other non-fl ooded
areas may also be aff ected, as the supply of goods
and services to the fl ooded area may be hindered.
Production loss due to fl oods, however, is diffi cult to
quantify at present. Indirect fl ood damage may be
twice as high as the direct economic damage.
C L I M A T E C H A N G E I N D E L T A C I T I E S 19

Introducing
CDC
2
by Piet Dircke and Arnoud Molenaar

2
1
Introduction
The Connecting Delta Cities objective is to
establish a network of delta cities that are
active in the fi eld of climate change related
spatial development, water management,
and adaptation, in order to exchange
knowledge about climate adaptation and
share best practices to support cities in
developing their adaptation strategies.
origin of f the CDC initiative
The CDC initiative originates from the C40. The C40 is
a group off the world’s largest cities and a number of
affiliated ffi cities committed to taking action on climate
change. By fostering a sense off shared purpose, the
C40 network k offff
ers cities an effective ff forum in which
to work k together, share information and demonstrate
leadership. Through effective ff partnership working
with the Clinton Climate Initiative, the C40 helps
cities toreduce their greenhouse gas emissions
through a range of f energy effi ffi ciency and clean energy
programmes (www.c40cities.org).
Many off the world’s major coastal cities are at risk
of f fl ooding from rising sea levels and a changing
climate. Heat-trapping urban landscapes (buildings
and paved surfaces) can raise temperatures – and
lower air quality – dangerously through the Urban
Heat Island effect. ff In cities of f the developing world,
one out of f every three people live in a slum, making
them particularly vulnerable to the health and
environmental risks posed by climate change. The
C40 cities are taking action both tomitigate climate
change by reducing carbon emissions, and by
adapting to the effects ff of f climate change so keenly
felt in cities.
The C40 member cities are:
Addis Ababa, Athens, Bangkok, Beijing, Berlin,
Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Caracas, Chicago, Delhi,
Dhaka, Hanoi, Hong Kong, Houston, Istanbul, Jakarta,
Johannesburg, Karachi, Lagos, Lima, London,
Los Angeles, Madrid, Melbourne, Mexico City,
Moscow, Mumbai, New York, Paris, Philadelphia,
Rio de Janeiro, Rome, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Shanghai,
Sydney, Toronto, Tokyo and Warsaw.
I N T R O D U C I N G C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 21

������������������������
Affi liate C40 cities (19) are:
Amsterdam, Austin, Barcelona, Basel, Changwon,
Copenhagen, Curitiba, Heidelberg, Ho Chi Minh City,
Milan, New Orleans, Portland, Rotterdam,
Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Santiago, Seattle,
Stockholm and Yokohama.
Tokyo 2008: the birth of f Connecting Delta Cities
In Tokyo in October 2008, a C40 meeting on climate
adaptation offi fficially adopted the Connecting
Delta Cities (CDC) Initiative proposed by the City of
Rotterdam. It was addressed as “Joint Action 8: Climate
Adaptation Connecting Delta Cities.” ” C40 agreed the
networkk should (initially) consist off a small number of
cities that are frontrunners in climate adaptation, with
the objective of f exchanging knowledge on climate
adaptation and sharing best practices.
��
��
�
���������������
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Delta cities can benefit fi from the Connecting Delta
Cities (CDC) network k through:
� Exchange of f adaptation strategies and
best practices
� Stimulating adaptation practice and enlarging
operation capacity
� Creating economic spin-offs ff based on the
acquired expertise
� Supporting the inclusion of f climate adaptation in
water management and spatial development
� Contributing to the image off delta cities by
enhancing their vision on the future
� Raising awareness amongst citizens and
local governments.

2
2
The CDC network in
practice
Figure 2.1 The current cities of the CDC initiative (orange squares) and interested cities (yellow squares).
The CDC Network
The CDC network is concerned with solidarity and
cooperation between delta cities, and the issues
addressed in CDC are demanddriven. Based on these
principles, and supported by the commitment of
C40, the City of Rotterdam initiated the CDC network
and began to invest in knowledge exchange with
other CDC cities through meetings and workshops,
initiating joint research across diff erent delta cities.
Currently, the CDC network consists of eight C40
cities (see Figure 2.1). These cities all envisage
similar climate related problems, comparable to
those addressed by the Rotterdam Climate Proof
programme (www.rotterdamclimateinitiative.nl), l
and also envisage related port-specifi c issues. All of
these cities could act, or already do, as frontrunners,
thereby providing an example for other cities. They
I N T R O D U C I N G C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 23

Figure 2.2 Connecting Delta Cities (CDC) organization.
The CDC secretariat is based in Rotterdam as the
international component of its adaptation programme
‘Rotterdam Climate Proof (RCP)’.
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are capable of sharing knowledge with other C40
cities and share the same sense of urgency with
regard to climate adaptation.
At present, the following cities are involved:
Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London, New Orleans,
Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong and Tokyo. Cities
that have shown interest in CDC include Shanghai,
Melbourne, Copenhagen, Lagos, Buenos Aires and
Manila.
The CDC network links cities at the local policy level.
Furthermore, scientifi c networks are enhanced
or developed to support the CDC activities by
providing information on climate trends, impacts and
adaptation options. The CDC involvement of each city
depends on how the individual cities have organized
the development of their adaptation plans.
Generally speaking, each city already has or is in
the initial phase of, however developing a pool of
institutes and experts (policy, scientifi c, business)
who can contribute to developing such an adaptation
plan. For example, the City of Rotterdam has
addressed CDC as an integral part of its climate
adaptation programme Rotterdam Climate Proof
(RCP). The CDC initiative is, hence, the international
component of its adaptation programme. In this way,
Rotterdam hopes to inspire and learn from other
delta cities, which may lead to economic spin-off s
and thus contribute to economically strong delta
cities.
In order to manage the fl ow of information between
the CDC cities, a small CDC secretariat has been
installed in Rotterdam. This secretariat is supported
by an advisory board to ensure CDC activities fi t the
RCP goals. This committee comprises a mix of Dutch
government bodies, and knowledge institutions and
agencies.
CDC activities, results and initial
The CDC approach follows a ‘minimum eff ort
maximum results’ design, which can be archieved
through the linking of CDC activities to the ongoing
activities of cities (e.g. policy actions related to
climate adaptation) and by linking CDC to larger
conferences on similar topics or networks with related
or comparable objectives. The degree of cooperation
diff ers as each CDC city has diff erent priorities and
interests. The main activities are:
1. Knowledge exchange: Initiating symposia,
workshops, student exchanges, and meetings where
students, scientists, engineers and policymakers can
exchange expertise and ideas
2. Documentation: Supporting the publication of
(media)reports, fi lms, publications and books on
climate adaptation in delta cities
3. Project support: Mobilizing experts for projects
and support the development of projects and
supporting proposals relating to climate adaptation
research and implementation
In 2009 and 2010, CDC organized several expert
workshops, participated in conferences, published
a fi rst CDC book and co-fi nanced a fi lm on climate
adaptation in cities (www.deltacities.com). This
documentary ‘Connecting Delta Cities’ examines
climate adaptation in the cities of New York, Jakarta,
Rotterdam and Alexandria. The fi lm was fi rst screened
at the 5 th World Water Forum in Istanbul, Turkey,
in March 2009. Since then, it has been shown at a
number of conferences such as the UNFCCC COP 15
I N T R O D U C I N G C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 25

in Copenhagen, and it has been shown on national
television in several countries.
The fi rst CDC book, Connecting Delta Cities, described
the potential climate impacts and adaptation options
for the cities of New York, Rotterdam, and Jakarta, and
was launched at the US-Dutch H2O9 conference on
climate adaptation and water management during the
Hudson 400 event in New York as part of the Hudson
400 celebrations (www.henryhudson400.com) in New
York. CDC organized and participated in workshops
and conferences in New York City, New Orleans,
Rotterdam, Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City and Hong Kong.
CDC has also participated in major global events such
as the Aquaterra Forum on Deltas in Amsterdam, the
UNFCCC COP 15 in Copenhagen, the World Water
Forum in Istanbul, the Dutch Dialogues in New Orleans
and the World Expo (with the launch of the WWF
World Estuary Alliance and the Holland Water Week) in
Shanghai. In Indonesia a fi rst research project was set
up in conjunction with a workshop dialogue.
Network collaboration
Connecting Delta Cities is a fl exible network that
closely collaborates with similar and complementary
initiatives. For example, the Dutch Dialogues program
has proven to be a successful concept for the
dialogue in New Orleans and in New York during the
Henry Hudson 400 celebrations. Furthermore, CDC
collaborates closely with the following worldwide
networks Delta Alliance and World Estuary Alliance.
For this, CDC continuously exchanges information
with other networks, shares best practices, cooperates
in case studies and co-organizing events. The related
networks are:
Delta Alliance:
“Understanding and improving resilience
across river deltas”
Delta Alliance is an alliance of people and
organizations committed to improving the resilience
of the deltas in which they live and work. Members
take part in activities that span the spectrum of
researching, monitoring, reporting, advising, and
implementing projects on resilience-building in deltas.
Delta Alliance integrates knowledge and visions on a
river delta as a whole, linking information and people
from across sectors and jurisdictions for the common
goal of improving resilience. Regional Wings of Delta
Alliance are self-organized and include individuals and
organizations from across all sectors. An international
secretariat coordinates international events and
communications between the Regional Wings.
World Estuary Alliance (WEA):
“Increasing awareness about ecological and economic
value of healthy estuaries”
The WEA aims to raise awareness of the economic and
ecological value of healthy estuaries and to stimulate
exchange of knowledge and implementation of best
practices. Where the rivers meet the sea has always
been one of the most important of habitats for
humanity, but in the past centuries enormous damage
has been done to the vibrant life in estuaries. There is
a need to work together to advance the best thinking
in sustainable estuary development and protection.
The WEA is a living network, with a shared belief that
economic development and nature can go hand in
hand. The growing network includes representatives
from NGOs, business, science and policy makers. The
WEA is currently based in Shanghai.
I N T R O D U C I N G C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 27

3
Rotterdam
by Arnoud Molenaar and Piet Dircke

3
1
Introduction
Rotterdam is situated in the heart of the
Dutch delta. The city lies largely below
sea level (up to 6 meters) and the city, and
the low lying area around it, is protected
from the sea by a complex and extensive
system of dikes, closure dams and storm
surge barriers, which are all part of the
famous Dutch Delta Plan. The Delta Works
were established after the disastrous 1953
fl oods, in which over 1,800 Dutch citizens
drowned.
One of f the main aspects of f the Delta Plan was to
improve the protection off Rotterdam during an extreme
storm surge. It was decided to construct the Maeslant
Storm Surge Barrier, which protects Rotterdam in the
case of f an extreme fl flood event but stays open under
normal conditions to allow free access to the older port
areas as well as the inland shipping canals behind the
barrier. Furthermore, as ships must have free access to
the port, the City off Rotterdam and the Port Authority
have chosen to develop the port area outside the dike
protection system, at such an elevation that most of
the port area is well protected against floods. fl Hence,
over the last hundred years, 12,000 hectares off land
have been elevated using fill fi materials to several meters
above sea level. Along with the Palm Islands in Dubai,
this is the largest area off human-made land in the world
to be mostly surrounded by water.
R O T T E R D A M 29

“Ourr climate is changing. The consequences off climate
change will l also be felt t in Rotterdam. In order r to confront
the challenge off climate change as an opportunity
rather r than a threat, the City y off
Rotterdam has sett up
the Rotterdam Climate Prooff programme thatt willl
make
Rotterdam climate change resilientt by y 2025. Permanent
protection and d accessibility y of f the Rotterdam region are key
elements. The central l focus off the programme is to create
extra opportunities to make Rotterdam a more attractive
city y in which to live, work, relax x – and d invest. Trendsetting
research, innovative knowledge development t and
knowledge exchange with delta cities worldwide will l result
in strong economic c incentives.”
Alexandra van Huffelen, ff Vice Mayorr City y off
Rotterdam,
Sustainability, City y Centre andd Public
c
Space
“Rotterdam is the perfect t showcase for r climate change
adaptation in the Netherlands andd itt
is an inspiring
example forr delta cities world d wide. Rotterdam will l prove
that t dealing with climate change in a pro-active and
smart t wayy
creates opportunities forr an attractive and
economicallyy strong delta cityy off
the future!”
Piet t Dircke, Professor r off
Urban Water r Management
Rotterdam University y of f Applied d Sciences, The Netherlands

3
2
Present
situation
Rotterdam is considered the marine gateway to
Western Europe in the Dutch delta formed by the
rivers Rhine and Meuse and has a long history as
a port. Rotterdam not only serves as port for the
Netherlands but for the whole off Western Europe,
in particular Germany. The rivers provide excellent
means for inland water transport to transport the
goods from the port into the hinterland
An important date in the history of f Rotterdam is
May 1940, when large parts off the city centre were
completely destroyed during a bombardment by
the German Air Force. The centre off Rotterdam,
therefore, was almost completely rebuilt after the
Second World War.
Delta’s in Times of Climate Change
29 September r - 1 October r 2010
A major milestone in 2010 is the ‘Delta’s
in Times of Climate Change’ ’ conference
(www.climatedeltaconference.org)
in Rotterdam between 29 September and
1 October 2010. This supported conference
has been organized by the City of f Rotterdam
and the Dutch National Knowledge for Climate
Programme and pays special attention tothe
climate proofi fing of f urban areas, providing a
platform for knowledge exchange between
scientists, policymakers, politicians and
practitioners. CDC celebrated its two-year
anniversary at this conference by launching the
book k Connecting Delta Cities 2010 which you are
reading right now.
International conference
Deltas in Times of
Climate Change
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
29 September – 1 October 2010
R O T T E R D A M 31

3
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
Rotterdam has a temperateclimate infl fluenced by the
North Sea, with moderate temperatures throughout
the year. However, heat waves in which temperatures
rise above 30°C, do occur and will occur more
frequently in the future. Summers are moderately
hot with short wet periods. Rainfall is almost equally
distributed over the year, with an average annual
rainfall of f around 790 mm. A new precipitation record
was set in August 2006, when almost 300 mm of
precipitation fell in one month, causing extensive
flooding fl and damage inthe Rotterdam city area.
Winters are relatively wet, with persistent rainfall
periods. These periods of f excessive rainfall can cause
floods fl in the river basins of f the Rhine and Meuse. R1
The low-lying parts of f the Netherlands, including
Rotterdam, have been fl ooded many times throughout
history. Inthe Netherlands, 26 percent of f the country
lies below sea level and 29 percent is susceptible to
river fl flooding. Many low-lying parts of f the Netherlands
Figure 3.1 Example off a fl ood risk k map off the port area of f Rotterdam.
The colors indicate the potential flood fl losses in euro/m2 . R2

have been reclaimed from former lakes (usually
referred to as ‘polders’) and are protected by so-called
‘dike rings’ ’ along the main rivers and coastal areas.
Two thirds off the Dutch GDP (need to spell out in fi first
reference) is earned in these low-lying polders, and
most Dutch urban development is concentrated here.
For these reasons, the Dutchintend to stay in these
areas and, therefore, continue to invest heavily in
fl ood protection, even though the area is one off the
locations most vulnerable to flood fl risk k in the world.
Dutch fl flood protection standards are currently the
highest in the world. Most off the protection system
around Rotterdam is designed to withstand a storm
estimated to occur once in every10,000 years.
The design surge level is determined at 4 m (the 1953
generated a surge height of f 3 m). To protect against
such a storm, taking both surge levels and breaking
wave heights into account,the average dike along
the Rotterdam coast is more than 10 m in height.
This protection level reflects fl both the number of
inhabitants and the economic value of f assets within
a dike ring; the more people and economic value to
be protected by levee infrastructure, the higher the
safety standard. As climate change is expected to
increase the frequency and severity of f fl flooding events,
these flood fl probabilities will accordingly increase
rapidly with sea level rise. Therefore, reinforcing flood fl
protection is, and will be, an ongoing concern in
Rotterdam and the Netherlands.
Figure 3.2 The potential number off fatalities caused by simultaneous levee breaches at Katwijk, Ter Heijde and The Hague with current land use (left)
and possible future land use according to a high economic growth scenario (GE, right). R3
R O T T E R D A M 33

Socioeconomic eff ects of fl ooding
The Port of Rotterdam is of vital economic importance
for Rotterdam, the Netherlands and Europe. Large
parts of the port area and the City of Rotterdam are
protected by the Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier. This
barrier, however, was designed to cater to a maximum
sea level rise of about half a metre. Both the Port
Authority and the City of Rotterdam, together with
national government, are now considering options for
coping with the increasing fl ood risks due to climate
change. The port area, as already mentioned, is safe as
it is located at several metres above sea level. However
the area lies outside the dike protection system, and is
only protected only by the barrier. Occasionally, high
water levels can be problematic.
A large proportion of the Netherlands’ economic
assets are clustered in the port area of Rotterdam,
where the estimated potential damage in the event
of fl ooding is in the order of tens of billions of euros
(see Figure 3.1). At risk are port facilities, railroads,
tunnels and container terminals. In addition, a large
section of Rotterdam’s working population works in
the port area, and many businesses strongly depend
on activities in the port.
On the other hand, the city is situated inside the dike
protection system and very safe. But, because it is
located below sea level, this high protection level is a
necessity, as a failure of the system can immediately
cause severe danger. The expected number of
casualties as a result of fl ooding in the Rotterdam
region is regarded as an important indicator of
vulnerability. Figure 3.2 shows the projected eff ects
of the relatively high growth in urban development
in low-lying polders north of Rotterdam by 2040 on
Figure 3.3 This picture, based on satellite images taken on clear and
warm days during the last 25 years, shows that the temperature of the
urban environment is signifi cantly higher than in the rural areas.
the potential number of casualties in the province of
South Holland in the event of dike breaches.
The rise in sea level has a relatively small eff ect on the
low-lying polders. For example, a sea level rise of
30 cm could cause an increase in the fatality rate by
as much as 20 percent, while an expected 87 percent
population growth in the area by 2040 is projected to
cause a 156 percent increase in potential fatalities in
the area. The infl uence of the population growth on
the fatality rate is therefore considerably greater than
the eff ect of projected sea level rise.
Veerman Commission:
the second Dutch Delta Plan 2008
In the Netherlands, sea levels may rise to 0.59 metres
in the year 2100 according to the IPCC. At the same
time, the Netherlands currently still has dikes that are
R O T T E R D A M 35

elow the Dutch safety standard and that must be
restored. To this end, a new Delta Commission, headed
by former Dutch agricultural minister Cees Veerman,
was installed and produced a new Dutch Delta
Plan. This national commission studied the future
climate change challenges facing the Netherlands
and presented new recommendations on fl flood
R4, R5
management and adaptation toclimate change.
Based on this plan, the Dutch government will spend
over one billion euros a year until 2100 extending and
strengthing the countries dikes and improving fl flood
control.
The newDeltaPlan also indicates there is a need to
build special flood fl protection around the port and
Figure 3.4 Possible scenarios for the ‘Rhine Estuary Closable but Open’.
the city off Rotterdam. An Increasing sea levels lead
to more frequent closures of f the Maeslant Barrier,
which leads to on increased risk k off
fl ooding from the
large rivers flowing fl through Rotterdam that cannot
discharge freely into the North Sea under these
conditions. A number of f diff fferent scenarios are under
consideration in an open debate known as ‘Rhine
Estuary Closable but Open’ ’ (see Figure 3.4). Should
Rotterdam be protected by an extended and complex
system of f barriers, dams and gates that keep the sea
out, or should Rotterdam embrace the sea and opt for
a new balance in the water system and allow the salt
water to flow fl freely in and out off the city?

3
4
Climate
adaptation
Rotterdam is dealing with the consequences of
climate change in a pro-active way by turning climate
challenges into opportunities. Rotterdam wants to
protect its citizens against the future impacts, such as
climate change, by making Rotterdam ‘climate proof’
by 2025. The city also has the ambition to become
aims a global leader in water management and climate
change adaptation.
For this reason, the ‘Rotterdam Climate Initiative’ ’ (RCI)
was launched to develop Rotterdam into a climateneutral
city. R6 The focus of f this plan is on mitigating the
emission of f greenhouse gases and on strengthening
the city’s economy through innovative solutions to
save energy and store CO . The goal is to achieve a
2
50 percent reduction by 2025 (compared to the level
off emissions in 1990); this requires an annualreduction
off 30 megatons in CO emissions, in conjunction with
2
economic growth. The founders off the Rotterdam
Climate Initiative are the Port of f Rotterdam, the
companies in the industrial port district, the
municipality, and the environmental protection
agency Rijnmond.
The Rotterdam Climate Proof f (RCP) organization
focuses on climate adaptation, and is the adaptation
programme off the Rotterdam Climate Initiative. R7
Within the RCP, water is not only seen as a threat,
but also as an asset for developing an attractive
and economically strong city.Thereare three main
challenges related to water and climate change
described in the RCP plan: fl flood protection;
architecture and spatial planning; and rainwater
storage and updating the sewerage system.
Flood protection
To protect Rotterdam for the future climate and
flood fl conditions, the city is developing innovative,
multifunctional types off urban fl flood protection
that are not only safe but also fi fit optimally into the
Figure 3.5 City Ports off Rotterdam, living showcase off adaptive and
sustainable building.
R O T T E R D A M 37

Figure 3.6 A map from the Rotterdam Water Plan 2030 as part of the
f adaptation programme initiative ‘Rotterdam Climate Proof’ (RCP)
’ showing new
perspectives for water management.
dense urban fabric, not creating a barrier disturbing
the urban flow fl but a structure that adds value to it,
with new and attractive parking space, green areas
and pedestrian zones. At the same time, 40,000 of
Rotterdam’s inhabitants live outside the dike system,
only protected only by the Maeslant Barrier. For
these citizens, new types of f climate proofi fi ng are
under development, including retrofi fi tting of f existing
buildings and new constructed adaptive housing
types like floating fl homes. However, these citizens will
have to live with a certain risk k off
getting ‘wet feet’ ’ once
in a while.
Architecture and spatial planning
Rotterdam is looking for alternative options that
both enhance flflood protection and add value to
the attractiveness of f the city. To achieve this, an
innovative integrated adaptation strategy, combining
spatial planning, architecture and flood fl protection is
being introduced. Rotterdam plans to develop 1,600
ha (4.000 acres) of f adaptive waterfront locations in
the old harbour area in the centre off the city. The
‘Stadshavens’ ’ or City Ports project currently is one of
Europe’s largest urban redevelopments (Figure 3.5).
Through adaptive architecture, this neighbourhood
can be made climate proof f and serve as a high quality
waterfront living and working area. This requires new
ways of f developing buildings that, for example, allow
water to move through the neighbourhood in the
event of f a flood fl without causing casualties or damage

to assets. Floating homes may be part of f this new
adaptation strategy.
These newtechnologies are being developed at
knowledge centres like the RDM Campus (Research,
Design and manufacturing), an initiative off the
Rotterdam University of f Applied Sciences, the
City of f Rotterdam, the Port Authorities and other
private and public parties (Figure 3.7). The RDM is
now a campus at the old RDM shipping wharf f in
the heart of f Stadshavens, where the education of
future generations is combined with innovative and
sustainable development of f businesses and sciences,
and with experiencing best practices.
(www.rdmcampus.nl) l
Figure 3.7 RDM Campus (Research, Design and Manufacturing).
Rainwater storage, updating storm
water sewerage system
For Rotterdam, climate change will result in more
prolonged periods of f drought and more heavy
showers, both in the summer and winter periods.
Precipitation is expected to increase by between
7 percent and 28 percent in winter. There is a risk
that the current sewerage system may not be able to
treat and drain the surplus of f water. The Rotterdam
Water Plan 2030 (Figure 3.6) requires an additional
600,000 m3 of f storm water storage space. At least 80
hectares of f extra lakes and canals would be needed to
providethis storage in open water. Inthe city centre,
open water areas are used forstoring extra water by
retrofitting fi ponds in city parks, or adjusting canals to
store more water, so that in the case of f an extreme
precipitation event, their water levels may rise without
R O T T E R D A M 39

Figure 3.8 Example of a Water Plaza that is used as a playground during normal conditions and as a reservoir in case of extreme precipitation.

inundating surrounding areas. An artist’s impression of
creating more open water is presented in Figure 3.9.
Additionally, especially in densely built areas, water
can also be stored on green roofs, in WaterPlazas or in
underground parking garages. Green roofs slow the
rate of f roof f runoff ff and can retain between 10-20 mm
of f rainwater, which equals an average of f 100 m3 to
200 m3 of f water per roof f in Rotterdam. After a rainfall
event, green roofs gradually release water backk into
the atmosphere via evaporation. Rotterdamhas a
large government support programme in place for the
partial subsidizing of f the development of f green roofs.
Nearly 50.000 m2 off additional green roof f has been
developed so far.
Figure 3.9 Artist’s impression of f creating more open water in the city
for storing excess rainwater in the Rotterdam area. R6
Figure 3.10 Reservoir connected to the sewerage and stormwater
system being developed as part off a newly built underground parking
garage R6 .
Furthermore, a Water Plaza in Rotterdam can store
water in times of f peakk
rain events but is used as a
playground in normal conditions (Figure 3.8). Another
example is presented in Figure 3.10, showing the
development of f a new underground car park k below
which is the sloping entrance a storm water storage
basin that is connected to the city’sstorm water and
sewerage system. The capacity (10,000 m3 ) off the
reservoir is large enough to store 50 percent of f the
expected volume of f rainwater that falls in one storm
on city centre Rotterdam. The construction of f this
basin will be fi nished by the end off 2010.
R O T T E R D A M 41

Smart Flood Control Rotterdam
Rotterdam is currently developing innovative
technologies to become a smart city off the future.
‘Flood Control 2015,’ ’ a Dutch public private consortium
of f nine water specialists and experts in the fi eld of
water management, ICTT and crisis management
(www.fl fl oodcontrol2015.com),
is currently researching
the feasibility off a smart fl ood controlsystem for the
city. Smart gaming, a demonstrator control room,
decision support systems, application of f sensor
technology in dikes, and manyother tools are under
consideration and may be integrated into a new
smart flood fl protection system for Rotterdam. At the
Rotterdam University of f Applied Sciences, smart fl flood
control is one of f the topics that can be studied on the
new full time Water Management Bachelor Programme.
In collaborationwith private firms, fi students are
currently developing a Rotterdam flood fl management
serious game in a so-called ‘Innovation lab’.
Communication aspects
Communication is important and required on different ff
levels and different ff scales. Adequate communication
with local (city council), regional (water boards) and
national government bodies is crucial in to create
awareness and commitment for funding of f research
and measures. At local level, communication with
residents in the early stages off urban planning
processes is essential for the public acceptance,
and a requirement for successful implementation of
innovative solutions such as Water Plazas. These water
storage projects in the city’s public spaces require
sophisticated communication about the risks of
drowning and the possibilities of f mosquito plagues.
In Rotterdam, a campaign about green roofs resulted
in public participation. Good communication is also
important for the residents living next to the river. For
these citizens, the City of f Rotterdam is developing
practical information about fl ood risks and emergency
situations.
Rotterdam NationalWater Centre
As a result of f the successful combination of
climate adaptation implementation and research,
Rotterdam will become an innovative center for water
management and climate change; a truly smart delta
city. International collaboration with other delta cities
will be intensified fi and extended, and will definitely fi
gain momentum, creating new opportunities for
businesses and knowledge institutions in, and around,
Rotterdam. The leading role off Rotterdam in the
Netherlands as an international showcase forwater
management and climate change was underlined by
Figure 3.11 Floating Pavilion in Rotterdam.

Figure 3.12 Inside the Floating Pavilion.
the decision off the Dutch Water sector, to establish
a National Water Centre in Rotterdam. An important
milestone for the city in 2012 will be the opening of
the National Water Centre in Rotterdam, as part of f the
Dutch Delta Design 2012 event.
Floating Pavilion
24 June 2010 Rotterdam witnessed the official ffi opening
of f its fl oating pavilion (see Figure 3.11 and 3.12). The
pavilion will house the Expo function off the Rotterdam
National Water Centre.
The launch off the fl oating pavilion attracted massive
public attention both during the trip from the RDM
Campus and during the official ffi opening. Crowds
of f people thronged to the quays to witness this
historic moment. As the water level rises, the floating fl
pavilion, a visible icon and landmark k for the city will
automatically rise accordingly. This makes the pavilion
an example of f climate change resilient building and
of f Rotterdam’s commitment to and expertise on
sustainable and climate change resilient construction.
In addition to sustainable technology on the inside,
such as heating and cooling systems that use solar
energy, climatic zones and a separate filter fi installation,
the outside is also sustainable and as the pavilion is
flexible fl and can moor at any location.
R O T T E R D A M 43

3
5
Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy (RAS)
Strategy
In order to realize a climate-proof city, Rotterdam
has developed the RAS strategy, containing the
following elements:
� Focus on 5 topics: Water safety, urban water
management, urban climate, accessibility (in terms
of transport and infrastructure) and adaptive
buildings
� Distinguish three types of adaptation options
(columns in Figure 3.13). 1) Minimizing the
probability of a calamity, 2) minimizing the
consequences and 3) improving the recovery
� Connect potential measures to various spatial
levels: region, city, quarter/street, individual
Challenges for the future
One crucial element is to involve more actors in the
region and to transform the Rotterdam Adaptation
Strategy into a Regional Adaptation Strategy. At
the same time, different ff themes must be prioritized
based on progressive insight and the ongoing
development of f the city. Another important action
is to increase awareness among policymakers and
city planners and to integrate the need
building (rows in Figure 3.11). Measures at diff erent
levels are connected and interrelated
� Combine forecasting and backcasting
techniques in order to develop a roadmap which is
to lead each topic to its specifi c goal
� Learning by doing: continuously develop
(scientifi c) knowledge while immediately applying
results to practical situations
� Communicate actions. Firstly to exchange
knowledge and to stimulate cooperation with
universities, companies and other cities and
secondly, to inform the general public and to show
what the city is doing and how we can turn climate
change from a threat into an opportunity.
to strengthen the city’s adaptation capability
into main stream city development planning.
Finally, Rotterdam is also working on designing a
monitoring system as well as a climate barometer,
that will translate all its efforts ff and actions into
clear results and which will help to access the
extent of f Rotterdam’s in closing the gap between
its ambitions and on ever-changing reality.

Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy: examples of potential measures
�� relates to water safety �� relates to management of the urban water system
Region
City
Quarter / street
Building
� improve safety level of
storm surge barrier
Figure 3.13 Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy (RAS).
Minimizing chance Minimizing consequences Stimulating recovery
� improve safety level
of dikes
� create space for (innovative)
water storage, e.g.
in underground parkings
� greening the city,
converting paved to
unpaved surfaces
� raising surface level
of public space
� apply permeable paving
� build on mounds and
invest in adaptive
building
� apply less tiles and more
green in gardens
� set up an early warning
system
� design an evacuation
plan
� fl ood proof infrastructure
(utilities)
� raise main roads for
evacuation
� create safe havens
� create shadow
� raise the pavement /
lower the street
� install wet or dry proof
ground fl oor
� promote resilience
� arrange back-up
systems
(e.g. water supply)
� arrange a help desk
for damage-related
questions
� create fl ood damage
insurance fund
� install pumps
� install pumps
R O T T E R D A M 45

4
New York
by Malcolm Bowman and Piet Dircke

4
1
Introduction
With almost 2,400 km of shoreline,
Metropolitan New York’s historical
development has been intimately tied to
the sea. Four out of fi ve of New York City’s
boroughs are located on islands. Many
bridges and tunnels connect these islands
to the New York State and New Jersey
mainland. The boroughs of Brooklyn and
Queens, home to millions of residents,
rests on Long Island’s low-lying terminal
moraine of sand and boulders, left as the
heritage of the last ice age.
its strategic position on the East Coast of f the
United States, and with its well protected harbour
within the Hudson River Estuary, this historic
metropolis has become one of f the most important
cities in the world.
The recently published report of f the New York k City
Panel on Climate Change (NPCC) indicates that climate
change poses a challenge for the development and
safety in New York k City, given the uncertain risks of
sea level rise and enhanced fl flooding from extreme
weather events and climate change. The NPCC states
that New York k City is vulnerable to coastal storm
surges,which are mainly associated with either late
summer-autumn hurricanes or extra tropical cyclones
in the winter period (‘nor’easters’).
N E W Y O R K 47

The CDC New York City Climate Change
Adaptation workshop
June 2009
On 9 and 10 of June 2009, a group of 75 scientists,
engineers, social scientists, architects, insurance
experts, policymakers and planners gathered
at the Stony Brook Manhattan campus in New
York City to discuss the issue of climate change
adaptation in coastal cities at the Connecting
Delta Cities Workshop. The conference was cohosted
by Stony Brook and Columbia Universities.
Representatives from the cities of Rotterdam,
New York, Jakarta and London shared their
experiences in adaptation planning. Innovations
and bottlenecks in adaptation policies were
addressed, and areas were explored with
potential for further extended exchange of
experience and expertise.
While New York City, Rotterdam, and Jakarta are
each vulnerable to climate change, rising sea
level and storm surges, and each possess unique
physical and geographic features, there was much
common knowledge that could be learned and
shared. During the workshop, it became clear
that the challenges of climate adaptation pose
fundamental and diffi cult questions and hard
choices for research, policy and industry. A clear
need was felt for unprecedented cooperation and
knowledge exchange across all sectors.
The Brooklyn-Rotterdam
Waterfront exchange
March - November 2010
New York joined forces with Rotterdam and
other Dutch partners in the Brooklyn-Rotterdam
Waterfront Exchange. The 2010 exchange, coorganized
by New York City, the New York and
New Jersey Port Authorities, the City and Port of
Rotterdam, the Netherlands Water Partnership and
several other parties. It was a much appreciated
forum for sharing experiences, devise innovative
solutions, new strategies, development models
and best practices for reshaping outdated portrelated
areas. Such factors are necessary elements
contributing to the economic prosperity and
environmental sustainability of the surrounding
metropolitan regions. Well attended and successful
workshops both in New York and Rotterdam were
organized.
The Exchange focused on a comparison of plans
and best practices for Brooklyn’s south-western
waterfront, located at the mouth of the New
York Harbour, and Rotterdam’s City Ports. The
objective was to select and apply international
best practices for these two locations and
help generate support for long-term decisions
about key challenges, which include economic
development, environmental sustainability,
transportation infrastructure, waterfront uses, and
climate change. Another objective was to share
expertise about eff ective public policies, which are
instrumental in implementing innovative solutions
in both cities.

“Climate change is real l and d could d have serious
consequences forr Neww
Yorkk
if f we don’t t take
action,” ” saidd
Mayorr
Michaell
Bloomberg. “Planning
forr climate change todayy is less expensive than
rebuilding an entire networkk afterr
a catastrophe.
We cannot t waitt
untill
afterr
ourr
infrastructure has
been compromisedd to begin to plan forr the effects ff of
climate change.”
Michael l Bloomberg,
Mayor r of New w York k City
“There are many y challenges facing Metropolitan New
York k relatedd
to climate change in the decades ahead. A
significant fi t portion off the landd area off the cityy lies between
0 andd 3 m above sea levell andd
severall
million people,
especiallyy in the outerr boroughs, live in low w lying coastal
terrain exposed d to the ocean. While Neww York k mayy
have
the advantage overr its European counterparts of f having
more time to plan forr future climate change andd dangerous
levels off sea levell rise, the European experience of f coping
with naturall fl ooding disasters tells us thatt manyy
decades
are neededd to arrive at t the best t solutions to protectt the
city’s infrastructure andd the safety y off
its residents. Now w is
the time to start t planning for r the century y ahead.”
Professor r Malcolm Bowman, State University y of f New w York k at
Stony y Brook; Member r of f Mayor r Bloomberg’s New w York k Panel
on Climate Change
N E W Y O R K 49

4
2
Present
situation
The Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, is
believed to have been the fi rst European to explore,
the area now known as the New York k Harbour in
1524. Although Da Verrazzano was the fi rst to visit
the location off present-day New York k City, it was
Henry Hudson who claimed Manhattan for the Dutch
Government in 1609, sailing his ship The Half f Moon
275 km up the river which now bears his name to
the state capital off Albany. Over the next twenty
years, many Dutch and other Europeans settled in
New Amsterdam, the principal city and port off New
Netherlands. Peter Minuit, a Dutch political director,
is credited with making the ‘deal of f the century’,
when he bought Manhattan Island from the Canarsee
Indians for just $24. The Dutch continued to control
New Amsterdam until 1664, when the British took k over
from the Dutch and renamed the city NewYork, after
James, Duke off York. In 1783, New York k became the
first fi capital off the newly independent United States.
New York k City experienced an exceptional period of
growth during the 19th century. In 1800, when the city
still consisted primarily off Manhattan, it had a mere
60,000 inhabitants; by 1890, the population had grown
25-fold to 1.5 million inhabitants, including Brooklyn,
Queens, Staten Island and the West Bronx. The
opening off the Erie Canal in 1826 provided an efficient ffi
transportation network k for Midwestern grain and
other commodities for domestical use and for export
through New York k Harbour. Railways and steamboats
were important elements of f economic development
from the first fi part off the 19th century, and the opening
of f the Croton water system (1842) brought clean water
to the city’s population, for the fi rst time and improved
public health. Since the 1950s, New York’s population
has grown to over 8 million inhabitants. After a decline
in the cily’s population in the 1980s, nearly 1.2 million
immigrants settled in New Yorkk City in the 1990s. The
projected population in Metropolitan New York k (MET)
in 2050 could be as high as 23 million residents.

4
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
New York k City has a temperate, continental climate,
with hot and humid summers and cold winters.
Recordsshow an annual average temperature
between 1971 and 2000 of f approximately 12.8°C.
The annual mean temperature in New York k City has
risen by 1.4°C since 1900, although the trendhas varied substantially over the decades. Between 1971
and 2000, New York k City averaged 13 days per year
with 1 inch (25.4 mm) or more of f rain, 3 days per year
with 2 or more inches (50.8 mm) of f rain, and 0.3 days
per year with over 4 inches (101.6 mm) of f rain.
Regional precipitation in New Yorkk may increase by
approximately 5 to 10 percent bythe 2080s. Climate
models tend to distribute much off this additional
precipitation to the winter months. Because of f the
effects ff of f higher temperatures, New York k also faces on
increased risk k of f drought.
Storm surges,winter storms and hurricanes
Storm surges along the eastern seaboard of f the
United States are associated with either late summerautumn
hurricanes or extratropical cyclones in the
winter period, the so-called nor’easters. The effects ff
of f extratropical cyclones or nor’easters can be large,
in part because off their relatively long durations
(compared to hurricanes) lead to extended periods of
high winds and high water. In the past, New York k has
been hit by many winter storms coinciding with high
tides.
The height of f the hurricane surge is amplified fi if
it coincides with the astronomical high tide and
additionally occurs at the time of f new and full moon
(spring tides). A period characterized by many severe
hurricanes (Saffir-Simpson
ffi categories 3-5) in the
1940s to 1960s was followed by relative quiescence
Figure 4.1 Hurricanes rated category 3 or higher that made
landfall on the US East and Gulff coasts in the period 1900-1999. NY2
N E W Y O R K 51

during the 1970s to the early 1990s.
Again, greater activity has occurred since the late
1990s. Although hurricanes strike New York City
infrequently, when they do, generally between July
and October, they can produce large storm surges
as well as wind and rain damage inland. Atlantic
hurricanes are aff ected by the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (a warming of the ocean surface off the
western coast of South America that occurs every 4 to
12 years). Figure 4.1 shows all category 3 hurricanes
(or higher) that made landfall on the US coast in
the period 1900-1999. It shows that hurricanes
have struck the coastal New York area six times in
that period, NY1 resulting in severe coastal fl ooding,
damage and destruction of beachfront property,
severe beach erosion, downed power lines, power
outages and disruption of normal transportation.
History of fl ood events
The August 1893 hurricane completely destroyed Hog
Island, a barrier island and popular resort area on the
south coast of Long Island that once existed seaward
of Rockaway Beach.
The worst natural disaster to strike the north-eastern
US was the hurricane of 21 September 1938, the socalled
“Long Island Express” which was estimated to
have killed between 682 and 800 people, damaged or
destroyed over 57,000 homes, and caused property
losses estimated at US$306 million (comparable to
$4.72 billion in 2010). This storm struck with little
warning. A wall of water 7-11 m (25-30 ft) high (surge
plus breaking waves) swept away protective barrier
dunes and buildings on the shores of eastern Long
Island, eastern Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
More recently, the December 1992 storm produced

some off the worst fl ooding seen in Metropolitan
New York k in more than 40 years. The water level at the
Battery in Lower Manhattan peaked at 2.4 m
(8 ft) above mean sea level; spring tides were already
higher than normal due to the full moon. The flooding fl
of f Lower Manhattan, together with heavy winds, led
to the almost complete shutdown off the New York
City transportation system for several days, as well
as evacuation off many seaside communities in New
Jersey, Connecticut and Long Island.
The vulnerability of f the regional transportation system
to flooding fl was demonstrated again on 26 August
1999, after 6.4-10.2 cm off rain fell on the New York
metropolitan area, nearly paralyzing the transport
system. NY3
Storm surge heights and frequency
A large proportion off New York k City and the
surrounding region, lies less than 3 m (10 ft) above
mean sea level, and infrastructure in these areas is
vulnerable to coastal fl flooding. A one in a hundred
years flood fl could produce a 3 m (9 ft) surge in New
York k Harbour and along the south coast of f Long
Island. Such a surge is more likely to be caused by a
hurricane than a winter nor’easter. On the other hand,
hurricanes occur much less frequently than nor’easters.
Nor’easters are dangerous and can cause considerable
damage even though their wind speeds are lower than
those in fast-moving hurricanes, as nor’easters cover
a much greater area and tend to last several days. This
means that sequential high tides will carrythestorm
surges further inland at a particular location.
Storm return frequencies along the US East Coast
over the last 50 years peaked in the late 1960s,
diminished in the1970s, and picked up again inthe
early 1990s. However, there has been no appreciable
increase in either the number or severity off storms
over this period.The increase in coastal flflooding is
largely a consequence off the regional sea level rise
during this period (about 30 cm per century) due to
eustatic adjustment of f the continent since the last
age and not due to recent fossil-fuel-related sea level
rise. It illustrates how rising ocean levels are likely to
exacerbate storm impacts in the future as sea level rise
accelerates. NY4
Socioeconomic effects ff off fl flooding
Many of f the region’s rail, subway (metro) and tunnel
entrance points, as well as some ports off the New
York’s major airports, lie at elevations off 3 m above
sea level or less. Sea level rise and flooding fl levels of
only 65 cm above the level which occurred during
N E W Y O R K 53

the December 1992 winter nor’easter will place
the area’s low-lying transportation infrastructure
NY5 at increased risk k off
fl flooding.
Inthe Metropolitan
East Coast (MEC) region, some beaches and barrier
islands are narrowing or shifting landward, partly
as a result off ongoing sea level rise as well as land
subsidence. Accelerated sea level rise will intensify
the rate and extent of f coastal erosion. While sea level
rise is obviously an important factor, beach erosion
is frequently intensified fi by human activities such as
coastal development and destruction of f wetlands.
The inland sources of f New York k City’s water supply
system (Long Island almost exclusively derives its
water supply from underground aquifers) will be
impacted by higher temperatures and forecast
increased precipitation. It is expected that the
combination of f these two factors, over time, will result
in both increased fl ooding and increased droughts,
with the resulting need toadjust system operating
rules and drought regulations in order to maintain
supply levels NY6 . Climate change is also expected
to have many possible impacts on water quality,
human and ecological health, as a result of f increasing
temperatures, changing precipitation patterns and
changes in turbidity, eutrophication and other water
quality parameters. Higher sea levels and storm surges
will also affect ff the operation off existing wastewater
treatment plans and outfalls, with consequent water
quality impacts to receiving water bodies.
Maintenance of f acceptable water quality standards
in New Yorkk Harbour, western Long Island Sound,
the lower Hudson, Passaic and Hackensackk rivers is
dependent on an adequate fl flushing rate driven by
the twice-daily flflood and ebb circulation of f the tides.
Most of f the city’s treated and untreated sewerage is
eventually discharged into the harbour and waterways
surrounding Metropolitan New York. There are ocean
outfalls in sections off Nassau and Suffolk ff k Counties
along the south shore of f Long Island.
Much off New Yorkk City relies on a combined sewer
system, which means that heavy precipitation events
often result in sewage fl ows being routed around
treatment facilities, and stored in temporary holding
tanks or released directly into the receiving water
bodies. Intense precipitation events can lead to
occasional overflowing fl of f the combined sewers into
city streets and subway systems.

4
4
Climate
adaptation
In December 2006, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg
challenged New Yorkers to generate ideas for
achieving 10 key goals for the city’s sustainable
future. NY7 New Yorkers in all fi five boroughs responded
positively. The result isthe most sweeping plan
to enhance New York’s urban environment in the
city’s modern history. On Earth Day 2007, the Mayor
released PlaNYC 2030, a comprehensive sustainability
plan for the city’s future. PlaNYC puts forth a strategy
to reduce the city’s carbon footprint, while at the
same time accommodating population growth and
improving the city’s infrastructure and environment.
The combined impact off this plan will not only help
ensure a higher quality of f life for generations of
New Yorkers to come, but will also contribute to a
30 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
compared to 2005 levels.
In recent decades, New York k City has acquired a
substantial history of f effff
orts to assess adaptation
strategies to address climate change. The ‘Metro East
Coast Report’, a report for the National Assessment of
Climate Variability and Change, NY5 reviewed climate
change with many regional stakeholders. The New York
City Department of f Environmental Protection’s Climate
Change Task k Force, initiated in 2004, surveyed the
entire range of f vulnerabilities to climate change of f the
water system. Its most recent report, the ‘Assessment
and Action Plan’, NY6 was published in 2008.
Mayor Bloomberg, in partnership with the Rockefeller
Foundation, convened the New York k City Panel on
Climate Change (NPCC). The NPCC, which consists of
climate change and climate impact scientists, as well
as legal, insurance and risk k management experts,
N E W Y O R K 55

serves as the technical advisory body for the Mayor
and the New York City Climate Change Adaptation
Task Force on issues related to climate change, impacts
and adaptation. The Task Force has focused its work
on critical infrastructure in the city, and the NPCC has
developed three workbooks to guide adaptation planning;
a full report from the NPCC is forthcoming. NY8
The city has developed a robust, durable framework
for eff ective, fl exible and cost-effi cient adaptation
planning designed to meet the challenges of climate
change in the city. NY9 This framework is based on
IPCC GCM model outputs for climate scenarios,
and carefully developed adaptation assessment
procedures in the context of climate protection levels.
On a statewide level, the ClimAID study, sponsored
by the New York Energy Research and Development
Authority (NYSERDA), includes an assessment of
coastal impacts, as does the New York Commission
on Sea Level Rise and several other studies. There is a
growing awareness that all of these recommendations
will have to be monitored and adjusted, as new
research and observations become available as to the
projected rate of sea level rise.
Land use zoning and fl ood insurance
The development of NYC waterfronts continues
because of the attractiveness of locating near the
water for recreational and economic activities.
Two recent successful examples of waterfront
developments in New York City are Battery Park, on
the south side of Manhattan, and Brooklyn Bridge
Park, on the Brooklyn side of the east River, near the
bridge. The question that arises is how to develop
future areas and control future land use in such a
manner that vulnerability to fl ooding is managed
in a way that limits risks to human life and physical
structures. In this respect, fl ood zoning policies and
building codes can be powerful tools. New York City
waterfronts play a crucial role in this context as a fi rst
line of fl ood defense, protecting New York City for
future challenges. Hence, the way zoning policies
are applied to waterfronts is directly determining
future vulnerability to fl ood risks and new (re-) zoning
policies for waterfronts can be perceived as option for
climate adaptation in New York City.
Examples are to reduce urban density near waterfronts,
allow for additional elevation of buildings near
the waterfronts (‘freeboarding’) and to combine levee
systems with residential housing near the waterfront.
Furthermore, fl ood insurance could be an important
tool for achieving risk reduction, because it imposes
the minimum requirements for local governments’

flood fl zoning and fl ood building codes, and it provides
incentives to homeowners to invest in risk k reduction
beyond these minimum standards.
Wetland restoration
There is an opportunity in NYC for waterfront
development that enhances fl ood protection levels
through applying measures that also enhance
environmental values. Current discussions address
focusing on waterfront areas where coastal fl flood
protection and nature preservation can be codeveloped.
Local government and the state and
federal policies have a mutual interest here. At the
policy level, such an approach could beaddressed
through better integrating Federal and State coastal
zone protection into local Waterfront Revitalization
Programs (LWRP).
Figure 4.2 Paradise Pond in Marshland, preserve Long Island NY.
Such ‘multi functional land use’ ’ developments,
however, need new planning regulations and urban
designs that allow for a less rigid boundary between
land and water. For example, most environmental
values are found creating (shallow-) gradients between
land and water.
The City of f New York k has recently initiated the ‘Staten
Island Bluebelt Programme’ ’ to reduce the risks of
flooding fl on Staten Island from storm water, by
providing and constructing storm water detention
ponds and enhancing or creating streams, ponds
and wetlands. New, separate, storm and sanitary
sewer infrastructure networks are also included in the
programme. The 10,000-acre (4,000 hectare) Bluebelt
Programme, at an estimated cost of f $37 million,
would cost some $39 million less than a conventional
underground networkk off
storm sewers. NY6
Storm surge barriers
One possible long-term measure that might be
considered is storm surge barriers spanning the major
navigation channels connecting New York k Harbour
to the sea. As New York k is generally located on higher
ground than other threatened European delta cities
such as Rotterdam, London and St Petersburg, New
York k City planners enjoy the benefit fi off more time
to consider options for future fl ood protection. The
problems off climate change impacts to be faced in
New Yorkk 50 and 100 years from now may be in some
respects similar to those of f the abovementioned
European cities today. Therefore, much can be learned
from the European experiences with storm surge
barriers before making commitments to ambitious
regional solutions.
As with any major engineering works, NewYork
N E W Y O R K 57

arrier design and emplacement would require
comprehensive feasibility/cost/benefit fi analyses,
desired protection level and efficacy ffi studies. NY11
New York k City has high ground inall of f the boroughs
which could protect against some levels off surge
with a combination of f local measures (such as dikes),
resilient housing, enhanced community resiliency and
evacuation plans. Barriers designed to impede oceanic
storm surges obviously would not protect against the
substantial inland damages from wind and rain that
often accompany hurricanes. As with the Dutch Delta
Plan, careful decisions would need to bemade about
barrier and dyke locations, since all such systems and
also do not protect those infrastructure and residents
who live outside the barrier.
Possible locations for barriers that were considered
at a 2009 ASCE conference ‘Against the deluge: storm
NY12 surge Barriers to protect New Yorkk City’ include
the Verrazano Narrows, which is the main shipping
channel, connecting Upper New Yorkk Bay and Port
Elizabeth, N.J. with the Atlantic Ocean. Other possible
connections include the upper East River to eliminate
surges originating in western Long Island Sound,
the Arthur Kill behind StatenIsland and or a more
ambitious outer barrier system stretching across
from Sandy Hook, N.J. to Far Rockaway, Long Island.
This latter approach follows the Delta Works design
by shortening the length of f coastline that needs
to be protected as well as safeguarding JFKK Airport
and densely-populated communities in Brooklyn,
Queens, Jamaica Bay and northern NJ.This barrier
would eliminate the need for both the Verrazano and
the Arthur Kill barriers (but not the upper East River
barrier), provide protection to the outer boroughs
off Brooklyn and Queens, additional northern NJ
communities, Jamaica Bay and JFKK Airport, but would
have significant fi environmental impact, including
augmenting and modifying the Sandy Hook k barrier
dune system of f the nearby Gateway National
Recreational Area.
N E W Y O R K 59

y Philip Ward, Muh Aris Marfai,
Aisa Tobing and Christiaan Elings
5
Jakarta

5
1
Introduction
Flooding and fl ood management are not
new to Jakarta. The region has suff ered
from fl ooding ever since the founding
of Batavia (the colonial name for the
current city of Jakarta) by the Dutch in
1619. Soon after this, a canal system
was constructed and by 1725 a dam had
already been built to divert the waters of
the Ciliwung westwards. Over the course
of the last four centuries, many more
technical fl ood managements strategies
have been designed and implemented,
but reports of fl ooding are prevalent
throughout this long period. J5
The Government of Jakarta is aware
that eff orts to reduce fl oods involve
local, national and global factors and
is determined to achieve its objectives.
This is quite a challenge, but Jakarta is in
the process to develop detailed plans to
accommodate more water and increase
green retention areas in the city.
Figure 5.1 The location of f Jakarta.
J A K A R T A 61

“In Jakarta, we are aiming to reduce flooding fl in the
city y by y 40 percent t by y 2011 and d byy
as much as 75%
byy 2016. Basedd on detailedd calculations modelling,
these ambitious goals are achievable if f we are able to
increase the proportion off green space in the city y and
improve water r catchments and d groundwater r recharge
in accordance with the Jakarta Spatial l Plan forr 2030.
However, itt is importantt to keep in mind d thatt
fl flood
managementt requires not t onlyy
local, butt also regional,
national l andd
globall
effff
orts, andd so we welcome
cooperation in managing watersheds that t transcend
ourr city’s boundaries.”
Fauzi i Bowo, Governor r of f Jakarta, Indonesia
“From the geomorphologic c point t off
view, Jakarta consists of
alluvial l plain and d coastall
landform, where thirteen rivers flow fl
through Jakarta city. This physicall condition increases the flood fl
hazard d and d vulnerability. Rapid d change off land d use on the upper
part t off
Jakarta and d rapidd
industriall
developmentt
contribute
signifi ficantlyy to increasing surface run offff leads to extensive flood fl
inundation. In the future, with scenario of f climate change, fl flood
event t are predictedd to worser. Therefore an integrated d watershed
andd coastall
zone management, using regional, ecological
andd spatiall
approaches, which is also take into account
coordination among the locall governments surrounding Jakarta
(Jabodetabek, Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi), is
required.”
Professorr Dr. Suratman, M.Sc, Dean off the Geographyy Faculty,
Gadjah Mada Universityy Y Yogyakarta, Chairman off the
Indonesian Geographers Association

5
2
Jakarta, the capital and largest city off Indonesia, is
located on the northern coast of f the island of f Java, in a
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Figure 5.2 Map showing the thirteen rivers flo fl
Present
situation
lowland area with relatively fl flat topography. Jakarta is
located in the delta of f several rivers. Thirteen rivers flow fl
through the region, the main one being the Ciliwung
(Figure 5.2). The Special Capital Region off Jakarta (DKI
Jakarta) covers an area off about 662 km2 . Over the last
half f century the city’s population rose rapidly from
2.7 million in 1960 to 9 million in 2007. J1 GDP projections
for Indonesia as a whole show overall growth rates of
4.5 percent per year between the periods 2005and
2030, and the population of f Jakarta is expected to
grow from 8.8 million to up to 25 million by 2025. This
population growth, combined with rapid economic
development, has caused extensive land use change in
the whole off Java and in Jakarta in particular. During the
past three decades, fringe areas experienced extensive
land conversion from agricultural land to new urban and
industrial areas, J2, J3 former residential areas in the city
centre have been converted into offices ffi and business
spaces, and open green space in Jakarta has greatly
decreased from 28.8 percent of f the total area in 1984 to
an estimated 6.2 percent in 2007. J4
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J A K A R T A 63

Figure 5.3 Ciliwung River and adjacent slum settlements.
Figure 5.4 Flood simulation of Ciliwung River for 1.5m and 2m inundation scenarios.

5
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
The physical causes of f fl ooding in Jakarta are several and
interlinked and include land subsidence, climate change,
land use change, and clogged-up rivers and drainage
canals. Jakarta is subsiding rapidly, with an average
subsidence rate of f 4 cm per year in northern Jakarta,
and areas where the subsidence rate is even higher. J6 On
top of f this, the climate ischanging, which is expected to
cause an increase in the frequency off both river flooding fl
and coastal flooding. fl Climate models project that annual
rainfall will increase across most of f Indonesia in the
future, J7 and that extreme rainfall events will increase
in severity and frequency in South-East Asia in the
21st century. J8 In recent decades, sea level in the Jakarta
Bay has risen by about 0.5 cm per year. J9 Furthermore,
tropical cyclones are predicted of f increased intensities
for South-East Asia, J10 which could lead to increased
storm surge frequencies and heights. J8 Next to these
problems, the rapid deforestation and urbanizationhas
led to increased flood fl peaks and erosion, resulting in
sedimentation in the city’s rivers and drainage canals.
Urbanization has also resulted in the narrowing off river
basins and floodplains,
fl reducing the discharge capacity
off rivers during peakk events. In addition to these
problems, huge amounts of f garbage clog up Jakarta’s
rivers and drainage canals, partly due to the lack k of f a
coordinated refuse collection system for large parts of
the city. Overflo fl wing rivers cause inundation of f adjacent
settlements, especially the slum settlements (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.4 shows the simulated extent off a flood fl up
to 2 m in the area near the Kampong Melayu due to
overflowing fl waters from the Ciliwung River. J11
J A K A R T A 65

Figure 5.5 Maintaining the drainage system and channels of the
f city’s
waterways. Trash rack at
k Manggarai Flood Gate, Southern Jakarta,
before and after cleaning. J13
Related sustainability and environmental aspects
Several important sustainability and environmental
aspects are related tothe fl flood problem. One of
Jakarta’s major problems is that of f traffi ffi c and chronic
congestion, described by many as the city’s most
significan fi ‘urbannightmare’. J12 During fl floods, this
problem ismadeeven worse: for example, during
the fl floods off 2002 and 2007, massive traffic ffi jams
hampered evacuation, with major thoroughfares being
brought to a complete standstill for days. Train and air
services were badley aff ffected, with around 80 percent
of f fl flights at the Soekarno-Halta Airport being delayed
in 2002.
Solid waste is another related environmental issue in
Jakarta; off the ca. 23,400 m3 of f garbage produced each
day, y only 14,700 are disposed of f by the City Sanitation
Office. ffi J12 Large amounts off this garbage end up in
the city’s waterways, clogging up drainage channels
(Figure 5.5). Poor coverage of f piped clean water
remains a key problem; a mere 40 percent off the
city’s supply is estimated to be piped, with ca.
40 percent coming from bore-holes, and ca. 20 percent
from traditionalwater vendors. The increasing demand
for water has led to the over-utilization of f groundwater
resources, exacerbating the land subsidence (and
therefore fl flood) problem.

5
4
Climate
adaptation
Figure 5.6 Re-greening of f fl floodplain areas to increase
water retention.
Traditionally, government policies on fl flooding
in Jakarta have emphazised protection based on
technical measures, such as canals, dams, and
sluices. Today, such measures continue to form an
important part of f Jakarta’s adaptation plan. One of
the ways in which fl floods will be reduced by 2011 is
through the dredging off 13 rivers and 56 drainage
canals and the Eastern and Western Canals. By 2016,
several developments are planned: the construction
off channels and tunnels to link k the Western and
Eastern Flood Canals; construction off a polder
system; the rehabilitation of f existing reservoirs and
lakes; construction off a new reservoir; floodplain
fl
conservation and re-greening (Figure 5.6); and
improving the existing breakwater to prevent the
impact of f tide water. The Jakarta Public Works Agency
has also introduced a project to dredge and remove
J A K A R T A 67

Figure 5.7 Flood marker in a settlement area
to preserve fl ood awareness among citizens.

Figure 5.8 Strengthening the capacity of f communities through
training, education, and discussion.
sediments and waste from the city’s rivers and
drainage canals (Figure 5.5). On a less technical level,
people living in informal settlements and inthecity
outskirts have installed simple structural devices such
as small dams to protect their houses from tidal floods, fl
and are building storage areas on the second storey of
houses to avoid fl ood damage (Figure 5.9).
In recent years, there has also been more investment
in non-structural measures such as awarenessraising
programmes; law enforcement and early
warning and emergency assistance systems; upper
watershed planning and management; training for
strengthening community capacity (Figure 5.8);and
installing fl ood signs to preserve citizens awareness
(Figure 5.7). Furthermore, nature restoration schemes
are being heralded as innovative ways to protect
against fl ooding. In Jakarta, mangrove conservation
is considered a good way to protect the coastal
area, not only in terms off fl flood protection, but also
from a sustainability point of f view. The Ministry of
Forestry has developed a programme to increase the
area of f mangroves in the coastal area near Jakarta;
in some areas these had almost disappeared due to
deforestation.
Interaction of f climate and water issues
with spatial planning
At present,Jakarta is working toward the integration
of f spatial planning and flood fl management. These
issues were discussed when policymakers from Jakarta
attended the CDC symposium on flood fl risk k in New
York k City in 2009. In this regard, fl ood risk k management
plays a key role. Two key components to a successful
flood fl risk k management plan are: (a) flood fl risk k maps
showing how risk k will change spatially; and (b)
assessments of f how fl ood risk k mapping can play a role
in the decision-making process and communication
with stakeholders. Both off these issues are to be
covered in an upcoming research programme as part
of f the Dutch programme Knowledge for Climate. The
CDC network k will play a role in embedding knowledge
exchange between cities. A preliminary flood fl
damage model has already been set up by Gadjah
Mada University Yogyakarta (Indonesia) and IVM-VU
University Amsterdam (Netherlands). Based on this
model, Figure 5.10 shows the area off northern Jakarta
that would be inundated as a result of f an extreme
coastal flood fl with a return period off one hundred
years under: (a) current conditions; and (b) a future
scenario in 2100 whereby land subsidence continues
J A K A R T A 69

Figure 5.9 Houses with storage areas on second storey
to avoid fl ood damage.

at 4 cm per year and the sea level rises by 59 cm. The
total value of f assets exposed to such a flood fl under
current conditions is estimated at about €4 billion,
whilst the scenario for 2100 estimates an exposure of
almost €17 billion (excluding the effects ff of f changes in
future population and land use, and socioeconomic
developments). In the coming years, more flood fl risk
maps of f this nature will be developed to show how
flood fl inundation and riskk will change over time, and to
assist in the integration of f spatial planning and flood fl
management.
Figure 5.10 Inundation maps of f northern Jakarta for
two coastal fl ood scenarios.
A) Current conditions
Sea and permanent water bodies
B) Includes sea level rise and land subsidence
Inundated area
Delta Dialogues
2008 - 2009
In 2008 and 2009, a series off four meetings (Delta
Dialogues) were held out in which Indonesian
decision makers at national, regional, and local
levels, civil society stakeholders, and experts
from Jakarta and the Netherlands where brought
together. Through a systematic discussion on
fl ood risks in Jakarta, opinions were shared and
people learned about each others’ ’ perceptions
and interests. As no formal agenda or political
decisions were involved, participants could
freely brainstorm and share views. Based on the
Dialogues, a long-term vision was formulated
on how to reduce flood fl risks taking into account
land subsidence, climate change and other
causal mechanisms. Vietnamese specialists
were also involved in the Dialogues, and this
international exchange of f knowledge and
experience led to the beginnings off Indonesian-
Vietnamese collaboration.
J A K A R T A 71

6
London
by Alex Nickson

6
1
“Preparing our r greatt
cityy
forr
the effects ff off climate change
and d adapting our r homes and d workplaces will l improve
Londoners’ ’ quality y off
life, with more trees, and d better
designed, greener r public c spaces. This will l create new w jobs
and d industries and d reinforce the capital’s position as the
numberr one place to do green business.”
Boris Johnson
The Mayor r of f London
Introduction
In the last decade, London has experienced
fl oods that have damaged homes and
infrastructure, a heat wave that killed
600 Londoners and a drought that led to
the construction of a desalination plant.
Climate change is expected to increase the
frequency and intensity of these existing
risks, which unless London adapts, will
increasingly aff ect the city’s prosperity,
the quality of life of its inhabitants and
ultimately London’s reputation as a leading
‘world city.’
L O N D O N 73

“We have quantifi ed the synergies and confl icts between
adaptation to climate change and mitigation of carbon
emissions, for example by examining the contribution
that urban energy use makes to the urban heat island.
We are using our integrated systems modelling to
understand how policies can be devised that yield
benefi ts in relation to a number of objectives and avoid
undesirable side-eff ects.”
Professor Jim Hall, Professor of Earth Systems Engineering,
Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Newcastle
University

6
2
Present
situation
From a peak k off
8.8 million in 1939, London’s
population steadily declined to 6.7 million in 1988.
Since then, the population has grown steadily to
7.6 million today and is expected to keep growing
to around 8.9 million by 2031. L1 Nearly all off this
growth will be accommodated on brownfield fi sites,
or further densification fi of f development around high
transport accessibility nodes. This approach leads to a
compact, dense city, but also intensifies fi vulnerability
by concentrating a high number of f people and assets
within a relatively small area.
London sits astride the RiverThames. While not a
traditional delta, the capital is further bisected by
12 tributaries and the tidal infl fluence off the North Sea
extends almost entirely through the city.
London, as with much of f the United Kingdom, is
buffered ff from the continental climate by the Gulf
Stream, and thus has a marine climate. This means
that winters are less cold and summers are less hot.
This reduced seasonal variation is one of f the key
reasons why much off the UKK is poorly adapted to
extreme weather, as wide seasonal variations are very
uncommon and generally short-lived.
L O N D O N 75

6
Drought
Eighty percent of f London’s water comes from the River
Thames and River Lea and 20 percent from the confined fi
chalk k aquifer under the city.The Thames Basin is the
largest river basin in the southeast of f England. As such,
it offers ff a more dependable supply of f water during
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droughts than other catchments in the Southeast, as it
is able to collect more water.
The Thames Basin receives an average of f 690 mm of
rainfall per year. Of f this, two-thirds is lost to evaporation
or transpired by plants. 55 percent off the remaining
‘effective ff rainfall’ ’ is then abstracted for use, one of
the highest amounts inthe country. 82 percent of
the abstracted water is for public supply, with half
of f this supplied to households and a quarter to non
households. The remainder is lost in leakage. This
sequence is shown diagrammatically in Figure 6.1 below.
The Environment Agency has classified fi the whole
of southeast England as ‘severely water stressed.’
This means that the amount off water abstracted to
meet demands today is causing actual damage to
the environment. Under the EU Water Framework
Directive (WFD), L2 water companies must contribute
to improving the quality of f water bodies, which will in
effect ff limit theabstraction from some watercourses,
meaning that water supply may fall as unmanaged
demand is likely to increase. The Environment Agency
is currently assessing what level of f ‘sustainability
reductions’ ’ will be required to meet the WFD
requirements.
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Figure 6.1 Diagram from draft water strategy.

Catchments
GLA boundary
be affected ff by flooding fl

more seasonal and that all seasons experience a
signifi cant warming.
London is protected from fl ooding by a series of fl ood
defences and the city’s drainage system. 15 percent
of London’s area lies on the former fl oodplains of
London’s rivers. The standard of protection provided
by the fl ood defences and the area they protect can
be mapped and the assets that lie on the protected
fl ood plains plotted. Figure 6.2 shows the standard of
protection provided by the tidal and fl uvial defences.
It can be seen that there is a very variable standard
of protection, with the tidal defences providing a
high standard of defence to the tidal fl oodplain
(green shaded area), but that protection on some of
the tributaries to the Thames having a much lower
standard of defence (red shaded areas). The standard
of protection provided by the drainage system is
much lower, commonly between 3-5 percent annual
expected probability.
An analysis of ‘who and what’ is at fl ood risk today,
shows that a signifi cant proportion of London’s critical
infrastructure lies in areas of fl ood risk and also in
addition that some of the poorest Londoners are living
in areas of tidal fl ood risk. This is important because
it underlines that much of the infrastructure London
would rely on in the event of a fl ood is at risk and that
the most vulnerable part of the population also live in
at risk areas.
Overheating
Summers in London are rarely hot enough to cause
a signifi cant health impact. However, it is this rare
exposure to high temperatures in combination with
the poor ability of much of London’s housing stock
to maintain comfortable temperatures that causes
Londoners’ vulnerability to high temperatures. The
August 2003 heatwave caused the deaths of 600
Londoners. An analysis L3 of the health impact of the
heatwave across all the UK regions showed that while
London did not experience the highest temperatures,
it did result in the highest number of deaths when
averaged over the population. It is proposed that the
urban heat island (UHI) eff ect was a key factor in this
excess mortality, as the UHI prevented the city from
cooling off overnight and maintained temperatures at
a threshold too high for vulnerable people to recover
suffi ciently from the heat of the day.

6
4
Climate
adaptation
To identify the climate risks andopportunities facing
London, and to providea frameworkk to prepare
London for climate change, the Mayor of f London is
developing a climate change adaptation strategy
for the city. L4 The strategy assesses the climate risks
to London today, and then uses climate projections
to understand how these risks change, or new
opportunities arise, as a result of f climate change.
The London Climate Change Adaptation Strategy
(LCCAS) uses the Disaster Risk k Reduction framework
L5 of f ‘prevent, prepare, respond, recover’ ’ to
categorie the actions. This approach encourages
decision makers to undertake some level of
adaptation activity despite the uncertainty of f climate
projections, and also to consider how to manage
the residual risk k that exists even if f the strategy is
to prevent a climate impact (such as a flood) fl from
occurring.
As part off the public consultation on the LCCAS, the
Mayor used digital media channels to ask k Londoners
what they could and should do as individuals, or
neighbourhoods, to adapt. This included using
YouTube to virally disseminate a video L6 off the Mayor
explaining the need to adapt and an interactive
website L7 where Londoners could put forward their
ideas and vote on other peoples’ ’ ideas (see Figure
6.3). This allowed the Greater London Authority
to reach a wider audience than normally engaged
in policy development and helped raise both
awareness off the issue and ownership off the risk.
Figure 6.3 Website: www.london.gov.uk/climatechange
L O N D O N 79

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Average Monthly Rainfall
Medium Emissions Scenario 2040 - 2060s
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Figure 6.4 and 6.5 Baseline London climate (grey bars) 1961-1990, and projected future climate (generated using UKCP09 50% projections).

6
5
From strategy
to delivery
London is undertaking a wide range
of adaptation actions, the following examples
of which are transferable and scalable to
other cities.
Thames Estuary 2100 (TE2100)
The UK Environment Agency has undertaken a study
to identify the fl ood risk management options for
protecting London and the Thames Estuary from
tidal fl ooding to the end of the century. L8 The project
has identifi ed a range of possible options – from
raising the height of existing defences to constructing
a second Thames Barrier – and assesses the level
of protection that each option can provide. The
thresholds for protection against rising sea levels
provided by each of the options are then plotted
against sea level rise. This approach helps decision
makers to understand the suite of options open to
them, and how they can be combined into a ‘decision
pathways’ to create a portfolio of measures through
the century.
Figure 6.6 shows the TE2100 ‘decisions pathway.’ Each
box represents a fl ood risk management option or
series of options and the maximum level of water
level rise they can protect against. This approach can
be replicated for managing other impacts, including
droughts and overheating.
Water neutrality
The Greater London Authority has been working with
the Environment Agency to look at how to balance
London’s water supply in the face of increasing
demand and declining supplies. The aim is to improve
the water effi ciency of London’s existing stock of
3 million homes to provide water for the future
growing population – referred to as ‘water neutrality.’
In principle this means no net increase in demand
despite a growth in the number of inhabitants. To
deliver these water savings, the GLA is working with
the 33 London boroughs, the 4 water companies and
the energy companies on a programme to retrofi t
water and energy effi ciency measures into Londoners’
homes at no cost to the householder. The aim is to
retrofi t up to 1.2 million homes by 2015. The ultimate
vision is to expand ‘water neutrality’ to ‘water security,’
where suffi cient savings are made to provide a buff er
against the impact of climate change on water
supplies (including the sustainability reductions
referred to above).
L O N D O N 81

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Drain London
Surface water fl flood risk k is considered to be the
most significant fi short-term climate riskk to London.
Modelling L9 suggests that a one in a twohundred
years rainstorm event today would fl ood up to 680,000
properties in London. A study on London’s drainage
system L10 concluded that even a small increase in
rainfall could require the significant fi modification fi of
the drainage system to maintain current levels of
service.
To manage this existing and increasing risk,the
Greater London Authority has brought together all the
organizations with responsibility for, and information
on, surface water fl flood risk k management and created
a framework k to facilitate collaborative action. The
Drain London project will help every London borough
produce its own surface water management plan
(SWMP), but ensures that the individual SWMPs are
created in coherence with the SWMPs of f neighbouring
borough. The project will also identify and prioritize
the regional fl ood risk k hotspots, and work k to develop
more detailed plans for the priority areas.
Urban greening programme
Work k on developing theLCCAS has highlighted that it
is the urban realm and land cover that intensifies fi many
of f the climate impacts. For example, it is the loss of
permeability caused by the traditional construction of
roads and buildings that causes flash fl flooding, fl and the
loss of f vegetation helps create the UHI effect. ff
The Greater London Authority is developing an urban
greening programme to offset ff the loss of f vegetation
and so manage the climate risks. The Mayor has set
a target of f increasing green cover in Central London
by 10 percent by 2050 and increasing London-wide
tree cover by 5 percent (an additional 2 million trees
by 2030). It is anticipated that this urban greening will
help coolthe city in summer and reduce the frequency
and intensity of f fl oods. The Greater London Authority
is also working with the Environment Agency and
the River Restoration Centre to restore 15 kilometres
off London’s rivers, L11 increasing fl flood storage and
improving riparian habitat.
Integrating perspectives on adaptation
The various perspectives on adaptation that are
outlined above cannot be addressed in isolation. They
interact with one another, in particular via urban land
use. Opportunities exist for integrated approaches,
which provide resilience to a number of f climate risks.
However, the interactions between different ff risks and
L O N D O N 83

Figure 6.7

urban functions can be rathercomplex.
In order to understand these interactions and
provide the evidence needed to underpin integrated
adaptation solutions, the Tyndall Centre for Climate
Change Research has been working with the
Greater London Authority to develop an Urban
Integrated Assessment Facility (UIAF), which simulates
the main processes of f long-term change in London
(see Figure 6.8).
The UIAF couples a series off simulation modules
within a scenario andpolicy analysis framework. The
UIAF is driven by global and national scenarios of
climate and socioeconomic change, which feed into
models off the regional economy and land use change.
Simulations of f climate, land use and socioeconomic
change inform analysis off carbon dioxide emissions
(focussing upon energy, personal transport and
freight transport) and the impacts of f climate change
(focussing on heat waves, droughts and fl floods).
The final fi component of f the UIAF isthe integrated
assessment tool that provides the interface between
the modelling components, the results and the enduser.
This tool has enabled a number of f adaptation and
mitigation options to be explored within an integrated
framework.
Figure 6.8 Tyndall Centre simulations of f land use in East London on
a 100 × 100 m grid showing existing and future developments i under
the baseline land use paradigm, ii under conditions where a policy to
reduce exposure to fl ood risk k has led to a ban on future fl floodplain
development.
Legend
Census CAS Wards
Water
Undeveloped Land
Current Development
Future Development
L O N D O N 85

New Orleans
7
by David Waggonner and Andy Sternad

7
1
Introduction
“The reason we’re here in the fi rst place is because there’s
water here. Instead of turning our backs, barricading
ourselves, and treating the water like an enemy, let’s
treat it like the friend that it can be and should be –
encouraging the beauty, better environmental standards,
and value for the people (that come with that approach).”
Mary Landrieu, United States Senator for the State of
Louisiana, the USA
New Orleans is the present-day test case
for world delta cities. In 2005, Hurricane
Katrina brought about the failure of the
levee system, fl ooding 80 percent of the
city and forcing prolonged evacuation of
almost the entire population. Five years later,
BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded
south of the city, unleashing a torrent of oil
from the reservoir beneath the ocean fl oor,
threatening fragile, protective wetlands
critical to the region’s economy, culture
and storm protection. With rising seas and
sinking land, a place integral to American
history and world culture struggling to
reinvent itself and reverse its decline.
N E W O R L E A N S 87

DD3 Workshop
The Dutch Dialogues workshops are the
outgrowth of extended interactions between
Dutch engineers, urban designers, landscape
architects, city planners and soils/hydrology
experts and, primarily, their Louisiana
counterparts. The eff orts of the Dutch Dialogues
derive from the participants’ unwavering belief
that New Orleans can survive and prosper and
grow only when it gets certain fundamentals in
order. Dutch Dialogues exposes and hopefully
addresses some of those fundamentals.
‘Safety First’ is the key to organizing water
management principle in the Netherlands.
History repeatedly shows the folly of living in a
delta where disasters are common. However, to
ignore the water’s magic – the unique, abundant
opportunities that can and should be exploited
for economic, societal and cultural gain – is
equally foolhardy. ‘Living with the water’ has
recently become an ordering, corollary principle
of Dutch policy. Adapting a living with the
water principle is necessary in post-Katrina
New Orleans. The Dutch Dialogues posits that
both safety and amenity from water are crucial to
a future in which New Orleans is robust, vibrant
and secure.
“The Mississippi River stretches north into Canada and
South to the Gulf of Mexico, east into New York and North
Carolina and west to Idaho and New Mexico. It drains 31
states and 2 Canadian provinces. It exceeds by 20 percent
China’s Yellow River, is double that of the Nile and Ganges,
fi fteen times that of the Rhine. In terms of agricultural and
industrial productivity it is by far the most important river
valley in the world. The river system is America. It directed
the nation’s expansion across the continent.
It spurred technological developments in fi elds as diverse
as architecture, experimental physics, and metallurgy.
It created great fortunes. It determined the path of
demographic movement. Through blues and jazz, through
Mark Twain and Richard Wright and William Faulkner, it
created America’s soul.”
John Barry, author of the award-winning book “Rising Tide:
The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed
America”

7
2
Present
situation
General characteristics
New Orleans is a city on the edge, but it exists for
a reason. Guided by the native inhabitants in 1718,
French colonist Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville
founded New Orleans at its present location on the
relatively high natural levee along the Mississippi River.
Convenient and strategic access to the sea through
Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain meant that
New Orleans could receive ocean-going commerce
in addition to the river trade that chugged past its
banks. According to historical geographer Richard
Campanella, ‘the site (Bienville) fi finally selected
represented the best available site within a fantastic
geographical situation’. Although the area was
predominantly marshland and prone toriver flooding fl
and intense storms, a city at the mouth of f the greatest
water highway on the continent was inevitable.
On the delta the Mississippi fl flows higher than its
surroundings on land of f its own creation. The historic
French Quarter sits on the slope of f the Mississippi levee
created as spring fl oods deposited coarse sediments
near its banks. As fl ood water spread out and slowed
down, lighter clays and fine fi silt were loosely deposited
further away. The result is a natural high ground around
15 feet above sea level along the river, that slopes gently
downhill, almost imperceptibly, to the backswamp and
Lake Pontchartrain at sea level a few miles away. Ridges
of f high ground – sometimes only a fewfeet above sea
level – created by former distributary channels off the
river crisscross the landscape. New Orleans originally
developed along these tenuous bands of f elevated earth,
and as evidence of f early inhabitant’s now-forgotten
environmental understanding the historic parts off the
city largely escaped Katrina’s inundation.
Figure 7.1 Mississippi River Delta. New Orleans Metro Area at center.
N E W O R L E A N S 89

Figure 7.2 19 th century map of New Orleans. Note the compact city near the river with the backswamp and Lake Pontchartrain behind it.
Culture
New Orleans’ complex identity was formed from
people of diff erent backgrounds sharing slender
dry space alongside the river. With the slaves the
early underpinnings of voodoo, blues and jazz
were imported from Africa. Elaborate Mardi Gras
celebrations grew out of French Catholic and African
traditions. Culinary specialties, then as now, rely
on local seafood bounties. As a growing centre of
world commerce, the city also attracted immigrants
in numbers second only to New York. NO1 Iconoclasts
and slaves lived side by side at the river mouth where
North America met the sea. Europeans 4 (Spanish,
French, Irish and Germans) African slaves and free
people of colour, French Creoles and American
entrepreneurs from across the country coexisted to
take advantage of the city’s promise.
Before the advent of pumping and drainage
technology, the region’s vernacular architecture
blended European styles with practical, climateresponsive
strategies. French and Spanish infl uences

are evident in the scale, streetscape and courtyards
of f the French Quarter. New Orleans’s characteristic
shotgun houses – long and narrow for cross
ventilation – were often constructed using dismantled
river barges. Most structures, especially outside the
city centre, were elevated offff the ground.
At the time of f Katrina in 2005, New Orleans had a
population of f 437,186, down from a peak k of f 626,525
around 1960, a reduction of f approximately 30 percent.
Over the same period, despite population loss, the
city’s area increased from approximately 100 square
miles to its current size off 180 square miles. NO2 Since
Katrina the population has fallen an additional twenty
percent, but even before the storm New Orleans was
facing issues of f contraction, underpopulation and
decline. NO3
Economy
South-eastern Louisiana’s economy is focused around
the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries, shipping
traffi ffi c, seafood and tourism. Petrochemical production
provides over $12 billion annually in household
earnings throughout the state. More than 25 percent
of f the nation’s ocean bound exports pass through
Louisiana’s ports, and a quarter of f all commercial
fishing fi catches in America land in Louisiana.
Additionally, tourism generates $5.2 billion statewide,
mostly in New Orleans, whichwas recently rated
the world’s premier nightlife hotspot. Digital media,
film-making,
fi and the water sector are emerging
NO4, NO5
industries.
N E W O R L E A N S 91

7
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
At 30 degrees north latitude, the region is squarely
subtropical. Average annual temperatures fl fluctuate
between 91°F (33°C) in the summer and 43°F (6°C)
in twinter, with annual rainfall totals typically
exceeding 60 inches (152 cm). NO6 In addition to
characteristically hot and humid weather, the Gulf
of f Mexico routinely experiences intense hurricanes.
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 hit New Orleans almost
directly as a massive category three storm with
sustained winds up to 130 mph and a storm surge
approaching twenty feet. NO7 An average of f 11 named
storms pass through the Gulff each year, and over the
next century their frequency and magnitude – and the
sea level itself f – are projected to increase. NO8
Response to Environment
Water is New Orleans’ ’ source off sustenance and
prosperity, yet it also challenges the city’s very
existence. In order to exploit its potential, generations
off New Orleanians have built levees, dug canals,
and pumped, drained and diverted water across the
land to fortify the city against nature’s persistent
threat, defensive strategies that have sometimes
also counteracted natural processes. In 1866, US Civil
War general A.A. Humphreys became chief f of f the
US Army Corps of f Engineers and developed a policy
that predominantly involved the development of f a
levee system. In 1913, highly efficient ffi screw pumps
were invented by Albert Baldwin Wood and installed
at outfall canals that drained the backswamp to the
lake. With the deployment of f these powerful pumps,
the New Orleans drainage system was the most
technologically advanced system in the world. NO9
N E W O R L E A N S 93

With confidence fi in this mastered terrain, post-World
War II development near the lakeshore abandoned
the traditional raised housing type and en-vogue,
ranch-style; slab-on-grade houses dominated the
new landscape. Ironically, the newly available land
was below sea level and continually subsiding due to
the same drainage system off levees and pumps that
permitted its development. Today, pile-supported
box culverts remain high whiletheadjacent land falls
away. Eventually, concrete floodwalls
fl were required
along the outfall canals to prevent lake surges from
flooding fl the city. Despite improvements, street
flooding fl commonly occurs during rain storms due in
part to the system’s inherent lack k off
water storage.
On a macro scale, the flood-proof,
fl leveed river can
no longer rebuild and sustain delta soils. Dams and
reservoirs farupstream trap fifty fi percent of f the river’s
historical sediment load, and much off the remaining
sediment is channelled past wetlands and over
the continental shelf. NO10 The comprehensive levee
and pump system now encircling the city provides
protection but also seals human development into a
slowly subsiding bowl. All of f New Orleans’s 150 cm
of f rainfall per year must be pumped out and the
dried former backswamp continues to compact and
subside at a rate of f anywhere from 5mm to almost
2 cm per year. NO9 At once New Orleans’s lifeblood and
primary historical antagonist, water has been covered
up and walled off. ff
Katrina
Among New Orleans’ lineage of f natural disasters,
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was not only the worst
in the city’s history but the most costly ever to occur
in the United States. Damage estimates reached
$125 billion in economic losses on the Gulf
Coast, and $30 billion in the city off New Orleans
alone. NO11 The city lost 70 percent off its urban
canopy, NO12 an estimated number of f 100,000 trees. NO13
More than 160,000 homes were destroyed or heavily
damaged and 1,500 lives were lost. Katrina forced
the evacuation of f 1.36 million people, creating a New
Orleans diaspora across the continent. The suburban
developments on former backswamp suffered ff most,
and subsidence of f six to seven feet below sea level
in some places worsened the flood fl ’s effect. ff The older
neighbourhoods on high ground on the river’s edge
NO9
and ridges suffered ff little or minor fl flooding.
In response to the storm, the US Army Corps
redoubled its levee strengthening efforts. ff To date,
the US Congress has released $14.45 billion for the

Louisiana Hurricane Protection System, including
levees and floodwalls;
fl outfall canal repairs and
closure structures; and pump station repairs and
NO14 storm proofing. fi With unprecedented speed the
Corps set a world record in realizing the Hurricane
Protection System within approximately 4 years,
around ten times faster than the Dutch built their
Delta Plan in about 40 years after the floods fl of f 1953.
Full protection from a 100-year storm, equating
to a one percent chance of f failure in given year, is
projected by June 2011. The system within the levees
remains unchanged: pumps can handle one inch
of f rainfall in the fi rst hour and 0.5 inches in each
subsequent hour. When combined, Orleans Parish’s
three outfall canals can discharge 16,000 cubic feet
of f water per second, the average fl flow of f the Potomac
River. NO15 Although impressive, this system, practically
devoid of f storage capacity, is overwhelmed by
recurring rainstorms that can produce two to four
inches of f rain anhour.
The use of f engineered solutions for narrowly defined fi
problems has in recent times proven insufficient ffi
to combat the complex, intertwined challenges
confronting modern delta living. Considering the
fact that climate change may increase the challenges
further, New Orleans may need to embrace a more
holistic, ecologically-based thinking, with the
cultivation of f nature’s own lines of f defence, not just
to sustain the city’s future but also to avoid that the
adaptation cost continue to increase and perhaps
eventually outweigh the incredible cultural and
economic value off habitation on the Mississippi Delta.
Figure 7.3 Damaged homes in the Lower NinthWard.
N E W O R L E A N S 95

Levee
Pump Station
Orleans Canal
New Pump Station
Bayou
Lake Pontchartrain
London Avenue Canal
Pump Station
New Pump Station
Figure 7.4 Dutch Dialogues proposal for part of a
comprehensive water management system in New Orleans.

7
4
Climate
adaptation
No place is more in need of f a transformative vision
and process for climate change adaptation and water
management than New Orleans and the Mississippi
Delta. After decades of f levees and drainage for
flood fl protection and navigation, with channels cut
through the marsh for commercial purposes, the
wetlands of f south Louisiana are quickly receding. A
shift in paradigms is fortunately underway. Largescale
diversions off the river’s fl flow and sediment
can revive coastal wetlands downstream. Plans and
initiatives to speed and increase these diversions
are in progress. The perimeter defence system built
by the Corps of f Engineers around the city, though
more robust than before Katrina, only provides a one
in a hundred years level of f protection, perhaps less
than the urban area will need for future safety and
reinvestment. It is nonetheless a base line that must
be amplified, fi supplemented and built upon in the
years and decades ahead.
The third component off the storm defence and water
management system is the urban water system. Here
the balances between existing and envisioned, manmade
and natural can be explored.Implementing
the idea of f living with water instead of f fi
ghting
against it, the urbanized settlement can over time
be transformed. A shift to cherishing the earth and
the roots it provides, and revealing and revering,
water is envisioned. Crucial balances in the process of
re-evaluation include land and water; habitation and
infrastructure; buildings and open spaces; hard and
permeable surfaces; fresh and salt water gradients;
levees, perimeter defense structures, and storm surge;
and the effect ff off variable ‘sea level’ ’ and higher limits
on operating levels for theurban water system.
Figure 7.5 GIWW waterway closure structure. Example of f engineering
solutions to complex problems .
N E W O R L E A N S 97

Adaptations are fundamental, but conceivable and
ultimately achievable. The planning time frame for
climate adaptation needs to shift from a fi five-year
horizon to about 50 years. A vision-driven, learningbased
approach is nascent, and with nurture can bear
fruit. A recently commenced consensus-based water
strategy is a key step in this transformative process.
To succeed, an integrated approach developed from
a multi-level perspective is required. Change must
encompass the whole system, with targeted starting
points. To succeed, focus should be on windows
of f opportunity instead of f barriers. Non-interactive
models need to be supplemented and communities
should be engaged and encouraged to participate.
This will also enhance the resiliency off communities.
Ecological memory learning from the past is instructive
and should be recalled.
Several principles and ideas have risen in
consciousness. Lessons have been learned. We must
make space for water. Landscape is not a secondary
idea but a prime contributor to the health and
sustainability of f the settlement. Trees and plant
materials are vital to the liveability off this sub-tropical
area. Specific fi attention must be paid to the underlying
layers of f soil and groundwater. Hydrological units
or sub-basins, perhaps developed into polders, are
the district level structure off the city. Planning for
transportation, infrastructure, and water management
should be integrated with spatial planning. There
is an existing urban form with and from which we
build. On a larger public scale, a circulating water
system is essential, multi-purpose infrastructure.
Private as well as public property must contribute to
the water storage solution. New Orleans is inevitably
Above 15 ft in elevation
10 to 15 ft in elevation
5 to 10 ft in elevation
0 to 5 ft in elevation
Lake Pontchartrain
-5 to 0 ft in elevation
-10 to -5 ft in elevation
Below -10 ft in elevation
Lower Ninth Ward
Figure 7.6 Map of f Greater New Orleans. Figure 7.7 Topographical map off New Orleans. French Quarter in
yellow. All areas in blue are below sea level.
Key

WBV 14f.2 –Hwy 45
Levee
y
WRDA - IEPR Projects
WRDA – IEPR Projects
WBVV 12 Hero
Canal Levee
Reach 1
Canal 100 - Year
Alternatives
PS Fronting Protection
& Modifications
Figure 7.8 US Army Corps map of f 100-year storm protection upgrades around metro New Orleans.
an ecological borderland. With engaged citizens
providing specific fi knowledge, a fl exible planning
culture and a commitment to learning, innovation
and feedback k using a science-based, place-based
I
Loop Caernarvon
Floodwall
L
o
Chalmette Loop
Bayou Dupre to
Hwy 46 Levee
approach, an adaptable and highly desirable water city
of f an expanded, productive garden type is feasible for
the Mississippi Delta.
N E W O R L E A N S 99

8
Hong Kong
by Pieter Pauw and Maria Francesch

8
1
Introduction
Since its foundation, Hong Kong has been
dealing with fl oods. As the city grows and
develops, the potential consequences
of fl ooding increase. Simultaneously,
climate change causes sea level rise and
increases the probability of extreme
precipitation. Past, present and planned
adaptation shows how Hong Kong adopted
the challenge of climate change.
Hong Kong is situated at the mouth of f the delta formed
by the Xijiang (West), Beijiang (North) Dongjiang (East)
and Zhujiang (Pearl) rivers as they enter the South
China Sea. The territory consists of f 260 islands spread
around 1,104 square kilometres with a total coastline of
approximately 730 kilometres. Hong Kong’s population
grew at a steady rate from 3 million in 1960 to almost
7 million in 2008. HK2 Its economy is based on trade and
services with people working and living on less than
25 percent of f Hong Kong’s total area. The current gross
national income of f US$ 31.420 per capita (comparable
to Spain) and the average life expectancy of f 82 clearly
HK2 show that Hong Kong is a wealthy part of f China. Hong
Kong has heavy urban development and a very high
population density. Large urbanized areas are located
in low lying areas off the territory, making the city
HK3
vulnerable to sea level rise and fl floods.
Figure 8.1 View from Hong Kong International Airport.
O N G K O N G 101

“The Pearl River Delta region is one of the most
economically vibrant parts of the world and is also
vulnerable to the impact of climate change. Hong
Kong has to continue to transform itself into a lowcarbon
economy to strengthen our resilience towards
climate change and adopt a sustainable development
pathway. The key to this is concerted eff orts by Hong
Kong and our partner cities in the region, as well as
cooperation from both the private sector and the
general public.”
Mr Edward Yau, Secretary for the Environment
of Hong Kong
“The rise of multi-level governance, that is, the diff usion
of decision making across multiple levels of government,
off ers two challenges for public administrators. First, is the
allocation of roles to politicians and civil servants in steering
public policy within multilevel regimes – simply put, who
governs what? The second challenge is the management of
interfaces between levels of government and the multitude
of organizations involved in these mediations. How can
policies be implemented in a reasonably uniformed way
when such leeway is left to cities’ governments and to
sectors within them? In analyzing the measures taken so far
in Hong Kong in relation to climate change, one observes
that the transition from a sectoral and technological
governance approach towards an integrated and interactive
approach is being realized as the city benefi ts from
networking with other delta cities.”
Dr. Maria Francesch, City University of Hong Kong

8
2
Present
situation
Natural resources
The territory’s large population and wealth places
high demands on water, energy, food and raw
materials, for which Hong Kong is almost completely
reliant on imports. This makes the coastal city
susceptible to climate stressors hitting these other
areas as well. HK5 Energy and water are of f particular
importance.
Energy
Per-capita energy consumption in has more than
tripled between 1971 and 2006. HK2 Electricity demand
for air-conditioning for example increased to
29 percent off the total electricity use in 2007. HK6
The electricity use is expected to rise further due to the
increasing temperatures in Hong Kong. HK7 In 2007
99.8 percent of f the energy consumed was imported. HK8
This makes Hong Kong dependent on others at times
of f increasing temperatures and electricity use.
Water
Water is threatening Hong Kong from all sides
(precipitation extremes, river discharge, sea level rise,
rising groundwater tables), but at the same time the
city has a long-standing problem of f drinking water
shortages. In 1863 the British already built a fi first
freshwater reservoir as local streams and wells did not
provide sufficient ffi water for the growing population.
Currently the natural storage capacity is limited
and only a quarter off the water supply is provided
locally (Figure 8.5). The water demand is expected to
Figure 8.2 Map of f Hong Kong. HK4
H O N G K O N G 103

continue to rise under the pressures on an increasing
population and increasing temperatures. At the same
time, importing water becomes more difficult, ffi as
Figure 8.3 Resources and freshwater consumption 1997-2008. HK10
Mm 3
climate change and economic development could
also cause a potential water shortage problem in
Guangdong where demand is outstripping supply. HK9
Resources and fresh water annual consumption
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
Local Yield
DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong
Local Yield + DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong
Fresh Water Annual Consumption

8
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
Hong Kong has a subtropical climate with average
temperatures between 16°C and 28°C over the year,
and average annual precipitation levels of f 1700-2800
mm. HK11 Records show that Hong Kong has been
warming up since measurements started in 1884.
Between1980 and 2009, rural areas warmed up at a
rate of f around 0.2°C per decade. In the heart off urban
Hong Kong, however, the corresponding rise was
muchhigher at around 0.6°C per decade. This 0.4°C
difference ff can be attributed to the heat island effect ff
through which the high density urban area absorbs
and retains heat. HK12 Compared with 1980-1999,
the temperature is projected to increase by +4.4°C
to +5.2°C in 2090-2099 depending on the level of
urbanization. Furthermore, the number off cold days
per year will be virtually nil and the number off hot
days and nights will increase dramatically from
15 and 7 in 1980-1999 to 45 and 17 in 2090-2099 in a
constant urbanization scenario. HK13
It is likely that temperature rise will increase the city’s
energy use. It might also be conducive to extreme
events like heavy precipitation and consequent
flooding. fl Although the number of f tropical cyclones
affecting ff Hong Kong has decreased during the
period 1961 to 2002, the annual rainfall and the
number off heavy rain days have increased during
the period 1947 to 2002. HK12
It is likely that an increase in temperature will
increase the energy use in the city. The rise in
temperature might also be conducive to extreme
events like heavy precipitation and consequent
flooding. fl
Figure 8.4 One off the earliest sketches of f Hong Kong (1842).
The view is from Victoria Harbour looking towards the Victoria
Peak.
H O N G K O N G 105

Figure 8.5 Flooding due to a heavy rainfall event in central Hong
Kong, 1880’s. HK15
Figure 8.6 Parked cars swept away by fl oodwater in 1966.
Figure 8.7 In 1972 a monsoon triggered a landslide of 40.000 cubic
meters in Po Shan Road, Hong Kong Island. HK15

Temperature (˚C)
24.5
24.0
23.5
23.0
22.5
22.0
21.5
1885-2009 +0.12˚C/decade
1947-2009 +0.16˚C/decade
1980-2009 +0.28˚C/decade
21.0
1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
Figure 8.8 Annual mean temperature recorded at the Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters (1885-2009). Data are not available from 1940 to 1946
(Source: Hong Kong Observatory).
Sea level rise
The Guangdong Province, with Hong Kong located
in the middle off its coastline, predicts a sea level rise
between 9 cm and 31 cm by the year 2030. This will
also cause river levels to rise. Rising sea and river
levels reduce the defense capacities against flooding fl
and storms. This could inundate the coastal areas and
cause more sea tidal surges. Exacerbated fl flooding in
its turn would affect ff the economy, public works and
HK5, HK9 promote the spread off disease. Saline water
intrusion is not really an issue in Hong Kong. Most of
the fresh water supply is imported, and the agricultural
and industrial sectors have almost been phased out
throughout Hong Kong.
Year
Flooding
In Hong Kong, typhoons and consequent fl floods have
been a recurring phenomenon through history:
� An unnamed typhoon in 1906 caused vast
damage to Hong Kong and resulted in a death toll
of f around 10,000 (90 percent of f whom were boat
people). A shockingly high figure fi for the community
of f less than 450,000 people at that time. HK14
� The villages along the coast off Tolo Harbour were
severely flooded by the storm surge of the Great
Hong Kong Typhoon in 1937. Over 10.000 lives
were lost. The surge was about 3.8 metres. HK14
H O N G K O N G 107

� Typhoon Wanda (1962) coincided with a high tide,
causing a tidal wave as high as 7 metres high.
The eff ect was disastrous, with over 130 dead
and 72,000 people left homeless. HK15
� Typhoon Rose came with extreme rainfall, with on
17 August 1971, alone 288 mm of rain, resulting in
fl ooding and landslides. 100 people were killed and
5,644 left homeless. HK15
� June 2008 had the heaviest rainfall in Hong Kong
history, with a month total of 1346 mm. A ‘Black
Rainstorm Signal was issued on June 7, when
301 mm fell within a day. The damage of the heavy
rainfall on this day alone was estimated at EUR 55
million (75 million US$). HK5
The present-day risk of fl ooding in Hong Kong is
predominantly determined by intense precipitation
from tropical cyclones and monsoons. Every year, two
to three tropical cyclones pass Hong Kong. During
these rainstorms, the rural low-lying areas and natural
fl ood plains in the northern part of the territory and
some locations in the older urban areas suff er serious
fl ooding. HK9 Residential blocks on higher grounds,
slopes and embankments are vulnerable too. Risks
increased when fl atlands in the rural areas were
converted from fi sh ponds and agricultural land to
built-up areas, eliminating a buff er against fl oods. HK15
Although there is no signifi cant change in the number
of typhoons passing by Hong Kong, HK16 climate change
may increase the rainfall amount during such events
and exacerbate the fl ooding problems. HK9 A rising sea
level makes drainage into the sea more diffi cult, and
can increase the risk of events such as Typhoon Wanda
recurring in 1962. In recent years, Hong Kong has
invested heavily in measures to prevent present and
future fl ooding (see ‘Flood protection’ page 107).
Figure 8.9 The USS REGULUS, a US Navy ship, as a result of
Typhoon Rose (1971).

8
4
In his Policy Address in 1999, the Chieff Executive of
Hong Kong, Tung Chee-hwa made clear the city’s
endeavours to become a clean, comfortable and
pleasant place. Every citizen, business, government
department and bureau is required to start working
in partnership to achieve sustainable development.
Furthermore, alongside twentyother Asia-Pacific fi
Economic Co-operation economies, Hong Kong has
set a target to achieve at least a reduction in energy
intensity of f at least 25 percent by 2030 compared to
2005. HK17
Climate
adaptation
Flood protection
Climate change adaptation is a new issue in Hong
Kong.Flood protection, on the other hand, has always
been an issue and was addressed soon after Hong
Kong Island came under British rule in 1841. Although
the first drainage system was constructed mainly for
health reasons, soon the infrastructure increased, and
drainage (flood fl protection) systems and sewer systems
were explicitly separated. Under the ever-increasing
population, newly built gullies, culverts and streams
could not reduce the fl ood risk. In 1987, the Director of
Civil Engineering became responsible for coordinating
all aspects off fl flooding in Hong Kong. Before that time,
responsibilities where spread between numerous
parties. The new situation led to a drainage and
flood fl control strategy, which was adopted in 1990.
Simultaneously, the Drainage Service department
was established,and since then investment in flflood
protection has increased dramatically. HK15
Figure 8.10 Inflatable fl dam at Kam Tin River. HK15
H O N G K O N G 109

Hong Kong’s painful experiences with storm surges
promoted the adoption of f stringent design standards
for coastal infrastructures. Nowadays, reclaimend
land is always raised +4 m above sea level to cater for
settlement safety and sea level rise. Physical models
and computational models are widely applied for the
design off bridges, coastal infrastructures and drainage.
The drainagesystem that copes with intense (cyclone)
precipitation has a recurrence interval of f fl flooding
prevention of f one in a fi fty to twohundred years in
urban areas (see Figure 8.13). Continued efforts ff made
to separate the sewagesystem from storm water
drainage for health and safety reasons. Important
measures for so doing include infl fl atable dams and
Figure 8.11 Left: the flflood-vulnerable subway system in Hong Kong has lifted entrances.
Right: Nathan Road at its junction with Jordan Road flooded fl in 1997. HK15
dry weather fl ow inceptors that collect polluted water
HK15
in dry times, but allow storm water overflow. fl
Other technological measures for reducing the flood fl
riskk include fl ood storage tanks (for example under
recreation grounds for example), raising the entrances
of f buildings (see Figure 8.11), pumping stations and
drainage tunnel schemes. HK15
A world-class storm warning system has also been
installed to monitor and forecast stormy weather.
In combination with warning services, the building
design of f infrastructures and public awareness have
greatly reduced the threat posed by tropical cyclones
with respect to loss of f life (see Figure 8.12). HK9
H O N G K O N G 111

Number of death
Year
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 8.12 The total number of deaths and missing people reported during tropical cyclone events in Hong Kong from 1960 to 2006. HK14
Types of Drainage Recurrence interval fl ooding prevention (years)
Urban drainage trunk systems 200
Urban drainage branch systems 50
Main rural catchment drainage channels 50
Village drainage 10
Intensively used agricultural land 2-5
Table 8.13. Average recurrence interval of fl ooding prevention in Hong Kong drainage systems. HK9 These are based on land use type, economic
growth, socioeconomic needs, consequences of fl ooding, and cost-benefi t analysis of fl ood mitigation measures.

Reducing resource dependency
In light of its resource dependency, Hong Kong has
also initiated a demand management strategy to
reduce its water and energy usage. The city set a
target of a 25 percent reduction in energy use by
2030 (compared to 2005 levels). Public education
campaigns focusing on water conservation have been
launched. School programmes are being enhanced
with the launch of the ‘Water Conservation Starts from
Home’ campaign. HK15
Climate change impact assessment
The Environmental Protection Department started a
comprehensive study in 2008, to conduct an overarching
and up-to-date study to assess the impact
of climate change on Hong Kong. The study reviews
and updates the inventories of greenhouse gas
emissions in Hong Kong; projects local emission trends
under diff erent scenarios; characterizes the impacts
of climate change on Hong Kong; recommends
additional policies and measures to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and facilitate adaptation to
climate change; and assesses the cost-eff ectiveness of
the proposed measures.
The study’s aim is to provide a solid scientifi c basis for
the government to formulate long-term strategies and
measures for Hong Kong for climate change mitigation
and adaptation. It will also provide useful information
for preparing a submission to the Central People’s
Government to meet the national obligations under
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
HK17, HK18
Change.
Climate change governance
in Delta Metropolises
July 2010
In July 2010 a two day workshop was held at the
City University of Hong Kong to discuss climate
change governance in Delta Metropolises.
Scholars from diff erent research institutes and
universities in the Netherlands, the UK and
Hong Kong gathered to exchange research on
issues related to networking and climate change
adaptation governance.
Figure 8.14 Workshop in Delta Metropolises. HK1
H O N G K O N G 113

Tokyo
9

9
1
Introduction
The Japanese settled in alluvial plains,
formed by fl oods, where river water was
easily available for irrigation. Due to the
natural environment of Japan and the
human interventions, the country’s fl ood
plains are nowadays densely populated.
One side-eff ect of living in these alluvial
plains is the constant threat of fl ooding.
Nowadays, the fl ood plains cover less than
10 percent of Japan, but contain 51 percent
of the population and 75 percent of the
country’s assets. T1
Japan consists of many islands and more
than 70 percent of the country is covered
with mountains. T2 Around 65 percent of the
country has slopes steeper than 14 percent.
Japan is subjected to earthquakes which
do not only cause massive destruction
within cities, but can also damage the fl ood
protection structures or can even cause
dike breaches. The Great Kanto earthquake
of 1923, for example, caused a series of
broken and cracked embankments along
the Arakawa fl oodway in Tokyo Metropolis
at 28 locations. T3
T O K Y O 115

“A superr levee is an innovative technology, which brings
nott onlyy
fl oodd
controll
measures andd a human-friendly
environment, butt also an effective ff impactt against
globall warming. Itt cools down the temperature off the
land d along the river. The gentle slope off the superr levee
does not t preventt
circulation off cooll
airr
on the river
water r surface to the landside.”
Yoshito Kikumori
Chief, Climate Change Research Section, River
Division, National l Institute for r Land d and d Infrastructure
Management, Ministry y of f Land, Infrastructure, Transport
andd Tourism, Japan
“The challenges Japan faces and d the concrete
achievements Japan makes mayy be an interesting
example forr other r countries. International l exchange in
the fi eldd
of f urban storm water r managementt
is increasing
in importance. Itt seems likely y thatt
recentt
changes in
storm water r managementt
came about t due to increased
international l awareness off global l environmental l issues.
The Japanese way y is not t only y applicable in Japan, but
could d be a leading example forr otherr
countries off the
world.”
Professorr Shoichii
Fujita
Departmentt off
Civil l andd
Environmentall
Engineering,
Nagaoka Universityy off
Technology
Tokyo Engineering Consultants (TEC)

9
2
Present
situation
Tokyo is the capital off Japan and was founded in the
Kanto region of f Central Honshu, next to Tokyo Bay. In
this region only a small amount of f suitable land was
available: a small area of f fl at land between the low hills
off the Musashino Plain and the marshy shore of f the
bay. T5 Tokyo is located at the mouth off three domestic
large rivers: the Sumida River (nr. 1 in Figure 9.1), the
Ara River (nr. 2 in Figure 9.1) and the Edo River (nr.
3 in Figure 9.1). The Sumida River flows fl through the
centre of f the Metropolis and is integrated in theurban
pattern of f the city. The Edo River and the Ara River
are located in the outer districts off Tokyo. Figure 9.2
shows that large parts of f Tokyo are located below the
flood fl level off its main rivers. T6 These areas are former
plains, that were formed when sediment was dumped
by rivers. By restricting the river course no new
sediment is carried into these regions, thus creating
T4 Figure 9.1 Map of f Tokyo (nr. 1 Sumida river; nr. 2 Ara river;
nr. 3 Edo river).
T O K Y O 117

a height difference. ff And also ground subsidence due
to groundwater pumping and sediment deposition in
river channel has a great impact. Japanese rivers are
short, steep and flow fl rapidly down the mountains,
across the plains and into the Pacific fi Ocean, the Sea of
Japan or the Seto Inland Sea. T7 They are fed by rain. The
ratio between normal flow fl volume and that during a
storm is extremely great with the maximum discharge
is around 100 times as much as minimum discharge.
Heavy rainfall, in combination with steep slopes,
gives short flood fl pulses off less than two days in the
downstream river sections such as Tokyo Metropolis.
Many urban rivers in Tokyo help to drain the city from
floods fl caused by excessive rainfall. These urban rivers
are a ralued asset off this historic low-lying city T5 .
The population figure fi of f Japan increased from
84 million in the 150s to nearly 128 million in 2009. T8
The proportion of f people working in the primary
industries such as, agriculture, forestry and fishing, fi
fell over from more than 50 percent at the end of
the Second World War to 17 percent in 1970. T9 More
than 50 percent off the population and more than
70 percent of f the nation’s assets are concentrated in
the flood fl plains. T1 About 80 percent of f the villages
and cities have to deal with water damage caused by
fl oods. Today, next to the United States and China,
Japan produces the third highest Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) in the world. This makes Japan one of
h lhi i h l I 2007 h
Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.3 High rise at the river shores of f the Sumida river.
Looking at Tokyo, in 1940 the metropolitan area of
Tokyo counted about 7.4 million inhabitants; this
fi figure has increased since then to approximately
12.8 million inhabitants in 2008 T8 .This is about 10%
of f Japan’s total population. The average population
density for the entire metropolis is about 5,750
people per km2 . Tokyo has a large amount of f assets
(Figure 9.3), economic value and a highly developed
network k of f infrastructure. Tokyo has an extensive
subway system. The introduction of f underground
h i ll h l d i h

9
3
Climate and
fl ood risks
Japan is situated in the East Asian Monsoon region
and has a warm and humid climate. T2 Mean annual
precipitation in Japan is approximately 1.800 mm,
high in some areas experiencing precipitation of f up
to 3.000 mm. T6 Heavy precipitation takes place during
the rainy season in June and July, during the typhoon
season with typhoons originating from the South
Pacific fi in September and October, and during winter
snowfall in northern Japan. T2 About three typhoons hit
the country directly each year. Heavy rain often leads
to flooding fl off streets and causes a serious thread for
flooding fl due to overflow fl of f river water.
Winter precipitation is likely to increase in East Asia
and summer precipitation is likely to increase as well.
Additionally, an increase in the frequency of f intense
precipitation events in East Asia is very likely. Extreme
rainfall and winds associated with tropical cyclones are
likely to increase in East Asia. Sea level is expected to
rise at the end of f this century (2090–2099) by 0.35 m
(0.23 to 0.47 m) Due to ocean density and circulation
changes, the distribution of f sea level rise will not
be uniform. Large deviations among models make
estimates off distribution across the Caribbean Sea and
the Indian and Pacific fi Oceans uncertain. T10
Eff ff ect off fl flooding in highly urbanized Tokyo
In response to the growing demand for housing
in Tokyo Metropolis city’s the residential areas
are expanding towards the less-elevated western
region and the fl ood prone eastern area. The result
is noticeable in the Naka river basin and the Ayase
river basin. Here, urbanized zones have expended
enormously from 11 percent in 1965 to 43 percent in
T O K Y O 119

Figure 9.4 Flood gate.

Figure 9.5 Shibuya district in Tokyo.
1995. T11 The original inhabitants off fl atland areas knew,
for many generations, which areas the rivers would
flood fl the hinterland during extreme discharges and
where itwas relatively save to live. Damage caused by
inundation to the newly build houses in these areas
isnot compensated by the Japanese government.
Still, flood fl prone land is cheap so many new houses
are built in these areas and only a few houses are
constructed in a climate proof f manner.
Figure 9.3 and 9.5 shows that rapid urbanization in
Tokyo Metropolis has reduced the function off forests
and paddy fi fields retention for storm water. T12 Space
was scarce, so ponds were used to construct buildings
and infrastructure. Many areas were no longer used
for storage of f storm water. Furthermore, the increase
in impervious earth cover, such as asphalt, concrete
covering and storm sewers, accelerated storm
water runoff. ff The fl flood frequency on the streets has
increased in the newly developed urbanized areas.This
has become a major urban problem since the 1960s. T13
The total of f urban fl flood disasters has increased
signifi fi cantly. On the riverbanks off the lower Ara River
inTokyo a very dense concentration of f population and
property can be observed. The average population
density for the entire Arakawa basin counts 3,400
people per square kilometer. Some areas even reach a
density of f 9,200 people per square kilometre where a
tremendous amount of f private assets as well as public
functions are concentrated. T3 Thus, embankment
failure is bound to cause widespread flooding fl and
tremendous damage in the Metropolis.
T O K Y O 121

Figure 9.6 Super levee along the Ara river in Tokyo.

9
4
Climate
adaptation
Next to conventional measures like fl ood walls, several
adaptive measures exist in Tokyo against river floods fl
and ponds against storm water fl oods are used to
cope with climate change. Examples of f such measures
are the super levee and multipurpose storage basin
against river fl floods, impermeable pavements against
storm water fl oods and a mobile evacuation system
against fl
oods.
The super levee a multifunctional flood fl defence
In 1987, the Japanese government adopted a policy
for protection from extreme fl floods exceeding the
design levels of f regular fl ood protection measures
applicable to highly urbanized areas. T14 Due to the
expected changes in peak k discharge and frequency
due to climate change, such extreme floods fl are likely
to occur on a more frequent basis in the future.
The concept off a super levee is designed especially
for extreme events in dense urban areas, such as
Tokyo Metropolis. A super levee is a wide river
embankment with a broad width which can withstand
even overfl fl ow, so that destruction can be prevented
(for principles see Figure 9.7). Main difference ff to a
conventional dike is the width; a super levee has a
T3 mild slope off 1:30. In other words, a super levee
with a height of f 10 meters will have a width of f about
300 meters. A super levee allows for overtopping as
it is resistant to overfl fl ow, seepage and earthquakes,
which isone off the main reasons for its construction. T3
Super levee projects are always implemented in
conjunction with urban redevelopment, land rezoning
projects or other urban planning. Super levees enable
multifunctional structures which incorporate both
Emergency Sleep slope prevents View Blocked by Dense Residential/
p earthquake damage
Figure 9.7 Principles off a super levee.
T O K Y O 123

the needs of fl ood control and the interests of the
inhabitants. T14 It provides usable land and space for
dwellings. T3 This will lead to an added urban value of
the region through the restored accessibility of the river.
The steep slope of a conventional dike prevents easy
river access. T3 The outer slope of a super levee is gentler
than the outer slope of conventional dike. Moreover, the
gentle inner slope, in combination open recreational
spaces at crest level provides an open view towards the
river. T11 Super levees can be found along the Ara River
and Sumida River in Tokyo. The super levee along the
Ara River (Figure 9.6) combines a very broad dike with a
park and a small amount of high rise whereas the super
levee along the Sumida River combines a broad dike
– fl ood wall with a promenade and a large amount of
high rise.
Multipurpose water storage facility
The Tsurumi multipurpose detention basin is a good
example of a multipurpose river water storage facility.
The Tsurumi River is an urban river with a length of
42.5 km and a catchment area of 235 km 2 , T12 and is
located in the central part of Tokyo Metropolis, close
to Yokohama and in short distance of Tokyo centre.
Until the 1960s most of the basin was covered with
forest and agriculture fi elds, but has been transformed
into a large dwelling district. The percentage of
urbanization has increased from 20 percent to 80
percent in only 40 years T12 . Storm water run off
accelerated due to the increase of paved areas and
the peak discharge has nearly doubled since the early
1960s. Therefore, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government
and the city of Yokohama produced a master plan for
an overfl ow location with multifunctional facilities for
dealing with the peak discharge of the Tsurumi River.
The detention basin is designed to ensure a safety from
a 150-year fl ood. The basin is excavated deeper than
the surrounding grounds and has a storage capacity
of 3.9 million m 3 . In addition to fl ood control, the basin
serves multiple purposes. It contains a sports venue, a
recreation area and a park for local residents. T15 Most
prominent is the International Stadium Yokohama.
This structure has been built on a high foundation to
prevent damage during inundation of the detention
basis. The primary roads inside the basin are constructed
along embankments or are elevated. T15 The Tsurumi
multipurpose detention basis demonstrates that
combining water storage and urban activities is a
feasible solution in urban areas to cope with increasing
river levels and increasing frequencies of peak
discharges. It is therefore a promising solution to cope
with climate change in fl ood endangered urbanized
regions such as Tokyo metropolis.
Permeable pavements as innovative measure
against storm water
Urbanization has resulted in an expansion of
impermeable areas such as roofs and pavements. T16
In Tokyo for instance, the runoff coeffi cient increased
from approximately 0.3 in the beginning of the
Twentieth Century towards 0.8 in 1994. T16, T17 A solution
which enables further urbanization and is suitable to
cope with climate change is the use of a permeable
pavement. Nowadays, this solution is widely used in
Japan. The permeable pavement is one of the structures
within the Experimental Sewer System (ESS). ESS is a
new sewer system which is capable of controlling storm
water runoff by adding infi ltration and storage facilities
to the conventional combined sewer system. T18
This system reduces runoff thus causing less threat of
river fl oods. Additionally, it reduces the frequency and
quantity of overfl ow from the combined sewer system.

Figure 9.8 Permeable pavement in a residential area in Tokyo. T19
Also, the ground waterlevelis restored and ground
water pollution is reduced by the separation of f storm
water and waste water. It prevents contamination of
receiving waters. T18
Figure 9.7 shows an example of f permeable asphalt in a
residential area. Permeable asphalt has many voids in
which storm water is infi fi ltrated directly. Unfortunately,
it has less strength than ordinary asphalt so the
application is limited to sidewalks, parking lots and small
roads with a width off no more than 5 meter. T18, T20 Porous
concrete blocks are mostly used for the construction
of f permeable road surfaces. Due to the high void ratio,
the infiltration fi rate is similar to the rateof f permeable
asphalt pavement. T18 Special attention is needed on
maintenance of f the permeable asphalt pavements.
They are easily clogged by soil particles and debris.
The pavements can be sufficiently ffi cleaned with high
pressured water. This method restores the pavement
with its original infi filtration capacity. A shortcoming is
however that muddy water fl ows into the sewer system.
T20 Until 1992, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government has
already built about 494,000 m2 of f permeable pavements
which is about 2.3 percent of f the total street area. T18
Experience in damage mitigation measures
Next to structuralmeasures which reduce the
probability of f a flood fl event, in Tokyo, damage mitigation
measures are used to reduce the consequences of f a
fl ood event. One off the damage mitigation measures to
cope with fl oods is the establishment of f a warning and
evacuation system. Display panels throughout the city
and in front of f railway, bus and metro stations provide
information to local residents about emergencies like
fl oods and earthquakes. At home, people are informed
through television with special broadcasts and through
websites to inform local residents about the current
state of f the rivers. Furthermore, live images of f the river
and charts of f the amount of f precipitation and water
level are disseminated viathe Internet. T3 Additionally,
the Internet can be used by local residents to state their
position during a fl flood event. People throughout Japan
can access the website to check k if f their relatives or
friends are unharmed. T3 Another way to inform people
about fl ood conditions is through their cell phones. This
system allows users to automatically receive disaster
prevention information if f they register for this service in
advance. T3 In case off a flood fl hazard, the standby screen
transforms into the emergency screen and provides
the user with information about water levelsand
meteorological information during flood fl conditions.
This service has been tested in 2004, and is currently
operational.
T O K Y O 125

10
Ho Chi Minh City
by Philip Bubeck and Ho Long Phi

10
1
Introduction
Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), located in the
delta area of the Saigon and Dong Nai rivers
is Vietnam’s largest city and an important
economic, trade, cultural and research
centre of the country. With its seaport lying
at an important intersection of international
maritime routes, HCMC is situated at
the heart of South-East Asia and has
become a traffi c hub for the region and an
international gateway.
As Ho Chi Minh City continues to grow, more
and more urban areas and infrastructures
are developed in low-lying areas vulnerable
to the eff ects of climate change. The
authorities of HCMC have recognized the
importance to undertake accompanying
adaptation measures and to consider
climate change in the city’s planning
process.
Figure 10.1 Map off HCMC.
O C H I M I N H C I T Y 127

“As a fast-growing delta city, Ho Chi Minh City
recognizes the importance to integrate climate change
mitigation and adaptation into the city’s policies. With
the Ho Chi Minh City Climate Change Steering Board,
we have therefore established an organization that
will coordinate all activities related to climate change
of the city. Being an active member of the C40, Ho Chi
Minh City has also intensifi ed its cooperation with our
international partners to jointly address the challenges
of future climate change.”
Mister Le Hoang Quan,
Chairman, Ho Chi Minh City People’s Committee
“Climate change and especially sea level rise is a major
challenge for the delta and the coastal areas around the
globe. HCMC can be regarded as a typical example in this
regard. As Climate Change Steering Board, we must focus
on policies to respond to climate change appropriately
and eff ectively to work towards sustainable development.
Simultaneously, this challenge should be regarded as an
opportunity for development, especially for maritime and
seaport economic activities.”
Mr. Dao Anh Kiet,
Vice Chairman of HCMC Climate Change Steering Board

10
2
Present
situation
HCMC has a diversified fi topography, ranging from
mainly agricultural and rural areas in the north to
a widespread system of f rivers, canals and dense
mangrove forest to the south. The urban areas are
located approximately 50 km inland from the Pacific fi
Ocean (also called East Sea by Vietnam) at the banks of
the Saigon River (Figure 10.1). Early settlements date
back k to the 17th century and were developed close to
the Saigon River on slightly higher grounds and thus
very favorable areas.
Similar to other evolving mega-cities in South-East
Asia, Ho Chi Minh City has experienced rapid changes
in recent decades, especially after the introduction of
economic reforms in the mid 1980s. Within the last
20 years, the city’s population has more than doubled
from 3.9 million in 1989 to approximately 8 million
inhabitants in 2010. H1 The regional economy has
continuously grown with double-digit growth
rates and its economic importance for the country
in general and the southern region in particular is
exemplified fi by the fact that HCMC contributes nearly
30 percent to the national GDP and received 37
percent off total foreign direct investments in 2009. H1
In addition to a substantial increase in population
density, HCMC’s rapid growth has resulted in a
considerable expansion of f urban areas into the
adjacent rural areas. Within the last twenty years only,
the extent of f urban surfaces has doubled H2 and many
of f the new urban areas have been developed on lowlying
marsh land (Figure 10.2). Today, approximately
60 percent of f the urban area is located less than
1.5 m above sea level, making it highly vulnerable to
projected sea-level rise.
Figure 10.2 Spatial Development Master Plan Map of f HCMC.
H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 129

In the coming decades, HCMC is projected to grow
continuously.Even thoughnatural population growth
could be slowed down due to reduced birth rates,
HCMC keeps attracting migrants from all over Vietnam
due to its economic status and could reach up to 10 to
12 million inhabitants in 2025. H3 A particular dynamic
could unfold from potential impacts off sea-level rise
that could lead to a large infl flux of f migrants from the
low-lying Mekong Delta to the city in search for labor
and better living conditions. According to the Spatial
Development Master Plan up to 2025 of f HCMC, many
off the new urban areas will be further developed
into the low-lying marshlands exemplifying the need
to take accompanying climate change adaptation
measures (Figure 10.3).
Figure 10.3 IS distribution from satellite images. H2

10
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Climate and
fl ood risks
HCMC is characterized by a tropical monsoonal climate
with two distinct seasons: a rainy season lasting from
May to November and a dry season from December
to April. The mean annual temperature is 27.4 degrees
with an average humidity of f about 77 percent.
Average annual rainfall is about 2100 mm off which
about 90 percent falls during the rainy season. H4
During recent decades, changes in the regional
climate have already been observed. Average annual
temperature has increased by 0.6 degrees during the
last seven decades from 26.8 degrees for the period
1931-1940 to 27.4 degrees for the period 2000-2007.
While the annual volume of f rainfall has remained
Figure 10.4 Yearly maximum rainfall events at Tan Son Hoa Station
(located close to Tan Son Nhat Airport of f HCMC, which lies about 7 km
to the north from the city centre).
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H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 131

Period 1952-1961 1962-1971 1972-1981 1982-1991 1992-2002 2003-2009
Counts 0 1 2 2 4 8
Table 10.5 Count of f rainfall events larger than 100 mm. *7-year period
fairly stable in southern Vietnam, the number of f heavy
rainfall events has increased remarkably (Figure 10.4
and Table 10.5). The increase of f heavy rainfall events
coincides with the rapid urbanization process in the
last 20 years and has been attributed to the so-called
H5
urban heat island effect. ff
The sea level has risen by 20 cm in the last 50 years
and with a rate of f about 3 mm per year during the
period 1993 and 2008. H6, H7 Water levels at river stations
in and around HCMC have shown a notable upward
trend with an average increase of f 1.5 cm per year since
1990. So far, the observed raise of f river water levels
in and around HCMC and the resulting increase in
fl ood risk k has been mainly attributed to the profound
changes that occurred in the catchment during
the development and urbanization process, which
seriously impacted the hydrological characteristics
off the basin. H5 Statistical data show that 14.420 ha of
agricultural areas, wetlands and water bodies have
been sealed during 1997-2006. H3 At the same time,
land subsidence has been observed in several locations
in the city that has been attributed mainly to ground
water extraction and overburden pressure of f high-rise
buildings.
The observed climatic trends are projected to continue
under climate change. Annual mean temperature
could rise by 1 degree in 2050 and up to 2.9 degrees
by the end of f this century. H6 While annual rainfall is
projected to remain fairly stable with an increase of
about 1 percent to 1.9 percent by the year 2100, there
are considerable seasonal changes foreseen. Rainfall
is projected to decrease by 9.4 percent-18.2 percent
in the dry-season months from March to May but
expected to increase by 8.5 percent to 16.5 percent in
the rainy-season months fromSeptember to November
leading to a higher risk k off
both floods fl and droughts.
Sea level is projected to rise between 28 cm to 33 cm in
2050 and between 65 cm to 100 cm in 2100, H6 posing a
major challenge to low-lying HCMC.
H5
Figure 10.6 Hydraulic Modeling Scheme of f HCMC.
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Figure 10.7 Count of f fl ood events in HCMC.
Flood risk
Urban flooding fl has become a wide-spread
phenomenon and a major concern in Ho Chi Minh
City in recent years that has been accompanying the
city’s rapid growth. Especially since the beginning
of f the 1990s the amount of f fl ooded locations, fl flood
frequencies and flood fl duration has steadily increased
and has caused substantial economicand social
losses, H5 such as damage to infrastructure and assets,
water pollution as well as traffic ffi jams.
HCMC faces fl ood risk k from several sources or
combinations of f these. An overview of f the hydrological
scheme off HCMC is provided in Figure 10.6. Dots
represent nodal points of f the hydraulic model and the
red circle the projected urban extension according to
the General Development Plan of f HCMC until 2025. H3
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First, low-lying areas to the south of f the city are
impacted by tidal peaks, which are projected to
in-crease under climate changes. According to the
Urban Drainage Authority of f HCMC, about 20 sites are
currently inundated on a monthly basis as a result of
high tides. Second, frequent flooding fl results from a
combination of f heavy rainfall events and an insufficient ffi
drainage system. The Urban Drainage Authority of
HCMC reported more than 100 seriously fl flooded
locations after a heavy rainfall event of f 127 mm on
May 16th , 2004. Many of f these locations are subject
to frequent fl ooding even with muchlower rainfall
intensity (Figure 10.7). Since early 2000 the urban
drainage system of f HCMC’s central districts has been
upgraded as part of f a fl flood controlproject. This has
resulted in a decrease of f fl ood events in the central
areas (Figure 10.7).
H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 133

Figure 10.8 Flooding in Ho Chi Minh City.
At the same time, flooding fl sharply increased in newly
developed districts showing the negative impacts of
urbanization on the fl flooding situation inHCMC.
Third,HCMC is prone to river fl ooding, which also affects ff
the upstream areas that are situated on slightly higher
grounds. Theraising river water levels have worsened
this problem. In addition, HCMC also faces flood fl risk k from
upstream reservoirs. Heavy rains, accompanying tropical
cyclones or typhoons, often not only affect ff HCMC but
the whole Dong Nai river basin. In such a situation, extra
amounts of f water are often released from upstream
reservoirs at times when tides reach their annual peaks
inOctober and November, causing even more severe
problems for the urban drainage system. H5
The observed increase in fl ood risk k in HCMC is thus a
consequence off both climate and non climate related
factors among which the rising river water levels, rapid
and uncontrolled urbanization, land subsidence and the
increase in heavy rainfall events have been identified fi as
the most direct ones. H5 Given its distinct topographical
location in the low-lying delta area as well as the
projected changes in climate and urban expansion,
flood fl risk k is expected to further increase, putting a
major pressure on the city’s development. Assuming a
sea-level rise off approximately 25 cm, up to 71 percent
of f the area of f HCMC could be affected ff by an extreme
flood fl event in 2050 iff no additional measures are taken.
Inundation depths and the duration of f fl ood events
would increase considerably, resulting in a growing risk
for life, infrastructure and assets in thecity. H8 As the vast
majority of f the growing population will settle in lowlying
and thus unfavorable areas as shown in Figure
10.3,millions of f people could beatrisk k off
fl flooding.
Figure 10.9 Flooding inHo Chi Minh City.

10
4
Climate
adaptation
HCMC faces major challenges in terms of f infrastructure
development, public transport, flood fl prevention
and the provision of f other public services due to
its ongoing rapid growth.These challenges will be
amplified fi given the projected changes in climate.
Vietnam in general, and HCMC in particular have been
identified fi as one of f the most severely affected ff places
by future climate change and especially sea level
rise. H9, H10 In order to address these challenges Vietnam
has adopted a National Target Programme to Respond
to Climate Change (NTP) in December 2008. H7 As
part off this NTP, HCMC along with other provinces in
Vietnam is currently developing an Action Plan on
Climate Change that shall define fi adaptive responses
to safeguard the city’s development. In this context,
further research is currently undertaken examining
the effects ff off climate change on HCMC to arrive at
sustainable solutions. Existing policies and strategic
documents, such as the Socioeconomic Development
Plan for 2025 are currently revised and updated
to integrate climate change adaptation into the
planning process. In order to coordinate and integrate
all activities related to climate change, HCMC has
established the so-called Ho Chi Minh City Climate
Change Steering Board.
At the same time, HCMC is enhancing domestic
and international training for its staff ff members on
climate change and adaptation to improve the city’s
management capacity. In May 2010, the ARUP-C40
Climate Change workshop was held in HCMC, covering
aspects of f water resource management under climate
change, including urban flooding, fl groundwater
depletion and water salinity (Figure 10.10).
Figure 10.10 ARUP-C40 Climate Change Workshop inHCMC.
H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 135

Along with institutional arrangements, HCMC is
undertaking and planning concrete measures to adapt
to climate change. In order to reduce the vulnerability
off future urban areas, which will be mainly developed
on low-lying marshlands, a policy has been decreed
in 2008 that requires all new developments to be
elevated 2 m to 2.5 m above mean sea level. To protect
the city from rising sea water levels, a MasterPlan of
Tide Control forHCMC has been approved by the Prime
Minister in 2008 that proposes to build a polder system
around HCMC (Figure 10.11). Almost 200 km of f dikes
and hundreds of f tidal gates would be constructed. As
the project is not yet implemented, the effects ff of f such
a polder system are currently studied in detail and
concerns regarding ecological aspects, city planning
and the timing have been raised.
Figure 10.11 MasterPlan of f Tide Control forHCMC.

Ho Chi Minh City Moving Towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation
HCMC’s sea-harbour, being located in the central
districts on the banks of the Saigon River is
economically crucial for Southern Vietnam in
general and HCMC in particular. To ensure further
harbour and economic developments one has to
create room for urban planning in central districts,
HCMC currently plans to move its harbour facilities
southwards towards the sea. As such, a shift into
low-lying areas also means that vital infrastructure
of the city will be moved to areas highly vulnerable
to climate change and especially sea-level rise,
HCMC recognizes the importance to climate-proof
these activities.
Similar developments are currently implemented
by the city of Rotterdam that already shifts
its harbour facilities toward the sea. To share
respective knowledge and experiences regarding
Figure 10.12 Consultations: HCMC Moving towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation, June 2010.
both technical aspects but also institutional
processes, the two cities are currently engaging in
a strategic partnership as part of the Connecting
Delta Cities Initiative. The partnership shall also
address other aspects of climate-proofi ng urban
(re-) development.
On June 14 th and 15th 2010, representatives from
both cities met in HCMC together with a wide
range of stakeholders from the private sector,
knowledge institutes and national and local public
authorities to explore needs and opportunities for
further cooperation. The workshop resulted in an
agreement on the key issues and next steps to be
taken by HCMC and Rotterdam. This cooperation
is part of a wider Strategic Partnership Agreement
(SPA) between Vietnam and the Netherlands.
H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 137

Conclusions on best
CDC practices
11
by Piet Dircke, Arnoud Molenaar and Jeroen Aerts

11
1
Introduction
“Climate change adaptation will l be one off the major
challenges forr delta cities this century. Coastall cities need
a holistic c approach for r theirr
adaptation strategies and
leadership to get t this implemented d andd
to keep it t on the
agenda. Internationall knowledge exchange is crucial. We
willl have to act t now. Think k global, actt local, CDC C delta
cities willl bring it t into practice.”
Arnoud d Molenaar,
Programme Manager r Rotterdam Climate Proof,
Climate Office, ffi City y off
Rotterdam
Delta cities are increasingly keen to share
their experiences and knowledge with
the CDC network. In addition to CDC,
other networks and initiatives on climate
adaptation in cities and deltas have
emerged, demonstrating a growing interest
in the issue of climate adaptation. There is a
particular interest in climate adaptation best
practices and in the methods for developing,
implement and fi nance those examples.
This chapter provides an overview of some
of the best practices described by the eight
CDC cities in the previous chapters and
provides an outlook on how the CDC
network will proceed.
C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 139

11
2
Best
practices
Urbanplanning and waterfronts
The role of f urban planners in the implementation of
adaptation policies and management is vital for the
successful construction, operation and maintenance
off essential infrastructure and services in coastal
cities impacted by the challenges of f climate change.
Careful urban planning, creative engineering solutions
and effective ff emergency management systems can
substantially reduce the consequences of f climate
change. However, this requires the embedding of
climate change and adaptation considerations and
long-term policymaking into the daily operations of
urban planners and policy makers. It also requires
a flexible fl approach towards newtechnologies and
experiments and the careful review of f legislation and
new urban building codes to ensure that plans are
eff ff ectively implemented to meet new climate-proofi fing
standards. The adaptation planning process also
requires a multidisciplinary systems approach with the
full participation of f stakeholders. If f stakeholders and
the scientists and engineers involved are aware of f the
risks off climate change, it will be much more feasible
to jointly develop a workable adaptation plan for a city.
Coastal cities continue to grow in exposed locations
near and at the coast. Attractive waterfront development
appeals to the desires of f people who can afford ff
to live in vibrant large cities with easy coastal access,
high environmental quality and convenient transportation.
For many others, who are less fortunate, there is
simply no option but to live in a vulnerable locations.
To meet these demands of f living near the waterfront,
both off the wealthy and the poor, new forms of
adaptive planning and architecture are needed to
maintain public safety, to limit the impact of f fl floods
and facilitate large-scale evacuation if f neccessary.
CDC best practices include the PlaNYC in New York,
with a broad scope on city-wide climate adaptation
options, ranging from zoning regulations, fl ood
insurance and raising awareness through active
citizen participation. Well known recent examples of
waterfront developments in New York are Battery Park
and Brooklyn Bridge Park. London has produced a
Climate Change Adaptation Strategy with a far reaching
planning horizon and has used a new concept that
identifi es tipping points beyond, which adaptation
options are less eff ective. New Orleans illustrates how to
use a city network to increase its knowledge on climate
adaptation through the Dutch Dialogues, a unique
cooperation between American and Dutch architects
and planners to develop a better urban future through
remarkable best practices.

Finally, seasonalwater storage areas are increasingly
seen to create so-called climate buffer ff areas that
will have the appearence off urban wetlands. These
multipurpose areas may have recreational functions
and contribute to the ecological quality off the city
suburbs. In conjunction with the WWF, Rotterdam is
studying the possibilities of f no regrets measures as
part of f the Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy. In addition,
Jakarta with its enormous challenges as a mega city is
a showcase for the future for showing how to develop
more open space and green buffer ff zones. Other
examples are the storage reservoirs and permeable
pavements of f Tokyo and the green roofs and the
floating fl pavilions in Rotterdam. A good example of
CDC spatial planning practice is the HCMC Master Plan
Polder System.
Coastal protection and restoration
Wetlandsand beaches have a natural buffer ff function
to protect land and people from fl ood risk. However,
due to land use change and coastal erosion, wetlands
are disappearing at a high rate. The United States for
example, continues to lose approximately y 100,000
acres off wetlands each year. However, increasingly
the natural buffer ff function off wetlands and beaches is
acknowledged and projects and protective regulations
are developed to restore wetlands. Furthermore, sand
nourishment projects represent another measure to
mitigate coastal erosion and to provide protection
against storm surges. The required sand is mined from
offshore ff bars, usually y located within several kilometers
off the beach. If f possible, the texture and grain size off the
mined sand is closely y matched with the original beach
sand. Sand nourishment is relativelyy cheap compared
to othermeasures but has onlyy a temporary y effff
ect and
therefore has to be repeated on a regular (annual) basis.
Some of the best CDC practices on wetland restoration
include the Mangrove restoration projects in Ho Chi
Minh City and in Jakarta. Also the Staten Island Bluebell
programme in New York is a successful and recognizable
ecological restoration eff ort.
Dunes, dikes and flood fl walls
For low lying parts off delta cites, in particular those
below sea level, an adequate protection against
flooding fl by dunes, dikes, levees or fl ood walls is
indispensable, though protection strategies may
differ ff from city to city. For instance Rotterdam mainly
relies on fl ood measures such as levees and storm
surge barriers. In the United States, the emphasis has
always been more on disaster response and mitigation
measures, while the London approach is a mix of
C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 141

prevention, response and mitigation. Since Hurricane
Katrina, the Netherlands and the US intensively
exchanged knowledge on this topic. The Lessons
Learned from Katrina resulted in a new multiple lines
of f defense strategy in both countries that is more or
less comparable to the strategy in London.
Dunes are a natural system for flood fl defense and
therefore preferable and also often cheaper then
expensive technical flood fl protection works. Their
protection level can be enhanced through vegetation,
sand nourishment of f the beach in front or through
widening. In the Netherlands the first fi projects with a
protective dike constructed inside a dune are being
built.
Dikes and fl flood walls – with the exception off the
Super Levees inTokyo – can fail, and such a failure can
cause considerable damage. Therefore dikes and fl flood
walls need careful planning, design, construction and
operation and management. The level of f protection
is also crucial to lowering the risk k of f overtopping and
subsequent failure. The fl ood protection system in
Rotterdam has a safety norm of f 1/10,000, meaning
that the system has been designed to withstand a
fl flood with an estimated probability of f occuring once
in every 10,000 years. Other cities have significant fi
lower protection levels. New Orleans, for instance,
has a protection level off one in a hundred years,
although the new Hurricane Protection System now
under construction is so solid that although it will be
overtopped once in one hundred years, it is expected
to have a resiliency against failure of f the dikes and
fl flood walls of f one in a fivehundred
fi years.
Safety norms differ ff from country to country and
reflect fl both the number of f inhabitants and the
economic value off assets within a dike ring; the
more people and economic value to be protectedby levee infrastructure, the higher the safety standard.
As climate change is expected to increase the
frequency and severity off fl ooding events, these
fl flood probabilities will accordingly increase rapidly
with sea level rise. Therefore, reinforcing dikes is an
ongoing concern in the Netherlands and other deltas
that are protected by dikes and flood fl walls.
Some of the best and most innovative CDC practices
include the super levee in Tokyo and the Hurricane
and Flood Risk Reduction System that is now under
construction In New Orleans, in an impressive programme
with unprecedented speed and determination. Also
the multifunctional and smart urban fl ood protection
that Rotterdam is working on to protect its inner city is
an example of a best CDC practice.
Figure 11.1 The Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier.

Storm surge barriers
Storm surge barriers can play an important role in
the protective system of delta cities. Barriers provide
suffi cient protection, while maintaining accessibility,
both for economic activities like navigation and for
ecological processes. On the other hand, they are
expensive and complicated, and bear one signifi cant
risk that has to be kept as low as possible: the risk of a
closure failure. When designing a barrier, the required
future protection level, including sea level rise should
be taken into account. Large constructions, such as
the Dutch Eastern Scheldt and Maeslant barriers, were
designed to function for at least 100 years, taking
the observed sea level rise of 30 cm per century into
account.
A faster rise of the sea level would shorten the
functional period in which the barriers remain within
set norms. Renewal costs would, as a consequence,
occur sooner than expected.
Some of the best CDC practices on storm surge barriers
as part of the protective system can be found in New
Orleans, London and Rotterdam. In New Orleans
new barriers are under construction right now, while
London and Rotterdam rely for the protection of their
citizens and ports already for some decades on their
barriers. With ongoing sea level rise also New York
City might consider the construction of barriers. But
being built above sea level, New York can take it’s time
and consider various alternatives and learn from the
experiences of the other CDC cities.
Zoning regulations and fl ood insurance
Damage caused by fl oods can be limited by land
use planning, such as preventing development in
hazard-prone areas, and by building structures that
are better able to withstand natural hazard impacts.
For example, damage may be limited by constructing
elevated houses and building with water resistant
materials in fl ood plains or by strengthening roofs
in order to prevent hurricane damage. Studies
showed that potential hurricane or fl ood damage
can signifi cantly be reduced if existing building code
standards would be implemented or if households
undertake (low-cost) adaptation measures, such as
installing temporary water barriers and adapting
existing buildings through retrofi tting to fl ooding.
The projected rise in damage challenges the insurance
industry and off ers them new business opportunities
in providing aff ordable insurance against natural
disasters. Insurers need to incorporate changes in
natural disaster risk caused by climate change in the
assessment and management of their risk exposure.
Governments can promote aff ordability of insurance
in the face of climate change by investing in risk
reduction. In addition, public-private partnerships
to insure natural hazard risk may be established,
for example, with a role for the government as an
insurer of last resort. The experience of the insurance
sector with assessing, managing, and spreading risks
may be useful in fostering adaptation of societies
to climate change. Insurance could provide tools to
assess natural hazard risk, which can be useful to
guide adaptation policies, such as spatial planning.
Well-designed fi nancial compensation arrangements
can speed up the recovery process after natural
disasters have struck and provide fi nancial security
to the insured. Moreover, insurance with risk-based
premiums can provide economic incentives to
limit damage by acting as a price signal of risks. For
example, insurance can provide higher coverage or
C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 143

eductions in insurance premiums to homeowners
who invest in measures that limit potential damage
due to natural disasters. Insurance could also play an
important role in requiring or promoting the adoption
of stricter building codes and other adaptation
measures.
Some best CDC practices on zoning regulations and
insurances are the design standards in Hong Kong, the
High level of urban water management in high rise
city with exceptional urban challenges and extreme
environment in Tokyo, the elevation of all developments
on low lying areas in HCMC and the US national fl ood
insurance policy to stimulate elevating buildings above
the 100 year fl ood levels or higher, for example in New
Orleans and New York.
Financial aspects of climate adaptation
Most coastal cities are still in the planning phase
of climate adaptation. An estimate of the total cost
for fl ood management adaptation is mostly not
available yet and adaptation costs are often seen
as a large share of the budget. Apart from making
more reliable cost benefi t studies, cities can explore
to mainstream adaptation policies into current and
planned investments. In this way, adaptation measures
can be effi ciently implemented. For example in most
CDC cities billions of dollars are spent on updating and
expanding the cities infrastructure. Climate adaptation
related measures might be integrated into these
eff orts.
Choices made today will infl uence the vulnerability
to climate risks of assets and people far into the
future. Therefore, it is important to study impacts
and adaptation options under long-term trends in
climate and socioeconomic change. Many largescale
infrastructure works take 10 to 20 years or
more to design, plan and implement. Postponing
adaptation planning and policy development to
future generations will only exacerbate the problems
of vulnerable city communities and expose them
to unacceptable threats to life and property. But
there is also money to be made, as creative and
pro-active adaptation will stimulate new business
and environmental opportunities and innovations in
economic activities. Thus, there are many challenges
and opportunities for both business interests and
researchers to feed policy makers with new ideas
and solutions.
Best CDC practices of dealing with the fi nancial
aspects of climate adaptation are to be found in
London, with the Disaster Risk Reduction Framework
and in Rotterdam, were the Rotterdam Climate Proof
Programme has integrated the aspects of estimating
and fi nancing costs of climate adaptation into their
planning. Important is to involve private business and
investors in the early stages of the climate adaptation
process to ensure commitment and to continuously
seek for mutual interests.
Capacity building, public awareness and
communication
An important element of a Climate Adaptation
Strategy is public awareness, as pointed out at the
CDC workshop in June 2009 in New York. Public
awareness is therefore one of the non-technical
measures that should become part of the climate
adaptation strategies. Awareness amongst
politicians and civil servants is even more crucial, as
they are respectively the decision makers, architects

and implementers of f the climate adaptation plans.
An important awareness component is to create
multidisciplinary teams and enough capacity as
critical mass to anchor the climate adaptation
strategy in key parts off the local government
organization. Also warning and evacuation systems
are important tools.
Communication plans, brochures and the use
of f media like TV and radio are useful to raise
awareness. The use off the new social media such
as You Tube, Twitter, Linked In and Facebook for
climate change communication purposes is not
widely spread yet. Use off these media will even
further increase awareness and create commitment
for the city government spending money on
climate adaptation. It also will inspire people to
think about there own contribution to make their
city climate proof.
A good example of a CDC best practice on awareness
raising can be found in Ho Chi Minh City that is
now working on capacity building and is investing
in training their staff from diff erent departments
of the Peoples Committee. In New Orleans the
Dutch Dialogues proofed to be a unique tool for
communication and interaction between American
and Dutch architects, planners and engineers, jointly
striving for a better city’s future. CDC best practices on
warning systems can be found in Hong Kong and Tokyo;
both cities developed a world class storm warning and
evacuation system.
The way London and its Mayor is using modern
communication tools such as YouTube is a useful
example for other CDC-cities. In New York Mayor
Bloomberg used modern media like internet to
challenge the New Yorkers to generate ideas for
achieving the key goals for the city’s sustainable
future, and New Yorkers from all boroughs responded
positively, creating public support for the city’s
sweeping climate plan. Rotterdam and Jakarta are
both actively communicating climate change, raising
awareness and communicating the importance of
integrated spatial and land-use planning.
C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 145

11
3
Future
outlook
Climate change adaptation is considered one of f the
largest challenges for mankind in 21st century. CDC
was erected to give delta cities a platform for dialogue,
exchange of f knowledge and joined actions. Doing
nothing is not an option, but whatever has to be done
needs to be part of f a long term strategy and as well as
a short term action plan, both based on an integrated
climate change adaptation strategy. Knowledge
development and exchange are indespensable in
this approach. The CDC-publications including this
book k contribute to this knowledge exchange, as they
visualize the approaches and the best practices in
different ff cities and make a comparison possible. At the
same moment these publications contribute to raising
awareness.
This book, therefore, explores the different ff aspects
of f climate adaptation in delta cities. It is an
investigation of f comparable adaptation challenges
and opportunities and of f progress in adaptation plans
and investments in the eight Connecting Delta Cities
(CDC) cities of f Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London,
New Orleans, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh City.
Also other climate adaptation networks like The Delta
Alliance and recent climate adaptation initiatives and
events like in Melbourne and Shanghai are described
in the book.
The first fi CDC bookk marked the launch off the CDC
networkk and a first fi reconnaissance. It described how
climate change adaptation was dealt with in the three
CDC cities New York, Rotterdam and Jakarta. This
second book k focuses on the expanding Connecting
Delta Cities network k and the experiences and best
practices of f eight CDC cities with climate change
adaptation, as well as wit a fi rst assessment of f their

strategies. Continuing this development, it makes
sense to plan the writing off a third CDC bookk to cover
the implementation of f climate change adaptation
strategies. This third book k could also focus on specific fi
topics like communication or climate proof f spatial
planning and give a report on fruitful knowledge
exchange between CDC cities. Your input, comments
and ideas about this proposed follow up are more then
welcome and will be highly appreciated. Send us your
opinion and help us decide on the content off the third
CDC book.
Connecting Delta Cities is a fl exible network k that
closely collaborates with similar and complementary
cities and initiatives. Some of f them were already
described in this book, the following text boxes
describe two more examples of f succesful climate
change adaptation and knowledge exchange, in
Melbourne and at the Shanghai World Expo 2010.
Figure 11.2 Dutch Pavilion Shanghai World Expo 2010.
C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 147

Melbourne
Melbourne’s recent experience of climaterelated
hazards such as drought and
bushfi res, and the need to plan for the
threat of future sea level rise, is driving
new thinking and action on climate change
adaptation.
Figure 11.3 Melbourne dock – city skyline (courtesy of Port of Melbourne)
Melbourne, the capital of the State of Victoria, is the
most southerly of Australian mainland capital cities.
The metropolitan area is dissected by the Yarra River
which then empties into Port Phillip Bay, one of the
world’s largest bays. Beyond the bustle of the central
business district, the city gives way to suburbs which
sprawl 40 km to the south (following the curve of the
bay), 30 km eastwards, and a further 20 km onto the
northern plains, covering an area of well over
8,000 km 2 and almost 4 million inhabitants. The city
can be characterized as being of low-density urban
form with high levels of car use. Urban containment
is an important contemporary debate in this fast
growing city.
Melbourne is well known as a cosmopolitan city
with inhabitants coming from 140 nations around

the world. The earliest inhabitants were members
of the ‘Kulin’ nations – Melbourne is actually settled
on an area that was a regular meeting place for
local Indigenous clans. However, they were rapidly
displaced by English settlers in the 1830s, with more
arriving as a result of the 1850s gold rush. In more
recent times, large numbers of Second World War
refugees from south Europe and the Baltic regions
brought with them a rich Mediterranean culture.
Diversity of urban life was further enhanced by
refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in the late
1970s. A strong Asian infl uence continues to this day,
evidenced by large numbers of international students
who add a youthful vibrancy to the city centre.
Melbourne is also Australia’s busiest cargo port and
largest container port. M1 An area adjacent to the port
area has been reclaimed and a new suburb, comprising
high rise apartments and corporate headquarters, has
sprung up on the river frontage. Port activity is forecast
to grow fairly rapidly, one consequence of which was a
controversial decision to dredge the narrow entrance
of Port Phillip Bay and deepen the shipping channels
to allow access at all tides for large container vessels.
Legislation introduced to State Parliament in June
2010 has also set in motion plans to merge the ports of
Melbourne and Hastings which would act to increase
shipping capacity, taking advantage of Hastings
natural location outside of Port Phillip Bay.
Temperatures have, on average, risen by about 1°C
over the past 50 years in Australia. Although located
in the more temperate south, Melbourne has had
to cope with a 13 year drought, serious bush fi re
episodes in peri-urban areas in 2007 and 2009, and
a heat wave in 2009 which resulted in scores of
Figure 11.4 Melbourne (© City of Melbourne 2010).
fatalities and signifi cant impacts on key elements of
urban infrastructure, the electricity sector being the
most severely aff ected. This was also the year that
saw a heat wave of unprecedented intensity and
duration, with three consecutive days reaching above
43°C, followed by the hottest day ever recorded,
reaching 46.4°C. It is this peak in temperature that
concurred with the outbreak of the bushfi res around
Melbourne. In response to this extreme event, roles
and responsibilities for emergency management were
clarifi ed, and a review of the heat wave action plan is
now being conducted by the Victorian Department of
Health
Scenarios supporting the City of Melbourne’s
adaptation strategy suggest an increase in
temperature (up to 2.6 degrees Celsius by 2070),
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 2 0 1 0 149

a corresponding increase in the number of days of
extreme heat (an extra 20 days over 35 degrees),
reductions in rainfall most notably in spring, and an
uncertain rise in sea levels. This is currently suggested
as between 26 cm and 59 cm, though 80cm is being
used to inform coastal planning decisions. M2
Given the recent history of drought conditions it is
perhaps of little surprise that Melbourne communities
have become accustomed to the need to conserve
water. High profi le awareness-raising campaigns,
the promotion of ‘water sensitive urban design’, and
behavioral change initiatives such as promotion of
domestic rain tanks, are refl ective of an underlying
cultural shift and an increased public acceptance of
the need to modify behavior in order to manage an
increasingly scarce resource. More controversially,
though in line with many of the major Australian
cities, Melbourne has also turned to technical fi xes to
address problems of water shortage. These include
a new energy intensive desalinization plant which
will become operational in 2011 and the Sugarloaf
pipeline which will transfer water from the north of the
State to meet the needs of metropolitan Melbourne.
Current day fl ood risks are mainly confi ned to
extreme storm events and the failings of storm-water
systems. Periodically Melbourne is subjected to
heavy rain and widespread fl ash fl ooding due to its
natural fl oodplains, the reduction of permeability by
suburban development, and an aging storm-water
infrastructure. However, with over 40 km of the urban
area exposed to a beachfront, the threat of sea level
rise is now being taken very seriously by Melbourne

authorities. The Victorian Coastal Strategy (2008) M3
has highlighted sea level rise and the combination
of population growth and development pressures as
key issues to be addressed. Sea level rise is currently
recorded as between 2.4 and 2.8 mm per year, with
planning guidance recommending the consideration
of a minimum rise of 0.8 meters by 2100 (to be
refi ned as new knowledge becomes available). Highresolution
risk assessment is being carried out as
part of the Future Coasts programme M4 in order to
better understand likely future impacts and to design
coastal adaptation strategies. Sea level rise will have
signifi cant implications for commonly affl uent bayside
suburbs and it has also been recognized that these
impacts could have signifi cant implications for the
structural and functional resilience of Melbourne’s
major commercial ports (the Port of Melbourne being
the largest of these).
In response to current and future climate risks, the
adaptation agenda is also being driven by important
policy initiatives at the sub-national scale. In 2009,
the City of Melbourne released a municipal Climate
Adaptation Strategy noting that operational
research was needed to assess localized risks and
identify suitable adaptation responses in the city.
Adaptation is also being supported at the State level
with the Victorian government releasing a Climate
Change Green Paper in 2009. Victoria is the only
State in Australia to have committed to supporting
and funding adaptation research through the
establishment of the Victorian Centre for Climate
Change Adaptation Research (VCCCAR). Activity
includes funding research projects to analyze regional
priorities, hosting an international research fellow,
organizing regional think tanks, and holding an annual
adaptation forum for interested stakeholders.
“Climate change presents particular challenges for
delta cities. Rising sea levels, increasing temperatures
and increased frequency of storm surges and other
climate related events will place new pressures on ports,
infrastructure, and communities. Eff ective adaptation to
these challenges will require diff erent approaches to the
future management of our urban environment.”
Professor Rod Keenan
Director, Victorian Centre for Climate Change
Adaptation Research
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 151

Shanghai-Rotterdam
Water Conference at
World Expo 2010
On Thursday, 10 June 2010, the ‘Happy Street’ Holland
Pavilion at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo was the
venue of the Shanghai-Rotterdam Water Conference.
The offi cial opening was performed by Paula
Verhoeven, Climate Director of the City of Rotterdam,
and Zhu Shiqing, Deputy Director of the Shanghai
Water Authority.

Reason for the conference was that Shanghai and
Rotterdam both face the challenge of f preserving
the attractive qualities of f their cities, despite
climate change, by implementing innovative
water management. The Shanghai-Rotterdam
Water Conference therefore offered ff an excellent
opportunity to share and exchange knowledge and
experience gained from best practices. Students
from the Netherlands and China exchanged and
compared best practices on climate change adaption
from their countries in public classes. A number
of f lectures addressed topics such as storm-surge
barriers, adaptation strategies, rainwater storage and
ecologically sustainable fl ood management. Cases
were presented from Shanghai, Rotterdam and New
Orleans, al looking for to make these low lying delta
regions safeandresilient from fl floods.
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 153

References
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and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes Exposure Estimates.’ OECD Environment Working Papers No. 1, 19/11/2008, November.
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References illustrations
The publishers gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to use the illustrations indicated: 30 Figure 8.11 - Roel Dijkstra; 32 RDM Campus - Fotografi e Marijke
Volkers; 60 Figure 5.3 (left) Marfai (right) Novira; 66 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 67 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 70 Figure 5.9 - Marfai; 71 Mayor of London - James O. Jenkins; 92 Flood - ANP
Photo’s; 95 Photo left - Bas Jonkman; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 111 Figure 8.11 - Fotografi e W.P. Pauw; 126 HCMC - Peter Stucking; and iStockphoto.

Contact Information CDC secretariat
Ms. Chantal Oudkerk Pool
Address
WTC Beursplein 37, 3011 AA Rotterdam,
the Netherlands
E-mail
info@deltacities.com
Website
www.deltacities.com
C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 159

At present, more than 50 percent of the world’s
population lives in cities. According to the
United Nations, more than two thirds of the
world’s large cities are vulnerable to rising sea
levels, exposing millions of people to the risk of
extreme fl oods and storms. Within the next
30 years, the number of people living in cities
will increase to 60 percent of the world’s
population, resulting in even more people living
in highly exposed areas.
This book explores the diff erent aspects of
climate adaptation and the various challenges
delta cities in the world face. It is an investigation
of comparative adaptation problems and
progress in the cities of Rotterdam, New York,
Jakarta, London, New Orleans, Hong Kong,
Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh City. Each city faces
diff erent challenges; one of the lessons of the
Connecting Delta Cities initiative is that while
cities will follow adaptation paths that may
diff er, sometimes substantially, each city can
learn from the others.