Greek

LEARNING GREEK. WITH PLATO

LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY PRESS

z

First published in 2007 by

University of Exeter Press

This version published by

Liverpool University Press

4 Cambridge Street

Liverpool L69 7ZU

www.livcrpooluniversityprcss.co.uk

Corrected reprint 2007

Reprinted 2009, 2010, 201 I, 2014

(,') Frank Bcctham 2007

The right of Frank Bcctham to be identified as author of this

work has been asserted by him in accordance with

the Copyright, Designs and Patents Acts 1988.

The Greek text of R.\XI. Sharples, Plaw, Meno

is reproduced by kind permission of Aris & Phillips.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A cat aloguc record for this book is available

from the British Library.

ISBN 978 I 904675 56 3

Primed in Great Britain by Short Run Press J ,imited, Exeter

Contents

Preface

Introduction: Background to Plato's Meno

IX

Xll

Section 1 The Alphabet 1

Punctuation and Accents 6

Section 2 The Verb "I am" 9

Asking Questions 10

Nouns and Declensions 11

Adjectives 14

Plurals 15

Section 3 Subjects and Verbs - Verb Endings 19

Personal Pronouns 24

Neuter Plural Subjects 27

Section 4 The Object 30

Accusative of Respect or Manner 36

Note on Greek Dialects 40

Section 5 Verbs - Middle and Passive Endings 41

"This" 46

Section 6 The Present Infinitive 49

Adverbs 50

The Genitive Case 51

Section 7 Conjunctions 60

The Dative Case 61

"Who?" and "What?" 67

VI

Learning Greek with Plato

Section 8

"Someone" and "Something"

The Vocative Case

Third and Mixed Declension Adjectivess

Prepositions

Verbs- Overview of Tenses

The Imperfect Tense

Augments

Translating Plato's Meno 70al-70c3

Section 9 The Perfect Tense

The Perfect Tense Middle and Passive

'? ..... ( .....

0105, rro1O5, OITOIOS-

WOTE "

Translating Plato's Meno 70c3-71c4

Section 10 Demonstrative Pronouns

Present Participles

The Perfect Active Participle

Middle and Passive Participles

Translating Plato's Meno 71c5-72a5

Section 11 "Every"/ "All"

The Aorist Tense

The Weak Aorist Indicative Active

The Weak Aorist Indicative Middle

Kinds of Condition

Translating Plato's Meno 72a6-72d3

Section 12 Multiple Questions

The Future Active

The Future Middle

The Subjunctive Mood

Infinitive as Subject and Object

Future and General Conditions

Translating Plato's Meno 72d4-73c5

Section 13 Adjectives with Masculine for Feminine

The Optative Mood

67

70

71

72

75

76

78

82

87

92

94

94

96

99

100

105

107

109

115

116

118

124

125

128

131

132

133

14@r

145

146

147

151

152

Contents

Vil

Future Unlikely Conditions 157

Translating Plato's Meno 73c6-74a6 160

Section 14 The Strong Aorist Active Tense 164

The Strong Aorist Middle Tense 171

Purpose Clauses 176

Translating Plato's Meno 74a7-74el0 177

Section 15 Imperatives 183

Prohibitions 188

Strong and Doubtful Denials 191

Translating Plato's Meno 74e11-75d7 192

Section 16 Contraction (Verbs) 196

0\05', TOIOO◊E, TOIOUTOS' 212

Translating Plato's Meno 75d7-76c3 213

Section 17 Relative Pronouns: "Who", "What", "Which", "That" 218


Section 18 The Aorist Passive Tense 228

Translating Plato's Meno 77a2-77e4 238

Section 19 The Genitive Absolute 242

The Future Passive Tense 245

' ~

OOTIOOUV

248

Translating Plato's Meno 77e5-78c3 249

Section 20 Te)Tiporal Clauses 253

rrp1v 256

The Pluperfect Tense 258


Section 21 Contracted Adjective Endings (Third Declension) 265

Reported Speech 266

Accusative and Infinitive used for Reported Statements 268

Participle Construction with "Know" or "Sec" 272

Relative Clauses, Direct and Indirect Questions 273

Translating Plato's Meno 79a3-79cl0 277

Vlll

Learning Gree!? with Plato

Section 22 an ("Because")

rn, mp ("Although")

EXW with Adverb

Numerals

OIJOEl5, OIJOEV

Multiple Negatives

Translating Plato's Meno 79d 1-79e6

Section 23 Irregular Adjectives

Comparatives and Superlatives

Translating Plato's Meno 79e7-80b7

Section 24 -µ1 Verbs With Stems Ending -ex, -E or -o

(tOH]µI, T(01iµ1, 01owµ1)

The Irregular Verb 'hiµ1

Translating Plato's Meno 80b8-81a10

Section 25 The Irregular Verb E\µ1

Impersonal Verbs

Accusative Absolute

Verbal Adjectives

Reflexive Pronouns

Translating Plato's Meno 81al0-81e6

281

284

286

287

289

290

291

293

295

304

307

324

325

330

333

335

336

337

341

Appendices

Cases and Prepositions 347

Summary of Voice, Mood, Tense and Aspect in the Greek Verb 353

Word Order 366

Duals 370

Numerals 374

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives and Pronouns 378

Reference Li~t of Verb Endings and Irregular Verbs

EIµI 39i,0

verbs ending -w 396

verbs ending -µ 1 406

Answers 429

Word List 462

Principal Tenses of Some of the More Difficult Verbs 488

Index 498

Preface

This is a course for those who wish to learn Classical Greek, particularly

those interested in learning it with a view to reading philosophy. It assumes

no previous knowledge of Greek at all and was developed over a number of

years in the Department of Philosophy at Warwick University as a one-year

course for postgraduates. It aims to enable a student to acquire the rudiments

of Classical Greek grammar, to become accustomed to Plato's style,

to begin to read Classical philosophy in Greek, to be able to relate a translation

to the underlying Greek text with discrimination, and to follow a

commentary on the text with understanding.

I hope that the course will also be welcoming and interesting to nonspecialists,

and for this reason I have included a basic introduction, providing

a background to the Meno. The course has been used in the Open Studies

programme of the Centre for Lifelong Learning at Warwick University and

owes much to those students as vvell as to the postgraduate students who

preceded them.

The book contains integrated exercises throughout, with answers listed

at the back, so that the student can check on his or her progress at regular

intervals.

The first seven sections are preliminary, and each section after that, while

introducing fresh material for learning, proceeds through the first part of

Plato's dialogue Meno up to the point where Socrates is compelled to abandon

the style he adopts generally in the earlier dialogues - of disillusioning those

he is talking to of knowledge which they thought they had- and to strike out

in a new direction. The Meno is a good place to begin reading Plato as it

marks a kind of watershed in the development of Plato's thinking.

X

Learning Gree!~ with Plato

When tackling the passages from the Meno, students need to compare

their own English version with a translation, or, preferably, two of

contrasting styles. I have referred to Plato, Meno by R.W. Sharples

(revised edition, Aris & Phillips, 2004) throughout the book. With students

at Warwick I have generally also used the translation by W.R.M. lLamb in

the lLoeb Classical Library, which is in a different style.

This course is self-sufficient but a dictionary will be required for further

reading. The standard work of reference is Liddell and Scott, Greek

English Lexicon (9th edition with Supplement, 1996), also available in an

electronic version. For students, there are Liddell and Scott's Intermediate

Greek-English Lexicon (condensed from the 7th edition) and Liddell and

Scott's Abridged Greek-English Lexicon (both Oxford). The Abridged

Greek-English Lexicon lacks citations but includes a number of irregular

tenses of verbs. A Cambridge Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon is in

preparation.

I have retained both "virtue" and "excellence" as renderings of 'arete'

since both occur in translations.

In addition to Professor R.W. Sharples' edition and translation, to which

my indebtedness is clear, throughout I have consulted Smyth's Grech

Grammar (revised by G.M. Messing, Harvard University Press, 1958).

Among other books I have found particularly helpful are:

0 l?tudes sur !'aspect chez Platon, ed. B. Jacquinod avec Ia collaboration

de J. Lallot, 0. Mortier-Waldschmidt & G. Wakker (Universite de

Saint-Etienne, 2000)

0 The Grech Particles by JD. Denniston (second edition, revised by Sir

Kenneth Dover, Duckworth, 1996)

0 Grech Word Order by Sir Kenneth Dover (Cambridge, 1960)

0 Lexique de la language philosophique el religieuse de Platon (volume 14 of

the Bude edition of Plato; E. des Places, Paris, 1964) 1%"

0 A New Comparative Gra111111arof Greeh & Latin by A.H. Sihlcr (Oxford,

1994)

0 Plato's Meno by Dominic Scott (Cambridge Studies in the Dialogues

of Plato, Cambridge, 2006)

0 The Syntax and Semantics of the Verb in Classical Grech, An Introduction

Foreword

XI

by A. Rijksbaron (third edition, Giebcn, Amsterdam, 2002)

0 Le verbe grec ancien, elements de morphologie et de syntaxe historiques

(second edition) by Y. Duhoux, Louvain-La-Neuve 2000

0 Vax. Graeca, the pronunciation of Classical Greek by W.S. Allen (third

edition, Cambridge, 1987)

0 A Word Index to Plato by L. Brandwood (Maney, Leeds, 1976)

0 also the article 'Aspect Choice in Herodotus' by C.M,J. Sicking in Two

Studies in the Semantics of the Verb in Classical Greek by C.M,J. Sicking

and P. Stork (Brill, 1996).

The computer programme Perseus 2.0 (Yale University Press) is an invaluable

tool for reference. It includes the Intermediate Liddell & Scott, as well

as texts and translations of 27 Classical Greek authors including Plato and

Xenophon and selected works of four others including Aristotle. It also has

morphological databases for the analysis of difficult words.

I am also grateful to Cambridge University Press for permission to include

in my introduction two passages from The Presocratic Philosophers (second

edition, 1983) by G.S. Kirk, J,E.Raven and M. Schofield.

I should like to express my thanks to many people, especially to Martin

Warner and his colleagues in the departments of Philosophy and Classics at

Warwick University for their support and help; to Professor RW. Sharples

of University College, London, for answering my enquiries and for generously

allowing me to use the text in his edition of the Meno; to Professor

M.M. McCabe of Kings College, London for suggesting the Meno as a suitable

place to begin reading Plato in Greek, to Mrs Jean Dodgcon for reading

the proofs and for many helpful suggestions, to David Blower and Gary

Atkinson for help with word processing, to Julian Morgan for help in

installing Perseus, to Tony Smith for advice about printing, to Anna

Henderson, who saw the book through the production process for the Bristol

Phoenix Press, and to my wife Gwynneth for her constant help and support.

Frank Beetham

Kenilworth, 2007

Introduction

Background to the Meno

In 490 B.C., the Athenians won a famous victory at Marathon over a Persian

force which had landed on their shores, and in 480, at Salamis, they took the

main part in the decisive naval battle in which Xerxes, the king of Persia, was

defeated at the head of his forces. Although the Persian invasion of Greece

was not brought to an end until the land battle at Plataea in 479 in which the

Spartans took a leading part, in the aftermath of the Greek victory the

Athenians took the lead in seeking to liberate from Persian rule the Aegean

islands and the Greek settlements on the coast of Asia Minor. Thus, for 50

years, the Athenians dominated the Aegean and acquired vast wealth and

unpopularity from collecting large amounts of tribute, some of which was

spent in glorifying Athens with the Parthenon and other temples.

The grandeur of Athens in the latter part of this period of supremacywhich

came to an end with the outbreak of the Pcloponnesian War in 431

(between Athens and its allies and Sparta and its allies)-was associated with

Pericles, the most prominent Athenian politician of the time, an aristocrat

who led the democratic faction. Among Pericles' friends was the tragic poet

Sophocles, perhaps the most perfect of the Greek tragedians, who outlived

him and died at a great age in 406. Pericles died of plague in 429, and tl1e

war went on intermittently until Atl1ens was finally defeated in 404 so disasJi.f

trously that, according to Xenophon, the Athenians feared that they would

be sold into slavery, and the Corinthians and Thebans actually opposed a

negotiated surrender and proposed that Athens should be destroyed. The

city was only saved by an objection from the Spartans on the grounds of the

part it had played in saving Greece from the Persians in 480. 1

lnlroduction

Xlll

Under Spartan occupation, the government of Athens passed to an

oligarchic tyranny of 30-the 'Thirty Tyrants' (one of whom was Plato's

uncle Critias),2-who imposed a reign of terror but were ousted in 403 by

an invasion and counter revolution on the part of the democratic faction, led

by Thrasybulus. Anytus, who speaks towards the end of the Meno and was

one of the accusers of Socrates, was respected as a leading democrat.

Socrates

We know very little about the historical Socrates. He was an Athenian,

seventy years old when he was executed, and his father was Sophroniscus,

a sculptor. According to Plato, his mother was a midwife, Phaenarete, and

he was married; also according to Plato, at the time of his death, his wife was

Xanthippe. He had children. Although in later life he is depicted as poor, he

must at one time have had enough property to qualify as a hoplitc (a heavyarmed

infantryman; these had to provide their own armour). Plato tells us

that he had served with distinction in the earlier campaigns of the

Peloponnesian War, and had saved the life of Alcibiades, who was eighteen

years his junior and became his intimate friend, in battle. 3 Alcibiades, who

was a ward of Pericles, was later a controversial figure. He was forced to flee

the city because of a religious scandal at Athens (the mutilation of the statues

of Hermes), at one time conspired with the Spartans against Athens and, at

another, after taking refuge with the Persians, returned to lead the Athenian

fleet successfully against the Spartans. He eventually retired from A.thens

amid general distrust to Asia, where he was murdered after the war at the

suggestion of Critias when the Thirty Tyrants were in power in Athens. 4

Socrates died in 399 after being condemned to death by drinking hemlock

administered by the public executioner. The affidavit upon which he was

impeached ran: Socrates is guilty of refusing to recognise the gods recognised

by the state, and of introducing new divinities. He is also guilty of

corrupting the youth.

Socrates' followers in his later years included Xenophon and Plato, both

of whom arc among the great classical writers of Greece. Among the other

philosophers who had been companions of Socrates 5 were Aristippus of

Cyrene and Euclides of Megara, a small city about 12 miles west of Athens

XIV

Learning Greek wi1h PlalO

along the Saronic Gulf, who founded a school of philosophy there and gave

refuge to Plato and others after Socrates' execution.

Socrates is satirised in Aristophanes' comedy 17ie Clouds as a pseudoscientist

suspended in a basket from the stage machinery pretending to

investigate meteorology and setting his students silly projects such as discovering

how far fleas can hop, and, more directly, as a teacher of false logic,

whereby tl1e worse argument can be made to seem the better. There are two

passing cracks at Socrates in other comedies of Aristophanes. In The Birds 6

(414 B.C.) he is said to be unwashed and to raise the spirits of men by incantation;

and at the close of The Frogs 7 (406 B.C.) the chorus reproves the

dramatist Euripides for sitting beside Socrates in idle chatter instead of

attending to the business of tl1e tragic muse. It should be remembered that

77ie Clouds came third and last in the competition at the Great Dionysia in

423, tl1ough we don't know whether the attack on Socrates contributed to

its defeat. What we have now is a later revision of the play which was not

performed in a dramatic competition.

Both Xenophon and Plato have left accounts of Socrates. In Xenophon's

Memorabilia ('Memoirs about Socrates') and Symposium Socrates appears

as upright and god fearing, a genial conversationalist, always helpful, many

of whose moral pronouncements arc conventional, e.g. that one should show

gratitude to one's mother and that one should be careful how one chooses

and cultivates one's friends. However, near the end of the Memorabilia

Xenophon hints at someone more like Socrates as portrayed in the shorter

dialogues of Plato:

And I shall try to show how Socrates used to make his companions more

dialectical. for he considered that those who knew the real nature of something

would also be able to give an account of it to others, but he said that it

was not surprising if those who did not know were themselves misled, and w;

misled others. For this reason he never ceased to investigate with his companions

what the nature of each thing is. 8

Xenophon goes on to give examples of Socrates' question-and-answer techmque.

Introduction

xv

Early in the last century, professors at two Scottish universities (Taylor

at Edinburgh and Burnet at St Andrews) argued that Plato had recorded the

views of the historical Socrates with a far greater degree of fidelity than had

previously been thought, but this view, especially as concerns the theory of

forms and immortality of the soul, has not been widely accepted. 9 We know

that the historical Socrates was deeply interested in ethics, and that he held

that wisdom and virtue are the same and that evil-doing harmed the evildoer

more than the evil done-by, 10 and we can be pretty sure that he practised

dialectic (investigation by question and answer), but little more. 11

Plato

While Socrates left no philosophical writings, we know much more about

Plato. In particular, although the order in which his dialogues were written

is not completely settled, the development of his tl1ought can be followed

from them (though this has been challenged; see note 22, p. xxiii).

According to Diogenes Laertius 12 Plato, after leaving Megara, travelled

to Cyrene, Italy and Egypt before returning to Athens. On returning to

Athens, he found it necessary to defend the good name of Socrates perhaps

against a pamphlet which had tried to justify his execution, 13 and issued the

Apology (i.e. defence) of Socrates, which is one of the earliest of his dialogues.

This purports to be the substance of the speeches which Socrates made at

his trial, perhaps tidied up somewhat by Plato. 14

Plato's 'Socratic' dialogues include the Charmidcs (what is prudence?),

the fochcs (what is courage?) and the Lysis (what is friendship?) each of

which ends by failing to define satisfactorily the subject under discussion

( compared with Xenophon, Memorabilia IV, vi, 1--11 where Piety, Justice,

Wisdom, The Good, The Beautiful and Courage arc all summarily

discussed).

Why the contrast? Plato no doubt felt that he was required to defend not

only his old chief, but the whole subject of wisdom, which is, in Greek, closely

linked with knowledge. Sophos, 'wise man' originally meant 'expert', but

knowledge was under attack on three fronts.

In tl1e east, Greek philosophical and scientific speculation had begun in

the Greek cities of Asia, where Thales of Miletus, who had famously

XVI

!,earning Gree!? with Plato

predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 B.C., published mathematical work

including a method of calculating the height of a pyramid, and declared that

water was the original substance of everything. But about 500 B.C.

Heraclitus of Ephesus had suggested that everything was in flux, 15 so that

sure knowledge would be impossible, since in the time it would take to make

up your mind about something and put it into words it would have changed

and any statement you would make about it would be invalid.

In the west, the followers of Parmenides (the Eleatics, named after Elea,

Parmenides' home town, now Velia on the coast of Italy, south of Naples)

declared that, on the contrary, the truth is always the same and all appearances

of change are illusions. Parmcnides left a poem in two parts, The Way

of Truth and Opinion, much of which survives. Briefly, in The Way of Yhtth

he argues that what is, is, and what is not, is not, and this describes the world

completely. Therefore, what is cannot come into being, because it could only

come into being by incorporating what is not, which does not exist. Similarly,

what is cannot cease to be, for if so it would be what is not, which is a sclfcontradiction.

It follows, Parmenides argues, that what is, is, and never

changes. 16 Of course, this does not describe the world as ordinary people

perceive it, and Opinion is a more conventional description of the world,

though Parmenides said that those who believed that it really was like that

were fools.

The problem for Plato is clear: he wishes to defend wisdom, according to

which knowledge of the truth is attainable, but the Eleatics argued that in

everyday life such knowledge is impossible, beyond Parmenides' bare proposition.

If Socrates believed in absolute moral values, as is confirmed even by

Xenophon's brief remarks in Memorabilia IV, Plato's defence of Socrates

becomes more difficult.

Why did Parmenides take the line he took? Was he just cussed, or did he

simply want to be different from Heraclitus? Perhaps Parmenides' argum~t

arose from the state which Greek mathematics had reachcd. 17 When 1'i1e

Way of Truth was published it was laughed at, but it was defended by

Parmcnides' follower Zeno 18 with a book ( or perhaps several) of paradoxes,

from which came the four paradoxes on motion cited by Aristotle in the

Physics, one of which is that of Achilles and the tortoise. Only one of Zeno's

Introduction

xvii

paradoxes has survived in his original words, as follows:

If there are many things, it is necessary that they are just as many as

they are, and ·neither more nor less than that. But if they are as many as

they are, they will be limited.

If there are many things, the things that are arc unlimited; for there are

always others between the things that are, and again others between those.

And thus the things that are are unlimited. 19

Zeno argues that since if there are many things they are both limited (in

number) and unlimited, there is a contradiction; there cannot be many

things, but only one (and that is Parmenides' 'it is').

Zeno is obviously thinking of the things that exist as if they are like points

on a line; between any two points you can always find another. This leads

directly to the paradoxes on motion: if someone is going a mile and has gone

half, there is still half to do; and if they have gone half of that half, there is

still a quarter to do; and if they have gone half of that quarter, there will still

be an eighth to do; and so on ad infinitum. 20 Still worse, suppose a snail is

going to slide a yard along a garden path; before it can have slid a yard, it

will have to have slid half a yard; and before it will have slid half a yard, it

will have to have slid a quarter; and so on, so that we are unable to say what

the first distance is that the snail will have to cover even to begin its slither.

The recognition that there are such infinities in everyday !if e is uncomfortable

and the paradoxes of Zeno were still stimulating mathematicians in the

nineteenth century.

But no doubt the most serious attack, from Plato's point of view, came

from the sophists, teachers of rhetoric and popular science who had flocked

to Athens from all parts of Greece. Among the most famous was Gorgias of

Lcontini in Sicily. At Meno 95c (Sharples, pp.106-7) it is said that although

he taught speaking (i.e. persuasion) he never taught excellence (i.e. ethics).

His students really could make the worse argument appear the better, and

he quite likely would have argued against Socrates that excellence is relative,

depending on whose excellence it is.

It was said that Plato had studied Eleatic philosophy on his travels, and

traces of Pythagorean thinking can be found in several places in the dialogues

XVIII


(Sharples, Plato: Meno introduction, p.9). Why the arguments in Plato's

early dialogues are so negative is unclear. Perhaps he wanted to show the

falsity of definitions which his master, Socrates, had not accepted. How far

the method of argument he uses was really like the arguments Socrates

himself used, and how far they may have been sharpened by contact with

the Eleatics is also unclear, but it is clear that his procedure is different from

Zeno's. 21 Zeno's method was to put up a proposition he did not believe and

did not assert, and derive contradictory conclusions from it. The Socratic

method in the early dialogues is

(a) to take a proposition asserted by the answerer

(b) to show, by questioning the answerer, that the proposition forms

part of a group of other propositions

(c) to show that all of these propositions are not consistent with each

other.

The result is not necessarily to show that the answerer's proposition is wrong,

but 'aporia' (puzzlement) on a subject where the answerer felt certainty

before, and the recognition that the subject under discussion needs more

investigation. 22

The Meno

The dialogue opens with Meno asking 'is arete (excellence, virtue) a thing

that can be taught?' This raises two topics, the essential nature of arete and

the possibility of teaching, i.e. producing knowledge, in another person.

At the beginning of the Meno, Socrates asks how, if he does not know who

Meno is at all, he can know whether he is rich, well-born etc. When Socrates

has pressed Meno for a definition of arete and Meno has been reduced to

puzzlement after several attempts to define it, Meno turns the tables on

Socrates by asking him how he can look for something he does not know ar·

all, and how he will be able to recognise it if he should find it. 23 Suddenly

Socrates strikes out on a new line, claiming that knowledge comes from a

previous existence. This is as far as we shall read in this course (81e6). 24

After that, Socrates demonstrates his point by questioning one of Meno's

slave boys who has not been trained in mathematics. Socrates elicits from

Introduction

XIX

him a method of constructing a square twice the size of another. He begins

with a square with sides two feet long, the area of which is four square feet

(2 x 2 feet square). How can a line be found, the square on which is 8 square

feet? Clearly, the line will not itself be four feet long, since 4 )< 4 = 16 and a

square with sides 4 feet long contains 16 square feet. At first, the slave gives

wrong answers, but eventually he gives a correct one. The answer recognised

by the slave in response to Socrates' questions is that the square on a

diagonal of a square with sides two feet long will have an area of eight square

feet. 25 Socrates claims not to have told the slave anything, but only asked

him, admittedly leading questions. The conclusion is that the correct answer

the slave gives, in response to Socrates' questions and diagrams, must have

been inside him all the time although he does not remember it until prompted

by Socrates.

Socrates goes on in the Meno to consider the possibility of proceeding by

hypothesis when our knowledge of a subject (in this case, 'Can virtue ( excellence)

be taught?') is still latent, and shows that arete is wisdom,2 6 either the

whole of it or some part (Meno 89a). This is identified by Meno as knowledge,27

and Socrates docs not disagree. They are led to the conclusion, on

the assumption that what is knowledge can be taught, that aretc must be

teachable; but then a doubt arises whether it can be taught, and the dialogue

ends with a discussion of the relation between knowledge and true belief.

Beyond! the Meno

The Meno is remarkable for the range of topics it raises, 28 topics which arc

developed elsewhere by Plato. Por instance, in explaining knowledge as

recollection, Socrates' argument implies the existence of the soul before birth

but offers no proof of its immortality such as is found in the dialogues Phaedo

or Phaedrus. 29 The theory of recollection seems to foreshadow the theory of

ideas (which was itself later to be re-examined by Plato and criticised by

Aristotle) put forward in the Phaedo and especially in the Republic. In other

dialogues ( e.g. Theaetetus) Plato is still struggling to define knowledge. In

several of the dialogues which are often placed among the latest (Timaeus,

Sophist, Statesman, La,ws 30 ) Socrates only plays a small part or does not

appear at all. Some of these lack the dramatic interest of the earlier dialogues,

xx

Learning Greek with PlalO

but contain very important new work in the development of dialectic (investigation

by discussion) and of logic itself. For instance, in the middle and

later part of the Sophist, which is a dialogue of great importance, and where

the principal speaker is not Socrates but The Eleatic Stranger, Plato finds a

refutation of Parmcnides' argument that it is impossible to say or think what

does not exist. 31

Compared with Xenophon, why did Plato put his writing on Socrates in

this way? Aristotle 32 says that Socrates was the first to make a systematic

treatment of ethical questions leading to general definitions and may justly

be credited with recognising the importance of inductive argument (argument

by analogy from particular cases to general conclusions). Perhaps this

suggests two reasons why Plato wrote about Socrates as he did: he wanted

to locate Socrates in tl1c area concerned with the issues raised by the attacks

on knowledge, and he did not want to attribute doubtful conclusions of any

kind to him. Furthermore, Socrates in the Meno docs not always have an

easy time in passages where perhaps Plato is testing some of the philosophical

positions which the historical Socrates had adopted. 33

Plato's §tyle

Greek prose style is sometimes classified as either 'strung out', or 'continuous'

speech (lexis eiromene) in which the component parts are strung

together linked by particles such as 'and'; or 'subordinated' speech (lexis

katestrammene) in which long and highly organised sentences are built up

by the subordination of clauses. 34

Plato's style was formed by his times and benefited from the progress

made in rhetoric at Athens by the teaching of the sophists, particularly in

clarity of expression and in the logical ordering of arguments. This was especially

important because in Athenian courts a male defendant had to speak

for himself, not tlmJugh an advocate. One's rights as a citizen or even on&fs

life could depend on one's ability to speak in public (juries at Athens were

large; Socrates was tried by a jury of 50 l). The full rhetorical style expresses

an argument in periods: long sentences with many clauses building up into

climaxes. 35 But there were other influences on Plato. Early Greek philosophers

from Ionia wrote in prose. At Apology 26, d-e, Socrates says that the

Introduction

XX!

book of Anaxagoras ,vas on sale in Athens for a drachma, and at Phaedo 97 c

that it was when he heard the book read that he was attracted by Anaxagoras'

doctrine that 'mind' arranges and causes all things. Fragments of the book,

including its opening, have been preserved by Simplicius in his commentary

on Aristotle's Physics:

All things were together, infinite in respect both of number and smallness;

for the small too was infinite. And while all things were together, none of them

were plain because of their smallness; for air and aither held all things in

subjection, both of them being infinite; for these arc the greatest ingredients

in the mixture of all things, both in number and size. 36

In English and Greek, this comes to five lines containing five short sentences

divided by semi-colons or full stops. Both Socrates and Plato would have

been familar witl1 this kind of writing, which is quite different from the closeknit

rhetorical style.

Plato himself distrusted rhetoric and attacked it in several dialogues. At

Gorgias 455a 1-4, Socrates says 'Rhetoric, then, as it seems, is a producer of

persuasion but not of instruction concerning right and wrong,' and Plato

makes Gorgias agree. The dialogues of Plato are meant to bring to life

conversations which educated people might have had at Athens up to the

time of Socrates' death. 37 In some of them one person will sometimes tell a

story at length, as the myth of Prometheus and Epimetheus is told at

Protagoras 320c ff., or the myth of Er at the end of the Republic. With the

exception of the Timaeus which is a continuous discourse on the natural

world and how it might have been created, and the Apology which is in the

form of speeches delivered in court, Plato's major dialogues are essentially

dramatised conversations and the style varies appropriately with the speaker,

the topic and the occasion.

Notes

I Xenophon, Hellenica II, ii, 19-20.

2 According to Diogenes Laertius, Lives o.f h'minenl Philosophers III (Loeb Classical

Library, Harvard University Press), vol. I Critias was Plato's great uncle and Charmides,

another of the Thirty alier whom the dialogue Charmides is named, was his uncle (his

XXIJ


mother's brother). Both were killed in 403.

3 Plato, Symposium 220e.

4 Plutarch, Life of Alcibiades 38, 3-4. Lysander, the Spartan commander at Athens, was

not persuaded by Critias, but did arrange the assassination when he received direct

orders from Sparta.

5 W.K.C. Guthrie, Socrates, p. 169 (Cambridge, 1971) lists Socrates' immediate

followers. This book is the second part of volume III of Guthrie's His101y of Greek

Philosophy. For Eucleides of Megara, see also Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent

Philosophers II, 106 and III, 6, and for Aristippus, Lives of Eminent Philosophers II, 65.

6 Line 1555.

7 Line 1491.

8 Xenophon, Memorabilia IV, vi, 1.

9 D.A. Rees, Introduction to the second edition of Adam's Republic of Plato, (Cambridge,

1963), p.xxiv.

10 Both Xenophon and Plato confirm this. Compare Xenophon, Memorabilia I, v, 3, where

Socrates says 'the intemperate man ... while he is an evil-doer to others is much more

an evil-doer to himself, if indeed the most evil action is to destroy not merely one's own

home, but also one's body and one's soul' with Plato, Gorgias 507c-d, where he makes

Socrates say 'the temperate man, being just and brave and pious, is the perfection of a

good man, and ... tl1e man who does good is both happy and blessed, but the wicked

man who does evil is wretched ... at any rate, this is my account. .. each one ofus who

wishes to be happy, as it seems, must pursue self control and practise it and run away

from licentiousness as fast as his feet will carry him.' For 'intemperate' here, Xenophon

uses tl1e word akrates, from akrasia, meaning yielding lo the temptations of sensuality,

greed or ambition (Guthrie, pp.135-6).

11 Socrates was courageous and politically independent (see e.g. Xenophon, 1/ellenica I,

vii, 15). Nevertheless, when he was condemned it may have been al least partly because

in the public mind at Athens he seemed to have some connection with Critias. Many

years later (330 B.C.) the orator Aeschines, in his (unsuccessful) speech Against

Timarchus said: 'You put the sophist Socrates to death, 0 men of Athens, because he

was shown to have educated Critias, one of the Thirty who put down the democracy'

(Aeschines 1, 173) (Guthrie, p.63). At Memorabilia I, ii, 12-38, Xenophon is very careful

to exonerate Socrates.

12 Lives of Eminent Philosophers III (Life of Plato) 6. Diogenes Laertius is by no means

always a reliable source. Against him, it has been pointed out that in his seventh letter,

which may be genuine, Plato says he was 40 when he first visited Syracuse; but t1fiis is

in any case in Sicily.

13 The matter continued to be controversial (see Guthrie, p.11) and was regarded as scandalous

elsewhere in Greece. Diogenes Lacrtius (Socrates, 43) records tl1at there had been

a change of heart at Athens, and that one of his accusers (Anytus) had gone into exile

and another (Meletus) had been executed.

14 All shades of opinion have been held about the historicity of the Apology; Guthrie, (p.

158, footnote 1) thinks its truthfulness is virtually guaranteed because of Plato's respect

Introduction

xxiii

for Socrates and because Plato was present at the trial.

15 This was Plato's interpretation, illustrated by what he makes Socrates say about

Heraclitus' thought at 17ieaetetus 152e, associating him with Protagoras and

Empedocles: 'For indeed nothing ever is, but is always becoming.' (See also Kirk, Raven

and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, second ed. (Cambridge, 1983),

pp.194-197 .) Heraclitus was notoriously obscure, but he is recorded elsewhere as criticising

men for not comprehending the Logos, or plan of the world. This may suggest

that he did not regard knowledge as unattainable.

16 This is a brutally short abbreviation of what Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic

Philosophers, p. 241, describe as an astonishing deductive tour de force which had an

enormous influence on later Greek philosophy, comparable with the influence in modern

philosophy of Descartes' cogito ergo sum.

17 Pythagoras, who was born on the Aegean island of Samos, had moved to Croton in

South Italy and set up his school of philosophers there about 530 B.C. It combined

mysticism with mathematics.

18 Zeno the Eleatic, born probably c. 490 B.C., not Zeno the founder of the Stoic school

of philosophers, born 335 B.C. For his connection with Parmenides, see Plato,

Parmenides 128c quoted by Kirk, Raven & Schofield, p. 277.

19 Simplicius, commentary on Aristotle's Physics 140, 28, quoted in Kirk, Raven &

Schofield, p. 266. The paradoxes on motion are cited in Aristotle, Physics VI, section 9

(239b5-240a18).

20 This paradox is called 'the dichotomy' or 'cutting in two'.

21 The Socratic Hlenchus by G. Vlastos, in Plaro I, ed. Gail Fine (Oxford 1999), pp. 36-63.

Vlastos notes that in the Lysis, Socrates himself provides the propositions he refutes later.

22 The tendency to divide Plato's dialogues into three groups: early, middle and late, and

interpret and evaluate them accordingly, and in particular the view that the 'aporctic'

dialogues (those ending in aporia) represent an earlier stage of philosophical development,

has recently been challenged. Sec the review article 'Plato as Literature' by Tania

L. Gergel in 'l'lie }ournal of Hellenic Studies vol. 124, 2004, pp. 174-178. Nevertheless

Aicno 79e7-80b7, which we shall read in section 23 (pp.304-6), does imply that there

were 'aporetic' dialogues before the Meno.

23 At Meno 80d 5-8. Part of the difficulty that Socrates and Meno face at the beginning of

tl1e dialogue is the lack of a satisfactory definition of 'knowledge' as compared with 'true

opinion'. Near the end of the dialogue (Meno 98a) Socrates defines the difference: true

opinions become knowledge when they are tied down by working out their explanation,

which he says is what recollection is. At this point, Socrates and Meno are reconciled.

24 Reference to Plato's dialogues is by page number and letter of the 16th century edition

by Stephanus (see Sharples, Plato, Meno, preface, p.vii).

25 The length of the diagonal of a square is not commensurable with the length of a side.

The length of the diagonal of a square with sides 1 foot long is ✓ 2, i.e. 1.4142135 ...

The square that Socrates and the slave start out from, with sides 2 feet long, will contain

4 square feet. A square containing eight square feet, will have sides ✓8, i.e. 2 x ✓2 feet

long. For a discussion of Socrates' and the slave boy's mathematical demonstration see

XXIV


t11e notes on Meno 82d8-85b7 on pp. 151-155 of Sharples, Plato, Meno.

26 Phronesis, which is especially practical wisdom in Plato and Aristotle.

27 Meno 89c.

28 Dominic Scott, Plato's Meno (Cambridge, 2006), p.3.

29 For latent knowledge and immortality, see Dominic Scott, pp. I 08-120.

30 R.F. Stalley, in An Introduction to Plato's Laws (l3lackwell, 1983), pp. 2-4, states, as the

accepted view, that the Laws is Plato's last work. As well as referring to internal evidence,

he refers to Diogenes Laertius III, Plato, 3 7.

31 N. Notomi, The Unity of Plato's Sophist (Cambridge, 200 I) is an up-to-date and com pre-,

hensive analysis of the Sophist.

32 Me1aphysics I 078b 17-29; see also Sir David Ross, Aristotle, Metaphysics (Oxford,

1924), introduction p.xxxiii ff. and the note on I 078b28 on p. 422 of volume two.

33 Dominic Scott, esp. pp.27, 71, 87 and 140.

34 J.D, Denniston, Greek Prose Style (Oxford, I 952) p.60, and Aristotle, Rheron'c 1409a24.

35 The periodic style is praised by Aristotle at Rhetoric 1409bl.

36 Translation by Kirk, Raven and Schofield, p. 358.

37 The style might have been recognized as belonging to the previous century (see the

appendix on the dual) but the topics were up-to-date. For instance, Socrates and Meno

end by discussing (99b) the wisdom or otherwise of leaders of cities, and t11e date of

composition of the Meno is just about 50 years before the system of independent Greek

city-states collapsed finally in the face of the assault by Philip of Macedon, t11e father of

Alexander the Great.

Section 1

THE ALPHABET

alphabetic

equivalent

approximate 4th cent. b.c.

pronunciation

A (1 alpha a when s.hort, as in another

when long, as in father

B ~ beta b bas English b

r 'Y gamma 1 g gas in gather

I::,. 0 delta d d, with tongue on teeth 2

E € epsilon e (short) e as in pet

z t zeta z(sd)

H 1J eta e (long) e as in French tete

0 0 theta th th as in Thomas

I iota when short, as in bit

when long, as in week

K K kappa k k as in kit

A A lambda 1 Jasin leel<

M µ. mu m mas in mother

N V nu n nasinnet

~ xi X

~

~

0 0 omicron o (short) oas in pot

n 1T pi p pas in couple

lP p rho r r as in trill

I:

3

(J sigma s sas in sing

( s at end of word)

T T tau t tas in metal

r u upsilon u when short, as in French tu,

when long, as in French ruse

«P q> phi ph pas in pot

X X khi kh ch as in chasm

qt tji psi ps

0 w omega o (long) aw as in saw

I

yy is pronounced "ng".

2 as in French dans.

3Sometimes printed as c (the "lunate" or moon shaped sigma).

2 Learning Greek with Plato

The Greek alphabet has 24 letters. 4 Of these, seven are vowels:

a<E11iouw

The names of all Greek letters begin with the sound that they make.

Some of the vowel-names are also descriptive; thus, as tj;1,Aov ("psilon")

means, in Greek, "a plain thing", epsilon means "plain e" and upsilon

means "plain u". In the same way, [-1,LKpov (mikron) means "a small

thing" and µ,Eya ("mega") means "a great thing"; so omicron means

"small o" and omega means "great o". 11 is pronounced like e in the

French word tete. 5

Three of the remaining letters (the consonants) are aspirated, i.e.

sounded with an h:

0 = th = ph x = kh.

Allen (Vox Graeca, pp.18 and 28) says that these sounded like the

initial t, p, k of English or German, and that ,. and 'lT sounded like t and

p in French, and K like c in "cat". However, he notes (p.29) that the

sounds of 0, <!>, x changed (perhaps from the 2nd century B.C.) to th,

f, kh (as ch in loch), and these, though later, are acceptable as practical

pronunciations for learning Classical Greek.

Three letters include a sibilant:

t (although we tend to pronounce it like dz in "adze") more probably

stood for sd as in "asdic" or "Esdras".

~ stands for ks or x, as in "sticks" or "Styx".

iii stands for ps as in "pseudo".

Of the eleven remaining letters, ~ closely resembles b,

o closely resembles d,

K closely resembles k

T closely resembles t.

4 The Greek alphabet originally had 27 letters, but 3, f ( digamma), ? ( kappa)

and q ( sampi) became obsolete although they were kept as symbols for the

numbers 6, 90 and 900 respectively.

5The nearest English equivalent is e in berry.

The remaining seven are:

Section l

'Y = g

{\ = 1

µ, = m

V =Il

1T = p

p=r

a (, at the end of a word) = s.

3

There are some Greek words which have been taken over unchanged,

except for the alphabet, into English. These include:

4JEu8w xupa.KT~P aTCyµ,u

I

KpUTTJP

KUTU<YTpocp~ 4J ,6

uxri

I

µavw

SuiyvwaLc;

cpAo~

ITup0rn!iv µ 'TJTPO'ITO/\L<; Ka0upaL<;

The following names and words from Aristotle's Metaphysics can also

now be read:

!wKpO.TTj<; 0uATJ, ilLO)'EVTjS

ITupµ,EvrnTj, ITu0uy6puc; ITAUTWV

Z~vwv cpLAoaoqiCu SwAEKTLK~

µHuciiopa UXTJfLU 0110-aupoc;

Several letters in our alphabet have no counterparts in Greek: c is

redundant, as it can always be replaced by k ors.Wis not a frequent

6

ln transliteration (i.e., changing alphabets) u often becomes yin English.


sound in Greek, and when it occurs is expressed by ou. 7 There are one

or two others, 8 the most important of which is h. The East Ionic dialect

of Greek lacked a sound corresponding to h, and the aspirate letter H

was taken over for eta (long e). When the East Ionic alphabet was

officially adopted at Athens, an arrangement was needed to indicate

vowels which are aspirated at the beginning of words, and the system

of breathin~ was adopted.

A rough breathing• is placed over a vowel which is aspirated at the

beginning of a word.

A smooth breathing ' is placed over a vowel which is not aspirated at

the beginning of a word.

Breathings are placed before capital letters.

Thus 'EMv11 (rough breathing)= Helen

and' A·yo.µ,E11vwv (smooth breathing) = Agamemnon.

Put the following into English letters

'Qp(wv

u8pa.

a.a6µ,o. ll'IT06E<JlS t 'IT'ITO'ITOTUfl,OS

~

7e.g. for the Latin v - Octavia, in Plutarch's Life of Antony, is '01naou(u.

8e.g. f and v. There were originally several different forms of the Greek alphabet.

The East Ionic alphabet replaced the old Athenian alphabet at Athens in 403 B.C.

For a brief history, see L.H. Jeffery, Archaic Greece, Methuen (1976), pp.25-6.

Section 1

Two vowels pronounced together are known as diphthongs (from the

Greek o(s (= twice) and <j>06yyos (= voice, sound). The commonest

diphthongs are:-

UL

O,U

EL

EU

OL

OU

= ai, as in high

= ow, as in cow

= ayas in day

(pronounce E and u separately)

as in "ahoy!'

= oo as in pool.

L does not usually form a diphthong with long a, 'Tl and w, but remains

silent, and is written underneath (iota subscript), as

11

Breathings are placed over the second vowel in a diphthong that

begins a word, e.g.:

Eu<J>pa-r'T]s

auToµ,u Tov

p normally has a rough breathing at the beginning of a word. What are:

5

The English equivalents of the following Greek words (most of which

have Greek endings lost in English) should now be clear:

d.pwToKpuTLU

U1T01<p( T'T]S

d1rci6ELu

UUO"T'ljpOS

d.1ro1r11.11~(a

The following names should also be recognisable:

'Avu~uyopus

'HpciKAEL TOS

'Eµ:m::001</\.'T]S

'011.uµ, 1r(o,

'ApL<TTOTEA'T]S

'fo0µ,os

9Some recent editions of classical Greek texts do not use iota subscript and have

CLL instead of 9-, 1JL instead of 1J and wL instead of '11· However, the recent Oxford

Classical Texts of volume 1 of Plato's works and of Plato's Republic have iota

subscript as do older editions and texts, which are the majority.


Some everyday things in modern Greek with names borrowed from

English:

AEf10VUOU

e

I 10

Epµ,os

e dl

UYLHV'T]

-:, ,I,' 12

OUU1TE<pLU

I

TEVVLS

, 13

CTUVTOUL'TS

Some more Greek words with English derivations:

~Loypu~[a ~LoAoy[u tx0uo>i.oy(u

iJ;uxo>i.oy(a

'

I

UUTOVOf1LU

' I 0 / 14

EVEpyua

EWpLU

Punctuation

Ancient Greek was written on papyrus, and punctuation consisted chiefly

of occasional full stops. Words were not separated, and the letters were

all capitals. The use of minuscule (small) letters came in with parchment,

as did more punctuation. Greek punctuation became standardised with

printing. The following four signs are used:-

. is a full stop , is a comma

· is a colon or semi colon ; is a question mark.

Accents

Greek accents were first written in the Great Library at Alexandr~ in

the second century B.C. They were introduced to record the melodic

10Borrowed originally from the Greek.

11Borrowed originally from the Greek (the name of a goddess).

12Borrowed originally from the Greek.

1.lvT here stands for nd.

14Means "(the act of) observing", "contemplation".

Section 1

accent of ancient Athenian speech . 15 There are three accents:

an acute ( ' ) at which the voice was raised

7

: a grave ( ' ) at which the voice was lowered

a circumflex ( ~ ) at which the voice was first

raised and then lowered.

An acute or a grave accent is found on either a short or a long vowel. 16

A circumflex is only found on a long vowel (a diphthong counts as a

single long vowel). Most Greek words have only one accent; this is on

one of the last three syllables.

(a) If the accent is on the third syllable from the end of a word, it is

acute, and the last syllable normally has a short vowel, e.g. ciµ,qil0eaTpov.

(b) An accent on the second syllable from the end may be acute or

circumflex. If this syllable has a short vowel, the accent must be acute,

e.g. ~wyEv11s- If this syllable has a long vowel or a diphthong and the

vowel in the last syllable is short, the accent is circumflex, e.g. Moucm

(a Muse).

(c) The accent on the fast syllable of a word may be acute e.g. 08~ or

circumflex e.g. 'Eµ,1rE80KATJ, . However, if a word is not followed by a

break (a full stop, question mark, colon or comma) an acute accent on

the last syllable becomes grave, e.g. TTaAAas in TTaAAas 'A0~v11 (Pallas

Athene). This is the only situation in which a grave accent is found.

15Accents in Classical Greek mark the pitch at which a sound is pronounced,

whether high or low, rather than the stress, i.e. the loudness or emphasis with

which it is pronounced. Although we know something from ancient authors and

one or two surviving inscriptions of the effect of the melodic accent on isolated

words, we know little of its effect on clause and sentence intonations in continuous

speech. See W.S. Allen, op. cit., pp.128-9.

16 ~ and o are always short, and 1J and u> are always long. a., L and u are sometimes

long and sometimes short.


Certain words ("enclitics") throw their accent forward onto the last

syllable of the word in front. Such a word is yi meaning "indeed". Two

accents may then appear on the word in front of the enclitic provided

that two acute accents do not appear on successive syllables e.g.

" h" h . d di" . ' ,h 0' I " 1- • d di" . ~ I 17

amp 1t eatre m ee . 1s u1,11L EuTpov YE, s11ape m ee .. 1s ox11flu yE.

If the word before the enclitic has an acute accent on the last syllable

but one, or it has a circumflex accent on the last syllable, the accent

from the enclitic just disappears, e.g. "philosophy indeed!" is <j>LAoCJo<j>Cu

ye and "Empedocles indeed!" is 'Ef111EooKA11s yE.

If an enclitic follows a word ending with a grave accent, the grave

accent becomes acute. "Parthenon" at the beginning of a sentence would

be TTup8Evwv, but "Parthenon indeed!" would be Hup8rnJJv yEl

It is useful to be able to recognise accents because there are a few

important situations where they affect the meaning of a word, and

these will be noted as they arise. 18

17 o-x~µu, from which the English word "scheme" comes, means "shape" or "figure"

in Greek.

18There are technical terms for words according to their accents. A word with an

acute accent on the final syllable is called oxyrone ("sharp-tone"). If an acute

occurs on the penultimate syllable, it is called paroxyrone. If an acute occurs on

the antepenultimate syllable, it is called proparoxyfone. A word with a circumflex

on the last syllable is called perispomenon ("wheeled about"). If the circumflex

occurs on the penultimate syllable, it is called properispomenon. A word with a

grave accent is called barytone ("heavy-tone").

Section 2

9

Read the following:

'Eµ:rrE001<Af\s

The Verb "I am" 2

El: you are ( singular)

fo-r({ v ):he is or she is or it is ( v is added before a vowel or at the end of

a sentence).

New words:

i&yw I

b the (masculine)

~ the (feminine)

oiJ you (singular) ("thou")

ob no, not

ou1< not ( in front of a smoQ1)1_breathing)

oux not ( in front of a IQJJgb_ breathing)

-r(.,; who?

o av6pm11:os the man.

~ apE-r~ (the) excellence, virtue

~ oo<pta (the) wisdom

(o) Ew1<p&.n1s Socrates

(o) rrTIM·n:uv Plato

(o} 'Apio0l'0'1"<Ei\.'ljS Aristotle (o) M~vwv Meno 3

(~) []E.puc,w,.,~ Perictione (Plato's mother)

1"learning by enquiry"; the English word restricts this to one field.

2Etµ,i. and fo,-i. are enclitic.

3The main interlocutor in Plato's dialogue of that name, identified with Meno the

Thessalian who led 1,500 in fan try in Cyrus' unsuccessful expedition against Persia

in 401 B.C. (Xenophon, Anabasis I, ii, 6). He was a bold commander and the first to

get his troops across the Euphrates, but is described by Xenophon (perhaps a

hostile witness) as over-ambitious and untrustworthy. According to Xenophon he

was killed after maltreatment by the Persians about a year later than the rest of

the Greek generals, who had all been captured by treachery. Xenophon does not

give his age at death but says that he was still a pretty youth, and did not have a

beard (Anabasis I, iv, 13-16 and II, vi, 21-29). Plato's dialogue is likely to have

been written about 10-15 years after the death of Meno (400) and Socrates (399).


N.B. l Greek uses "the" ( the definite article) more frequently than English;

the article is found with words like "virtue" or "wisdom" used in a

general sense, and with the names of people or places which are wellknown

or have recently been mentioned. 4

N.B.2 Greek lacks a word like "a" or "an" in English; so

for "a man".

uv0pw1roc; is used

What is the English for

1.EtµL 2.E:yw EL[J,l. 3.uv0pw1r6, EL[J,L, 4.uv0pwwS, EO"TL. 5.cru EL 6.uv0pw1TOS

9 7 ' "' , , 8 ' ,I_' , , ' 9 , ' 10 ' ' ' '

EL. ,0 bWKpUTl]S ECTTLV. ,l] <JOspLU apETTJ E<J"TLV. .TL<; E<JTLV; .OUK E<JTLV 0

'Apt<JTOTEATJ,. 11.0 MEvwv EO"TLV. 12.Tr,, EO"TLV ~ nEpLKTLOv~; 13.TC, El;

14.ouK ELµ,l o TTAO.TWV.

The complement

In sentence 8, "wisdom is" gives an incomplete meaning unless something

is added. "An excellence", which completes the meaning, is called the

complement.

Asking Questions

If a question does not begin with a question word such as "Who?", it is

customary (though not invariable) in Greek to put d.pa at the beginning.

This has no English equivalent. It simply indicates that what follows is

interrogative. (It is necessary to learn that there is a circumflex accent

with d.pa. upa (with an acute accent) means "then", "well, then", "as it

seems", and is often used in drawing an inference.)

New words:

clpa ( clp' before a vowel) ( untranslatable, prefaces a question)

dpa (up' before a vowel): then; well, then; as it seems


l .d.p' o L<.tlKpO.Tl]S El; 2.d.p' o LwKpO.Tl]S E<JTLV;

LWKpO.Tl]S.

3.uv0pw1TO<; up' E<JTLV o

4Sir David Ross, Aristotle, Metaphysics, introduction, pp. xxxix-xli, suggests that

Aristotle generally uses WKpa:r'l'), for the historical Socrates and o wKpo.T'l'), for

Socrates in the dialogues of Plato.

Section 2 11

NOUNS & DECLENSIONS

Nouns are words which name things and people; for example, "table" in

the sentence "It's a table." (They can be plural; for example, "books" in

"These are the books.") The particular names of individuals or groups

are called "proper nouns" and usually begin with a capital letter, whether

they are in English or Greek.

In English, we say "he" of male things, "she" of female things and "it" of

things which are neuter (that is, neither male nor female). (We break

this rule occasionally; for example, a ship is sometimes referred to as

"she" although it is not particularly female.) This rule does not apply in

many other languages. For example, French has no separate word for

"it", and so the French have to speak of all inanimate objects as if they

were either male or female. So, in French, a wall is always masculine

and a table is always feminine. Greek has masculine, feminine and

neuter; so the names of men and boys are classified as masculine, and

the names of girls and women are classified as feminine. 5 The names of

sexless things have grammatical gender according to their endings. So

the gender of every Greek noun has to be learned separately (though

there are some general rules for guidance). Fortunately, this can be

done quite easily by learning each noun as "the" so-and-so. (When

"the" is omitted in Greek, English often puts "a" or "an" in.)

"The" is o when it is masculine.

"The" is ~ when it is feminine.

"The" is ,-6 when it is neuter.

Declensions

Greek nouns are grouped in declensions according to their endings.

The first declension has feminine nouns ending in an a or e sound,

-u or -ri, e.g.

~ <Jo¥u

~ µ,~ALTTU (the bee)

~ apET~.

5There arc a few exceplions, e.g. Ilabrotonon the female harp player in Menander's

play Epirrepontes ("The Arbitrators") whose name is grammatically neuter.


The names of people (proper nouns) are included in declensions; so 11

TTEpLKTLov~ is in the first declension.

The first declension also has masculine nouns ending -as and 7s-:

o vrnvCa, (the young man)

o 1roACn1, (the citizen)

o r opyCa, (Gorgias of Leontini, a famous sophist) 6

The second declension has nouns ending in an o sound, -os- or -·ov.

Most of those ending -o, are masculine, but a few are feminine:

o o.v0pul1To<; 7

~ oooc; (the road)

To Epyov (the deed, the work) ( which gender?)

The third declension contains nouns with any other endings; thus, all

nouns ending -L, are in the third declension. However, it is important

to note that some names ending -ris-, and an important group of neuter

nouns ending --os- 9 are in the third declension, as are all nouns ending

11-a. (which are also neuter):

o ( or ~) 1ra'i:s ( the child) 8

To E0os (the custom) 9

~ 1roALs (the city)

To ij;Euo-µ,a ( the lie) 10

~ dKwv ( the image, likeness) 11 o lwKpaTTJ, (Socrates)

6Gorgias (c.485-c.380 B.C.) came to Athens from Leontini in Sicily as an ambassador

in 427; he stayed to become one of the most influential teachers of oratory ever.

He always denied that he taught virtue (see Meno 95 b-c, and W.K.C. Guthrie, The

Sophists (Cambridge, 1971) esp. p.271).

7 iiv8pwno, can mean simply "human being". Plato uses o iiv8p1u1ro, sometimes to

mean "mankind" (in general), e.g. at Republic X, 619b: ouTw yap eu8mµovfornTos

y[yvETm b iiv0pwno, for thus mankind becomes most fortunate (ouTw: thus, yup: for,

y[yveTm: becomes, Et>fotµovfoTaTo,: most fortunate). Very occasionally, iiv0pwno, can

be feminine, as at Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics VII, 1148b20, where it is used of a

woman of beastly nature. ~

81f masculine, "son"; if feminine, "daughter". nai, can also mean "slave"("slave

boy").

9N.B. the neuter article, To.

10N.B. the neuter article, To.

1 1cf. English "ikon".

Section 2 13

To which declension do the following belong?

1 , 'Tj ' <YO't'LU. ,.1.., 2 .o'"A VUTO<;.

12 3' .0 fl\' /\UTWV. 4' .o 1111EVWV. '°' 1 5 ·'TJ' ' 'H pa ( name of a

goddess). 6.-~ ~i'.~Aoc; (= "book", cf. English "bible"). 7. To xaolw. (English

"chasm"). 8.To cpaw6µ,Evov {English: "phenomenon"). 9.~' Acppooh'TJ {name

of a goddess). 10.o Myo,. 11.~ o6~a. 12.To "Apyo, {name of several

towns in Greece).

New words:

o Myos

~ M~a

b (i,OEA<pb<;

~ (i,OEA<P~

o ha'ipos

~ ha/.pa

I

'fl,'

'

the word, the argument

the opinion, judgement, philosophical opinion

the brother

the sister

the companion, boy or man friend

the companion, girl- or woman-friend 13

what (thing)? 14


l.o MEvwv E<YTlV o E.[J,O<; (my) haipo<;.

2.~ Ef1~ (my) u◊EA<p~ ouK E<YTLV ~ TTjc; TIEpumovTj, (Perictione's) ErnCpa.

3.<pEil· (Odear!) fLE/\LTTa fonv ev T(Jl o-0 TIETao-4-1 (in your bonnet). 15

4.1!1Eila1ui E<YTLv· ~ eµ,~ (my) o6~a uH (always) op0~ (correct) fonv.

5 " , ( ) '' , , 'JG , 0' ( ) ,

,0 YE <YO<; your 1\0yo, OUK UH op O<; correct E<YTlV.

6.dpa o uv0pw1TO', llAo.TWV E<Ynv; OUK EO'TlV. 'ApwTOTE/\Tj<; upa E<YTlV.

7,dpa o vrnvCa, foTLv o o-os (your) haipo,; ouK E<YTlV.

8 / ' C ' I ,. I' ,

.Tl EO'TlV 'T] apET'Tj; apa <YOOLU E<Ynv;

9.ELKwv Toil l1Aa,wv6, (Plato's) E<YTLV EV T1]' ArnOTJ[J,EL(.l ( in the Academy).

l0.ou1 TL (why?) aEl (always) Ernipos Toil flAaTwvos (Plato's) EL; To e11ov

(my) EBos EO'Tlv.

12Anytus, one of the prosecutors of Socrates, speaks later in the Meno.

130ften in bad sense, courtesan.

1\[c;; (who?) and,[; (what?) always have an acute accent.

1\\v: in. ,iii aiii: your. 11E-ro.a<p: bonnet. The petasus was a broad-brimmed felt hat

worn by young men to keep the sun out of their eyes. It is seen on some statues of

the god Hermes.

16N.B. the breathing is over a, and so it is pronounced u-EL.


ADJECTIVES

Many adjectives (words describing nouns) that are masculine end in -os

if feminine, they end in -a or -11

if neuter, they end in -ov.

a:ya06s (masc.)

KaK6s (masc.)

KaMs (masc.)

<jitAos (masc.)

o-oqios (masc.)

<'iAAos (masc.)

hepos (masc.)

µcu<pos (masc.)

d:ya0{i (fem.)

1eaK~ (fem.)

cmA{i (fem,)

¥11.11 (fem.)

croqi{i (fem.)

a:xx11 (fem.)

hepa (fem.)

µaKpct (fem.)

d:ya06v (neut.): good

Kadv (neut.): bad, evil

KaMv (neut.): beautiful, fine,

noble, good

cj>(Aov (neut.): friendly, dear

aoqiov (neut.): wise

aAAo 17 (neut.): other, another

hepov (neut.): the other 18

µmcp6v (neut.): long.

aAAos ... all.Ao<; ... means one ... another ...

a.A.Ao, a.v0pumoc; o:yu0os EO'TlV, uAAos KUKOS one man is good, another bad.

Many adjectives formed from abstract nouns end -LKos, -uz{i, -LKov,

e.g. 'lfoAL-ru<os (masc.) 'IT0Av1w{i (fem.) TioAL-rLccov{neut.)

meaning "living in," or "to do with a city". 19

Some adjectives are formed out of two other words, e.g.

q>LMcroqios, meaning "loving wisdom, philosophic"

is formed from <j>[Aos and ao<j>os. Many adjectives of this kind do not

have a separate ending for the feminine, which is like the masculine.

They are "two termination" adjectives. So,

the philosophical companion (masculine) is b q>LA.oao<j>o<; ha1,pos ~

the philosophical companion (feminine) is ~ q>LA6o-o<j>o, ETULpa.

17Note that the neuter singular of iiAAos ends -o (like the definite article), not -ov.

18The alternative, where there are two possibilities.

19From the noun ~ iroALs, which means "city" in the abstract sense, political

community, rather than bricks and mortar.

Section 2 15

Adjectives can take the place of nouns; so <j>D,os: a friend (who is a

man), and <j>U111: a friend (who is a woman), cl.yu06v: an advantage (a

good thing), Km<oy: a disadvantage, misfortune (a bad thing). <j>LMao<j>os

can mean "philosopher".

The word order in Greek is often like English, e.g.

b 1mMs 1T0Ah11s: the noble citizen.

An alternative order in Greek is:

o 'IToAt-.•ris o Ka.Ms ( ="the citizen the noble"): the noble citizen.

It is possible to leave out "is" or "are" if the adjective comes in Greek

before the noun it describes

e.g. KaMs o Tiol,tT11s: noble (is) the citizen = the citizen is noble.

KaK~ ~ ooos: bad (is) the road= the road is bad.


l.o o:ya8os q)C.\os. 2.~ o:ya6~ UOEAq>~. 3. ~ KUK~ 000<;. 4. TO ETEpov Epyov. 5.

aAAo (0ov. (TO l0ov: the animal) 6.KUKO', Myos. 7. ~

op8~ (correct) oo~u (cf.

English orthodox). 8. ~ oo~u ~ ETEpa (cf. English heterodox). 9. To uyu8ov

Epyov. 10. dp' o MEvwv <pLAoao<pos J.am; 11. <pLAoao<pos o flAuTWv. 12. dpu

c!>LA.oaocpos fonv ~ TTEpLKTLov~;

ovoµ,u OLOUCJKUALKOV Tl E<JTLV opyuvov: a noun is an instrnment for

teaching(Plato, Cratylus 388bl3).

TO ovoµ,u: the noun, the name. TO opyuvov: the instrument. OLOU<YKClALKO<;: to do with

leaching.

TL (enclitic): a certain (neuter) used here for the English "a" . The acute accent is

from ECJTLV, which is also enclitic (seep. 8).

PLURALS

"The" (masculine plural) is ot

"The" (feminine plural) is a.t

"The" (neuter plural) is ,-&,


First and second declensions

The plural endings -ot, -a.L and -a are also used for nouns and adjectives.

First declension nouns ending -a, -119 -us or -'YJs have plurals ending -uL;

so µ~vrTaL: "bees", apETut: "virtues" or "excellences"' veavtm: "young

men" and 1ioA1,•m1.: "citizens".

Second declension nouns ending -os have plurals ending -oL; so M-yoL:

"words" and boot: "roads". Nouns ending -ov (second declension) have

plurals in -a, e.g. ep-ya: "deeds".

The plurals of the adjectives we have met end (like "the") in -oL for

masculines, -m for feminines and -a for neuters

.Examples: Nouns and adjectives

al rnAul d.8e>..4>at: the beautiful (or noble) sisters

ot rmAol 'lfo/\1,mL: the noble citizens

at KaKal boot: the bad roads

ot Kil.Kol M-yot: the bad arguments

'l'a. Ka.Ka. i;p-ya: the bad deeds.


l.ot ciya8ol, ETULpoL. 2.Tct lfpya Tct Ka.Ka. 3.aL KUAUL o◊ol. 4.a1. <l>LA.baoq>oL

U◊EA.<paC. 5.01, 1TO/\LTUL OL KUKOl. 6.01. qiCAoC. 7 .at <pl-AUL. 8.o KUKO<; Myos.

Third declension

Masculine and feminine plurals end -e,, and neuter plurals end -u.

The plural of o 'iims is ol 'ITa'i8es

The plural of ~ EtKwv is al. etKovE,;

The plural of To lj,euaµo. is -rct. t/,efoµaTo,

The plural of To e6os is Ta. e&ij. This is because the plural of 3rd

declension nouns ending -os was at one time -wa but a was dropped

and so the ending became -ea which contracted to 11• All 3rd declension

neuter nouns ending -os (there are many) have plurals ending 11•

The plural of ~ 'IT<>ALs is at 'ii<>AeLs. This ending is a contraction of -w,.

Most (but not all) 3rd declension nouns ending ~t, in the singular have

plural endings in EL,.

Whal is the English for

Section 2 17

Lat 1<a/\al 1TO/\ElS. 2..11 Ka/,~ 1TO/\l<;. 3.~ uya0~ ElKWV. 4.aL ElKOVE<; aL

uya0aL 5.TO ETEpov ijJEUO"flU. 6.TO. a/\/\a ij!Eucrµma. 7.oL t(Ul(Ql 1Tal◊E',.

1<aKUl

'

'lTUlOE',.

-<' o -'•'TJ ' KUK'T] . ' 'll"Ul<;. - 10 .Ol ' 'll"UlOE<; -,;, Ol ' aya ' 0 Ol. '

8.aL

New words:

foµ,h: we are

&a-re : you are

ELo{(v): they arc

~µ,as: we

-&µ,a,: you (plura.1) 20

E1.µ,(,, EcrTL(v), foµ,ev, Ea-TE and El.cr((v) are usually enclltic, i.e., their

accents are transferred to the last syilable of the word in front; however,

if their first syllables are accented, they become emphatic, e.g., fon( v)

means not just he, she, it is but he, she, it exists, really is.

ouK fonv: i{ really isn't (Plato, Meno 76e6). 21


1 ·TJfLEl', ' - Ka/\Ol \ ' EO-fl,EV. ' 2 .•. upa • uµ,u, ' - <1MlOl k'' EaTE; ' ' 3 .EO-fl,EV. ' ' 4 .Ol ' TfO/\l ,- TUl ,,)l/\Ol

~ ''

ElO-lV. ' 5 . Ul ' UOE/l't'Ul '"' '..k ' l{U/\Ul ' ' ElOTV. ' 6 .Ol ' 'lTUlOE<; _,, l(Ql(Ol ' OUK " ElO-lV. ' ' '7 .uyu ' 0 Ol '

' 8 ' ", t ' - 22 \ , , 9 ,, k \ ,

EO-TE; .Ul ..k ,, ] 0 ' '" ,

00<,Ul 'T]fLWV l<U/\Ul ElO-lV. .EO-f1EV <1MlOO-O,vOl upa. .Ul OOOl

, , 11 ' ' , ' 0' ' 12. ' ,k \ ..k' ' 8' ' 23

EWlV Kal<Ul. ·TJ ElKWV uyu 'l] ECTTlV. ,'T] 't,l/\00-0,ylU uyu ov ECTTlV.

13.uv0pw-rro<; <pUCTEl (by nature) 1TO/\lTlKOV (ql6v (animal) E.CTTlV. (Aristotle,

Polifics, I 253a3).

14.fonv o0v (therefore) Tpay((lOLu (tragedy) µ,Lfl,'T]O-l<; (imitation) 1TpCL~EWS

o--rrou8u(u, (of a serious action). (Aristotle, Poetics, 1449b24).

15.(concerning boastful people) ◊lo

(wherefore) rnt (also) E1.o-tv ot 1rnA11ol.

(the majority, literally the many) uuTwv (of them) 0puo-u8nAol (impudentcowards).

( Aristotle, Nicomachaean rt hies, 1 l 15b32).

20111-1.E'ic; and UiJ,E'ic; are left out if they are not stressed. e.g. EO"iJ,EV = "we are", but 111-1.ecc;

EcrµEv = 11 V\1e are 11 •

21The accents are, of course, due to scribes and editors. Plato didn't write them.

In our convention, we write o 2MKpo.T1JS J.cmv iiv0pw'!Tos (Socrates is a man), but o

2AnKpO.T1Jc; ECTTLv (Socrates exists). But see M.F. Burnycat, Apology 3Gb, 2-4, Journal of

Hellenic Studies (2003) pp.1-25, esp.p.21 para.2 for a more advanced discussion.


We can tabulate the declensions as follows:

First declension

Singular ~ -rpaw8La

(the tragedy)

Plural at -rpayl!l8taL

(the tragedies)

Second declension

Singular o Myos

(the word)

Plural ol MyoL

(the words)

Third declension

Singular

' ~

O 'lfllLS 'lj ' ELKWV ' '

(the child)

Plural

(the picture)

~ 1UkX4>~

(the sister)

al d.8eAtj>at

(the sisters)

~ oMs

(the road)

at o8ot

(the roads)

~ 'li"◊AlS

o 'lfOAt'l''ljS

(the citizen)

ol 'ITOAL'iaL

(the citizens)

-ro Epyov

(the deed)

-ra. Epya

(the deeds)

-ro t\,euo-µa

-ro i[0os

(the city) (the lie) (the habit, custom)

al 'lf◊AELS -ro, tp<Eucrµa'Ta -ra. i[8rj

0

(the children) (the pictures) (the cities) (the lies) (the habits, customs)

Remember:

( 1) First declension nouns have a or TJ in their endings.

Feminine first declension singular nouns end in a or TJ·

Masculine first declension singular nouns end in a, or TJ,.

All first declension plurals end in at.

There are no neuter first declension nouns.

(2) Second declension nouns have o in their endings.

Masculine and feminine second declension singular nouns end in o,.

Masculine and feminine second declension plural nouns end in ot.

Neuter second declension singular nouns end in ov.

Neuter second declension plural nouns end in a.

ifif-

(3) AJ/ nouns with other endings are in the third declension.

Neuter nouns ending [La and o, are in the third declension.

Masculine and feminine third declension plural nouns end E,.

(The plural of nouns like 1To/\l<; is only an apparent exception: 1T0Aw; stands for

1!0/\EE<;.)

(4) All neuter plurals end in u. Plurals like EBTj are an apparent

exception. rn11 stands for ,WE(o)a.

Section 3

19

We have two kinds of expression in speech about reality ... nouns (ov6 1 mTCl) and

verbs ([n'uwTC1) ... the expression for actions we call "verb" ... and the mark of

speech placed upon the doers of actions is "noun" .. .if anyone were to say "is

walking", "is running" or "is sleeping", even if he were to say all such words one

after another, he would not make a sentence (A6yo,) ... nor again if he were to say

"lion," "stag," "horse" and all the names of the doers of actions would this

continuous series constitute a sentence ... The most elementary sentence is made

by fitting together a noun and a verb .... When someone says /iv8pw1To<; µ,av8a.vEL "(a)

man is learning", do you say that this is the shortest and most elementary

sentence? Yes, indeed. (Plato, Sophist 261e-262d). 1

SUBJECTS AND VERBS - VERB ENDINGS

Sentences are statements about someone or something. They can be

split up into subjects and predicates. In the sentence

Socrates spoke

'Socrates' is the subject. He is what the sentence is about. 2

The word 'spoke' is the predicate. H tells us something about Socrates,

i.e. that he spoke. A predicate can also contain an object, e.g. what

Socrates said.

Verbs describe what a subject is doing, has done or will do, or what is

being done to the subject, or has been done or will be done to the

subject. E.g. in "Socrates speaks", "speaks" is a verb. So is "spoke" in

"Socrates spoke", and "will speak" in "Socrates will speak". So is "is

written" in "it is written" (where "it" is the subject); and so is "was

written" in "it was written", and "will be written" in "it will be written".

If the subject is "I" or "we", the verb is said to be in the fir.st person.

If the subject is "you", the verb is said to be in the second person.

If the subject is "he"," she"," it" or" they", the verb is said to he in the

third person.

1for grammatical expressions Plato would have had to use words with other,

more general meanings. For To ovoµ,a ( the name) used to mean the noun, see p.15

above. To p-ijµ,a (plural, Ta p~µ,aTC1) means (spoken)word, saying and is used by

Plato and later by Aristotle to mean verb (see Liddell &Scott, Greek-English Lexicon

(9th ed.), p.1569). I have followed Campbell's edition of The Sophist in translating

Myos in this passage as "sentence".

2A clause is a group of words with a subject and predicate, containing a verb. It

does not necessarily constitute a sentence by itself, e.g. "when I was young". A

phrase is a group of words not containing a verb.


In Greek, the person that a verb is in is indicated by the ending. Greek

needs three singular and three plural endings for active verbs in the

present tense, i.e. that say what a subject is doing at the present time.

These are

-w I

-ev, you (singular, i.e. one person), thou

-EL he, she, it

-oµ.ev we

-eTE you (plural, i.e. more than one person), ye

-oucn(v) they

The model for most Greek verbs is Auw (I loose), as follows

Auw I am loosing 11.uoµ.1cv we are loosing

AuEts you are loosing (singular) AuETE you are loosing (plural)

AuEL he or she or it 11.uoucn(v) they are loosing

is loosing

More examples:

Myw. I am saying apxl!l. I am in charge

,,

Mylli you are saying a.p)(<H'- you are in charge

(singular)

(singular)

Myg_ he or she or it a.p)(EL he or she or it is

is saying

in charge

AE)'_Qj,!,EV we are saying iip}{Q!,!@!. we are in charge

11.EYETE you are saying a.p)(ETE you arc in charge (plural)

(plural)

(plural)

Myouo-L(v) they are upxouo-L( V l they are in charge

saying

Most Greek active (i.e. "doing") verbs follow this pattern in the preseij:t

tense.

What is £he English for

1.Aeyoµ,Ev. 2.Aeyw,. 3)eyec. 4.AEyn; 5.ou /\EyEL. 6.o TTA.o.TWV AEyu. 7.TL

Aeyoucnv; 8.01, Aeyouow. 9.TLS AEyEL; 10.ot uv0pw'TfOL AEyoucm. 1 l.ou

AEyETE. 12.oL ~LAOL a.pxoucnv. 13.iip' Ul ~LA.UL upxouow; 14.apxoµ.Ev. 15.ouK

ClPXOfJ-,EV.

Section 3

21

N.B. (l)Notice that although AEyoucrcv means "they are speaking", oL a.v0pwTroc

1,Eyouou means "the men are speaking", not "the men, they are speaking".

N.B.(2) I'n English we sometimes use "I say" or "I do say" as well as "I am saying" to

describe what I am doing. Greek uses simply Myw for all three. 11.\ya, means "you

say" and "you do say," as well as "you are saying"; and so on. Essentially, the

present is a continuous tense in Greek, and this is expressed in English most

nearly by" I am saying". (See also the appendix Voice, Mood, Tense and Aspect.)

N.B. (3) As with foTc (p.9), when verbs end "L, vis often added if the next word

begins with a vowel or if they are at the end of a sentence.

N.B. ( 4) Greek verbs often cover a wider range of meanings than English ones;

Aeyw means "I am speaking", "I am speaking of", "I am mentioning" and "I am

defining".

New words:

d.Koow I hear, I am listening

yvyvlilmcro I am getting to know, am perceiving

outcpepw I am different from, I am the superior of

8uiqi~pEL it makes a difference, it is important

01.Mmcw I am teaching

e0~i\oo (occasionally 0D,w) I am willing

µ.av06.voo I am learning, I understand

'lfattw I am playing, acting like a child

qi~pw I am bringing

<I.et always

µ.~11 000 S~ ,oo on the one hand ... on the other hand ...

Adjectives Used as Nouns

The article "the" with a plural can indicate a class of things or people,

as in the English "in general". Just as o cj>ti\os can mean "the friendly

man", i.e. "the friend", without o'.v0pw·,ms, so ot <j>ti\oL can mean "friends"

(in general), and ot rmKoL can mean "evildoers" (as a class).


Word order

In English we normally put the subject before the verb; e.g. we normally

say "the man is in charge", rather than "is in charge the man". However,

the word order is not as important as the endings for deciding the

meaning in Greek. b av0pw'lfOS Uf))(<H and O.p)(EL o av0pw1oos both mean

"the man is in charge". Word order does, of course, affect the emphasis.

The first word or phrase in a sentence is usually emphasised.

What is t11e English for

l:y1yvw<JKO[LEV. 2.aKOUEL<;. 3.1ral(ETE. 4.µ.uv0avouu1v; 5.TlS CLKOUEL; 6.Ul<OUEL 0

&v0pw'TrOS. 7.ot 1TO/l.t,TUL upxou<JL TWV oou/1.wv (of the slaves). 8.oUK &pxoµ,Ev.

9.cl.p' OUK upxm; 10.ot uo<jiol ClEl µ,uv0avELV (tolearn) rnEAouo·1v. 11.o µ.Ev

<ji1A6uo<jios AEyEL, ot OE 1To/l.irn1 o,Kououu1v. 12.cl.pu ot 110.lOES ouK o.Kououu1v;

OU ow<jiEpEL.

•w verbs and •µ,i verbs

In most Greek verbs, the 1st person singular (the "I" form) of the

present active tense ends -w. However, we have already met one verb

(Etµ,1 I am) which is different. Verbs where the 1st person singular

present active ends -µ,1 are fewer but frequent ( especially <ji11µ,C in Plato).

In -µ.1 verbs, the other endings are similar to the other endings of -w

verbs, but often shorter by a vowel. Compare

M:yw

/1.eyiets

Mye1

M-yoµ,ev

Myerie

M110UO"L

I am saying, I say o/Yll1'- I am affirming, I affirm,

say "yes", say so.

you say (singular) <!>~s you affirm (singular)

he, she, it says <!>110-r. he, she, it affirms

we say

<!>u~,evwe affirm

you say (plural) <!>o:re you affirm

they say 4>ao{ they affirm

fg

<Jn1µ,[, ~J11cr[(v), cpuµ,Ev, cpuTE and cpucr[(v) are enclitic (see p.8), e.g.

w, c\i11cr1 MEvrnv ("as Meno affirms") (Meno 78d2). (ws: as)

cp~, keeps its acute accent when last word in a sentence, and otherwise has a

grave accent.

The endings are

•(J) I -µ,t

Section 3 23

·ElS you (singular) -s you (singular)

-e~ he, she, it -o·t(v) he, she, it

-oµ.ev we -µ,ev we

-ere you (plural) •TE you (plural)

•OU01. they •(L(YL they.

If we call 11.ey- ( = "say") the stem of Myoµ,ev, then o, which separates

Aey from µ,ev is called the thematic vowel. This is lacking in the present

tense of -µ,L verbs, for which reason they are called "athematic verbs"

(a- is the Greek prefix equivalent to the English "-un").

The stem of <p'T]µ,(, is qia-. -µ,L verbs have a long vowel ( 'TJ in <l>wO in the

singular and a short one ( a in q>wO in the plural. Compare a:rro/\Au1.1L (I

destroy) (the sign -above a vowel indicates that it is long)

111,0/\/\Ujl,L

&11611.i\iis

a 116i\i\ U(YL

d.110AAuµ,<Ev

&110AAuTe

I am destroying, I destroy

you are destroying (singular)

he, she, it is destroying

we are destroying

you are destroying

d:rroAA{mcrL they are destroying.

Write out the present tense, with meanings, of

<pEpw ◊EL1<vuµ,L (I show) 3


l ,l._ I 2 ~ I 3 S ,l._ / 4,1.. \ ' "' / 5) / ' "8

•'J''TJUl. --'jlUO"l. .upa '!'UTE; •'f''TJO"lV O £.WKPUT'TJS- .UKOUOUO-lV OL av pw'ITOL.

6.oL 'ITO/\/\Ol, (the majority) qiacr[. 7.d-rro/\Auµ.ev. 8.oL KUKOl O.'ITO/\/\UUO"L T~V

1ro/\Lv (the city). 9. dp' o I:w1<pa.T'TJS 8wqi8dpn (8wcp8e[pw I corrupt) Tous

vfous ( the young men); 10. oL µ,e.v 1roA'irnL (pucr1,v, o Se. TTAa.Twv ou q>'T]O-L. I I.

ot <pL/\OL dyu0u (good things) <pEpoucTL.

3The present tense of oE(KvuµL is like d.1r6ti.AuµL.


PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Although it is necessary to use the correct verb ending to show whether

the subject is "I", "you", "he, she, it", "we" or "they", Greek also has

separate words for "I", "you", etc., which are often used for emphasis,

e.g. eyw A~yw I say. Such words, which are used to take the place of

nouns, are called pronouns. In English, instead of saying "the man is

reading the book", we could say "he is reading it".

i I

UUTOS

aurfi

i I

UUTO

you (singular)

he

she

it

~µ,as

uµ,E:1.s

1 I

(:WTOL

1 I

O.U'l'UI,

1 I

<WW,

we

you (plural)

they (masculine word subjects)

they (feminine word subjects)

they (neuter word subjects)


l.~µ,EtS AE-yoµ,ev, Ufl,EL<; UKOUETE. 2.iyw µ,av0avw, (Tl) 1ra((EL,.

3.o :EwKpaT11, AEYEL, ~fl-ELS UKOUOfLEV.

4.dpa ~ o8os KUK~ fon;

5 , ,,:, \ I , 4 ,J,. , , \, , , ,, ,J,. ., , ,,;,, , , e, ,

·11 UUE/\011 µ,ou ~,11<YL n /\E'YEL CLUT11; OU '!'11CTLV OTL 11 ouos ECTTL aya 11· TL

MyeTE uµ,et,; (ou cp1Jf1( I deny or I say that ... nol ... )

6.~µ,EL', fLEV Myoµ,Ev, uµ,ELS 8E KU0Eu8ETE (are asleep)· OUK UKOUETE apa.

7.oiJ 8w<pEpEL. 8.oiJK E0EAOfl,EV µ,av0avELv ( to learn) rnurn (that).

In Greek, when a pronoun specifically represents a noun that is

grammatically masculine or feminine, the corresponding pronoun will

be masculine or feminine to match, even though the English pronoun is

"it". E.g. if we use "it" to stand for "word", in Greek we use o.uTos

because the Greek for "the word" is o Myos (which is masculine). If we

use "it" to stand for "book", we use m'irfi, because the Greek for "the

book" is ~ ~t~Aos. €f

4

11ou =my. oTL =that (as in "I say that...").

Further uses for aii-.6,

1. For emphasis:

As well as meaning "he, she, it",

Section 3 25

o.uTos 9 auT'q 9 uuT6 can be used to mean

"himself', "hersetf" or "itself", when emphasising a particular noun.

For instance, the Greek for

Socrates himself is listening

is

auTos o Iw1tpciT1)S &1eo-61ei or o Iw1<prtTTJS 11,u'fos u1wi>H,

Similarly, the Greek for "my sister herself' is 71 a3El,4>~ µ,ou aur-q or uu.-71

~ a81eAq>~ µ,ou. (µ,ou (enclitic) my, of me.) "Excellence itself' is o,ih7] 7l

dpE~ or ~ aper~ llirHJ, and "the road itself" is ~ oMs a.o·r~ or a.\)'o'~ 71 086!,.

"The deed (or the work) itself' is r,·o <Epyov au,.6 or a.u'io 'fo <Epyov.

If the subject of the verb is "I" or "you" (singular), mhos or au ... ~ means

"I myself' or "you yourself'; if the verb is 1st or 2nd person plural,

aoTot or ao•rat mean "we ourselves" or "you yourselves", e.g.

a.uTot ( or au-ro.t) a.pxoµ,1ev we ourselves are in charge

auwt (or ab·ml) 11..fyETE you yourselves say.


1 .UU'fOS ' ' O ' M' EVWV 2 .O ~ 1TOI\LT11', \' UUTO',. ' ' 3 .UUT11 ' ' 11 c 0-0,f'lU• .-k.' 4 •11 ~ 000<; cc-' UUT11, ' ' J.aUTO r ' '

\ ,, 6 ? \ \ ?I 7 f ,.j I\ \ 7 I () l \ C \ ,/

TO Epyov. .UUTa TU Epyu. .OL 'l)L/\OL UUTOL. o.O.UTOL OL I\OYOL.

9 ' '~ ' , , 10 , \ ' , I, \ ,.k , 11 , \ ' 1i]\ , ,, j "l , \

.UL OUOL UUTUL. .UUTUL UL UUE/\'t'UL. ,UUTO<; 0 A /IUTWV O.flXEL. .1... UUTUl

' '1, '~ ' 'Y l '1 ' 0 ' ( J · d ) ' ' ' " 5 .l..'

UL UUE/\,,)UL 'lTULi,,OUO-LV. ,J,OL [W 11TUL t Je SW ents UUTOL TU Epyu 'l'EflOUO-L.

I A , ' ' ,, ( ) ,l..,

"1. UUTOS TU Epya µ.ou my 't'Epw.

2. "The same":

The Greek for "the same man" is o a.u-ros (av0pw'ITos}.

"The same excellence" is ~ a.u'l'Y) a.pE~.

"The same deed" is 1·0 uilTo lpyov.

In other words, o.uTos preceded by the definite article, ( b o,u-r6s) has a

different meaning from uu~·6s not preceded by the article.

5 Although ifpyu is plural,we should translate it as "work", which in English can

be a collective noun.


More examples:

b atiTos Myos the same word

au,-os b Myos or b Myos auTos the word itself

~ au'TTJ ,-po:yl\lof.a the same tragedy

au1'TJ ~ ~·pay<!lo'-a or~ Tpayl\lotu auTIJ the tragedy itself.

N.B. especially ,-a, au,-u the same things6.

Notice the difference between-

<> o.tiTos 1r0Aln1s and b 1T0Ah11s a.u-.os

~ o.u'TTJ boos and o.u'TTJ ~ boos

TO UUTO epyov and atJTO 'TO epyov,

New words:

b µ,a0.fi-r11s the student

b ao</>un~s the sophist.


1 ' ' ' ',;,' 2 ' ' ' ,V\ 3 ' ' ' " 4 ' ,,;, \ ,I, ' ' ' ' "

·11 UUT'T] ooos. .0 UUTOS 't'l/\0',. .TO UUTO Epyov. .Ol CWE/\'t'Ol TU UUTU Epyo.

1T0Louo-L (are doing).

5 ' ' ' ,,;, \,.1.. ' ' ,t A

.Ol UUTOL 0.0El\'t'Ol TU Epya 1TOLOUO-l.

6 ' '~ \ k' ' ' ' " A

.Ol UOEIH1,0L UUTOL TU Ep')IU 1TOLOUO-l.

7 .Ol ' UOEl\'t'Ol '~ \ ,k ' TU ' UUTU , 1\Eyouo-L. \ ,

8. Tl <p'Tj<Tl V b 0-0<pl<YT~S; 7

9.Tl <pUTE aurnC, UOE/\<puC;

lo ' 8 \, ' , ' , , ,

.µ,aKpos /\Oyos EO-Tl V. UUTUL OUK UKOUO[J,EV.

11 ~ \ .-k ' ' \ \' ~ ~\ 0 I ' ? I

.O [J,EV 0-0't,LO-TTjS UUTOS /\EYEL, Ol OE µ,a 'YJTUL OUK O.KOUOUO"LV.

6Ta. auTa. can be shortened to rnuTa.. ' is not a breathing, for it is not at the

beginning of the word. It is used here as a crasis mark ( ~ Kpiicrl,, from KEpa.vvuµl, I

mix, means "mixture") to show where two words have been run together.

'Derived from croq,,tw, I make wise ( croq,6,), o ao<plcrT~, originally meant "exi,ert",

and later "teacher", especially professional teacher of rhetoric, but is frequently

used in philosophical writing, especially Plato, to mean "sophist", which has a

hint of "mountebank", because Plato disapproved of teaching for money, and

presumably because at least some of the sophists, who travelled from city to city

in 5 thcenturyGreece, were among thosewhomSocratesshowed tobe moreignoran t

than he was, because they were ignorant of their own ignorance (Plato, Apology,

21b - 23b, esp. Zlc). However, not all sophists were mountebanks. Gorgias and

Protagoras were eminent thinkers and Plato treats them with respect (see W.K.C.

Guthrie, The Sophists, p.3 and, for Protagoras, p.265).

8µaKpo, .\6yos can for obvious reasons mean "rigmarole".

Section 3 27

,,., 1 \ ~ J.. \ \ ' \ \ I

12.apa UEL O 0-0,yWT'Tj', TU {WTU IIeyEL;

? \ ~

13

J \ ~ \ \ ' \ \ I \ e ? \ 0 ,._,

,UUTO<; 0 (JO~)LO-T'T]S UEL TU UUTU ,u,yEL, !(UL 'T][lELS UEL 1(0, EUOO[LEV (are

asleep).

· 14.0DK cipa f10.V0UVETE.

Neuter Plural Subjects

Subjects and verbs regularly "agree" in Greek; i.e., if the subject is a

plural noun such as ot dv0pw1To1, the 3rd person plural form of the verb

(the "they" form) is used. So "the men are in charge" is, in Greek,

av0pw1ro1 apxou<:n. This corresponds with English usage; we say "the man

is in charge" as we say "he is in charge", a.,d we say "the men are in

charge" as we say "they are in charge".

However, there is one rather curious exception in Greek. When the

subject is neuter plural, the verb is normally singular. The effect is

rather like saying "things is" in English. So,

ol

-rct. <lipya ,fort 1rnKa

the deeds are evil.

New words:.

8u1 -rt why? (literally, "because of what?)

o-r1 (i) that (e.g., "I say that... " 9 or "I know that ...")

(ii) because

P48LOS9 pq,otu,9 p«?,OLOV easy

xo.A1c1r6, 9 xuAE'IT~ 9 xoJI.E'll'ov difficult, dangerous


I.Ta Epyo. EcrTlV Kall.a. 2.rnAa TU /!pya. 3.ot TfUlOE.<; 11aCtouo-Lv. 4.Ta Epya

xo.AETIU ECTTLV. 5.ot 1TUl0£S oii -;TOLOUO-lV (1TOLW I do) xaArna /tpya. 6.dpa

'ITOLOUO-lV ot µ,a0~TG.L Epya xaArno,; '7 .~TILOL ( kind) civ0pw'IT0l cipxouo-L TWV

'ITO.LOWV (of the children). 8.-ra Epyo. O.El. p4ow EO"TLV, 9.oUK ad 'ITOLOU(JL Ta

UUTCL epya. 10.0La Tl OUK O.KOUOU(JLV OL µ,a0~Tm; 11.Eyouo-LV OTL ( that) OL

,.k_l , \ \ , \ \ I

ao't'Lo-TUL (LEl TCL O.UTU /IE')IOUO-L V,

9Used very frequently after Myw, and only rarely with q,11µ[ 1 e.g., Plato, Gorgias

487d5-6, on YE oto, El 11app1jrrLci(w8m, m'nos qi~, that you are indeed such a man as

to speak freely, you yourself say ( oios, ofo, oiov: such as, 11app1jrrLutw8m: to speak

freely.)


11.o.KouELv ( to listen) ouK E8EAoµ,EV, AE-youo-LV.

12 .0• fl,EV , k<WKPO.T11S ._.. , OU ' uL00.0-KEl "' ~' O ' uE ~' "A VUTO<; ·" 't''IJO-l ' TOUTO ~ (th' IS )

0

13.ct.po. OlOO.KTov 10 ~ o.pET~; (Plato, Meno70al-2)

, , , , ~ , , , , ~ , 11 , 12 ~ , ,

14.(Our perceptions) OU AE'YOUO'l TO UlO. n 'ITEpl OUUEVOS, owv UlO. n

~ 13 (' ) ,, , , 14 , ,, G , 1s r, ) (A . l

0Epµ,ov TO 'lTUP EO-TlV 0./1/\0, [LOVOV on Epµ,ov \EO'Tl O nstot e,

Metaphysics,981b 12-13)

A , 16 , H , \ 17 ,, , 18 ~ 19 , , ~, , 20( Pl

}5. eyH 'ITOU po.KIIHTOS OTl 1TO.VTO. XWPH Ko.l OUOEV fl,EVH. atO,

Cratylus 402a8-9)

16 .ooo, '"'' o.vw " 21 Ko.Tw , µ,w , 22 Km ' 11 ' o.UT1J , , (, Eanv ) . ( H erac 1· nus, f ragment 60 .)23

10 a thing that can be taught.

11 Putting To ( the) before oLu T~ makes it a noun. To oLu T(: the (reason) why. 1rEpt

ouoEv6,: about anything.

12olov: such as.

1\0 1riip: (3rd declension): fire (cf. English "pyrotechnics" =fireworks).

1\i>.M: but. µ,6vov: only.

H'1rou:presumably, of course.

17Heracleitus of Ephesus, c. SOOB.C., one of the most distinguished Presocratics.

181ra.vTu: all things. NB,1Ta.vTa is neuter plural.

1\wpisw: I go, am in movement. xwpEw can also mean I give way, make room for.

Kirk, Raven & Schofield ( The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1983,

p.195) translate xoipa as "are in process".

20ou8Ev: nothing. 11Evw: I stay still, wait, remain.

21 /ivw: upwards. Ko.Tw: downwards.

22µ,(a.: (fern.): one.

nln the original (Ionic) dialect: ooos avw Ko.Tw µ,tu 1<at wuT~- (See p.40)

Section 3 29


1.<pEpw;. 2.upxETE. 3.0l◊UO"KOUO"l. 4.<pU[l,EV. 5,E.')'W chroA/\U[J,l, 6.TL OELKVUS

~µ,[v ( lo us); 7.TL. cp11ai'.; 8.TL <j>ao{; 9.TL o.KoUETE; 10.Myw oTl <pLl,os ECTTL

11.o.KouEL<; oTl cpf.Aol dal; 12.AEyEL OTl TO uvw rnl, To KUTW EO"Tl To auTo.

13.Tt.<; cp11af.; 14.aihos o 'HpaKAElTOS cp11af.. 15.~µ,ELS 0.1(0\JO[l,EV. 16.a.uw, o

uv0pw-rros upxu. 17.o O.UTOS uv0pw1rns upxu. 18.aUTOl apxoµ,Ev. 19.uµ,EL<;

upxETE. 20.~ UUT~ 000',. 21. Tl.S chroA/\UO"l T~V 'ITO/\lV (the cily); 22.oucc

d.1TO/\/\Uf-l,EV UUT~V {it). 23.ot Ex0pol, ( the enemy) 0.1TO/\/\UUO"lV UUT~V (ii). 24.Ta

/ipya OU xa.Arnu EO"Tl. 25.apa TO iipyov KU/\OV EO"Tl; 26.~[J,ELS OU /\Eyoµ.Ev OTl

aya. ' 0' ov EO"TL ' 2 ~ '7 ·11f-l-ELS ' ~ ou " ,k 't'aµ,Ev. 28 . .up ' ' Eanv ' op ' 011 ' ( correct ) 11 ' oo.;a "'r

aov

(your); 29.ot fLEv aocpwrnc <paaf.v, ot OE µ,a0~rnl ou 'fflO"TEuouaw ( believe in,

trust) UUTOL<; (them). 30.ou1 Tl O.El µ,ovos (alone) op0oc; (correct) EL; OlU<pEpw

j /

qw.

30

Section 4

THE OBJECT

A subject and verb may make complete sense by themselves, e.g. The

sun is rising. Such a verb is called intransitive. On the other hand,

many verbs are transitive; that is, to complete the meaning of the

sentence they need some expression to indicate what their action affects

directly, e.g. know in I know a bank where the wild thyme blows . In

this sentence, a bank is directly affected by the verb know, which is

transitive. A bank is the object of know.

When a noun is used as an object in Greek, the ending shows this.

(Neuter nouns are an exception.) In the first and second declension,

masculine and feminine nouns used to denote singular objects end -v,

and those used to denote plural objects end -s-. In the third declension,

masculine and feminine nouns used to denote singular objects regularly

end-a, and plural objects regularly end -u,. Second and third declension

neuter plural accusatives regularly end -a.

In simple sentences, nouns denoting subjects are said to be in the

nominative case, 1 and nouns denoting objects in the accusative case.

With neuter nouns, the endings of the nominative and accusative cases

are the same. Since the object expresses what a subject is doing, did or

will do, it can be a noun; e.g. "Euripides is writing a tragedy", "you see

the sign", "we do not send .a mess~gr" or it can be a pronoun; e.g.

"the student hears it" or "you see it" or "we do not send him". It can be

feminine: "we do not see Diotima " 2 or "we do not see her."

1Complements (p.10) differ from objects in that they do not show the effect~f a

transitive verb but merely give more information about something already known,

e.g. u~pun~s in u~pun~, y' El, J MEvwv "you are indeed a cheeky fellow, Menon"

(u~pun~,: a wanton or insolent man) (Plato, Meno 76a9) tells us more about "you".

Where complements give more information about the subject, they are in the

nominative case. See also the appendix "Cases & Prepositions", p.347.

2 ~ LlLoTLlm (first declension), a wise woman from Mantinea (in the Peloponnese)

who, as Socrates says in Plato's Symposium (201d), instructed him in philosophy

when he was young. In the dialect of Athens (Attic), her name would be LlLOTLµ1 1 .

It means either "honoured by Zeus" or "honouring Zeus" (see Plato's Symposium,

edited by Sir Kenneth Dover (Cambridge, 1980), p.137).

Section 4

31

-r6v is "the" for a masculine singular object

'T1JV is "the'' for a feminine singular object

-r6 is "the" for a neuter singular object.

So in the first and second declensions:

-rTJV ao<j>(a.v: wisdom (accusative)

-rTJV ape'i'~v: virtue (accusative)

-rov vea.vta.v: the young man (accusative)

'i'OV 1T0At'i'11v: the citizen (accusative)

-rov Myov: the word (accusative)

,-~v oMv: the road (accusative)

-ro epyov: the deed or the work or the task (accusative).

In the third declension:

-r~v 1Tm8a.: the child (girl) (accusative)

-rov 1Tmoa: the child (boy) (accusative)

T~v ietK6va.: the image, picture (accusative)

-ro 41ieua11a.: the lie (accusative)

,-~v TibALv: the city (accusative) 3

-ro e0os: the custom, habit (accusative)

-rov LwKpa-r11 4 : Socrates (accusative)

In English, the word order tells you the meaning; e.g. "the cat catches a

mouse" is not the same as "a mouse catches the cat". But in Greek the

endings tell you which is the subject and which the object; the word

order never contradicts the endings.

What does this sentence mean? o c'iv0pw1ros a~MaKE1, Tov 'ITa°Loa..

What does this sentence mean? -rov &v0pwrrov OLMmm b 'il'm,.

Do these sentences mean the same as each other?

'Many 3rd declension nouns with nominative singular ending -is have the

accusative singular ending ,v. An exception is given in footnote 21, below.

4Contracted from Tov LWKpaTrn.


What does this sentence mean? 0 iiv0pw,rns ava-yq,vwm,E, 5 T~V ~t~Aov,

What does this sentence mean? rqv ~t~Aov avayq,vwo,c,a b o'.v0pwr.os,

Neuters

Words that are neuter end the same whether they denote subjects or

objects. This is typical of neuters; perhaps it arose from the feeling that

they were all in some way more like inanimate things than nouns like

the Greek for "word" or "virtue" which, although their meanings denote

things, at least have masculine or feminine endings.

It is necessary to tell from the context whether a neuter is subject or

object, e.g.

b u.118pw1io, TO &pyov 'np&nEL: the mc111 is performing the task.

(Since we know that b a.v0pwr.os is the subject, we must take Tb &pyov as

the object.)

New words:

k0ttw

I train, accustom, make practise

EUpWKW ' '

I find

E){lll

I have, I keep

1ip0.TTW '

I do, perform

OKW'IT'fW '

I mock, scoff at, make fun of

~ a.A~0Ew.

the truth

6 ta.TpOS

the doctor

b 'ITAOUWS

wealth. 6

-.6 'i'i'pa yµ.a

the action, affair, thing, business

~ T~fl,~

honour

~ uyteu1

health

KClL '

and

'i'i'OU;

where?

5 civa.y,yv100-Kw: I read. ~ ~[~Aos: the book.

"Pluto ( b mouTwv) ("wealth") is the god of the underworld because gold is usually

mined from under the ground.

What is the English J-or

Section 4 33

1.To Efpyov 'ITpUTTEL. 2.TO ifpyov 1rpaTTEL O 'ITOALTTJS, 3.o1. 'ITOALTo.L TrpaTTOUO-LV

~ . 4 e ' ' , 0' ~'i'. 7 " \' " l>'t \' l'

TO -rrpayµ,a. ·.o w-:pos aya 'TjV oo.,,av EXEL· 1ca11a Ep·yo. oo.,,av 1<a1111v q1EpEL.

5.o.AAOV aOEA<pOV OUK Efxw. 6.clpa U◊EA<p~V EXETE; 7.0LO. TL 0Epµ,oc; 8 EL; v6<Yov 9

EXELS; 8.clpa O 0-0<pL<YT~S

µ,ai<pov Myov AEyEL; 9.TOV VEUVLUV E0LtouvLV oL

,l,' 1 o· \ ' " ' ,h' • \ ~ 11 ' , , , , " , 10

o-o,vL<YTo.L. ,/lEYOll◊-LV OTL TL[L'TjV '!'EPEL O 1T/IOUTO<;. .apa.11 uyLELCl. EUUO.LfLOVLCl.V

<pEpEL; 12.Tioi3 ELO'LV o vrnv[o.e; Kal. ~ a◊EA<p~

auToi3 (his); TL Trpa.nouo-Lv;

New words:

au-r6v : him (or "it" referring to a masculine noun)

au~'~v: her (or "it" referring to a feminine noun)

(l,'lJTO : it


l.T~V aA~0ELa.v )'L)'VWO'KO[LEV. 2.o.UT~V YL)'VWO'KO[LEV. (a.1rr~v refers to T~V

,, '8 ) 3 ' ' ,k' ' ' " 4 , ' , " ( ' ' C

a./\'f] ELa.v .o KUKOS o-o'l'LO'T'TjS TLfL1JV ou1< EXEL. .a.UT'TjV ouK EXEL. a.uT'TJV rc1ers

to TLfJ.'f]V ' ) 5 .o' av " 0 pw1TOS Cl.OE/1'1'1JV ',;, \,\,' EXEL. " 6 .Cl.UT'TjV ' ' l(Cl./\'TjV \ ' VO[l.Li,,EL. 'Y II 7 .TOV ' LUTpov ' '

,, 0 ,h / 12 ' ' ' ,y 8 ' \' ~<:, " '

a.v pw'ITOL 'l'Euyouo-v l<Cl.KOV Cl.UTOV VOfLL<;,OU<YLV. .o.pa KU/\OV 'ffCLLUO. EXEL 0

<ptA6o-o<jios; 9.ot 1TOALTUL <pU<YLV. 10.aUTOS O <pLAoaocpos OLOom<EL m'rr6v.

11.clpa TO ~Ou KUL TO aya0ov TO Cl.UTO EO'TLv; ( Gorgias, 506c) (TO ~OU: the

pleasant. For TO Cl.UT◊,

see p.25.) 12.~[LELS TOV EwicpO.T'Tj o-ocpov voµ.[(01.LEV.

Plural objects

English examples:- The child finds the men. He speaks the words.

He finds them.

The definite article:

Tous : the (masculine accusative plural)

-ra.s : the (feminine accusative plural)

-r&. : the (neuter accusative plural)

'o6~a. also means the opinion other people have of one, one's reputation.

9 ~ v6o-oc;: illness, disease (2nd declension)

10 ~ EuOa.Lµov(a.: happiness

nvoµ(tw: I think, consider

12<JiEuyw: J avoid (literally, "I flee (from)").


First declension accusative plural:

masculine

feminine

-rous veavtas : the young men

-rous 1T0Ahas: the citizens

Second declension acrnsaUve plural:

masculine

feminine

-rous c1v0pdiTious : the men

'T<iS o8ous : the roads

neuter

'Tct li.pya : the deeds, tasks

Third declension accusative plural:

-rcts 'ii'aiSas: the children (girls) (feminine)

-rous 11UL8as: the children (boys) (masculine)

-ras 1cll{ovas: the images, pictures (feminine)

TU i!,euaµ,a•rc1,: the lies (neuter)

-ras 'ifoA1cLs 13 : the cities (feminine)

'ra li.8'1) 14 : the customs, habits (neuter)

New words:

o:u-rous: them (masculine accusative plural)

o.u1·a.s: them (feminine accusative plural)

m'i'l'a.: them (neuter accusative plural)

Neuter plural nominatives and accusatives(except for those in the 3rd

declension ending -os in the singular) end -a.

What is the foglish for

l.Tous 1TO/\LTU', O'KW1TTOf.LEV.

2.TU ~pyu TIPfiT'TOf.LEV. 3.~ 1TO/\LS Kal((l', o8ous

,, 4 \ \ _,,, ,, ' "' ' 5 \ \ \ 15 ~<;, , ,,

EXEL ,KUt\OV TIO.LUU EXEL O b<WKpU'T'l]S, ,1TO/\/IOU', TIULOUS OUK EXEL, I@;'

llContracted from Tas 116/\rns.

14Contracted from To. E0E(u)u.

15110/\Aol: many. Socrates had three sons according to Diogenes Laertius II, v, 26.

Section 4 35

6.clpa 1TUl◊US OLOUOKE.TE, <pLMowjioL; 7 .aUTU<; ( or UUTOu<;) OU ◊LOOmcoµ,E.v. 8.

j '

'fl,S apa UUTOU<;

" "'/

OlOUOKEL; 9 <

•iJfJ,EL<; ~ 0 / I, "/ S, I,/ \

µ,a i]TU', OLOUOKOf1EV' OLOU<YKUt\OL 1TULOO.S -~ ]6

OL8a<JKOUCTLV. 10.KUKU mi] Ev0u◊E (here) OU OL◊UOKOl.l,E.V.

Personal pronouns as objects

In English, "I" and "we" are used for subjects, and "me" and "us" are

used for objects. For instance, we say" I hear the man speaking" ("I" is

the subject of "hear"), but "the man hears me speaking" (where "me" is

the object of "hears"). Similarly, we say "We understand the man"

("we" being the subject of "understand"), but "the man understands

us" ("us" being the object of "understands"). Greek has different forms

of the pronouns to distinguish subject from object, as follows:

nominative (subject)

"I" : ~')'tiJ

"you" (singular) : cro

nominative (subject)

"we" : ~µ,E'i-s

"you" (plural) : uµ,E'is

accusative (object)

"me" : fLE or <EfLE

"you" (singular) : crE or a~ 17

accusative (object)

"us": ~µ,&s

"you" (plural) : uµ,as

(English still has different words for "I" (subject) ,md "me" (accusative)

rather like Greek. In old-fashioned English, "thou" (subject) or

"thee"(object) are sometimes used for "you" (singular"), like uu and

a£.)


l.aE OKW1TTW. 2.aKW1TTELS µ,E; 3.o.pa ~µ,as O"KW'ITTETE; 4.~f1El,S TOV av0pw1rov

O"KW1TTOfLEV. 5.Tl,<; EO"TLV; 6.~µ.E'is mhov OU ')'L')'VWOKOfJ..EV. 7.taws KoplCTKOS

16b odlammilo,: the schoolmaster.

17 µ,E and crE are usually enclitic.


, 18 8 , ,h'\ , - 19 , , 1 9 ~ s 10 ' ~ ' ,I, '

ECTTLV. .OL 't'L/\OL 11f-LWV OU CTKW1TTOUCTL CTE. :rrou EL; .uµ,us O o·o't'LO"TljS

I ' \ I 11 \ / r/ ~ I e .... ~ / 20 ~ ~\ / \ ~

<YKW1TTEL. TL /\EyEL; .1\EYEL OTL O XPOVOS U(J,OS OU [J,EVEL . 0 OE XPOVO<; ICUL 'f]

\ I 21 , ,;, I I 12 9 ' ,l I , 6' ' 1 y ' ' I

1Ti\'f][J,UpLS OUOEVU [J,EVOUCTLV. .apu TljV CTO~)LUV uyu ov OU VO(J,L\,ELc;; OU <p'fj,;

(Why dya.8.Qll? See p.15.)

Accusative of Respect or Manner

An accusative can be used to limit the effect of a verb or adjective, e.g.

b av6pw1ros Tov OUKTu/\ov a.AyE'i:: the man feels pain in ( respect of) his

flnger 2 (Republic 462d,2-3), TauTu aocp6,: wise in (respect of) these things

( Gorgias 508a5). 23


1 ) '1 I 24 ( j ) f I ) \ \ > 25 ?26 ) e \ 27 " f I

.• OUK upu KLV1JCTLS E<YTLV O xpovo<;, U/\/\ Tl upL µ,ov £XEL 1j KLV1JO-L<;.

(Aristotle, Physics IV, 219b2).

18 '[crws: perhaps. o KoplcrKos was a pupil of Plato (Diogenes Laertius Ill, 46). KoplcrKos

is used by Aristotle e.g. at Sophistici elenchi 175b 19-25 as a generalised name like

"so-and-so". For Kop[o-Ko, rather than o Kop[crKoc; see NBl on p.10.

19

~µ,wv: our.

200 xp6vos: Ume. µ,Evw: J await, wait for.

21 ~ 1TATJµup[, (accusative, 1~v 1TA11f1up[oa.): the (full) Ude. ouMva (accusative of

ouoE[,): no one.

220 oci,nuAos: the finger. d.11yt'ii: I feel pain. (d.11yw is an intransitive verb, and so has

no object.)

L\aiha: these things (neuter plural accusative).

24 -/i 1Ccv11cr~, (3rd declension) = "change" or "movement" (more general than <j,opci,

"movement" in the sense of "locomotion", which is connected with <j,,spw: I britl'f).

25 =uAAci, meaning "but".

2"="(the means) by which"

Section 4 37

, <:> , 28 , , \ \ , 'h , , ,i_ , \ , 29 , <:, ,

2.T~V EUUULfLOVWV l<UL OL 'f[O/\IIOL (L e many) KUL OL O'O<yOL /IE')IOUO'L · n u

30 \ \ \ ' \ e <:, \ 31 " \ ~ " \ Ir. 32 Y\ \ <:,\ 33

E.O-TL;· 1TO/\/IOL UUT11V 11uov11v 11 'Tr/lOUTOV 11 TLfL11V V0(-1,L,OU(YLV, U/1/IOL OE .

\ I\ \ f <;, \ < j \ 34 EO'TL, UUTT)V 'ff/lOUTOV VOfLL',EL. (Anstotle,

Nicomachaean Ethics I 1095a20-25 (adapted).)

3.ouOEV OLU<pEpOUO'L fLE/\LTTUL, (1/\(\(], TO UUTO ELO'LV U1TUO'UL. 38 (Plato, Meno 72c

2-3 adapted).

Subject or Object?


I

j / / \ fl'fl\ , \ j / 39

.UVU')IL')IVWO'KELS 1'11V t-'L~,11011; UUT'T]V uvuy1yvwcn<W.

• \ j<:, \,!_I 40 I 9 ' ' \ \ < i<:, \,!_I

2.cipu TOV UUE/l<yOV µ,ou ()'l((J)1TTELS; up OU l<U/IOS O UUEll~10S

\, , ,y 41

l(U/IOV OU voµ,1..,w.

28See footnote 10 above. AEyw means here I mention, I talk about.

29 Ka.1. ... Ka.1. ... : both ... and ... . Myw is used here in the sense of" I speak of'' .

. lOTl; what? o' stands for OE.

31 ~ ~oov~: pleasure (cf. English "hedonist" and "hedonism").

31 ~ : or. voµLtw: I think, consider.

33 oE (here) means "and". aAAOL oE aAAo: "and others something else".

34Understand civ8pw1ros-.

35"the other thing" ~"something different", "an alternative".

36See p.21.

37Ec: if. 1rev11s (3rd declension): poor man. d 1rEv11s- = "if (he is) a poor man ... "

38ou8Ev: in (respect of) nothing, i.e. in no way. dJM: but. 6'.1ra.<rnL (feminine

nominative plural): absolutely all.

39See footnote 5 above.



- ,J..I\ ( 0 f . d ) 42 "' ' I ' - ' 1y

3.KO.K~v &o~o.v i':xof1E.V, w 'YU\m nen .s . ow n 11µ,o.s Ko.Kou, voµ,LsOu<nv;

OU )'L yvwaKW.

4 K / I >I 8 ' 4.J 1y

. opwKo<; TOV av pw1rov p,wpov VOjHsE.L

voµ,Ctu.

5.il.p' ot ao<pLaTo.l o.yo.8~v Mbv i':xouaCv;

6.auT~V OUK EXOU<JLV.

7 .Kopl<JKOV (JKUJ'ITTE.L,; 8.KoplaKO<; rn8E.uOE.L. 45

' j /

9.TOV TOU Lw1<pa.TOU<; (ofSocrates) A6yov up' OUK UKOUE.L.

10.Tov TIUL◊o. ou <JKUJ'ITTE.L KopCmrns.

11 , T , , 'A , 46 , \ \,

.T'f]V powv OL XULOL O.'ITO/\i\UO.<JL.

12.fLo.Kpov A6yov AEym. 13.o:rro/\/\u<; 47 f-1,E.

14.Ko.Koll<; <pCAou<; EXEL o vrnvCo.c;.

15.dpo. TLf1~V <pEpu ~ ao<p(o.;

' ' 0' 44 '\:' I ' \ ,t I

O.UTO<; OE .<aWKPO.T'l]S O.UTOV ao'Yov

42Vocative case, see section 7 (end).

43 µ,Ulpos, f-L<tlpci, f-L<tlpov: foolish. cf. English "moron" (the same as the Greek for "a

silly thing"). For voµ,[t(tl, see footnote 11.

448E: however. For L,U)Kpan1s rather than o l,(tlKpan1s, see p.10 footnote 4.

45 Ka0euo<tl; I am asleep.

46"The Achaeans" is Homer's term in the Iliad and Odyssey for Agamemnon's army

which besieged Troy.

47"destroy" in the sense of "bore to death".

Section 4

39

We can now tabulate the nominative and accusative cases of the

declensions:

first dedension

singular

nominative

accusative

plural

nominative

accusative

~ -rpay'!l8la ~ d8<EA<j>~ o 'ITOAl'T'f]S

-r~v -rpa11'!18uw 'T~V &01eA<j>~v

'TOV 'iTOAl'\"1111

al -rpa. yqi8(aL al d.8~l<J>at ot 1ToA'i-ra.L

-ras -rpa 'Yl!-'olas -ras d.o<EA.qi&.s

'\"ous 'ITo),has

Second declension

singular

nominative

accusative

plural

nominative

accusative

o d.01eAqios

'i'OV UOEAq>ov

ot d81eAqiot

wus d8<EA.cpoils

~ ooos '\"o Epyov

'f~v 00611 TO Epyov

al boot

-rns ooous

-ru Epya

-ru Epya

Third declension

singular

nominative o ' 'ITa.tS -

accusative

plural

nominative

accusative

1·011 'ITCU.00,

ot 'ITCU.O<ES

-mus 'ITCU.0!!,S

~ 'ITULS

'f~V 'ITULOa

al 1ra'i81es

TUS 'l'faious

~ <ELKI.OV

\ ' ,

'T'ljll <EUCOVU

' , I

UL EUWVES

\ ' I

TO.S ELCCOVO.<;

singular

nominative

accusative

plural

nominative

accusative

'\"o ijl1euaµ,a

'TO ijl<EUO-IJ,U

Ta \ •'• 't'<Eucrµa I Ta

Ta \ •'• 't'<Euaµ,a I -ra

~ 'IT◊il.tS

'T~V 'IT◊/1.LV

at 1r◊A<ELS

'TU', 'IT◊il.<ELS

To <!\0os

-ro e0os

,.a, Efhi

TU E~l

singular

nominative

accusative

o IwKpa-r11,

'TOV ~wKpu 'T'TJ


Note on Greek Dialects

The name Diotima (p.29) (the wise woman mentioned by Socrates in

Plato's Symposium, 201d) ends -a and not -11 because she came from

Mantinea in the Peloponnese and not from Athens, and therefore her

name is in the Doric dialect; Greek has several dialects, of which that

spoken at Athens - Attic - is the most used for literature, not only by

Plato and Aristotle, but by the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and

Euripides, the writer of comic plays Aristophanes, the historians

Thucydides and Xenophon, and the orators, including Isocrates and

Demosthenes. Attic is therefore the predominant classical Greek dialect,

and the common Greek known as KoLv~ spoken all over the Middle East

after the conquests of Alexander the Great is largely derived from it

and is generally very similar; e.g. "I know" is yvyvwmcw in Attic, and is so

spelt in Plato, but yLvwCYKW after Aristotle and in common Greek. This

dialect spread all over the eastern Mediterranean. It is found in the

New Testament, the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) and in many

Hellenistic authors, including the later philosophical writers, down to

the time of Simplicius' commentaries on Aristotle (6th century A.D.).

Earlier writers did not use Attic. The epic poems of Homer were in an

antique bardic dialect (Epic), also used by Hesiod for didactic poetry

including The Works and Days which incorporates a farmers' calendar

and The Theogony, an account of the families of the Greek gods. Epic

was also used much later by imitators of Homer such as Apollonius

Rhodius. Most of the earlier philosophers (the Presocratics) used the

Ionic dialect, spoken on the western coast of Asia Minor. This was the

dialect used in early Greece for learned works in prose, e.g. by early

Greek medical writers (though much of what is attributed to Hippocrates

may not go back to him) and by early historians (notably Herodotus),

and was the common dialect of early Greek science. However, two

prominent Presocratic philosophers from Magna Graecia (the Hellen~ed

parts of Sicily and southern Italy), Parmenides and Empedocles, no

doubt influenced by the tradition of using poetry for instruction, wrote

in hexameter verse and adapted the epic dialect for their purpose.

Pindar, the poet quoted by Socrates at Meno 81b8-c4, wrote choral

odes in a poetic dialect based on Doric but with many old-fashioned

features.

41

Section 5

VERBS - MIDDLE & PASSIVE ENDINGS

In the sentence I know a bank where the wild thyme blows "know" says

what I do and "blows" says what the wild thyme does. Both are active

verbs; they express something that a subject does.

In the sentence Omy Luve's like a melody that's sweetly played in tune

"is played" expresses what is done to the melody. "is played" is a

passive verb. It is said to be in the passive voice.

In Greek, there are verbs in the middle voice, which expresses what one

does or gets done to or for oneself, Le the subject is somehow affected

by the action. Aouw (active) means "l bathe someone else, I give them a

bath." >wuoµ,aL, when middle, means "I have a bath" or "I bathe myself'

(it does not specify whether you or someone else draws the water).

Aouoµ,m, when passive, means "I am being bathed"; i.e. someone else is

doing it to me.

Some verbs are middle in Greek, active in English, e.g. d.1ro1cpCvorw.L: I

reply, answer. There is an active form of this verb, a1To:<pCvw: I make a

distinction. Not all verbs have active endings, -w, -EL,, -EL, -oµ,Ev, -ETE,

-oucn(v) in the present active. Some, such J_s ~ouAoµ,m: I want, have only

middle/passive endings -oµ,m, -n, -ETm, -oµ,E0u, -w01c, -oVTm although

they correspond in meaning to English active verbs. Some verbs have a

different meaning in the active and middle; e.g., the middle of upxw: I

am in charge is apxoµ,m: I begin. 1 Moµ,m, the middle of Auw, means I am

loosing for myself or gelling (someone else) to loose, and hence I

ransom. In early Greek the middle was probably not distinguished

from the passive, and in Classical Greek the middleanclpjl.ssive endmg_s,

except for the aorist and future tenses, are the same . 2

11n early Greek and poetry, iipxw sometimes means I begin, but the middle, iipxoµ,m,

is usually used for begin in Attic prose.

2For a list of the tenses, see p. 75.


DUAL VERBS (for more about the dual, see the appendix) indicate

action by two things or people. They are rare in Attic prose, although

found in Plato and other writers until about 300 B.C. They can be

thought of as a survival in educated Attic of an old form. Their use is

not obligatory. It is correct Greek to use a plural verb for a subject

consisting of two things e.g. eyes or two people. 3

active

singular

AUW

dual

AUETOV

AUETOV

middle & passive

I am loosing

I am loosing for myself,

ransoming, or being loosed

you are loosing ADEL or Au11 you are loosing for

yourself, ransoming, or being

loosed

he/she/it is loosing ADETm he/she/it is loosing for

himself, herself, itself,

ransoming or being loosed

you two are loosing Mrn8ov you two are loosing for yourselves

those two are loosing Aurn8ov

ransoming or being loosed

those two are loosing for

themselves, ransoming or being loosed

plural

Auoµ,Ev we are loosing Auoµ,E8u we are loosing for

ourselves, ransoming or being loosed

AUETE you are loosing Mrn8E you are loosing for

yourselves, ransoming or being loosed

Auou<n(v) they are loosing AuovrnL they are loosing for

themselves, ransoming or being loosecf

3The 1st person dual ("we two") is exceedingly rare. There are only two examples

(both in poetry) in Attic: "we two alone have been left", at Sophocles, Eleclra 950

and "let us both be going" at Sophocles, Philoctetes 1079.

Section 5 43

The endings:

(·-m verbs)

active

middle &_nassive

singular -w: 1 ·oµ,m: I

·ELS: you -,a or •'lJ: you 4

-,a: he, she, it

•em.L: he, she, it

dual (2nd person) -erov: you two •E<rtlov: you two

(3rd person) •E'rov: those two -E<rtlov: those two

plural •oµ,ev: we •oµe8a: we

-e-re: you

-Ecr8e: you

-oucrL(v): they

-ov-.m: they

-µ,L verbs

active.

middle & passive

singular ·µ,L: I ·µ,en: I

-s: you

-am: you

•crL: he, she, it --.m: he, she, it

dual -·r0v: you two -<rtlov: you two

•Tov:those two

-<rtlov: those two

plural -µ,ev: we -µ,e0a: we

•-re: you

-cr8e: you

-a.crL(v): they

-v-rm: they

4 The 2nd person singular ending -11 is usual in most verbs in Plato except for

~ouAEL: you want, from ~ouAoµnL: I want (p.45, below), oi'.EL: you are thinking from

ol11m: I think (section 10, p,99) and otj,EL: you wiJI see from otj,oµ,m; I shall see (not

found in the Meno). The ending -EL or -11 in AuEL or Au11 is derived from an

original form like Auwm, from which er has been dropped. Smyth, Greek Grammar

para.628 says that in the old Attic alphabet (which was reformed in 403 B.C.) it was

written -EI, and this, and the fact that their sounds were nearly alike, explains

why there are alternative endings.

44


Compare:

active

middle & passive

singular a1T6AAUf1L I am destroying chr6/\Aup,m I get destroyed,

am destroyed'

a1T6AAuc; you are destroying li1T6AAuo-m you get destroyed,

are destroyed

a1T6AAU<JL( v) he, she, it is a1ToAAumL he, she, it gets

destroying

destroyed, is destroyed

dual

d.1roAAuTov you two are

destroying

d.1roAAuTov those two are

destroying

d.1ro/\Auo8ov you two get destroyed,

are destroyed

d.1roA/\uo8ov those two get destroyed,

are destroyed

plural

a1T6AAUf1EV we are destroying

a1T6AAUTE you are destroying

a1ToAAuo.o-L(v) they are

destroying

a1ToAAup,E6u we get destroyed,

are destroyed

a1T6AAuo-6E you get destroyed,

are destroyed

a1T6A!luVTUL they get destroyed,

are destroyed

Note that the middle and passive endings of -11L verbs are the same as

those of -w verbs except

(i) they do not have a thematic vowel, (e.g. o in -01-1m)

(ii) the second person singular middle/passive ends -o-m.

These twelve endings (six active, singular & plural, six middle and

passive, singular & plural) are particularly important as they@rare

recognisable (with some variations) in the other tenses as well as the

present.

5NB in the middle and passive the vowel u is short in the singular and plural.

Section 5 45

New words:

c\:rro1<pL voµ,m

~ouAoµ,a.i

,1f:yvoµ,aL

,

EL

1To,payty110µ,m

eauµ,atw

-ro El6os

yevvaioc; 9 yEvva1,a,9 yevvalov

µ,a1e&.pws 9 µ,a1ea.p1,a 9 µ,m<a.pwv

1TO.VTOO{l'ITOL9 'iTO,V'T000.'1TOl9 1/0.VTOOa'ITa

-ro -rrapri:rm v

'ITAouaw,; 9 'lTAouaLa 9 'ITAOUO'Wll

'iioAAoL 9 1roAAoJ. 9 'IToAM

'ITwi;;

I reply

I want(E0EAw is more like "I am willing")

I am born, I become, I happen6

if

I am beside, arrive, am acquired,

come into the possession of 7

I wonder (at), admire

the shape ( external form), aspect,

figure, image, character, kind,

idea

noble

fortunate, lucky

all kinds of, of all kinds

altogether, at all

rich, wealthy

many

how?


l.e:up(oxoµm. 2.et'TfoKpLV1J, 3.11.E')'ETUl. 4.Jxoµ,E6a (N.B. EXW

can mean 1 hold as

well as I have). 5.yL')'VWO"Krn0e:. 6.0auµ,utoVTUl. 7.ot 0nrn/\ot, 6uuµ,u(ovTClL. 8

8.11.Eyouo-Lv OTL oL 0e:naAo\, yEvvULOL ELCJLV. 9.oL 0ena/l.ol l\E')'OVTUL yEvvn'i:oL.

(/\E')'W (here): I ca11) 10.'ITW<; ot uv0pwTIOL Tf/1.0U(TLOL y(yvoVTClL; 11.'ITWS TOUTO

( this thing) TIPUT'TETUL; 12.TioAAol TOV 0iTAOUTOV ~ou/1.0VTUL. 13.clpn 1TO.O"UL ( all)

(ll fJ,E.ALTTClL TO UUTO ELOOS EXOU<JLV; 14.o .&17µ,oKpLTO<; o ye:Awv ( laughing)

q>LAoo-o<j>os AE')'ETUL. 15.oL 1roALTC1L Tiapny(yvovTUL. 16.µ,nKupLoL oL TIOALTClL' ~

TioAL<; ouK ch6AAuTaL. 17 -~ Tou TTMTwvoi; ( Plato's) e:LKwv ye:vva1.ov Eloo,

EXEL. 18.o.p' OU 'ITOA/\ot, ClUT~V 0uuµ,u(ouo-Lv; 19.TIWS EUpLO-KETUL ~ aA~0nn;

6Middle in Classical Greek. For exceptions, see footnote to word list.

71n Greek, come into possession for (with the dative case; see p.61, below).

80 0ET-mA6s: the Thessalian, man from Thessaly.


2O.Et (if) 1TOAAUL apemL ELO"lV, 1TWS yvyvwo-KOV'Tm; 'ITWS UUT0S ')'l')'VWO"KOfLEV;

f , \ \ / 1 I 9

21.o'Tl 1TO'T' E.O"'TLV 'T] a.pE'T'T] 'TO 1TUpU1TUV OU ')'l')'VWO"KE'TUl.

"THIS"

The usual Greek word for "this" is, in the nominative case (e.g. as

subject):

oo'ios (masculine)

uu'T'TJ (feminine)

Tou'io (neuter)

Oil'iOS O c\'.v0p1,nros or O av0pw-rros OOTos: this man

ai\'T'T} ~ apeT~ or ~ ape'i~ ai\TIJ: this virtue, this excellence

TOUTO TO epyov or TO epyov 'iOU-ro: this work, this deed

If no noun is expressly included,

oo-ros: this man au"'ri: this woman 10 'iou-ro: this thing.

The accusative (e.g. as object) is:

'iou'iov (masculine)

Ta.ui-riv (feminine)

'iou-ro (neuter).

ToilTov: this man

TauTIJv: this woman

-rofrro: this thing

(%'.

9 oTL ,ro,-' : whatever. oTL ,ro,-' stands for o TL ,ro,-E: (literally)whateverever. on

110,-' lcm is used by Plato as an expression meaning what it really is, its nature.

10Distinguish mh~ (smooth breathing): she (-/1 au,-~: the same) from aun1 (rough

breathing): this (woman).

Section 5 47


1.auT'T] ~ a.OEA<p~. 2.oDTOS o LaTp6s. 3.TOUTO TO Trpuyµ,u. 4.UUT'T] ~ Tr6/w;.

5.oDTOS b µ,u0l]T~s .. 6.~ E.LKWV

UUTTJ. 7.o [W.0l]T~S mh6s. 8.~ UUT~ a.OEA<p~.

9.oDTOS o av0pW'TTOS UKOUEL 10.0L<l Tl ODTOS o LUTpos KUK~V o6~uv exu;

11 .oLU I> ' TL ' OU ' 0 uuµ,ui,ETUL; ,y 12 .OLU I> ' TL ' OUK ' U'TTOKpLvEL; ' ' OU ' TOUTO - YlYVWO"KW. '

13.ToUTOV TOV <YO<pl<YT'T]V 0uuµ,atou<YLV OL µ,u0~TUL

14.ot 'TTOA.l TUL 0uu1Latou<YL TUUT'T]V T~V n6A.L v.

15.roUTo 'To Ep-yov oU xaAE'Tr6v EcrTLV. P4l>Lov Up' EcrTLV.

New words:

(o) Efl,◊S9 (~) &µ,~9 (To) &µ.ov

(o) O'OS9 (~) 0'7}9 {-ro) <Y◊v·

( o) ~µ.ETEpos, ( ~) ~11ETEpu 9 (To) ·qµ,,hEpov

( 0) uµ.b,pos9 ( ~) uµ.hEpU9 (TO) uµ.ETEpov

my, ofme

your (of you (singular))

our

your (of you (plural))

"The" is usually placed in front of "my" or "your", e.g. o &µ.os -rrcis •rouTo

AEy<ov "my son says this"; but not when "mine'' or "yours" is meant, e.g.

" ' A' a, ' ' '· "th1·s book 1·s m1·11e." 11

O.UTIJ 'l'J l"Lt-'1\0S EO'nV Efl,'iJ•

What is the .cnglish for

1. o El.LOS 0,0EA<p6s. 2. ~ O"~ CL◊EA<p~. 3. TO UfJ,ETEpov epyov. 4.oL Ufl,ETEPOL

'TTUlOES ~µ,us O"KW'lTTOUO"lV. 5.otJTOS O 1TULS OUK E.O"TlV Efl,OS' O.UTOV OU YLYVWO"KW.

6 ' I t < ~ 7 I, ' / C ' 'I> \,l_' 9 9 /

.Tl TIPUTTEL OUTOS O ·nms; .ULU Tl O O"OS UUEl\,yOS OUK U1TOKplVETUL; 8 .'TT(llS

~

TOUTO TO epyov npaTTETm; 9:rrws TO O"OV 1'pyov 1tpUTTElS; OU 'YlYVWO"KW. l O.uL

~fl,ETEPUL OLl(lUL (~ OLKlU: the house) E.LO"lV 'TTUVTO◊U'TTUL.

EXOUO"LV.

11.nuVTOOU'TTU d.ofj

"These" (nominative)

ofwl: these (men) a.u·rm: these (women)

(accusative)

Tou-.ous: these (men) -.uuws: these (women)

wuTa: these (things)

-.afrm: these (things)

11The definite article b, ~. To is used with .lµ,os, aos, ~fLETEpos, uµ,hEpos when they

refer to something definite. lµ,ol <j)C\01 means "my friends in general" without

assuming that I have any. ("My" is the English possessive adjective; "mine",

often used after "to be", is the genitive of the English pronoun "I", meaning "of

me". For the genitive case, see p.51.)



1 ,OUTOl

?'

Ol uv0pw1TOL 2'"0 ,Ol UV pW1TOl OUTOl. '3°' ,OUTOl. J? .-,UUTUl Ul e,, HKOVE',, 5' .m

EllCOVE<; UUTUL 6.TUUTU TU E'.p-yu. 7 .TU E'.p-yu TUUTU. 8.uUTUl O.L oo~m. 9.TOUTO

TO ' Eµ.ov ' ' Efp-yov ' EO'TlV, ' 10 ,OUTOS ' O ' µ.u 0' TJTTJS, 11 ·11 ' 0-1] ' '[1'0/\l<;. 12 •. Ol ' EfLOl ' '

a3EA<poL 13 .uL ~µ.ETEpUl ci3EA<pUL. 14.1rws TUUTU 1TpUTTHS; 15.TLS )'l yvwO-ICHV

( to know, see p.49 ) 1-'0U/\ETUl; ~ TUUT(l ~ TU \ Trpuyµ.o.TU I Eµ.u > I EO'Tlll.

'

KUl d 1ToAAaL Kul 1mvTu3u-rmC ELo-lv, EV YE Tl EI3os TUuTov a1ruo-m Efxouo-lv,

3l' o E.LO-lV dperui'.. 12 (Meno 72c6-7 (adapted))

Ei'. Tl', MEVWVU µ.~ yvyvwO-KEl TO 1mpa1mv oo-w; EO"Tl, 'TrWS -yvyvwo-KEl EhE

KuAoc; ELTE TIAouo-ws EhE i<ul. yEvvut.oc; fonv; (Meno 7lb5-7(adapted)) 13

" ' ' ' ~ ' ~ 1 4 ' (f G · 506d 5 7)

11 YE apET1] OU Tljl EU(1J 1rupuyl)'VETUl. rom org1as -

Tabulation of the nominative and accusative of •

01/WS'

masculine feminine neuter

Singular ("this"):

nominative OUTO<; ' UlJT'T] " TOUTO

accusative TOUTOV TUUTTJV TOUTO

Plural ("these"):

nominative OUTOl ' UUTUl " TUUTU

accusative

I

TOUTOUS

TUUTU<; TUUTU

12rnt Et: even if. Understand at apEw( after El.

EL: if, :iv: one (thing). TL: some

(indefinite adjective, qualifying Eloos). u'!Tao-aL (feminine adjective): absolutely all

lk' 3: because of which. wuTov stands for To auTov.

1 \t ... µ,~ ... = if ... not ... TL,: somebody (N.B. no accent because it is an enclitic, cf.

T[,: who?). o<m,: who in an indirect question. E°LTE ••• EhE ... = whether ... or ...

(literally, both if ... and if ... KUC: also.

14 T0 d1<~: by accident.

Section 6

49

THE PRESENT INFINITIVE

We say "to erris human, to forgive divine", or "I want to see you". In

the first of these sentences, "to err" and "to forgive" are subjects. In

the second, "to see" is an object.

"To err", "to forgive" and "to see" are therefore verbs used as nouns.

The verbal noun beginning "to ... " in English is lhe infinitivf.

In English, infinitives can be active, e.g. "to admire"

or passive, e.g. "to be admired".

For verbs ending-w, the present infinitive gCtive ends •ELv

e.g. 0uuµ,atew: to admire.

The present infinitive ,p_assive and middle ends •1coflaL

e.g. 0uuµ,6.t~w-Oo,l: to be admired,

a'll'o1<ptv1eofla~: to reply.

For verbs ending ,i,L, the present infinitive active ends •vm

e.g. a'Jl'oAAuvm: to destroy.

The present infinitive middle and passive ends .ofl,u

e.g. a'lioAXuofl1u: to be destroyed.

The infinitive of et11,i (I am) is ,clv1u. (to be).

The infinitive of <J>1111t is cj>6.vm (to affirm, say yes).

New word:

Mvaµm: I can, I am able

Mvaoui: you can (singular)

ouvuTa~: he/she/it can

ouv6.µ1c0a: we can

ouvaoflE: you can (plural)

ouvavw,L: they can

(ouvuµ.al has endings like the middle/passive of u1r6AAuµ.l}


U0D1.ELV. 2,EXELV. 3.aKOUELV. 4.EUpLO-KELV. 5.E0LtELv. 6.qlEpHV.

7:yvyvwaKELV. 8:yvyvwaKw0UL. 9.Aiyrn0UL. 10.~0UAECY0UL. 11.qiavUL.


12 0' '0'' 14 ' ' \ ,..k \ 9

.ouvuo-0ul, 13:rl<; TOUTO µ,uv UVELV E €/\El; .OUK UEl 0-0't'OL ELVUL

ouvuµ,E0u. 15.oL 1TUlOE<; EUplO-KW0UL OU OUVUVTUl. 16.o ~LA.o◊-0~0', I

a1T0Kplvrn0m ou ~ouAETUl.

I mustis usually expressed in Greek by M [LE "it needs me" and an

infinitive, e.g. oa 11€ TOU'TO 1Tpanav: I must do this. 2


1. OEl f1E TOUTO µ,uv0uvELV. 2.oE'C 0-E (l1T0Kplvrn0m. 3.ou OEl TOD<; 1TUl0US

O-KW1TTELV TOV ~LA.o◊-O~OV.

a,;\~0na.v OEl EUplcrKrn0a.L.

4.dp' OU OEl ~µ.ii, T~V aA.~0ELav EUplO-KELV; 5.T~V

ADVERBS

Adverbs modify verbs, as adjectives qualify nouns e.g.

the wise man (adjective)

b llill!ik a v6pw~TOS

he is replying wisely (or cleverly)(adverb)

Q.Q.,<h!ik ll'll'OKpl VE'l'O,L,

Normally those adverbs which are formed from adjectives in Greek

change the adjective ending to -ws. This can be thought of as like the

English adverbial ending -ly. Thus

KO.Kos: bad

KO.KW<;: badly

cmM,: good, beautiful, noble Ku?lws: well, beautifully, nobly

There are other adverbs not formed from adjectives, e.g. uet: always.

Both ei 3 and rnAws mean well. "Only" is µovov.


)'EVVUlw<; µ,uKUplw<; 1TAoucrCws 1TOALTLKW<; cro~w<;.

g

1According to Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, V, 3 citing Heraclides of Pontus,

whom Cicero calls a "hearer" of Plato, and also Diogenes Laertius I, 12, the term

"lover of wisdom" or "philosopher" goes back to the time of Pythagoras. However,

this may not have had as definite a meaning as our word "philosopher" before

Plato (see N. Notomi, The Unity of Plato's Sophist, pp.54-6).

2Literally, "it needs me to do this". M is 3rd person singular of Mw: I need, am

Jacking. (See Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed., p.372, and Y. Duhoux,

Le Verbe Gree Ancien, 2nd ed., p.335.)

3 Eo is preserved in the English "euphemism", "eulogy", and µ.bvov in "monomania".

Section 6 51

THE GENITIVE CASE

In Greek nouns and adjectives, there are five cases: nominative, vocative,

accusative, genitive, dative.

Possession is shown in two ways in English. The possessive ending

(singular) in English is 's, e.g. Noah's ark. Alternatively, we can use

"of' to show possession. We say either "Plato's Republic" or "the

Republic of Plato". There is only one way in Greek, to use the genitive

case.

The genitive case is used to qualify a noun, i.e. to specify it more

completely. One common way is by denoting possession, e.g. The

Hound of the Baskervilles. Another is to say what a thing consists of or

is part of, e.g. "a swarm of bees". There is also the subjective genitive,

e.g. "the deeds of my ancestors" ( deeds my ancestors did; the ancestors

are the subject) and the objective genitive, e.g. "fear of retribution" (of

retribution I fear; retribution is the object). In all these, where the

genitive case is used in Greek, the word "of' occurs in English. The

genitive is also used for separation, which can be expressed by "from"

or "out of' in English.

The genitive singular of the definite article:

Toil: of the (masculine) -r~s: of the (feminine) -rou: of the (neuter).

Genitive singular endings

In the first declension, the feminine ending is:

-,1.s if the nominative ends -w or -pa

(and in a few words ending -w or -oa.)

•'TJs for all the others.

The masculine ending is -ou.

71 o-o<j>ta: wisdom (nominative)

-r~v o-o<j>(a.v: wisdom (accusative)

~s cro4>tas: of wisdom

71 ha.Lpu: the (female)companion

(nom.)

-r~v E-ra.tpav: the companion (acc.)

-r~s hatpas: of the companion

b 'IToALr'TJs: the citizen (nom.)

rov 'll"oAl'i'TJv: the citizen (acc.)

wu -rroAtwu: of the citizen

b v<Eav(a.s: the young man (nom.)

-rov veavta.v: the young man (acc.)

Toil veav(ou: of the young man


~ µ.EAvrra: the bee (nom.)

,.~v µ.Du:rmv: the bee (acc.)

°'11S µ.E1,(n71s: of the bee

~ ape'!'~: virtue, excellence (nom.)

-r~v ape'l'~v: virtue, excellence (acc.)

-r,js aflET'TJs: of virtue, of excellence

In the second declension , the genitive singular ending is •ou:

b av0pw1ros: the man (nom.)

~ oMs: the road (nom.)

-rov av0pw1rov: the man (acc.) .. ~v oSov: the road (acc.)

'!'OU av0pr./mou: of the man

T'TJS o8ou: of the road

-ro ep-yov: the task (nom.)

-ro ep'Yov: the task (acc.)

Tou Ep'You: of the task

In the third declension, the genitive singular ending is •·os:

~ 1raLs: the child (girl) (nom.) b 'l!'o,Ls: the child (boy) (nom.)

~v Timoa: the child (girl) (acc.) -rov ·rra'ioo.: the child (boy) (acc.)

T'TJ, '!fmoos: of the child (girl)

Tou "ITo,tM,: of the child (boy)

~ etKwv: the image, picture (nom.)

~v etK6va.: the image, picture (acc.)

-r,js et1<6vo,: of the image, picture

~ 7r6X.~s: the city (nom.)

T~v 1r61\w: the city (acc.)

T'TJS 7r6Aews: of the city 4

'l'O tjieua1-u1,: the lie (nom.)

To ljieuaµ.o.: the lie (acc.)

-rou ljiei',aµ.a.Tos: of the lie

4The older form, found in Epic, is 1r6>.110,, in which the ending -os can be seen.

Section 6 53

If the noun stem ends -E, the ending -Eoc; becomes -ouc;:

0 L,ic<p&.,-1],: Socrates (nom.) ,.,o Ji0os: the habit, custom (nom.)

-rbv .Ew1<p&.+'IJ: Socr0tes (acc.)

,.b Ji0os: the custom, habit (acc.)

'Tou 1:w1<p&.wus: of Socrates Tou &0ous: of the habit, custom 5

The genitive singular of oDToc; is TouTou (masc.), TuuT11c; (fem.), and

TouTou (neuter):

'TOUTOU 'TOU i\oyou

== of this word

'W.UTIJS 'T'~S dpE'T'~S

== of this virtue

I "" "

'TOUTOU TOU Epyou

== of this work

New words:

0 a.v11p9 'YOU a.v8pos

upp1JV9 uppEvos

e , .... ,

1] yuv1] 9 'f7IS yuvaurns

8a [1E

0 8oui\0<;9 TOU 8oui\ou

E/,Eu0Epoc; 9 &i\Eu0Epa 9 eAEu0Epov

E~

ex0pOS9 i%x0pu9 ex0pov

~i\uc; 9 81111.Eu1 9 &qi\u

the man, the husband

male (3rd declension adjective)

(see section 7, p.71)

woman, lady, wife

I must

the slave

free

well

hostile ( 0 lx0p6s: the enemy)

female (see section 7, p.71)

~ ot1d.o. 9 "11" ot1ttus the house, home

1rpEcr~u-rEpos9 -..prn~UTEpa9 7rpw~uTEpov older

o ao<j>6s 9 -rou aoqiou

the philosopher

~ <J>ums9 T'T)S <f>uaEwc; nature

What is the declension number of: o d.v11p, ~ yuv11, o oouAos and ~ ot1<to.?

The declension number and other endings of a Greek noun can be

worked out if I.he nominative singular and genitive singular are known,

because the declension number is made clear by the ending of the

genitive singular. For instance, once it is known that the genitive of ~

<J>uo-Lc; is ,-11., <puo-Ewc;, it follows that the endings of the other cases are

5The genitive of rnoc; was at one time E0wos, but u tends, in Greek, to drop out

between vowels, so that it became ,WEo, which is contracted to E0ous. The same is

true of other 3rd declension neuters ending -o, in the neuter singular. Their

genitive singular ends -ou,. To yEvo,, Tou yEvous ( the family, race, naUon) and To

µ,Epos, Toil µ,Epous ( the part) are particularly common in Plato.


like the corresponding endings of ~ 110ALs, and so the accusative singular

is T~v cpuaLv. In lexica 6 the genitive singular of nouns is given after the

nominative singular, as in "new words" above.

New meanings:

&xw with an infinitive can mean "I have the ability to ... " and is a

synonym for ouvuµ,nL.

a.Kouw ("I hear") is usually found with the person heard in the genitive.

rrou l:wKpchous 0.KOUW: I hear Socrates, I am listening to Socrates. 7

ripxw ("I am in charge of') also means "I rule". It is found with the

genitive.


l.Tou Myou. 2.Tou µ,u811Tou. 3.Ti\, a.A118ECns. 4.Ti\s bLoTLfLUS. 5.Ti\s

UOEAcpi\s, 6.Ti\S f-1,EALTT'T]S, 7.TT)S ~L~Aou. 8 8.TOU aocpou dv8pumou. 9.TOU

cpCAou. 10.Ti\<; q>LA'T]S, 11.Tou KUKOU TfUL◊o<;. 12.mhou TOU OouAou.

13.TOUTOU TOU Trpayµ,u1os. 14.Ti\S KUKi\S '}'UVULKO<;. 15.TUUT'T]S TT)S ElKOVO<;.

16.Toll uvopos UDTOU. 17.TOU UDTOU Epyou. 18.Tou ETEpou U◊EAq>ou.

19.aAA'T]S Oo~'T]S, 20.Tou 11prn~UTEpou TroAhou. 21.Ti\s 1mAf\s OlKLU',. 22.T~V

,I ' ' 8 'Y 23 , /\ 9 Q I\ ~ ' I\ "

0-0~l'T]V yuvULKU uuµ,u.,,oµ,Ev. .EL f-l,Ei\L JJOU/\EL, UEL (YE f-l,Ei\L TTUS EXEL V.

23.ot TfOAl.TUL Ti\, TfOAEWs apxoucrw ~AEu8E.poL ap ' ELCYLV. 24.ut TOU

q>LAoaocpou TfULOES ElO"LV 8~AELUL. 25.Tou avopos app'T]V ~ cpuo-L<;.

Word order

There are two normal positions for the possessive. Like an adjective, it

is usually either between "the" and the following noun, or "the" is

repeated before the possessive. So "the citizen's house" can either be

~ -rou 'lfoAt-rou oltetu or ~ otrcta ~ -rou ·1r0Ahou. rJJ:

6 A Greek dictionary is called a lexicon, from Ae~LKov ~L~Atov (" a book of words").

To ~L~Atov: book. Ae~LKo,, Ae~LK~, ;\e~,K6v: of or for words.

7 An accusative is understood: 1 am hearing lhe sound of Socrates.

9et: if. TO µ,EAL, Tou fJ,EALTo,: honey.

Section 6

55

Genitive of pronouns

11ou or 11ou: my, of me

aou or aou: your, of you

a-o,-ou: of him, his ·

ohr'ijs: of her, her


I ' i° ' " 0 '1 '-' '~ \,.h_l

1.TLS EO"TlV OUTOS O av pul'rros; EO'TlV O UOEl\'t'OS (YOU.

2.TL A.EyEL; UUTOU ED UKOUElV OUK EXO[LEV.

3.TLS )'l)'VWO'KEl T~V TOUTOU TOU 1TUL8os U◊EAq>~v;

4:rrou EO"TlV b TUUTT]S TfjS yuvULKOS UVT]p;

5.~ a,A.~0Ela ~ TOUTOU TOU 11puyµ,a·ros OU )'l)'VW<YKETUl,

6.1TWS TOUTO TO 11pciyµ,a 8u 1TpUTTE0"0aL;

7,Tl,S yvyvw<YKElV ~ouAETUl;

oL µ,a0T]TUL TOUTOU 'TOU q>LAoo-6cpou.

8.TLS TUUTT]S TTJS OlKLUS upxEL; ~ yuv~ ~ (or) o O.VT]p; U1TOKpLvE0"0m OU

Mvaµ,aL.

9 \ < / 11, \~ \ US EUpl<YKElV 1-'0U/\O(J,E a. apa )'l)'VUlO-KElS TIOU ElO'LV;

10.clpa O U(J,E.TEpos u8EA.cpos E€w ( outside) 1TaLtEL;

8uvau0E;

11.o q>LA.6uocpos )'EVVU1,UlS -rfjs 1TOAEWS o.pxEL,

12.clp' oL qJL/1.oo-oqJol TTJS 110/\EWs KUA.we; o.pxouuLv;

Plural genitives

The genitive plural ending in Greek is -wv.

8La. Tl, UU'TOU (ll(01JElV OU

o TTM-rwv q>'T]<Yf,,

First declension

at ot1<Lcu: the houses (nom.)

Ta.s ot1<tas: the houses (acc.)

Twv olKLwv: of the houses

a.L 1,LEALTTaL: the bees (nom.)

Ta.s µeACwas: the bees (acc.)

-rwv [1EA.L-r-rwv: of the bees

ut hutpm: the companions (fem.) (nom.)

-ras ha.tpa.s: the companions (feminine) (acc.)

-rwv hmpwv: of the companions

al a.pnaL: virtues (nom.)

-ras a.prnis: virtues (acc.)

TWV upETWv: of virtues


ot 1roAtTm: the citizens (nom.)

wos 1r0Atrns: the citizens (acc.)

TWV 1T0Avrwv: of the citizens

ot v<::avtm,: the young men (nom.)

·roos ve.a.vtas: the young men (acc.)

'i'WV VEav,wv: of the young men.

Second declension

oi. a.v0pw,roL: the men (nom.)

TOOS dv0p<!>1Tous: the men (acc.)

,-wv dv0p@,rwv: of the men

at o8oi.: the roads (nom.)

-ra., oom'i.,: the roads (acc.)

Twv bowv: of the roads

Ta &p'Ya: the tasks (norn.)

-ra &p')la: the tasks (acc.)

Twv ip')lrov: of the tasks

Third declension

al 1T11toeas: the children (girls) (nom.}

Ta.s 1Ta.'i.oas: the children (girls) (acc.)

Trov 1Tatowv: of the children (girls)

u1 Et1<ovEs: the images, pictures (nom.)

Tas ElKovac;: the images, pictures (acc.)

'iWV e.LKovwv: of the images, pictures

at 1T0Ae.Ls: the cities (nom.)

-ra.s 'lioAEv,: the cities (acc.}

-rwv 1T0Aewv: of the cities

ot 1Tai0Es: the children (boys)

(nom.)

Too,;; ·na'i.oa.s: the children (boys}

(acc.)

"i'wv 1mLowv: of the children (boys)

Ta. a!i1:ouaµ,a·m: the lies (nom.)

-rct tji<EuO'µ.o:rn,: the lies (acc.)

~-wv ljie.uO'µ,&-rwv: of the lies

Ta. &&!]: the habits, customs (nom.}

-ro, i811: the habits, customs (acc.}

-rwv i0wv: of the habits, customs

Genitive plural of personal pronouns :

~µ,wv: of us

a:&,.fuv: of them (masc.) mhwv: of them (fem.)

iiµ,wv: of you (plurj:l}

au .. wv: of them (neuter)

The genitive plural of oDTo, is 'Tou-rwv for all genders:

I ,... 9 ,..

wu-rwv 'iWV Mywv

TO\J'l"WV TWV upE'l"lllV

= of these words

= of these virtues

TouTwv Twv &pywv = of these tasks

Section 6 57

There are ambiguous cases. Since Ii &oecA<pos = "the brother" and 11 o.3EA!p·~

== "the sister", ~-&v d.llEAq;olv means both "of the brothers" and "of the

sisters". The context usuaily makes it clear which is meant

N.B. Not all words that end - wv are genitive plural; e.g. EL1<wv is nominative singular.


(a) 1. TWV a v0pw-rrwv. 2.TWV OLKLWV, ' ' 3.TWV bowv. 4.TWV -rrarnwv (two

meanings). S.mhwv TWV <JOq>WTWV. 6.~µ,wv. 7.uµ,wv. 8.TWV ')'UVULl(WV

a.KOUW. 9.TWV 'ITOI\LTWV KU/1.W<; a.pxu o q>LA6ao<j>os. 10.uL Twv -rrpw~uTE.pwv

Et.K6VES KU/1.Ul El<JLV.

(b) l.oL 'iTUl◊ES

-rwv oou/1.wv uuTol oou/1.o( El<JLV.

2.Tl<; a.pxu TUUTTJS TT)S 1r611.rns;

3.TL 11.E')'OU<JLV Ol TOD 1:wKpUTOU', µ,u61rraL; UUTWV OUK ED d.1couw.

4.~ ao<\>La ~ TOUTOU TOU ao<j>ou 0uuµ,atETm.

5.~ a11.'fi0uu ~ TOUTOU TOD 1rpuyµ,o:ros ')'L')'VW<JKE<Y0m OU OUVUTCLL.

6.ou OLUq>Epu· TOUTO µ,uv0uvuv OU ~OUAO[-LUL,

7 ''0' I' ', 9

,OL EX pol [-LOU <t>U<JLV [-LE U<JX'T]f-LOVU ELVUL. 10

8 ,OU' ,l.. 'l'U<JL' [-LE KUI\OV \' KU')'U ' 0' OV ELVUL.

9 11

9.TWV 1rarnwv, Ol [-LEV o'.ppEVES ,ro,((oucnv, o.L OE 01]11.ElUL TU ~pyo. 1rpaTTOU<JLV.

lo 9 \', ~ ~ " '

.apa OEL TUUTU OUTWS ')'L')'VE<J'UL; 0 12

ll\i<JJ(~µwv, U<J)(~µovo,: disgraceful, ill-behaved.

11"To affirm not" = "to deny", "to say that ... not ...".

Ka.ya06, stands for imt ci.ya86,.

'over Ka.ya06, is called a crasis mark, literally "a mixing", marking where two

words have merged (sec p.26, footnote 6). KaAos 1<0.yo.06, was a complimentary epithet

for an Athenian gentleman.

12oihw,: so, thus, like this.


11 ' A_ / \ ' ~ \ ' / e \ 13 ',' \ ,... I\ 14 / \

.EL t-'OU/\EL avupos apE.T°T]V, LKUVOV ELVUL TU T°T]S 1TO/\E.WS 1rpUTTELV, KUL

, , ,k' \ 9 - 15 , ", 16 , 0 , - , ,:, , f.l , \ , .

TOUS f-l,E.V 'l'L/\OUS E.U '!TOLELV, TOU<; 0 EX pous KUKW';. EL OE. t-'OU/\EL )'UVUlKO<;

' I , \ ' <I- '6 - 17 " 18 " - , \ \ , / 9 , - I 9 \

upE.T°T]V, OU XU/\E.'ITOV OLE./\ UV, OTl OEL UUT°T]V T°T]V OUCWV EU OLICELV, ICUL

I 20 9 ~ j \:, I \ ,t\ \ j \ <;, \ j / \ 0 \ / \

KUT1]KOOV HVUL TOU avopos. ICUL U/\/11] EO"Tl 1TULUOS apE.T1], ICUL °T]IIE.WS ICUL

" 21 \ (.l / j <;'- / , \ (.l /\ 9\ 6' j \:,\ (.l /\

appE.vos, KUL 11pE.at-'UTEpou avupos, El f-l,E.V t-'OU/IEL, E./\EU E.pou, EL OE t-'OU/IEL,

oouAou. Meno 71e2-72al (adapted)

12.o µ,Ev OECT1TOT1]S TOU oouAou OE.0°1TOT1]<; µ,6vov (ECTTLV ), EKElVOU o ' OUI(

fonv· b OE oouAos OU µ,6vov OECT'!TOTOU oouAos ECTTlV, ciAAo. KUL oAws

EKE.Lvou. (Aristotle, Politics I, 1254a 11,13.) 23

22

13 .ou' T1]V ' U)'LELUV ' ' E.'ITLCTKO'ITEL ' - 24 O ' w-rpos, ' ' U/\/\U ''' ' T°T]V ' av ' 6 pw1rou. ' (A nstot . I e,

Nicomachaean Ethics 1097al2) (adapted).

]JLKavo<;, LKav~, Lrnvov: enough, sutficien t, capable (of). avopoc; o.pET~ ECTTLV is understood

before Lrnvov.

14Understand 1rpciyµ.aw.

IS.ITOLEtV: to treat.

168' and o.f.: but, however

17

oLEA8av: to go through, explain. This is the infinitive of oL~A8ov, consisting of oui

( through) + ~A8ov. ~A8ov is the aorist of iipxoµ.aL (see section 14, p.165 and, for the

aorist tense, p.75). OLEpxoµ.m means I go through. Understand fo-rL with xaArnov.

18See p.27.

19otKEtv (literally, to dwell): to manage (a house).

20

rn-r~1<00<;, KUT~Koov (feminine as masculine): subordinate (from 1cawKouw, I listen

underneath).

21 Ka1. ... rn1. ... both ... and ...

22 oAwc;: wholly. b Orn'IToT'lJS, -rou 3rn'IT6-rou: the master. µ.bvov: only.

23lt is necessary in this sentence to distinguish between simply "of', and" belonging

to", both of which are expressed by the genitive case in Greek. EKELvos means "that

man", and so EKElvou means "belonging to that man".

24 .,'JTurKo'ITEw: I consider.

Section 6

S9

Subjects and verbs

1.aKOUW. 2.lipxETE. 3JxovTUL. 4.E0E.Aoµ,Ev. 5.0LOU<JKE0"0E. 6.o 0-0q>L<JT~S

0auµ,a.ln. 7.ot oou/\OL qmo-(v. 8.ot 'ITatoE, ·,m(tnv ~ouAovrnL. 9.~ uA1]8E(a

EUpt.0-ICETUL.

The verb "I am"

1.qi(Aos EL. 2.KUAoV E<JTL TO Epyov. 3.Ku/\ov TO Epyov. 4.o-oqio( E<Jµ,Ev.

5 .µ,uKa.pLOL El<YLV ol µ,u0rirnC 6.µ,aKapLOL E<JTE.

Subjects, verbs and (some) objects

l.oL oouAoL 'ITOAAU µ,av0avouO-LV. 2.ot oouAoL E0t.toVTUL.

3.-r~v OLKLUV oL lt1JO-TUl. U1TOAAuao-Lv. (o A1JO-T~S, TOU A1JO-Tou: the bandit)

4.~ OlKLa U1TOAAUTUl. 5.uyu0ol 1TOAlTUl dvm AEyoµ,E0u.

6 ' ~ ' 0 \ \/ s ,1- /

.7]µ,as uyu ous 1TO/\lTUS HVUL 'f'(l(JLV.

Subjects, objects, verbs and possessives

l.o TOU o-6qiou µ,u0ri-r~s KUAo.S ~t.~Aous EXEL- ( ~ ~L~/\O<;, T~<; ~L~/\ou: the book)

2.at TWV ·rroALTWV yuvalKES TOUTO µ,uv0uvnv ~OU/\OVTUL.

3.ap' 0 TOU o-oqiou 1m'i:, UUTOS o-oqios yt.yVETUl;

4:ros TWV ~fLETEpwv Ex0pwv Oll(LUS chroA/tuµ,EV.

5. ~ TOU lx0pou µ,ou OlKLU d, 1TO/\A UTUL

60

Section 7

CONJUNCTIONS

Two equivalents for "and"

Socrates and Plato can simply be b LuKpa.TrJ, Kat. b TTAa.Twv.

Alternatively, TE can be used to mean and. Because TE is enclitic, its

accent affects the last syllable of the preceding word, and therefore it

cannot stand first in a clause. So, Socrates and Plato can be b foKpO.T1J,

o TE DMTWv. A sister and a brother can be a.8EA<ji~ d.8eAqi6s TE.


l.~ o-oqi(u ~ TE a.peT~. 2.uL 11D\LT1m TO TE µ,e/\L ( TO f-LEAL: 1l1e honey)

3.ot aoqiot Ol TE µ,u011rnt UKOUOUO-L TOU ITAa.TWVOS. 4.o lUTpos av8pus

-yuvaLKO.S TE 8epu-rreuu. 1

New words:

&1M: but

y&.p: for (because) 3

M: but or and 2

ouv: therefore

Word order

y&.p 9 M and oov come second in a clause.

Examples:

' \ 'j' ,.I,_ I

ou ya.p ea ao't'os.

You are not teaching me well

for you are not wise.

0 a.v0p11nroc; 'f~V ~t~A.011 avo:yvyvwaKE< The man is reading the book

ol 3E 1ra.'ilkc; OUK cl.tcouou<n. but the children are not

listening.

18Epa:rrEuw: I trea 1.

1 aA.Aa is a strong "but". oe is weaker, balancing two opposed ideas.

Kulis a strong "and" (= "also"). o<i. is weaker (the normal "and" at the beginning of

a sentence).

3yup can be used to emphasise agreement or disagreement, "Yes, because ... " or

"No, because ... " e.g. Tpuyt1<~ yup E<mv, <il M.~vwv, ~ d1r61<pun, (Meno, 76e3): Yes,

because the answer is poetical, Meno." (~ h61<pwt,: the answer 1puyu<6, -~ -6v:

poetical (as in a tragedy).

Section 7 61

0 'll'Aof,,ros '!foAMcn, &v0pti>-rrous o.'!f6AAuov Wealth often corrupts people;

,, '~ I ' ' \ ' 9 I "'h .C 't. ,_ 1

T~S ouv E1JOll.Lf1,011UlS Ql)I( 11.(cL ,w·~w 11.L'i'Ul,, ( ere10re l lS 110l a ways

the cause of happiness. 4

What is the EngUsh for

1 :roiho TIPUTTELV OU ouvaµ,m · xa/\E1TOV ycip Ea-Tl.

f \ I I

2

> " S \\ \ ,k'\

,OUTOS 1f/\OUO'lOS EO'TlV" EXEL OUV 1TO/\/\OU<; 't'L/\OUS,

3 ' \ 8' A I\ ,, \, ' ' ,l.. \ , \ , "' "'I

.apET'T]V µ,av UVELV r'OU(\Of1UL, U(\(\ OUTO<; 0 O'O,,,o, UUTT]V OU OLUUO'KEL.

4 , , , \, 5 " A I\ , , ,;, , , ,,

,0 11'0/\LT'T]S f1E/\L EXELV r'OUf\ETUL' [1Ef\LTTUS OE OUK EXEL,

5.0El T~V .6.wTLµ,av 8uuµ,utrn8m. 0-0~~ yup Jo-n.

THE DATIVE CASE

When we say "Give a dog a bone" or "I told the man a lie", the object of

"give" is "a bone"; the object of "told" is "a lie". But the dog is also

affected by the giving and the man is also affected by the telling,

though not so closely. Therefore the dog and the man in these two

sentences are called the indirect objects. Very often, in English, the

sentence can be put a different way, using "to" in front of the indirect

object; e.g. "give a bone to the dog", or "I told a lie to the man". "To" in

this sense does not mean the same as "towards".

The dative case is used, very often, to express the indirect object. The

dative is also used for the person interested or benefited, expressed in

English by "for": "I'm doing this for you."

Another important use of the dative case is to express "by" in English

when "by" shows the instrument "by" which something is done; e.g.

'ITEL'0 w 6 uE :rotmp ' '•!t' ~ l\oyqi: ' ' "I am persua ct· mg · you b y th' ts argumen t" .

4noA/lo.KL,: often ~ a.1-r[a., rijs a.1-rta.s: the cause ~ EUOULfLOVta., rijs Euoa.q10v[a.s:

happiness

5-ro (lEAt: honey

6n~t0w: I persuade.


The dative singular case endings in the first and second declensions ( rq,,

1], or ~) all have iota subscript. The dative singular case ending in the

third declension is L. The dative singular of "the" is -r0 (masculine &

neuter) and T1J (feminine):

TouTo Xeyw T4J µ,a611Tfl: I am saying this to the student.

TouTo Myw Tij .&t.o-rCµ,<t,: I am saying this to Diotima.

TouTo M'Yw T4J dv6pum4>: I am saying this to the man.

TouTo M'Yw -r0 'ITmoC: I am saying this to the child.

Dative singular pronouns

e110( Or jJ,OL: tO me

a.u-r4>: to him or to it

cmL: to you (singular)

o,iirij: to her

We can now set out the four principal cases of nouns in the singular in

the order nominative, accusative, genitive, dative:

First declension (the dative singular ends •·q, or -TJ):

~ ao~ta.: wisdom (nom.) o -;roAf.T11s: the citizen (nom.)

T~v ao~lav: wisdom (acc.)

T6v 1f0At-r71v: the citizen (acc.)

T~S O'O~)Lus: of wisdom

-rou -rmALTou: of the citizen

-riJ ao<!>(,q,: by wisdom, to or for

T!J) 'lf0At-r11: lo, for the cilizen

wisdom

~ ha(pu: the (female)companion

(nom.)

T~v &mtpa.11: the companion (acc.)

-r~s ha.tpus: of the companion

-rij hutp'f: to, for the companion

~ µ,EALna: the bee (nom.)

T~v µ,&ALTTav: the bee (acc.)

-r~s µ,EAtn11s: of the bee

Ti\ µ,EALTT"Q: by, to, for the bee

b vea.vtas: the young ma.n (nom.)

-rbv veavf.av: the young man (~c.)

wu veavtou: of the young man.

T!fl vrnvtq,: to, for the young man

~ apET~: excellence, virtue (nom.)

.. ~v o.pn~v: excellence (acc.)

.,~., dpeT~s: of excellence

,,ii apE-riJ: by, to, for excellence

Section 7

63

0

second declension (the dative singular ends qi):

0 av0pwTios: the man (nom.) ~ oMs: the road (nom.)

TOV dv0pw1rov: the man (acc.)

'T~V o86v: the road (acc.)

Tou av0po'.nrou: of the man

'T'YJS 0800: of the road

T<\l av0pw'll'!\l: to, for the man

-r-u b84l: by, (to), for the road

TO epyov: the task (nom.)

TO epyov: the task (acc.)

Tou epyou: of the task

T<\l epyl\l: by, to, for the task

Third declension (the dative singular ends

0

~ 1Tais: the child (girl) (nom.) b 1mis: the child (boy) (nom.)

-rqv 1Tat.oa: the child (girl) (acc.) -rov 'll'a.ioa: the child (boy) (acc.)

T'YJS 1mL8os: of the child (girl) wu 1rmMs: of the child (boy)

T'U 'lmLot: to, for the child (girl)

-rq1 mnot: to, for the child (boy)

i):

~ el1<w11: the image, picture (nom.)

T~v El1<011u: the image, picture (acc.)

T'YJS ELKovos: of the image, picture

T'U et1divi: by, to, for the image,

picture

To ~eu<Y1ul.: the lie (norn.)

To ~Euo-µ,a: the lie (acc.)

wu ~eocrµ,a-ros: of the lie

Tq> ~efoµ,a:n: by the lie

~ mSlu.s: the city (nom.)

-r~v 1r6Aw: the city (acc.)

T'l)S 'lfoAews: of the city

,.11 'ITOAEi: by, to, for the city

To l0os: the habit, custom (nom.)

To e0os: the custom, habit (acc.)

-roil &0ous: of the habit, custom

Tl(J &0,a: by the habit, custom

o Iw1<pa.TT)s: Socrates (nom.)

-rov I:wicpa.-r11: Socrates (acc.)

Tou Iw1ep1hous: of Socrates

T(J) I:w1<pa-ret: to, for Socrates

Dative singular of otJ-ros: TotlT<!) (masc.), -ra.u'f11 (fem.), TouTqi (neuter).

TOUT'!) Tl\) Aoyqi

= by this word

Tuu111 Til apE'f'U

= by this virtue

'l'OU'f'!) Tl\) &py<!)

= by this work


What is the J::nglish for

2

\1 3'' •-4~' •~t;\t -, -

1.AEyw aoL. .AEYEL µ,oL. .11eyEL<; auT41. . 1EyETE aUT"(l • .J,11qEL T(JI LUTp41.

6.AEyou<YL T4) oouA.41. 7.Myoµ,ev T4) TiOALT"(l, 8.AEyrns T4) o·o<pL<YT~. 9.aih~

MyouaLv aL cpOtm. 10.clpu TouTo T4) TfULOl AEyELs; 1 Uµ,oL /\EyETe; l2.ou1e

U1TOKpLv6µ,e0a (YOL.

13.ot µ,a0'1]TUl T(f) TOU <YO<pL<YTOU OOUA(JI U1TOKpLVOVTUL.

Dative plurals

The ending of the dative plural is ~uLs (short for =w,(v)} in the first

declension, and 4>1-s (short for 4>w.(v)) in the second. Third declension

dative plurals end--in(v) or ~~(v).

The masculine and neu1er dative plurals of "the" are .. o'i.,: "to/for the"

or ( of things) "by the".

The feminine dative plural is Tru.s: "to/for the" or ( of things) "by the".

We can now set out the four principal cases of nouns in the plural in

the order nominative, accusative, genitive, dative:

Fint declension

111 ot1ctaL: the houses (nom.)

~"ci.S oLKtus: the houses (acc.)

TWV oLtnwv: of the houses

-rn1s 0L1Cluts: by, (to), for Lhe houses

at µB,ino,1.: the bees (nom.)

Tos v,EAC-r-rus: the bees (acc.)

-rwv µ,EALT-rwv: of the bees

-co'.1.s V,EA1.wC!,~s: by, to, for the bees

ul <lmtpm: the companions (fem.) (nom.)

Tu<; ha.tpas: the companions (fem.) (acc.)

Twv haLpwv: of the companions (fem.)

Ta.LS ha.tpms: to, for the companions (fem.)

al &pETo,i.: excellences, virtues (nom.)

'fUS apETas: excellences (acc.)

'fWV apeTwv: of excellences

To,'i,s a.prnii.s: by, to, for excellences

ot 1r0Al.'fm: the citizens (nom.)

Toos 1o0At-ra.s: the citizens (acc.)

Twv 'll'OALTwv: of the citizens

To'i.s 'IToAL'i'u~s: to, for the citizens

ot vEavtm: the young men (nom.)

-roos v<Euvtos: the young men (acc.)

Twv vEavtwv: of the young men

Tci.c; v<Eo,vtm,c;: to, for the young men

Section 7

65

second declension

ot av0pw'IToL: the men (nom.)

-rous a.v0ptil'ITO'IJS: the men (acc.)

1wv av0poo'ITrov: of the men

-rots d,v0poo'!Tm,<,: to, for the men

al oSol: the roads (nom.)

-rus ooous: the roads (acc.)

'TWV bilwv: of the roads

-ra'i, ooo'i.s: by, (to), for the roads

-ra ep,ya,: the tasks (nom.)

-rct epya: the tasks (acc.)

-rwv Ep')'lt.lV: of the tasks

-rots Epyms: by, to, for the tasks

Third declension

at 1rm0Es: the children (girls) (nom.)

-rcts '1Tu.1.Sas: the children (girls) (acc.)

-rwv 'ITaLSwv: of the children (girls)

-rcus 'ITaw{(v): to, for the children

(girls)

al Etcc6w,,s: the images, pictures (nom.)

Tcts E1.1c6was: the images, pictures (acc.)

TWV EL1<6110011: of the images, pictures

w'is 1ct1e6cn(v): by, to, for the images,

at 1r6Aas: the cities (nom.)

-ras 'ITO~vas: the cities (acc.)

pictures

-rwv 1T6AEw11: of the cities

w'i.s -rr6A<Em(v): by, (to), for the cities

ol dvilpEs: the men (nom.)

'TOUS a.vopas: the men (acc.)

'TWV avopwv: of the men

'iOl,S avopacn( V ): to or for the men

ol. 'ITcuOa:s: the children (boys)(nom.)

wiis 'ITa'ioo,c;: the children (boys) (acc.)

-.wv 'ITaUlwv: of the children (boys)

-.o'i<; '/iaurt( v }: to, for the children

(boys)

-ru. ijiEu0'µ,11:ru: the lies (nom.)

Tli i!ieua~,a:rn.: the lies (acc.)

'i'WV ~li<Euo-p,6,Twv: of the lies

w'is iji1eu0'µ,mn(v ): by the lies

-.a E0'l'J: the habits, customs (nom.)

'CU, &e,~: the habits, customs (acc.)

-rwv &0rov: of the habits, customs

-.o'i.s &0Em,(v): by, to, for the

habits, customs

al yuva:~K~s: the women (nom.)

-rcts yu11a'i.1eu,: the women (acc.)

TWV yuvaucii\v: of the women

,;a,1.s yuvm~t(v): to orfor the women

Notice that a letter is sometimes missed in forming the third declension dative

plural, e.g. To'is o/EUO"fLa<rL(v) where we might have expected Tots o/Eucrµ.aTcrL(v),

or added, like u in TOlS a.vopucn(v ). In rn'i, yuvmE((v)' no letter is omitted, but E

stands for Ker.


The dative plural of the personal pronouns

~µ,'i.v : to/for us

u[!,'i.v : to/for you (plural)

auw'i.s : to, by them (masc.+ neut.) o,u1.Tus : to, by them (fem.)

The dative plural of oilTos:

'fou-rots (masc. & neut.), 'fm',Tais (fem.).

rouTolc; TOtS a.vopa.ow: to these men. rnurnlc; rn'i,c; yuvaL~tv: to these women.

TOUToLc; TOtS Epyol,: by these deeds. (ooTos is tabulated on p.389)


l.rn'i,c; TOU 'T!Ul◊OS

O.OEA<pa'i.c; AE-yw. 2.o l:wKpO.TT]S TOLS '!10/\LTUlS 0.1TOKpLVETUl.

3.TOUTOlS TOL<; TOU l:wKpO.TOU<; Myw; a:rroKpLvE0"0m OU OUVUVTUl. 4.TOL<; 'TfULalV

J

OU

(;, J-.'

OlU<~EpEl. 5 ~ J \ / / ~ t'

.TOUTO OU /\E')'O[!,EV TUUTUl<; TUl<; yuvmslV. 6 < ~ < \ J

,'Tj[l,lV 11 yuv11 OUK

0.'TIOKPLVETUl. 7 .ot 1TULOE<; TULS yuval~l Aiyoucnv. 8.TOLS o.vopa.ow OU AEyOUO"lV,

9.aUTOL<; OU Myou<JlV. 10.uµ,'i.v Ci1TOKpLVE0"0m OU ~ou/\oµ,E0a. l l.1rws TOLc;

uv0pw1TOlS 1TapayCyverm a.pe-r~; (adapted from Meno lO0bS-6)

In the following, the dative indicates the instrument:

l.Tov EwKpO.T'Tj 'YlYVWO"KO[l,EV Ti\ O"O<pLq. UUTOU.

2.TOL<; Epyolc; KUA~v OO~uv EXOUO"lV OL uo<j>oL

3.TOLS Epyw; KUA~ oo~a 'YL'YVETUl Tl\) O"O<pl]l,

I ~

4 < <;, ~ < J 0 \ J ( ) \ /

.TUUT'lJ T'lJ OOIJ) Ol EX pol El<; at T'TjV 1TO/\lV -rrapa'Yl'YVOVTUl,

5.rfl O.h1j0ECq. TWV Mywv aurou 1TEL0oµ,m. (1rEWoµud am persuaded).

The dative case can also be used to denote possession:

r0 orn1r6T1J oouAos fonv: to the master there is a slave = the master has

a slave: o 0E0"1TOT'TjS oou/\ov EXEl,(o OE<71TOTT]S, TOD OE<71TOTOu: the master)


l.1roAAOl oouAol TOL<; 1TO/\LTUL<; ElO"lV,

2.oouAOL (J,Ol OUK ElO"LV 0

3.KaA~ 'lfOAl<; E<JTL TOL<; 'A011vu(olc;. (' A611va'i:oc;: Athenian)

4.ot' A011vaLOl KUA~v 1TOAlv EXOUO"lV.

5.vous KUl EU(J,Op<pLU Tl\) UUTl]l OU 1TO/\Aa.Kl<; EL<JlV. (o VODS, TOD voii (contracted

from o v6os, Toii v6ou ): intelligence.~ d,µop~(u ~ good looks, handsomeness.

1TO/\AO.KLS: often.)

New words:

, I ,-,, 'J I

~ avna 9 'f'l]S u1.Tm, the cause

" ? l "

aLTLOS9 UL'flU9 IQ.LTLOV

~

Section 7 67

responsible for (with genitive, the cause of)

or

either ... or ...

and moreover

Kat 3~ iw1

otos 'f' elt1,L (with infinitive) I am able to

~ I ~

'lTpUlTOS9 TIPUlT'TJ9 'ITPWTOV first, most important

b -rpo1Tos9 -rou -rpo7rou

I

,.,TE ,., KUL .,,

the way, the manner, the method

both ... and ...

WHO?, WHAT? 1{s 9 'fL (interrogative)

,.t, (who?) a.nd -rt (what?) are third declension:

Singular: nominative -r{s (who?) 1{ (what?)

accusative Ttva (whom?) 'fl (what?)

genitive ,-tvos (whose?) 7(vos ( of what?)

dative

I

11,VL (to/for whom?) 'fLvt (by what?)

Plural: nominative 'fLvEs (who?) -rtm (what?)

accusative ,{vas (whom?) -rl.va (what?)

genitive ·,{vuiv (whose?) .. i.vwv (of what?)

dative Ttat(v) (to/for whom?) -rta1.(v) (by what?)

,.t, can also mean "which?" as in

TLs o.v8pwTios wfrm 1Tp1h-req which man is doing this?

SOMEONE, SOMETHING

-r11s9 n (indefinite)

ns and TL have case endings like Tts and TL, but are indefinite: 7

as a pronoun, TLs means someone or anyone

as an adjective, ·ns means some or a certain, e.g.

AEyn TL,: somebody is saying, somebody says

Clv0pUl'rros TLS Xeyu: a certain man or some man says.

ns can be masculine or feminine: yuv~ TL,: a certain woman.

7 TL, and TL are enclitic (p.8). As the accent is transferred to the last syllable of

the preceding word, they never stand at the beginning of a sentence.


As a pronoun, n means someth.ing or anything

as an adjective, 11, means some or a certain, e.g.

1rpnTTu Tl: he (or she) is doing something

1rpuyµ,6. Tl: some matter or a certain matter

Greek lacks a word for the English indefinite article "a" or "an", but

sometimes the meaning of TlS, Tl is very similar.

NBl a:na is sometimes used for the nominative and accusative neuter

plural (indefinite) instead of Tlva e.g. (dpa) aTTa AEyus Ta. o.ya06.; do

you call some things "the good things"? (adapted from Meno 78c9)

NB2 Tip is sometimes used for ,-(,vl (interrogative) and T(Jl for Tlvl

(indefinite).


1.yuv~ TL<;. 2.TL<; yuv~; 3.TL Epyov; 4Jpyov Tl. 5.TC ~ouAETm; 6.~ouAETaC Tl.

7.TCvl Myus; 8.AEyu,; TLVl. 9.TL<; TOUTO 11p6.nuv ouvarnl; 10.ouvaTaL w;

TOUTO 1rp6.nuv. 11.o CJO<pO<; e0(,tu TlVU. 12.TLVU E0(,tu o CJO(pos; 13. TLVl

' A 14 , , A , 15 , ,l._A

ECJTl TOuTO; .TLVl TPOTI(jl TOUTO 1TpUT'TETUL; .Tpo·m,; TlVl CJO,j'(jl TOUTO

·rrpuTTOUCJlV. (0-0~6~ can mean "clever" or "skilled", e.g. in a handicraft).

N.B. There are often several different ways of expressing the same

English word in Greek.

Three equivalents to L£:;m have occurred so far:

ouvaµ,aL9 e.g. ouvaµ,m T~V a.A~0uav EUpLCJKElv: I can discover the

truth

exw, e.g. EXW T~V aA'f10uav Eupt,CJKElV: I can discover the truth (I have the

ability to discover it)

olos ,-' EL[l.l T~V UA~0uav EUpt,O"l(ElV: I can discover lhe trulh

( I am such as to discover it, i.e. the kind of person to discover it), 8 ~~

(olos, o\'.a, olov: such as)


l .Tot.s TIPWTOlS Twv TioAC TWV Myw· o0To,; o <pl/\oaoqios OlOUCJKEl TU<; TE

yuvut.KUS KUl. TOUS o.vSpas· '!"OU<; TE 1TCllOU<; l0(,(El KUL 0~ KUL 1TOAAU aJAa

11p6.y[LUTU 1rpUTTEl.

8Not unlike the English "I am the sort of person to,,.", and so: J can.

Section 7

69

2. dpa TUUTUL<; mis yuvm~i'.v a1To1i.pi'.vrn0m OUK EXE.LS; a0TUL ')'Up p~OL6v TL

yvyvwm<E.LV ~OUAOVTUL.

/ ' t f 1 I ' 0 I \ I I 1 <) ~ "10

3.'fLVL E.O'TLV aUTTJ_ 'T] OLKLa; av pw1rou 'ffi\OU<YLOU TLVO!, E.<JTL. OOl(EL f10L

[LaKapL6, TLS E.lVUL. Tl', E<JTLV ~ aLTla TOD 1TAOUTOU TOU civop6,;

' M' ' ' . ' . ~ ' ' '.l r.i~ ' \ - II

4.w EVWV, <JU KaL OL O'OL E.TULpOL aEL a~,Oj-'W'; KaL i1-E')'al\01TpE1TW<;

ci1ro1<pi.vrn0E.

I ~ \ " I ' "' ,, I ' 1--, I 9 ,.I. I 12 ' 7 l ')

5.TOUTOU OE TOU 1Tpa')'µ.aTo<; uµ.Lv ULTLO<; EO'TL Op')'LUS" a,,,Ll<Oµ.Evo, yap HS ·

, , \ , , 14 , , ,k' l 5 ,, , A\ ~ ~ 16 , , ,

T'T]V 1TOI\LV Epa<YTas E1TL O'O'j'L(/, EXEL /\EUaowv TE '(OU', -rrpw1ous, KUL TWV

"\\ 0 \ ~ 17 , ~' , ~ , "0 , ~ '0'Y 18 ',k'(.l~ ~

0.1\1\WV - E.TTal\WV' KaL O'T] KUL TOUTO 'TO E O', uµ.a,c; E L1:,EL, a't'or'ws KUL

[1EyaA01TpE1TWS ci·rro1<pi'.vrn0m Eav Tt.<; TL EP'TJTUL. 19 (Plato, Meno 70a-b)

9TLv6s stands for TLvos. the acute accent on o is from EO'TL, which is enclitic.

10ooKa: he seems.

11ci<j,o~fus: fearlessly. µ.Eyu/1011prnws: magnificen lly.

110-<pLKoµ.Evos, a.<pLKOfJ-EV1J, a.<pLKoµ.Evov (aorist participle of a.<pLKvfoµ.uL): having arrived.

13d, (with accusative): into.

140 epao-T~s. ·rou epuo-Tou: the lover (intense friendships between men were common

in upper class Athens).

15.\-rrL(with dative): for, because oL e1rt ao4l</-: because of ( his) wisdom

16Genitive plural of 'AArnuouC. The Aleuadae were Meno's family. See p.82.

170ETTU/lo<;, 0ETTCLil~, 0ETrn/lov: Thessalian.

18.\eLtw: I train means I teach and takes two objects, as "she is teaching us Greek".

19Eciv TL, TL EP1JTCLL: if ever someone should ask something. Mv: if' ever. EP1JTCLL is

3rd person singular, aorist subjunctive middle ("should ask") from ~p6µ11v: I asked,

a verb not found in the present tense (for subjunctive middle, see section 12,

p.142; for 11p6µ.11v, section 14, pp.172 & (for aorist subjunctive ending) 174). Here it

is in an "if" clause (a general condition), for which see p.146. NB, as 'fL is enclitic,

the accent on T(~ comes from TL Both are indefinite.


THE VOCATIVE CASE

There is one other case in use in Classical Greek, the vocative, which

is used in addressing people. In form, it is exactly like the nominative,

except:

(a) the vocative singular of first declension masculine nouns ends

·-"{l..

The vocative of r op-yCas is r op-yCu, and the vocative of f1U0lJT~, is

f.l,U0'T]TU.

(b) The vocative singular of all second declension nouns ending •··o,

ends ""'E. Thus the vocative of" AvUTos is" AvuTE.

(c) Some third declension singular vocatives have the nominative

singular ending shortened for the vocative: thus, Ji 11aL.: Ochild,

Ji avEp: Oman! and Ji LwKpuTE<,: OSocrates!

Others are the same as the nominative, e.g. ti> ME.vwv: 0 Meno!

All plural vocatives are the same as plural nominatives.

Another third declension norm pattern

An important group of third declension nouns has stems ending -Eu. It

includes many names (e.g. Odysseus, one of the oldest figures in Greek

mythology) and categories of people.

Singular

Nominative o ~a<nAeos: the king

Vocative ro ~U<YlAEu: Oking!

Accusative TOV ~omAeu: the king

Genitive ·roil ~a<YtAe.ws: of the king

Dative T<Jl ~a<YLII.EL: to/for the king

Plural

ot ~a<YLAEis: the kings

Ji ~a<YtAEis: Okings!

-rous pacnMas: the kings

-rwv ~a<YtA<Ewv : of the kings

-rms ~1wil,Eu<Yt(v): to/for the

kings

(~ucnAE'i:c; is the later regular form of the nominative and vocative plural.

In Plato, the nominative plural is always ~U<YtAfj,. ~aatAfjo, (genitive

singular), ~amAfjE, (nominative plural}, ~U<YtAfjus (accusativ@f plural)

and ~u<YtA~wv (genitive plural) occur in Plato in quotations.)

Section 7

THIRD AND MIXED DECLENSION ADJECTIVES

71

Third declension adjective:

app'Y]V9 appEV (masculine, male)

masculine & feminine neuter

singular

nominative app'Y]V appEV

vocative

is not found

accusative appEva o.ppEV

genitive appEVOS appEVOS

dative uppEVt appevt

plural

nominative appEVES appEva

accusative uppEV<l<; dppcwa

genitive d.ppGvwv d.pp~vwv

dative uppecn( v) iippEcn( v)

The case endings are like those of 3rd declension nouns.

Mixed declension adjective:

&iji\us9 0~AELa, e~,rn ( feminine, female)


singular

nominative &iji\us 01JltEW, e~i\u

vocative 611Au e~X.,w &ijA.u

accusative &iji\uv ~/\Et,UV 0~Au

genitive ~/\EOS 611A.,tas 0Nt.EOS

dative 0~/\<EL 01]A.€tq, 0~/\Ei,

plural

nominative ~AELS ~AELat 0~Aea

vocative 0~AELS ~Aeun 0~i\ea

accusative ~i\ns 0~i\ews ~Aea

genitive 01]AEW11 611AELOOV e'Y]Mwv

dative ~AEcn( v) 611AELaLs 0~AE<YL( v)

This adjective has 3rd declension masculine and neuter case endings,

but the feminine case endings are 1st declension.

The masculine and neuter of 0ijAu, are needed for expressions like "feminine foot"

(0ijAu, 11ou,), as 11ous (foot) is masculine, and 8ijAu -y{vo, ("female sex") as -y{vos

(kind, race, gender) is neuter, like -ro 1:00,. Other mixed declension adjectives

ending -us, -tta, -u include ~ous, ~Ma, ~ou: pleasant (section 23, p.293), -y>..uKus,

'YADKELU, -yAuKU; sweet and ~paxus, ~PUXELU, ~paxu; short.

72

SecHon 8

PREPOSITIONS

Words such as "to", "from" or "in", which we put in front of nouns to

show the relationship of one thing or action with another, are called

"prepositions" (literally, "puttings in front").

In Greek, if the relationship is of something moving TOWAfu1S

something, nouns following the preposition are often in the

ACCUSATIVE case (like objects).

If the relationship is of something moving A WAY FROM or our OF

something, nouns following the preposition are often in the GENITIVE

case (separation is a normal meaning of the Greek genitive case, as we

say, in English, "the rabbit came out of the hat").

If the relationship is neither of something moving towards something

else or away from something else, but simply at rest IN something else,

the nouns following the preposition are often in the DATIVE case.

Many Greek prepositions are found with different meanings according

to the case of the nouns or pronouns they modify; e.g. J1-rC with the

genitive means "on" (perhaps the connection with the genitive case is that if,

for instance, you are sitting on a chair, you get support from the chair),

whereas l·rrC with the dative means "for", in the sense of "because of'.

New words:

O.'lfo (with genitive):

els (with accusative):

EK or&~ (with genitive) 1 :

&v (with dative):

hrt (with genitive):

ht (with dative)

'll"EpL (with genitive)

"lrpo (with genitive)

from (cf. English "apostasy")

into

out of (cf. English "eclectic")

in

on (cf. English "epiphyte")

(a) at, (b) for (because of)

about, concerning

before (cf. English "prologue")

1 Et before a vowel, e.g. Et o1.Ktu,: out of a house, but EK TTJ, o1.Ktu,: out of the house.

Common uses of prepositions are listed on p. 352. For a full discussion, see S.

Luraghi, On the Meaning of Prepositions and Cases, John Benjamins, 2003.

Section 8

73

'll'pos (with accusative)

'll'pO 'TOU

801< a t.LO~ 0 r itµ,ol, 80cc °'t

"lEAA'ljv 9"lEAA·11vos ·

~KUY'YO.

vuv

towards'

previously

it seems to me

a Greek

(in the) least, at all

now

ti ,,

OU'iE ooo OUTE ooo neither ... nor ... 3

w, '

as

Examples:

,bro '!"OU 'fi'O'YO,!J,OU: from the river 4

&1c rijs Ela.Mn71,: out of the sea 5

Et, ,·~v 0L1d,av: into the house

b-t rtiv d,q1~v 'ITapa:ytyvoµ,ai: I arrive on the peak"

(E11t with the accusative usually implies movement)

,h,l. 'Y'l)S d1q1:ijs Eiµ,t: I am on the peak

&,-.t ,-.Xou"Yq> M~av lxw: I have a reputation for wealth

,rpos 'Y~V otdav: towards the house

1opos Ti\s otdas: from the house

Tipos ... 0 ,-.oAEt: near the city


l.a.1To .. ~s ea.MTTTJ,. 2.Eic T~<; oLKLU,. 3.EK Ti'J, 'ITO/\Ew,. 4.a.1To Tou vrnvr.ou.

5 ' ' - 6 ' ' ,k' 7 ' ' '\ o' - •~- 9 ' '

.1TEpl Ep.ou. .'ITEpl T'T]S O"O~,LO.S, .-rrpos T'T]V 1TOI\LV. O.EV T1J 004). .ELS T'T]V

TIOIILV.

10.1Tpos T~V 'Aica.o~µ.ww. (Plato's Academy) 11.rrpo, T~ Ol.KL(/,,

21rp6s is sometimes found with the genitive, meaning "from", e.g. 1rpos uvopwv -i)

yuvmKwv: (descended) from the male or female side (Plato, Theaetetus l 73d7-8) and

sometimes with the dative, meaning "near" or "in addition to", e.g. 1rpo, T4J 1<u1up:

in addition to (being) handsome (Plato, Theaetetus 185e5).

3Since TE ( enclitic) means "and", ouTE ... ouTE ... means literally "and not ... and

not ... "

4o 1r0Tuµ6s, Tou 1romµou: the river (hippopotamus: "horse (of the) river").

5 ~ 80.:\anu, -rfj, 8uMn11,: the sea.

6~ o.Kµ~, Tft, o.Kµ~,: the peak (cf. English "acme").


v-uo with tlw genitive

With a passive verb, if the agent is a person, "by" is usually expressed

by {nrb with the genitive, 8 e.g.

~ '!TOA.LS U'lTO TWV ex0pwv Cl'ITOAAU'iat

the city is being destroyed by (its) foes

If the thing by which an action is done is mentioned, "by" is usually expressed by

the dative case, e.g.

~ 'lTOALS m,pl Cl'ITOAAUTUl

the city is being destroyed by fire. 9

This is not an invariable rule. Occasionally, especially in poetry, the dative case

may be used to express "by" when the agent is a person, e,g.

( of Zeus) EAEmpE 8' 'AxuLous Tpwatv 8aµvaµEvous (Homer, Iliad Xlll, 15-6.)

and he was pitying the Achaeans slain by the Troians

( EArn(pw: I pity, oL' Axmo[: the Achaeans (Greek soldiers)

oaµvaµEvos: slain, oL TpfuEs (3rd declension): the Trojans.) 10


l.u1ro TOU aocpoil. 2.T1\ ClA1']0E[q., 3,TOL<; Myol<;. 4.u1TO TWV µ,a01']TWV,

5,TO 1rpiiyµ,a U1TO TWV 1rpwTWV 1TOA[Twv 1rpuTTETal,

6.ot vrnv[m TOL<; TOU rwKpUTOU<; Myol<; Ol◊UO'KOVTCtl.

7 .dp' imo TWV 1raCowv O'KW1TTE0"0E;

8.TOUTO U<p' uµ,wv pq.o[ws µ,av0uvrn0m ouvarm,

7 11 ~[~11os, Tijs ~[~11ou: the book. o ~[os, Toil ~(ou: the life. uvayL'yvwo-Kw: I read,

8The primary meaning of u116 with the genitive case is from under, If the word

following u116 begins with an aspirated vowel (a vowel with a rough breathing), o

is elided ("knocked out") from u116 and 11 becomes 4>. "By us" is u<!>' ~µwv (standing

for u110 ~µfuv). Similarly, "because of us" is E<p' ~µ'iv. Elision ( "knocking out")

means the omission of a vowel ending a word if the following word begins with a

vowel. Prepositions ending with vowels (except nEp[) have the final vowel gfjded

if the following word begins with a vowel.

9To niip, Tou nup6s: fire ("pyrotechnics" means "fireworks").

10The dative case is occasionally used by Plato to express the agent by whom

something is done, e.g. AEYETUL OE Tau8' ~µ.'iv (Laws 715b7): but these things arc

said by us. See also footnote 6 on p. 350.

Section 8 75

VERBS - OVERVIEW OF TENSES

All the verbs met so far have been in the present tense. In English,

when we wish to refer to some action in the past, we use a past tense

verb. Thus we say "I was walking", or "she used to wait" or "it stood

over there". We use different ways of speaking about the past to

distinguish between continuous actions or events, continual actions

or events, and events or actions which are over once and for all; e.g.

"Queen Anne died." Greek also has different past tenses in order to

make these distinctions.

The Greek verb - moods

Verbs which assert, deny or question factual statements (e.g. "a man is

learning", "a man is not learning", "is he learning?") are said to be in

the indicative mood. The indicative is the first form of each tense to

be learned. Other moods (the imperative, subjunctive, and optative)

are broadly used for commands, suppositions and wishes.

Tenses

Verbs are found in the following tenses:

the present, which represents the English "I do", I am doing",

and "I do do." In Greek, the present is essentially a continuous tense; "I

am loosing" is nearer to the Greek Moo tha.n "I loose".

the im.))erfect, which is essentially the past continuous "I

was doing", though it is often equivalent to the English past continual "I

used to do", and to the inceptive "I began to do".

the future

the aorist, or "undelimited" tense, named from d- ("un") +

bpLsw ("I delimit"). This tense is used for events that are complete in

themselves, especially to denote simple actions occurring in the past;

but some parts of the aorist (the infinitive, subjunctive, optative and

imperative) do not usually have past significance, and even the indicative

is sometimes used for events which are not past.

The perfect is used, like the English perfect with "have",

for the present state resulting from past actions, e.g. "I have gone". ("I

went" would be aorist.)

The pluperfect, like the English "I had gone", represents an

action previous to another.


Present and aorist aspect

Verbs may express continuous action ("I am laughing") or a completed

action ("Socrates died"). In general, the present and imperfect tenses

express continuous action, and the aorist expresses completed action.

This can be explained by saying that the present aspect i.s progressive,

i.e. it shows an action in progress, while the aorist aspect is puncdliar,

i.e. it shows the beginning, middle and end of an action all as a single

point (even though it may have a considerable duration).

Primary and secondary tenses

The present, future and perfect are primary tenses.

The imperfect, aorist and pluperfect are historic or secondary tenses.

THE IMPERFECT TENSE

This is formed from the stem 11 of the present tense:

active

middle/passive

EAUOV I was loosing D..uoµ.11v I was loosing(for myself), was

ransoming, I was being loosed

EAUES you were loosing &)u'iou you were loosing (for

yourself), were ransoming,

you were being loosed

EAUE he/she/it was D..uero he/she/it was loosing for

loosing

himself/ herself/ itself, was

ransoming, he/she/it was

being loosed

E/\UETOV you both were loosing E/\urn8ov you both were getting loosed, being

loosed

E/\UETTjV they both were loosing E/\UE.CY81JV they both were getting loosed, being

loosed

EA.fo[LEV we were loosing VwoµE0a we were loosing for ourselves,

were ransoming, we were

&XuE-re

being loosed

you were loosing &Xuecrlk you were loosing for

~

yourselves, were ransoming,

you were being loosed

EA.uov they were loosing D..-6ov-ro they were loosing for

themselves, were ransoming,

they were being loosed.

--··------------·-

11A verb stem is what remains after the removal of any prefixes and suffixes. In

the case of Auw the present stem is Au-.

Section 8

77

N.B. (i) the active first person singular ("I") and third person plural

("they") endings are the same.

N.B. (ii) in the middle/passive endings, "V,aL in the present tense is

replaced by •µ.1111, and •min the present tense is replaced by =o.

N.B.(iii) The 2nd person singular middle/passive EAuou is formed from

iAuEo by contraction, whereby E + o has become ou. lMEo itself is

formed from EAuE(a)o.

eoetKvuv

Imperfect tenses of -µ.L verbs OEL1<vuµ.L: J show(p.23)

active

middle (& passive)

I was showing

you were showing

he/she/it was showing

<EOEucvuµ.11v

eoELKVUCYO

<EOEL1<vmo

I was getting

shown, being shown

you were getting

shown, being shown

he/she/it was getting

shown, being shown

EOHKVUT1JV

you both were showing

they both were showing

you both were getting shown,

being shown

they both were getting

shown, being shown

eoE(1ciruµ.ev

eoEL1<vu-rE

eoe(ccvuouv

we were showing

you were showing

they were showing

.ko,aKvuµ,E0u we were getting

shown, being shown

&oELC{VUo-0E you were getting

shown, being shown

&oeLKVUV'TO they were getting

shown, being shown


The imperfect of <P'Yfp,l is the usual past tense and means simply

"said". In the singular, the "stem" vowel is 11, but in the plural it is

(short) a.

cli<l,11v: I said

cli<l,11s or &<1>11o-Ba: you said

i4>' 11 : he, she said

cli<j>a.µ.,w: we said

cli<j,a.-rE: you said

&<j,ao-av: they said.

duals: E<paTov: you both said Eq>aT11v: they both said

AUGMENTS

A past tense in Greek stating an action as a fact 12 is normally prefixed

by the augment E if a verb stem begins with a consonant, or otherwise

by lengthening the opening vowel. Thus Moµ.Ev = "we are loosing",

while &Auoµ.Ev = "we were loosing". A verb treated in this way is said to

be augmented. The augment E was originally an auxiliary word used

to mark the sense of "past" more exactly.


Uµ,a.v0o.vE:<;. 2.lf-rrpo.TTEV. 3.EAE-yETE. 4.E0a.uµ.a.(oµ.Ev. 5.EOlOO.CYKov. (two

meanings) 6. E~ouA6µ.11v. 7.E-y(-yvETo. 8.ot i'.1r1rol u1ro T~, 1rmoo, EA.uovTo.

(o L1T1f0<;: the horse.) 9.oL 1TO/..LTQ.l TOUTO lf<!>o.o-o.v. IO.Tl', 'Yl'YVWO-KElV E~ouAern;

Other augments

If the present tense of a verb begins with a vowel (o, 9 E 9 'l'J 9 ~9 o 9 u 9 w ),

with very few exceptions, it cannot be augmented to form a past tense

by prefixing E. Such verbs are mostly augmented by lengthening the

opening vowel.

If the opening vowel is a, the augmented form is 11·

e.g. Present, ai<ouw: I am hearing. Imperfect, 111<ouov: I was h@laring.

If the opening vowel is E, the augmented form is 11 in some verbs, but E1.

in others:

Present, E0eAw: I am willing. Imperfect110EAov: I was willing

Present, exw: I have, hold. Imperfect, Elxov: I was having, I was

holding.

12i.e. an indicative. For the indicative mood, see also p.354, "Moods".

Section 8 79

Ji_ the opening vowel is o, the augmented form is 111.

e.g. Present, oq,:EtAw: I am owing. Imperfect, wq,ELAov: I was owing.13

If the op~ vowel is 'I! or 111, the augmented form is also 1J or 111

e.g. Present, -q1ew: I have come, am present. Imperfect, '1JKov: I arrived,

was present

Present, w<J>eMw: I am helping. Imperfect, w<J>.kAeov: I was helping 14

If the opening vowel is L or u, the augment does not affect the spelling,

though it may affect the pronunciation.

Present, LO)(_uw: I am strong. Imperfect, tO){uov: I was strong.

Present, u<J>a.tvw: I am weaving. Imperfect, i\qmwov: I was weaving.

(In the imperfect, the opening L and u are pronounced long, whereas in

the present, they are pronounced short.)

If a verb beginsa.L·9 a· or o~•, the augmented form will begin 11 or ljl

e.g. from a.'tpw: I raise, 11pov, I was raising: from el1ealw, I am comparing,

~Katov, I was comparing: from ol1e-sw, I manage (a house), q\1eeov, I was

managing a house (contracted to <jl1<ouv, similarly to Ji<jiD1.Eov, above).

If a verb has a ureposition prefixed, i.e. attached to the front, as in

eLa<j>~pw, I am carrying in, formed from ELs = into and <J>-spw = I carry, the

augment follows the prefix: eLa<J>.kpo11ev = we are carrying into, etaEq>iepoµ.ev

= we were carrying into. If the prefixed preposition ends with a vowel,

this will be elided, e.g. the imperfect of o:rroqiEpw: I am carrying away is

o.TIEq>Epov: I was carrying away TIEpC is the exception: the imperfect of

Tieplq>Epw: J am carrying round is TIEplE<pepov: J was carrying round.

uAn unfamiliar verb which may be augmented, if it begins w, must be looked up

under both o and w, and if it begins 1], under a, E and 11• Verbs beginning rn- in

the present tense are not always augmented. "I was finding" is 1JupurKov in Plato,

but sometimes EupurKov in other writers.

14

This verb is regularly contracted and the imperfect is found as oi~eAouv (sec

section 16, p.205).


Write these verbs, which are in the imperfect, in lhe present tense:

TJUpLO'l(ES ~pxov (two answers) U1TE1CpLvOµ,l]V ·rrapE')'Lyvoµ,E0a (11TEICPLVOVTO.

a'IToAAuµi is from &:rro and 0A1rnµ,~, and so the vowel o is lengthened to w.

The imperfect of aTioi\,\uµ,L is:

active

middle (& passive)

I was destroying

a'ITw11!1.1'iµ:qv I was getting

a 11wA11 us

d1rwAAurnv

d1rw1,11.un1v

you were destroying

he/she/it was destroying

you both were destroying

they both were destroying

o,7rw)1Juµ.Ev we were destroying

a'ITl.il!IAUTE

cbrwAAUO'O.V

you were destroying

they were destroying

destroyed, being destroyed

a. 'lTW/111 UO'O you were getting

d.7rwi\.AuTo

d1rwAAuo-8ov


he/she/it was getting


you both were getting


they both were getting


a'ITwAi\.uµ,E8a we were getting

o,'ITA.Aw8E


you were getting


o,1TroAAuv-ro they were getting



1.EOLOO.oxoµ,Ev. OLOO.<JKoµ,Ev. 2.E8uuµ,utov ( two meanings). 8auµ,ci{w. 0auµ,ci{ou<JLV.

3),EyEls. EAE')'E',. 4.Eµ,civ0avE. µ,av8avEL. 5.ot 1TUl.0ES E'lTULtov. 6.Eyw

EO'KCJl'lTTOV. 7 .Eq>Epoµ, TJV. q>Epoµ,m. 8.E<JKW'lTTOVTO. O"KW'lTTOVTUl. 9 .1Tp0.T~TUL.

E1TpUTTETO. 10.<pEpOU<JLV. E<pEpov. 1 U.cpEpOVTO. <pEpOVTUL. 12.~ou/\w0E.

E~ou/\rn0E. 13 .E')'L')'VETO. YL ')'VETUL. 14.~icouov ( two meanings l. UICOUCJl, (J,l(QlJOU<JLV.

15.~pxoµ,Ev. &pxoµ,Ev. I 6.EBLtEl. Et0LtE. 17 .TJUPl<JICETE. EUpl<YICETE.

l8.a1ToicptvETUL. O.'TrEKpLVETO. 19.cip' U'lTEKptvETo; 20.o.1Tto/\Aus. o.1To/\Au,.

21.hoA/\UTUl. U1TWAAUTO. 22.urrw/\AUTO ~ TIOAL,; 23.iixerE. ELXETE.

24.ELXETO.

EXETUL. (iixw: I hold.). 25.KUL 0/\l')'<Jl UO"TEpov O Tioi\eµ,apxo, 111CE.

(Republic 327cl) ( 011.ly1p uo-TEpov: a little laler)(for ~Kw, see p.79)

The imperfect of dµ,i is:

~: I was, used to be 15

~a0a: you wer.e, used to be

~v: he, she, it was,used to be

Section 8

~(l,Ev: we were, used to be

·~1·E: you were, used to be

~aav: they were, used to be.

81


l.crn<pWT~<; ~v. 2:rrpo TOD [LU&rjT~<; l 3.vuv OE 0-0<plO'T~S ELJ-1,l. 4.d.pu

kx0pot ~TE; 5 .E'ffL o-oqii.c:i, Eu◊0Kq10, ~o-0u. ( Ei'ioo«tµ,6, -~ -6v: famous, of good

repute)

6.TL<; ~v o TOD M~vwvos hai.pos; TLS vuv fon;

7 • ..J.. , ' "E'' ' , , ~

."f]CYUV O'O't'Ol Ol

- , , ., ' "' ,

~t\f\"f]VE<; WS E(l,Ol OOKH, KUl OUK "f]KlO'TU O bWKpU'f"f]',.

8.Tou OlKULou Epyov fonv ouTE <pLAov ~/\U1TTElV ouTE UA/\ov nva. (from

Republic 335d 12-13) (S(«aw,, ot«aCa, o(«mov: jusl, righleous. ~Mrr-rw: I hurt.)

Note the following phrases, common in Plato:

~ 8 ' os = said he.

These come from 11.1( (= "I say"), like ~TJfLL but only used in a few set

expressions. It is necessary to distinguish these from the imperfect

tense of ELfLL


l.auT"f] ECYTlV ~ E[l~ 86~a, ~

s, oc; () fs,"f](l,OKpvro<;.

3.au'T"f] OUK ~v ~ TOU 0-0<pWTOU 86~a.

4.oDTos O 8oUA.os oUK la1"Lv ~µ,os, ~v 8 ' lyW.

o

"'

o,;_;. 2 R' ' , 16 ' ' rl' 9

"/"lOS UVEOpTUO'TO<; OUK EO'Tl /"lO<;, 'I]

5.(ln reply to a claim that it is impossible to say or think anything that does not

exist) OUK upu ijirno~s, ~v o' Eyw, So~a EO'Tl 'TO 11apa11av. (ijiEuO~<; (3rd

declension adjective): false. Forro 1rapo:rmv see p.45.) (Euthydemus 286d4,

adapted)

15 Sometimes ~v (like 3rd person singular) in other writers. The dual of~ ( rare) is

~cnov, you both were and ~an1v, they both were.

16

uvE6prao-ros: wilhout l10Jidays. (Democritus, fr. 230, in Plutarch 2, 1102b.) o

~(o,, Toil ~(ou: life. ~ Eopr~, Tij, fopr~,: holiday, festival, feast.


TRANS LA TING PLATO'S MENO

In translating Plato, it is necessary to remember that his original

Greek readers could probably hold longer groups of words in mind

than English readers can today, and that the meaning of the words is

not structured by the order in which they come in the same way as it

is in English. A modern English reader may well be uncomfortable

having to assimilate words in groups of more than four or five, but

when reading original Greek, one often has to look farther ahead than

that to find words that "agree" e.g. that have endings of the same

case, number or gender, and the structure of a sentence will only

become clear, and its meaning be understood, when such agreements

have been found.

Plato, Meno 70al-c3

This is the beginning of the dialogue. The scene is somewhere in Athens. Meno,

a young Thessalian nobleman who is visiting the city to hear the sophists and is

accompanied by a retinue of slaves, accosts Socrates. The dramatic date is some

time before 401 B.C., when Meno left Greece to join the expedition of Cyrus

against his brother Artaxerxes II, the king of Persia·. 11

Meno'sfamily, the Aleuads (the ruling family in Larisa, the chief city in Thessaly,

in northern Greece) had taken the Persian side when Xerxes invaded Greece in

480 B.C. They claimed to be descended from Aleuas, a mythical king of Thessaly.

Herodotus (VII, 6) actually calis them "the kings of Thessaly", but this may be

exaggeration.

Aristippus is mentioned by Xenophon (Anabasis JI, 6, 28) as also having taken

part in Cyrus' expedilion, and having pul Meno in charge of the mercenaries

because he was good-looking.

Gorgias, the famous sophist, arrived at Athens in 427 B.C. on a diplomatic mission

from Leontini in Sicily seeking Athenian aid against the Syracusans, and won

the Athenians over wilh his oralOry (PlalO, Hippias Major, 282b). Gorgias' visit

to Athens is a landmark in the history of rhetoric, and he introduced the

Athenians to many aspects of the Sicilian style of oratory, including antithesis

(exempllfied by µ,ev ... oe ... ). Thucydides (Ill, 86, 3) says that the missic!h was

successful but does not mention Gorgias. Meno asks Socrates whether dpET1 can

be taught. Socrates is preparing, in response, to ask Meno what dpEnj really is

and challenges him, as a student of Gorgias, not to be afraid to reply.

17See Sharples, Meno Introduction, p.17.

Section 8 83

MEN"N "E 18 , ~ 9 'le·' 9 19 ,;, ._, , 20 , , , "21

H . XEl\, [-1,0l El'iTElV, w bWKpUTE<;, upa OlOUKTOV 11 UpET11; 11

, ~ ._, , , , , , , , 22 " ,, 23 , , " 0 , 24 u', 'u'

OU olOUKTOV 0,/\/\ UCYK11Tov; 11 OUTE UCYl(11TOV OUTE µ,u 11-rov, /II\

I 25

~UCYH

• I ~ ' 0 I " >I\\ I

1mpaylyVETUL TOLS av pw1TOlS 11 Ul\/\!J) TlVl TP01T4>;

26

:EOKPA THL. 9 Q Ivkvwv, 1Tpo -rou 27 µ,Ev 8ETTuAol EiJOOKlfJ,Ol 28 ~cruv Ev TOLc;

18Ec1TELV is the infinitive of Elirov, the aorist of Myw. EL1TELv means "to say". EXw with

an infinitive means I have the ability to, I can. Notice that this is a question.

19il,pu requires to be translated here, as "whether", because it introduces an indirect

question, after the main question, EXEL, µo, el1rE'iv ...

20otooKTos, otooKT-ij, otooKTov: capable of being taught. fo,-t is not required because

otooKTov is before~ cipeT-ij (cf. 1<0Ms b 110AtT1Js, p.15). (Notice the gender: cipET-ij is

feminine, but as neuter, otooKTov could be expressed as something capable of being

taught).

21 ~: or (see section 7, p.67).

220.11.11. ' stands for ci11.M. o.<rK1JT6s, o.<rK1JT-/j, cioKrJT6v : capable of being reached by

practice (derived from a<rKE.(I): I pracUse, train).

23ouTE ... ouTE ... neither ... nor ...

14µ081p-6s, µ0,81JT-/j, rw01JT6v: capable of being learnt.

25q,u<rEt is the dative singular of ~ ,~ua,s, rits <j,u<rE(I), (see p.53). <j,uaEL: by nature.

1rup0,y(yvoµm (section 5, p.45) here, with a dative ( To'is dv0pw1ro,s), means I come into

the possession of. The subject of 1rupuytyvETm is "it", meaning ~ cipET-ij. b Tpo-rro,

(section 7, p.67): way, manner. ,-p6110, TLS: so.me way. 011.11.0, (section 2, p.14): o1her.

Remember that the dative case can express the means of doing something: by.

260.pET-ij, "excellence" or "virtue", applies especially to moral qualities. In Homer,

it refers to valour, possibly connected with "Ap1],, the Olympian god of war. See

Sharples, Introduction, pp.4-6.

27See p.73.

28Euo6Ktµo, -1] -ov: honoured, of good repute. Socrates is being ironic. At Criw 53 d

he says that in Thessaly there is a great deal of a,m~(a, (disorder) and o.r<o11.0,a[u

(intemperance).


"E'' ''0 ,y 29,.k,30, -31 '\ I - ~I''\

1\/\'TjOW ICUL E auµ,a,,oVTO E'I' L 'TT1TLK1J TE KUL 1T/IOUT(jl, vuv OE, WS EIJ,OL

~ ~ , l2 , , ,1.,, , , " 33 , ~ ~ , , , A , 34

OOKEL, KUL. E1TL ()'O'l'L(),, KUL oux 'Tjl<WTU OL TOU O"OU ETULpou PWTL1T1TOU

,- 3s A - , ~, , - ,, , , r , 3(, , k , 37

1T0/\LTUL . apLaaLOl. TOUTOU 0€ UIJ,LV ULTLOS E()'TL OP'YLU',' (l,(pLKOIJ,EVOS

, , , , \ 38 , , 39 , , ,l.,' "\ ,1., 40 • A' ~ ~ '

yap ELS T'T]V 1TO/\LV EpaaTUS €1TL o-o,,,L<;t ELl\1],pEV /\EUUOWV TE TOUS

, - 41 , , , , , 'A , , - ,,, ' e ' -

·rrpwrnus, WV O aos EpaO-T'!]S E<YTLV PWTL'IT'ITOS, KUL TWV (),(\/\WV "ETTU/\(J)V,

293rd person plural, imperfect passive of 0auµcitw.

iosee p.72. Here, and in l1rt crocji(c:i, E'ITL means for.

31 ~ L1r1tLK~, T-ijs L1r1tLK-ijs: horsemanship (short for ~ L1r1tLK~ TEXV'TJ: the art devoted to

horses, the art of riding horses). Unlike most of Greece, Thessaly has extensive

plains.

32KaL (here): also.

33See p. 73.

34 'AplcrTL1t1tos: Best-horse. For his friendship with Meno, see also Sharples, p.124.

351n this context, fellow-citizens. Aapwaios, Aapwa(a, Aapwmov: Larisaean, from

Laris(s)a, the chief city of Thessaly.

36Translate in the order: oE

fopy[a, &cm a'tTLO, {,µ,i:v rnuTou.

37cicjiLKoµevos, o.cjiLKOµEV'lj, o.cjiLKoµevov: having arrived (the participle of O.<pLKOµ'T]v, the

aorist of o.cjiLKvfo11aL, I arrive) (section 7, p.69, footnote 12).

38Socrates means Athens.

39 /, lpacr-r~s, Toii E.pacnoii: the Jover. They loved Gorgias hi, crocjit<),.

40eL\'T]cjiev is 3rd person singular of eO,'Tjcjiu, the perfect of Aaµ~civw, I take, and

means he has taken or he has captured. The object is Tous 1tpWTous Twv 'AAeuuofuv.

EpacrTo.s means as lovers, complementing Tous 1rpwTous Twv • AArnaowv. oL 'A'if~uuoa(:

the Aleuads.

41<iiv: of whom (plural). In English, we might say one of whom.

Section 8 85

K(J,L

'

UT)

~ '

KUL

'

TOUTO

~

TO

'

E

"0 o, uµ,ac;

' ~

EL

"0

LKEV,

. 42 a't'ol-'w,; , oV r:t TE !CUL ' fl,E')'O,/\01Tperrw<;

\

/ 0 43 ~ / 44 / " (I 45 ' \ \ '~ / r, 46

cl:rro1<pLVE<Y UL EUV nc; TL EP'TJTO,l, (t)O'TrEp ELKO', TOUS ElUOTUS, UTE ' ICQL

42E\'.8LKEV is 3rd person singular of Ernu<o., the perfect of ,W(tw. The subject of Et8u<Ev

is "he", meaning Gorgias. There are two objects, rnu-ro .-o EBo, and uµ,a,. It is easier

to translate .W(tw in this context by a verb which can take two objects in English,

such as "I teach", so that E'C0L1<Ev means he has taught. Sharples translates: he has

got you into this habit. For ciqio~ws and µ,EyaAo-rrprnws, see section 7, footnote 11

(p.69).

43&-rroKp(vw-Bm is the present infinitive of ci-rro1<p(voµ,m.

44Juv: if (ever). TL<; is indefinite (somebody), and its acute accent has come from n,

which is also enclitic. For enclitics, see section l, p.8. (N.B. &uv has an acute, not a

grave accent.) EP1JTO-L is 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive (section 14 p.17 4)

from [/ipo1wL], I ask, and means may ask. (See section 7, footnote 19.) The subject of

1ip1]TUL is TL<; (somebody) and the object is TL ( something). [Epoµ,m] is shown in

square brackets because it is not found in the present indicative, for which EpwTaw:

I ask (see footnote 49 below) is used instead.

45wa-rrEp ELKoc; stands for wa11Ep d1<0, Ecm. wcr-rrEp: just as. ELKoc; '10--rL: it is reasonable.

Tou, doom, men who know is accusative plural of o El◊w,, masculine, meaning the

knowing man, or a man who knows. (Et8w, is the participle of ot8a, I know, see

with the mind's eye, understand. (Section 9, p.91and section 10, p.106).) The

phrase wcr-rrEp EL1<6, (fo-rL) Touc; Eloowc; means literally just as it is reasonable men

knowing (to reply), i.e. just as it is reasonable that men who know would (reply) ,


, , 47 , 48 , , , ~ 49 ~ , E\ \ , ~ r.1 \ , " so "

UUTO', 1TUPEXWV UUTOV EpWTUV TWV "ll/\'l']VWV T'{l 1-'0UI\OfLEV(fl OTL av TLS

(.1 I\ \ ,,;, I 51 Cl j j /

1-'0U/\'l']TUL, KUL OUOEVL OT'{) OUK U1TOKplVOfLEVOS,

47This refers to Gorgias.

48,rapexwv: offering. (This is the nominative masculine singular of the present

participle of rrapexw, I offer: for present participles, see section 10, pp.101 & 104.)

A participle follows aTe (for which, see section 22,p.281), so that the Greek literally

means because offering himself, meaning because he offers himself. auT6v: himself

(reflexive (see section 25, pp.338-9; note the rough breathing).

49Translate in the order: T!J) ~ouAoµev4> TWV 'EAA~vwv EPWTUV OTL /iv TL<; ~ouA17mL. T!Jl

~ouAoµev4> is dative singular of o ~ouA6µevo, (~ouA611evoc; is the present participle of

~ouAoµm) and means to 1he one wanting, i.e. to anyone who wants. (For middle

present participles, see section 10, pp.107-8.) EpwTuv (contracted from &pwTauv) is

the infinitive of &pwTaw (I ask), and means to ask.

500-rL /iv TLc; ~ouA17mL (whatever somebody may want) is the object of &.pwTuv. oTL

here is the same as o TL: whatever (section 17, p.221). ~ouA17wL is 3rd person

present subjunctive (sect. 12, p.142) of ~ouAoµm. iiv ... ~ouA17Tm means may want.

51ouoev[ is dative of m',ods (nobody, section 22, p.289) and means to nobody. oT ou

(the dative of ouods oaTLc; ou) means not to nobody whoever not, i.e. to absolutely

everybody. ( ouMs 3aTLc; ou (nobody whoever not) (for which, see also p.291

below) is treated as if it were a single pronoun, Smyth, Greek Grammar, para

2534.) o:rroKpLvoµEvoc; (the present participle of cirroKp[voµaL): replying. ouoevL 3T ouK

o.1roKpLv6µEvoc; means replying toabsolutelycverybody. o.rroicp[voµaL is often stronger

than simply I reply, and might be translated here I answer, implying that the

answer will be full and satisfactory. It is crucially important in dialectic

(philosophical investigation by question and answer) that the answerer shall

give full, satisfactory and sincere answers.

~

87

Section 9

THE PERFECT TENSB

The Perfect Tense describes an action which has occurred in the past

the present effects of which are still evident. For example, "he has

gone to Athens" implies that he is not here now. ("He has gone" is

in the perfect tense.) On the other hand, "he went to Athens" ("he

went" is past, not perfect) does not say whether he has come back

since, and so is here now, or not.

The Perfect Tense is expressed in English by the use of the auxiliary

verb "have". For instance, we say "I have done this", "he has done

that", "we have not done something else". This is sometimes called

the Present Perfect in English.

The Perfect Tense in Greek is usually easy to spot, as in most verbs it

is formed by repeating the first letter of the stern, e.g.

Ai'iro: I loose (present tense) XkAu1w.: I have loosed (perfect tense).

This lengthening of the front of the verb stem is called "reduplication."

It is found in most perfect tense verbs in Greek. In verbs where the

present indicative active ends 7JW, -uw, -Ew or -oro, the perfect

indicative active endings are:

1,iAu1rn.: I have loosed

MAuJS.!!S.: · you have loosed

11.iAucce(v): he/she/it has loosed

-KO.TOV

-KUTOV

AEAurnrnv: you have both loosed

AEAurni-ov: they have both loosed

AEAi'i~: we have loosed

AEM1rnTE: you have loosed

AEAi'iKaO'L(v): they have loosed


In other verbs, the perfect active endings are:

0

0.9 ·O.S9 ·E(v)9 ( -aTOV, -a-rov) -a.p,EV9 -a.7E, •(tuL(v).

E.g. the perfect of ypa~)w (I write, draw) is yEypm!m,.

What is tl1e English for

l.yEypa~a; 2.ou AE.AUKUS. 3.ou yEypa~E; 4.AE./1.Ul(O,[J,EV; 5.ou AEA.ul<O.TE.

6.yqpa~U[J,EV.

7.o fIACLTWV 'TTOAA.ous OLaAoyous ')'Eypo.~EV.

8 ' 0 ' , ,,;, I ',J..

.OL µ,a l]TUL oLKUoE yEypu'+'wnv.

In some situations, reduplication is more difficult.

If the verb stern in the present tense begins with an aspirated_

ronm_nan t ( i.e. Sr~ or .xl, the corresponding unaspiratedconsonant

is used for the reduplication.

(i.e. ,- for 8, -rr for 4>, 1< for x.)

e.g. -rr,s4>0,1]Ka: I have loved or befriended (from (])LAE1i1,: I love)

-.E8a.uµ1urn.: I have admired, wondered at (from 0uuµci.{,w: I admire,

wonder at)

If the ores en t tense b~ns with a vowel , in the perfect tense

that vowel is lengthened (i.e. the reduplication is formed like an

augment):

~pon'l)IW. (I have asked) from Ef}W1'CLW (I ask)

Verbs that have present tenses beginning with_some pairs

Qf..consonants~___QI cannot be reduplicated, and their perfect

tenses begin with E,

fo·,po~a. (I have turned) from a-rp&qiw (I turn)2

1oLKcilk (to) home.

2Frorn l(O,TCL (down) and cr-rpE<pw we have 1<aTucnpo~~ ("overturning"), and from

this the English word catastrophe.

Section 9 89

yg_d)s th._gJ cannot easily be.,reduplicated _have the perfect

beginning E- :

/iyvw1co,: I haye gol to know, from yvyvwm(w: I get to know. 3

If a verb stem is p;:efixed.,_J)Y a ~pJ)sition, the reduplication

comes after the prefix, and so

from-rroptiw(lbring,furnish), wehave'ITE1i-opuca (!have brought,furnished)

from E1<1ropltw (I provide), we haveE1mE'll'opum (I have provided)

Some perfects are irregular:

from &1<ouw ( I hear),

from Euptm(w (I find),

from EXW (I have),

ctK~1<oa (I have heard)

'l'JUf>Ttiw, (I have found) (Eup11rn insomeotherwriters)

E0'){'1J1<a (I have had)

from AE)'w (I say) e.'lp'l}nm (I have said} 4

from q>Epw (I bring, carry) EV~voxa (I have carried). 5

What is the l::nglish for

1 ,j._ 1 \ 2 0 / 3 ' I ,I_ A ' I (' I

.'!TE,yl/\'T)l<E. ~.TCUUILUICUOTV. - .E.<YTpo,yUfl,E.V. '-1·.UVEYVWl(E. avo.yvyvw<YKW:

I read) 5 .Eyvw1<0.s. 6.11rnopCKa TE. 7.E.KTIE·rropucE. 8 .EV'T)VOXUTE. 9 .E'i'.p'T)KU<;.

1O.a.rc~KOE. l UOj(~KUfLEV. 12.TE0aufLUl<E;

Whal is the present tense of the following perfects (the present

tense of each has been met already), and what is the English for

them?

l.oEbLOo.xa, 2.,f.LEfui011rca. 3:llETIUlKO.. 4.TIE'rrpo.xo.. 5.11up111m.

A few verbs which are middle in the present tense arc active in the

perfect, e.g. yCyvofl,m: I become, happen

y&yovo.: I have become, have happened.

3

ylyvwo-i<w already has a form of reduplication in the present tense.

4;\.iyw has no real perfect of its own, and this perfect comes from a verb Epkw ("I

shall say") which has no present tense and is used for the future of A,syw. ( e.pfw is

usually contracted to .\pw.)

5

This is connected with an obsolete verb -ijvrnca., meaning "I brought".


The perfect infinitive active

The ending is -.&vaL,

e.g. 'YE')'paq)evm: to have written.


l .µ,Eµ,a0'T]KEVUL. 2.0EOLoaxevaL. 3.lyvwKEVUL. 4.yEyovEVUL. 5.0.KTJKOEVUL.

6.TE0auµ,aKEVUL. 7.Elp'T]KEVUL. 8.Eivm. 9.EO;(TJKEVUL. lO.yqpa4>evUL.

l l.1mpayeyovevuL. 12,TJDPTJKEVUL.

13 .o' 'A PXLfL'T]O'T]S ,._, EV ' T(f) ~ I\OUTP4J ' - " TJUPTJKCl " '' ELp1]KEVCll " ' I\EYETCll. ', 6

New words:

O.A.1]0ws

yp&.qiw

OOKEW

' I ? I 9 f

EVUV'l'L0',9 EVUV'l'Lll.9 EVUVTLOV

\ , I '"' , '"'

TO EVQ.V'TWV9 'iOU EVU'll'fLOU

.kv6&.o<E

lpw-r&.w

I

K!I.L

crn,8uvEi'iw (with infinitive)

e ,.. c , e '"'

01TOLOS9 O'llOUJ.9 O'ITOWV

oihws or ou-rw

ou-rws ixw

'll"apo. (with accusative)

'!Tows; - -rroui; , -rrowv; -

'll'opttoµ,m

truly

I write, draw

I seem

opposite

the contrary 7

here

I ask

also, even

I am likely to ( Ii terally, I risk, arn in

danger of, with infinitive)

not (indcfinite) 8

if ... not ...

I know (sec below)

such as

what kind of

thus, so

I am thus, this is how I am

to, to the side of, beside

what kind of?

\ff

I procure, provide for myself, obtain

6 -ro Aou-rp6v, -rou Aou-rpou: the bath. For the story, see the Latin writer Vitruvius,

The Ten Books on Architecture, IX (introduction), 10 (translated by M.H. Morgan

(Dover Books), p.254).

'i.e. the opposite thing.

8 f1~ is used for "not" e.g. when expressing wishes or commands or purposes or

suppositions. ou is used typically when facts are questioned or denied.

91

Section 9

ELoevu~: to know. 10

a-rpe<j>w

~1,AEW

W<Y'TE

I turn, twist

I love, regard with affection, like

so that (introduces a result)

Some verbs in the perfect tense in Greek are the equivalent

of an English present. The most important is ot8a. 9 which is the

ordinary Greek for "I know". Other examples are:

eo1,Ka.: I resemble, seem likely to 1etw0a.: I am accustomed to

ea-r11Ka: I stand.9

oloa.

ol8a.: I know

oloBa.: you know (singular)

ot8e(v): he knows, she knows,

foµ,Ev: we know

fo-rE: you know (plural)

foo.cn(v): they know

it knows

ol8u is the perfect tense of [ dow], a verb meaning "I see" or "I find out" of which

the present tense is not used. 11 Because it is perfect, its original mezrning is "I

have seen", and so it means "l see in my mind's eye", "l have come to realise", "I

have knowledge", "I know". Liddell & Scot(s Greek Lexicon suggests that ot8u. is

used for "know" rather in the sense of "know by reflection" and 'l1;,vu')o·1;:io in the

sense of "know by observation". des Places, Lexique de Platon ( Les Belles Lettres,

Paris, 1964, pp.ll2 and 158 respectively), translates ·yvyvwaKE1,v by connaitre and

eL8evuL by savoir.

9The perfect active of fonw1,: I make Lo stand. It is intransitive (cannot have an

object) and means "I have been made to st;:;.nd", i.e. "I stand". The plural is fo-m1LEv

(we are standing) (Gorgias 468b3, on p.292) foTaTE (you are standing) and EcnauL

( they are standing) (Republic IV, 436d5). iio-T'tJKU is set out on p.416.

10For the other forms of ot8u see p.405. The dual of oloa is not found in Plalo.

nsee Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed., p.483 under* dow (B), and

Smyth, Greek Grammar, para.794. A.L. Sihler, New Comparative Grammar of Greek

& Latin (Oxford, 1995), pp.37 and 568, notes that olou lacks reduplication and may

not be a perfect connected with a verb meaning "see", but with an ludo-European

stem *woyd-/*wid meaning "know".

0

cr6ov



l.tcrµ,Ev; 2.ouK olo-0CL. 3.o Sou>\Os OLOE. 4.TOUTO LcrCLcrL. 5.iip' OUK olcr0CL;

6.o TOU cro~LcrTOU f1,CL01j'T'TjS OUTWS cro~os Eo-TLV WO'TE oloE TCLUTCL.

7.TLS oloE 3TL f!,CLK(J,plo<; ECTTLV;

8.11ws OUVCLTCLL TL<; Ei'.SEVCLL 3TL d1,116ws fl,UKO,pLos ECTTL;

9.00KEL croL KUL o fopyLCL<; TCLUTCL Ei'.SEvm;

IO " 12 , - 13 9<, ' ' 9 0 " , - "\

.LO'WS EKELVOS OloE, KCLl 01) Ot.cr CL CL EKELVOS E/\EyE. (Meno 71c9, adapted)

THE PERFECT TENSE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE

As noticed on p.89, a few middle verbs are active in the perfect tense, most

notably:

y[yvoµ,m: I become, happen

yEyovu: I have become, I have happened,

and 1rupuy[ yvoµ,uL: I arrive

1rupuy&yovu: I have arrived.

The perfect middle ( .l have loosed for myself) is used also in Greek for

the perfect passive ( I have been loosed}.

The perfect indica.Uve middle

singular endings

"'1',0'.l

A<Eil.Ufl,O',l I have loosed for myself, I have ransomed

I have been loosed

4JUL

you have loosed for yourself, you have ransomed,

you have been loosed,

he, she, it has loosed for him/her/itself, has

ransomed, he, she, it has been loosed,

dual endings

AEA ucr0ov

-o-Oov AEAua0ov

plural endings-

-µ.EOa Aell.oµEOa.

'"VTC!.L

12fo-w,: perhaps.

you two have ransomed, been loosed

they have both ransomed, been loosed

we have loosed for ourselves, have ransomed, we

have been loosed, ~'

you have loosed for yourselves, have ransomed, you

have been loosed,

they have loosed for themselves have ransomed,

they have been loosed

llEKE'i:voc;: that man, he. a: what (neuter plural, relative pronoun; section I 7, p.218).

Section 9 93

When the present tense verb stem Orn in the case of Mw) ends ~y 9 •"TT,

--(), -r, -µ, 9 ~it or -4>, it would be difficult to use the normal "they"

ending, ~'l)'HLLo The perfect middle and passive of ypa~o) is:

singular

dual

ye. 1 ,puµ.µ,a.L

ye'yputj,m

yikypa:rmu

yeypa<j>0ov

yeypa<p0ov

I have written for myself, I have been written

you have written for yourself, you have been written

he/ she has written for him/herself, he/ she has

been written

you two have written for yourselves, been written

they have both written for themselves, been written

yEypa~,µ,E0a. we have written for ourselves, we have been

written

yeypmp0E you have written for yourselves, you have been

written

yEypaµ,µ,.svm or ')IE'J'f>U!,l,f1<£Vm 1olcn.( v) or yeypaµ,µ,1~11u E.o-TL( v) they have

written for themselves, they have been written 14

The perfect middle and passive infinitive

The perfect middle and passive infinitive is formed by the ending -o-0m

or -8m, e.g. t,EAua0m to have loosed for oneself, to have been loosed

yEypct<p8m to have written for oneself, to have been written.


1. OL 1TOALTm TOU', 'TTULOU<, AEAUVTO-L. 2.ot 'ITULOES AEAUVTUL. 3.o 0'09)0', EK

~ ~ , 1s , \ , \

4 , , AB ~ ~ , , ,, 16 \ , \

0 ,

rou UEO'[J,WT1jpL.Ou OU /lE/\UTUl. .w 1JVUlOL, ow TL OU'TTW I\E/\UO'-E TOV

.'EwtepO.T1j;

5.o Myos yEypumm. ( TheaetelUs 143a5). 6.'TTWS 'TTOpLtETuL TL~ T~V

I 9 \ I

TLS UUT11V 'TTE'TTOpL<rrm;

14 yEypaµ,µ,EvoL ELO-L means literally they are having written for themselves, they

are having been written. The spelling of the other endings has been changed,

but the pronunciation only slightly.

15

To OEoµ,wT~pLOv, Toil ornµ,wT1Jp(ou: the prison.

16

oihrw: not yet.


1' ,..,_ \' ,,..

OUllS9 "ITO!Ull'i,9 O'ITOW'i,

otos means "such as" and is used when things or people are compared:

o 'ApLaTOTEA'T], ~LAoao~o<; EO"TLV oto, o TTMrwv (EUTLV).

Aristotle is a philosopher such as Plato (is). 17

Tiot.os is an interrogative: "what kind of?"

1TOLOS a.v~p forLv o TTA6.rwv;

What kind of man is Plato?

oTiot.os is used, often with ·ns ("somebody") or n ("something") when a

question is indirect, i.e. is governed by another verb:

ol8a O'TfOLos TLS civ~p ecmv o ITA6.rwv.

I know what kind of man Plato is.

,-,. ,1 f ,-,. I I

'ITWS av O'ITOLOV '/E TL

(' ( ' \)

EO-TLV 11 apET'T]

'~ I

ELOEL 11v;

18

How would I know what kind of thing indeed (excellence is)? (Meno 7lb4)

Use of <0 9 ~ 9 To

to Denote a Class of Things or People

&v0uoE and vilv are adverbs; that is, they can qualify verbs, e.g. o

Tia'ts 1TaLlEL ev0aoE ("the child is playing here" ), or vilv aou aKouw ("I

am listening to you now"). But ot h0cHk means "the (men) here", i.e.

"people here" and ot vilv means "people now" ("our contemporaries").

Similarly, with a prepositional phrase: ot &v -rij 'll"OA,a means "the

(men) in the city", i.e. "people in the city", or "those in the city".

waT1e

When wo"J're ( so that) introduces a clause expressing a result which is a

fact, verbs in the clause are indicative, and the negative is otJ.

ou Tia.vu EL[J.L µ.v~µ.wv ifill"TE OUK lyJ!l El'ITElV (Meno 7lc8) ( d1rEtv: tosay) 1 ~

I am no1 entirely good al remembering so that I cannot say lf.f

1'Frequently with the demonstrative -roLoii-ro, or -roL6croE (both mean "such"):

'ApLO-'TOTE/\'T]', 'TOLOU'T.!!S. q>L/\ocro<),6, ECT'TLV oLo<; () TI/\ci-rwv or b 'Apw'TO'TE/\'Tj<; 'TOLOCTOE q>L/\ocro<),61

E<TTLV oto, o ITM-rwv: Aristotle is such a philosopher of what kind Plato is: Aristotle

is a philosopher like Plato.

18ELOEt'T]V is 1st person singular optative of olou (section l.3, p.154).

19 El1TEtv is the infinitive of Ehov, the aorist of Myw (section 14, p.165). 1-'-viµ,wv (3rd

declension adjective, genitive singular µ,vil-'-ovo,): mindful, good at remembering.

Section 9 95

However if the result is poten.tial wo"rE is followed by an infinitive e.g.

I rt \ 1 I I 20

yo11TEUELS µE .•• W<YTE µE<YTov aTiopws yEyovEvm

you are bewitching me ... so as to have become (i.e., in such a way as to make me

have become) fulJ ofperplexily (Meno 80a3-4).

An infinitive afteroo<Y'f<E is negatived byµ,~, e.g.

(flattery) ouK EXEL 'A6yov •.• w<YTE T~v atT[av E1,umou 1111 EXELV EL1TELv

(flattery) does not have reason ... so thatil cannot say the cause of each thing.

(literally, so as not to be able to say the cause of each thing ) ( Gorgias '1-65a4-5).

EKacno,. EKUO"T'T], EKU<rTov: each

When W<YTE introduces an infinitive, the subject or complement of the

infinitive may be in the accusative case, e.g.

(subject)

\\'', 0 , , " \\' °" R\' '' ',

'ITOI\/\UL U1TEX ElUL !-10L YEYOVUO-LV •.. W<YTE 'ITOI\/\U!,_OlUJ,!01\US U'IT 0.UTWV

, 21

YEYOVEVUL

many hatreds have happened to me ... so that many slanders have arisen from

them (Apology 23al).

(complement)

What is the English for:

wcrTE ELva.L qiCAou<;,: so as to be friends (Laws 628a3).

1.'ITOLOL av0pw'ITOL EL<YLV oi'i-roL; OUTWS 1rAoucrLOL ELCYLV WO-TE KaAas OLKlU<;

1!.xoucnv. 2.oUTWS i!.xw· OUK El!-1L OUTWS <YO<pos W<YTE TOUTO ELOEVUL. 3.TOUTO

OUK oloa W<YTE OUIC ~xw El1TELV.

4.0UTWS cro<poC E<YTE WO-TE KLVOUVEUETE TOUTO

€LOEVUL. 5.1TOLOV TL EO-TLV ~ apET~; dp' OUK olcr0u; 6.El 11~ olo-0a. TL E<rTLV

~ cipET~, OUK d cro<p6s. 7.d µ,~ oleo. TL ECYTLV ~ cipn~, 'ITWS ELOEVUL ouva.µm

b1ToL6v TL Eo-T1.,v. 8.uL Ev Tfl TI0AEL. 9.ol Ev Tfl 00'{>. 1 O.ol Ev0UOE ToiiTo

YL11VWCYICELV ~ouAoVTUL. 11.d TLS TWV Jv0ulk ~ouAETUL TOUTO Jpfo0m, 22 oux

'i" I ' ' ' I e

' \ \ ' -;'~ 12 (' J..' ' I ,,.._

OlO', T ELfl,l U'ITOKplvE<r UL. UUTO<; yup OUK OLUU. --11 (JO't'LU EK TOUTWV TWV

TO'ITWV 'ITUpu TOU', 0ETTUAous otxrn0m COKEL. (o TO'ITO<;, TOU TO'ITOU: the place,

otxoµ,al (present, with perfect meaning: I have gone)

20 yo'T]TEuw: I bewitch. µ,wT6,, fl-E<TT1J, µ,wT6v (with genitive): full. ~ a1Toptu, T11s

a1Topta,: perplexity.

21 Epfo8al: to ask, the infinitive of --,jp61111v, an aorist middle verb (section 14, p.172),


Plato, Meno 70c3-7lc4

Socrates says that in Athens they don't even know what <ipET~ is, Jet alone

whether it can be taught. Meno is surprised.

("'O) ' 0 I\' \' I ' ,k'\ MI ' , I I

&<~t

23 " 24

EV UUE OE, W 't'l/lE EVWV, TO EVUVTlOV 'HEplEOTT]ICEV" W0'1TEp

, 1 25 ~ ,k' , 26 , I' , , ~ I' ~ , 27

auxµ,os TV, TTJS O'O't'lU<; yeyovEv, ICUl KLVUUVEUEl EK TWVUE 'rWV T01fWV

, A '1 0 28 ' ol' ' A 29 '30 '0 '' e/ ' /

1rap uµ,as OlXEO' Ul 'T] O'O't'lU. El 11ouv TLVO. E EI\ElS OUTW<; EpEO'

0

UL

A 0 /\' ,\' ' 31 el ' \ I ' , A 32 "9 t / 33 \' /

TWV EV 0.UE, OUUEl<; OO"TL<; OU 'YEI\O.O"ETUL ICUL EpEl • W i,,EVE, KLVUUVEUW

23 1rEptfoT'fJKEv is 3rd person singular of 1rEptECTT'fJKa.: I have turned out (to be), the

perfect of 1rEpttO-T'f]flt: I place round (for Eo-T'fJKO., see footnote 9, above). 1rEptfoT'fJKEv

(literally, "it has gotitself placed round") means "it has turned outto be". Translate

in the order 1TEptfoT'fJKEv To &va.vTtov.

24 wo-·rrEp: so to speak (literally, "just as").

250 a.uxfl6,, Tou o.uxflou: the drought. These remarks are an example of Socratic

irony. Thessalians were not famous for being wise, and Athens was full of sophists

(self-styled teachers of wisdom).

263rd person singular of yEyova. (p.89). The subject is m'ixf16, rt,.

270 T61ros, rou r61rou: the place. ooE, ~oE, rooE: this (more demonstrative than oDTos).

TiiivoE TolV To•ffwv is genitive plural of ooE o To1ros, following EK.

28Present infinitive of o'lxofla.t: I have gone (see p.95, sentence 12). 1ra.p • uflii,: to

beside you, i.e., to your home country. Translate in the order: 1<0.t ~ o-oqi[u KtvouvEun

o'l xrn0o.t EiC TiiiVOE riiiv TQ'IT(JJV 1ro.p, ii11ii<;.

29youv: at any rare. Ttvo. stands for ii.v8pw1r6v Two., and is the object of Epfo0a.t (see

footnote 22).

30Translate in the order: d youv J8D,us Epfo0m Ttvo. Tiiiv Ev06.oE ouTws. oL Ev06.6E: the

people here (p.94).

~

3>ouoeCs: nobody (stands here for "there is nobody"). oo-Tts: who. yEAno-ETo.t is 3rd

person singular of yEMo-op,a.t, the future of yEMw, I laugh. yEMcrETm: will give a

laugh. Notice the double negative. "Nobody... not"~ "absolutely everybody" (See

section 8, footnote 51.).

3\lpe'i is 3rd person singular of lpEw (see footnote 4). EpE'i: will say.

3\;\ ~EVE is vocative. o ~evos, Tou ~Evou: the stranger (cf. English xenophobia, fear

of strangers). drE ... ehE ... : whether ... or... For otoa.KTov, see section 8, footnote

20. OTlfl Tp61rw: in which way. Translate as if til ~EVE, KtvouvEuw o-ot ooKE'iv flUKo.pL6s TL,

ELVO.L, youv El◊EVO.L cipET~V ELTE OLOUKTOV foTLV ELTE OT(p TPO'IT(p ,rupuyCyvETO.L,

Secrion 9 97

()"OL OOKElV [l,O.KUpLOS TLS ELvm o.pt=-:-r~v youv E'i'.TE OL◊O.ICTOV E'C0' OTW

/ I 1c;:,1 ,\~\ ,... i;:,134,1 ~(' •, 11

'1"p01TIJ} 1mpayL')'VETUL ELOEVUL - E')'W OE TOO"OUTOV OEW ELTE OLOUl(TOV El'TE

, ~ .;_;:. , '~, r ,~, ~ , 35 rJ , , , , , 36 ,

µ,1] oLUO.KTOV ELOE:.VO.L, ws OUOE UUTO, . 0 TL 1WT EO"fL TO rmpu1ruv upE'n7,

wyxuvw El◊W<:;."

'Eyw oDv KUL UUTO<;, W MEvwv, OUTWS EXW' O-U[J,1TEVOj.LO.L

37

TOlS TiO/,hov;

I ,... I \ 9 \ / ,.h 38 I: ? ? o,;:: \ \

fOU'TOU TOD -rrpayµ,a-ros, l(QL Ej.10.UTOV IW.TO.[l,E[l,'j'O[l,UL W', OUK ELOW', 'ffEPL

9 ,.._ \ I t\ 39 o;;::, \ -;-o;;:: / ' "' •J. 40 ~ ,..., J I

apET'lj,- TO '1Ta.pu1ruv· 0 OE µ, 17 OLOU TL EO'TL, 1TWS UV 01TOlOV YE TL

(

, ) , ~ 1 41 ,1 o;;:: ,... r , 42 9 rt 43 M, ,

EO"TLV ELUEL'TjV; 1j OOl(EL O'OL OLOV TE ELVUL, 00-TLS EVWVU [L'TJ

34Uw: I Jack, ( with infinitive) am far from. Too-ou-rov OEw doEvm: I am so far from

knowing (literally, Jam so far from 10 know). Translate in the order: Ey,;, OE

TOO"OUTOV OEW EL◊EVUL EhE (E.<YTLV) OLOUKTOV EhE IL~ ...

35mh6 (neuter): the thing itself, (this) very thing. o TL 1ro-r' foTt: what ever it is,

or what in the world it is, i.e. its essential nature (see p.46, footnote 9).

36To 1mp6:rruv: at all. TU'Y)(avw dow,: I happen to know (literally, I happen

knowing). Et8ws is the participle of olou and means "knowing" (see section 10,

p.106). w, can stand for ,orr-rE, and does so here. Translate in the order: ws (= wo-TE)

oUOE.

TUY)(civw El.OW; uU16, 0 ·rt, iiO'T' Cl.per~ Eo·Tl -rO 1TupG:rruv.

3701111TrEvoµ.m (with dative): J am poor along with. oL Tro,\iTm (here): my fellow

citizens. (What a person is poor in, is in the genitive, TouTou Toti Trpay!J-aToc;.)

38Eµ.auT6v: myself (reflexive, i.e. the object of a verb of which "I" is the subject).

KaTaµ.Efupo11uL (with accusative): J find fault with, censure. we; (with participle): as

(giving the reason). we; ou1< ELOcIJ<;: as not knowing, i.e. because I do not know.

390: (something) which (indefinite, and so the negative is 1111). For o see p.218.

' 0 a.v: would.

41 doEL1JV is 1st person singular of the optative of olou (p.94, footnote 18). A verb in

the optative mood expresses a wish or (as here) a remote possibility. ELOEL1Jv: I

would ( or migh 1) know. Translate in the order: Trfo;; av et8Et 11v 0Tr01.6v TL YE (foTLV ), o

11~ olou. The negative is 1111 because o 11~ olou is indefinite. (foTL) is understood

after 0Tr01.6v 'YE TL

12

Neuter: it 10 be possible.

and l have inserted it (in brackets) for clarity.

43

00-TL,: (any person) who. This is indefinite, and so the negative is 1111·


yvyvwO-KEl TO Tiapo:rrav 00-TL<; 44 E.O"TlV, TOUTOV El◊EVUL 45 ELTE KaAos ELTE

TIAouo-Los ELTE KllL yEvva'i.os EO-TlV, ELTE rnl. TavavT[a 46 -rouTwv;

ooccd o-ol

'f I ~ ', •

OlOV T ElVlll,

? " ? \ \ , I 9 '\' / '\

0 0 ~ j ~ ' 47 '1 ' I

MEN. UK Eµ,oLyE. u1111a au, w ..,wKpaTE<;, a,111 ws ouo o Tl apETT]

, , 6 ,, , , ~ , , ,, ~ 48 , , , , 49

EO-TlV OlO" a, U/\/\U TUUTU 'TTEpl 0-0U Kill OlKllUE U'TTUYYE/\/\Wµ,Ev;

ro. M~ µ,ovov ')'E, 50 tiJ ETllLpE, d.\.\u Kill OTl ouo' u.\.\4> 1TW E.VETUXOV 51

ElOOTl, ws Eµ,ol. ooKw.

4400--rLs here introduces an indirect question beginning "who" in English. e.g., TL,

Eo-TLv; who is he? (direct question) ou yLyvwoxw oo-TLS J.o--rLv I don't know who he is

(indirect question).

45-rou-rov ELOEvaL: this man to know. TouTov ELOEVUL is the it in ~

( or does it seem possible to you?)

ooKa o-oL olov TE ElvaL

46-rd.vav-rla stands for -ra. Evav-r[u (neuter plural): the opposite (of each of lhese

things). For the crasis mark on -rd.vav-r[u, see p.26, footnote 6.

47ouS' stands for ouSi: here meaning not even. o TL: what. Translate in the order:

ouS' olo-8a 3 Tl d.pn~ EO"TLv;

48otKaOE normally means "homewards", "to home". Here it implies "when we get

back home (to Thessaly)". Kal: as weJJ (as noticing it here) (Sharples).

4\hayy.&1111wµ.Ev: "are we to announce?" is 1st person plural present subjunctive

of d.1myyEAAw: I announce. (cf. English angel). The subjunctive (section 12, p.140)

is deliberative (p.144) and expresses uncertainty as to what to do.

(,;f

50M~ µ.6vov yE: Indeed, not only lhal ... The negative is µ.~ because an order

("announce!") is implied after d.11M.

51 Ev.&-ruxov is 1st person singular of the aorist of ev-ruYXavw (with dative): I meet.

EvE-ruxov (here): I mel. ouS' stands for ou&E. ouoE: 1101 even. 1rw: yet. ouU 1rw

evE-ruxov:J haven't even met yet do6-rL is the dative of dows (section 10, p.106): a

person knowing, a person who knows. aAA((l Eto6-r,: another person knowing

(anybody else who knows). ~is Eµ.ol ooKw (as I seem to me): as I think.

99

Section 10

New words:

a'lfELfl,L ( chro + EL[J,L)

, , I "" ~ I

'I] a'll"opw. 9 1'1'JS o:,ropw,s

8La~01:tpw

iKaa-ros 9 tKUCl''f'l'j 9 EKaaTov

EKELVOS9 El(El11'fb <EKELVO

kv T<jl Tiapov-rL

LO'WS

\ \

KaL ,,, KO.L "'

~ Ko.Klo. 9 -rijs 1micla.s

08e9 ~81t9 'folk

olµ.m (short for ofoµ,m)

1TctpeLµ,L (·cm.pa. + dµ,L)

~ 11pa~LS9 'f~<; 'ITflO,~<tlilS

a~(w

< I

W<Jll.UTW<;

I am absent

the difficulty, perplexity, shortage 1

I corrupt

each

that

in the (present) circumstances

perhaps

both ... and ...

vice, badness, sometimes cowardice

this

I think

I am present

the act, the action 2

I save

in the same way

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 3

~I. masculine feminine neuter

nominative &Se: this 118e: this -.6/k: this

accusative Tov8E: this T~vk this 'folk: this

genitive TouoE: of this -r~a8E: of this '!'ou~k of this

dative -.4>8e to/for this Tij8e: to/for this 'l'IJ!lk: by this

.llli!lll

nominative o"l8e: these a'l8e: these -r&.81:: these

accusative w{,cr8dh ese 1'1tcroe: these TaoE: these

genitive -...wvoe: of these Twv8e: of these 'Twv8E: of these

dative Tmcroe to/for these 'imaoE: to/for these -ro1.cr8E: by these

1 From a- ( un-) and 1rop- , as in 1rop(toµm (I obtain).

2 Elsewhere in Plato, used sometimes for "accomplishment", "practice, habit", and

"life" e.g. "political life". Aristotle ( Nicomachaean Ethics) uses it for "moral action".

3 The dual only occurs 5 times in Plato, all in the masculine nominative, TWOE.


ooe, 11 oe 9 T68e is declined like the definite article o, ~. To with oe, and

differs from ov-ros 9 ali-r1J 9 Tou-ro in being used to point to a person or

thina rather than simply to refer to someone or something which may

be mentioned. ''" Like oDTos, auT'lJ, Toiho, il may either be followed by the

definite article and a noun, or used by itself, e.g.

ooe o 'l!"oAt'f'lJs: this citizen

ooe: this man

110,i; ii 'IT◊ALs: this city

:qk this woman

,.6oe ,-?i 1rpciyµ.a: this business

,.6oe: this thing

e1<e'i.vos9 e1<Eb11J9 <EKE'i.1104 is the demonstrative adjective meaning "that". It

refers to someone or something farther away in space or time. Like

oDToc; and o8E it may either be followed by the definite article and a

noun, or used by itself, e.g.

&Keivoc; o 'l'f0At-r1Js: that citizen

&1eavos: that man, he

EKEtv"l ii 'l'f◊Ats: that city

eKEtv11: that woman, she

EKE'ivo -ro 1rpciyi.1a: that business

EKELvo: that thing


1 ' ~ ' \ ' 2 "<;; ' ' ' 3 ' ~ ' ,I, ~ 4 ns;, ' ,k'\

.EKELvoc; 0 ,wyoc;. .1JOE 11 a1ropw. .EKHVO TO 't'EU<Yf!,U, .OLOE Ol 't'l/\OL.

5.E.KELva Ta E011, 6.albE o.L o.bE/1.qiui.. 7 .ot'k 8.Ta◊E. 9.EKELVOL. 10.oL

'lTULOEc; ol TWVOE TWV 8ouAwv. 1 UKELVOL', Tatk Myw. 12.fows '!TO/\/\ol.

E.KE!.VU 'CcrU<YLV. 13. (A frustrated Socrates!) 1T(l/\LV E.'lTl, T~V '1TPWT1']V '!Taprnµ.Ev

o.1ropCuv. ( Theaetetus 200al 1-12) ( 'lTUALv: back again)

PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Verbal adjectives (e.g., those ending -ing in English)

In English, we add -ing to a verb to describe things; e.g. a humming

bird; a speaking likeness; boiling water. Such describing words are

adjectives formed from verbs. Their grammatical name is participles.

4 The endings are like iiHos.

Section 10 101

The English participle that ends -ing is the present tense active

participle. It describes some one or some thing doing something now,

or at the ,time we are talking about.

When participles qualify nouns, they are of the same gender, number

and case. The masculine and neuter of present participles active are

third declension, the feminine is first (compare the pattern of 0fj:>i.us,

0~AElU, 0fjAu, p.71).

"being", the present participle of elµ,(

"I am"

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

rov

(a man) being

OVTO,

SINGULAR

,.

ouou.

(a woman) being

OOOU.V

ov

(a thing) being

ov

(a man) being (a woman) being (a thing)being

<lVTOS

of (belonging to)

a (man) being

<>VTL

to/for (a man)

being

OUO"JJS

of (belonging to)

a (woman) being

OU01J

to/for (a woman)

being

OVTOS

of (belonging to)

a (thing) being

OV'l'L

to/for (by) (a thing)

being

nom. &acc.

gen. &dat.

OvTe

OVTOLV

DUAL

o'Ucra

OUO"ULV

OVT€

OVTOLV

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

<>vTes

(men) being

<lVTUS

(men) being

<lVTlilV

of (belonging to)

(men) being

oOO'l.(v)

to/for (men)

being

PLURAL

(women) being

ouou.s

(women)being

' ~ OU<Y(l)V

of (belonging to)

(women) being

ouou.Ls

to/for (women)

being

u

OVTII.

(things) being

Ovm

(things) being

<lVT(l)V

of (belonging to)

(things) being

oli01.(v)

to/for (by) (things)

being


Examples:

<pLA6oo<j>os wv, ev .. 41 Auc<ELl\l 8i8&.<YKeL: being a philosopher, he

teaches in the Lyceum (nominative: qualifies a subject)

<jnMo-oqiov ov"Ta (av .. ,iv) o -rrAofrros ou 8ia<j>0E1.pa: being a philosopher,

wealth does not corrupt him (accusaUve: qualifies an object)

<j>iAoo-6<j>ou ov .. os at M~m eto-w op0a(: the opinions of him being (i.e. as he

is) a philosopher are correct (qualifies a possessor) 5

<j>LAorro<J>l\l ov-rL .. ~v aA~0ELav Myoµ,Ev: we tell the truth to him being (i.e.

as he is) a philosopher (qualifies an indirect object)

The negative with a participle is sometimes µ,~ because participles often

have a general meaning. ot, at or 'Ta. with participle represents a

conditional clause, "if there should be any who ... ", e.g.

' \ " >"\ '0 ' C:, I "\I S 6

Ol 111] OVTE.<; Ell.EU epol OU OUVl1VTOL 1TOl\1,TOL ELVl1L

those who are not free cannot be citizens

(the not being free cannot be citizens).

This sentence does not imply that there are any non-free people.

OUK WV EV 'l''U 1roi\eL, Olli( olou O'ITOLOl ELO'LV ot woi\L'l'Ut

not being in the city, I do not know what the citizens are like.

This sentence, where ou is used to negate the participle, does imply that

I am not in the city.

Further examples: <pLMo-ocpot ouK ovTES, o1.

'A0l]va'ioL rnurn ouK i'.o-ao-t.

Not being philosophers, the Athenians don't know that. 7

TOUS 1-mpous µ,~ OVTOS OU OEl 0EpU1TELUS O'UVTUTTHV. ~'

Those who are not doctors ( literally, the not being doctors ( if any)) must not

prescribe cures. ( ~ 0Epa1rEla, ,-~, 0Epa1rElas: the cure auvi-6.nw: I prescribe)

5.ip06s, <lp0~, op06v: correct, cf. English "orthodox" from~ op0~ 36~a.

7rnui-o. (plural) is often used for the singular English "that".

Section 10 103

Participles often stand for a clause beginning "because":

1 8 (h ] d d ) ' ~

1

11apeyeyovH e Ja turne up EV T1) O"UVOU(J"L()-

(. J1J t h e company) 9 ,l,,WKpClTOUS

,_~ '

Epao-T~S wv:

being Socrates'lover, i.e. because he was Socrates' lover ( Symposium 173b3)

or "although":

(the rhetorician will be more persuasive than a doctor) ouK 1-mp6s YE wv:

although indeed not being a doctor, i.e. although he is not indeed a doctor.

( Gorgias 459b I)


1.aocp~ oi'iaa, ~ '1l0Tlfla TOV 1:wKpO.TTJ OLoaO"KEl.

2.ot 1TOA.lTUL T~v 1T6A.Lv q>LA.OUO"L KUA.~v oDaav.

3.1<a1<ol µu0TJTUL OVTES, TU /ipyu ou 1rpo.TTouow.

4.cpLA.oa6cpou ov-ros at yuvu°lKES Tou HM.Twvos a.Kououacv.

5.µ.u0TJTUL OVTES ot vrnv(m Tou IHo.Twvos O.KOUELV 118EA.ov.

6.or8E, oouA.OL OVTES, 1TOA.lTUL ouK ElO-Lv. 7 .EKElVUL, yuva°lKES 1T0Ahwv ollo-m,

, I ' - I\ ,

OlKWS EV T1) 1TO/\El ELXOV, g ,T<Jl - O' / ,l.. \ / ,l.. ,, ,, - '

/\UTWVl ,pll\OO"O't'<Jl OVTl l<YWS TOUTO TO

Epyov pq.OL6v ~v.

9.TOl<; &µ.o°ls hu(poLs, q>LA.ocr6cpoL, µ.~ ollcrL, uun1 ~ ·irpa.tcs

xaAETI~ E.O"Tl. 10.ou 1Tapwv, OUK E.OUVUf-l-TJV TOU n:\.o.-rwvos O.KOUEL v.

11.Tou ITA.o.TWVOS 0.1TOVTOS 0.KOUELV OU ouvaµ.m. 12.a.yEWf-l-ETP~TOUS OVTU<;, OU

~ - ' - ' (.l I ' ' -

OH Tjf-l-US ElO"t-1UlVHV HS TTJV TOU TI' /\UTWVOS / 'A 1<ao17µ.Hav. ~ / 10 (' uyEWfJ.ETP"TJTO,: '

without a knowledge of geometry. ELo-~ufvw: I enler. ~ 'Aimlh'wELu: the Academy.)

A participle preceded by "the" can denote an individual or a class, e.g.

~ EV T~ 1T6/\EL OllO"U TUUTU OLOE

the woman who is in the city knows this

ol. EV Tfl -rr6Au l>vTE<; l<a/\a, OLKLU<; EXOUO"LV

lhose who are in the city have fine houses

Similarly, from a.1ruµ.L and 1To.pnµ.c:

ot ci1Tov-r1es: those wl10 are absent 'TO- 'lrapovTu: the presenl circumstances

8 3rd person singular pluperfect, from 11upuyEyovu, the perfect of 11apayl yvwcmw.

9 ~ auvouofo, TT}, auvouo-lus: the company (literally, the being-together), from ITuv

+ dative: with, and~ ouo-lu: being, a noun connected with wv, olo-a, ov.

10 Plato is said to have written on his door o.yEwfJ.ETP"TJTOS µ."T]oEls E[a[Tw ("let no one

without a knowledge of geometry enter"). For hw, see pp.331,428; for fJ."TJOEL,, p.289.



1 ' , 2 ' ,l'\ ' , ,

.OL -rrapovTES. .OL ~,L/\OL OL 0.1TOVTES. 3 ' ~, ,!._' ' ,

.pq.uLWS 't'Epouo-L Ta 1mpoVTa . ( <pEpw;

I bear, put up with)

The present participle active of other verbs

By adding -ow, -ouaa, -ov to the end. of the stem of any regular verb

that ends -w, such as Myw: "I say", or -·uµ.L such as o.1T6A11.uµ.L we can

make the present active participle, e.g. Mywv Myouou. A~yov :saying; or

a1ToAAuw11 9 &:rroAAuouaa 9 a'll'o>,Auov: destroying.11 The present (and only)

participle of qi11µ.( in prose is <!i6.aKwv 9 <ji&.01<ouffo. 9 qiuaKov: saying, affirming.


l .qiEpwv. 2Jxwv. 3.8L8a.O"KOUCTO.. 4.(,)UO"KOVTES. 5.ot T~V 1ro/\LV O.TI0/1./1.uovTES.

6.01. rnu-ra AEyovTEt;. 7 .o.1. T~v o.A110dav Eup1,cmouo-m.

8:rous TU EVO.VTLO. EfJ,OL /1.E)'OVTUS OU qJL/1.W. (q>L/\(J) is the contracted form of

<pLAECJJ)

~

9 ' , , ,, \ , , , , 'f.l \,

.TWV TO. EVO.VTLU Efl,OL 1\E)'OVTOW O.KOUELV OUK El-"OUI\OfJ,'T]V,

10.E.l{UO"T(j) TWV O.KOUOVTWV o TIMTWV KO.AW<; AE)'ELV OOKEL.

The participle is placed near the noun it describes, like any other

adjective. Often adjectives in Greek come between "the" and the following

noun (as they do in English). Thus o op0o,. Myo,; means "the correct

argument". So o aKoowv dv0pw1ros means "the listening man". But a

Greek adjective can also come after the noun, and just as

o 4>,.Mo-o~os

o <j>tAos is an alternative to o <j>tAos q>iMaocpos for "the friendly philosopher",

so we can also have o dv0pw'll'os; o J,1couwv for "the listening man". A

participle can have an object, e.g. o 'fo,frm. AEywv (<'iv0pol'lfos) or (b

dv0ponms) o -rau'l'a Mywv both mean "the man who says these things". A

Greek participle cannot always be translated by an English participle

ending -ing. Since Myouo-o, means "speaking", ~ M'l'ouo-a yuv~ can be

translated "the speaking woman", but ~ -ruu'l'a Myouo-a. yuv~ has\\-lo be

translated "the woman who says these things".

11The form of the Greek present participle active is like saying "say-being" for

"saying" and "find-being" for "finding". Note however that some verbs ending

-uµL have present participles ending -us, uo-a, uv, e.g. on1<vu,, ouKvuo-a, onKvuv:

showing, and in Plato the present participle active of u1r61111uµ.L is found both as

u1ro1111uwv, u1ro1111uouo-a, u1r61111uov and ci1ro/\/\us, ci1ro1111foa, u1ro1111uv. In verse, <j,cis,

<j,iio-a, cj>civ is found as the participle of qi'T]µ.L

Section 10 105

What js the .E"1glisb for

}.3w~8Elpwv. 2.:yvyvwmwuoa. 3.apxwv. 4.oL Up)(OVTEC:. 5.0uup,6.twv.

6.8avµ,a,ovo-a. 7:rrup6v. 8.TO 1mpov Epyov. 9.a.t 'lTULtouo-UL TfULOEc;. 10.oL

. ,ra'i:OE<; oL ·rra((ovTE<;. 11.dpLUKOUOUl. 12.o µ,u6111~c; () Toil ~L/1.oo-o<jlou

dKouwv. 13.~ yuv~ 11 T~v ·iro/1.Lv a4>(ouo-a. 14.oL muTu Myovw;. 15.Touc;

,-ufrra /1.E)IOVTas )IL yvwo-Ko~LEV. 16. Twv TauTa AqovTwv ou1c o.1<ouoµ,Ev. 17. rn'i:c;

,-auTU AE)IOUO"ULS OUK o.rro1<pLVOfLE6a.

THE PERFECT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE

The endings are -ws (masculine), -via (feminine) and -os (neuter).

SINGULAR


nominative AEAuc(w, AE)WKUt.U A.EA.UKOS

(a man) (a woman) (a thing)

having loosed having loosed having loosed

accusative A.E✓WICOTU AEAUK'Ut.(l,V AEA.Ul(O',



genitive AEAUKO'i0£ AEAuKutac:; A.EA.Ul(O'i"Oc;

of (a man) of (a woman) of (a thing)


dative i\EAuic6·n. AEAuccu(q, AEAUICOTI.

to/for (a man) to/for (a woman) by (a thing)


DUAL

nom &ace AEl<uico-rE i\<ci\rncula AEl<rnco'!'E

gen &dat IIE~\UICO'fOLV i\<ci\mculaw AEAmCO'fOW

PLURAL

nominative AE/n,rc6-r1:s AEl,u1<1.fi.at AEAUKOTO.

(men) (women) (things)


accusative A.EA.UICOTO.S AEA.UKULO.S AEAUKOTO.



genitive AE/\.UICO'TW11 AEAUICUU011 AEAUKO'fWV

of (men) of(women) of (things)


dative AEAusco<n( v) AEA.mrnlms AElluKO<YL( V)

to/for (men) to/for (women) by (things)



Which of the following are present participles active, and which

perfect? What is the meaning of each?

l:yqpacpws. 2.1T€1Tpaxws. 3.1TpUTTWV. 4.TE0auµ,aKWS, 5.~xwv. 6,EO")('T]KWS.

7 .yqov6s. 8.1TE1TmK6TES. 9.KLv◊uvEuouo-m. 10.µ,Eµ,a.011KuLa.L.

The participle of oi'.Sa: I know

SINGULAR


nominative <ELMs

(a man)

knowing

accusative eL86-ra

(a man)

knowing

genitive elo6-ros

(of a man)

knowing

dative etl>lm

(to/for a man)

knowing

Et8ti~o,

(a woman)

knowing

<ELOUlll\l

(a woman)

knowing

Elouta.s

(ofa woman)

knowing

etbutq.

(to/for a woman)

knowing

etMs

(a thing)

knowing

1ct86s

(a thing)

knowing

ElM·rns

(ofa thing)

knowing

eLM-r~

(by a thing)

knowing

nom& ace

gen & dat

(two men)

knowing

E186-roLv

( of, or to or for

two men)

knowing

DUAL

EL8u(o.

( l'Wowomen)

knowing

etlluLmv

(of or to for

two women)

knowing

( two things)

knowing

eLSO-roLv

(by

two things)

knowing

nominative elS{m,s

(men)

knowing

accusative cLM·ms

(men)

knowing

genitive eto6-rwv

(of men)

knowing

dative Elo6<YL(v)

(to/for men)

knowing

PLURAL

(women)

knowing

ELOuLa.s

(women)

knowing

elouuov

(of women)

knowing

ELoutms

(to/for women)

knowing

(things)

knowing

etl36-ra.

(things)

knowing

Elo6-rwv

(of things)

knowing

Eto6o-L(11)

(by things)

knowing

Section 10 107

0 ELOws or~ doui:a is often used to mean "a person who knows" or "the

person who knows".


Lot El◊OTE<;. 2.~ ElOULa. 3.o TO.Um El◊W',. 4.ot mum El◊OTE<;. 5.TO.

I

yeyovoTa.

6 \ ' ,-.. I\ I ,t

.Ta EV Tl] 'ITO/IEL ')'E'}'OVOTU urµ,Ev.

7.ap ' o TOV Taupov EV T1) 1TOAEl AEAUKWS 'Trllprnnv;

( o Ta.upo,, TOU -ra.upou: the bull)

8.TIOU EO"TLV EKELvos; muTa EL◊EVUL ~ouAOµ,E0a.

9.rnum 01JI( ElOWS, EV Tip 'ITapovTL UJJ,LV U1TOKpLvrn0m Olli< EXW,

lo \ ~\ j

.cru OE

/ 9

UUTO<;, (J)

,I_I\ / ,I_\

't'L/\E, Tl 't''TJ'>

\ 1 A

'ITEpL UUTou;

j

E1TEL

\ /

U1TEO"TLV, XU/\E'ITOV

E.O"TL µ,oL AEyuv. ( l1rEl: since) a1ro1<p(vrn6a(. <JOL ou ouvaJJ,UL'

ouK ElOOTL

yap AEyu,.

11 , M' A \, , 12 , , , At ·~, , , , ,

.o EVWV TUUTU /IE')'EL, 11pos EKU<JT'T]V TTJV 'ITpUi,LV ELOWS KCll TTJV apET'T]V

, , 1 e , e , , , r ~, ~ 1 , J... 1

KUL T'T]V KUl<LUV WO"UUTW<;, WS E')'W OL[LUL' 0 OE .t.,WKpUT'T]S OU 't-''TJO"L.

12.ooKEL <JOL OLKULOV ELVUL TrEpl tilv TLS f1~ OL◊EV AE')'ELV ws El◊OTU; ( Republic

506c2) 13 MIDDLE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES 14

0

All verbs ending µ.ai in the first person singular, whether middle or

passive, have present participles ending '11evoc; 9 ,-i,ev11, t1Evov, with endings

just like i<a.Ms, ccaA·q 9 1rn.M11. If the first person singular ends 9)µ(u the

participle end.s 4iµ,e11os 9 ""Oµ.Ev'TJ, -oµ.evov. So if a verb is passive, e.g.

oL◊acrKoJJ,m, I am being laugh~

OLOaaKoµ.Evos means "being taught"

and if a verb is middle, e.g. y(yvoµ,m, / happen,

')'L'yvoµ,evos means "happening".

12 np6, with accusative here means "according to", or "for".

13w,: as, like. Etoow is accusative because the whole phrase Myuv w, Et06w is

treated as a unit and is the subject of 8oKEt.. The accusative-and-infinitive pattern

is used when such a phrase, "to speak as a knowing man", functions as if it were a

single noun. olKa.w,, OtKula., o(rnwv: right. (o[Ka.wv is neuter and is the complement

of w, et06TU Mynv after ooKEt..) 1rEpl c1v: about things which (for which, see section

17.) µ~ because the phrase is indefinite. Translate in the order ooKa crot otKa.tov

ELva.t IIEYELV w, ElOOTU 1TEpl Cilv TLS µ~ ol8Ev;

14

Except for the aorist passive, for which see section 18.


o AEy6µ.evos: he who is being said, or mentioned

~ Aeyoµ.ev'l']: she who is being said, or mentioned

T6 AEy6µ.evov: that which is being said, or mentioned.

o ~ouMµ,Evos: he who is wanting ~ ~ouAoµ.ev'l']: she who is wanting

T6 ~ouMµ.Evov: that which is wanting

The endings of 1rn6µ.E11os are

masculine

SINGULAR

feminine

neuter

nominative AUO)-l,EVOS Auoµ.ev~ Auoµ.Evov

loosing for oneself, ransoming or being loosed

accusative Auoµ.Evov AUO)-l,EV'T]V Auoµ,Evov

genitive

A:uoµ.Ev7JS

Auoµ.evou

dative

A.uoµ,ev11

AuoµJvl!l

nom. &acc.

gen &dat.

/\uoµEvw

/\uoµkvo.v

DUAL

/\uoµEva

/\uoµEvmv

AuoµEvw

Auoµkvo.v

nominative

Au6µ.Evoc

PLURAL

},UO[l,EV<U

Au6µ.Eva.

accusative

A-1JO(J,EVOUS

Auoµ.evos

Auoµ.Eva.

genitive

AUO(J.E.V(l)V

l\:uoµ.kvwv

Auoµ.Evrov

dative

1wov,ib1ots

Auoµ.evms

Auoµ.fvois


1:yvyvw<YKO[l,EV'l']. 2.EUpL<YK0!-1-EVOV. 3.aips6µ.Evo<;. 4.-rrpan6µ.Eva.

5.U1TOKpLVOµ.EVOS. 6.-rrapa-yvyvoµ.ev17. 7 .-yvyvoµ.EVU. 8.8auµ.a(oµ.EVU.

9.AE-yoµ.Eva. 10.~ouAoµ.EVOL.

11.o ~ou/\6µ.Evo<; TOU<; q>LAOU', ED 'ITOLElV 1TOAAou<; <pLAOUS EXEL. ( 1TOU,l-V: to treat)

12.ot TU T~<; 1TOAEW<; -rrp6:yµ.arn ED 'ITPUTTHV ~ou/\oµ,EVOL uya8ol 'ITOA.l. TUL

,

EL<YLV.

13.AE-yOjl,EVOS TUUTU -rrpaTTELV, o <YO<p6S 8auµ.a(ETUL.

14.TL ~OU/I.EL; ◊OKElS yap µ.oL ~ouAoµ.Evos yc-yvwmmv Tl.

15.Eyw aou vvv &-rroKpLvoµ.Evou aKouw.

Section 10 109

The perfect participle middle & passive

The perfect participle middle & passive of >ivw (from AEAuµ,a,i) is:

AEAuµ,~vos' AEAuµ,lv11

A,,luµ,e,vov: having loosed for oneself, having ransomed,

having been loosed; with endings like Auoµ,Evos, Auoµ,Ev'f), Auoµ,Evov.


( ~ \ \ / 15 \ -~ >I 16 2 < \ \

}.al yuvUU<ES, 1\E/\UfLEVUl TOU<, "lTULoU<;, EXutpov. .UL yuvULl(E<;, 1\EllU!1,EVUL

tJ'lT◊ TWV lx0pwv, exmpov. 3.Tu yEypuµ,µ,Eva. 4.KUTEAUµ,~uvoµ,EV 17 TOV

1:wKpaTTJ apTL AEAUµ,Evov, T~V OE Suv6(1nT1JV ,_ YLYVWO'KH<; yap -- exouo-av TE

ro 'TTULOLOV uuTou KUL '1TupaKU611µ,Ev11v. (Phaedo 60al)

Plato, Meno 7lc5-72a5

Meno asks Socrates why he doesn't know Gorgias' definition of dper1 already, and

gives him a list of various aperaL

MEN T , ~, r , , , , 1s " 19 , 0 ,,;, ,

. l oE; 1 opyu;i, OUK EVETUXES OTE EV UOE 1]11;

._.0

.u~. "E ywyE. 20

MEN E • 21 , ,,;,, 22 ,,;,,

. vra OUK EOOKH O'Ol HOEVUL;

151n this sentence, AEAuµ,evaL is middle; in the next sentence, it is passive.

1\aCpw: I am glad.

17KaraAaµ,~avw: I find (on arrival) o.pTl: very recently To 1rm0Cov, Tau 1rm0Cou: the

(small) child. 1TUpaKu611µ,m: I sit beside.

18EvhuxEs is 2nd person singular of EveTUxov, the aorist of EVTUYJ(avw (with dative:

meet), and means "you met". fopy[q, is dative, from fopyCas.

19

oTE: at the time when.

20yE (enclitic): indeed. Greek often repeats one word emphatically when the

natural English reply would be "yes". Eywye is a common way of expressing emphatic

agreement: yes I do or yes I did.

21dw: then, and so (a little ironical).

22

Contracted from Eo6w,, 3rd person singular imperfect active of ooKEW. "He" (sc.

Gorgias) is the subject. For ELO<'.vm, see section 9, p.91.


"'" 0' I 23 ' ' I 24 ' MI " 25 ' " ' ~ , ~

t.-H. U 'ITO.VU ELfl.l. fl.V'Tjfl.WV, (I) EVWV, IJ)aTE OUK E)(W El.'TfELV EV T4)

I ~ I 26 ?I<;, t 27 , \ \ ? '1 , ~ I 11, \ \ 28 a"·

1rapovT1. 1T(J)S µ.01. TOTE EUO<,EV. U/\/1 l.O"(J)S EKHVOS TE 01.UE, KUl. au

? ~ ?I\ 29

EKHVOS EilE'/E •

? I 30 S

avaµ.v11aov ouv f.LE

~ '1\

'lf(J)S EilE'/EV.

' <;, \

u OE

fl I\ ' \

t-'OU/\H, 0.UTOS

, I 3] ,;, ~ \ ,;, I \ '1 j / 32

H'ITE 00

oOKH ya.p U'Tj1TOU aol. U1TEp EKHV4l.

ME •

"E

µ.ovyE.

33

's'() , E ~ , , 34 , ~ , ,;, , 35 , ,, , ,;, , , , ,

t.-H. l(El.VOV f.LEV TOl.VUV EWf.LEV, E'ITEl.O'T] KUl. U'ITEanv· au OE UUTOS, (I)

231ravu: altogether. ou 1ravu: not altogether, i.e. not quite.

24fLV1]µwv, µv11µovos: able to remember, mindful.

25wcne: so that (section 9, p.94). d1rEiv is the infinitive of EL1rov, the aorist of AEyw

(p.165), and means "to say".

26 ToTE: then.

27[8o~EV is 3rd person singular of EOo~u, the aorist of 801<Ew, and means "it seemed".

28Understand olo-0u to go with o-u. TE in the previous clause looks forward to Ka.L

Translate as: EKEiv6c; TE ot8e, Ka.L o-u olo-0a.: both he knows and you know. ii: what,

the things which {neuter plu. accusative of the relative pronoun (sect. 17, p.218).

29/i is the object of [Aeye. EKELvoc;, its subject, refers to Gorgias.

30avaµv110-ov is 2nd person singular imperative from uvEµv11o-a., the aorist of

uva.µLµv~o-Kw: I remind, and means "remind!" For imperatives, see section 15. For

the weak aorist imperative active, see p.186.

31e[1rE. is 2nd person singular imperative (for the strong aorist imperative active,

see section 15, p.187) from ehov {section 14, p.165), the aorist of Myw, and means

"say!". Since it is 2nd person singular, a.uT6c; here means "yourself'.

32Translate as a-rrep yup OoKei EKELV(fl 011-rrou ooKei o-oL. li1rEp : the things which (a

more emphatic form of a, for which see section 17, pp.218 and 220). 011,rou:

presumably. ooKEi here is stronger than seem, and means seem good <ijf'[ seem

right. Ii ooKei µoL { lhe things which seem good to me) is a phrase meaning what I

think, what my opinion is.

33Dative of EywyE (footnote 20, above).

34-roLvuv:weJJ, then or so. J:wµev is 1st person plural of the subjunctive {for which,

see section 12, p.14O) of EW { contracted from Mw: I let, leave alone) and means "let

us leave him on one side".

Section 10 111

\ 0 ~ 36 M' I ,k \ , \ 9 9 37 \ \ ,1..0 ' " 38

,rpos EWV, EVWV, Tl '!'1JS apET'fjV uvm; El1TOV KUl (J,'fj 'V OV110"\]S, lVU

, , ,,.~ ',I, , ,39.,40,k ~·,, ,c;,, 'f ,

EUTUXE<JTUTOV 't'EU<J(J,U E't'EUO"fLEVOS w, av 'l'UV1J', au (J,EV ElO(t)~ l(Ul opyws,

, .,,, , , , 41 ,;, , 42 , 43 ,.,, , 44 , , 45

J:yw oE Elp'fjKWS [L'fjOEVl '\TW1l"OTE ElOOTL EVTETUX'l]C(EVnl.

36'11p6s (with genitive): in the name of. o 0E6,, Tou 0EOu: the god. ,rpos 0Efuv: in the

name of the gods.

31ehov (say!) is the imperative of El-ira., an alternative form of ElTiov (as in footnote

31, see section 15, p.186 for the weak aorist imperative active). ~Bov11cr1Js is 2nd

person singular of ~0ov11crw, the subjunctive of i~86v11cra, the aorist of ~0ov,sw: I

grudge. It means "may you grudge". µ~ ~0ov11cr1JS means "may you not grudge",

and so "do not grudge".

38 tva: so that. ti> is 1st person singular of the subjunctive of ElfLL I may be

(section 12, p.141).

39so that I may be most fortunately mistaken , i.e., so that I may have made a most

fortunate mistake. EfEucrµEvos is nominative masculine singular of the participle

of efEU<rµm, the perfect of fEuooµm: I am deceived, am mistaken (the passive of

fu\8w, I tell a lie ).

EuTUxforn-ros, Eu-ruxEo--r6.-r11, Eu-ruxforn-rov: most fortunate. -ro

fEucrµa (given in section 2 as meaning the lie) here means the deception or, if

self inflicted, the mistake. d-ruxforn-rov fEuo-µa is accusative of respect, in respect

of a most fortunate mistal<e.

40 Eo.v ~avij,: if you are shown. /iv stands for Ea.v, if in a future condition, with a

subjunctive verb (section 12, p.146). <jiavijs is 2nd person singular of <jiavw, the

subjunctive of E<pa.v11v, the aorist passive of <jia[vw, I show. It is followed by a

participle where English has an infinitive. /iv <jiavijs o-u µEv ElOw, ,cal. fopy[a,: if

you on the one hand are shown to know, and Gorgias (too) ...

41elp1JKW, is nominative singular masculine of the participle of ELp1JKa, the perfect

ofMyw. iyw oE.: I on the other hand (am shown) to have said ...

41

µ1J8Evc is dative, from µ1]8Ec, (nobody, when the negative would beµ~ and not ou).

431rw-rro-re: ever yet.

44Elo6-rL is dative of Elows (p.106).

45 ev-rETUX1JKEvaL is the infinitive of .:v-rE-rux11,ca, the perfect of ev-ruYX6.vw (with dative)

I meet. Translate in the order /iv <jiavijs au µic:v ELOws rnl. fopy[as, Eyw OE (qiavw)

ELP1JKW$ ( µ.e) evTETUX1JKEval µ118EvL El86-rL 1rw1ro-rE: if you are shown on the one hand to

know and (so is) Gorgias, I on the other hand am shown to have said (me, i.e.

myself) to have met nobody ever yet knowing (i.e., nobody ever yet who knows)".

e


1/IEN. 'A\\ , , \ , 46 , __,, , ~ ~ 47 , , A '\

.Vil l\t\ ou XUilE'ffOV, w .<:c,wKpUTES, ELTrELv. 11punov [1,EV, EL t-'OUt\EL

, ~ , , 1 e ,~ 48 et rt , ? c;:, , , 1 e \ 49 9 , "

uvupos upETT]V, pq.oLOV , OTL UUTl] EUTLV uvupos upET'Tj, LKUVOV ELVUL TU TT]S

'\ , , , so , , ,j_/\ , ~ 51 , 1,,

'TfO/\EWS '1TPUTTELV, !(UL TrpaTTOVTU TOUS [1,EV ,,,L/\OUS EU 'ITOLELV, TOUS u

' 0 , ~ ' ' , '\ A ~ 0 52 '<' ~ 0 ~ ' ~'

EX pous KUKWS, KUL UUTOV EU/\Ut-'ELO" UL µ.170EV TOLOUTOV 'ITU ELV. EL OE

f.1 , \ \ , , ' \ \ 53 ~ '0 ~ " ~ ~ , \ \ ' , '

t-'OU/\EL yuVULl(O', UpET'TjV, OU XO./IETfOV OLE/\ ElV, On OEL UUT'f]V T'TJV OLKLUV EU

' ~ 54 / Y I \ OJ ~ 55 \ / 56 ' ~ ' \', ' \

OLl(ELV, uip.,,ouuuv TE TU EVOOV KUL KUT'TjKOOV oucmv TOU o.vopos. KUL

"\ \ ' \ \',\ ' I \ 0 \ / ' " \ (.1 , ' \', ,

U/\/l'Tj EUTLV TIO.LOOS upET'Tj, KUL 'Tjl\ELUS KUL uppEvos, KUL TIPEU1-1UTEpou uvupos,

' ' f.1 / \ '\ 0 / ' ~ I A / \ I', / \ I ,, \ \ / \ \ 57

EL [1,EV 1-10U/\EL, E/\EU Epou, EL OE t-'OU/\EL, OOU/\OU. KUL 0./\/\UL TIU[l,'ITO/\/\UL

46Understand ecrrL. El'ITELv ( to say) is the infinitive of ELrrov (footnote 25).

47

1rpGnov (used as an adverb): firstly, in the first place.

48Understand EO'TL.

49 LKUv6s, Limv~, LKa.v6v: sufficient, capable ( of). See section 6, footnote 13.

50 1rpa.TTovTa. is accusative with the infinitive 1r0Lav. It expresses the subject of the

infinitive a man, managing (the affairs of the city) to treat his friends well

means that a man managing (the affairs of the city) should treat his friends well.

51 Eu 'lTOLEtv: to treat well.

52 Eu.\a.~E.fo0m is the infinitive of Eu.\a.~E.Ofla.L: I take care. Eu.\a.~EOfla.L and an infinitive

and f11JOEv (nothing) means 1 lake care to ... nothing. 1ra.0Etv is the infinitive of

ha.0ov, the aorist of 1rciO')(w: I suffer (for which, see p.165) and means 10 suffer.

TOLouTos, ToLa.DT1J, To,ouTo(v): like this, like that. Translate in the order E1\.\a.~E'i:00m

1ra.8EL V Jt 1]0EV TOLOUTOV.

53Understand eoTL, OLEA0Ecv: to go through, explain (see section 6, footnote 17).

54See section 6, footnote 19.

55Evoov: inside. -ra. [voov: the things inside, i.e. the contents.

56Ka.T~1<00,: subordinate. See section 6 footnote 20.

57 1rcif11roA.\o,, 1TCLf11To.\.\m, 1ro.f11ro.\.\a.: very many.

Section 10 113

I ' rl 58 ~ ' / 59 . 9 '"' ~ .... I 60 r, 61 ' /

a.pETO,l ElO"lV, WO"TE QUI( U1TOpLU EVITHV upETTJS TrEpl O Tl EO"TlV. Ku8'

/ 62 \ " It_ \ " I:\ ,..,, \ r1 ~ 1

e1<uCYT'T]V yup Twv rrpusEWV KO.l Twv 1711LKU!lV 1rpos EK<WTov Epyov EKUCYT(jl

t ,,.,. e , . , , e , ~, 9 9 \\', , r ,

'l]fLWV 17 apET'Tj EO"TlV, (l)O'UUTW<; CJE oq.LUL, w /~WKPUTE<;, l(CJ.l -~ l(Ul(l(),.

58wcrTE: see section 9, p.94.

59 Understand E<m ( there is) after chropfa. For E[-rreiv see footnotes 25 and 46.

60Translate upETij, -rrEpL as if in the order 1rEpt upE1"ijs. If a two-syllable preposition

comes after the noun it governs, the accent on the preposition moves from the

second to the first syllable.

61 3 TL: what.

62 KU0' EKa.crT11v stands for 1<uTa EKao"T11v. ica-r6. (with accusative): according to. 11

~ALKtu, Tfj, ~ALKta,: the time of life.

114

Section 11

New words:

aA.A~AoUS9 aAA~ActS9 uAA TJAU]

av

oTJMw

eotrn (with dative)

tTJ-re.w

TO KO.AAOS9 '!"OU Kct/\AOU',

KEAEUW

TO f.LE')'E8os 9 Toil µ,Eye.0ous

fLE11TOi

f.LEV(t)

µ,tu

OUOE.11

0U1Tw

'TJ OUO'LU9 Tl)S OUO'LO.S

(see p.103, footnote 9)

-ro aµ 'Y\vos9 -rou aµ, ~vous

,

'TOWUV

More prepositions

Bui.

each other

would 2

I show, make clear, reveal

I seem likely (to) I resemble

I seek, look for

beauty, lustre

I order (KEA.Euw f.L~: I forbid)

size, length

yet, nevertheless

I wait for(with accusative), I remain

one (feminine adjective)

nothing, in no way

not yet

'ITw ( enc Ii tic) yet

reality, existence; essence, essential

nature; being, substance

the beehive, swarm of bees

well, then; accordingly

(with accusative) because of

(with accusative) according to

(with dative) beside

~~vToL and Tolvuv 11Evrn, is used in dialogue either to affirm or to qualify something

just said. When it is adversative, it is more gentle than dAM or OE. rn[vuv is often

used in Plato to introduce a reply. It docs not have the logical force of oDv and can

sometimes be negative. It can introduce an instruction or a prohibition, ~g. ou

To[vuv oe[ ere otrn8a., ... then you must not think ... 3

1Not found in the nominative case.

2Modal particle; it makes an assertion dependent on circumstances.

3 Plato's use of Greek particles is very subtle, and reference to j.D. Denniston,

The Greek Particles (reprinted by Bristol Classical Press, Duckworth, 1996) is often

necessary. For µEvToL, see Denniston, pp.397 sqq., and for To[vuv pp.568 sqq.

nominative

masculine

'il'OS

every (man)

accusative

I

'jj'(l1,/'/'0,

every (man)

genitive

I

'IT0.1/TOS

of every (man)

dative

I

'li0:1/Tt

to/for every (man)

Section 11

"EVERY" I "ALL"

feminine

singular

'ITiiO'!l

every (woman)

1!'00'!111

every (woman)

'IT&.O"l]s

of every (woman)

I

'll'U0'11

neuter

'il'a.V

every ( thing)

'triiv

every ( thing)

I

'ITCll/TOS

of every (thing)

I

'il'Ul/"fl

to/for every(woman) to/for (by) every (thing)

us

nominative

I

'liUV'fE<;

all (men)

accusative

I

'liUV'fll,S

all (men)

genitive

I

'l!"!lll'J'WV

of all (men)

dative

1riiin(v)

to/for all(men)

plural

all (women)

I

'ITUO'll,S

all (women)

'll"ClO'Wl/

of all (women)

I

'ITCl,O'O,lS

to/for/all(women)

I

1i'U1/'fll,

all (things)

I

'lfctl/Tll

all (things)

'flUVTlilV '

of all (things)

'lfct<Yl( V)

to/for (by) all (things)

As in wv, o~O'a, ov, in -rros, -rrciou, Trciv the masculine and neuter are 3rd

declension, while the feminine is first.

N.B.1 TravT€S by itself: everybody

'ITavTa by itself: everything.

N.B.2 ·1riis is used with masculine nouns denoting things; e.g. 'ITiis 110-yos: every

word. Similarly, 'IT<io-a is used with feminine nouns, e.g. 1riio-a &.perq: every excellence

(virtue), and 'IT<iv is used with neuter nouns, e.g. 'lf<iv epyov: every deed.

N.B.3 'ITiis o .., :the whole e.g. 'lf<is o 1tocrµ.os: the whole world.

N.B.4 Ii.was, a.7ro.cm, a.m1v: is a stronger form of 110.s, 1rii.aa, 'lfiiv meaning quite all,

and in the plural alJ together.



l:rra., av0pw,ro<;. 2.1TU(YU yuv~. 3:rriiv EP')'OV. 4.1TO.VTO<; 1Tm86,. 5.'ITUO"IJ

uSE./\~t 6.1TO.VTl 1rpciyµ.o.TL. 7.1TO.VTl /\oy41. 8.1TUCYU ~ cL\~0E.Lo.. 9.E.V 1fUO"IJ

Tij OLKL(!,. 10.'lTUCYWV TWV yuvULKWV. l l.1r6.crm<; To.LS a8EA<p0.L',. 12.'lTUVTE<;

-rro.CtoucrLV. 13.d TOLVUV ~ QUT~ upET~ TfUVT(J)V ECiTLV, 1(0,1, uv8pwv KO.l,

')'UVULKWV, TIOLOV Tl E.O"TLV ~ apET~; (-rrotov Tbvhat l<ind of thing?) 14.801(EL

µ.oL oTL olSu- o·~ µ.EvToL µ.uv0civw To EpwTwµ.Evov (the thing being asked - the

question) W', ~ouAoµ.uL. 15.clpo. 'JT(l{jQ,l, µ.lALTTUL TO O.UTO ELbo, EXOUCiLV;

THE AORIST TENSE

"Aorist" means "without boundaries". Greek verbs are classified by

their aspect. The present aspect is continuous, and covers two

tenses, the present and the imperfect.

Mw (present) means "I am loosing"

E.Auov (imperfect) means "I was loosing".

The aorist aspect (see section 8, p.76) refers to actions either as

separate complete events or in a completely general sense. The

essential feature of the aorist aspect is completeness. 4 The aorist

tense is therefore not essentially past, although its indicative is

used where in English a simple past tense is used, e.g.

TToAE[LUpxo, o KE~a/\ou EKE.AEUCiE TOV 'lTULbU

Polemarch us the ( son) of Cephalus ordered the slave boy ( Republic I, 327b3)

Because the aorist is the natural tense to use in narrative for things which

are finished or over, by far the commonest use of the aorist indicative is lo

express simple past actions (for which it is the regular tense in Greek), but

occasionally the aorist indicative is found with no past meaning, e.g.

o "Epwr; 8LE<p0ELpEv TE ,ro/\Au KUL ~8(,K'.QCiEV

Love both corrupts many things and does wrong (Symposium l 88a8)

(o"Epws, Tau "EprnTO,: Love uotKEw (aorist, ~OLK1Jau): I act unjustly.)

where otEq>8ELpEv is 3rd person singular of otEq,Bupu, the aorist of owq,0Etpw

and 11ot1<1Jo-Ev is 3rd person singular, aorist indicative active of uotKEw, /IW,ct

unjustly but both are used to say, as a general truth, what Jove does.

A form of this use of the aorist occurs in proverbial sayings, and is called the

Gnomic Aorist(~ yvw1~11: the proverb).'

4Because the present aspect emphasises continuity so strongly, the aorist is

sometimes called the unmarked aspect.

5 cf. the English proverb "faint heart ne'er won fair lady",

Section 11

117

After TL oi'i the aorist indicative sometimes has a fJJtur~ meaning in Plato and

Xenophon (see p.363).

Greek and English tenses do not correspond exactly. The English

past tense ending -ed has a wide range of uses, and would best be

regarded as standing sometimes for the imperfect tense in Greek,

and sometimes the aorist. Compare, for instance,

"He seldom worried about money." (definitely imperfect)

and

"He tumbled off his horse at ten o'clock." (definitely aorist).

There are instances when the English -ed tense is inadequate to

translate the Greek aorist.

He risked

may be a mistranslation of

EKLVOUVEU<JE

in a context where it does not convey the sense of completeness

implied by the Greek aorist tense. We may have to find a different

form of words, such as:

he took the risk.

The aorist infinitive, subjunctive, optative and imperative c, normally

do not express pastness. 7 They differ in meaning from the present

infinitive, subjunctive and imperatives because they refer to an

action that is complete.

Because the aorist indicative is usually a past tense, Greek verbs in

the aorist indicative begin with an augment. There are two patterns

of active aorist endings in Greek. In this section we tackle the

6For subjunctives, sec section 12, for optatives, section 13 and for imperatives,

section 15.

7See section 14, p.173. The aorist infinitive can sometimes have a past meaning

especially in reported speech, e.g. having thrown him into a well and drowned

him, he told his mother Cleopatra him to have fallen in chasing a goose and to

havedied,meaning "that he hadfallenin chasing a goose and that he haddied"(Piato,

Gorgias47lc), where "to have fallen in" and "tohavedied"are bothaoristinfinitives.

0


regular pattern, with endings formed on -(a)a, which is called the

"first" or "weak" aorist. 8 The aorist of .\uw: I loose is D.uaa: I

loosed.

The Weak Aorist Indicative Active

Aorist indicative active of .\uw:

SINGULAR

endings

-(cr)a

&Xuaa: I loosed (i.e., I came to loose)

-(a)as

EAUO"as: you loosed (came to loose)(singular)

-( <Y )e( V)

iAuae(v): he/she/it loosed (came to loose)

-{<r)a-rov

-{cr)aTI)V

-(u)aµ.ev

-(o-}a'fE

-(cr)uv

DUAL

V..u<ra-rov: you both loosed ( came to loose)

V..ucrch11v: they both loosed (came to loose)

PLURAL

V1.1',craµ.ev: we loosed (came to loose)

&Maa,Te: you loosed ( came to loose)(plural)

&Auaav: they loosed, came to loose

There is no separate aorist endings-system for most -µ,L verbs. The

aorist active of <hr611.Auµ.L ( I destroy) is o.-rrwAEo-a ( I destroyed).


U11.uauc;; 2.ouK E/1.uau. 3.clp ' E/1.ucmv; 4.clp ' OUK EAuaEV; 5.oL

1TOALTUL E/1.uaav. 6.T[va, E/1.U<YUTE, ti> 1TOALTUL; 7.Tov IwKpO.T'T] ouK

'\ I > - ~ I

Ei\UO'Ufl,E.V EK TOU OEO'[LWT'T]pLOU.

> \ /

.EKE/\EUO'UTE..

< f.l/ > .O 1TpE◊-~UTTJS EKE/\EU<YE

9 8 9

TOU<; 1TUL0CLS 0./1/1.~AOLS µ.~ 0LUAE'YE0"0UL (o 11prn~UT1J,: the old man OLaAEyoµ,m:

I talk, converse). 10.0l<l TOUTO EKLVOUVEU<YEV o o-ocpo<; [LUKO.pL6<; Tl<; Elvm.

~it

The rules for the augment which apply for the imperfect tense of

verbs with stems that begin with a vowel apply also for the

aorist; verbs beginning with a ore are augmented with -q; verbs

be_ginning with o are augmented with w.

8When the ending is -era rather than -a, this is often called the sigmatised aorist.

\o 8rnµ,wT~p~ov, TOU 0€CJ[J,WT1]ptou: the prison.

Section 11

119


1 " 2" 3' 0 \ ,r 4' I J e I

.'ljKOU<YU. ,'T]KOUO-UV. .o µ,a 'T]T'Tj<; 'l]KOU<YEV. ·,'TjKOUO-UTE, (!) µ,a 'T]TUL;

5.auyyEvfo0m µ,o~ ouK ~0EA'lj<YU, (Apology 26a6). 10 6.clp '~0EA'T]O-UTE;

7.J. µ,a0'TjTUl, ◊Ul Tl TOUTO µ,av06.vuv OUK ~0EA1l<YUTE; 8.u1To TOUTOU

8L8am<rn0al Olli( ~0EA'T]<YUf-LEV. 9.w<pHA'T]<YUf-LEV. 11 10.ot 1TOAlTUL 1roA/10.

w</>ELA'TJaav.

This is a guide to recognising some regular weak aorist endings:

.S.tem of.present ends in 'Y~I'.,. - aorist ends •~a, •~as, ~E(v) etc.

e.g. 0Lw1rn) ( I pursue) > eotw~a ( I pursued) i 2


Uo[w~av; 2.EOlW~EV o o-o<po<; TOD<; µ,u0'l]TUS; 3.dp' OUK EO[,(!)~U<; TOD<;

11a8'l]TU<;, '1 (JO(pE; 4.ouK EOlWKETE T~V o-ocp[av, µ,u0'T]TUL. 5.TOD<; µ,u0'T]TO.<;

OUK E◊lW~U[-1,Ell. 6.~p~u. 7.~p~UTE. 8.o o-o<po<; ~p~EV. 9.ot oouA.Ol T1J<;

1TOAEW<; ~p~av. 10.'lTW<; ~p~UTE T1J<; 1TOAEW,; l l.1Tw<; ~PXETE T1], 1TOAEWc;;

0

Stem of present ends in ~_,_:i1,.._:rr_-r or di_-- aorist ends •iJm, •t!ias,

etc.

e.g. 'YPa<pw (I writ~> lf.wmtjio, (I wrote)


l.Tl Eypu~a<;; 2.TL Eypa<pE,; 3. TL Jypu~UTE; 4.EO"KW~Uf-LEV.

1TUlOE<; foKw~av. 6.oLa TL f-LE E<YKw~us; 7 .foTpE~a. 8.foTpE~Ev.

tjiE(11)

5.ot

10auyyrn~a0UL (with dative): to keep company with. The aorist of E.0D,w is lengthened

to~0D,1Jaa. The past meaning could be more accurately translated"! consented".

11The aorist of 6cj>EtAw (section 8, p.79) is lengthened to wcj>ELA1J<m. The past meaning

would be "I owed" in the sense of" I came to owe, incurred a debt".

12This is a safe guide for reading but not for writing Greek, as many Greek verbs

have irregular aorists. Eupto-Kw, <lxw and AEyw, for instance, have strong, not weak

aorists (for which, see section 14, p.165).


9 , \~ , ,, \ , , , , e , ,, .,. 13 -io - 14 , , ,

.OL 'ITOI\LTUL TU O'lfl\U E1Tl 'TOUS EX pou<; E<YTPE't'a.v. A .µ,wv E'ffl TOU<;

q'>(,\ous Ta 0·1TAa EO-TpE!pUTE;

Stem of present ends in (YI(, _Q:Q'_ or n ·· aorist ends •~a. 9 •~as 9 -~"(tr)

etc 15

e.g. 1Tpaww (I perform)> hpd.~o. (I performed)


Uoi.8a~as. 2.Eorna~av. 3.EOLM~a.µ,Ev;

4.o CYO<pW'T~S OU KO.AW<; EOLOU~E

TOUS µ,a611Ta.<;. 5.1TWS TO.UTU OLMO-KELS; 6.e1rpu~u. 7.'lfClVTO. ED lhrpa.~EV

0 1TOALT11S· 8.'TOUS lx6pouc; KUKWS E1Tf)Cl~U(J,EV. 9.0UK apu 1TUVTUS ED

TIPUTTETE.

10.ot crorpoL TU T~S 'ffOAEWs KO.AWS E'lrpo.ea.v.

Stemof_present ends inL- aorist ends -cro., -cro.s, -O"<s(v) etc

e.g. irn.0t(ro (I sit down) > itca.0wa. (I sat down) 16


1 "6 2 e ....J... \ \ / "8 3 '0 / 4 \ A

·11 wa. .o CYO'J'OS TOUS VEO.Vt.a<; 11 LCYEV. .E aq.LO.CYE. ,-r11v TOU

"' I ,~I j / '8 I

bWKpaTOU<; 0-0't'LUV OU 1T(l,VTES E aup,aaav.

j /

.E.1TO.WO.[l,EV.

6 S ~<:, j

,Ol 1Ta.LOES EV

5

A •<c~ ,, y

TU 004) E'llUL~OV.

'7"

.E<JWO'US.

8

·11' OLKLU

, / , "' \ / 17

O.<J,t'Ul\11S

,

Eo-nv·

'

11

\ \

yuv11 TU

EVOOV E(J(J}(JE.. (Ta evoov: the things inside, the contents). (The aorist of o-0tw

is fowo-u.)

1\0 0111\ov, Tou 0·11Aou: the weapon. E'crL (with accusative) (here): against.

14µ,wv (a combination of fl~ and ouv ): surely not?

15This is because although the present tense ends -TTw, the stem ends in y. 11p6.TTw

for instance, (stem 1Tpuy-), is connected with 1Tpuyµ,u and gives rise to English

words such as "pragmatic" and "practical".

16The aorists of verbs with present tenses ending -tw are a miscellaneou.~roup.

Some, like d.yop6.{w (Igo to market, buy ) have aorists ending -o-a (~y6pucm: I bought).

Others, like icpa(,w (I scream), have aorists ending -ta (EKpu~u:I screamed).

17cio-cpuA~,: safe (literally, not involved in being overthrown or rripped up , cf.

English "asphalt").

Section 11

121

~_Jhat end ~a!!!., e.g. J;pwniw: I ask have the aorist active ending

-'IJaa, e.g. ~pw-r110'0, I asked, as do verbs ending ~.;w, e.g. the aorist of

cpLXlw, I Jove is lcpD\110-u, I loved. 18 Ve.rbs ending-ow have the aorist

active ending ~wmi.


, , 2 , , 3 , , , e , 4 ',k',

l.11pwT'T]O'EV. ·'TJPWT'T]UUf1EV. .TL 'TJPWT'l)UU<;, µ.a 'T]TU; .E-yL/l'l)O'UTE.

5,TLVU Eq>lll'l)UU<;; 19 6.<1.( 'l)T~OUTE. 7 .Ka Ta Tov HMTwva b LmcpUT'TjS µ,(,av

' ' 'Y I O "~ t 9 I I 9 """ t ' "' I

apET'TJV E<,'TjT'TjUE. o.EOO<,,UV. .µ,rncaplO<; TLS ELVUL EOO<,,EV O L~WKPUT'Tj',,

O >l~/:I el 11•~\/ 12' 120 >I <:,\ I

1 .EUO\,U O'OL µ,av UVELV. .EO'Tjl\W(J"Uf1EV. -.E1fEL O'E 'Y]PWT'TjO'U, OLO. TL

E.KEt.v6 µ,oL ouK J8N1waus;

If there is a preposition prefixed to the verb the augment comes after the

prefix, as in the imperfect tense (section 8, p.79).

The aorist of &rnop[tw (I provide) is E~rn6pwa (I provided).

(e" becomes Et preceding an augment.)

0:116, ou5., E-rrl, 1<a-r6., f1'='•6. and -rrapa lose their last vowel when prefixed to an

augment. /\s noted, the aorist of dw6AAufL,, I destroy, which is prefixed by a'IT6,

is h©A,;o·a, I destroyed.

'l!epl does not lose its last vowel. The aorist of 'ITEpLypo.cpw (I sketch) 21 is 'ITEpu'.ypmlm

(I skelched).


U.~rnopCo-aµ,Ev. 2.<1.(rnopLcmTE; 3.d.rrw/\EOUTE. J..ot <1.x0pot T~v 'ITO/\Lv

O.TIW/1rnav. 5 .b 0-0~6, T~V ci,ATj0ELUV f10L TrEpLE'YPU~JEV. 6.Jyw µ.Cav

' \ ''f / \ ~\ "' I 1 ...., ,t 't I

apET'T]V E<,'T]T'TjO-U, o-u OE O'f.l,'T]VO<; TL upETwv Ef10L Er,E"rropwa<;.

\I 't I ~ '1 12

TIO/\LTUL!, E<:,ETIOpWUV OL upxoVTE<;.

7 .01r/\u TOL<;

18Note that the aorist of ooKe.w, J seem, seem good is <ioo~a, / seemed, seemed good.

19 As well as I Jove, regard with affecUon, like, q>lAE<u can mean J kiss.

21 ypfuj,w means I draw as well as I write. So 1repLyp6.q,w, I draw a line round comes to

mean I ouUine, I sketch.

22 ot upxovTES, those ruling, or 1he archons (magistrates at Athens).


Verbs with stems ending ending A. v. or P-- that have weak aorist

active tenses have as their aorist endings -a, -a.s, -E(v), -aµ.ev, -a'fE,

-av. So from &'Yelpw, I awake11 the aorist indicative is 1J'\'ELpa, I

awakened

From the present itptvw I judge we have the aorist &KpLva I judged

Many such verbs also alter their stems slightly in forming the

aorist; e.g. µJvw (present): I stay, await, wait for.

Eµ.ewa. (aorist): I stayed, awaited, waited for.


1 , / 2' k' ,, 3 - ,, 4 <;, ' I , ' I

.EKPLVUTE. .0 O"O<pOS EKpLVE. :rrws EKpLvav; ,Ola. TL OUK EKpLVUfLEV;

5 I 6" 7" 8 9 \ 1 ,I,.' ,t

.KpL vH<;. .E[LH vav. .EfLEVOV. ,[LEVOUO"LV. . TOV O"O'l'OV E[LELVUV OL

e

µ.u0'l]TUL. 10.'TTUVTE<; EfLELVUfLEV 'TTUpa TCJ) ◊Evbp4J. (To OEVOpov: the tree)

It is important to distinguish the aorist from the imperfect.


Uµ,EVOfLEV. 2.lµ,ELVUfLEV. 3.~KOU<YUTE. 4.~KOUETE. 5.E'YpmjiE(v ).

6.Eypuq>E( v ). 7 .E~E1T6pLtEc;. 8.J~rn6pwuc;. 9 .1rEpLEypucpov. 10. TIEPLE-ypmjm.

The weak aorist infinitive active

The aorist infinitive active ends -(<Y)m, e.g. Afom: to loose. It has no

augment, and, as noted, normally does not have a past meaning.


l.'TTULO"UL. 2Jrn6pL<YUL. 3:rrpu~UL. 4.<YTPE~JUL, 5.µ,ELVUL. 6.uKOUO"UL.

7.cfp~UL. 8.8o~UL. 9.E0EAfj<YUL. 10.EpwTfj<YUL. 11.KLV◊UVEUEL<; EV l((lLpqi

TLVL ouK E'YELpuC ILE. ( CrifO 44a8) ( EYELpm is the infinitive of 1\-yELpu. o

1<mp6c; the right time. 1<mp6c; ns: a suitable time, i.e. jusl lhe right lime. In

this sentence, an aorist infinitive has past meaning.)

KEq>a/\ou EKEAEUO"E TOV 'TTULSu KEAEUO"UL TOV L1lKpUT'l] fLELVUL.

l2ofloAEµ,upxos@)

(o 1rais: the

slave boy) 13.Et ◊EL (jl((J)tpUL, 01.LOLO<; EL T~ vapK1). (Meno, 80a5,adapted).

(oµ.oLOS -a -ov with dative: like. ~

vapK'l"J: the electric ray fish.) 14.EXELS

fLE ◊Lbu~m oTL TOUTo ouTw, EXEL; (Meno 8le6 adapted) ( ouTwc; EXEL: is so.)

(In sentences 12 ,13 and 14, the aorist infinitives do not have past meaning.)

Section 11

The weak aorist participle active

The aorist participle can have a past meaning, e.g. aKouaa, can

mean having heard,. but often in English it is translated by a present

'participle, e.g. KUL e-yw O.KOUO-US TOV M-yov e0a-6µ,aaa and I, hearing the

speech, was amazed (Symposium Z08b7). The weak aorist participle has

no augment. Its endings are like those of Tia.s 9 110.m19 1Ta11 (see page

115 above).

Aorist participle active of d1wvw

Singular


nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

UKO'IJIYUS

' I

hearing, having heard

(l.l(O'IJl:r(J.VTl1

' I


9 /

mwucracra

' I

UIWUCYO,CYU 11

O,KOU0-0,V

a.1coucrm1

'I I ? I 9 I

mcoucrallTOS {U(Ol)(YUCY7]', a.KOUcrO,V'l'OS

of hearing, of having heard

? I '> I ? I

a,icoucrav·n mcoucraOiJ a1<oucravTL

to, for, by hearing, to/for/by having heard

123

nominative

and accusative

Dual

' ,

, ,

aKOUO'Q.V'i"E

CJ.KOUO"O,O'O.

two hearing, two having heard

genitive and dative «J.,couo-n11-ro,11 d,couo-ci.o-mv &,couuci.11-.ow

of, or to, for, by two hearing, of, or to, for, by two having heard

Plural

nominative

? I

UK01JllUVT<ES

-, f

UKO'O.JOUO'O,l

' ,


accusative


' , 9 "'

genitive CUCOUO'O.V'l'Wll ,J,lcOUO"UO'l<JV

' ,

of hearing, of having heard

(dative) 0,l(OlJCl'UO'l.(V) ' I

mrnuoucrm.s

UKOU0'0.1/TO,

? I 'I I

' I

O.KOUO'O.VTUS IJ,KOUO'O,O'US mcouuav-ra

to, for, by hearing, to/for/by having heard

Ul(OU0'0,11'\'{l)V

The aorist participle ca11 be used to denote a class of people e.g.

ot Tou !:wKpaTou, aKouaavTE,: those who have heard Socrates.



1.KLV8UVEUCTU',. 2.8LM~a,. 3.cnpEl)ms. 4-.0auµ,acra,. 5.~ 1TUL<YU<YU yuv~.

6 ,lj ' ')'UV'T] ' lj ' UKW~JU<YU. ',I 7 ·11' ')'UV'T] ' lj ' TljV ' 1TO/\LV '' O'W<YU<YU. ' 8 .OL' TUUTU ~

ciKoucravTE<;. 9.oL T~v cl.A110ECav 8'T]Awcravw;. 10. oL 1Ta'i:8E, oL Twv T~v

-rroALv awcrUVTWV. 11.ot 1Tat.8E, ot TWV T~V 1roALv <YW<YUO'WV. 12.ToL<;

mum Epwr~cracrL T~v cl.A110ELav AEyw. 13 .O'OL, E[J.,E raurn EpWT~o-avrL,

u1ToKpCvw0m OUK E0EAw.

The Weak Aorist Indicative Middle 23

The middle of A.ow (I loose, present) is 11.ooµaL (J loose for myself).

The weak aorist indicative middle is formed like the active,

with endings based on °(cr)u, as follows:

singular

endings

-( cr)av}r,v

&ll.uo-«1.L1JV I loosed for myself, got loosed, ransomed

tAumll you loosed for yourself, got loosed, ransomed.

-(cr)aoBov

&11.iio-aTo he/she/it loosed for him/her/itself, got

loosed, ransomed

dual

&Mcrao.flov you both loosed for yourselves, got

loosed, ransomed

e~,ucr6.cr&i1v they both loosed for themselves, got

loosed, ransomed

plural

tAucraµ,EGo. we loosed for ourselves, got loosed, ransomed

tAuo-aalk you loosed for yourselves, got loosed, ransomed

&A.uaav-ro they loosed for themselves, got loosed,

ransomed

Other weak aorist middles include u.1TEKpw&µ11v: I replied (from

u1orncptvoµ,m: I reply).

23The aorist middle is not like the aorist passive, for which see section 18.

24

Contracted from -(a)ao. Care is needed not to confuse this with the -w ending

meaning"!".

Section 11


1 l / 2 , / 3 ' 0 \ , ~\ , / A ~ \ I

,U1TE.KpLVW. .0.1TE.1CpLVCLVTO. .O fl,U 1JT1J<; OUOE.V CL'irEKplVUTO, '-LT(Jl 1TOI\LT1J

a'lTE.KpLvo.µ,E0CL. 5.dpu TOl<; µ,u011m'i:s (11TE1CplVUTO O O'O~os; 6. 01J◊ElS 25

ravrn OLOEV" OU◊E.LS oDv a1m<plVUTO. 7 .dp , OUI( (l'ITEKplvucr0E TOlS

o , , ' k' ,.... ' ' ' ' ' 9"

'JT{U(J"LV; O.E1TEL O <YOCpOS TUUTCL 1]pWT1J<YEV, OUK U'ITEKpLVCLiJ,T]V, ,EiJ,OL

lpwT~<YCLVTL ouic a1rE1ep1,vavTo.

10.oLa. Tl µ,oL EpwT~ouvTL OUK U'ITE1ep1,vw;

125

The weak aorist middle infinitive:

e.g. ,n'iaa.o-Om: to loose for oneself, ransom

(the ending is -(o-)ao0nL)


l.d.1r0Kp1,vau0m. 2.-rous ornµ,wrns /1ucmu0m. (o 8wµurc11s: the prisoner)

3.r0 EpwT~o-uvTL a1ro1<p1,vuo-8m.

The weak aorist middle participle:

'Avuav,Evo<;, Auao.µ,~v11, Aua&µEvov having loosed for oneself, having gal

loosed, having ransomed. 26


l.a.1TOKpLvaµ,Evos. 2.u1TOKpLVOiJ,EVO<;. 3.o 'ITO.LS (11TOKpLvup,Evos. 4.~ TfUt.<;

0.1TOKpLVUiJ,EV1], 5.o O.'ITOICpLvo.µ,Evos. 6.o TUUTU U1TOKpLVUiJ,EVO',. 7.o.L

TUUTU U'ITOKpLvaµ,EVCLL.

8.o-o(, TUUTU U'ITOKPLVUfLEV(Jl, T~V UA1]0ELav AEcyELv

OU1TW ~ou'Aoµ,m. 9.0El TOV TUUTU U'ITOICpLvaµ,Evov a,A/w TL T(() EpWT~<YUVTL

01JAW<YUL,

KINDS OF CONDITION

Conditions are, in English, most often expressed with "if'.

Some conditions are "open", i.e. they make no suggestion as to

whether the condition is fulfilled or not.

If he says tfas, he is a philosopher 27 does not tell us whether he

says this or not, and so we do not know whether he is a philosopher.

2

\u8ds, ou8{vos: nobody (masculine).

26

N.B. it has no augment.

27

The "if" clause ( "if he says this") is sometimes referred to as the protasis ("that

Which is put forward") and the conclusion ("he is a philosopher") as the apodosis

("clause answering to the protasis").


In Greek, d stands for "if', except for future and general conditions.

If he says this, he is a philosopher. Et TouTo AEyn, ao<p6s ECYTLv.

In a negative condition, "if ... not ..." is expressed by El ... 11~ ...

The conclusion is negatived by ou.

If he does not say this, he is not a philosopher : EL TouTo µ,~ Myn,

0-0spOS ...k' OUK " ECYTL ' V.

Some conditions definitely tell the hearer that something is not the

case. These conditions are expressed with "would" or "would have" in

English: if you were doing this, you would be doing well tells the hearer

that you are not doing this. This is an unfulfilled condition in present

time. Notice that a Greek verb in the ~ tense corresponds to

"were" after "if' in English and would in the conclusion is expressed in

Greek by av with a verb which is also in the .im.perfect tense.

EL TOUTo ii-rrpuTTES, KU/\ws i'iv ihrpaTTES: if you were doing this, you would be

doing well ..

EL TouTo µ,~ E'TTpa.TTES, rn/\ws ouK uv E'TTPUTTEs: if you were not doing ibis, you

would not be doing well.

If a condition is unfulfilled in JJast time, in English we say "had", and

"would have" in the conclusion; Greek uses an ;wrist indicative in the

condition, and an aorist indicative with av_ in the conclusion :

EL TouTo ihrpa.~w;, KaAws uv E'TTpu~us: if you had done this, you would have done

well.

El rnil-ro µ,~ if·rrpa.~a.s, Ka.Aws ouK uv ETipu~as : if you had not done this, you

would not have done well.


l .El TOUTO EI\E-yE<;, ~ a/\'TJ0ELu av ~v.

2.EL TOUTO f1~ EAEyES, Ol)K av ~KOUOfLEV.

3.EL TT]V cih18duv ey[yvwCYKE<;, 'i"UUTU OUK av EAEyE<;.

4.El µ,EAL E~ou/\op:r1v, 0-fL 'T]VOS f1E/\LTTWV av ES ~TEOV .(To f!,EAL: the honey)

(.\l~TEov is regularly contracted to.\t~TOuv- see p.205)

5.UOL TOUTO f!,E EPWT~CYUVTL OUK UV U'TTEKpLvoµ,11v.

Are these presen( or past unfulfilled conditions?

Section 11


1.eL 'TOUTO ~PWT'T]<Yas, (YOl Olli( av 0.1TEKpLVUtJ,'T]V,

2.aol TOUTO E!JW'T~<YaVTL Olli( av U1TEKpLva.µ,'T]v,

· 3.et TOUTO <YE ~PWT'T]cia, Tl. av EtJ,OL CL1TEKpt.vw;

4 V A ' / / ~\ ' /

.Ef10L TOUTO <YE EPWT'T]<JaVTL, TL av a'TTEKpLvw;

5.d µ,t.av apET~V Et~T'T]<Jas, UUT~V <JOL EO~Awaa av.

Are these present or past unfulfilled conditions?


I.et aL tJ,EALTTUL 1roAAal. Kal. 1TavToOa1Tat. etaLv, dpa TO allTO ELOos EXOU<YLv;

2.EL aL tJ,EALTTUL µ,~ Ka.AAEL l<Ul µ,qE0EL aAA~Awv OLUq>EpouaLV, <ipa OUVU<YUL

\ I fl

f10L 1\EYELV O TL 'ITOT

~ 28

ECTTLV

~ ,.. \ I ' I

'T] T'Tj<; [LEI\LTT'T]S OU<YLU;

'

3 , , , \ 9,;- 9 9 ''-'' " ~ ',I.. ?\\ /\

.EL TO aUTO ELOO', EL)(OV, apa OUOEV av ULE,pEpov a/\1\'Tjl\WV;

4.e'C E~ouAoµ,'T]V ElOEVUL 'ITWS [LEALTTUL aAA~Awv OLUq>EpouaL, Tl. av [LOL

'

I

U1TEKpLvou;

5 .El <JE ~PWT'Tj<Ja OLU Tl.

?\ \ I\ <;' A I I '1 ? I

f.l,EI\LTTUL a/\1\'Tj/\WV UW,iJEPOU<YL, TL av [LOL U1TE1CpLvw;

6.EL EAqov OTL OU Ka.AA.EL OllOE µ,qE0EL OLUcpEpOU<JLV aAA~Awv aL µ,D,LTTUL,

a.AAIJl OE T<tJ, Tt. av µ,o(. uu EAEyEs; (a.AAIJl OE T(Jl: but in some other way)

7

? ?I\ '1 ?<;'\ <;' ,.J..I , ' I ~ e I ? \

.EL EI\E'YES OTL OUOEV OLU~,EpOUCTLV [LEI\LTTUL 'T] ETEpa T'T]S ETEpas, E'YW

t0aup,atov av. (~ ETEpa TTJS ETEpas: the one from the other)

8.aE TUDTn a1roKpLv6.µEvov E'YW ~pWTl]<YU O.v TOVTo· TL Ea-rt.v TO E10os- 4) ( by

h . h) ~ ,, , , 29 ,

W IC 'ITU<YUL f.l,EIILTTUL TaUTOV EWLV.

9 \ \ ' ' ' I 30 ' I ,1 ' ,.., ( ? \ ? / '

.KaTa. T'T]V UUT'T]V ELKOVU, 'TJPWT'T]<JU av a.pa 1Ta<JO.L UL apETaL TUUTOV EWLV.

1rws av a'Tlupt.vw;

(&pa introduces an indirect question; in English, "whether".)

10.aµ,~vos n EO'TL fLEAl.TTWV KEl.f.l,EVOV ( settled) 1rapa. CTOL'

' I 3] ?I ~ e 32

EUTU)(L't EOL1<ac; KEXP'T]<J m;

127

dpa 1ToAAi\ YE n VL

280 Tl iroT' stands for o Tl 1roTE: (literally)wha1everever. 3 Tl iroT'fon is used by

Plato as an expression meaning what it realJy is, its nature.

29

TalJ,-0v stands for TO a.l.JT6v, neuter of O aUT6s (an alternative to T◊ uln6, the

regular neuter of o mh6,.)' above u marks a crasis (p.26, footnote 6).

JO~ ELKwv: the simile.

31 ~ E1hux(u, ,ii, EuTux(u,: good fortune, good luck. 1roAA~ (fem. adj., p.294): much,

32 KEXpiio-8UL is the infinitive of KE)(P']fLCll, the perfect of xpuoµ.ul (with dative): I use,

or I enjoy. The perfect means "I have begun to enjoy and still do". Translate in

the order: EolKu KEXpf\o-8m 1roAAii E1hux(q..


Plato, Meno 7Za6-72d3

Socrates only wants one definition of aper~.

:ZQ. TioA/\~ yE TLVL EUTUXl<;J. E.OLKa KEXP~cr0m, c1 ME.vwv, El µ,[av t 'TJTWV 33

' \ "' I 9 I 34 9 ,.... \ I ' I 35 ,'

a.pETTJV 0-[-LTJVO<; TL a.vrnp111m a.pETWV ·rmpa. O'OL KEL[-LEVOV. O,Tap, (J)

l \ I \ ' I \ \ \ I '1 ? I

M 36

EVWV, KO.TU TUUT'ljV T'TjV ELKOVU T'ljV 'ffEpL TU 0-[-L'T]V'T], EL [-LOU EpO[-LEVOU

\ , , , , 37 t1 , ,, \ \ , , ~ , "\ , ,

[-LEI\LTT'Tj', 1TEpL OUO'LUS O TL '!!OT ECTTL, 'ITOl\/\0.', KUL 'ffUVTOua·rms EIIEYES UUTU,

,' I "!\ ' I 9 ' I

ELVUL, TL UV U1IEKpLVW [-LOL, EL O'E 11poµ.11v

U9 I J.. \ \ \ \ \

a.pa, TOUTIJ) '+'11' 'ITOI\/\U', l(Q.L

"' \ 9 \ "' ,j. / , \ \ I\ 38 ~ \ / 9

'!10.VTOOU'!IUS ELVUL KUL ULU't'Epoucra, 0./\i\'Tji\WV, T(p [-LEi\LTTO.S ELVUL;

33t11Twv is contracted from ,1JTEwv, masculine nominative singular of the participle

of ,1JTEW (see section 16, pp.203-4).

3\iv1Jup11Ka is 1st person singular of the perfect of avEUpLm<w, I discover.

35chap: but,nevertheless (rathermorecolloquial than d,1111a, d.Tap moves conversation

on to the next point, sometimes with an objection).

36This sentence is most easily translated in four sections. µ,ou ,lpoµ,&vou = u Eyw

~poµ,1Jv (if I had enquired). ,lpoµ,Evou is genitive masculine singular, from Epo1~Evo1,

the participle of [/ipoµ,ut]: I enquired. ([iipoµ,m] is found in the aorist as ~p6µ,1Jv, a

strong aorist, for which see section 14, p.172, but not in the present indicative.)

Epoµ,Evou qualifies µ,ou. 110u Epoµ,Evou ( of me having enquired) means during the

time after I enquired, i.e.in response to my enquiry. (For this construction, called

"genitive absolute", see section 19.) Here it expresses a supposition. µ,ou Epoµ.Evou

stands for had I enquired, i.e. if I had enquired.

Translate as if: (1) aTap, Ji MEvwv, 1<aTo. muT11v T~v ELKova (iJlustration) T~v 1Kpl. ra

<Jfl~V'lj, EL EYW 1Jp0f11JV 1TEpL ouofo, f1EAL TT1)<; 0 TL 1TOT' E<JTL, ( 2} EL EIIEyE<; UUTO.', ELVUL

1ro1111as KUL 1TUVT00a1ro.,, (3) TL iiv d.1rEJ<pLvw µ,oL, (4) d O'E ~POf11JV "cl.pa TOUT(p H, (mh111)

ELVUL 1TO/\/\o.<; KUL 1TUVT00U1TO.<; KUL OLU<pEpoucm<; 0./1/1~/\WV, T'f' flE/\lTTOS Elvm;"

TouT<p ( by this) refers to Tij'J flEAhm, Elvm.

Tij'J flEAhm,; Elvo,L: by being bees, literally, by the to be bees.

The first two conditions are followed by a question involving a third: ~ J were

enq lliring about the essential nature of bees, if you were saying (EAEyE, is imperfect

- this is a present unfulfilled condition) ... what would you have replied 10 me if I

had asked ... ? ( d1rEKptvw and ~p6p.1Jv are aorist, and so this is in the form of a past

unfulfilled condition. We would not expect past unfulfilled condition here; Sharples

notes that the aorists d.1rEKptvw and ~p6µ,1'jv can be timeless, expressing an occurrence

at a single point; thus, the translation of TL iiv d.1rEKptvw µ,oL, El crE ~p6µ,1Jv becomes:

what wollld you be replying to me at this point, if I were asking you ... ?)

37 ~ oucrta, TT}, ouata,: the essential nature

38from each other

Section 11 129

I ' i <;,, ',: II '1\ \ ',: I 59 f " I\\ "

~ 'fOUT(Jl [!,EV OUOEV OW~lEpoucnv, Q/\/14) OE T(J), OlOV -~ ICU/\/\H ·~ µ,EyE0El ~

\ .,... / ,? 9 I 40 I ~\ ~ I rt ? e I 41

&Ail(!} T(jl TWV TOlOUTwv; El 'iTE, Tl av a1TEKplVW OUT(!)', EpWTTJ ns;

EN T -. , ,, 42 " ,.,,, <> k' ,43 /\ ,

M . ou·r E')'W')'~, on ouoEV olU<pEpouulv, "(] fJ,EtllTTm Ela(v, ~ ETEpa

1~, ETEpa,;;.

"0 E' , , 44 ' ~ 45 " ~ ' , ' ' , ' M'

1,, , l OUV El1f0V f-l,ETU TaUTU" TOUTO TOlVUV jJ.Ol aUTO El'TTE, W •EVWV,

,46 '"' '!: .l-.' 1\\' 'I ' " I -

w OUOEV ow~,Epoucnv a1111a TaUTOV ElO"lV a1Taum. Tl TOUTO ~1)<; .k' Elvm; , "

', 47 ',: I 48 V I ? ~

eLXE'> olj1TOU av TL [-!,Ol HTinv;

MEN. "EywyE. 49

r,o. O{hw 8~ 50 mt. 'ITEPL TU)V a.pETWV'

rcav 51 EL 'iTOA/\aL Kat. 1TClVTOOa1mL

39uAA<p SE T<p stands for uAA<p oi TLVL: by some other thing. T<p ( enc Ii tic) can be

used instead of Tm ( see p.68). a'.AA4J T<p stands for aAA4J TLvL. Twv -r0Lou-r1uv: of such

things.

40E11TE is 2nd person singular imperative of Ehrov, the strong aorist of AEyw (see

section 14, p.165 and seclion 15, p.187) and means say!

41Epwni0ELS (having been asked) is masculine singular nominative of &pw-r-rJ0EL<;,

.\pwT1']0E1au, &pwT110Ev, the participle of ~pw,~011v, aorist passive of Epw,ciw ( for the

aorist passive participle, see section 18 p.233).

42ToiiT' EYW')IE = E')'W')IE Myw To1J,o.

43 ~ : by which, i.e. in so far as.

4 \hov is 1st person singular, aorist (strong) of Myw. EL El1rnv means If I had said.

451-'-ETci (with accusative) means after. j.LETa. Tnu-m: afrer this.

46~: by which (neuter, influenced by TOu,o). For wuTov, see footnote 29 above.

47

2nd pers. singular imperfect of Exw: I am able. EL-rrciv: 10 say ( infinitive of EL-rrov).

46 0~,rou: perhaps (a little ironic; may I presume?) Tl means something. It stands

for TL. The accent is from j.LOL which is enclitic.

49 "EywyE is equivalent to yes, I could indeed.

50

oihw: ouTw, EXEL- oi: of course. So, of course, it is about the virtues (excellences).

51

Kiiv = Kul. /iv. Kiiv EL is an idiomatic expression for Kul. d. Kiiv EL ELaLv : and even

if they (sc.virtues, excellences) are ...

0


ELCTLV, Efv 52 ye TL Eloo<; TaUTOV U1TUO"UL EXOUCTL, OL' 0 53 ELCTl,V apETUl, EL<; 0 54

\" " ' R\ I I. \ ? I " 9 I ? ,...

Ka/\W', TIOU EXEL a'ITOl"I\E\~avTa TOV a'ITOKpLvoµ,Evov Tl() EpwT11cravTL EKELVO

'< \ A " 55 ' .\6 9 ' ' " ' 0 ' e/

011/\wffaL, 0 TU'Y)(aVEL OUffa apET11· 11 OU µ,av avELS O TL

57 \

1,Eyw;

'

MEN A A ' 0' ' ' ' f.l '\ ' ' ' 58 \

• LlOKW YE µ,oL µ,av aVELV' OU µ,EVTOL W<; l"OU/\Oµ,UL YE 'IT(J) KUTEXW TO

EpwTwµ,Evov.

52ic:v: one (qualifying Eloo,, used here to mean general character (des Places)).

531k' &:because of which. oui (with accusative): because of. & (neuter singular

accusative): which. -rau-rov=To au-ro (literally, the same):identical. The translation

of the sentence begins: And if they are many and of many kinds, they indeed all

have one identical general character because of which they are excellences (or

virtues) ...

54 Et, &: at which (literally, into which). KaAw, l\w: I am well. The subject of EXEL is

"it", and Kall.iii, EXH means it is right. "It" stands for the subject which is itself a

sentence in accusative and infinitive: u11o~AE~mvTa -rov u110KpLvoµ,Evov 01111.Gio-m EKE°Lvo

Tip EpwT~o-avTL. d.110~11.E~av-ra is masculine accusative sing ularof ci116~AE1~a,, cino~AE~acru,

d.n6~AE~av, the participle of a11E~AE1Jm, the aorist of d.no~Mnw, I look away (at) or I

fix my eye (on). cinoKpLvoµ,Evov is masculine accusative singular of d.noKpLvoµ,Evos,

d.110KpLvoµ,Ev1J, d.noKpLvoµ,Evov, the participle of d.noKptvoµ,m. &pwT~o-avTL is masculine

dative singular of EpwT110-a,, EpwT~o-ao-a, &pwT110-av, the participle of ~pwT110-a, the

aorist of Epw-ruw. 01111.wo-m is the infinitive of EO~Awcrn, the aorist of 011A6w. The

translation goes on: it is right, keeping his eye on which, the man replying to

show that thing which arete happens to be to the man having asked ... i.e. and the

man who is replying slwuld keep his eye on this when he is showing to the man

who asked what the essential nature of arete is (literally, what arete happens to

be).

55EKavo (the object of 01111.wo-aL} introduces the last clause in this long sentence: o:

which (thing). EKE'ivo a: that thing which

56

TUY)(civw: I happen is found with a participle where "I happen" in English goes

with an infinitive, e.g. -ruYXcivw wv: I happen to be. Translate in the order: ~civo o

d.pE-r~ TuY)(civu oi'io-a. Plato sometimes uses "happens to be" for "actually is". The

translation of the sentence ends: that thing which excellence (virtue) actually is.

58Ka-rlxw (literally, I hold down, control) here means I understand. To Epw-rc{i11Evov

(contracted from .lpw-raoµ,Evov) is passive: 1he thing being asked, the question.

otl .. :rrw ... = olJ1r(u.

Section 12

131

Multiple Questions

Questions suggesting· two alternative answers usually begin 11·6TEpov;

which of these two things? e.g.

'JT6TEpov twKpO.Tl]S Eo-TlV ~ ou; Is he Socrates or not?

-rr6rEpov is not translated into English in direct questions, but stands for

whether in indirect questions:

ouK olou 1TOTEpov twKpO.T'T], E<YTlV ~ ou.

I do not know whether he is Socrates or noL

Multiple indirect questions are also expressed by EhE ... ElTE "

OUK ot8u ELTE Ka.Ao, ELTE 1TAOUO'l0S Eh€ yEvvu'i,6c; Eo-TlV.

I do not know whether he is handsome or wealthy or noble.

New words:

Seo[J,UL (with genitive)

8LKilWS9 oumta9 OlK!lLOV

~ 8tK!lLOO'UVT)9 T'l}S OLKO'.LO<ruV'~S

M.v

11a V'Ta)(oil

1TOTEpov ... 1l•··

b 1Tpea~ur'TJs9 -roil ,rpEa~i',,.ou

I need

righteous, just

justice

if (in future and general conditions)

if indeed, even though

Et'll'Ep ( orM1nrEp in future & general conditions)

EtTE ••• EL'TE... whether ... or ...

, I ? I

EllV'rE ••• E<LWT<E .,.

whether ... or ... (when "if" would be Mv)

€TL

still, yet

l I

OUKE'TL

no longer (µ.1JKETL when the negative required isµ.~)

tcrxup6s9 to-x1Jpa.9 L0'){1.lf)OV

strong

~ LO')('US 9 TI!S toXi',o,

strength

µ,ovov (adverb)

only

µ,wv; (µ,~ + oiv)

surely not?

OfLOLOS9 oµ,ota.9 oµ,owv (with dative) like, resembling

everywhere

whether ... or ...

the old man

awqipwv 9 o-wqipovos prudent, sensible (nom. and acc. sing. neuter is o-W<j,pov)

~ crwq>poO"Uv'TJ 9 TIIS o-wq>poO"Uv'T)s prudence, self control, moderation

n (enclitic) atall,withrespecttoanything (accusativeofrespect)

qiutvoµ,m

I seem, appear, am demonstrated


<jlu(vETaL is frequently used in replies either doubtfully "it seems so" or

positively "it is apparent". (See also footnote in Word List.)

THE FUTURE ACTIVE

In many verbs, the future active and middle endings are like the

present endings but with a prefixed.

The future indicative active of Auw·:

endings

-aw: I shall ...

Maw I shall loose

AUQ'.ill. you will loose

-ma: he/she/it will ...

Aufl§l he/she/it will loose

-0-E'.OV

-0-E'!'OV

Au<Y§'.,Q)!_ you both will loose

AU<Y§'.,Q)!_ they both will loose

-aoµ.Ev· we shall ...

-o-ETE: you will ...

-o-ouo-L( v ): they will ...

},u.QQ!!,Ev we shall loose

1,-6aETE you will loose

Maouo-1...W they will loose


1.Tov LTITIOV Maw. (o l1T1TOS: the horse) 2.dpu /\uO'ETE TOV i'.rmov; 3.0UJ. TL

TOV l'ITTIOV /\uou; 4. l<JWS TOV l1TTIOV Mo·oµ.Ev. S.1ruvrnxou l'IT1TOUS

MuouaLv. 6.KLVOUVEU<JELS. 7 .dpu oL TIO/\LTUL T~v dJ~0uuv f1Eµ.u011KEVUL

KLVOUVEUO'OU<JLV; <pUlVETUL. 8.KEAEU<JEL. 9.o 1:wKpO.T1]S TOV MEVWVU KEAEUO'EL

1TEpl T~<; upET~S µ.6vov U1TOKpLvE<J0UL. 10.EKELVOS µ.EVTOL KLVOEUVEUOH 1TEpl

0LKULO<YUV1]S 0.1TOKplvrn0aL' ~ ya.p 0LKULO<JUV1], W<; OlETUL, apET~ Eai!fLV.

11 J1cmpov apET~ ~ apET~ TL<,;

The future and aorist active are often have a resemblance compared

with the stem of the present and imperfect; e.g. the future of Auw is

Auuw, and the aorist is 1f,i\uau.

Section 12

THE FUTURE MIDDLE

The future middle is similarly formed. 1 From M,01uu, J get loosed,

Joose for myself, ransom, we haveMO'o1.11u, I shall get loosed, loose

for myself, ransom. ·

133

The future indicative middle of Mw:

endings

-croµ,aL: I shall .. .

-cr'l]: you will .. .

-crerm: he/she/it will ...

AuQ:Q!,!,a.L I shall loose for myself, ransom

M~ 2 you will loose for yourself, ransom

Mcr<ETm he/she/it will loose for himself,

herself, itself, ransom

--o-Eo{')ov: you both will

--o-Eo{')ov: they both will

-croµ,e0a: we shall ...

-crecr0<E: you will ...

•crov1·a..: they will ...

},ilcrEcr8ov you both will loose for yourselves,

ransom

Mo·,,cr8ov they both will loose for themselves,

ransom

Au~g,. we shall loose for ourselves,

ransom

ll.uuea0~ you will loose for yourself, ransom

Au~ they will loose for themselves,

ransom


1.;\uuoµ,E0a; 2.apa AU<Y1); 3.ou Mo·ovTUL. 4.dp' OU ;\fow0E; 5.ou AD<YETUl.

6.oL 1TOAlTUL TOU', owµ,wrns >1foovTUL. 7.dpa 1TUVTU<; TOU<; OE<YIJ-,WTU',

Auuw0E, Ji 1TOALTm; 8.1Tws TouTo AEyELs; Tous µ,Ev <pLAlou, ornµ,wTU,

Auuoµ,E0a, TOU<; OE Ex0pous O"<J>tELv OU ~ouAoµ,E0a.

(o OE<YIJ,WTIJ,, Toii owµ,wTou: (he prisoner<j,Ouo,, q>lAlu, q>lAwv: friendly, allied)

1The future passive has different endings. See section 19.

21n prose, the 2nd person singular middle usually ends 71, in poetry,-El. See

p.43, footnote 4.


Formation of the Future Tense

If the last letter of the verb stem is 'J, «: 1 aK or x, ..ill' if th~resent

~nds -nw, then y, «: 9 aK9 X 9 or TT +a> ~- The future of a'.yw: I lead,

bring, is aew: I shall lead, bring, the future of Sui11cw: I pursue is Sui1€w: I

shall pursue, the future of EXW is &ew: I shall have. 3 and the future of

1Tpa.ww is Tipa.€w: I shall perform, do. The future of 801cEw is So~w.


l.a£OfJ,EV. 2.0UI( U£0UO"l.V. 3,TOV 1miSa U£ETE. 4.Suo~ELS. 5.T~V 0.11.~Suav 0

crocpos Su.bi,;u. 6.TOV 'i'.mrov OU 0LW£ETE. (o LT11TOS: the horse) 7.TOV L1T1TOV

OU OLWKETE. 8.o lO')(Upos av11p TOV l 'IT1TOV E'.i,;u. 9 .lipi.;oucrLV. 10.TrjS 'lT0/1.E(J)S

0LKULOCYUV1J lipi.;ouo'LV. l l.11pu€0µ,Ev. 12. TO. T~S 1TO/\.EWS TIPU'}'fJ,UTU crwq>pocrUV1J

1TpU£HS. 13. DLM~us. 14.o crocpos TOUS vrnvCas 0LOU£EL. 15.~ ll'}'lELU CYOL

00£EL ELVUL ~ UUT~, KUl a.vSpos KUl yuvULKo<;;

If the last letter iS'IT or <h or the present ends :'.IT.I!&, then 11', <j> or TIT+

O' becomes tj,. The future of ~M1Tw: I look at is ~Aktjsw: J shall look at and

the future of ypaq>w is ypaij,w: I shall write, draw.


l.'}'puij;oucrL. 2.ctpa ypuijiETE; 3.ou ypucpw. 4.TL ypuij;us; 5.ctp' o ITMTWV

I:wKparncous 8wA6yous Eypaij;E; 6.crTpEij;ETE. 7.1npE<pO[J,EV. 8.µ,wv TOUS

/\o'}'OUS E1Tl TOLS cp[AOL<; CYTpE~IHS; (ETIL + dative: against) 9.o VEUVLUS TOV

crocpov mcwij;u. 10.dpa ~11.Eij;ETE TO.S fJ,EALTTas; TIWS Swcpepoucrlv, ~ (by

which, i.e. in so far as) µ,D\LTTUL ElCYLV, ~ hepu T~S hepas;

Jhe regular future ending£..Qf .-a stem and -e stem verbs are:

-11aw, -'T]O'El!., -'T]O'El, -11aoµ,ev, -'T]O'E.TE, -'T)O'OUO'L(v).

(NB, for the future of ooKEw see above.)

The regular future endings of -o stem verbs are:

-(l)O'W, -(I)O'aS, -WO'El, -(1)0'0[.LEV, -(l)O'E'iE, -WO'OUO't(v).

So I shall ask is ~pwT~aw, I shall seek is t11'MJO'W, I shall show is OT)Awaw.

3N.B. The breathing has changed from smooth to rough. EXW is unusual in

this respect. Normally, the breathing (being part of the spelling of the stem)

is consistent throughout Greek verbs.

Section 12


UpwT~O-W; 2.EpWT~O"OUO'LV. 3.Tt EpWT~O"El O µ,u0~TTJS; 4.t17T~1ms. 5.ou

t,1]T~IJO[-LEV. 6.o aoq>OS T~V a.l\~0ElUV t'TJT~O"H. 7.00~0UO"LV, 8.00~H. 9.ou

&oK<l [-LOL. l0.017~000"E.TE. l 1.o1, 'ITO/\t,TUL T~V 1TOALV TOl-S E.x0po't,s OU

&11/\WIJOUO"LV. 12.T~[-LE.pov (today) O"E q>LAw· uuplov (tomorrow) 'Caws OU <pL/\~(J(t)

CJE. ( <jiL\w: <jiLAEw)

filems ending in A. v and p and some other consonants are difficult

to attach cr to. (It would have been very hard for a speaker of Attic

Greek to pronounce "mincer".) In earlier Greek, the difficulty seems

to have been got round by inserting 1c before cr. Therefore I shall

judge (from Kp(vw} would have been KpLvfow. However, later the cr

was apparently dropped, leaving/ shall judge as KpLvw (i.e. 1<p1,v~w). So

the f.uturg active of Kptvw (and most other verbs with stems ending

A, v or p is like the present of an -E stem verb (see section 16). Notice

the circumflex accent on the ending. The stem is often also altered

slightly.

135

Compare:

1<ptvw I am judging

KptvELS you are judging

KpLvEt he/she/it is judging

1cptvero11 you are both judging

icpLv!!l I shall judge

1<pwfil you will judge

icpLv§l he/she/it will judge

,cp.va-ro11 you will both judge

1<pL11ET011 they are both judging 1<pLve'i:-rov they will both judge

KpLvoµ.ev we are judging

KpLvE-rE you are judging

KpLvoum.(v) they are judging

KpLvo~ we shall judge

tcpwE'i-.1c you will judge

KpLvoucrL(v) they will judge.

136


The future of a.1T6AAu[!,L (J des1roy) is d· .. oAro (J shall destroy)

The future of lkacp0Etpw (1 corrupt) is oe.acp0Ecpw (I shall corrupt).

epw (J shall say) is much more frequent than AE~w as the future of

Myw ( J say). (This must be distinguished from ~p6µ:r1v: I asked (p.172), the

infinitive of which is Epfo0m: to ask.)

NB, the future of &0csAw (I am willing) is &0EA·,10-w (J shall be willing).

What is the English for l.ov KpLVOUfl,EV.

2.ou icpi'.voµ.Ev. 3.o 1TOALT'l']S

1cpLvEL. 4.o TIOALT!JS KpLVEL. 5.a.TIOAELS. 6.ot Ex8pot. T~V TIOA.LV a:rro/1.A.UUO'LV.

7.ot Ex8pot. T~V TIOA.LV 0.1TOA.OUO'LV. 8.o Lwicpa.T'T]S TOU<; VEUVLO.<; OU owcp0EpEL.

9.o Lwicpa.T'T]S TOU<; vrnvi'.uc; OU owc!>BEi'.pEL. 10.TL<; TUUTU EpEL; 11:ri'.c; TUUTU

1Tpa.TTELV E0EA.~O'EL; 12.MEN: Ilwc; AE')lm; LO:'E'Yw Epw. (Meno97a8-9)

If the last letter of the present verb stem is t, in the future tense t

becomes a, e.g. a.vuy1<atw; I am compelling, dvay1<&.aw: I shall compel

and a<{itw: J am saving awaw: I shall save. 4 But in the Attic dialect

verbs ending •ttw in the present tense drop a in the future and have

endings like 1,p1,vw: I shall judge. Thus the future of EBttm is E6.w: I

shall train, and the future of voµ.t(w (I think, consider) is voµ.Lw: I

shall think, I shall consider.

What is lhe Greek for

U0LOU<YLV. 2. o aocpoc; E0LEL TOU<; µ.uB~TU<;. 3.clpa voµ.Lw; 4. TL VOfl,LEL<;;

" , 6 9 ' .-1 ' ' '\ , 7 - ' ,J.. ,

J.O'WO'Ofl,EV. .upa OL O'O,[>OL T'T]V 1101\lV O'WO'OUO'LV; .TIW, Ta 't'ULVOfJ,EVa

awaOf1Ev; 5 8. a.vayKa.aw O'E AEyELv. (Phaedrus 236d7) 9. VOfLLOUO'lV OE

1TO.VTEc; TIO.VTU<; UUTOU<; Ofl,O')IEVEL<;. ( Timaeus 18dl) ( oµ,oyEvEL<; of 1he same

family. This relates to the Guardians in the Republic.)

4cr0tw has no iota subscript in the future or aorist tenses.

5To. <jimvop.Eva: the observed facts ( the things demonstrated). <Y0tw here per!faps: I

keep in mind.

Section 12

137

Some irregular futures:

s .. ~o-e1,: it will be necessary <Eup'~aw: I shall find

o'lo-w (future of ~Ep'."): I shall carry, bring

8w(o-oi: I shall differ, matter, make a difference.

What is tile English for

1.Eup~O-ETE. 2.T~V UA.~0nav oL 'TTOAlTUl oux Eup~<YOUO'LV. 3.ou ◊E~(l"El. 4.

, ~ ~ , , c;, , 5 "t 6 ,, 7 r , ,k,

.'T]f1US TOUTO 1TpUTTELV OU OE'lj<YEL. .E<,OUO-LV. ,EXOUO'lV. ,OUTO', 0 O'O~,O',

1TOAAOU', µ,a0~ms EeEL. 8.ap' Ol<YELS; 9.ap' OL 1TULOES TCTS ~L~A.OUS

ofoouo-Lv; ( ~ ~(~;\o,: the book). 10.ou ◊LOLO"EL, I l. ~ OE a.pET~ 11pos TO a.pET~

-, ~

1

'

1

HVUL OLOLO"EL TL, EO.VTE EV 1TUWL EO.VTE EV 1rpECYr1UT1J EUVTE EV yuvml(L

' ~, ' 1 ' A' '' ' '

EUVTE EV uvop(,; (Meno 73al, adapted). ( 1rpos TO apET~ dvm: as regards

being excellence . TL:at all)

We have seen that some verbs with middle endings have meanings

which are active in English, e.g. a.Tioccptvoµ,ai: I reply. Some verbs

which are active in the present tense are middle in the future, e.g.

the future of dirnuw, I hear, is a.1coucro1u1,L, I shall hear.

, I

mrnuao1-1m

I shall hear

, I

(JU(OUO'\l

you will hear

'

I

!:UWUO'ET(U

o,iwl)o-<ecr0ov

&«ol)o-Ecr0ov

uKoucr6µ,.,0a

ti,K ofo-Eo{)E

,

'

(J,KOU<YOVTO,L

he/she/it will hear

you will both hear

they will both hear

we shall hear

you will hear

they will hear.


Note also:

yLyvooo-Kw: J know

yvooo-ofLm: I shall know

0auµ,o.tw: J wonder

0auµ,&.aoµ,m: I shall wonder

µ.av0avw: J learn, understand µ.a&lpoµ.aL: I shall learn, understand

oloa: I know

ilcroµ,m: I shall know


1.aKOUO"O[LE0o.; 2.oUK 0.KOUO-E0"0E. 3.UKOUELS. 4.UKOU0-1], 5.ouK 0.KOUO"ETO.L.

6.oL µ,o.01]TUL TWV TOD LwKpuTouc; M-ywv O.KoucrovrnL.

7.T~V ci1~0ELav µ,o.0~crOVTUl.

8.-r~v aA~0nuv O'OL OUK Epw· TUUTU 0.1T' E.fLOU OU yvwo-11,

9.ouofoo-rE (never) e'Co-w0e 1rou ELO'LV ot ~(AoL µ,ou.

l0.11ws e'Co-11 ()TL TOUTO EO"TLV O O'U OUK ~81ju8a; (Meno 80d8) (o (neuter

accusative singular): the thing which. ~01J0"0o.: you knew(see p.259))

The future middle of verbs with present tense ending ->..oµ,o,L 9

-poµ,m is:

endings

a'l!OKpwouµ,m I shall reply

-vop,1n and

""EL

a.1roKpLvij you (singular) will reply

a'lfoKpLVEt'fm he/she/it will reply

-,,icrtlov

-acrtlov

o.,ro,cpcv,io-0ov you will both reply

o.,roKpweLcrtlov they will both reply

U1TOKpwouµ,e0a we shall reply

a1i'o1tpwe'i.a0e you (plural) will reply

-OUVTIU

a1To1<pwou1rrm they will reply

The future of <fm(voµ,m is ~c.wou11(u.

Section 12 139


.,, '0 2'' ~ 3''' 4'

1.dp Cl'ITOKpLvoµ,e-u; "OUK Cl'ITOKpLVOUVTClL. .OUK Cl1TOKpLvoVTm. .OUK

a,r€KpLVClVTO. 5.TL U1TOKpLVOUVTCllj 6:rrws 0.1TOKplVEl0"0E; 7 .TLS o.·rroKplVElTUL;

. 8.TL O.'ITEKplvw; 9.oux ~ KClAA.LO"T'l'j 1Tap0ivos aLaxpa cpaVElTm; (compared

with a goddess) ( Hippias Major 289b2-3) (Ko.AAurTos -11 -ov: most beautiful. ~

11ap6£vos: the maiden. 0.LO)(p6s -6. -6v: ugly) ] 0:ITW<; O◊V ~µ,iv O Myos op0os

~av€iTm; (Statesman 268b9) (op86s· correct. ~µ,1,v is dative of possession)

The fuwrc of dp,i

The future tense of the verb "to be" is also middle:

ecroµ,aL I shall be &a6µ,E0a we shall be

you will be (singular) foEa0e

you will be (plural)

€0"TClL

he/she/it will be

ECYOl/1"0,l

they will be 6

Note also

ytyvov,aL: I become, happen yev~aoµ.aL: I shall become, happen 7

What is lhe English for

l.ouK fow0E. 2.dp , ifo-11; 3.'lT0/1./1.0[. EO"OV1"Ul µ,a0~rnL 1"0U 1:wKpUTOU<;.

4.a/1./\1'] tJ,EV EO"TUL o.vSpos o.pET~, a/1./1.1'] SE yuvaucos; 3LOLO"OUO"lV apo ..

(aAAos ... o.'A'Ao,; ... one ... another ... , i.e. "different") 5. S[icmoL fooµ,E0a, ml.

TCl

T'l']S 1TO/\EWS OUKETL l{(ll((JJS npa1:,0tJ,EV.

\ ,._ I\ ' I " tt

, , , , ,, ,1- , , - - ,,, , '7 ., , , , ,, ,

/1.0yos OUKETL E!J,Ol 't'ClLVETClL oµ,ows TOV, (l/\/\OlS. • OlCl Tl Ol apxovTES OU

1TUVTES o·ocpol. ')IEV~<YOVTm; 8.dpa T{{) UUT(j) L<Y)(U°L Kai. o.vSpES Kai. yuvaiKE<;

' \

l<Y)(UpOl EO'OVTUlj "

Future infinitive active. MaeLv: to be about to loose.

Future infinitive middle. AOcreotku: to be aboutto ransom,

Future participle active: Mawv 9 Ailo'ouO'a 9 Afoov: being abourtoloose

Future participle middle: AuO'oµ,<c:vos: being about to ransom.

6The dual, forn8ov, is not found in Plato.

7Not to be confused with yvwO"oµ,m: "I shall know".


THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

(present tense)

The verbs we have met so far, apart from the infinitive and the

imperative, have been indicative. Indicative verbs are used generally

to indicate, question or negative statements of fact e.g. "it is raining",

"is it raining?" or "it isn't raining".

In Greek, there is a subjunctive form of the verb (the subjunctive

mood) which is used for less definite statements, e.g. purposes, like

"I may say" in "I have come so that I may say what I want", and for

strong wishes and commands in the first person, especially in the

plural, "let us say". 8 "may" is often a convenient equivalent to the

Greek subjunctive, which is used in primary sequence after verbs of

fearing, e.g.

I am afraid that this may happen

and in "ever" clauses , e.g.

Whoever may say this, I shall not believe it.

It is not possible to give a single English meaning equivalent to all

the uses of the subjunctive in Greek. The English meaning depends

on the various forms in the sentence (see pp. 355-8).

The present subjunctive active is easy to form; E becomes 11 in the

ending, and o becomes w. •tu verbs have endings like -w verbs.

endings:

I may loose (or let me loose)

you may loose (singular)

he/she/it may loose

""T)'TOV

"'T)TOV

A1YIJ'l"OV

A1YIJTOV

you may both loose

they may both loose

·wµev

"'T]'i'E

·wa~(v)

Mwµev let us loose or we may loose

M11-re you may loose (plural)

MwaL( v) they may loose

8Rarely in the first person singular. See also p.355.

The subjunctive of ~&µ.L is:

J, I may be(or let me be)

~s you may be (singular)

1 he/she/it may be

1J

~rov

~,-ov

Jiii,ev

~'TE

6}(fL( V)

you may both be

they may both be

we may be or let us be

you may be

they may be

Section 12

The subjunctive of <p'!]µ,t is:

<pw I may say (or let me say)

<pi\s you may say (singular)

ipi\ he/she/it may say

(dual not found in Plato)

<pwµ,ev

~~'l'E

~w<n(v)

we may say or let us say

you may say

they may say

141

The subjunctive of oUla is:

et8w I may know (or let me know)

etSijs you may know

et8ij he/she/it may know

el8wµ,<Ev we may know or let us know

et8,j-re you may know

etowcn(v) they may know (The dual of etow is not found in Plato.)

Subjunctive verbs are frequently found in clauses expressing purpose,

e.g. after tvu (in order that; so that) (see section 14, p.176).

l0D1.w 0.1TOKpLVECY0m tva KUL dow o TL AEyEL<;. ( Gorgias 467c3).

I am willing to reply so that I may also know what you mean. (o -rt:what)

Commands in the first person ("let me, let us ...") are expressed

by the subjunctive (negativeµ,~), more often plural than singular:

o.Kouwµ,ev o~. (Laws 694a3) ( 8~: of course)

lel us hear, of course.


1. O.Kouwµev o~ KUL AEyWfLEV. (Republic 489e4) 2.(EL OE OoKe°i: aoL) owMwµ,ev

TOV A6yov. ( Gorgias 458b3) (owAuw: I break off)


The present subjunctive of a middle or passive verb

As in the active, in the middle/passive subjunctive E becomes 'YJ and 0

becomes w.

endings:

(•lllfi,UL)

( ·11)

(-7]-raL)

AUWfi,m

M11

All'l)'faL

I may (let me)loose for myself, be loosed

you may loose for yourself, be loosed

he/she/it may loose for him/her/itself, be

loosed

you may both loose for yourselves, be loosed

they may both loose for themselves, be loosed

AulilµE0a. let us loose for ourselves, be loosed orwe

may loose for ourselves, be loosed

M"la8E you may loose for yourselves, be loosed

MwVTm they may loose for themselves, be loosed


l.a1ToKplVlilfi,E0a 'ITaALV ~f.LLV UUTOlOW. (Laws 895a5) (1TUALV: again) 2. 'JT(l/\LV

apxtil11E0a AEyELV. (Timaeus 48el) (for upxoµUL see p.41) 3.h1 ~a0us op0po,

fonv, a.A.A' ELS T~v TOU Ka.\.\Cou oLKLUV -rrapay1yvlilµ,E0a Kat. Tou TTpw-my6pou

nKouwµ,Ev. 9 4.µ,~ TUOE 'ITEL0tilµ,E0a. (Republic 391c8) (1TEWoµut: J believe, with

accusative of thing believed)

The aorist subjunctive

All of the subjunctives we have considered previously are formed from

the present tense, but subjunctives are also very common which are

formed from the aorist, using the same endings as for the present

subjunctive. To form a subjunctive from eAuou, all that is necessary is

to remove the augment and use the same subjunctive endings as for the

present subjunctive:

ti%

--------------

9~u8u<; op8po,: deep dawn, i.e. the crack of dawn. KuAll(ou: of Callias, 1Tupuylyvoµm

Etc; (with accusative): I arrive at. (cf. Plato, Protagoras 310).

Section 12

143

/\\JCT + (J)

>Auuw

/\\JU + Tl'> > Mo-11<;

/\\JCT + 1] > /I.U(J"1j ,

Auo- + 'l]Tov >A~<r'lJTOv

I may loose (let me loose)

you may loose

he/she/it may loose

you both may loose

A uo- + 'l]Tov > AU<r'!JTOV they both may loose

;\uo- + w1.1Ev > Auawµ,Ev we may loose, let us loose

;\ua + l]TE > AUO-l]TE you may loose

A\JO- + wo-L(v) > Mcrwo-L(v) they may loose

The aorist middle subjunctive is similar, but with middle endings:

Mo-wµ,m I may loose for myself, (let me loose for myself)

/\U0-1)

/\UO"l]TUL

AU<r'l]<r0ov

/\U<r'l]<r8ov

/\ucrwµ,E0u

/\UO"l]0"0E

AUUWVTUL

you may loose for yourself

he/she/it may loose for him/her/itself

you both may loose for yourselves

they both may loose for themselves

we may loose for ourselves, let us loose for ourselves

you may loose for yourselves

they may loose for themselves

An aorist subjunctive denotes a complete action while a present

subjunctive denotes a continuous one, but the difference in meaning is

not always easily perceptible or easily expressed in English. It is not

always possible to say from its ending whether a subjunctive is present

or aorist; a1roKpLvwµ,E8u is ambiguous.


boil Myou ap~wµ,E0CL. (c'ipxoµ.at takes the genitive, like upxw,) 2. ~µ,as CLUTOUS

8Lou~wµ,Ev (Republic407al0-ll) 3. KUL To8E 1TUALv E1TLITKE~1wµ,E6u. (E1rwKE1noµ.m:

I consider) (Laws 627c3) 4.ETL To(vuv KUL To. Ka.Ta. T~v tJ;ux~v crKEtVWfLE8a.

(Meno 88a6) (ETL: Mill,. o-KEmoµ.at: I examine.~ iJiux~, Tijs iJiux~s: lhe soul)


The subjunctive in the first person (negative µ,~) is also used for

deliberative questions, when the speaker wonders which is the right

course of action, e.g.

<pwµEv upu; are we to say, then? (Republic 444a8)


l. TL TipUTT(tlf1EV; 2. TLVL 0.1l'Ot<pCvwµm; 3.TL qJWf1EV Tipos TUU'ru, Ji Kphwv;

( Crito 52d6) 4. pou/1.H oDv <YOL KUTO. r opyCav O.'ITOt<pCvwµm,; (Meno 76c4) 10

5. J; ~€VOL, 1TOTEpov <POLTWf1EV uµ'i.v ElS T~V TIOALV ~ µ~, KUL T~V 'll'OL'l'j<YLV

qiEpWjJ,EV TE KQL a.ywµEv; (Laws 817a4-6) (o ~EVOS, TOU ~evou· the stranger,

foreigner ~OLTW I pay a visit~ '!Tob1cns, TTJS '!ToL~o-Ews: poetryi:iyw (here): I perform,)

(The speakers are the tragedians, "serious" poets.)

Compare the aorist subjunctive active of Mrn:

Maw, AU0'1JS, AU0'1J, Auawµev AU<Y'l']TE, AU<rWO'LV

with the future indicative active:

Maw, Auaw;, Auan, MaoµEv, Auo-ETE, Auaouo-Lv

and the aorist subjunctive active of t<pCvw

t<pCvw, t<pCvw;, 1<pCv11, t<pLvwµev, t<pLV'l']TE t<pCvwaLv

with the future indicative active:

t<pLvw, t<pLVElS, t<pLVEL, KpLVOUf1EV, t<pLVELTE, KPLVOUO"LV.

Clearly, they must have been pronounced very similarly, and it is likely

that in Greek the future itself originated from a desiderative form of

the verb, i.e. one which served to express what one desires. (There is

perhaps a trace of the same notion in English, where "will" is used to

express futurity.) The subjunctive is, then, perhaps a modification of

this which originally expressed something desired, but less probable.

There is, in Greek, a third mood of the verb, the optative, which

expresses something still desired, but even less probable. ti'

10Deliberative questions are sometimes, as here, introduced by a word meaning

"do you wish?" and are equivalent to questions in English beginning "would you

like me to?" e.g. ~ou/1.u aol xap[awfiaL; ( do you wish, am I to do you a favour? ~

would you like me to do you a favour? )U"1eno 75b2),xap[o-wflm is 1st person singular

subjunctive of .\xapwciµ11v, the aorist of xap[tofim (with dative): I doa favour to.

Section 12

Infinitive as Subject and Object

The infinitive can be used as a noun. It can be the subject of a verb:

µ.av0avim a:ya06v EO"TLv to learn is good or it is good to learn.

It can be the object of a verb:

µ.av0avELv OUK E.0D1.w J do not want lo learn.

As the subject of a verb, an infinitive can have an object:

(To) T~V O.A.~8ELUV µ.av0avELV aya0ov E.<YTL

to learn lhe truth is a good thing.

145

If the subject _of the infinitive is expressed, it is in the accusative:

(-ro) µ.a0~w; µ.av0avELV ciyu86v EO-TLV students to learn is a good

thfng. 11

If the object of the infinitive is expressed, this will also be accusative

if the verb is normally found with an accusative object

µ.u6~-rus T~V uA~6ELUV µ.av0avELV uyu06v E.(JTL

it is a good thing that students should learn the truth.

As noticed above, sometimes an infinitive, when used as a noun, has

the neuter definite article, in the examples above nominative but

sometimes in other cases, e.g. accusative:

9 ~' ~ I ' \ \ , \ ~ ~ ' I

OUOEV OLUOEpEL 1rpos TO LO")(US ELVUL 'T] LO")(US

strength, as regards being strength, does no{ differ al all (Meno 72e6)

( To [oxu, Elvm: the (property of) being strength)

Notice that To Elva.L is accusative with 1rpoc; but Lo-xuc; is nominative because it is

the complement (see p.10) of~ LO-Xue;.

11~ is used to negative an infinitive prefaced by the definite article:

1rpo, T(jl µ.~ ELVUL in addition to not being (Sophist245dl) 11

111n more idiomatic English, for students to learn is a good thing or it is a good

thing that students should learn. cf. Xenophon, Oeconomicus, 11, 23: auµ¢<epEL

a.uT01,c; ¢(/\Q\!S. ELvm to be friends is beneficial to them ( auµ¢lpEL: (it) is beneficial).

(Smyth, Greek Grammar, para.1984)

12 For 1rp6c; with dative, see p.73, footnote 2.



l.1r6Aews apxELV KUAoV E.<JTLV. 2:rroALV ED OLOLKElV KUAov E.<JTLV. ( ◊LOLICE.W: 1

manage) 3.d.p' ol6v T' EO"TLV TOUTO µ,av8uvuv; 4.ol6v T' EO-TLV OOU/\OV

1r6AEWS apxuv;

• ' , ,k \ \ " I\ ' <;, -

5.oL6v T ECTTL ao't'ov µ,17 OVTU 1TOlllV EU OLOLKELV;

6.ol6v T' E.<JTL TOV Tous 1roA( TUS KUKWS 1TOLOUVTU 1TO/\LV ED OLOU<ELv;

( 1T0Loiivrn is contracted from 110Lfovm: treating (masculine accusative singular).

Future and General Conditions

Some conditions refer to future time:

if we do this, we shall be sensible,

others to a general state of affairs

if anyone does this, he is sensible.

Such "if' clauses begin with Mv, sometimes shortened to ii.v or ~v,

introducing a subjunctive verb. The conclusion, when if refers to the

future, will contain a verb in the future indicative tense; when if

introduces a general condition, the conclusion can be in the present or

future tense. ( ii.v for &av is common in later Greek, e.g. Aristotle.)

If we do this we shall be sensible: Eav TouTo TipaTTwµ,Ev, aw~poves Eo-oµ,E8u.

If anyone does this, he is sensible: Mv TLS TouTo 1rpaTT'lJ, aw~pwv foTLv.

Eav with a subjunctive verb is the normal way to express a future condition in

Attic. Occasionally d is found with the future indicative to express great emphasis,

e.g. ELTIEP 1ToL~cm, ii ETILvoEL,ifindeedyou willdowhatyouintend(Crito52a4).u Et

with the future is rather poetical. NB in English also it is unusual to use a future

verb in a future condition: the usual form is, if it rains tomorrow, I shall 1ake my

umbrella.


l.Mv OLKULOS ~<;, T~V 1TO/\LV ED OLOLK~O-EL<;. (oLOLl(Ew: I manage).

2.cl.v µ,~ ~<; 0(1<moc;, T~v 1TO/\LV ouK ED OLOLK~auc;.

3.~v T~v 1roALv ED 0LOLK~CT1)<;, ot 1roALTUL fLUKapCoL foovTUL.

4.eav ot TIOALTUL (i)(TLV µ,aKUpLOL, OLKULO<; TL<; T~V 1TO/\LV OLOLKEL.

5.EO.V TLS taxuv µ,~ ~X'U, taxupos OilK ECTTLV.

6.T~ auT~ taxut a.pa KUL UL yuvaLKES KUL OL o.vOpE<; tuxupo( ELaLv;

1\ITIEp: if indeed. ii (neuter plural): what. E1TLvoew: I intend.

Section 12 147

( ' \ \ e ' 'J ~ \ ' \ / \ 9 \ ',~ ?I

7.1) EV ')'UVO.LKL KUL 11 EV avopc LU)(US TOLVUV TO O.UTO ELoo, EXEL.

8.1~v O.VT~V taxuv EXOVTES, l<UL ot uvopE, KUL o.L ')'UVO.lKES toxupof, Etcnv.

~ "t;:' : \ ' 14 ') \ ' 0' "

9.dpo. 0.ULKOS Km 0.ICQ/\0.CYTO<; av11p a-ya OS 'ITOTE WTaL;

0 ,\ '1 \ \ \ '"' ,I-,. I \ ,..., ~ I ~ I

1

0 /

,EO.V E')'W Km CYU 'f'l']S (Y(J)'i'POCYUV'l'j', KUL T'l']S ULKmOCYUV'l'jS OEWfLE a, 'TrOTEpov

1wv O.VTWV aprn:ilv 0ETJCYO!.LE0o. ~ ou; ~ o./1./1.1'] EUTUL ~ CY~ OUCO.LOCYUV'l'j, a/1.l\1'] OE

~ ~µ,~;

1 Uav av~p l((l/1./1.EL TLVL Ka.Ao<; ~' 1(0,L -yuv~ KUA.AH TLVL im/1.~ ~. ti.pa T4J

auT({l KUA/I.EL Ka.Aol. foovTm;

12.10 TOU avopoc; KUA/I.OS µovov l(U/1.Aos ECYTUL TO TOD KU/1./1.0US ELOOS EXOV (=

ia.v TO TOU KUA/1.ous EL◊OS

ifx11), KO.L TO T~S -yuva.ucos KU/1.Aos (i)CYO.UTW<;.

13 " ~ / \ ,-h / , \ \ \ ~ ~ / - ' ~

.EO.V'TrEP ULICO.LWS KUL ()'(J)'i'POVWS av11p KUL -yuv11 OLOU(W<JLV, 'ITOTEpov T1) O.UT1)

OLKO.LOCYUV1) KO,L T1) O.UT1) uwqipoCYUV1) OLOLK~CYOUCYLV, ~ ou;

Plato, Meno 72d4-73c5

Socrates shows that dpETTJ, simply as itself, is the same in all cases. But what is it?

ro. IloTEpov OE 'ITEpl ctpET~<; µovov O'Ol OUTW OOICEl, ti) MEvwv, a/1.1111 (.LEV

' ~ \ 9 ,,, \ ~ \ \ 15 \ - "' \ " \ \ ' / '

avopos ELVUL, 0,/\i\1'] OE ')'UVULKOS Km TWV 0,/\/\WV, T] GCO.l 'lTEpl U')'LELO.S ICUL

1TEpL f!,EyE0ous ICO.L 'ITEpL lU)(UOS (i)(JO,UTW';; a.A~-T] f!,E.11 avopos OOKEl CYOL ELVm

f / >I\\ ,;,, I

U')'LELU, 0./\1\Tj OE ')'UVO.ll<OS;

" ' \ 17

T] TUlJTOV

- 9~ I , > I f /

'1TUVTO.XOU HOO', ECYTLV, EO.V'ri'Ep U')'LELO.

16

-; ' I ' ,;,- \ ' I ') ?I\\ "' ~ ,...

'\l, EO.VTE a.vopl EO.VTE EV 0./11\(!l OT(pOUV

9

11;

18

MEN.' H O.UT~ f.LOL OOKEl uyf.uu YE Ei.VUL ICO.L

uvopos KO.L yuvO.ll(OS

14iilkKo,, aOLKov: unjust. o.KoAa.<rTo<;, d.ic6Aa.ITTov: lacking selfcontrol. (Both with feminine

as masculine.) 110Te (enclitic): ever.

15aAA1] ... /f;\11 11

are feminine because each stands for ifn11 o.pET~.

16Translate in the order: uyLELO. fl-EV d.vopos OOKEI. (JQL ElVUL (l/1/\'T], yuva.LKO<; OE /(1,1111; ~

EcrT1..v Tull-rOv El86s 1ro.v'TaxoD;

17auT6,, a.uT~, muTov: the identical. (Short for b auT6,, ~ a.uT~, To a.uT6: the same.)

180Tq1ouv is the dative of onofiv: anything whatsoever. Ev a111<q1 0Tq1ouv: in anything

else whatsoever.


ro. Ou1rnuv 19 1(0,l, tJ,EyE0o, 1(0,l, toxus; &av1TEP L<Y)(Dpu yuv~ ~, -r0 a.u·r0 E'i'.SEL

\ ,..,_ , ,-,. ' /.. j \ " \ \ "' ' --. ,-,. \ / 2Q 5~\

KUL TlJ 0.D'T1) LO')(DL LO')(Dpa. ECTTO.L; TO ya.p T1) O.DT1) TODTO I\E'yw· ODOEV

~ ,.k I \ \ ' \ 9 21 ~ ' / ? / ? 1 ~ \ ',' ? I ' /

ULO.'f'EPEL 'ITpos TO LCT)(DS ELVUL 17 LO')(DS, EO.VTE EV a.vopL 11 EO.VTE ic:v YDVULKL.

" <:, ~ I <:, ,h I 22

17 OOKEL TL CTOL oLU'i,EpELv;

MEN. Ou1< EtJ-OLYE.

,.,,. , H <:,, , , , , , , , 23 <:, , 24 , , , ,;,, , , ,

~l. OE apET17 1rpos TO a.pET17 ELVUL ULOLCTEL TL, EO.VTE EV '([O,LUL 11 EUVTE

' A' '' ' ' '' ' ' ~ '

EV 'ITPECTt-'UT1], EO.VTE EV yuva.LKL EO.VTE EV o,vopL;

MEN

"E , 2s .., ~ , _. , ~ , , ,, , ~

• tJ,OL'YE 'ITW<; oOKEL, w bWKpa.TE<;, TOUTO OUKETL oµ.owv ELVUL TOL<;

a11110Ls TouToL,. 26

rn. TL OE; OUK o.vopos tJ,EV 0.pET~V E/\E-yE', 1T6/\LV ED OLOLl(ElV, yuva.LKOS 8e

1 I 27

OLKLUV;

MEN."EywyE.

19 oi'iKoi1v, like clp' oi'i, introduces a question which expects the answer "yes".

20 To T~ ai'iT~ is treated as if the phrase T~ au-r~ were a noun coming after the

definite article To. So To T~ mh~ ([ax{i() means literally, "the bythesame(strength}".

AEyw, I say, is used here, as often, for I mean. Literally, the whole sentence would

be, in English, for I say the by the same (W be) this, which is equivalent to for

this is what I mean by "by the same".

2\rpoc; To tax1,c; Elvm: with regard to being strength. See p.145.

12 n: at all (see p.131). (The accent on TL is from uo,, which is enclitic.)

2 3cf. 11pos To taxus e:Ivm above.

24ow[uw is 1st person singular future of ow<j,Epw. See p.137.

2511w, (enclitic): somehow.

26Translate as if: J LwKpaTEc;, ToiJTo ouKETL ooKEL EfJ-o,yE dvm OfJ-o,ov rnurn,c; Toce; o.!\!\o,s.

27Understand owLKELv with otK[av.

@'

ro. 9 Ap' oi'iv ol6v TE 28 E0 OlOlKELV

,h I \ <;, I C, ~ 30

aw~,povw, KUL OlKULW', OlOlKOUVTo.;

Section 12 149

•1\ , \ ~\ , , 'Yl a", \lo (' ,... 29

'Y) Ti'OI\LV 11 OLl(lUV . 1 /\/' OTlOUV, j.L~

MEN. Ou 01fm. 31 .

..,n O' ~ ,, 32 " , ,

. ~•· UKOUV O.V'ITEp Oll<ULW', KUl aw~p6vws OlOlKWO'l v, Ou(moauv11 1<al.

<1W~poo-uv11 OLOU(~<JOU<Jlv;

MEN 'A , 33

• VO.YK'TJ,

'('n r~ ' ~ '1 ' ,I_ I 34 <;, I " I\\ 35 j 0 \ 9

~·· WV O.UTWV apo. O.fL't'OTEpOl OEOVTUL, El 1TEP fLE/\/\OUO'lV aya Ol ElVUL,

l{Ul ~ yuv~ KUl o uv~p, OlKULOO'UV'T]', KU[, aw~poo-uv11,;

MEN. '®iaLvoVTm. 36

28Understand EO'TL. ol6v ,-<i, EO"TL (the neuter (3rd person) of oLos TE ElµL ): it is

possible.

29aJAo oTLOuv: anything else whatever.

30µ~ o-wqip6vws ,ml. oucoLws OLou<ouvw. o-wqip6vws and oumlws are the adverbial forms

of O"w<ppwv and o[rnLOs. The negative isµ~ because OLOLKoiivw stands for Eo.v oLou<ij, 3rd

person because the accusative masculine oLoLKoiiv-ra implies an imaginary person

who might be managing a city or whatever. Understand nva with ◊LOLKELv and

translate in the order: clpa ol6v TE fo,-[ TLva oLOu<E1v ED ~ ·rroALv ~ oMav ~ ii11110

bTLoiiv .\av µ~ OLOLl<i\ O"w<pp6vws 1ml. oumlws; (When an infinitive is used as a noun

after To, the subject is in the accusative; see p. 145. TLva 1koLKEl.v: anyone to

manage, i.e. that anyone should manage or for anyone 10 manage. This is not the

same construction as To L0')(_11s ELvaL above, where lO')(.us is the complement of dvaL,

not the subject.)

31 0'ijw: indeed.

32ouKoiiv: see footnote 19 above. iiv-rrEp stands for Mv11Ep, if indeed. otoucwo-Lv is 3rd

person plural, present subjunctive and oLoLK~o-ouo-Lv is 3rd person plural future of

OLOLKEW.

33 ~ dvay1<1), Tijs dvay1<11s: necessity. dvo.yK1J stands for dvayK'T) EO'TL: it is necessity, i.e.

necessarily so.

35 µ.EAAw: J intend (but often used without reference to any mental process, I am

going to ... )

36"they seem (to)". qialvETm and <pa[vovTaL are often used when Socrates' interlocutors

only give guarded assent to his suggestions.


1cn , A , 37 ~ 38 , , , " , ",;, , 0

,;,u.T(, OE 1m'i:<; KUL 'ITpE<Y,-,UT'l],; µ,wv UKO/\(WTOL OVTE<; KUL aoLKOL aya Ql, av

I 39

TIOTE yEvoLvTo;

MEN. Ou ofjrn. 40

Hz.' AAAa uwcppovE<; l(Ul, OLKaLOL; 41

MEN. NaC. 42

:EO. TiavTES o.p, o.v8pw'ITOL -r0 auTQ TPOTI(f) d.ya0o[ EL<YLV' TWV aUTWV yap

I 43 > 0 \ I

TUXOVTES aya OL yLyvovTm.

MEN."EoLKE. 44

1cn O, ,, 45 ~ , 4(> ,, , t: , , , , ,- , ,.. .... , ..... ,, ,

£.,U. UK av U'TJ'ITOU, EL YE fL'l] 1] aUT'l] apET'l] 'l]V UUTWV, T!p aUT!p av TpO'ITqJ

d.ya8ot ~uav.

MEN. Ou ofjrn.

37-rt is the equivalent of the English what about?

38µ.fuv: see p.131.

nKo/\mnot: see footnote 14, above.

39 yEvotv-ro is 3rd person plural of yEvotµ11v, the optative of EyEv6µ.11v, the aorist of

ytyvoµm. It means they would become. (For the optative, see section 13. For

yEvoLvTo, see section 14, p.175.) 110TE (enclitic): ever. µfuv 1roTE: surely never?

40ot', ofiTu: no indeed.

41 uA/\a. (but) implies but if they were ... ?

43 rux6v-rEs is nominative plural masculine of rnxwv, the aorist participle (a strong

aorist, see section 14, p.167) of Tu-yx6.vw, with genitive, I obtain, reacl1. Tfuv uuTwv

rnx6v-rEs: having obtained the same things, or possessing the same things. Tux6vm

stands for a conditional, if they possess the same things.

44The subject of eoLKE is it. EoLKE: it seems so.

1t·

45S ince ~v and ~cruv are both imperfect, the condition expressed by EL is unfulfilled,

in present time. Translate in the order: EL YE ~ upET~ au-rfuv µ~ ~v ~ auT~, 0~1Tou

ouK /iv ~a-av dyu0ol, T(Jl uu-r/ii -rp611qi ... /iv is repeated in this sentence for emphasis

because the unfulfilled condition EL YE µ.~ ~ uuT~ d.pn~ ~v au-rfuv , has been

inserted in the middle of ouK /iv 0~11ou T({l au-r/ii Tp611tp dya0ol, ~cruv.

460~1Tou: surely. In a negative question, this is a very strong indication that the

answer should be "no".

Section 13

151

New words.'.

~ ,,., 1

. auLK0',9 ll,OUC011

ci.1TAWS

apLO"fE

eLK◊, (&en~)

1 3

EL'll'OV

Ka.-ra (with genitive)

1(€A.€01!J

11e-ra (with genitive)

(with accusative)

11e-ra. mfrrn.

fL'ljV '

ov-rws

I

'lTCI.VU

unjust

simply

my dear f ellow 2

it is likely, natural, reasonable

I said (optative: d,roqu, Othat I might say)

in respect of 4

I order, command

with

after

after this, next

truJy 5

really, in reality, on the

basis of reality 6

not only ... but also

altogether (ou no.vu: not quite)

Adjectives with Masculine for Feminine

Some adjectives use the masculine endings for the feminine. These include

many compound adjectives (e.g. q>LAoaoq>os, loving wisdom and µ.w6aorpoc;,

hating wisdom), but not all (e.g. not <plA.oyuµ.vaanKo,). a prefixed to an

adjective, e.g. ciµ.ouaoc; ( unmusical) is like the English prefix un-. It is

called a privative because of its negative force.

1Feminine as masculine, e.g. yuv'f} iiou:o,: an unjust woman.

2 Vocative masculine singular of iipwTO,: best. Sometimes slightly patronising.

\1nov is the strong aorist of AEyw (see section 14, p.165).

4Distinguish from Ka-r6. with accusative: according to. (Both are secondary meanings

of Ka-r6., the primary meaning of which is down.)

\i111111 µ~v: yet truly. Also -rt µ~v; why not or yes, indeed.

6 An adverb formed from wv, the participle of ELµL.


'A,\\~" \ ' C J..' \ \ ') / f ~? ' \

,tlt\ E<YTL yap oLp,m, w, , 1 1110·0µ,Ev, KUL yuv'Y] LaTPUCl], 'lj o ou, Km

/ f ~' ,t J_ I

fLOUO-LKl], 'Y] 0 aµ,ouo-QS. 't'UCYEL,

n µ,~v;

Kal. yuµ,va<YTLI(~ 0' apa ou, KUL 'll'O/\E!1LK~, ~ OE <11iO/\EfL9..S. 1(0,l, OU

q>LAoyuµ,vuo-TLK~;

01µ,m ¥.ywyE.

H oE; q>L/\oo·ocpgs. TE Kat. µ,Laooocpos; (Republic 455e5-456a4, from Platonis

Rcspublica, (2003) by S.L. Slings (the Oxford Classical Texts edition of Plato's '

Republic) by permission of Oxford University Press)

But there exists, I think indeed, as we shall say, both a woman skilled in medicine

and the one who is not, and a musical (one) and the unmusical by nature. Why not/

And then (isn't it the case that) one woman likes gymnastic exercise and is warlike

and another is unwarlike and not loving gymnastics? I indeed think so. What

then? Loving wisdom and hating wisdom. ..?

'

THE OPT A TrVE MOOD

The optative mood has a relationship with the future and the subjunctive.

As the future may originally have expressed a desire, what one hopes

will happen, and the subjunctive expresses a rather more remote desire,

what one hopes may happen, so the optative expresses a still more

remote wish, what one hopes might happen.

The active endings are based on '"'Ot.p,i or "'Q,iv,L, as follows:

Present optalive aclive of'fi.vw

endings:

0

0Lp,1. Mo.µ,L O that I might loose

0 that you might loose (singular)

0 that he/she/it might loose

-ovrov

-oLTIJV

Movrov

~rnoL-r11v

Othat you both might loose

Othat they both might loose

AuoLµ.1ev

O that we might loose

-ovrE AuoLTE O that you might loose (plural)

'"'OLEv Mousv O that they might loose

Section 13 153

The essential difference between the present and aorist optative is not

one of time, but that the aorist optative emphasises completeness.

Aorist optative ac:tive of Avw

endings: "'U,Lfl.L

Mm:.tL[.1,L

-rw; or ""'<EW.S

4U or-,ae(v)

AuoaLs or AUoEwc,

Aucvai orAi>oEtE(v)

0 that I might loose

0 that you might loose

0 that he/she/it might

loose

-'-0,~ rov

~avr11v

41,LtJ,EV

~,VrE

-aaLEV or "7ffELa v

Auo-a.vrov

A uo-a.L 'f1J v

A l)(j'O,L(J,EV

/\1)0'(n'iE

A UO'atisv or A vaEuw

Othat you both might loose

Othat they both might loose

0 that we might loose

0 that you might loose

(plural)

0 that they might loose 7

The negative with an optative which expresses a wish is1-1~

Theoptativewith av can express a possibility (English "would" or"mi.ght"),

e.g. to-w; yap av d Myov, for perhaps you might be right (literally, say well)

(Meno 78c3)

or a polite request, e.g. vilv 8~ av /1.Eyov,, J, :Lwr<pUTE<; ... ; So would you now

say, Socrates ... ? (Protagoras 317e3) (8~ (in a question): so)

The negative with av is ou.


l.ypuq>oLfLL, 2.a.KOUO"CT.lfLEV. 3.1-1~ O.KOUOL. 4.1-1~ O.KOUO"ELEV, 5.TUUTU Olli( a.v 'ITOTE

O.Kouo-uL,. (Meno 95c2) ( ,roTE ( enclitic): ever) 6.TIWS o.v wilrn ·n-punoL,;

7The shorter ending appears to be more usual, e.g. you would be willing is cs0EA~<ruLs

at Gorgias 449b4 and Lysis 206c4, but t\0EA~<rEws at Statesman 272b4.


The optative of elµ,l:

singular

&qv: 0 that I might be

Eh]',: O that you might be

e(1i: 0 that he/she/it might be

plural

,clµev: 0 that we might be

El-rE: 0 that you might be

E.lE.v oa\'.1pav: 0 that they mighl bes


l.a:ya0os EL1JV, 2.Ka.Kos µ,~ EL1JS, 3.aocpol. ELfLEV. 4.o-ocpol. fo6µ,e0a. 5.o-ocpol

9 6 j\ 0' '1 r/ t I\ 7 j ,-,. ? / '1 8 \ ', t

WfLEV. .E/\EU epa El'!] UUT'l] 'I] 1TO/\LS. . EV T1] OLKL<;t fLOU EL'l]V, ·fL'lJ ELEV OL crol .

ETUlpOL UKOAU<YTOL (ill-disciplined) KO.l UOLKOL, t1 apL<YTE. 9. OLOUKTOV .

( something that can be taught) av E'L 1] ( ~ apET~) ~ OU OLOUKTOv; (Meno 87b6)

The optative of oi.oa:

singular

ELoEt 11v O that I might know

eLoEt 11, 0 that you might know

ELoe[ 11

0 that he/ she might know

plural

ELOELfLEV O that we might know

elOElTE oTELOEL1JTE O that you

might know

ELOElEv O that they might know

The optative of ¢>71µ,'i:

cpa[ 11v O that I might say (affirm)

cpaL'i'JS O that you might say

cpu[11 Othat he/she might say

q>UlfLEV

cpat'l]TE

q>Ul.EV

0 that we might say

0 that you might say

0 that they might say9

The aorist optative of <J,11µ[: [<J,~crmµL], q,~crms, [<j,~o-m]. <p~<mLµEv, [q,~o-o.m], <j,~o-mEv is

very rarely found in Plato (only 3 times in all).


l.cpuC11v av EywyE. (Gorgias 506e2) 2.1rws o.v eLoEL'l]V; 3. 1TWS oev o.v, t1

OULfLOVLE, ELOEl'l]S 1TEpl 'l'OU'TOU '!'OU 1rpo:yµ,u-ros; (Meno 92cl) 10

8The duals ( Ehov, 2nd person and ELTTJV, 3rd person) occur only in the Eulhydemus.

9The duals of neither oloo. nor <J,11µ[ occur in Plato.

10<li omµovLE (literally, Oheaven-sent man!) is ironical, like <li o.pLo-TE.

Section 13 155

The present and aorist optatives active of verbs ending -uµ,L are like

,-6oqJ.L and AuaaLµ,L e.g. the present optative active of o:rr6AAuµ,L ( Othat 1

mightdeslroy&c):

J110/\/\UOLIJ,l, U'TTOAAuoL,, O.'ITO/\/,UOL, ci'rroAAUOLTOV, U1TOAAUOLT1]V, O.TioA/\uoLµ,Ev,

ci110/\/\UOLTE, o:rroAAuoLEV

and the aorist optative active of OELKvuµ,L ( Othat I might show&c):

S€L~aLµ,L, OEL~ELu,, OEL~ELE(v ), M~mTov, OEL~uLT1JV, OEL~mµ,Ev, OEL~a.LTE,

it

8ELsELUV.

II

Present optative middle and passive

endings

-OL[J.'ljV AlJOt[J.'l}V 0 that I might loose for myself,

get loosed, be loosed

-ow Avow 0 that you might loose for yourself,

get loosed, be loosed

-ovro Movro 0 that he/she/it might loose for

him/her/itself, get loosed, be loosed

-oLotlov Mo1.oBov Othat you both might loose for

yourselves, get loosed, be loosed

-OLotl1JV Auoto-011v Othat they both might loose for

themselves, get loosed, be loosed

-OLµ,E0U Aud,µ,e0u 0 that we might loose for

ourselves, get loosed, be loosed

-ow0<E i\uow0E 0 that you might loose for

yourselves, get loosed, be loosed

-OLVTO AUOLVTO 0 that they might loose for

themselves, get loosed, be loosed

11The aorist optative active of u1ToAAuµL (u1ToAfoctL\1L) from u·,rw11Eo-u and the present

optative active of OELKvuµL (owcvuo,µ,) do not occur in Plato. oE(~mp,L is formed from

EOEL{u, the aorist indicative active of OELKvuµL.


Aorist optaUve middle 12

-mµ,11v

-aw

•,:wro

-o.Laflov

-a.ur&qv

4l'.L(.l,E0a

-o.io-81::

"'"il,LV'iO

Auoutµ,11v

Au<Yaw

Aum:wro

A uaaLaflov

/\UCYa,(a01JV

Auo-utµ.as0a

A.UO'UUY8E

AU<YUW'fO

0 that I might loose for myself,

get loosed

0 that you might loose for

yourself, get loosed

0 that he/she/it might loose

for him/her/itself, get loosed

0 that you both might loose for

yourselves, get loosed

0 that they both might loose

for themselves, get loosed

0 that we might loose for

ourselves, get loosed

0 that you might loose for

yourselves, get loosed

0 that they might loose for

themselves, get loosed

The present optatives middle of other -µ.L verbs are like Auo(.µ11v e.g. the

present optative middle of a:rroAAuµ.L ( Othatl might destroy, &c) is:

0.110/\/\uoLµ'T]v, 0.110/\/\uoLO, 0.110/\/1.uoL TO, d1roA/\uour0ov, d1ro/\/\uo[a01Jv, o.1ro/l./\uo(µ.e0a,

o.1ro/\Auow0e, o.1roA/\uoLvTo.

The aorist optatives middle of -µL verbs with weak aorists have endings

l.k \ ' 13

l e /\UCTUlfl, 'T]V.

The optative characteristically includes the letter L in the ending, both in

the active and middle/passive; thus the optative of ouvaµ.m (I am able) is

ouvaLµ.T]V ( Othat I might be able).

12For the aorist optative passive, see section 18, p.237.

13e.g.the aorist optative middle of ci1roAAuµL, from cl·mi'.1Arna, the aorist indicative active.

is ci1r0Arna[µ11v and the aorist optative middle of OELKvuµL, from i[oni;a, the aorist indicative

active, is oui;a.(µ1Jv. (Neither occur in Plato.)

Section 13 157


J.0auµ,atoLµ,'Tjv (passive). 2.Touro µ,~ y(yvovro. 3.µ,~ EupL<rKmvro (passive).

4,a1TOKplVULf1E0a. 5.<pULVOL 6.qmLVOlTO. 7.µ,~ qimvoLµ,E.0a. 8.o-oqios yLyvo[µ,11v,

, - , , , ,k, 10 , , , , ,~ , " , (

·9,1jfl,lV U1TOKplVOlTO O <YO'f'OS, ,fl,11 /\U<YUcVTO Ol 1TOl\lTUc TOUS OE<Yfl,UlTUS, /,

8£crµorr11,: the prisoner11{,oµac (middle): I ransom) 11.Touro 1Tparruv Suvu[µ,11vl

12. oihE o.pu ELvm Suvmro av ro µ,~ ov (the not being, i.e. lhe non-existent)

o&TE o.AAw, ( otherwise) ouSuµ,w, (in any way) OU<YLU<; fl,ETEXHV ( to have a share

'd 63 8 13 ,, ,, , I\\ ' \ " " 14 ,, I

of). (Parmem es 1 c ) . OUTE apa 0,1TOI\/IUTUl TO 1-111 ov EV OUTE 'YlYVETUc ...

ouS' o.pa aAAOLOUTm (is it altered) 15 ••• ~811 (already) yup av y[yvoLTO TE l(Ul,

a1To/\/\uOlTO TOUTO 1TUO-XOV (suffering). 16 (Parmenides 163d7-163e2)

Future Unlikely Conditions

If you were to discover the truth, you would be surprised implies that

you are unlikely to discover the truth, and so unlikely to be surprised by

it. This condition refers to a future hypothetical situation, not one which

has already occurred or is occurring at the present time.

14Ev (neuter): one (thing). To µ~ ov Ev: the not-being one, i.e. the no11-existen1 one

("the one" as compared with "the many").

1'<iAAoL6w: I alter. uAAoLouTa.L is contracted from uAAoLoETuL (see section 16, p.206).

1611cicrxov is neuter nominative singular (qualifying To µ~ ov h) of the present

participle active of 11cicrxw: I suffer. "Suffering this" means "if it suffers this". i.e., "if

this (being altered) happens to it". (If the non-existent one should come into being,

it would not be non-existent!)


In Greek, the "if' clause 17 if you were to is expressed by Et with a verb in

the optative mood; the conclusion, you would be surprised, is also in the.

optative, with o'.v.

, \ 1 \ '0 < I 0 lo/ 11 )8

EL 1"T]V U/l'Tj ELUV EUplO'KOL<;, uuµ,ui,ov; UV.

µ.~ is the negative after El, ou is the negative in the conclusion:

' ,.. \ ' I ' ,1 0 1y

EL TOUTO fl,'Tj EUplO'KOL<;, OUK UV UUfLU':,OLfJ,L

If you were not lo discover this, I should not be surprised.

Care is needed to distinguish future unlikely conditions ( Et with an

optative)

EI'. f.LE KEAE UOL<;, 'l'OUTO a. V 1Tp6. TTOLfLL

if you were to order me, I would do this

from present unfulfilled conditions (Et with imperfect)

El fl,E E.KEAEUE<;, TOUTO av E.1TpUTTOV

if you were ordering me, I would be doing this

and past unfulfilled conditions ( El with aorist indicative)

El fl,E EKEAEUCYU<;, TOUTO av E.1Tpa~u

if you had ordered me, I would have done this.

All have av in the clause expressing the conclusion.

av with_@ optativ~ is frequently used to say that something is hypothetical

when the condition is understood e.g.

TouTo ouK a.v 11puTTOLEv: they wouldn't do this ( even if you ordered 1hem)

17The protasis. For protasis and apodosis, see section 11, p.125, footnote 27.

18The present optative refers to an action as continuing (not completed); the aorir

optative as simply occurring (completed) (Smyth, Greek Grammartiifpara.2m

Rijksbaron ( The Syntax and Semantics of the Verb in Classical Greek, p.71) notes th,'.

the present optative indicates simultaneity, the aorist optative anteriority. This is n(

always clearly the case; cf. Meno 74al-2 Eyw aoL EL1TOLfLL uv rnt c£;\;\u ax~µ.urn, EL pt[

KEAEuoL<; I would tell you ( of) olher shapes also, if you were to order me. KEAEuoL, ;

present optative, but ordering is anterior to telling. For ax~µu, see p.159 no.3.

Section 13

159


t.el TOUTO E.°i'.1TOL[1l, ct.pa 0uup.ci{oLs uv;

2.el'. µ,e KE.AE.UOL',, Toiho O"OL E.'l1roqu UV.

3.eL µ.oL E.tTrOLS u111~s O Tl EO"TL O-X1lf1U, '}'L'}'VWO"KOL[-LL UV. ( 0 TL (sometimes

written oTL " ): w h a t . rn ' ax11µ,a, - Tou - ax11µ,aTo,: ' th es h ape.

19

o " TL wn ' ax11µ,a: - w h at as J iape

is)

/

4:rroTE.pov

9~ I

ELUEVUL

A_ /\ ff " I '

f-'OU/\El O Tl O")(l]jl,U E<YTLV,

,1 ,., /

l] O")(l][-LU

\

n; l<UTU

I

1TUVTWV

~ou/\O[J,Ul E.l◊EVUL. ( 110.VTWV is neuter plural)

7 \ '(;:' / :,

5

A. ,t\ ~ ' I j ' \ j ~\ '? ? ', 5 I 0

,H <YU ElUEVUL Ef-'OU/\OU O TL apETT! E<YTLV, E.'}'W oux av OLO<; T l] U1T01CpLVEO" UL.

6.TL /\E'}'El r opyCas OTL a.pET~ E<YTLv;

7 , ,h , r , , , .., , , (' , , , , r ,

.n 't'lJO"L opyws apE.Tl]V E.Lvm; TL EO"TLV l] apETl] ICUTU TOV opywv;

8 , , ,J , 20 , , , , , A \ , , ~, , " OI\

.n au ~l1JS ELVUL apn11v; u E.f-'01J/\Ojl,l]V E.LOEVUL, TL av E/\E'}'ES;

9 /\ \~r I'\ 9 J..'" ,1 /~\, I

:n (J"U KUL O opyws apETl]V E.LVUL ~,UTE; EL O"E lJPWTl]O"U TL av UTfEKpLvw;

lo , ~, r , .-1.. , , , , , A , , ·~, , " , ,

.TL OE opyws 't'lJO"LV UUTl]V E.Lvm; EL f-'OU/\OLfLl]V E.LOEVUL, TL av U'!TOKpLVoLO;

11.ap' uv arroKpLvrn0m olos T' E'i'.11,;

12.ouK ElKOS E<YTLV. fows o ' UV UTfOKpLVOLfl.l]V OTL r opyCas KUL E)'W TOUTO

ol6µ.E0a· !ipET~ p.~v E<YTLV oLov T ELVUL u/\Awv av0pw1TWV upxELv fLETO.

I

8LKUL00-UVl]S.

13.El OE

n

oou/\os e'C l]V, dpa upxoLµ.L OU p.6vov TWV U/\/\WV a.A/lo. KUL TOU E[J,OU

OW1TOTOu; ( o OE0-116T11,, Toil orn1r6TOu: rhe master)

14.et oou/\os E°i'.l]V, ◊OKEL O"OL OTL E[J,OL a.pET~ ~ UUT~ UV E.'ll];

15.ou 'JTUVU ~ UUT~ UV &rr TOU yup 0-0U OEO"TfOTOU upxELv OUK a.v olos T 1

16.EL OE TOU OEO"TfOTOU upxELv olos T' ~. OVTWS a.v OOUAO<, ~;

17.l'.o-ws apE.T~ OVTWS UV E'i'.l] TO OLKULWS: upxuv av0pw'ITWV.

18.E°CTIEP TUUTU <p~s, op0ws AE')'ELS. (op0w,: correaly)

E.°Cl]S-

19Scott, Plato's Meno (Cambridge, 2006), pp.39-42, comparing its meaning in the Meno

and in other dialogues, suggests that axfiµ,u should be translated as "surface". d110LILL

is 1st person singular of the optative of El1rov, the aorist of Myw (p.165). It has no past

meaning.

20Section 3, p.22.

21Accusative and infinitive. "Someone" is understood, making the sense literally,

"someone to be able to ... " In English, it is also "to be able to ... "


19 , \ \ I ,t <;> I ' ' I \ <;>\ \ I \ \ \ 9 ,

22 , , , , 23 , " , f-l , 24 (H l . )

20.SLs El, Tov auTov 110Taµ,ov om< o.v Ef1t-'Ul 'T]S, erac e1tus

.E'yW /\E'YW O'Tl OUCULOO-UV'T] EO-TlV CLpET'T], 0-U OE /IE'YEl<; 'ITO/l/\0,S ElVUl UpETUS,

Plato, Meno 73c6-74a6

Meno gives a definition of excellence which is too narrow.

"''" , E ~ , 25 , , , , , , , , A 26 , ~ 27 ,

,:,u, 1THO'T] TOlVUV 'T] UUT'T] apET~ 'ITUVTWV EO-TlV, 'lTELpw EVll'ElV KUl

, 0 ~ 28 / , I ,-h r I 9 \ \ , 29 , I

avaµ,V'T]O' 'T]VUl Tl UUTO '1'1lO'l opyw, ElVUl KUl cru [LET EKEI..VOU.

MEN r

'1\ \ 30 ' " ,t O , 9 ~ , 8 / ,t et 3) I

, l U/\/\0 'Y 11 apxuv OlOV T ElVUl TWV av pw11wv; El1TEp EV 'YE TL

('T]TEL', KUTU '!TQ,VTWV.

23b 1romµ,6s, Tou •iforo.µ,ou: the river.

24 ouK a.v Eµ,~at'l),: you would not step (into). &µ,~u[11s is aorist optative (2nd person

singular) from &µ,~u[vw: I step into. The quotation is from Cratylus 402al0. For the

aorist indicative of ~u[vw see p.229.

25hELo~: since.

26~rnpiii is contracted from TrELpo.ou, the 2nd person singular present imperative of

TrELpo.oµ,m: I try, and it means 1ry! (Section 16, p.206; for the ending, p.207)

17EL1TEtv is the infinitive of Ehov: it means to say. (Section 14, pp.165 & 170.)

28a.vuµ,v11cr6ijvuL is the infinitive of a.vEµ,v~cr611v, the aorist passive (section 18, p.234) of

a.vaµ,LfLV~o-Kw: I remind, and it means 10remember. The prefix a.v- (for a.vci) means agafo

and merely intensifies Eµ,v~o-011v. ouT6 refers back to o.pET~ (neuter because o.pEr11 i1

thought of here as a thing).

29µ.ET' stands for fLETci.

30ii11110 (neuter): else. ~: than.

d.v8pw11wv.

Translate in the order ElvoL olov T ' iipxEcv riii,

,g

31 .fv (neuter accusative): one. Translate immediately before Tt. "one somethinf:

some one thing.

Section 13 161

A ', , , y ~ , \ \ , , , ,;, , 32 , , , , , • n

}11.' 1111a 1111v sT)TW yE. a,111 a.pa. KUl T,mooc; 1] auT11 apETT), w 1Vl!t~vwv, KO.L

,1 fl

8ouAOU, apxELv OLOU

9 " ~ / \ ~ ?/ l4

TE ELVUl TOU OE0"1TOTOU, l(Q,L OOl(EL O'OL ETL av· · oouAos

33

dvaL b apxwv;

·MEN. Ou ·rcavu µ,oL o~icEL, (iJ IwKpaTEs.

0

9 \ ' I ', '1 '1 \ \ I~ I

£(}, U yap ELKO<;, UJ a.pLO"TE' ETL yap l(UL TOOE ffl(01TEL.

'1 I \ t' I

UPXELV Cp1)S OLOV T

35

, 36 , 0 / 37 ' I ' " I '<I I <;, \ I

ELvaL. OU -rrpoa 1]0'0(1EV UUTOO'E TO OLKULW<;, UOLl(WS OE µ, 11;

MEN. OLµa1., Eyw-yE· ~ yUp OtKULocrUv11, (i) !Wi<po.TES- 1 0.pE~r~ E.aTLV.

ro. IToTEpov o.pET~, ti) MEvwv, ~ 6.pET~ ns;

MEN IT ~ ~ , , 38

• W<; TOUTO IIEYELS;

1cn , n, , ,, , \ , - 39 , , f.l , ,

f,M, HS 1TEpL (1/\/IOU OTOUOUV. OLOV, EL /-'OUIIEL,

\ I 4{) I 4]

o--rpoyyu110TT)TOS 1TEPL

32Translate in the order: O.pa, 1{0,t, ~ upET~ 1TO,L00<; (foTLv) ~ m'mj, Ji MEvwv, 1(0,L (~ upET~)

8ouAOU, o\'.ou TE E[vm UPXELV TOU OE01T61·ou;

33otou qualifies 1TUL◊0, as well as 8ou11ou. otou is an emendation. The oldest ms. readings

are otu,, (dative singular) (makes no sense) and o1w (accusative dual).

34av: would. Translate as if ooKci o upxwv o-oL iiv ELvaL ooii110,.

lipxwv) seem to you that he would be ...?

ooKEl iiv dvm: does he ( o

35oK01TEL is 2nd person singular present imperative of oK01TEui, I reflect, consider, and

means consider! (For imperatives, see section 15. For this form, see section 16, p.200.)

37 1Tpou0110-011Ev (1st person plural of 1Tpou011ow, the future of 1TpooTW1Jl1l, I add). 1Tpoo·0110-011Ev;

means: shall we adcl? auToo-E: 10 1he same place. To oumtw, stands for To upxELv ou<alw,.

3811.fyw (here): I mean.

39oTououv is the genitive of oTLouv: anything at all. &11110 oTLouv: anything else al all.

40 olov:suc11 as (Le.just as). ~ o-TpoyyuA6T1],, Tij, o-TpoyyuAOT1JTO<; roundness.

41When a preposition comes after the noun it qualifies (here, o-TpoyyuAOT1JTO<; 1TEpL

instead of 1TEp1. o-TpoyyuAOT1JTo,) the accent moves from the second syllable to the first.


, 42 ,, u .... 1 , , , r, ~ \ .... rl .... ~ ,

E'liroq.1,' av E)'W)'E OTL OX'TJf.LU Tl EO"TLV, OUX OUTW<; 0.1T/\(J)', OTL 0-X'TJf.LU. ULO,

, rl ,1 " rl 43 \ '1\ \ " 44 I

-ruuTa oE ouTWS av H1TOLf.LL, OTL KUL a1\1\a EO"TL 0-X'TJf.LO.Ta.

45 \ I I ' \ 46 \ ? \ \ / ? I ~ I

MEN.'Op0ws )IE I\E)'WV uu, E1TEL KUL E)'W /\E')'W OU µovov ULKULOO"UV'T]V

'\ \ ' ' "\ \ 9

0./\/\U KUL U/\/\US ELVUL

47

apETU<;.

' /

I 48 ' I '? 49

:EO. Ti.vus TUUTUS; El'ITE. OLOV

\ ' I ? \ \ '1\ \

KUL E')'W O"Ol El1TOlf.Ll av KUL U/\/\0, 0-X~f.LUTU,

,t \ I \ \ 9 ' \ ? \ ,t\ \ ? I

El f.LE KE/\EUOLS. KUL au ouv Ef.LOL El 1TE 0,/\/\US apETU',.

, H , ~ , so , ,, c;, - , , 9 ,

MEN • avupELU TOLVUV Ef.LOL)IE OOKH apET'T] HVUL KUL

,t._l ' \ I 5] ' "\ \ / \ \ 52

O"O'l'LU KUL f.LE)'U/\01TpE'ITELU KUL U/\/\Ul 1TO.f.L 1TO/\i\UL.

,I._ I '

o·w~,poauv11 KUl

42choLµ' stands for EL1l"OLf1-L, 1st. person singular optative of EL irov: I might say. Translate

in the order: olov d ~0{1/\a diroLµL /iv irEpL o-TpoyyuAoT1JTO<; OTL ECJTLV ax~µci TL, 01ix oihw,;

oTL ECJTL air/\w, ax~µu. ouTw, ( thus, so) here: like this. For To ax~µu, see p.159, no.3.

43 iiv EtiroLµL: J would say (implies if I did so). oTL: because.

44When E<JTL is not enclitic but has an acute accent on E, it emphasises that something

exists; translate E<JTL here as there are (N.B. neuter plural subject).

4

sop0w,: correctly. With AEywv au, EI iroL, av TuilTu needs to be understood. Translate as:

(J\J YE

diroL<; iiv op8w, I\Eywv TC1UTU.

4

\lvuL here means not simply to be but there 10 be. there to be is equivalent in

English to that there are.

48TLvus TuilTus; is accusative because it is the object of a verb such as AEyEL, which is

understood. In English which these (you mean) needs to be expanded to which are

these that you mean? For d1rE (say/) see section 15, p.187.

49olov: see footnote 40 above. Here, just as.

so~ civopdu, ~<; civopELU<;: courage.

si~ µcyaAoirprnELa, ~s µcyu/\oirprndus: magnificence.

sziraµiroAAoL, iraµiro.\AaL, iruµiro.\.\a.: very many, from ira,, all and iro.\.\oL: many. Are the

"virtues" one or many? Socrates himself puts the question at Protagoras 349bl: Are

wisdom, moderation, courage, justice and holiness five names covering one thing, or

is there a separate entity underlying each, with its own power, each different from

the others?

163

New words:

0,0, a.00LS

a~LKVEOl1m

&fi1rou

8u1

epxoµ,m

~81]

~'l"'TOV

ou8ev ~'i'i"OV

(with accusative)

(with genitive)

\'.va (in purpose clauses) so that 1

Section 14

again, afresh

I arrive

presumably

because of, throughout

through

I come, I go

now, already, by now

less (adverb)

no less

Xa11~avro (future >..11l)Joµ,m) I take, receive 2

Xeu1<os 9 AirnK~, A<Emcov white

µ.iiAAov

more (adverb)

ou8ev µ,iiAtwv no more

otos 9 ola 9 olov of which kind, of the kind which

o'ITws how 3

op&.w (future ol)Joµ,m)

I see

1TttAL11 4

back again (compare ao above)

'lfttU){ro (perfect: 11E1rov8a) I suffer

TU'Y)(avw

WCT'IT<Ep

I happen, happen to be, find (with genitive)

just as

Uses of wrxavw

With a participle, Tuyxavw means "I find myself, happen":

o fli\aTwv o.Kouwv Tuyxa11EL: Plato happens to be listening.

OUK epacrT~S WV (fOU Tuyxavw (Phaedrus 262e3) I happen not to be your lover.

-·------ ·--· ------ -

10riginally \'.va meant there or where.

2 At Meno 75d2 A.6yov Aaµ,~6.vm means to demand an explanation. 11aµ,~avw is also

used, e.g. at Republic 524d9, to mean I apprehend.

3

ln indirect questions, e.g. I know how to do this.

4cf. English palindrome.


El-rrEs av 3TL XPWfLCL TL, OLOTL KO.L uAAa. (xpwµ,a.Ta.) TuyxuvEL OVTa.. (Meno74c8)

(If you had been asked whether white is "colour" or "a certain colour") you would

have said "a certain colour" because lhere happen also to be other colours.

(eI11ov is the aorist of A<S')IW 8LoTL: because)

Plato sometimes uses the expression TVyxavw wv to mean really is, e.g.

el. 1TO/\Aa.t Kill Tia.v-rooa.·rm[ ELo-L v, Ev yE TL Eloos TUuTov iixouo-w OL' 3 ELO-Lv

upETO.L ... 0 -ruyxavEL 01)0-0. upET~ (Meno 72c6-dl)

even if they are many and of all kinds, they have one identical character because

of which they are excellences (virtues) ... which excellence (virtue) really is

With a genitive, Tuyx6.vw means "I fmd", "I attain to".

TT]S uA1]8E[a.s Tuyx6.vw: I find (attain to, arrive at) the truth.


l.TTjS 0-0~LO.S OU 'ITUVTES OL µ,a.81]TO.l TUYXCLVOUO-LV. 2.TWV 1TO.LOWV TU')'XCLVELV

E~ouAETO ~ UOEA~~- 3.huyxa.vov 'ITO.L(OVTES ot 'ITO.LOE',. 4.TOV :EwKpCLT'Y]

OLOCLO'KOUO'O. TU')'XCLVEL ~ LiLOTLfLO.. 5.EV T~ 1TO/\EL OVTES Tuyxa.vou<nv. 6.ot h

T~ TIOI\EL ~JLAOL OVTES huyxa.vov. 7 .uAAoL O'O~Ol EV T~ 1TOAEL OVTEC,

Tuyx6.vouCJLv. 8.ot Ev ~ TIOAEL ~LAoCJo~oL ovw; Tuyx6.vouCJLV. 9.TL TOUTo

TuyxavEL ov TO Epyov; (Symposium 206b3) 10. (One must always indeed

represent a god) oLos O 0Eoc; TUYXCLVEL WV, ECLVTE TL', O.UTOV EV E1TEO'LV TfOL~

MvTE Ev µ,eAwLv MvTE Ev Tpayt~o[q. (Republic 379a7-9; rules for poets when

writing legends involving 0EOAoy[a, the science of things divine.) Tu E1T1J (plural

of To foo,, Toti E11ouc;): epic poems. To. 11eA1J (plural of ,-o 11eAoc;, Tau f1EAou,: lyric

poems. 110Lew: I represent (describe in poetiy).

THE STRONG AORIST 5 ACTIVE TENSE

English regular verbs form the past tense by adding -ed to the stem; e.g.

the present statement "I cook the fish" becomes the past statement "I

cooked the fish". This regular way of forming the past tense in English

can be thought of as like the weak aorist tense in Greek, alrfady

described in Section 11.

In English, the past of some verbs is not formed by adding the regular

suffix -ed. The present statement "I buy the fish" becomes the past

statement "I bought the fish". Many common English verbs form the

past tense not by adding -ed but by changing the stem itself; e.g. the

past of "I sing" is "I sang"; the past of "I choose" is "I chose"; the past

5Sometimes called "the second aorist".

Section 14 165

of "I eat" is "I ate". Some verbs in English go farther than just changing

their base vowel, and use a different stem altogether for the past; e.g.

the past of '.'I go" is "I went".

Like the weak aorist, the strong aorist is not essentially past; its essential

meaning is completeness. For this reason the aorist indicative (both

strong and weak) is the natural verb form to refer factually to completed

actions in the past, but although most aorist indicatives are past-ref erring,

as noted on p.116, not all are.

Some of the most common Greek verbs change their stems to form the

past tense. e.g:

<Ehov: I said

(from M'Yoo : I say)

~A0ov : I came (went) (from Epxoµ,a~: I come (go))

,13011: I saw (from bpaw: I see)

&Aa~ov : I took, accepted (from Aaµ,~avw : I take,

accept)

&µ,a.0ov : I learned, understood (from µ,av0avw: I learn,

understand)

71upo11 : I found (from <Eup[m,111 : I find)

(also EOpov but always 11opov in Plato)

iaxov : I had, I held (from ixw : I have)

E1m0ov : I suffered ( from 'lfil.O)(w : I suffer)

Eruxov I happened (to be) (from -ru'Y){avro, I happen

to be, am essentially) (with participle)


The strong aorist indicative active

The endings of strong aorists are similar to those of the imperfect

tense:

endings:

SINGULAR

-ov EAa~ov I took

EAU~ES you took (singular)

EAa.~e(v) he/she/it took

DUAL

E/1.a~ETOV you both took

V\O,~ETT)V

EAa~oµ,ev

eAa~e-re

eAa.~ov

they both took

PLURAL

we took

you took (plural)

they took


1.clp' E/I.U~oµ,Ev; 2.ouK ifAa~ES. 3.Tjupoµ,ev. 4.TL E11res; 5.TLva EloE,;

6.1roAAo. E1m8ov ot TIOALTUL. 7,TT)S uATj0ELw, ETUXOV &yw. 8.1rws ~ABETE;

9.'C-1mous E'lxoµ,Ev. (b l'.-imo,: the horse) (NB what is the difference between

e'lxoµ,Ev and EO')(Ofl,EV?) 1 O.clpu 1roAAu ifµ,a0Es; I l.ou 1roAAa: WO'TIEP uuxµ,os

Tl.S T'l]S O'O~LW; WV huxev. (o uuxµ,o,, TOD auxµ,ou: the drought)

12.muTOV m) 1TE'ffOV0aµ,Ev· OU TIO/\A.U &µ,6.80µ,Ev. (muTov: the same thing)

13.TIOTE ~A0ETE; x0E, ~A0oµ,ev. (1roTE; when?x0,\,:yesterday.)

14.clpa rous Toil LllKpchous µ,a0'T]TUS eloes;

15.o 0€ LwKpUT'T]S µ,a0'T]TU<; OUK elxEv. TCva µ,a0'T]T~V '!TOTE EO'XEV o lwKpUT'TjS;

(1roTE (enclitic): ever)

16 '\\, "A ,1-' ,,;,, , , "' , " e , ,

.UI\I\

0 PL<YTO,vUV'T]S OUOEV TJTTOV EV KWfl,<J)Ol.(), El.'lTEV OTl. µ,o. 'T]TUl El.(J'l.V

:Ew1<puTEt.. (~ Kw1-upo[a: the comedy. In fact, Aristophanes' Clouds, 423 B.C,)

(Etow becomes past in English. In reported speech, Greek keeps the tense of what

was said.) ~

17 .OUOELS TIOTE µ,a0'T]T~V :Ew1<pUTOU<; elOEV' TT)S UA.Tj0ELOS O~'JTOU OUK huxev o

, Apt.O'TO~UV'T]S, (ouOEt,: nobody)

It is very important to tell the strong aorist from the imperfect by

looking at the form of the verb stem.

Which of the following are imperfect, and which aorist?

l.TjUpLO'KOV. 2.Tj~pov. 3.EAa~e. 4.&Mµ,~avE. 5.huxeTE. 6.huyxo.vETE.

Uµ,av8civoµ,Ev. 8.iµ,6.80µ,Ev. 9.e-rraaxEs. 10.ha0es. 11.elxE,. 12.ifaxe<,.

Section 14 167

The strong aorist participle active

This is formed like the present active participle ( using the strong aorist

stem, but without the augment); e.g.

SINGULAR


nominative Aa~tilv Aa.~OUO'!l. Aa~6v


taking taking taking

or having taken or having taken or having taken

accusative Aa~6v•m Ao.~ouO'a. v Aa~6v




genitive Aa~◊v'fo<; Aa~ofo11s Act~◊VTO<;

(of a man) (ofa woman) (of a thing)



dative Ao.~6v·n All~OUCJ11 All~OV7L

(to/for a man) (to/for a woman) (by a thing)


or having taken orhaving taken or having taken

DUAL

nom& ace Aa~(),nE A.a~ooaa A.a~6v-rE

gen & dat A.a~6inoLv A.a~ofomv A.a~6,noLV

PLURAL

nominative AO,~OV'iES Aa~OUO'!l.L Aa~ov'fa



orhaving taken or having taken or having taken

accusative Aa~ov·ras A!l.~OU{YIJ.S Aa~6v-m




genitive Aa~6v-rwv Ao.~OUO"WV Aa~6v-rwv

(of men) (of women) (of things)



dative All~OUO'L( V)) Aa~oUO"CLL<; Aa~oUO"L( v)

(to/for men) (to/for women) (by things)




The strong aorist participle active can be distinguished from the

present participle active by the difference in the stem, e.g.

11.aµ.~a.vwv 11.cq.L~avoucra >.&.µ.~cwov: taking (present)

11.a~wv 11.a~oilaa Aa~6v: taking, having taken(aorist) and by the

accent which is on the last syllable or the last syllable but one.

NB, Eloov is augmented, and its participle is lowv, looilcm, lo6v.

EL1rov has no augment. Its participle is Etrroov, d7roilaa., Et.1r6v.

Say which are present and which aorist:

1.µ.a.v0a.vwv. 2.µ.a.0wv. 3.Tuxwv. 4.TU)IXUVWV. 5.Eupoilo-o.. 6.EupLO'KOUO'O.,

7.Tia.06v. 8.1ro.o-xov. 9.Epxoµ.EVO<;. 10.V,06vw;. 11.crxoilo-o.L. 12.lixouo-o.L.

Like the weak aorist participle, the strong aorist participle, although it

can often be translated as past-referring, does not necessarily always

ref er to the past, e.g.

foTlV .•. 1ro.vrn To.urn ELTIOVTU ooKElV d AE)IHV (Laws 709b3)

it is (possible) ... a man saying all these things to seem to be speaking well.


1. TOUTO µ,a.06v-rE<; ot µ.u0'T]TUL T~S a.A 1']0Ei'.ui; TU)IXO.VOUO'l v.

2.TOUTO µ.a.0ouo-u, ~ )IUV~ 'T'TJ', O.A'T]0ELO.<; ETUXEV.

3 \ ,, \ P.' ' ' 0 \ ' '\

,T'T]V TIO/\lV 1\0.f-'OVTE<;, Ol EX pol 0.1TW/\E0-0.V.

4 ' ' ~ ' P.' ' ' '"'' ' ' ( ' ' h b

.TO OO''TOUV 1\0.f-'OVTO., TOV KUVU EolWKEV 'T] ')IUV'T], TO O<JTOuv: ( e one.

I:, KUWV, TOU KUVos: the dog. OLWK(l): I chase)

5.o-ou TUUTa. AE)IOVTOS 11'0.VTE<; ~KOUOV.

6 ~ ~ , ' ' \ ,I,' '0 '

.o-ou 'TUUTO. H1TOVTOS 1TUVTE', T'l]V ao,vwv E a.uµ,o.o-av.

7.TOV 1TCLL0CL 1.oouo-a. ~ )IUV~ EL<; T~V OLKLO.V lipxE.0'0CLL EKEAEUO'EV.

8.TOU<; ETO.Lpou<; EV T~ 0041 OUK to6vw;, Ol 1TUlOE<; 1TCLLtuv OUK ~0eA.ov. \ii

9.TOl<; TIOALTCLlS TOU<; lx0pous l◊OUO'LV Ol a.pxovTE~ 01TA.a. Erropwa.v.

( TO. 01TA.a: weapons)

10.eup6vTE<; o vuv t'IJTOU[J,EV, O.TIOA.OUfJ,EV T~V 1TEpt. CLUTO. TUUTCL o.·rrop(av.

(Philebus 34d6) (o: what, that which. t11Touµ.Ev is contracted from t11Tfoµ.Ev. For

o.TioAouµ.Ev, see o.TioAw on p.136.)

Section 14

The strong aorist subjunctive and optative, like weak aorist

subjunctives and optatives, do not express pastness.

169

The strong aorist wbjunctive aclive

This has endings like the present subjunctive active:

endings

"-OW

-W!J,<EV

""'Y]'•<E

4JlO'L( V)

--rJTOV

--rJTOV

M~w

M~11s

A<t~'(J

/\a~'I]TOV

M~1JTov

M~w11<Ev

MP1rr<E

M~wo-L(v)

I may take (or let me take)

you may take (singular)

he, she, it may take

you both may take

they both may take

let us take or we may take

you may take (plural)

they may take


l.EA0wµEv. 2.TUUTU µ~ 116.SwµEv. 3.ECLV T~V a/\~0uav µ.6.0wO"LV Tl 11p6.€ouO"Lv;

4.rC EO"TLV ~ apET~; d11wµEv. 5.µ~ TOUTO d11w1.1Ev, µo./\/tOV OE µCuv apET~V

1<ura 116.vTwv Eupwµ.Ev. (µ,[av: one (feminine accusative, see p.287)) 6.d ouv6.1u;:8u,

µLav , upETTJV ' ' KClTO. ' 110,VTWV ' /l0,1-'WfJ,EV. \ 'i:i. 7 ,OLO" ' 0 a, ouv ' ,:, DL ' OTL " ( w h y ) 8 uuµu1:,ELS, ,y 11 "

lyw aoL EL1,w; (deliberative subjunctive, see p.144) (Meno 97d4)

The .strong aori::;t optative active

This has similar endings to the present optative active:

endings

/,11.~0LV,L 0 that I might take!

M.~OL<; 0 that you might take (singular)!

-OL

Aa~OL 0 that he, she, it might take!

-·oLTOV

-OLT1JV

Aa~oLTov

Aa~o£111v

Othat you might both take!

Othat they might both take!

-OL(J,EV

-ovrE

-OLEV

M~oL!J,Ev

M~ov,E

M~mEv

O that we might take!

O that you might take (plural)!

O that they might take!


l.µ.o.0oLµ.L. 2.Eupol. 3,0"XOLTE. 4.µ~ 110.<J)(OL[LEV, 5.toolEV. 6.[L~ €l1TOLS,

7.rfjs a/\118eCus av TUXOlTE. 8.rrws av T~V OLl<ULOO'UV1]V EupoLµEv; (Republic

430d3) 9.~011 ToCvuv av µ.6.8w; µ.ou EK rourwv o-xfjµ.u o M.yw. (Meno 76a4) (10

O)(~µ.a, 1oii O)(~µ.a10,: shape. o: what. ax~µ,a o AEyw: what I mean by shape.)


The strong aorist infinitive active

This ends like the present infinitive but with a change in stem, and has

a circumflex accent on the last syllable, e.g.

Auµ~avew (present infinitive): to take

Xu~e'i:v (aorist infinitive) : to take (once) or to take (generally), or after a verb

meaning "I say", to have taken.

Which of the following infinitives are aorist, and which present?

l.µ,u0ELV. 2.µ,uv0uvELV, 3.-nu0ELV, 4.EUpl<YKELV. 5.-rruaxuv. 6.TUXELV.

7.LOELV 8.Dl0ELV. 9.EpWT~O'UL 10.0uuµ,u(uv. 11.ELTIELV. 12.UXELV.

An irregular strong aorist active. The aorist of yvyvwaKw is:

eyvwv

I got to know

eyvws

you got to know (singular)

eyvw

he, she, it got to know

eyvwµ,Ev

EYVWTE

we got to know

you got to know (plural)

eyvwaa.v they got to know. 6

OTUV "

I

[J,EV, OU ' l<UTUAU[J,TIEL ax~eELa TE KUl ' TO '

,,

ov, (~ tjiux~) EL<; ' TOUTO

' I ' I I

UTIEpEL<YT]TUl, EVOT]O"EV

\ ,t ' \ \

TE KUl E')'V(!) UUTO KUL

--.. '1 ,.J /

vouv EXHV ~)ULVETUL (Plato,

Republic 508d3-5) 7

When indeed it (the soul)fixes its sight where shine both trulh and reality, then

(the soul) both apprehends it and gels to know ii, and is revealed to have

inteJJigence. NB neither Ev6110-Ev nor Eyv1u, both aorist, have past signification.

The participle of e'yvwv (the aorist participle of ylyvwaKw) is:

yvm'is9 ')'VOUCYU9 yvov: knowing, having got to know

and the infinitive is

yvwvm: to (get to) know.

Kat, Oll0€V xuXrnov (fon) yvwvm (Republic 436 aS)

and it is in no way difficult to perceive.

6The dual of Eyvwv is not found in _Plato.

7

Ka-rnMµTiw: I shine. ~ t)iux1\, Tijs t)iuxij,: the soul. a1TEpeto-11Tm is 3rd person

singular of hEpeto-wµm, the subjunctive of a1TEpELo-o.µ11v, the aorist of a1Tepet8oµaL.

a1Tepdooµm Et,: J fix my sight on. Ev6110-Ev is 3rd person singular of E'.v6110-a, the

aorist of vokw: I perceive by the mind. b voiis (contracted from b v6os): intelligence.

Jowett translates voiiv EXELV q,atvETm as "is radiant with intelligence". <j,atvETat is

used by Homer at Iliad II, 456, of a forest fire lighting up a landscape.

Section 14

THE STRONG AORIST MIDDLE TENSE

The strong aorist indicative middle

The aorist middle tense has the root meaning "I did something for

myself' or "I got something done for myself'. If a verb has a strong

aorist active, the aorist middle is also strong. Auµ,~a.voµ,m: I take for

myself, is used in Greek for I take hold of (with genitive).

endings:

-oµ,1111 E/\.a~oµ,1111 I took hold of

-OU EA.li~OlJ you took hold of (singular)

=ero .&M~e-ro he, she, it took hold of

-w6ov EACL~rn8ov you both took hold of

-w611v EAu~fo811v they both took hold of

171

-Ojl,E0a EAU~oµ.E0a we took hold of

--ea0E EAa.~eof:le you took hold of

-OVTO EA.li~OVTO they took hold of

The endings are like the imperfect middle, but the aorist stem is used.


1.~ yvv~ TOD rrmSos EA.U~ETO. 2 s ' • ,t ' ~ 9\ 0 ' '\ (.l'

.up Ol <YO<pOl TT]S Ui\1] HUS E/\UIJ,t-'UVOVTO;

3.T~V o.SlKLUV TWV -rroALTWV EAu~ETO o apxwv. ( ~ UOLKLa: injustice,

unrighteousness. 11uµ,~uvoµ,m: I criticise o apxwv: the person ruling, the

magistrate)

The commonest strong aorist middle is &yEvoµ,11v: I became, I happened,

I came into being, from yCyvoµ,m.

iyEvoµ,11v I became, etc.

&yEvou you became

EyEvero he/she/it became

Eyivw0ov you both became

Eyrnla811v they both became

EyEvo1-u,0u we became

iyEvEotlE you became

iyEvovTo they became


Note the following common strong aorist middles:

U~Lr<oµ11v, 1 arrived, from U~LKVE.oµUL: I arrive.

rrupqEv6µ11v: J came, arrived, appeared, from -rrupayCyvoµm.

hwMµ,11v: I was destroyed, from a·ITo/\Auµ,L: I destroy. 8

~p6µ,11v: I asked, enquired (not found in the present indicative).


1 .U1TW/\ETO. ' 2 .EyEvou. ' ' 3 .OL' µ,a 0 'f]TUL' 'TJPOVTO. " 4 .TIW', ~ El<; ' Tl]V ' 1TO/\lV U,1,ucou; '.k'

5.Su1 TL TauTa EYE.VE To; 6. (The famous retort of Themistocles, the architect of

the great victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Salamis, when someone from

the tiny island of Seriphos had rudely said that he was only famous because of his

city.) O.TIEKpLVUTO OTL OUT' UV UUTO', LEpL~lO<; WV ovoµ,acnos EYE.VETO OUT'

EKELVO<; 'A011vat.o<;. (Republic 330al-3) ( ouT' stands for ouTE. iiv implies that

this is an unfulfilled statement about the past Ovoµa.o-T6~, OvoµacrT~ 5 Ovoµa.o-T6v:

famous. 'A&rjvufo,,' A011vutu,' A011vULov: Athenian)

What is the difference in meaning between:

(a) o yEpwv cro~o<; EYE.VETO and o YEPWV cro~o<; EYLYVETO

(o yEpwv, TOU YEPOVTO<;: lhe old man)

(b) aL 1ra'i:SEs rrapqi'.·yvoVTo and at rru'i:SEs ·rmpqivovTo

(c) Eyivou and EyCyvou

( d) d.wf>AAuvro and d.1rwAovTo?

The strong aorist participle middle

This is found by substituting the ending -µ,Evos, -µ,rn1, -µEvov for the

ending -µm, e.g.

yEvoµEvos, )'EVO[J,~V'T}, yEvoµEvov having become, having happened.


1 e I A ' I '('I(' ' "' I

·lJ yuv11, cro,1>11 YEVOf-1,EVl], EOlOUO"KE TOV .<:,WKpUT'TJ.

2.ot µ,u011rni'., Et, T~v' Ar<aS~µ,uuv a<l>LKOfl,EVOL, TOU TIMTwvo<; ~1<ouov. @'

3.EL'TfElV OU Suvaµ,aL 1TOU ElO'LV UUTUl at TIO/\El', tYiTO TWV Ex0pwv 0.1TO/\of1,EVUL.

4-huxov SE. TLVES, w IPaCSwv, TmpayEvoµ,EvoL; (Phaedo 59b5) (NB

interrogative; translate as if beginning TLVE, ok ... Phaedo is being asked about

the day of Socrates' execution.)

-------··----

8The present middle of o.,roAAu111 is ciir6AAuµ,m which means I perish. The aorist

middle is therefore used to mean J was destroyed.

Section 14 173

The strong aorist infinitive middle

-y1evfo0m to become, etc. ( ending -fo8m)

Uses of the aorist infinitive

(a) Declarative infinitives. Aorist infinitives are found with verbs

meaning "say" or "think" to express statements, e.g. ~<p'TJ oL lwr<paT'TJ

fill.Tuxav AEAouµ,Evov for he said Socrates, having had a bath, to have met

him (Symposium 174a3), 9 i.e. he said that when Socrates had met him, he

(Socrates) had had a bath. Such aorist infinitives may be classified as

historic when they ref er to previous events.

(b) Dynamic infinitives (from ouvaµ,m: l can). Aoristinfinitives found

after verbs meaning "can", "wish/be willing", "be likely to", "must/have

to", "try", "order/command", or after some adjectives such as xaArn6,

(e.g. xaXrn6v lcmv d1rEi:v, it is difficult to say) or used as nouns with

the definite article T6 have no temporal significance. Their meaning

differs from present infinitives in aspect,

e.g. OU ouvaµ,aC TIW ... µ,Cav o.pET~V /1.a~ELV KaTO. TIUVTWV ( Meno 7 4al 1-bl)

l can't yet mm. ... a single excellence applying to all cases (tr. Sharples).

Verbs with the present aspect suggest continuity or sometimes repetition;

verbs with the aorist aspect suggest actions complete in themselves. In

this example, Auµ,~uvHv (present infinitive) would mean to take,

apprehend; translating Aa~Ei:v (aorist infinitive) by "to grasp" makes it

sound more like "comprehend completely". However, it is often difficult

or impossible to express difference of aspect in English, e.g. J.0EA~ous

oov Kul <JU lµ,ol EL'ffELV 1rEpl T~<; o.pET~,; (Meno 75b4) Therefore will you also

be willing to speak to me about excellence?

There are many factors which may cause a particular infinitive to be

aorist or present. The present aspect may, for instance, not express

continuity but repetition or frequency, as at Meno 70b7: ToilTo To E0o,

uµ,iis E'l0lKEV, o.qi6~w<; TE KaL µ,eyu/\01Tprnfu, 0.'TTOKpLvE<T0m he has trained

you (in) this custom, to reply fearlessly and magnificently .

9ol is the dative of E himself (p.340). ElvTUXELv is the infinitive of Elvhuxov, the

aorist of EvTu'Y)(a.vw (with dative): l meet. AEAouµEvov is masculine accusative singular

of the participle of >..D,ouµm, the perfect of Aouoµm: J have a bath.


The difference between an aorist and a present infinitive is not always

as clear as this in English. Some verbs seem to be found more often

with aorist infinitives e.g., of the verbs meaning "I can" that we have

met, ouva.µ,a.l and lxw are found more often in the Meno with an aorist

infinitive, while o16s r' Elfl,l is found more often with a present

infinitive.


l .1ra.pa.yEvfo0m. 2.a~lKE<T0m. 3:rra.pa.yCyvrn0m. (Treat them as dynamic

infinitives.)

The strong aorist subjunctive middle

endings:

I may become (let me become)

you may become (singular)

-'IJTUL yev1rrm he, she, it may become

you both may become

~"IJJVTaL

-ri0"0ov

YEV'T]<Y0ov

YEV'T]<Y0ov

'}'EVW[l,E0a,

YE11'l'j0'0E.

yevwv-rm

they both may become

let us become, we may become

you may become (plural)

they may become


l .ao~ol, yevwµ,E0a. 2.a~woµ,E0a. ElS TO TEAo, TOUTOU TOU Aoyou WS TO.XWTU.

(10 TE.Ao,: the end. tiJ, TUXL<Ym: as quickly as possible). 3. µ,·~ a1r0Awµ,E0a T~

aµ,u0(q. T~ TWV ~µ,nepwv ~CAwv. ( ~ aµo.0tu, T~, a1J,().0Lo., : ignorance <l1TOAtoµefo is

subjunctive from (l1TWAoµ11v, for which seep. 172,) 4.EUV 1TO.pa.yEvwµ,E0a aupwv,

' I I

EpWT'T]O'Ofl,EV O'E

I '

Tl E<YTlV

,

'T]

J.. \ ,..k f

't'll\O(YO't'lU.

,, t

(o.upLOv: romorrow 11 q>LAO<YOq>LO., Tij,

q>LAoaoq,ta,: philosophy) S.euv o{hws YEV'T]TUL O'OL (J,EhE-T'Tj 1rpos TUUT'T]V T~V

(l1T0Kpl<YlV, <tpa. otos T' fo11 0.1TOKplVE0'0m T4) lwKpO.TH 1TEpL T'T]S o.pETW,; ( 1rp61

with accusative: for~ µEAET'TJ, ~, µEAET'TJ,: practice ~ a1ro1Cp,ac,, ~, hoKpLaew,: lhe

answer) 6.~paaw (aol) €UV oLos TE yevwµ,m. ( Theaetetus 209al) ( cj>pclaw is 1st

person singular future active of cj>pcil;,w: I tell, explain).

Section 14 175

The strong aorist opta.Uve middle

endings

I

-oL!L'lJV

')'EVOLV,'l}V 0 that I might become

-OLO

/'

')'<EVOW

0 that you might become (singular)

I

-OL'fO

')'EVOL'.O 0 that he, she, it might become

·OLa8ov yEvow0ov Othat you might both become

-ow811v yEvoLa811v Othat they might both become

-OLµ,E0a ')'EVotµE0a 0 that we might become

-oui-0E ')'EVOW0<S 0 that you might become (plural)

,

-OLVTO

0 that they might become

')'EVOLVTO

¾'hat is the English for

1.crocpo, YEVOlj11jV, 2.uocpol 1TUVTE<; YEVOLVTO.

4.~ 1TO/ILS µ. ~ a:rro/lOL TO.

11

5.El Tl<; UE CLVEpOLTO Tl E.UTL CT){'l]f.1,U;" Tl UV E'l TIOL<;;

(dvEpoL'ro is 3rd person singular optative of dv11p6µ'T]v, the aorist of o.vELpoµuL: I ask.

70 CJ)('ijµu, Toii ax~µuTOs: the shape) (NB TLS and o-E are enclitic. The present tense of

dvdpoµuL is found only in Homer.)

6.d mh4> dnoLs OTL uTpoyyuflOT1JS EUTL crx'ijµ,a, Tl uoL uv cl.-rroKpCvovro;

(~ aTpoyyuAoT'T]S, 7-ijs aTpoyyuAoT'T]7os: roundness)

11

7.EL OE UE TIU/ILV cl.vEpOLTO TIOTEpov CT){'l]µ,a ~ cnpoyyuflOT1jS ECYTLV, ~ ax'ijµa

TL;

",1

EXOL<; av

,,

auTip

' ....

ELTIELv;

' ,..,

8,ElTIOLS UV 0~1TOU OTL ax'ijµa TL. (on functions here like speech marks in

English.)

9.EL EYW vuv CYOL EIIEyov UJO-UUTW<;, Tl ECYTLV TO )(pWµ,a; 1-L (YU UV EIIEYES; (To

)(PWµu, Toii XPwµu7os: colour)

10.d cru El TIES OTL IIEUKOV EUTL xpwµ.a, Kal fl,ETU mum o EpWTWV UTIE/la~EV

n ,... ,1 ,.., , n , ,, ; (' \ A, J · )

XPWfJ-U, 1j )(pWfJ,a TL; TL av EL TIES; U'lrOI\Uµr'uvw: interrupt

11.clpa mum el.re, UV OLOTL KUl a/I/la )(plllfl,UTU TuyxuvEL OVTU OUOEV ~TTOV ~

TO (\EUKov; (8L6TL: because)

12 \ ,-,, I J_ \ ?,;:,\ ? -. rt ? "' ' \ ?

.TIEpL TWV CT){1jfl,UTWV, 't''TJS OUOEV UUTWV OTL OU CT){1jfl,U ECYTL, KUL El

EVUVTlU 0,/\/1~/IOL', EUTLV, ola TO CYTpoyyuAov ~ TO Eu0u.

(ouMv (neuter): none O"TpoyyuAos, a,poyyuA'T], aTpoyyuAov: round

eu0us, EU0ELCl, d0u: straight)


Purpose Clauses

(also called "final" clauses)

These are often expressed by i'.vu (so that) and a subjunctive, e.g.

ELTiov 10 ... \'.vu EUTuxfornTov ijiEuaµ,u &ijiEuaµ,Evo<; J1i. (Meno 7ld6) say ... so that/

may be deceived regarding a most lucky deception.

When a purpose is in the past, it is expressed by i'.vu and an optative: 11

e /1. Q, e A I<.', et \ I 1 11 e V7 I ",j_

UTIO at-'wv O L.l.LOVUO"Ouwpos, LVU j.11'] -rrpoTEpov TL EL'iWL O l';.T'l'jO"L1T1TOS, E't'1]:

Dionysodorus, interrupting, so that Ctesippus might nol say anything first, said

...(Euthydemus 298e6). ( tmoAaµ~civw: I interrupt 11p6Tepov: earlier)

The negative in a purpose clause after i'.vu isµ,~.


l.oL µ,u011rnt EPXOVTUL i'.vu TOD TTi\chwvos llKOUWO"L.

2.oL µ,u0l]TUl ~i\0ov i'.vu Tou fii\6.-rwvos UKOUOLEV.

3 , . I - Di\ I " ,1, \ I

.UKOU(t) TOU UTWVOS LVU ao,,,os ')'EVWj.LUL.

4.~KOUOV TOU IlAci:rwvos i'.vu aocpos yEvo(µ,11v,

5.i'.vu µ,~ µ,u1<poi\oyw, &0EAW O"OL d1TE.lV W<TTIEP ot ')'EWj.LETpUL. ( Gorgias 465b6)

(µaKpoAoyw (subjunctive): I speak at length, am long winded. b yEwµhp11s, Toil

yEwµhpou: the geometer (mathematicians had a reputation for brevity).)

There are other ways of expressing purpose.

One is to use /hrw, "how" instead of i'.vu:

ouK itxw ~ywyE. oTiws aoL E.LTrw o vow. (Euthyphro llb6)

I myself indeed do not have (the ability) so that I may tell you what I mean.

voEw: I have in mind, mean, intend (but often I apprehend or I consider)

oTiws or oTiws µ,~ with the future can also express purpose:

<.', ~ ) \ e \ / /1. ,I.. \ I '1 \ , "' I • 80 2 4)

OEL ... UUTOV EUUTOV µ,u L<TTU ,,,u/\UTTELV OTIWS WI! UOLK'.Q<TEL ( Gorg1as 4 a -

he must guard himself especially so that he may not commit iniustice -·

(fomov: himself µo.Awrn: especially ~uMnw: I guard o.◊LKEw: I commit in/'fisiice)

Another way is to use a future participle:

Jcpohwv av 'ITupa. <TE uuTa. mum 1w0:qaoµ,Evos ( Symposium 206b6) (adapted)

I would be going to you as my teacher in order to learn these very things.

E~oLTwv is 1st person singular, imperfect of ~oLTuw : I visit, e.g. go to a teacher.

(E~ot Twv is contracted from J~ot rnov: for the ending, see section 16, p.205.)

10For d11ov, say!, see section 10, footnote 37.

11A subjunctive can be used but this is not usual in Plato (sec p.365). For the very

occasional occurrence of tva (so that) with indicative, see p.355, footnote 8.

Section 14 177

Plato, Meno 74a7-74el0

Socrates suggests "shape" as a word which covers different entities and can be

· defined.

n TT/\ , M' , , , 0 12 \ \, s , , 13

r~~. U/lLV, W liEVWV, TCLUTOV 'ITE'ITOV CLfLEV" 'ITOI\I\CL', CLU 'TJUP'TJKCLfLEV

, , 14 r ~ ,,, , , ,, ~, IS , ,;,, , "1r, ,;, ,

a.peTCL<; µ,uw s'lj'fOUVTE<;, (L/\/\OV TPO'ITOV 11 VUVO'lj' TTJV OE µ,wv, 11 Ola

I I ' ' (' I e ~ '"' 17

,rCLVTWV TOUTWV EO'TLV, OU OUVUJ-LE CL CLVEUpELV.

MEN. Ou yup Svvaµ,a( 'ITW, Ji LwKpCLTES, WS (J1J t 'TJTEL,<;, J-1,lUV a.pET~V ACL~ElV

\ I ' ) ~ "\ \ 18

KCLTCl. 1TCLVTWV, W', EV TOL<; CL/\/\OL<;,

._.n E' , 19 >\ \, , , 0 , 20 " , , , , ~

t.,H, Ll(OTWS ye· CL/\/\ E')'W 1rpo UfJ-'Tj<YOJ-1,Ul, ECLV OLO<; ,- w, 11µ,a,;;

, , 22 ,, • , 23 ,, , , ,, ,

R A , 21

,rpoat'Lt'UaUL. µ,av

0

O.VELS yap TIOU OTL OUTWCYL EXEL TrEpL 'ITCLVTOS' EL TL<;

, , 24 ,.., " ~, , , "\ iVT' , .... -;- ji. fl/ n

O"E avEpovro TOU1"0 0 VUVO'lj eyw E/\E)IOV, L E<YTLV <YX'TJfLU, W VlEVuJV;

12muTov (crasis from To uuT6): the same thing. 11i1rov8u is the perfect of 116.0-xw.

13For 11up11KU, see p.89.

14See the middle of p. 169, sentence 5.

15.11-.\ov Tp611ov is accusative of respect: in another way. vvvo~: just now.

16 ~: which (feminine singular nominative, subject of Eo-T1v, refers to fLLuv).

17uvEupEiv is the infinitive of uv11upov, the aorist of uvEup[mcw: I discover.

18To'tc; /i,\.\01c; is neuter plural. "The other things" include beauty and size ( Meno

72b, p.129 above), strength and health (Meno 72d-e, pp.147-8 above) and shape

(Meno 73e, pp.161-2 above).

20'11po8ul-'-~cro11m

concerned.

is 1st person singular future of '11po0uµfofLm: J am willing, am

2111pocr~L~cio-uL is the infinitive of 'llpoo-E~[~uo-u, the aorist of 1rpoo-~L~o.(w: J bring

near. ~fL6,c; is the object of 1rpoo-~L~o.o-UL. The meaning is: to bring us nearer to our

objective. Some mss. have 11po~L~cio-uL, which would mean to take us forward.

2211ou (enclitic): presumably, I suppose.

23oUTwlTL = oihwc;. The subject of o\J-rwcrl EXEL is "if'.

240.vEpoLTo is 3rd person singular aorist optative of cive[poµUL: I ask about (p.175,

sentence 5). Notice that this is a general condition (d with optative) The next two

conditions have EL with aorist indicative ( EL11Ec; ... EL'IIEv ... ), but this is a timeless

aorist indir;itirn:i l!f'nn;i litv: if vnu said ... if hf' s;iid ...


'I \ I ,r 9 rt 25 ' I lly-ff I

EL cuhw El1TES o'Tl <JTpoyyu/\0T'T]S, El crnL El1TEV u-rrep eyw, uoTepov

l 1 i\ ,.._ / H

~ aTpoyyuM-r11, E<J"TLV 'T] <Y)('T]!-1-U TL;

,' 26

El'ITES

(:, I ,1 ti ,... I

O'T]'ITOU av 0TL 0-X'T]IJ,U Tl.

, 27

MEN. TTavu ye.

. 28 ~ , ~ ,, , "\ \ " 29 ,

:EO. OuKouv ow rnuTu, oTL Km U/\/\U eoTLv o-x'TJ1-LUTa;

N , 30

MEN. Ul.

~n K , " , 31 ' ~ ,,, "

,t.A<. m EL ye -rrpoauv'T]pw-ru o-e o-rroLu, e11eyes av;

MEN •

"E

ywye. 32

"'n K ' 9 ' \ / e " ' I r, 33 ' I '

k;U. UL UU El 1TEpl ){PW!-1-UT0<; WCYUUTW<; UV'T)pET0 0Tl ECYTLV, l<Ul

, I 34 " I \ / ' ~ ' '\ Q 35 ' j ~

El'IT0VTOS aou OTl TO /\EUK0V, 1-LETU TUUTU U1TEI\Ul-'EV 0 epw-rwv·

"Il6TEpov TO AEuKOv )(PWµ.ci Eo-TLV ~ )(pWµCL TL; n

<:, I 36 \ "\ \ I "

oLOTL i<UL UI\/\U TDYXUVEL ov-ra;

E11TES civ 0TL )(pWµU TL,

250-rL stands here for speech marks round o"'rpoyyuAoT1JS.

a.11Ep is neuter plural of

30-11Ep, ~11Ep, 011Ep:the very things which (p.220). E/1.Eyov is understood with Eyw.

26ElTIEs a.v is also timeless and general: you would say ...

27110.vu yE: quite so.

28ouKouv begins a question expecting the answer "yes".

29fon with an acute accent on E stresses existence.

30va.l: yes.

3111poo-a.vEpwTa. (contracted from 11poo-a.vEpwmE) is 3rd person singular imperfect of

11poo-a.vEpumiw: I ask as well, go on to ask. AEy<,1, in EAEyEs a.v, means tell rather than

just say. Sharples translates: you would tell him. The imperfects show that this is

an unfulfilled condition in present time (section 11, p.126).

32!, indeed stands for yes, I would. (See section 11, footnote 49.)

3\iv~pETo is 3rd person singular of o.v11p6µ,11v (see p.175, sentence 5). 3~ what

(neuter singular of oo-TLS, section 17, p.221).

34El116v,-os is genitive singular masculine of El11wv, the participle of Ehov. El116v-ros

o-ou, you having said, (genitive absolute, see section 19) stands for E'C o-u EL'fTES, if

you said. oTL -ro AEuKov stands for o-rL ,-o AEuK6v E<rTL )(pfuµ,a.. o-rL (here): that

(following you had said).

35,'.m,i,Aa.~Ev is 3rd person singular of i'.111EAa.~ov, the aorist of u110Aa.µ,~a.vw: I interrupt

/:, Epw-rfuv is the subject of u11,i,11.a.~Ev.

36oL6n: because. oLoTL TUY)(O.VEL ovm (neuter plural subject, XPWfla.Ta., understood):

because there are by nature (literally, because there havven 10 hPL

Section 14 179

MEN. "EywyE.

ro. KaL E'C YE (JE EKE/\EUE >1iyuv a.A.Au )(pWf1UTU, EAEYES UV CL/\Aa, 0. 37 OUOEV

,,. I ' ,r f " \ " 38

~1"1"0V -ruyxavH OVTU )(pW[LUTU TOU /\EUKOU;

MEN. NaC.

n E' 39 -;- r/ , , , 40 , , , , ,,, rt " ,

ru.

A , ,

L ouv W<J'ITEP eyw [LET1)H TOV t\Oyov, KUL E/IEYEV OTL H ELS

"' ',1- , 8 ,,,, ,41 ,, ,,,,, ,:,,42 , ,,, ~

110/\/\U U't'LKVOUfLE a, U/\/\U f1'T] f10L OUTWS, U/\/\ E'ITHU'T] TU 1TOI\I\U TUUTU

37u: which (neuter plural nominative, referring to xpwµaTU).

36Toii ArnKou: than white (the genitive case can be used to mean than).

39This is a difficult sentencewhich Sharples translates as three English sentences.

To preserve the shape of the Greek, it is necessary to insert A.EYE oDv ( say, therefore,

which is introduced by d.11.11. ') after d.11.11.1111.w, to show that oTL introduces an

indirect question beginning what. With this change, the sentence reads: Et

OilV ( Then what if) W<J'ITEP eyw f1ET~EL TOV Myov, !CUL EAEYEV " 'Ad ELS

'!TOA/\U U~Ll<VOUfLE8a, U/\/\0, µ~ (AeyE) [LOL OUTW<;, g/1./\' E1TELO~ TU 1TOAAU TUUTU

E.Vl TLVL Trpoo-uyopEUEL<; ovoµaTL, KUL ~~<; OUOEV UUTWV OTL OU O)(~µ,a Elvm,

KaL rauTa !CUL evavTCa ivTa aAA11AoL',,

~!i..)(LoDv OTL E<JTLV Touw o ouoEv

ti I \ I\ ~\ \ ') 8 / n ~ \ , l'f " \ ') ~ \

TJTTOV IWTEXEL TO O-Tpoyyu11ov 11 TO EU u, 0 O'T] ovoµ,a1;,EL<; O)('T]f1U KUL OUUEV

µ,u.A/\ov ~~c; TO <JTpoyyuAov 0)(~µ,6. TL dvm ~ TO d8u; 11 As the sentence ends

in a question mark, translate El as "What if ... ?" See the additional note on p.181

for an analysis of this sentence.

40µET~EL is 3rd person singular of fLETlJELV, the imperfect of f1ETELf1l: I go after,

pursue. El µET~EL ... Kat ifAEyEv ... : if he were pursuing ... and were saying. (For

Elµl: J (shalJ) go, see section 25, p.330.) on should be omitted in translation as it

stands here for speech marks (inverted commas), not used in ancient Greece.

4111.EyE (2nd person singular imperative, say! or speak!) is understood after µ~. I•~

AEyE: stop speaking! (See section 15 for imperatives, and p.188 for prohibitions.)

µ~ A.EYE µol ouTws might not mean simply siop speaking to me like this! µol and uol

are often used as "ethical datives" meaning for my sake or in my interest, for

your sake or in your interest. In conversational Greek, this would be the equivalent

of please! and µ~ MyE µol ouTws would mean please don't go on talking like this!

42E11EL0~: since. Translate in the order: .t11uo~ 11pouayopEuus wiiTU To. 11011.11.0. h(, TLvl

ov6µaTl. E.v(, is the dative of i!.v, neuter singular, meaning one. To ovoµa, Toii

. ,t.,. ____,_ --~-n'>Mci...,. I r::il/ name. EVl TLVl ovoµaTl: by one certain name.


~ / I ' I \ J. \ 43 '~ \ ' -. rt ? ,... ',

EVL TLVL 11poaa-yop€U€L<; OVOfLUTL, KCtL <p1]S OUO€V UUTWV OTL OU CY)(1']f10. ELVUL,

\ 44 ' f '1 ? \ \ \ ff 45 ? ,... '\ '~ \ fl 46

!CUL TUUTU KO.l EVUVTLU OVTU U/\1\1']/IOLS, OTL €0"TLV TOUTO O OUOEV TJTTOV

47 '\ " ' '0' "48 ~' ' 'Y , ' ,,;,,

KUTEXH To aTpo-yyu,1ov 1] To Eu u, o 017 ovoµ,a.,,us o-x11µ,a Km ouoEv

µ,iiAAov o/~> 49 TO O"Tpo-yyuAov crxf\µ,6. TL El VUL ~ TO d6u;" ~ ouxl. OUTW AE-yELs;

MEN. "E-yw-yE •

._,,. 'A , , " so ,, , , , s1 ,.,, ,, \ ,1-., , '\

£.,H. ' p ouv, OTUV OUTW I\EY1JS, TOTE OUoEV fLUI\/\OV 't'1JS TO O-Tpo-y-yu,1ov

ELVUL O"TpoyyuAov ~ Eu0u, OU◊E TO Eu8u d8u ~ O"Tpo-y-yuAov;

MEN. Ou O~'ITOU, c1 Lwrcpuw;.

LO. , A'AAa µ,~v crxf\µ,6. YE OU◊EV µ,iiAAov o/~S dvm TO O"Tpoy-yuAov TOU

'6' 52 '~\ \ f/ e /

EU €OS, OUoE TO ETEpov TOU €T€pou;

MEN. , AA170fj 53 /\E'YELS.

43~11µ[ here means say about rather than simply say. OTL and accusative and

infinitive are sometimes found together (Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon,

9th ed., p.1265). Translate as if the Greek were ~11, oiloEv a,uTii'lv oTl ou ax~µa Eo-m.

oiloEv: none (neuter, referring to ax~µu).

44 Kul, Tuilm Kut: and that though. Though is normally 1<u(1rEp, a strengthened form

of Kul, and introduces a participle, here ovTa, neuter plural of wv, oDo-a, ov: being.

Kul, mum Kat ovrn: and that although they arc.

45 oTL (neuter singular nominative of oo-Tlc;,complement of ToilTo): what ( beginning

an indirect question, ( say) what this is ... ).

46 ouoEv ~nov: in no way less, no Jess.

47 KaTExw: I contain, cover (usually, I hold down, dominale).

48 0: which 'here the object of ovoµasELs. ot certainly. ovoµo.sw: I name.

49 Kul, ouoh µiiAAov ~~- and you do not in any way say 'round' to be a shape~tather

than 'straight'. (~: than To ED0u: 'straight', literally, the straight thing

µuAAov: rather Tl functions here like the English "a".)

50 oTuv: whenever (section 20, p.255). The verb that follows is subjunctive. oTuv

My11,: whenever you say.

51ToTE: then. For ouoEv µo./\/\ov, see footnote 49 above.

52 Toil Eu0fos:than the straight (footnote 38 above). Tau h,\pou: than the other.

5\iA1]0~ is neuter plural accusative of a.A116~s; true, and means true things. You are

savim! true thinf!S = vou are ril!ht.

Section 14

181

Additional note

If we analyse the long sentence beginning E1, o-ov WO"TTEP EYW fLET~EL TOV

Myov, we find:

Et ouv ( Therefore whatif) wo-1rEp lyw µET~EL Tov Myov, 1mt EAEyEv (preliminary

condition before quotation marks)

'Ad Els 1ro/\Au ciqiL1<vouµE8u,(first main clause in what he would say)

dAAU µ~ (AEyE) µoL ouTws (second main clause of same),

dAf (goes with AEYE two lines down)

l1ru8~ TU 1ro/\/\u rnuTu /:v( TLVL 1rpoo-uyopEuELS ov6µu-rL, Kut. qi~s otloEv avTwv ("since"

clause with two verbs, 1rpo<myopeuns and <!>'us)

oTL ou o-x~µu <lvm, (indirect statement with qi~,, you affirm none of 1hem that no1

to be a shape = you affirm that none of them is not a shape)

Kat rnurn Kut. J:vavT[a ovm uAATJAoLs, ("although" clause),

MyE ("say!", an instruction after aAA' two lines above, third main clause)

oTL E<mv TouTo (indirect question, beginning what)

o ouoEv ~nov 1mTEXEL To o-TpoyyuAov ~ To d8u, (clause beginning il ( which)

referring to TouTo: o is the subject of 1mTEXEL)

o 8~ ovof1ci{,ns o-x~rrn (second clause beginning o ( which) applying to TouTo: o is

the object of ovoµ,utELS))

Kut ouoEv µiiAAov qi~s (fourth main clause) and in no way say rather To o-TpoyyuAov

ax~µci TL Eivm ~ To d8u; (indirect statement; the round to be a shape= that the

round is a shape). The question mark at the end of the sentence is the question

mark after "what if ... ".

The translation is:

What if, therefore, as I (am), he were pursuing the argument, and were saying

"We are always arriving at many things, but, since you address these many things

by one name and affirm none of them not to be a shape* even though these being

(even though they are) opposite to each other, say wliat this thing is which in no

way Jess covers the round than the straight which you name 'shape', and you do

not in any way say 'round' to be a shape rather than 'straight'"?

*Omitting o-rL "that", which is redundant in English here.

182

New words:

~ n-rroKpuns 9 'T'T}S o.'IToKpLO'ElilS

ci:rroS~oµ.at

8~oµ.ai (aorist, &oee&.µ'Tjv)

0~

8La.Aeyoµ.at

ELEV

EAE'Y){W

E'll"l (with dative)

E-rroµ.m (with dative)

(' , (' / (' '

LKO.VOS9 UWV'l]9 LKavov

Ka.Aew ( aorist EKO.AEO"(!,)

~ µEAE'r'TJ9 'T'TJS µ.EAE'T'TJS

\ ,, ,.,. ' I

-ro ovoµ.a 9 -rou ovoµ,a-ros

/hrws µ.~ (with future indicative)

'0' 'M '0'

op OS9 Of>v 'I? op OV

1Tap1t (with genitive)

Tio-re (enclitic)

Tiou ( enclitic)

1nos (enclitic)

-rcd,-rov ( crasis from TO UUTO)

Section 15

the reply

I admit, accept (in logic)

I accept

in fact, of course, certainly 1

I say, converse, discuss 2

well then, very good

(indicating that the speaker is ready to

proceed to the next point)

I question, examine, refute

over, covering, including, in the case of

I follow

sufficient

I call

practice, training

the name

don't! (a prohibition)

correct

from, from beside

ever, at some time

(i)somewhere, anywhere (ii) perhaps,

I suppose (often where the speaker is

only pretending to be in doubt)

somehow

the same thing

1Often used by Plato after .'.vu e.g. o-u o-uuTou p.Ev ouo ' E'ITLXELpEL, iipxrn1, 'tva ¼

EAEU0Epo, 11, XQY indeed do not even attempt to rule yourself, so that you m:f#' be free,

of course! (Meno 86d6) o-uuTou of yourself E'ITLXELpw: I attempt. o~ is ironical, implying

that the purpose is unworthy or trivial (Denniston, The Greek Particles, p.232).

2 The English dialectic, discussion by question and answer, philosophical method, is

derived from ~ OLU/\EKTLK~.

Section 15 183

IMPERATIVES

In English, we often use a short form of a verb to give orders: e.g. "go

away!" or "send me money!" This is the imperative form of the verb.

In Greek, both the present and aorist imperative are used to give orders.

Their meaning is not precisely the same, although it is not always easy to

distinguish them in English. The present imperative is continuous:

Present imperative active

Examples. t.ky<E "speak!", meaning "go on, speak!" or "go on speaking"

(spoken to one person) (2nd person singular)

A£yce,.e;: "speak!" "go on, speak!" or "go on speaking"

(spoken to more than one person)(2nd person plural).

Greek has also the facility, which English lacks, of using the imperative

to give orders to a third person, or a group of people to whom one is

not speaking directly. If the orders are for ONE person, the ending -E-rw is

used; if more than one person, -onwv.

Examples. Acey£-rw: let him speak, let her speak, let it speak, go

on speaking (3rd person singular)

AEyo1rrwv: let them speak, go on speaking. 3

(3rd person plural)

Greek has no first person imperative. Such expressions would be "let me

... " (singular) or "let us ... " plural, for which the subjunctive is used (see

p.141 ). They are rare in the singular, although one is found at Republic

457c6: A.EyE S~- \'.Sw (say on, ofcourse; Jct me see). 4

3 -ETw<mv, an alternative ending to -ovTwv for the 3rd person plural imperative (active,

middle and passive) is found occasionally in Plato, Laws, e.g. q>EpETwcruv Jet them bring

at Laws 759d5, but is more common in later Greek.

4

'Cow is 1st person singular subjunctive of doov, the aorist of bpuw (p.165).



1 ,, 2 , , • \~ 1 3 ' ' ' 0 ' ,j • ' • e ·

.UICOUE. .UKOUETE, W 1TO/\l TUl, .UKOUETW O µ.u 'l]Tl],, ... UKOUOVTWV Ol µ.a 'l]Tu[,

5.TOUTO 'YlYVWO'KETE! 6.ypmp6vTWV Ol 1TULOES. 7JAE'YXE µ.E, EL

~ouA.u. 8,f-l,ETo,

TWV 1rurnwv 1TUL(ETE, 9.TOU, ¥A.ou, ED rrpo.TTETE. 10.o (YQ~OS T~V a.A.~0ElQV

~UlVE.TW.

Present imperative middle & passive

Mou loose for yourself, be loosed (spoken to one person)

Aufo0w let him, her, it loose for himher- itself, let him, her, it be loosed

(3rd person singular)

AuEa0E loose for yourselves, be loosed (spoken to more than one person)

Aufo0wv let them loose for themselves, let them be loosed

(3rd person plural)

(N.B. Auoµm (middle): I ransom, Auoµm (passive): I am loosed)

This is the form of the present imperative for all verbs ending -°011.m. 5


l.Tov L1T1TOV Mou. (/, l'lr1IO<;: [he horse) 2.oL 'ITO/\lTUl TOUS ornµ.wws Aufo0wv. (o i

owµwn1,: the prisoner) 3.Aurn0E, '1 ornµ.wrud 4.Aufo0w {) L1TTfOS, 5.a.'!TOKplVE0'0E,

'1 µ.u011ruU 6.a.1To1<plvfo0w o vrnv(c1, ! 7 .1rpwt i!.pxrn0E. ( 11pwt: early) 8.ot TIULOES

OLKO.OE TOLS -yovEU<YlV &1rfo0wv. (oL1<aOE: homewards, (to) home. b yovEu,, Tou yoviuis,

dative plural Tm, yovEu<n(v): the parent) 9.TL 1TOTE yE-yovE; a.1roKp(vou µ.od

yEyova see p.89.) 10.r AAYKON a.·rrooExoµ.m TOLVUV TOUTO a.vOpELUV Eivm,

:EOKPATHL KUl -yup U1TOOEXOU (mh~v ELVUl a.vOpEt.uv) 1TOAlTlK~V YE, KUL

op0ws U1TO◊Eb. (Republic 430c2-4). ( ~ civopELU, Tijs civopdas: courage. KUL yap: yes,

indeed. 110/\L'TLKo, -11 -6v: of, or proper for a citizen. ci1108E~'\l is 2nd person singular

future of ci1roMxoµm.)

\0'.·

5The dual present imperatives are: (active) AuE'Tov (2nd) and Auhwv (3rd person),

loose, bo1h of you! and let them both loose! and (middle and passive) Aurn8ov loose for

yourselves, both of you!, be loosed, both of you! and Aufo8wv (like the plural) Jet them

both loose for themselves!, let them both be loosed!

(for

Section 15 185

The imperatives of dp,i: "Jam":

tatlL be! (to one person)

ilio-TE be! (to more than one person)

l<Y1w let him/her/it ,be!

&,now let them be!

(dual imperatives: foTov (2nd person) be, both of you! and foTwv (3rd person) Jet

them both be)


1.µ,aimpws ' " w 0 L, 1TUL. ~ 2 .aya ' 0 OL ' ECTTE, " 1TULOE<;. ~~ 1 3 .aCJ't'UllTjS ' .-k \ ' EO'TW " 17 ' 1TO/lL',. I\

(iiaq,aA~s: safe) 4.EAEu0EpOL EO"TWV oL"EA1t17vES!

5.€.a,v oL Ex0pol, EPXWVTUL, uvOpElOL E(JTE, ti) 110/\Lrnd ( d.vopEios: brave)

6:rL EUTlV upET~; uvopElOS fo0v E.fl,OL U'ITOKplVOU.

7.cra~~s EO"Thl ~ a~ u1r6icpwLs. ( o-a.<J,~,: distinct, clear, easy to understand)

8.TU uAAa, /l au o-x~µ,arn 1m!.ELS, TUUTOV EO"TW. ( TO axftµ,a.: the shape u: which

(neuter plural accusative)) 9.Evvous l'.a0L, J MEvwv· ou [Lav0civEL, oTL (17Tw To

€.1l"l 1TUO"L TOUTOLS TUUTov; ( EVVOUS ( contracted from Evvoos): sensible. (1]TW is

contracted from t1JTEw. E1rl, 1r6.o-t TouTot,: over all these things, i.e. covering all these

cases.) 10:rm'n-ov EO"T(l)" EYW OE OUK o'Coa o Tl EO"TL. (3 Tt: what. N.B. EO'TLV is

enclitic.)

The imperatives of oloa:

fo6L know! (to one person)

fo'Tw let him/her/it know!

dual imperatives: LO"Tov (2nd person)know, both of you

them both know

fo'Te;: know! (to more than one person)

to·Twv let them know!

1:cnwv (3rd person)Jer

The imperatives of <prJp,l:

~o.0L affirm! (to one person)

~o.Tw let him, her, it affirm!

<jl&,,-,;: affirm! (to more than one person)

cpavTwv let them affirm! 6

What is I.he English for

LED fo0L TOUTO. (Corgias488a3) 2. EUV ffOL OOKE.W 1(0,/\W\; /\E.yELv, cpa0L. (Gorgias

504c5)

6 The dual imperatives are <j,ciTov and ~a.Twv. These do not occur in Plato.


Aorist imperatives

An aorist imperative tends to request a single action which is to be

completed.

Weak aorist imperative acUve

Ailcrov loose! (to one person)

Xw&.'l"ro let him/her/ it loose (3rd person singular)

duals: Mo-a.-rov (2nd person)Joose, both of you!, Auo-&. .. wv (3rd person) let them

both loose

Aucra-ree loose! (to more than one person)

Aumtv-rwv let them loose (3rd person plural)


1.Auo-ov TOV l1T1TOV. 2.ot 1TOA.LTUL Auo-civ-rwv TOUS owµ,wrns. 3.Eµ,ou

UKOUO-UTE, Ji 1TO.LOEs! 4.Tov o-o<j>[o-niv EAEy~ov, Ji cp(A.1;d

5 , , e 9 , " 9 , , A: t'\ 6 n e ,.k'

,Tl EO-TlV 'T] O.pET'Tj; EfLE EpWT'T]O"OV, EL t-'OU/\EL, .OUTOS O 0-0'1,L<YT'T]S

epLO"TLKOS KO,[, aywvwrnco<; TLS EO"TLV' O.UTOV V.Ey~aTE, t1 µ,a01]TUU

(Epurwc6, -q, -6v: argumentalive 7 dywvwTLKo, -q, -6v: eager for applause,

contentious. 8 NB. fo-rLv is enclitic.)

1.E.av o~TO<; µ,~ cip0w, AEY1J, UfLE.TEpov Epyov eo-TLV Tov Myov o.uTou

EA.q~m TO uµ,hEpov Epyov 1rp6.€aTE! (EA.q~m is the aorist infinitive of

'1:HY)(w (for the weak aorist infinitive active, see p.122)).

8.Tl 1TOTE eo-TLV Tou-ro, o~ TO 6voµ,a eo-TL TO o-xfirw; ouK oloa· Tov M&vwva

E.pWT'T]O-OV. (oD: of which)

9.TOV µ,o.81jT~V ICE.A.EUO"OV 0-0L EL1TELV Tl EO"TlV E'ITl T0 O-Tpoyyu/1.41 (round)

KQ.l E1Tl T0 EU8Ei (straight) KUl E.'!Tl TOLS aA./1.ol<; a 0~ 0-X~fLUTU KUA.Ei.

(a: which)

10.EL ot µ,0.81]-ro.1, TOUTO µ,~ fouo-L, Tou TTA.6.-rwvos aKouo-uvTwv.

8Derived from b aywv, 'TOU d.ywvos: the contest.

Section 15

Strong aorist imperative active

These have endings like present imperatives:

µ6.0E. learn! (singular)

tJ,a0erE learn! (plural)

tJ,o,0e-rw let him/her/it learn

µ,a0ov-rwv let them learn

duals: 11a0ETov: learn, both of you! µu0E.Twv: let them both learn!

(N.B. EL TIE ( say!), D,0E ( come!, go!), EupE ( find!), LOE ( look!, see!) , and An~E ( take!)

all have an acute accent on the last syllable).

Distinguish µ,a0E (aorist) learn! (once) and µ,av0av<E (present) go on

learning!

Which of these imperatives are present, and which aorist?

1.Evpe. 2.EllplO-KE. 3.µ,civ8avE. 4.µ,ci8E. 5.EL1TETW. 6.il.qETw. 7.toe. 8.opii.TE.

9Jponfjo-ov. l0.1raitE.

The imperatives of &yvwv, the aorist of yvyvwo-Kw (p.170) are:

yvoo0t know! (to one person) yvw-rE know! (to more than one

person)

yvw-rw let him/her/it know! yvovTwv let them know!


l.ToilTo /1.a~e. 2.T~v oJ~8ua.v fLU8ETE. 3.T~v u/1.~Buav p.u0ovTwv ot

'IT0/1.LTUL. 4.T~v o.il.~0nuv E[LOL ELTIE. 5.T~v uil.~0E.Luv EfLOL AE.yE.

6.T~V (),/\~0ww Ef.LOL ElTIEV. 7.yvw0L <YUUTOV. (Protagoras 343b3) (cmUT6v:

yourself) 8.Tl E<YTLV TO O")('Tj[LU; Ehre. 9.µ,a8E OTL ('T]TW TO E.1TI. 11"0.0-L TOUTOLS

TUUTOV. 10.ou µ,uv86.vus; El1TE, LVU [LE.ii.ET'!] <YOL '}'EV'T]TUL (may happen to you,

i.e., you may get) -rrpos (for) T~V 'TTE.pl. T'Tj<; o.pE.T·~<; ci'TTOKpL<YLV.

187


Aorist imperative middle

(weak)

2nd person Auout ransom!

Aum:w01: ransom! (plural)

( ending -( er )m)

( ending -( er )ao·0E)

3rd person Aucra.cr0w let him/her/it ransom >wcraCY0wv let them ransom

(strong)

2nd person

3rd person

( ending -( CY )acr0w ) ( ending -( CY )cw0wv) 9

yevou become!

( ending -ou}

yEVfo0w let him/her/it become

( ending ·ECY0w)


yEvea0<E become! (plural)

( ending •Ecr0e)

yevlcr0wv let them become

( ending ·ECY0wv) 10

1.M~al TOV Eµ,ov Aoyov. (oE~Ul is 2nd person singular imperative of JMci.µ11v.)

2.oE~a.o-0wv ot crocpol, T~v dJ~0Ewv. 3.qlLI\Ol yEvEo-0E. 4.qi(AoL y(yvrn0E.

5.cp01.0, µ,oL yEvou. 6./fµ,oL xcipwm. (xup[(ofLUL with dative: I doa favour)

7.o·ocpo, yEvfo0w o VEUVLU<,.

8.cpC\ol o.AA~Aol<; yEvrn0E. 9.aya0o, YEVOU,

1TUl. 10.EUV 0-E 1TEpt. T~S apET~', EpWT~O'W, OlaAEKTlKW', (in a proper

philosophicai manner) o.·1To1<pLvaL.

( a.1T0Kptvmis 2nd person singular imperative of a.1TEKptva.µ11v, the aorist of

hoKptvoµat. If the aorist ending lacks er, the imperative middle endings are

(2nd person) -aL, -ucr0E, (3rd person) -ucr8w, -ucr8wv.)

Prohibitions

µ.~ is used with the m:.esent imperative to forbid something continuing in

the future:

µ,~ Mye stop speaking! (spoken to one person)

µ,~ Mye-re stop speaking! (spoken to more than one person)

µ,~ Aey.b-w let him/her/it stop speaking

µ,~ Aey6vTwv let them stop speaking 1ff

9The dual imperatives: OE~acrGov (2nd person), OE~a.crGwv (as plural, 3rd person).

10Thedual imperatives: yEvrn8ov (2nd person), yrn\crGwv (as plural, 3rd person).

Section 15

and with the aorist subiunctive for a prohibition applying to a single

occasion:

µ,~ 0uuv,ao"us: don't be surprised.

189


1 ' ' - 2 - ' 't 3 ' - ' <;, \ 't , ' '

,1111 ,rpanE TOUTO. .TOUTO 1-111 1rpa1:, 'IJS, ,TOUT<() 1-111 OW/IE<, 'TI' EpUYTLKO<; yap

€iJTL. 4.TOUT<(l µ,~ OLU/\Eyou· EpLO'TLKO', yap EO'TL. 5.oL µ,a611wl, µ,~ o.ywvLO'TLKOl

'0 6' 0 '' ' ' ' 7 '\! " -

yvyvEa WV. .OL µ,a 11Tal aywvWTLKOL 1-111 YEVWVTUL. ·11·11 /IE)'E' TOUTO

'"' 1 ' (.l 1

ELoEVaL OU t-'OU/\OfLUL.

\ " O , "

O,fL 11 EL 1T'IJS' ~ '"', , (.l !\

TOUTO ELOEVaL OU pOU/\OfLUL,

" 11

9.d Tl<; o-E EpwT~<JELE (3rd person singular, aorist optative) ~ 'ITEpt. xpwµ,aTos

~ 1TE.pL ax~1w-ro, Tl 1ro-rE EO'TL, µ~ E'l1r11, T(]l EpwTwvn (contracted from

· l" ,~, e' " " (.l •\ 1 ,, e ,._,, ,._, ,,

/:pwTUOVTL OUOE µ,av avw EYWYE O TL t-'OU/\EL, W av pw1TE, OUOE OLOa O TL

Aiyw;." ( To J<Pfuµ,a, Tou J<Pwµ,aTOs : colour. ouOE ... ouOE ... not ... nor even ) (notice

the difference from ouTE ... ouTE, neither ... nor ... ) ( o Tt: what). 10.µ, ~ Ta -rrap'

eµ,ou OllTW<; 0.1TOOEXOU ws 'ITal{OVTOS, (Gorgias 500cl) (Ta Trap' l:µ,ou: the things

from me, i.e. the things I say. 1Tat{ovTo, qualifies Eµ,ou.)

Comparison of aorist and present imperatives 11

A present imperative tends to express an order which is to be obeyed

continually, as a rule, in future, e.g.

a/I.Ao. o-acpws fLOL Kat, O.KpL~W<; AEyE OTL UV AEy1JS (Republic 336d3) 12

bu1 (always) say fO me clearly and accurately whatever you may say.

An aorist imperative refers to a single action, and is sometimes

more peremptory:

U1TOTELO'OV apyupwv (Plato, Republic 337d6)

Pay (the) money! 13 The speaker, Thrasymachus, is depicted as rude.

11Duhoux, Le Ver be Gree ancienne, p.245, describes the aorist imperative as "ponctuel",

i.e. it concentrates the action required into a single point, while he describes the

present imperative as "progressif", because it gives a free course to the expression of

the action required.

12

0'a~w,: clearly ,iKpt~w,: accurately oTt:whatever

13To dpyuptov, Tou dpyupCou: silver, hence "money", "cash". U1TETEL<Ta is the aorist of

d1T0Ttvw, I pay.


While these distinctions can be regarded as true in a broad sense in Plato, there are

subtle distinctions in different situations. For instance, o.'lfoKp(vou (reply!) 2nd Pers ·•

singular present imperative of h0Kp(vo110.t, is used to set up a protocol, i.e. to assigir,,

the role of answerer to one party in a dialogue, whereas the 2nd person singular ·

aorist imperative, o.'l!oKp(vm, is used to obtain an answer to a particular point. 14

crKo'l!Et (2nd person singular, present imperative of <rKo'l!Ew: I consider, contractec

from crKo'lfEE) is used to ask a leading question, that is, to invite someone to follow a

line of argument already thought out by the questioner: ht rn1. ,-6oE <rKo'l!Et· (apE~iJ

upxELv <p~<; olov T 1 Elvut· OU 'l!pocr0~<r0f.LEV UUTOCYE TO OLKULW<;; (Meno 73d6)

Yet consider this also: you affirm excellence to be "to rule"; shall we not add "justly"/;,

crKEtjmt (2nd person singular, aorist middle imperative of crKE'l!Toµut: I consider, examinej

is used in a more balanced situation where the person addressed is invited to think

and take an active part in the dialogue:

LKEtjiut o~ EK TUUT!]<; T~<; 1hop(uc; OTL KUL o.vEup~crEL (1]TWV f.LET' <'.µoil

consider then what he will actually (Kac} discover from this perplexity looking for

(an answer) with me. (Meno 84cl0)

(Meno is invited to form his own conclusions about the slave boy solving a geometrical

problem by answering Socrates' questions.) 16

Orders and prohibitions using lhe future tense

A command can be given with ou and the future:

ou m<E~1) Kul. doui;us LoKpaTTJ; (Symposium l 75a2, the poet Agathon to his

slave)

(crKEtji'\l is 2nd person singular of crK.itjioµut used as future of crKo'l!Ew: I look)

Have a lool< and fetch Socrates in! (literally, "Won't you look and fetch ... ?").

This is probably more urgent than an imperative, and when Socrates

remains outside Agathon becomes even more impatient and uses

ouKouv and a present followed by µ,~ and a future:

14J. Lallot, Essaid' interpretation de ]'opposition PR-AO a J'imperatif de d1Tol(pivw8a

dans l'oevre de Platon in Etudes sur ]'aspect chez Platon, Publicarions de l'Universiri

de Saint-Etienne, 2000, p.30sqq.

15'llpocr0icroµEv is 1st person plural of 'llpocr8~crw, future of 'llpo1YT(01JflL: I add~ uu,-6rrE: Ir

the very place. See S. Vassilaki, Ll(01TEL (PR) - 1m,iifm, (AO) chez Pia Lon, Etudes surl

aspect c/1ez Pia ton, pp.171-201. She lists the above examples on p.199 of her article.

16See also "Voice, Mood, Tense, Aspect" p.360.

Section 15

191

OUICOUV KU/\El', UUTOV Km [-l,'T] U't''TJ<YHS;

Aren't you calling him and don't Jet him go!, i.e. Then get on with it and call

him and don't let him go! (Symposium l 75a10)

'1 \ ,.., 9 \ \ \ , J._ I 17

Plato sometimes prefers to express a prohibition by o-rrw, µ,~ and the

future indicative, e.g.

KUL 01rws µ,ol µ,~ Epeis (Republic 336c6)

and don't say to me ...

literally, perhaps "(take care) how you will not say to me ... "

Strong Denials

ou µ,~ with a subjunctive (usually aorist) is used for a strong denial:

OU µ,~ 'IT(l,U(YWµ,m q>lAO<Yocpwv (Apology 29d4-5} 18

I shall (definitely) not cease philosophising.

TOUTO 9..!J.TE ~ 1ruuo-11rnC TIOTE ouTE ~p~uTo vuv (Philebus 15d6-7) 19

This will neither stop ever nor did it begin now.

Doubtful Denials

µ.~ ou with an indicative (often in the form of a question):

a,AAU ~ TOUTO Qll. KUAW<; wµ,oAO')'~<J(l,[-l,EV; (Meno 89c5)

bllf perhaps were we not right lO agree (to) this?

=a doubtful assertion, but perhaps we were wrong (Smyth, para.1772)

(0µ011.oyfo>: I agree (literally, I say like))

µ.~ ou with a present subjunctive:

!!11 ouK 11 OlOUKTov dpET~. (Meno 94e2)

Seemingly excellence (virtue) is no£ a thing that can be taugl1t.

17 ouKouv (rather than ouKoiiv) introduces an impassioned. question. cicp~oa, is 2nd

person singular of cicp~aw, future of cicp[1]µt; I Jet go.

18 Smyth, para. 1804. 1Tuuoµm (aorist e1Tuuaciµ11v): I cease.

1 \ii,-E ... ouTE ... neither ... nor ...


Plato, Meno 74ell-75d7

Socrates tries to define "shape" as an example, but be must do so in terms

which the questioner has already agreed that he understands

"'" T' 20 s - di - " , , - - 22

bH. l 1TOTE ouv TOUTO OU TOUTO ovoµ.a E<YTLV, TO o-x11µ,a; 'TTElpw

\ / ' 'j" ,.. ' " 23 rl ,\ \ I '>\ \ I

I\Eyuv. El OUV T!Jl EpWTWVTl OlJTW<; 11 1TEpl <Y)('l][J,aTO<; 11 'fl'Epl XPW[J,UTOS

9 74 " ",A\\ , , ~' 0' " " 25 A '\ - " 0 ,

u TIE,- oTL 111\ ouuE µ.cw avw EYWYE o TL t-'ou,1u, w av pwrrE, Oll◊E

"'~ rl \ I "" ,, '0 ' \ .,. HO' 0' ~, 'f

otua O Tl I\EyEL<;, WW<; av E uuµ,uo-E KUl El1TEV' U µ,av CLVH<; OTl s11Tfu

, , , .... , , , 11 '>I , ~, , , , , M, ,, 26 ,,

TO E1Tl 1Ta<YLV TOUTOl<; Tauwv; 11 OUUE E1Tl TOUTOL<;;, W EVWV, EXOLS CLV

EL1TElV, Et Tl<; OE EpWT~T]' "n EO-TlV E1TL T<r 0-TpoyyuA!Jl KaL EU0El KaL E1TL

,.._ "\ \ n 27 ~ , t \ "" , \ , \ ..._ II ,.... 28 , ,.,

TOl<; 0./\1\0l<;, a 011 <Y)('f]fl,CLTa Ka/\El<;, TQUTOV E1Tl -rrao-Lv; 'ITElpw El1TELV,

tva l(QI, YEV~TUl 0-0L [J,EAET11 -rrpos T~V 1TEpL T'Y)S upET'Y)S U1TOKpl<YlV.

MEN. M~. a,A/1.a, au, (i) :Ewrcpaw;, El.TIE.

--·-· ··---·-·---·--------- j

10Tt TioT' = TL TioT' E<TTtv: whatever is it? = what can it possibly be? cf. Meno 86c 6-i ,!

TioT' E(mv cipn~; what can excellence (virtue) possibly be?

21oD: of which

22TIEtpiii (contracted from Tiapo.ou) is 2nd person singular present imperative

TIELpa.oµut: I try, and means try! (p.207)

1 \0 &pwTiiiVTL is contracted from Tip .½pwTo.ovTt (p.203) and means to the man asking i.,.

to the questioner.

24 El ... EL'ITE, ... fow, iiv E0uuµuO"E rnt dTIEv: in form, a past unfulfilled condition, fm

which see p.126, but the aorists may, as before, be regarded as timeless. Sharple1

translates as "suppose you said ... he would be surprised ... " There is no need to translate

oTL ( that) after ElTIE,. The original Greek had no speech marks.

253 TL:what, whatever.

26Exot, iiv EL'ITELv, Et TL, O"E epwTcirrJ. For conditions with El and optative, see p.!Si.

EpwTqn1 is 3rd person singular of the present optative of epwTo.w (p.202). N.B. EXW witl

infinitive: I can. ~

27/i (neuter plural accusative, the object of KUA.EL,): which. For ii see p.218.


};O. B

I\ I 29

OUI\EL CTOL xapWWfJ-,UL;

Section 15

rJEN. fl6.vu yE.

£0. 'E0EA~0ELS oDv l(Ul, (Yl) EIJ.,Ol, d1rElV 'tTEpl TfjS apE1fjc_;;

MEN."EywyE.

'('{) n 0 , 30 , "t , 31

J.;1<• po Ufl-,'T)TEOV TOLVUV" U<:,LOV yap.

MEN. Dcivu µ,h oDv.

'('n ,m I ~ I I 0 / 32 , ~ / ? ~ / 33 9 ?

1,u. '¾'EPE U'T], "ITELPWfJ-,E a (YOL EL'ITELV TL EO"TLV ox11µ,a. <YK01fEL ouv EL

'~ ' ~ I 34

roo€ U"ITOOEX11

' \ ,, ,1 \ \.' \ ~ ,-., ..... '"' "3S

UUTO ELVUL" EO"TW yap O'TJ 'l'jfl-,LV TOUTO ox11µ,u, 0

/ '"'

µ,ovov TWV

,t 36

QVTWV

I

TU'Y)(UVEL

I

xpwµ,a.TL

' \

UEL

~ I

E1TOfLEVOV.

r ,,.,.

LKUVWS 0-0L ,

ii

'T]

"\ \

U/l/\WS 1TW<;

37

y ,-.. ' \ \ ~\ 38 rl ' I '1 ? \ '1

~'!]TELS; EyW yap KUV OUTWS uyu1T!p'T)V EL fJ-,OL upET:T)V EL'TfOL',.

193

29xup(crwµ,uL is 1st person singular of E.xupLcro.µ11v, the aorist of xup(toµuL (with dative): J

doa favour (for). xup(crwµm is a deliberative subjunctive; Do you wan 1, am I to do you

a favour? means Do you want me to do you a favour?

3011po8uµfoµ,m: I am eager. 11po8uµ,1]TEDv means (it is) necessary to be eager (see p.336),

ilµo( ECYTLv (it is necessary for me) is understood. The ·TEo, ending expresses necessity.

3\i~LD,, d~(u, ii€wv: worthy, worthwhile. Understand ECYTL.

3211ELpwµE8a is 1st person plural of -rrELpwµm, contracted from -rrELpo.w 1 wL, the present

subjunctive of -rrELpciop.m (p.208). It means let us try.

33See p.190.

34 2nd person singular, present indicative of d.,roMxoµ,m.

350 (neuter singular nominative): which (the subject of TUY)(O.VEL),

36Twv ovTwv (neuter plural genitive): of the being things, i.e. of lhe things that are.

follows means accompanies. For To )(Piiiµ,u, Toti xrwµ,uTD, see p.189, sentence 9. See

Sharples' note at Plato, Meno pp.131-2 for a discussion of this point.

37

LKavw, stands for l1<uvw, EXEL- N.B. 1.1<uvws EXEL; means the same as 1.Kuv6v E<nL; iiilAw,

1roo<;: in some other way.

38Kiiv is a crasis of 1<u1. iiv: would also or, in this context, would indeed. ciyu-rr011v

(contracted from d.yu11uo[11v) is 1st person singular of the present optative active of

ciyu11ciw: (here) I am contented (p.202). ouTw, goes with e\'.-rroL,.


MEN 'A'\ \ / ,, 0 39 ' "' I

• /\/\U TOUTO YE EU11 ES, w L,WKpUTE<;.

1:0. Tiw, Myus;

MEN "O A

, ,40 , , , , \, " , A , 41 ,,

• TL 0)(11tJ,U 1TOU EO-TLV KUTU TOV 0-0V /\Oyov O UEL xpoc;t E1TETUL.

, , ,:, , ,:, , , , , ,1.. , 42 , <:, , , , \ , , A , A 43

ELEV" EL OE 011 T'l]V XPOUV TL', 1111 ,,,m11 ElOEVUL, U/\1\U WO-UUTW', UTrOpOL

fl \ ,.., I I 'I' '1 ? I 0 44

W0-1TEp 1TEpL TOU O)('l]tJ,UTOS, TL av OLEL O"OL U1TOKEKpLo- m;

°"n j \ 0~ " 45 \ j / ~ ,I..~ 0, 46 \ j A 47

h,H. TU/\'!] 11 E'YWYE · KUL EL tJ,EV YE TWV O"O't'WV TL<; u 11 KUL EPWTLKWV

39Eu~81J, (neuter nominative singular, Eu1J8Es): good-natured, hence simple-minded.

silly, naive ( endings like a.A1J8~,: true, see p.265). Understand E<YTL. For the meaning of

AEyEL, in TT&, AEyEL,; see p.161, footnote 38.

40The accent on 11ou is from Ecmv which is also enclitic.

41 ~ xp6u, Tijs xp6u,: colour. Its first meaning is skin, complexion, and colour is a

secondary meaning. The Pythagoreans used xp6u to mean surface (Liddell & Scott,

Greek-English Lexicon, p.2007). Here, xp6u seems to mean the same as XPwi1u.

42 ¢ul1J is 3rd person singular of ¢ul1Jv, the optative of ¢wL (see p.154). dMvm, the

infinitive of oiou, here means to know the meaning of.

43 0.11opo'i is 3rd person singular of c111opol1Jv, the present optative (p.202) of o.11opEw: I am

at a loss, and means here he were at a loss.

4 \L o.v otEL croL a.'lfoKEKplcr8m; means literally what do you think to have been replied

by you? i.e. what reply do you think you would have given? otu is 2nd person

singular of olµa.t (section 10, p.99 and section 5, p.43 footnote 4). Tl otu; what do you

think? ci1roKEKplcr0a.t is the infinitive of hoKEKptµm, the perfect of a.1r0Kplvoµm used

here in a passive sense: to have been said in reply. croL is dative of cru, used here to

mean by you (dative of agent, section 8, p.74 and "Cases".p.350). Take av with

a.110KEKplcr8m.

45Ta.A1J0-ij is a crasis of Ta a.A1J0-ij: the true lhings, i.e. the truth. A verb like "would

have replied" needs to be understood with eywyE.

46The subject of EL1J (3rd person singular optative of Elfit) is o EpoµEvos. EpoµEvos is the

participle of ~p6µ1Jv: I enquired (p.172). o EpoµEvo,: the man who enquired, the

questioner. Join up Twv ao¢wv with Ka.L EptcrTLKwv TE Ka.L ciywvtcrTtKwv.

47lptcrTtK6,, .1ptcrTLK~, JpwTtKov: tendentious, fond of slrife or wrangling.

Section 15 195

, , ,,..._ 48 , ~ 1 ,, ,49 i\ ') ,,..._ u "?E , ,

'TE KUL a.yu)VUYTlKWV, 0 Epoµ,Evo,, EL'TfOlfi, a.v 0.UT(Jl OTL fi,Ol fLE.V

y 50 , ~' ' ' 0- \, ' ,, 51 \ P., \ , '

elp'I]TO.V EL OE 1111 op (J)', /\Eyw, CYOV Epyov /10.fi,r-O.VELV /\Oyov KUL

"I jj • ' I;>' '1 > ' ' ' ~ ,l._l\ " (1. '\ 52

e/\€YXELV. EL oE tu_CY'TfEP Eyw TE 1<0.L cru vuvt 'l'l110L ovTES r-ou,10LvTo

"\ I\ <;, \, 0· ~ ~ I;>' I I 53

0/\/\'Tji\Ol'; OlU/IEYECY Ul, OEL O'T] 11p9-oTEpov 'IT(l)',

,

1(0.l

~ \ /

OlU/\EKTlKWTEpov

d1To1<pLvrn8m. foTL OE l(Y(J)', TO OlUAEKTlKWTEpov µ,~ µ,ovov TO.A'T]0f]

/ 0 '\ \ ' ' ~ ' ' / 54 • " \ - 55 , <:, / '

d1ToKpLVECY m, 0.11110. ica.L ol EKELvwv wv av 1rpocroµ,0Aoy11 ELoEvm o

' ,,..._ I 56 ~ \ \ ? / t/ ? ,,.,.

epWTWV. 1TELpa.croµ,a.L O'T] KO.l EYW 0-0l OUT(!)', El1TELV.

48dywvto-TtKos, dywvto-TtK~, dyuivww<ov: contentious.

49Et1rotµ' stands for Et1rotµt. d1rotµ' a.v (conclusion of unlikely future condition

beginning El µEv YE Twv o-oq,fuv TL, EL1J b EpoµEvo.,): I would say.

50dp1]Tat is 3rd person singular of ELp'T]µat, the perfect passive of Myw (see principal

parts). Eµot is dative of agent. Eµot Eip11,-m: it has been said by me, i.e. I've had my say.

51Understand EO"Tt.

Aaµ~6.vw A6yov: I demand an accouni, i.e. I demand an explanation.

52~ouAotvTo (unlikely future condition) is 3rd person plural. The subject, "they",

refers to other people having such a discussion who, being tendentious, would not be

likely to be want to have a discussion as between friends.

531rpaoTEpov: more gently (for comparative adverbs, see p.3OO). otaAmTLKWTEpov: in a

manner more suited to dialectic or to conversation. Understand ~µas after 0EL.

54EKELvwv is neuter plural: through those things. lilv, standing for ii ( which), has been

attracted into the genitive case because it stands next to EKELvwv.

551rpoo-0µ0Aoy1J is 3rd person singular of 1rpoo-0µ0Aoyfu, the present subjunctive of

1rpoo-0µ0Aoyifw: I agree (in addWon, I acknowledge). The subject is o lp6µEvo,. a/I.Ao. imL

ot' EKELvwv lilv /iv 1rpocroµo.\oyij ELOE.vat b EpwTwµEvo,: but also through those things which

the person having asked may agree in addition to know or may acknowledge to know,

i.e., that he knows. 1rpoo-oµo.\oyEw means almost the same in Plato as bµ,o.\oyEw: J agree

The manuscripts have epw,-wµEvo, but the text is emended (see Sharples, Plato, Meno

pp.133-4) toepwTwv(active) asitis the questioner's understanding of the terms mentioned

that is relevant, not that of the the person questioned. At 79d (section 22, p.291)

where Socrates reproves Meno for trying to give an answer through things that are

still under investigation and not yet agreed, he refers specifically to this passage.

561retpao-oµm: I shall try is 1st person singular of the future of 1rEtp6.oµat.

196

Section 16

New words:

,-pucpaw I am spoilt, live a soft life

a-y110Ew I am ignorant, do not know

ci:rropew I am at a loss

E'lTL0uµJw (with genitive) I am desirous of, I desire

'Tfot.Ew I do, make 1

a1<o'ITiw I look into, consider, examine

wcpeAEw (with accusative) I help, am beneficial to

o 0e6c; 9 ,-ou 8eou the god (if feminine, the goddess)

Xe-yw I mean

Note also: o'l]Mw(p.114): I show, 001<ew (p.90): I seem, &pw .. &.w (p.90): I ask,

t11-r&w (p.114): I seek, ,mMw (p.182): I call and q>LAEw (p.88): I love

CONTRACTION (VERBS)

The last letter of the stems of most of the verbs met so far is a consonant;

e.g. the last letter of the stem of Myw is y, and the last letter of the stem

of lxw is X· But some very common verbs have stems ending in vowels;

e.g. the stem meaning "ask (a question)", "question", or "interrogate" in

Greek is Epwm-. The stem meaning "call" is 1<a.A1c··, and the stem meaning

"show" is 011>.o-.

The standard verb endings as found in the present and imperfect tenses

all begin with a vowel; if they were put straight after stems that end in

vowels, we should have vowel (ending) comingstraightaftervowel (stem),

and so there would be a gap or hiatus. For instance, "I ask" would be

EpwTa•w, "I call" would be 1eaM.-w. and "I show" would be 011M-w. Certain

combinations of vowels were avoided (particularly in verbs), esp@'::ially

a + e, 11, o or w

e + e, 'I], o or w

o + e, 11, o or w.

1The Greek for "poet" is o 110L11-r~s, -rou 110L11-rou, £he maker. "poem" is -ro 110L11µu, rou

110L~µu-ros (the thing made).

Section 16 197

The stems and the endings were almost always run together to avoid

such combinations. This process results in a shortening, and is called

contraction: &pumiw is reduced by contraction to &pwTw, rnAfo (I call ) is

reduced by contraction to ,caAw, and OTJAow is reduced by contraction to

01111.w. 2

Contraction is only found in the endings of the present and imperfect

tenses. The future, aorist and perfect tenses are not affected as their

endings begin with (j' or re as under:

Future, aorist and perfect of Epwraw: EpWT~O'(l)9 ~PWT'TJO'l),9 ~PWT'l'}fCll,o

Future, aorist and perfect of <J>~Mw: <ptA~,no 9 i<p(A'IJcra 9 'ITEq>(A111w..

Future, aorist and perfect of OT)Aow: S11Awo-ro9 &o~AWO'll9 OEO~AwKao

The rules for contraction

Verbs3 with stems ending•a

(i) a. contracts with an e sound ( E or TJ) to a.

(ii) a contracts with an o sound ( o, w, or ou) to oo.

(iii) a with Ei or 1l becomes q, ( except for -uv )o

Verbs with stems cnding•E

(i) E contracts with E to Et.

(ii) E contracts with o to ou.

(iii) E disappears before 11 9 w 9 EL9 ol or ou

Verbs with stems ending•o

(i) o contracts with E, o or ou to ou.

(ii) o contracts with 'lJ or 111 to "'·

(iii) o contracts with E~9 11 9 oL or to ol ( except for -uv).

2Contraction does not occur uniformly in all Greek dialects; in Epic (the dialect of

Homer), for instance, some words often appear uncontracted. In lexica, it is usual to

list verbs in their uncontracted form, e.g. Ka!I.Ew: J call.

3Contraction is found in nouns as well as verbs, e.g. the accusative of L<tlKpo:r11, is

L<tlKpUT1J (contracted from IwKpum1). In nouns and adjectives E contracts with a to

form 1Jo


The standard present indicative active endings for verbs are:

-w: I

-oµ.1c.v: we

-e.s : you (singular) -e-rE : you (plural, more than one person)

-et : he, she, it

-ouat(v): they

-erov: they both

duals: •Hov: you both

The effect of contraction on epw-ra.w: I ask ( stem ending -a), cpLAEw: I love

(stem ending -E) and OT)Aow: I show(stem ending -o):

.&pw-ra.-w > .&pw-rw I ask

epw-ra-ELS > epw-r~s you ask

EpwTa·EL > EproTq, he, she, it asks

epw-rcl.ETOV > epUlTO:rov you both ask

epUlTUETOV > EPUlTClTOV they both ask

epw-r&.-oµ.ev > epwTwµ.Ev we ask

epw-r&.-e-re > epw-rciTE you ask

(plural)

&pwTa-ouat(v) > Ef)W'TWO'L( V) they ask

q>tA~-w > <!>tXw I love

4>.M-e:1.s > <!>tXe'is you love

4>.M-et > <!>~Xei he, she, it loves

<pLMerov > <pLAEt Tov you both love

<pLAEETov > <pLAEt Tov they both love

<!>tM-oµ.Ev > <pi-Aouµ.ev we love

q>tM.•ETe > q>LAe'i-re you love

(plural)

q>tM.-oucn( v) > q>tAouat( v) they love

011M-w > 011Aw I show

011M-eLs > 011Ao'is you show

011M-et > o11Ao'i he, she, it shows

01JADE-rov > 1l1JAoiiTov you both show

ll11Me,-ov > 011AoiiTov they both show

011M-oµ.ev > 01JA.Ouµ.ev we show

o'l}M•eTe > 01111.ou-re you show (plural)

o'l}M-ouat(v) > 01111.ouo-L(v) they show4

4 The accent remains on the vowel where it was before contraction when this is

merged. In the present indicative tense a circumflex accent over the syllable where

the stem ends is a sign that a verb is contracted.

Section 16 199


1. EpWTWO-Lv; 2.o oouAoc; OUK EpWT(l- TOUTO. 3.TL TIOLELn-:; 4.TL<; TIOLEL TCLuTU;

5:rL µoL 071AoUTE; 6.TOUTO 0-0L 071AouµEv. 7 :rpu~q.,, ti) 1TCLL. 8.0l(l TL; a:yvow.

9:rL OEL ~µu<; TIPO.TT~Lv; (lTiopouµEv. 10.<lpa TT], O'O~LCL<; E1TL8uµEL<;; 1 LT[

11oLol>aLv ot Upxov'rts; els ,-0U10 TO -rrpa'Yµ,a crKorroUcrLv. 12J)ul TL ToU-ro

1TOLELTE, l£pxovw,; T~V 1TOALV W~EAouµEv. 13.0LO. TL ~µa, KCLAELTE; TOU',

lx8pou, opwµEv. 14.TL ('!]TEL',, w LoKpCLTE,; 15.TOUTO 0-E EpWTW' TL TU'Y){O.VEL

o~O-CL ~ o.pET~; 16.opq.c; o.pa OTL (Jl) CLUTO<; 6v6µ,arn AEyn,, 071Ams OE OUOEv;

(Gorgias 489e6) (ov6µ.uTU(here): mere words. oullEv: nothing.)

Present infinitive active

To form the present infinitive active (section 6, p.49) -1cw is added to

the stem of a verb: e.g. MyELv: to say, &0EAELv: to wish, etc. When -E1,v

is added to a verb stem ending -a, -E or -o, contraction occurs:-


l.KUAELV. 2.E1rL8uµELV. 3.opav. 4.w~EAELV. 5.00KELV. 6,0'Y]AOUV. 7.~lAELV.

8,('Y]TELV. 9.epwTUV. 10.TL (J,E EpWTUV ~ouAn; 11.TouTO 81jAouv 0-0l 0\)1{

E0D1w. 12.µLKpo/ Tl 1TOLELV O'E KEAEUW. 13.8EL TOU', µu871Ta<; w<pEi',ELV TOV

0-0~0V. 14.ou KCL/\ov ECYTLV TOD', 1TCLL8u<; Tpu~av. 15.1rw<; TOUTO ciyvoELV

Mvuo-uL; 16.ouKOUV f1EL(ovu al) T~V TIOALV OEL (~µ,a,) 1TOLELV. (Republic 373bl)

(µ.E•tovu is feminine accusative singular of 11Et(wv: bigger)

5The infinitive of ta.w (J live, am alive) is tiJv, to Jive, to be alive.

6The present infinitive active ending -nv is a contraction of -EEv (Sihler, New

Comparative Grammar of Greek & Latin para.552, p.6O8) and so JpwTa.ELV becomes

kpwTuv as if it were EpwTO.EEv and 01JAOELv becomes 011Aouv as if it were 01JAOEEv,

7 fl-lKpo<;, fl-~Kpo., fl-~Kpov: small.


Present imperative active

Verbs with stems ending -a

e:pJrrae > e:pc{,-ra ask (addressed to one person)

e:pro-ro.e-re > e:pllY!"(J.TE ask (addressed to more than one person)

epro-rae-rro > ,l;pw-ro.-rro let him (or her, or it) ask

epro-ra6v-rrov > e:pro-rwv-rwv let them ask

duals: epmTov (2nd person), ep(l)nh(l)v (3rd person)

;.

1

I

Verbs with stems ending -e

<j>(Aee > q,lAeL 8 love (addressed to one person)

<pLAee-re > <pLAei-re love (addressed to more than one person)

<j>LAee-rro > <pLAelTw let him (or her, or it) love

<PLAe6v-rwv > q>LAouv-rwv let them love

duals: <j>LAe'i.-rov (2nd person), <j>LAeLT(l)V (3rd person)

Verbs with stems ending -o

6~Aoe > 6~Aou show (addressed to one person)

t}riMe:;-re > &rjAofrrt!: show (addressed to more than one person)

6'TJAoeTw > 611Xou-rw let him (or her, or it) show

611Xo6v-rwv > 811Xoi'.nnwv let them show

duals: &q>..o&rov (2nd person), o·qAouT(l)v (3rd person)


l.opa.. 2.µ.~ 6~Aou. 3Jµ.e wq>DI.EL. 4.€µ.e Wq>EAEl.. 5.epwTO.TE (2 meanings).

6.µ.~ l11-re1.-re. 7.µ.~ ~~lE1TETE. 8.µ.~ O'K01TEl.TE, 9¥Ae(-rw. 10.cpLAouv-rwv.

1 l.6'TjAOUTW. 12.epw-rwv-rwv. 13.µ.~ E'trL0uµ.e(-rw. 14.µ.~ ciyvoouv-rwv. 15.obTOS

µ.ev epWTO.TW, eyw 6e 0.1TOKpLvouµ.m. (Protagoras 338dl) 16.~ ouv ea. µ.e et1TELV

00'0. ~ouAoµ.aL ~. EL ~ouAEL epw-ro.v, epw-ro.. (Republic 350el) (Mw: J let, allow. oaa

(neuter plural accusative): as many things as. JpwTa.w (here): J ask (the) qu,£-~tions,

am the questioner.)

8 Note the acute accent in the second person singular imperative; e.g. the uncontracted

form of the 2nd singular imperative is q,lAee. The accent remains on the same

syllable as in the uncontracted form, and so, when contracted, the imperative is

q,0,eL. The 3rd person singular present indicative (uncontracted) is q>LA€H, and so

when contracted becomes q>LAei.. Of the present imperatives active, only the 2nd

person plural has a circumflex accent.

Section 16

present subjunctive active


ii::pumiw > &pwrro (let me ask), I may ask

e.pwTa1Js > ii::pwTq.s you may ask (singular)

c&pw·n.i1J > &pw-rq.

he, she, it may ask

duals: &pw-rfrrov (2nd person), &pw-rii-ro11 (3rd person)

&pwTo.w11Ev > &pw-rro1J,i:.v let us ask, we may ask

&pw1·0.'T]TE > &:pw-ra-r<E you may ask (plural)

&p11.miwa1.( v) > &pwTwai( v) they may ask

201

Verbs with stems ending-'"

q>t.!I.Elll > <pL!l.00

qit.M11s > <ptA ijs

q>LAE1J > q>lA ii

qit.Akwp,Ev > <j>iAwµ,<Ev

4>1.AE'T]'!E > qi1.A'f!'i'E

qiiMwa1.(v) > <pt.Arocn(v)

Verbs with stems endhlg -a

o'fJMw > ~h1Aro

01]Ao1Js > O'T]Ao'i.s

o'T]Ao1J > 0111,o'i

011Mwv,Ev > lh1:>.wµ,<Ev

8'fJM11-r<E > 011Aw-r<E

O'TJAowai(v) > 011Awai(v)

(let me love), I may love

you may love (singular)

he, she, it may love

duals: q>LA:ij-ro11 (2nd person), q>LA1JTOV (3rd person)

let us love, we may love

you may love(plural)

they may love

(let me show), I may show

you may show (singular)

he, she, it may show

duals: o'Y!Afuo11 (2nd person), 8'Y!A@o11 (3rd person)

let us show, we may show

you may show (plural)

they may show


LT11s o-oqiCas em0uµ,wµ.Ev. 2.µ.~ 01j/1wµ.ev T~V 1<pu'TfT~V e'Caooov TOlS ex0po'i.s. ( ~

Kpu1TTT) dcro8o,· the secret entrance) 3.Tous Tro/\(m, KE/\Euwµ.Ev <pu/\o.TTw0m Iva

oL ex0pot. µ.~ opwow T~V 1<pum~v do-ooov. (q,u.\ci.TTOfJ,UL: 1 am on my guard)

4Jav ol ex0pot. opwal T~V 1<pum~v EL(JO◊OV, 1TO.O'UV T~V Tr6/\LV c11ro/10UCYlV.

5.eav 01]/\0LS TOL<; E\0poLs T~V KpU1TT~V El<YOOov, 1TO.O'O.V T~V 1T6/\LV (l'TfO/\ELS.

6.ot uv0pw1rol, EO.V TL<; 1<a/\ws epuHi, UUTOl. AEyouO'lV 1TO.VTU ~ EXEL· (Phaedo

73a8) ( ~ EXEL: as they are)


Present optative acUve 9


Othat I might ask.

Epw-ri{i71s or .epWT4{JS Othat you might ask. (singular)

Epw-ri{i11 or Epw'1"4) Othat he, she, it might ask.

duals: kpwT<(n-ov (2nd person), kpwT<(,T'l}v (3rd person)

epwTl\l'l']l,LEV or Epw-r4)µ,Ev Othat we might ask.

epwTi{i'l']TE or Epw-r4)-re Othat you might ask (plural)

Othat they might ask.

Verbs with stems ending -<E

<pLAot71v or <pLA.01,µ,L Othat I might love.

<pLAoh1s or <pLll.ot.s Othat you might love. (singular)

<pLAot71 or <pLAm Othat he/she/it might love.

duals: <ptllot.Tov (2nd person), <pLAolT1JV (3rd person)

<pLAOl'Y]!J,EV or <j>LA.01,µ,Ev Othat we might love.

q>l/1.0l'Y]TE or <plll.ot.TE Othat you might love. (plural)

<pl/1.0l 'l'jauv or <pLA.01,ev O that they might love.


811>..oh-iv or 81111.01.µL Othat I might show.

8'TJAOL1']S or 01111.01.s Othat you might show. (singular)

81111.0(11 or 011i\.01, Othat he/she/it might show.

duals: 81JAoi .. ov (2nd person), ll1111o[T'IJv (3rd person)

811AoL'!Jf1EV or 01111.01,µEv Othat we might show.

8'TJII.Ol11TE or 81111.ot.TE Othat you might show. (plural)

811Aohpuv or O'TJA.01,ev Othat they might show.

Wha , · th E 1· h I'. 1 • ' ' ,, 2 ' e , - ,!..'

, L JS e ng IS 10r .Opl(llJV TTJV 1TO/\lV. ~.E1Tl uµ,ovr1s TTJS ao'f'lUS.

3.ToilTo Tov :EwKpO.TlJ epwT<Jl!J,EV. 4.oL cp[Aol ~µ,as w<pEAo'i:Ev. 5.~µ,'i:v 8•0[11,

T~V o.A~8uuv. 6.µ,~ T~V a.A~8uuv uyvOllJV. 7.El T~V a.11.~8uuv tTJTOllJ o

µ,u8~TTJS, uuT~v uv EuplaKoL;

9The longer forms are usual in the singular and the shorter forms in the plural.

Section 16

s.WKPATH:E: 0 OE µ,~ TlVO, OE6µ,EVO<; ouOE Tl o:yu1r4111 av;

A

r1:11:: ou yap oov.

lX}KPATH:E: o OE ~~ uya1n{>11 ouo' UV cjilAOL.(lysis 215bl)

(o OE\Jf1Evo, is the subject. o µ~ -rLvo, oEoµEvo, means the man not in need of anything.

dya11aw: I cherish. o ( whicJJ) is singular neuter of the relative pronoun {p.218): the

thing which. Take o as accusative, the object of o.ya11~11 and q>LAoi.) 10

9.EL h(. TIEo6v O"Ol 01JAOl 1]V Kat, ETEpov al) O"TEpE6v, µ,a8w; av EK TOUTWV 0")(1]11U

0 AE')'W- (To ETr[11E.oov: the flat surface To cmpE6v: the solid. ETEpov: the other,

i.e.secondly. crx~µu o AEyw: what I mean by "shape")

203

Present participle aclivc


nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

nom &ace

gen &dat

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

masculine

.&pw .. wv

epwTWVTU

.&pwTwno,

&pwTwv-r1.

EpWTWVTE

Epw-rWv1ot. v

masculine

EpWTWVT<ES

epw-rwv·ms

, I

<EpWTWV'i'WV

&pw'Y'W<YL ( v)

asking

singular

feminine

&pw-rwcra

&pw'Y'ro<Yav

&pw-rwO"ljs

&pw'Y'wcr'IJ

dual

EpWTWO-U

Epu>T<tlO-ULV

plural

feminine

, -

<epw~·wcmL

&pwTwcra.s

, -

<epWTWO'WV

EpWTWO'QlS

neuter

, - II

<epW'Y'WV

EpWTWV

Ef>WTWVTOS

epwTWVTL

EpWTWVTE

€.pwTWv-roLV

neuter

epwTWVT!J.

EpWTWVTU

, I

<EPWTWVTWV

EpWTWO'LV


1.ot µ,u81jTUL oL TUUTU -rov l:wKpUT'I] epwTwvw;.

2.ot rnurn TOV !wKpUT'I] epwTwVTES.

3.TOL<; rnurn epwTWO"LV µ,u0~rnL<; o.TioKplvETUL o :EwKpUT1]S-

4.rn'i:s TauTu &pwTwams o.noKpLvETUL o :EwKpaT1JS-

10Plato uses both the short and long forms of the 3rd person singular in this sentence.

11Uncontracted: EpwTawv, EpwTaouo-u, EpwTaov.


Verbs with stems ending -1o

loving

singular

nominative q>LAWV q>LAOUO"O. cp

L

A O\JV - 12

accusative q>LAouvTa q>LAOUO'av q>LAouv

genitive q>LAOUVTOS q>LAO'OO''TJS q>LAouvws

dative q>LAOUVTL q>LAO'OO"'(l q>LAOUVTL

dual

nom&acc q>LAOUVTE <pLAoucra q>LAOUVTE

gen &dat <pLAOUVTOLV <pLAOUCTaLV <pLAOUVTOLV

plural

nominative cpLAOUl/TES cptAoucro.L cptXouwa

accusative cpLAOUl/TO.S q>LAO'OOUS q>LAOUl/Ta

genitive q>LAO'OVTlllll q>LA.01.JO'WV <pLAOUl/Tlllll

dative q>LAOUO'L( 11) cpLAO'OO'O.LS q>LAOuo-L( V)


showing

singular

nominative 8-qXwv 8-qAOUO'O. 8 'TJ A O\Jll ~ 13

accusative 8'TJAOU11TO. ~AOUO'O.V 811A.ou11

genitive 8'TJAOUVTOS 8'TJAO'OO"TJS 811A.0UVTOS

dative ~AOUVTL 811A.0'00'1J ~AOUVTL

dual

nom&acc ffi]AOUVTE 811>.oucra 811XouVTe

gen &dat 31]AOUVTOLV 811Xoucraw 31]AOUVTOLV

plural

nominative 811XouvTES 811XouO'aL 8'TJA.OUVTO.

accusative 811>..ouvTa.S 8"1>..oucro.s ~AouvTa

genitive 81JAOUVTIIJV ~AO\JO'WV 81JA.O\JVTIIJV

dative 811AofoL(v) ~AoUcro.Ls 81jAOu<YL(v)

~

IZUncontracted: <J>LXiwv, q>LAfoucra, <pLXfov.

13Uncontracted: 811Mwv, 811Moucra, 811Mov.


Section 16 205

1.o q>lAWv ETUL.pos. 2.~ Wq>EAoucm E'lTlO"T~~-11- (~ E.'ITL(TT~µ'T], TfjS E1lLCTT~iL'T]S:

understanding, skill, science) 3.~ E'lTWT~fL'l] ~ wcj>EAoocra ~µ,iis. (from Philebus

'

I

S8cl-2) 4.a.L 'YUVUL.ICES aL l 1JTOU<JUl. 5.ut 'YUVUl.KES a.L T~V a.t.~0ElUV "ITEpt.

TO'UTOU hToU<JUl. 6.ot Tpuq>WVTE<; 1TULOE<;. 7.oL TWV KO.KWV e·m0uµ,ouv-rE<;. (Meno

77e5) ( TWV KUKWV is neuter) 8.ical, eyw TOUTO AEyw upET~V, (uv0pw"TTOV) E'!Tl8uµouvTU

rwv KaAwv (neuter) OUVUTOV (able) Elvm (mhu) "TTopClrn8al. (Meno 77b4)

Imperfect active

Verbs with stems

ending -a

~pohwv

l was asking

, I

11pw·ms

you were asking

~pJnu

he/she/it was asking

~pW'1"W[J,EV

we were asking

~pWTU'fE

you were asking

~pWTWV

they were asking

Verbs with stems

ending -<E

&q>ilouv

I was loving

Eq>LAEL<;

you were loving

e<j>f.AEL

he/she/it was loving

(2nd person dual)

E<pLAELTOV

(3rd person dual)

E<pLAElT'TjV

&<j>iAouµ,Ev

we were loving

&<J>1.Aa1·E

you were loving

&<j>/).ouv

they were loving

Verbs with stems

ending -o

&o~Aouv

I was showing

&o~Aous

you were showing

E8~Aou

he/she/it was showing

EO'TjAouµEv

we were showing

E81jA.OUTE

you were showing

EO~Aouv

they were showing


1.o <Joq>os T~V uA~8ELuv E<plAEL. 2.oL µ,u8l]TUl TOUTO TOV l:w1<po.TT]

~pw-rwv. 3.T~V -rr6ALV TOL.S q>LAOLS EOTJAOUfLEV. 4.Tl TOUTO E.Ko.Aouv o

lwicpo.TT]S KO.I, o MEvwv; 5.o µh LwKpUTTJS ELOEVUl ETrE8uµ,El o Tl '!TOT'

E<JTLV ~ upET~, () 0~ MEVWV ciyvoELV eo61CEL. (o Tl 1TOTE: whatever. 0 Tl 110T'

ECTTL: the essential nature (of) 6.o MEVWV u/1/\w<; 1TW<; &t~TEL T~V uA~0ELO.V.

(ii11Awc; 11ws: some other way) 7.11Epl, TOUTou, Kat. o LwKpo.T'l]S Kut. o MEvwv

, - •~1 8 < ~ , ' M' 'Q ' , I\ (' '(.). ,

a-rropELV EUOKOUV. .o k.WKpUTT)S TOV EVWVO. Ul-'PWTTJV EKUI\EL. 0 uf-'pLCTT'l'j<;,

Toil u~pwToil; lhe insolent man, the bully)


New words:

~yfoµ,m (i) (with genitive) I am leader of, I lead (ii) I consider, think

K'!'o.oµ,aL

'TTELpo.oµ,aL

I obtain

I try, attempt

Present indicative middle and passive

Verbs with stems ending -a Verbs with stems ending -ie

epWTWP,aL I am being asked <!>LAouµ,at I am being loved 14

epw,.~

you are being asked

epwTiimL he/she/it is being asked

<!>LA] or tj>LAEL you are being loved

<!>LA.a-rm he/she/it is being loved

epumioflov

ep=o.oflov

(2nd person duals)

<pLAELoflov

(3rd person duals)

<pLAe'ioflov

epw-rlilµ,e0a

epwTo.0'0E

kpw-rWv-raL

we are being asked

you are being asked

they are being asked

qn,Aooµ,e0o, we are being loved

<!>LA.e'i.a0E you are being loved

<!>LAouvTm they are being loved,

Verbs wilh stems ending -o

0'1]/1.0uµ,m I am being shown 15

01JAOL

O'l'JAOUTaL

you are being shown

he/she/it is being shown

(2nd person dual) 011Aoiloflov

(3rd person dual) 011Xoiloflov

O'IJAooµ,e0a

O'l'JAOUofJE

0'1]~1.0uv-raL

we are being shown

you are being shown

they are being shown

@'

1\pLAoilfJ,m is usually passive, The middle is found at Herodotus I, 134 describing

Persian gentlemen of nearly equal rank greeting each other: Ta<; 1rupe.a., <j,LAEOvTuL

( they kiss each other on the cheek), ~ nuprni, T~, 1rupELu,: the cheek, Verbs are often

not contracted in Ionic (used by Herodotus - see p,40).

15

01111oilfJ,uL (in all its parts) is usually passive.


Section 16 207

J.ouK EpuJTq,; 2.ou <pLAEL0'0E. 3.ou 011Aounm; 4.EpWTWjJ,E0a. 5.dpu

' ~L/1.0UVTUL; 6.oux ~ aJ~Sua ◊TjAOuTm; 7.T~ MEVWVL OTJAOUTUL. 8.dp, oux ~

il.A~0Ha "/fUVTaxou t TJTELTUL;

9.TLS <pLAEl'rUL; (passive) 10.µ.iilv TOUTO EpWTWµ.E0a;

11.iriils 011Aofrrm; 12.ouJ. Tl. TUUTU <pLAELTUL; (passive) 13.TLS TUUTU 1TOLE.LV

1rnpurnL; 14.TLVES TWV 1TOAl.TWV ~'YOUVTUL; 15.TLVES T~V 'Y~V TIAUTUV

~youVTUL;

(~ y~: the earth. 1TAUTUS, 'ITAUTE:LU, 1TAUTU: flat) 16.irou l<Ul T~V 0,PET~V

KUL T~v aocpCav KTUTaf. ns; 17 .(If Protagoras agrees that he is inferiorto Socrates

in debate, well and good) El OE UVTVITOLELTUL, owAeyfo8w Epwriilv TE KUL

&,,roKpLvoµ.Evos. (Protagoras 336c4) (a.vTLTroLfoµaL: I object)

Present middle and passive infinitive

For verbs with stems ending a, the infinitive ends -,w-Oat e.g . .kpwTaa8m to

be asked.

For verbs with stems endinge, the infinitive ends -eLa8m e.g. q>LAE'i:a8o.L to

be loved,

For verbs with stems endingo, the infinitive ends -oua8o.t e.g. 011Xoua8aL to

be shown.


l.opo.a0UL. 2.<pLAE'i:a0UL. 3.KUAEL0'0UL. 4.ciyvoEfo0m. 5.w<pEAEL0'0UL. 6.EfJ.OL

T~V nA~0uav ◊TjAOu<J0UL ~ouAoµ.m. 7.~ o.A~0ua lYITO 'TfO.VTWV tTJTEL0'0UL ◊OKEL.

8.TOUTO O'K01TEL<J8m OU ~ouAoµ.E8a. 9.TUUTU OU ◊EL Epw1ii.cr0m. 10.wqieAEL<J8o.L

OUK EBEAW ucp' uµ.iilv. l LTIELpiio·0aL. 12.KTO.cr0m. 13.a<jiLKVEL0'0UL. 14.~')IELcr0aL.

15 - ' , , \ \ , \ \ \ ,l..' - 8

.1TWS OLOV T ECTTL KUL TTjV apET'T]V KUL TTjV CTO't'LUV ICTO.CT m;

Present middle and passive imperative


ipw-rw be asked (singular)

&pw-riio-01e be asked (plural)

ipw-r&.a0w let him/her/it be asked

ipwT«fo6wv let them be asked

(2nd person dual: ep=&oBov, 3rd person dual: epw,.a.oBwv)

(The endings are:- singular, -w, -cw0w, plural, -ua0E 9 -aa0wv.)


Verbs with stems ending ··<E

q>LA.ou be loved (singular)

q>LA.e'to8e be loved. (plural)

q>LA.e1.o-8w let him/her/it be loved

<p~A.e1.o-8wv let them be loved

(2nd person dual: q>LA<Eia0ov, 3rd person dual: q>L},<Elo·0wv)

(The endings are:- singular, -ou, eur8w 9 plural, -ELo-8e 9 -•a0'8wv.)


071Aou be made clear (singular)

07JA.ouo-8w let him/her/it be made

clear

071Aouo-8E be made clear. (plural)

071Aouo8wv let them be made

clear

(2nd person dual: 011Aouo6ov, 3rd person dual: 011Aouo6wv)

(The endings are:- singular, -ou, :i:.o8w 9 plural, -ew-8E 9 -ew·8wv.)


l.opua8w. 2.[-L~ opua8w. 3.opua8wv oL 1TULOE<; a/I.A.a fl~ UKOUECY0wv. 4.~

o.A~0ELa '17-re'i:a8w. 5.urro TWV dya8iilv <pLAELa8E. 6:rrELpw. 7 .rrELpiil EL 1TELV.

(Meno 73a6) 8.-irpw"t uq>LKVEtcr8e. (1rpui~: early) 9.~yeCa0w. 10.T~', -rro/1.ewc; o

o-o<pos ~yeCa0w. l l.1ruvu [-LE ~you ~Aciim ELVUL. ( Gorgias 488a8) (o or~ ~/Iii~, TOU

on~, ~AiiKO,: stupid person, dunce)

Present middle and passive subjunctive


&pw-rwp,m (let me be asked), I may be asked

&pwTq, you may be asked

lpw-rO:raa. he/she/it may be asked

duals: &pw-riio6ov (2nd person), &pw-riio6ov (3rd person)

epw,-Jp,e0a let us be asked, we may be asked

e.pwTua0E you may be asked (plural)

~pw-rWv,-at

they may be asked

Section 16 209

Verbs with stems ending •·E

<j>.Awµ.a.1, (let me be loved), I may be loved

q>LAi\ . you may be loved

{,hL~\~Tm he/she/it may be loved

duals: q,LA~"6ov (2nd person), cpLA~o-flov (3rd person)

q>LAooµ,E0a let us be loved , we may be loved

q>LA~a0E you may be loved

q>LAwnm they may be loved


o'l'J>,wµ,m (let me be shown), I may be shown

01-i),o'i. you may be shown (singular)

he, she, it may be shown

o'l'J,,w,.·m

duals: 071Awo-8ov (2nd person), 871Awo-8ov (3rd person)

O'l'JAlil[LE0a let us be shown, we may be shown

O'l'JAwa0E you may be shown (plural)

011>..wnai they may be shown


1.~L,AWµ,E0u (passive). 2.opwµ,E8u. 3.EUV ~ a.11118ECu t11T~TUL, OU OUVU[LUL,

1"0UTO /\Eyuv Ufl-lV. 4.µ,~ EpWTWf.1,E8u. 5.fL~ 1mpwµ.E8u. 6.p.~ 'TIHPWl.l.E0u

/\E.yuv. 7.uw O~JE a.~LKV~a8E TOV fllMTwvu OUK ot)irn·0E. (oij;E: fate (in !he day)

O~JOfWL is the future of opuw - section 14, p.163) 8.µ,~ ~ywµ,E0a. TWV Tro/1.C-rwv.

8.µ.~ ~ywµ.E8a. TOV MEVWVU µ.wpov ECvm. (µ.wp6s, µ.wp6., jiwp6v: foolish) W.µ.~

O'Tj/1.Wfl-Ul TOUTO a. yvowv.

Present middle and passive optative


i&pw-r<{>µ.'l')v Othat I might be asked

EpWT<!)O Othat you might be asked (singular)

.&pw-r4lTo

Epw·n.{,µ,e6a

&pw-r0a8e

Othat he/she/it might be asked

duals: EpwT<i"ioflov (2nd person), EpcuT(llo-871v (3rd person)

Othat we might be asked

Othat you might be asked (plural)

Othat they might be asked


Verbs with stems ending-«

<plAoLµ. 'T}V

<pLAOLO

<pLAot:ro

cptAoLµ.e0a.

<pLAoia0E

<pLAOLVTO

Othat I might be loved

Othat you might be loved (singular)

Othat he/she/it might be loved

duals: ~LAo1o-8ov (2nd person), ~LAo[rr811v (3rd person)

Othat we might be loved

Othat you might be loved (plural)

Othat they might be loved


811Aotµ.11v Othat I might be shown

811Amo Othat you might be shown (singular)

811AoLµ.E8a.

811Aot.a8E

8'TJAOLVTO


Othat he/she/it might be shown

duals: 811Ao'io-8ov (2nd person), 811Ao[o-811v (3rd person)

Othat we might be shown

Othat you might be shown (plural)

Othat they might be shown

1.ToUTO µ.~ 1TOlOLTO. (passive) 2.~µ.t.v 8'T]/I.OLTO ~ apET~. 3.w<pE/I.Ot.IT0E, (ii

\~ , , ~ , , , , e , 'J. ~ (' , -

'ITO/\lTUl, U'ITO TWV ITuµ.µ.uxwv, OL yup EX pOL U~,Ll<VOUVTUL. o OlJIJ,iJ,UXOS, TOU

o-uµ,µ,cixou: the ally) 4.-r~µ.Epov fL~ uciiLKVOLVTO. (-r~µ,Epov: today) 5.d TOUTO ·rroLOLTo,

TL av AEyol,; 6.El TOUTO EpWT~)(J"0E, TL av U1T0Kptvow0E;

Present participle middle and passive

Verbs with stems ending -a JapwTwµ.Evos, epwTWf.1,EV'l'}9 epwTW!-',EVOV being asked

Verbs with stems ending -E <pLAouµ.Evos, <pLAouµ.ev'f), <pLAouµ.evov being loved

Verbs with stems ending -o 81JAouµ.evos, 81JAouµ.ev'lh 011Ao{,µ.Evov being shown


1.To <pl/1.0UjJ,EVOV a.pa Tl]l cjllAOUVTl ~)L/1.0V EITTl VO ( Lysis 21 Ze6)

2.8taMyou µ.E-r' Eµ.oil EV Tljl µ.EpEl EpWTWV K<Ll Epw-rwµ.Evoc;.

(your) turn, IJ,ET' Eµ,oii: µ,ETa. Eµ,oii) ( Gorgias 462a3, adapted)

(Ev T(J) iJ,EpEL:in

3.(and if a Jetter is added or subtracted, this doesn't matter at all as Jong as there

remains intact) ~ 0\J(J"L(L TOU '!Tpa:yµ.u-roc; 81111.ouµ.E.V'T} EV T(]l ov6µ.u'Tl. ( Cratylus

393d4).

Section 16 211

4 '0'' '' ' - '0 ' " <:,' ' ' 0, '0

.€ €1\W 11eyuv TIEPL T'TJS f-LE 'T]S TIELpwµ,Evoc; wv uuvwµ,m T'T)V op 'T)V f-LE oSov

~f!,LV S11Aouv. (Laws 638e2) (i f.UHl1], 'T~S µ,,rn'fjs: drunkenness. 11 fl,E8o8os, 'T~S fl,E868ou: the

, method, (originally, inyestigation, tracking down from µ,mi + boos.))

Imperfect middle and passive


'YJfllilTWt-J,1111

'TJflll)T(O

'T)flWTUTO

I was being asked

you were being asked (singular)

he/she/it was being asked

duals: 11p=iioBov (2nd person), 11pomioB1Jv ( 3rd person)

'TJpw-rroµ,eOa

'TJflWT0.0'8<1:

'YJflWTWVTO

we were being asked

you were being asked (plural)

they were being asked

Verbs with stems ending -er;

t4>LAm'iµ.1jv

&4>L/WU

i<!>LAELTO

I was being loved

you were being loved

he/she/it was being loved

duals: E<pLAE'i:o-Oov (2nd person), E<pLAEca81Jv (3rd person)

Eq>t.AotJµ.e0o,

Eq>LAELa0<E

Eq>LAouv-ro

we were being loved

you were being loved (plural)

they were being loved


EO'IJAOU!)/l]V

&871Aou

&071Aoiho

I was being shown

you were being shown (singular)

he/she/it was being shown

duals: El>1JAouoBov (2nd person), k611AouoB11v (3rd person)

&871Aou1-1E0a

E01JAOUa0E

E01JAOUV1'0

we were being shown

you were being shown (plural)

they were being shown



1.ot TIOALTUl, imo TOU LwKpO.TOU<; TUUTU ~PWTWVTO.

2.0 TIUL, u1ro 110.vTwv Ev 11aa11 Tii 1r611u Et "!]TEL To.

3.~ a>..~8au TOLS aoqiot.s EO"!jAOUTO.

4.~f1€LS TOV :EwKpO.TI] aoqiov ~youµ.E8u. (2 tenses)

5 ' ,.._ , / ... ~ \ ' ,, '~ /

.El TUUTU 1JYVOHS, ao't'os OUK UV EOOKEL<;.

6.TOUTO 0-€ ayvoELv OUK av ~youµ.1jV.

7.u8ALOL ot KUKOl, OlOOVTES OE OlK1JV Wq>E/\OUVTO UTIO TOU 8Eou. (Republic

380b4-5) (ii8ho, -a -ov: wretched. ~ OLK'IJ, -rij, OLK'IJ,: the penalty. Slowf.LL (section

24): I give. WiovTE, olK11v: paying the penalty, i.e. being punished.)

olos, otu, olov means "of which kind".

ToLoaoE, ToLo.oE, ToLovoE and TowuTo,, -rowu-r1J, -roLou,-ov mean "of this

kind".

-roLoaOE is formed by analogy with ooE and TowuToc; with 00,-0,.

Taken together, they give a formula for "like", e.g.

OUK EUTLV O TTAo.TulV TOL000€ av~p olos O LwKpO.T'l]S

Plato is not a man of this kind of which kind Socrates (is),

i.e. Plato is not a man like Socrates.

a.El. TOLOUTO', (Et.[J,L) oLos TIEC8rn8m T(Jl My4> OS av fLOL AoyL(O[J,EVl]J

~D\TLaTO<; <lmCv-~TUL. ( Crito 46b4-6 (adapted)

I am such a man which l<ind of man always 10 be persuaded by the argument

which to me, reckoning, appears best, i.e. I am the kind of man always to be

persuaded by the kind of argument which to me, reckoning, appears best.

('ITEl8w: I persuade. o,: which (masc. nom. sing.) .\oyltof.Lm: I reckon. ~,0,Twrn,:

best.)


l .ouK EaTLV ~ LlLOTLfLU yuv~ TOLUUT'I] oLu ~ Kt..Eo1rciTpu.

2./iypmj;Ev TOLO{JTous owM·yous o 'ApLaTOTEA1JS o\'.ous o TT>..chwv, a/\A' lilf

ouKETL uu-rot'is EXOfLEV.

(ouKbt: no longer)

Section 16

213

3.o'Cou, Myous EAE.yEV o LwKpUT1JS-

EL Towum a.EL El 1TEV, 116.vTa.c; uv

[yo~TEUO"EV WO"TE µ,foTous a1ropCa.-, yeyovEvm. ( yo11-rEuw: I bewitch. fLECYTo, - 11

-ov (with genfrive): fuJJ of) for yqovEvm, see section 9, pp.89 and 90.)

. 4 \ ' 16 \ - / <;, \ / (J ) ' / 17 ' ,,

,TE/\EUTT]V KO./\El<; n; TOlOVOE IIEYW mean OlOV 1TEpa.s KUl EO")(O.TOV.

Plato, Meno 75d7-76c3

Socrates tries again to define "shape".

ro. (continuing) AEyE yup µ,ov TEAEUT~V l<UAELS n; TOlOV◊E AEyw olov

I \ '1

'lTEpo.s KUl EO"){O.TOV -

I .-.. ' I

1TO.VTO. TO.UTO. TO.UTOV Tl

\ /

11Eyw·

'1 ~ '

UYWS O

8

,1 e -.

a.v 'T]µ,lv

18

[I

I~ ,;, \ - A,' 19 1\ \' / / / 20

poolKOS OlU,yEpOlTO, 0./11\0. O"U YE 1TOU KO./IEl<; 1TE1TEpa.v Q.l Tl KUl

\ I \ ~ Q /\ \ I 1<:,, I\ 2]

'fETEIIEUT1]KEVO.l - TO TOl,OUTOV t-'OU/\Of10.l 11Eynv, OUOEV TfOlKlllOV.

MEN . 'A' 1\/10. ' , n KO./\!tl, \ ~

l(Q.l

, Olf!,O.l , µ,av 8 O.VElV ' 23 O " r.Eyns. ' '

16 ~ TEii.EDT~, TTj, TE/1.Eu-r~,: end. The object of AEyn, is TL -rEAeu1·~v is the complement.

Do you call something "end"? i.e., Is there anything which you call "end?"

i;To irepa,, Tou irepm·o,: limit, boundary. To EO)(aTov, Toii E<T)(a.Tou: extremity (the neuter

of the adjective EO)(a-ro,, <laxa.-r11, EO)(aTov, last, used as a noun).

18muT6v TL: something the same. ,ra.vm mum is accusative of respect: in respect of all

these things.

19 ow~cipofLCll (with dative): I quarrel with. NB in English, "differ" can also have this

meaning. For Prodicus, who was an expert in the use of words, see W.K.C. Guthrie,

The Sophists, (Cambridge, 1971) pp.27 4 ff.

20irrnEpa.v0C1L is the infinitive of irEirEp(l(rfLaL, the perfect passive of irEpa[vw: I limil.

TETEAEUT1JKEvat is the infinitive of TETEAEUT1JKC1, the perfect of TEAEu-rciw: I end. 1<aAEi,

irrnEpa.v0at TL Kat TETE/I.EuT1JKEvat: you call something "having been limited" and "having

ended", i.e. there is something that you call "having been limited" and "having

ended".

21 irotKt/l.o!,, 1rotKLA1J, irotK[Aov: complicated.

12Sharples points out that this sentence begins "but ... " because something like, "No,

I don't make distinctions which might prevent us getting any further" is understood

at the beginning of the sentence. The effect is like yes, I do.

23 oLfLCll fLav0a.vELv: I think to under.stand means I think (myself) to understand, i.e., I

Lhink that I understand. o: what, (that which). For oLfLaL see section 10, p.99.


24 \ \ r, 25 " t "

1:0. Tt o'; hrL1TE0OV KUllELS TL, KUL ETEpov au OTEpEOV, olov TUUTU

\ 1 ~ I 26

TU EV TULS YEWflETpLULS;

MEN. "EywyE Ka/1.w.

,_,.., 'H~ I " '6 ' I ~ " \ I 27 \ \

L,H.' O'Tj TOLVUV av µ.a OL<; 110u EK TOUTWV O)('Tjf1U O /lEyw. KUTU yup

\ I "' \ I ' " \ \ I 28 ,.., ' -;-

1TUVT0', O)('T]f1UTOS TOUTO llEYW, EL', 0 TO OTEpEOv 1TEpmvEL, TOUT ELVUL

,, " \ \ (.l \ 29 ,, 30 ~ / ~ 9

O)('T]f1U' 01TEp UV O"U/l/lUl"WV EL1TOLf1L OTEpE0U 1TEpUS O)('Tjf1U ELVUL.

MEN. To OE xpwµ.u 31 TL 11.EyEL<;, ti> L.oKpUTES;

2\o .l1rt1rEoov, i-oii e1rL1rE8ou: the plane (the neuter of .l1rt1rE8os, e1rl1rE8ov: flat (feminin,

as masculine) used as a noun).

25ii1"Epov (without ,-6): another (example). cnEpEos, cri-Epd., cri-EpEov: solid.

26

~ yEwµ.erpla, TI), yEwµ.Ei-plas: geometry. Sharples takes YEWflETptm to mean geometrical

problems but perhaps one might note that at Republic VI, 510c Plato appears to use

the plural simply for "geometry": oL 1rEpl i-os YEWflETplas TE Kal /\Oyurµ.ous ml i-a. ToLuiiru

1rpayµ.aTeuoµ.evoL those busying themselves with geometry, arithmetic and suchlike

things (Jowett translates: students of geometry, arithmetic and the kindred sciences).

1rpayµ.ui-euoµ.aL: I busy myself. b >..oyur116,, Toii >..oyurµ.ou: the calculation.

27Translate in the order: o Myw CJ\,(~µ.u.

M.yw (here): I call, mean by.

28Sharples notes that 1repulvEL is intransitive in this sentence; it means finishes in

the sense of ends. A£yw leads to elvuL: translate in the order M.yw rnilTo Eivm crx~µ.u d,

o To crTEpdw 1rEpulvEL. To crTEpEov: the solid (figure). d, o: in which.

2901rep: which. O'UAAu~wv is masculine singular nominative (qualifying "I" in the

verb) of the participle of O"uvE.A.a~ov, the aorist of O'uAAuµ.~a.vw: I take together, i.e. I

summarise. O'u>..>..a~wv is equivalent to a condition: having summarised stands for if/

were to summarise.

30 d1r0Lf1L is 1st person singular optative of el1rov. Translate in the order e'CiroLf1L uv

CJ)(~flU Eivm 1TEpu<; CJTEpEoil.

~-

31Translate in the order OE Tl AEyeL, 'To xrwµ.u, Ji '.Ew1<pa'TE,; Understand ElvuL after

xrwµ.a: But what do you say "colour" to be? i.e. But what do you mean by "colour"?

Section 16 215

'"'n 'r(.l I 32 ' 9 s M' ' c;,· ' f.l' , / 33

1,M• JJPL<Y'T'r}S y EL, w Evwv· o.vopL 1TPE<YJJU'T1] ·rrpo.yp.o.To. Trpoo-TO.TTELS · ·

, , e , , I>, , , e, \ , e , 34 , - ,, 3s

0,1TOKpLVEO" m, O.UTO<; OE OUK E EI\EL', o.vo.µ,q.1v11 ELS EL'lrELV OTL · 1TO'TE

'AeyH fopy(o.s upE'T~'-'. ELVUL.

MEN , A\ \ , , c;, , 36 , - , ,, s ._, , , -

· • 1\1\ E1THOO.V fJ,OL O"U TOUT EL 1T1J<;, (I) ,:.,WKpUTE<;, EpW O'OL,

... n K" \ , 37 , , M' c;, \ , 38

M•· UV tCUTO.l<EKU/IU(J,[J,EVOS TLS yvoL 11, w EVWV, OLo.llEYOfLEVOU uou,

f \ \ 9 \ ? / 39 " I

OTl K0.1\0', EL KUL EpU<YTUl O"OL E'TL ELO"LV,

MEN. TC o~; 40

326 u~purTqs, mu u~pwrnu: a person who is guilty of u~pLs (arrogance). Sharples

translates as a bully.

331TpoaTo.nw: (literally, I attach to, like the English I enjoin) often =l command, but

here enjoin is the neater translation, taking the dative civop1. 1TpEa~uT1J as on an old

man. 1rp6.yµ,uTu is more definite than merely affairs or business, and means trouble.

Translate in the order: 1rpoaTO.TTELS 1rp6.yµ,uTU civ8p1. 1TpEa~UT\\ a.1T0Kp[vrn8m.

34avuµ,v11a8E.[s is masculine singular nominative of the participle of civEµ,v~a811v, I was

reminded, the aorist passive of civuµ,Lµ,v~D"Kw, I remind, here meaning having been

reminded, but here rather having remembered. It is nominative because, like mh6s,

it qualifies the subject of ouK .WD,ns, you. (For aorist passive participle, see p.233.)

353-rL TiOTE : what ever. "what ever virtue is" = "what virtue can possibly be".

36E'ITELOO.v, standing for E'ITELO~ ( when) and a.v, with a subjunctive ( here, EL1t1Js): at such

time as (see p.255). NB Epw is the future of Myw.

3\iiv stands for Ka1. iiv. K<1T<11<EK<1Auµ,1u~vos is masculine singular nominative of the

participle of K<1TUKE1<o.Auµ,µ,m, the perfect passive of K<1TU1<<1Aumw: I blindfold. (trn.To.:

down, rnAv1rTw; I cover. 1<<1TUK<1AD1TTw: I put a cover over a person's head. ) yvo[ 11 is 3rd

person singular of yvo[11v, the optative of i\yvwv (for which, see section 14, p.170).

38

you conversing in the genitive case, meaning when you are conversing. See

"genitive absolute", section 19. This is equivalent to a condition: Even a blindfolded

man would know, if you were conversing with him, that ...

39/i .\puaT~<;, Toii EpuaToil: the lover. Lovers are to you means you have lovers. hL: slill.

Socrates' point is that young boys who were considered beautiful attracted older male

admirers. Menon, although he is reaching adulthood, is still beautiful enough to

keep them, and is rather coquettish.

40Whatever for? or Why in the world? TL; what? is often used instead of 3Lrr TL; why?


(t (''OTL oUOEv UAA ' 41 ~ E1rL -rCi-rTEL<; Ev 1ols /\6-yoLs, 811Ep 1roLo'UcrLv ot

,-k,.. rt I rl ,\ 42 ? r! 9 , ti 43 ? ""

-rpu,,,WVTES, UTE TupuvVEUOVTE<; EW', av EV wpq. (J)(YLV, l(UL u11a EfLOU

,t I rt ? \ <'I 44 ,... \ " ,.., 45 9 \

WWS KUTEYVWKUS OTL H[H 'ljTTWV TWV l<UllWV" xaplOU[LUL OUV 0-0L KUL

a-rro1<pLvoilµ,aL

MEN n' , 9 46 ,

• UVU [J,EV OUV xapL<YUL.

!

41

Translate as if oTL ouoEv 1roLE1s dAM E"ITLTUTTEL,. ouMv: nothing . .i.1rLTanw: I impoi,i

( on people). Ev To'i, MyoL<;: in (your) speeches. Sharples translates: because you d!

norhing but lay down the law when you speak . 01rEp: the very thing which (p.22011

aTE (with participle): because. TupuvvEuw: I tyrannise, dominate.

1

42Ew, /iv (with subjunctive, here <iJ(nv): while, for as Jong as (see the example at thii

top of p. 256). ~ wpu, ,-~, wpu,: time ( cf. English "hour"), here meaning prime. '

4Jrt • I ' • I • J

uµu: at the same ume. Ka-rEyvwKu, 1s 2nd person smgular of KU-rEyvw:m, the aonst o: 1

KamyLyvwo-Kw (with genitive, here E.µon): I notice unfavourably, I notice 10 someone'!

disadvantage. Translate here: you notice 10 my disadvantage that ...

44~nwv (with genitive): less than, inferior 10, unable to stand up to. (Sharpie',

translates: I cannot resist). oL KaAoL: handsome people.

I

liif !

4\upLonµOL is the future of xupL(o11m (with dative): I do a favour for.

the future of a1r0Kplvoµm.

' .I

U1TOKpLVOllfl-UL 1\

!

461ruvu µh ouv: by all means. xupwm is 2nd person singular imperative of Exupwa.µ~:!

the aorist of xupl(o11m.

I

New words:

&0Xws 9 &.0Ala. 9 ii0Awv

~ O.VU')IK119 rqs dvayic71,;

av&:y!<'l'j (.&crn}

~A(t'IT'fl.t)

S1JAos9 o~A.119 01JAov

81jA.ov (fo·n)

Section 17

E'lA'Y]q>a ( perfect active of.\aµ,~a.vw)

Katco8atµ,wv 9 1mK08atµ,ovos unfortunate 1

µ,&.A~a-ra

µ,kv (usually in contrast to something following)

vuv8~

0AOS9 0Ai19 ot,ov

, ~

OUIWUV

OUICOUV

wretched

necessity

it is necessary, necessarily so

I hurt, harm, injure

clear, easy to see

it is clear

I have taken

especially (µ,a.11wTa. yE: yes, indeed)

just now

whole

nevertheless

indeed

like ap' ou, expects the answer "yes"

in affirmative sentences, "surely then"

certainly not

I persuade

Why in the world? Whatever for? 2

ov1wv11 and ovKovv

ouKouv 9 made up of ouK and oliv 9 often occurs interrogatively, introducing

a question which expects the answer "yes", as "isn't it?" does in English):

j ~ \' \ '1\ ,t ? < > \ (.l I\ 0 I \ ? 0 \ \ I, I 0

OUKOUV VUVOlj E/\EYES OTl E<JTLV lj upETlj ~OUI\EO- UL TE TU uyu u KUL ouvuo- m;

(Meno 78b2) Weren't you saying just now Lhal exceJlence (virwe) is bo1h to want

good things and to be able (to perform them)?

But sometimes ou1eouv is used affirmativelyin statements, e.g.

OUKOUV ofj/\ov (Ecmv) OTL ODTOL I.LEV OU TWV KUKWV E1TL0uµ,ou<JLV. (Meno 77d7)

Surely then it is clear(= consequenlly, it is quile clear) 1ha11hese men on 1he one

hand do not desire bad things. ( ToJV KaKwv is neuter.)

13rd declension adjective; the neuter singular nominative and accusative are

rn1t6oa~µ,ov. Literally, "with a bad demon".

2 T[ o~ yup ou; why ever not? (Parmenides 138b8, cited by Denniston, The Greek

Particles, p.211)


oii1wuv is a strong negative:

ouKouv 8d 'lTE(0w0m TOUT!p T4) Epurn1<4> My41. (Meno 81d5)

We must not be persuaded by this captious argument. ( EpumK6s -~, -6v: captious)

Relative Pronouns "Who", "Which", "What", "That"

"Who","which", "what" and "that" are often used at the beginning of

descriptive clauses. 3 These pronouns are sometimes called "the relative

pronouns" because they relate a subordinate clause to a noun or pronoun

in the main clause of a sentence.

Examples.

We are listening to a philosopher who walks aboutjn the lectures.

(the "who" clause refers to "a philosopher")

The deeds which they do are evil.

(the "which" clause refers to "the deeds")

We know what we are talking about

(the "what" clause refers to things which we know)

The people that live in Athens are called Athenians.

(the "that" clause refers to the people).

who, which, what, that: 4

SINGULAR

PLURAL

masc. fem. neuter masc fem.

nominative Os fi 0 ol fl{,

who, which &c

accusative Ov fiv 0 OU\; O,c;

whom, which &c

,,

genitive • • • .

OU T)S OU (t)l) WV •

whose, of whom, of which &c

dative ~ • 4, • •

'U ois (US

neuter

a

ots

to, for whom, which &c

Notice that the masculine means "which" and not "who" when applied toagiasculine

noun meaning a thing such as Myo,, as does the feminine applied to a feminine

noun such as apET~.

ii

• WV

3Sometimes called adjectival clauses.

4 The duals, nominative & accusative w (all genders), genitive and dative olv (all

genders) are found in Plato, but only rarely.

Section 17 219

Examples:

bpoo -r6v a.v0ponrov os AE-yEL = I see the man who is talking.

bpoo -r6v a.v0pw'ITov ov. ~ouAoµ.a~ d,p(a1e,,w = I see the man (that) I want to

find.

bpOO -r6v av0pw'll'ov oo -r~v ~t~A.ov EXW = I see the man whose book I have.

bpw -r6v o'.v0pw'ITov q, My,av ~ouXoµ.a.i = I see the man to whom I want to

speak.

The noun in the main clause ( -r6v a'.v0pw'll'ov in these examples) is called

the antecedent (that which goes before). A relative pronoun agrees with

its antecedent in gender and number (masculine singular in these

examples) but its case is decided by the meaning of clause in which it

stands. (Different in nos. 1, 3 and 4 above, but the same in no.2.)

If the antecedent expresses a general idea, it is sometimes omitted:

o-uµ.~aLVEl, €£ <ilv O'U oµ.oAo-yEtS, ... TOUTO d.pET~V ECVUL. (Meno 79b3-6)

IL follows, from (the things) which you admit; this 10 be excellence (virtue). 5

If os ~ o is used to refer to a class or general category, il can be followed

by an indicative verb or by &v and a verb in the subjunctive. c,

( ' ~ ) \ \ (.l\ / > ~ t ,t I

'T])IOUVTUL TU KUKU J-'I\U1TTELV EKHVOV, <p av ')'L')'V'T]TUL.

(They consider) evil things to harm that man, to whom /ever) they may happen.

(Meno 77e6)

The negativeµ,~ is used in a relative clause if it is general:

i:l. µ.~ oloa Olli( olµ.a.L El.OE.Val (from Apology 2ld7-8)

(The things in general) which J do not know, I do not tlJink (myself) fo know.

a ou1< oloa. would have meant the particular things which l do not know.

5 cruµ.~alvw: I meet, but 3rd person singular is used to mean i1 follows (logicaJly).

bµoAoy.f.w: I admit (literally, I say alike). &~ <liv stands for EK -rou-rwv ii.

'"Evil things harm that man, to whom they may happen" does not say that evil

things happen to anybody but that if they happen to a man, they harm him.


When the verb in the main clause is historic or secondary (section 8

p.76), and os ~ o is used to refer to a class or general category, it may b~

followed by an optative without av, e.g.

EAEYEV /l EKEL 'looL (Republic 614b7)

he was saying what (i.e. all lhat) he saw lhere (in the world of the deact).7


1 ' / ' / ,, \ I "' ,..1... ( ' ,

:rov vrnvLuv ou yLyvwo-KOfLEV os -ru XP'TJfLUTU Hll'TJ't'Ev. Tu XP1111u-ru: 1 h e money)

2.µ,uv0a.vw 'TU p~µ,u-ru /l o TIM-rwv ELTIEV. (-ro /rijp,u, TOU P~fl-UTO,: the word)

3.oUKOUV µ,uv0a.vns /l o TTXa.-rwv EL 'TTEV;

4.ouKouv µ,uv8a.vH Kop(o-Kos TOV A6yov ov o IlAci-rwv EL11"EV.

5.oUKOUV O~Aov E<YTLV OTl OUK E<YTLV ODTOS ~ o TTAa.-rwv vuvo~ EIIEYEV.

6.-r~s OlKLUS &m0uµ,ii\ ~v EXW;. TL o~;

7.'TTOLU E<YTlV ~ apET~ 'TTEPL ~- o MEVWV /\Eyu; EYW El◊E.VUl ~ouAoµ,m.

8.-ru Ko.Ku a ouK E0EAw, oµ,w, -raurn 'TTpa.-r-rw.

9.oUKOUV ~ av KUKU y(yv'T]TUL, u0ALOS EO-TLV.

10.oD µ,~TE OL◊a.0-KUAOL µ,~TE µ,u811-rul. ELEV, KUAWS av UUTO ELKa.tovTE<; ElKa.toq1ev

µ,~ OLOar<Tov ELvm; (Meno 89e 1 ). 8 (For otou1<-r6v see p.83, footnote 20. ELKutw: I guess,

conjecture. o otMaKuAo,, -roii otouaKuAou: !he schoolmaster, teacher) (oiS is neuter.)

oo-TI<Ep ( the very man who) ·q·wep ( the very woman who) owep ( the very

thing which)

These are more emphatic. TIEP is simply appended.


1 .. , ' ' ,, 0 " ' - 'r:l \,

.OUTOS E.0-TlV O UV pw1TO', OV'ITEP opuv Et'OU/\OfL'T]V,

2.TOUTO EO'TlV OD'TTEp vuvo~ EYW ETIE.0uµ,ouv· vuv OE opw OTl KUA◊V o0K fo-rtv.

3.TOU<; U0TOUS Aoyou<; TLfLW OU0-1TE.p 1(0,l 'TTPOTEpov. ( Crito 46cl (adapted)

(-rtµ.uw: I honour. 1rpoTEpov: formerly, earlier h[p,wv is understood.)

4.AEyw yup OV'TTEP vuvo~ EAqov. (Republic 344al) (The antecedent of ov'f.'Ep is

"man", in this context the unjust man who can be greedy on a large scale.)

7EKE°l: there. 'Coot is 3rd person singular of \'.ootµ,L, the optative of Eloov.

8The relative clause here is equivalent to a condition: of which there were not ~ii

there were something which did not have. This is why the verbs are optative. ElKa(w

is connected with ELKwv and can also mean I make an image of.

Section 17 221

o0"1'LS 9 ~TI.S9 O TL

This is also a relative pronoun in Greek, but it is less definite than os or

oO"'ll"Ep and refers to _a general category, rather than to a precise

·individual.It is often the equivalent of whoever or whatever.

" ,I.. '

O<YTL<; <p'Tj<YL

,I,

4'EUUE

'~

TUL

9

Whoever says so is telling a lie, (Apology 20e3)

oO"ns is made up from os9 ~9 o and 'l'LS9 'l'L,

singular masculine feminine neuter

nominative (}ey,y{,~ ~'l'LS On 10

accusative ovnva 11v·n.va Q Th

genitive ovnvos :~a·nvos ofrnvos

oro'l'OU OTO'TOU 11

dative ~'fl.Vt. t1wt IJ)'!WL

or OTI!)

orO-r~

plural masculine feminine neuter

nominative OL'iW'l:', a'(nvEs a:nva

or &-r7u.

accusative OU<Y'fl.V(J-S UO''l'LVClS U'lWO.

or a.nu

genitive WV'l'LVli.JV Wv'fl..VWV wvTt.vwv

or◊'fwv

or oTwv

dative ofoTwL(v} llLO"Tl,O'L ( V) o\'.a1w1,(v}

or o·roLs

or OTOLS

9 ~iEuooµ.aL: 1 tell a lie.

10Usually printed as two words to distinguish it from on after a verb meaning "say",

"think" or "know".

11The short forms are preferred in authors earlier than Plato. He also often uses Ihm

(smooth breathing) for the indefinite TLvci (neuter plural): some things or other

(p.68, also p.261 below, footnote 23 and Smyth, Greek Grammar, para. 334a).


The shorter forms are often used by Plato, e.g.

OT(Jl Tp01T(Jl (aper~) 1rupayL)'VETUL ELOEVUL (Meno 71a5)

to know by what means excellence (virtue) arrives.

oa-rLs is used in indirect questions.

TL<; fonv b MEvo.w;

Who is Meno? (direct question)

, 1 rJ , ( M' ]2

OU YL)'VWO"KW 00-TL<; EO-TLV O EVWV

I do not know who Meno is (indirect question)

"who Meno is" is the object of "I do not know".

80-w; is used for who in a more general sense, e.g. to mark a class or

kind of people or things, e.g.

"E 0-TLV ouv ' 00-TL<; " t-'OU/\ETUL r:i '\ U "0' /\LOS KUL ' KUKOomµ,wv "' ' ELvm; '

So is there (anyone) who wants lo be wretched and unfortunate?(Meno 78a4)

()O''M OU is definite, e.g. OUOELS ( E.IJTL v) 00-TLS OU )'E/la.O"ETUL ( ou8E(,: nobody)

There is nobody who will not laugh (Meno 7la2, p.96, footnote 31; also p.291).

8a-n, µ,~ is indefinite, e.g. oo-TLS MEvwva µ,~ yLyvwa1<n

whoever doesn't know Meno =anyone who doesn't know Meno (Meno 7lb5)

If 8s or oo'i"LS refers to a negative or a class or general category which is

indefinite, it is often found with av and a subjunctive or optative:

OUUELS '"' ' ECYTLV ' OCYTL', " OUK ' av " )'VOL'!] ' 13 O'i"l " OU ' TOUTO ~ /\Eyw. ' ' ( G ,orgias · 4°1 J e 3)

There is nobody who wouldn't know that I don't mean this.


l.ocrTLS TUUTU 1TOLEl 0/l'T]V T~V 1TO/ILV ~/10.'lTTEL.

2.TOUTO OUK olou OVTLVQ Tpo-rrov 'T]llf)~KUf,LEV. (Republic 429a5) (adapted)

ii£

(ovTLV(l Tp61rov: in what way)

3.o<; a.v T~V a11~6nav µ,~ ·yvyvwcr1<1J, d8ALO<; E(YTLV.

12cf. Meno 71b5, p.98, footnote 44.

13yvo(17 is 3rd person singular of yvo[17v, the optative of Eyvwv (section 16, p. 2

footnote 37).

Section 17

223

4.5 TL av 'ITOLOL, uyu0o<; OUI( UV E'C 'IJ·

5.£L'IT€ OVOfJ-,CL OTOU ~ouAEL. (Meno 92e2)

" (,-, ~ , \ \ , ,l._ \ ~ "0\ I >

6.o'f(p oOKEL 'TCL KCLKCL .(JhyEI\EL v, u /\LOS E<YTL v.

· 7,,-C UV ~fJ-,LV OLCLLpE'rE.OV E'l'lj; up' OUK CLUTWV TOUTWV ohLVES up~ouo{ TE l(a,l,

&p~ovTCLL; (Republic 412b9-cl) (owLprnfov: to be decided, from oLmpEw: I decide. For

the ending, see p.336. iip~oµ,m (future middle) is used as the future passive of iipxw

(Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon (9th edition), p.254.)

Plato, Meno 76c4-77a2

Socrates defines "colour" in a way that pleases Meno.

n B I\ 9 , f 1 ? 1 14 't ,, , I\

Lu. OUI\EL ouv <YOL KCLTCL opywv CL1TOKpLVWfJ-,CLL, 11 av OlJ fJ-,CL/\L<YTCL

o.KoAou0~am,; 15

MEN B I\ ~ \ " 16

• OU/\Of'-,UL' 1rw, yup ou;

~n O, ~ , , , , 11 ~ ,, , , E c;, , , 18

t.,U, 1JK01JV 1\EYETE CL'!Toppous TLVCL', 'TWV OVTWV KCLTCL f'-,'ITEOOKI\EU;

MEN. :Ecpoopa yE. 19

14~ouAa ... d1r0Kp(vwµ,m; is an example of Qarataxis, i.e. clauses not subordinated one to

the other: ~ouAEL and d1r0Kptvwµ,a.L are 2 main verbs side by side, not joined by "and" or

"but". The sense, do you want? am I to reply? (subjunctive) is like the English would

you like me to reply? See also section 15, p.193, footnote 29.

15 ~: by which, i.e. in the way in which. µ,ciAurm: especially (here meaning most

readily). d1rnAou6~<rm, is 2nd personsingularof a1<0Aou6·~<rmµ,L, theoptativeof -~1<0Aou81wu,

the aorist of a1<0Aou6E.w: I follow. a1<0Aou6~<rms av: you would follow.

16,rws ya.p ou; for how not?: of course.

17For ouKouv see p.217. AEyw (here) with accusative: J speak of. 11 a1roppo~, Tijshoppofj,:

the effJuence. Ta. ovm ( the things that are) means whatever exists. The

genitive here expresses separation - Toiv ovTwv: from things, i.e. from whatever exists.

18Empedocles thought that the objects we perceive give off effluences ( d1roppoa.[) and

that perception happens when these effluences fi tapertures in ourorgans of sensation.

See Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd. ed., p.309, where

this passage from the Meno is quoted, and Sharples, Plato: Meno, p.135, where Diogenes

Laertius 8.58 is cited, saying that Gorgias had been a pupil of Ernpedocles. Both were

Sicilians. Diogenes Laertius (8.57) says that Aristotle, in a work now lost, credited

Empedocles with the invention of rhetoric.

19 <rcp6opu yE: very much indeed.


""fnl/"\ I 201 t\ \~')'f e, \ ,

£.H . .1\.Ul 1ropouc, EL', OU', KUL Ul WV Ul a1roppom -rropEUOVTal;

MEN. Ticivu yE. 21

"'"I'''', ',22,,

£.H. \.UL TWV a1roppowv TUC, µ.Ev apµ.oTTELV EvLoL~ TWv 116pwv,

E/\uTTouc, 23 ~ µ.ELtous Elvm;

MEN."Ecm mum.

"'" 0, , ' ,, I, 24 \ ,

£.H. UKOUV KUL OlpLV KUI\ElS TL;

MEN."EywyE.

-.;'() , G.. , ~ ' II ' 25 " \ ' II ",I- fl' ~ " \ ' 26

kH. LlK TOUTWV O'TJ 0-UVE', 0 TOL I\EYW, E't''TJ LVUapo,. EO-TLV yap xpoa

' \ / ,1,1 ,/ 27 ' ')

a1roppo11 0-XTJ\J-UTWV O~JEL o-uµ.p.ETpo<; KUl aw 0

TJTOS.

'

200 ,r6po,, Toii ,ropou: ford, way through, here aperture, pore. El, oil, Kat OL' tilv: into

which and through which. ,ropEuo~.m: I make my way.

21,ro.vu yE: most certainly.

22 Tos fl-EV ... To., ok ... : some ... others ... (feminine accusative plural to qualih·

a.,roppo6.,, understood from 'TWV u11oppowv.) ap11o'T'TW (with dative) I Ji[. €VLOL, EVLUL, EVl~:

some. Understand ~a'TE before cip116nELv. (~aTE) To., fl-EV Twv aTroppowv cipµonELv EVLoL, 7w1

,r6pwv; (do you affirm) some of the effluences to fir some of the pores?

2\·o., ot but others. JMnou, (standing for &Mnova,): too small. fl-ELtou, (standing for

µEl(ov11s): too big (section 23, pp.298 and 299).

24 ~ o~JLS, T~, o~Ew,: sight. For ,mAEis TL, see section 16, p. 213, footnote 16.

25cruvEs is 2nd person singular imperative of cruv~l((l, the aorist of cruvl11µL: J understand

(p.324), and means understand! 3: whal. ToL is a form of croL. cruvEs & ToL Myw isa

quotation from the poet Pindar which may have been a catch phrase. Plato uses it

playfully also at Phaedrus 236d, as Sharples notes. It is the be ginning of a hyporchema

(a song to be accompanied by dancing) in honour of Hiero of Syracuse (fragment 94

in the Oxford Classical Text of Pindar, ed. Bowra). At Aristophanes, Birds 945, a poor

poet, guying Pindar, says cruvEs o TOL M.yw (understand what I am saying to you! ~gel

my meaning1) when trying to cadge a tunic.

26See section 15, p.194 footnote 41.

27cruµµETpos, cruµµETpov (feminine as masculine) (with dative): commensurate with.

Kat : and therefore. aLcr811T6s, atcr811T6v (feminine as masculine here, but sometimes

alcr8'T]T~): perceptible.

Section 17 225

E .N "A ,2s .., - s "', . , , , , , ,

M . pwn1 fLOL uoKEV,, w ,:.,wKpaTE,, TUUTlJV TlJV wiroi<punv uplJKEVm.

"I I \ '0 29 " \ fl 30 ,;- ' "" I

t(l. 0-WS yap CTOL KUTU 0-UVlJ EWV HplJTUL ° Km UfJ,U oq1m EVVOH<; OTL

~, 't ., "" ' .,.,. \ ,.k \ 31 ,1 " ' 1 \ \ ?!\ \ \ \ \

ixoLS UV E<:, UUTlJ<; EVT(HV Km 'l'WVlJV O EUTL, Km O0-fJ,lJV KUL U/\1\U 'ffO/\1\U

rwv TOWUTWV.

•KEN n, , , 32

JVl • avu fl-EV ouv.

0 T , 33 , , - M , , , , ., , , 34

t . payLKlJ yap EO"TLV, w EVWV, lJ a1To1<puns, WO-TE apEO"KH. O"OL

fLU/1/\0V ~

MEN."Eµ,ocyE.

~ 1TEpL TOD Ci){~fl-UTOS.

28/lpunu: in a very good way, excellently.

perfect of AEyw.

etp1J1<Evm is the infinitve of e'tp1JKU, the

29~ m,vi0uu, Tijs m,v118etus: familiarily. E'[p1JTUL is 3rd person singular of dp11µ.ut, the

perfect passive of Myw. KaTa auv1J8Etuv is equivalent to in the way that you're used to.

30uf.Lu: at the same time. EvvoEw: I realise. /c.~ uuT~s (from if) refers to Meno's o-uvi0etu.

[xots a.v et1TE1v: you could say.

31~ qiwvi, T~, qiwv~s: voice, sound. qiwv~v o foTL: sound, what it is = whal sound is. ~

ocrf.L1J, Tij, oaµ.~,: smell.

321To.vu f.LEV oDv: absolutely! Stronger than 1ruvu yE; expresses very definite agreement.

33-rpuytKo,, TpaytK'l], Tpuyt1<6v: tragic, i.e., theatrical. Empedocles was, of course, a poet.

Sharples suggests: high-f1own.

34 upfoKw (with dative): J please. f.La>..>..ov: rather. ~: than. Translate as if ~ ,i7!6i<p,o-,,

EO-TLV Tpuyud\ WO-TE apEUKEL 0-0L µ.a>..>..ov ~ ~ 1TEpt TOU 0-X1Jf.LUTO<; Cl1T01<pwts.

,.


"'".'A\\' , " 1 ~'A\ tl,I ' , '' \ 35 '0 '\\

k,H /\{\ OUK EO'TLV, (J) 1TUL 1\E':,LO'T]!10U, ws eyw Eµ,uuTOV 1TEL w, U/\/\'

, I 36

EKELV'T],

R \ I 1 I,' , I,'

J-'EI\TL(J)V" oLµ,UL OE ouo

" ' I,/ t 37

av O'OL 00':,UL,

' ' " 0' 38

EL 1111, (J)0'1TEp X ES

'1\ ' ,... I 39 9 I \ ,.._ I '\ \ '

EI\E)'ES, UVU)'KULOV O'OL U1TLEVUL 1rpo TWV µ,uO'T'TJPLWV, U/\1\

' I 40

EL 1TEpq.tELVULS

TE Kut- µ,u110EL 'TJS·

MEN., AAAa 1TEPL!1EVOLµ,' av 41 , 11 LoKpUTES, El µ,oL 1ToAAu TOLUDTU AE)'OLS.

35.lµ,am6v: myself (see section 25, p.337). -rrErnw: I persuade.

36Stands for EKELV11 11 u-rr6Kpuns referring to Socrates'answer earlier. ~EATLwv: better

Translate as if: , AAA, 0\)K E<JTL ~E/\TLWV, tiJ 'ITUL , AAE~Lo~110u, ws .lyw Efl,UUTOV 'ITEL0w, UAA''

EKELV11 (fonv). EKELV11 (~ h6Kptcrt,) ( that one, i.e. that answer) may refer either to th,

first definition of shape ("what always accompanies colour") or the second ("th;

limit of a solid"). See Sharples, Plato: Meno pp.136-7.

37 ouo ' stands for ouM: not even. o6~m (it would seem) is 3rd person singular of

86~mµ,t, the optative of l(8o~u, the aorist of ooKew. The subject is it, i.e. ~ o.110KpLoL;,

meaning the answer involving pores.

3\0&,: yesterday.

39 ' "' ' ,.. ' ,.. ' "' ta d f ' ,.. I " ' ;

avayKato,, avayKata, avayKatov; necessary. avayKatov s n s or avayKULOV EL11: EL µi,,

uvuyKu't6v EI11: if it were not necessary (an unlikely condition referring to the future) .

o.-rrLevm: to go away is the infinitive of o.-rrEtµ,t: I shall go away (for El1u: J (shall) go.

see section 25, p.331). Translate in the order: olµ,m 8' ouo' /iv o6€ut (JOL, El fl~ o.vuyKULOV

Et11 crot o.-rr1Evut -rrpo Twv µ,u(n11pf.wv wcr-rrEp EAEyE, x0k -rrp6 (with genitive): before. ,o

µ,ucrT~ptu (neuter plural): the Mysteries. This refers to two festivals held at Eleusis

near Athens in the spring and autumn sacred to the goddess Demeter and her daughter

Persephone. Initiation into the Mysteries inspired faith in the continuance of life

and a system of rewards and punishments after death.

40-rrEptµ,E(vm, is 2nd person singular of -rrEptµ.Etvutµ,t, the optative of -rrEpLEµ,ELva, the

aorist of -rrEptµ,evw: I stay. µ,u118E(11c; is 2nd person singular of µ,u118Et11v, the optative o[

Eµ,u~611v, the aorist passive (see section 18) of µ,uew: I initiate. El -rrEptµ,Et~m, TE Kui

µ,u116Et11, if you were both to stay and be initiated. In saying this, Socrates may imply

that if he were to stay, Meno could be initiated not merely into the Eleusinian Mysteries,

but also into philosophical understanding. Sharples' note (Plato, Meno p.137) lists

passages where Plato uses the one as a symbol for the other.

Jl[eW words.

' ii,ylJ) , -

i <\JK<UOS9 a.vo:y1rnia9 a.va:y1<awv

(lVll1

ii,v£U (with genitive)

1'0 «l.pyupLOV9 'l'OU upyuptou

~ introducing a question

~ yap (frequent in Plato)

I

VllL

~'«J.pxw (with dative, I belong to)

'pw

Section 18

I lead

cogent, necessary

without

silver, money 1

well, then ... ?

eh?

yes

I exist

I rejoice

X 11 L , the money, property

-ra. XP~µ,a.Tu9 -riilv XP"'lll-a'l'WV 1 f ' - Toii XP""uTo,: thing, possession)

(plura o To xp11µ,u, ·ir •

the gold coin, money m the for~

of gold coins

v1Tapxw has the root meaning I am in the beginning. It often means:

u'lla.pxw

(a) I exist, really am: - ' , Kut. ouva.Tous Ku1. ETL K'Y]OEp.ovus 'T'f\'> 1ToAEws;

oilKODV cppoVL\.J.OUS TE OEL u1mpxELV

(Republic 412cl3)

Mustn't they (the guardians) really be both sagacious and capable and protective of

the city? . o' . .. . capable. i<·110Eµ,wv, K11◊Eµ,6voc; 3rd declension

(~pOVLfJ,OS -11 -ov: sagaCJOUS, UVUTO~ - ~ av.

adjective, with genitive: protective of.)

(b) (with dative) l belong to, am a property of:

TO ~ouAEo-0uL a.yu0a. 1TUO'LV {J1TupxELto

want good things is a property of eve1ybody.

What is the English for , , , (Crito4Sbll

1.Ta. XP~µ,uTu µ,oL U1TUPXEL- 2.ao1. OE. u1Ta.pxEL T~ E\.J.U XP'TJ\.J.u~n ..

\ , (, " , T1}, -rroALTELa,: the const1tut1011)

3.~ lJ1TUpxouau 1TOI\L TELU. 11 'ITO L 'TEL0,

--------- ---- - ' ' · silver

~~~~-dally silver coin, as it is derived from o lipyupoc;, Tou upyupou. .

227

41-rrEptµ,evotµ' stands for -rrEptµ,Evotµ,t.

2From O XPucroc;, Toii xpucroii: gold.


4.(lf you want to find a way to avoid suffering injustice at all) ,;\ apx· ELv O , ,

"/,, ·1 EL EV '

'ITO EL ~ Tupavwiv (rnpavvEw: Jam a tyrant)

'

~ T~<; ll'lrapxoucrn<;

.,

'ITOALTElU

s~P

' ,Tl

ELVUL. (Gorgias510a8-1Oadapted).

THE AORIST PASSIVE TENSE

The tenses ending -µ,m or 7111v met so far belong to the middl . '.

alth h h

. e voice

oug t e present, imperfect and perfect are also used for the . ·

· I . Passive

vo'.ce. n v~ry early Greek, ;,t seems l~kely that instead of saying "I ;

bemg loose~ , one would say I am gettmg loosed". There are, however alll i

two . tenses m . Greek where there is a different form for the passiv e. . t

h' e ·

aonst passive and the future passive.

Th~ poems of Homer and Hesiod are in an antiquated dialect reserved for

epic poetry. They date, probably, from the late 8th century B.C. In these

poems, the use o_f the aorist middle is sometimes found where we should

expect the meanmg to require a passive,e.g.

CLTIEKTUTQ TILO"Tos ErnLpos the faithful companion was kil1ed

(Homer Iliad 15,437)

( o:rroK-relvw: J kill. 1run6s, ,run~, 1r,CiT6v: faithful)

whe~e -a:o is a 3rd person singular aorist middle ending. However, aorist

p~ss1ve torms are also found. They seem to have arisen from a specialised

kmd of strong aorist active form. In Homer for instance the verb '

, •• , ' • > f-1,ELyvuµ1

(I 1:1mgle) has two aonst pass1ve forms, the first with a meaning like an

active verb:

Eµ,Lyriv I mingled

o' O' ".I.' ' ' 3 I ' ' '

L UL't' OL~Oi.LEVOL ~-LYEV ( short for Ef.LLY1]<JUV) uvopo.o-L AwTo~o.yowL

and they, having gone a1 once, mingled with the Lotus-ea Ung men ( Odyssey 9, 91)

Eµ,(x0'TJv I was mingled!

~0eyyoµ,EVOU O' a.pa TOU YE KO.pl] KOVL 110-LV E11Lx811

and so of him speaking his head was mingled with the dust ( Odyssey 22, 329) 5

~-

3o'lxoµm (present with perfect meaning): I am gone, have departed. altjia: at once.

4Altho_ugh _Eµlx¾v is also used to mean "I mingled", especially when a warrior is

c~argmg mto the front line of the enemy, it does have a passive meaning "was

mmgled", as here.

5~0Eyyoµm: I ulfer. Tou:of him (b, ~. To is a pronoun in Epic). Ka.p11 (neuter): head.

Kovl1JCiL is dative plural of Kov(a (1st declension): dust.

0 v

Section 18 229

_ Sot all of the strong aorist forms foun~ in active verbs conform to the

·• -_- attern of ¥.11.a~ov I took. Some strong aonsts were shortened or syncopated,

· ~d so from ~o.Lvw I go, I step, the aorist (which is strong) is as follows:

E~'YJV I went, 1 stepped

&~'T]S you went, you stepped (sing.)

e~1] he, she, it went, stepped 6

These endings are found in Eµ,Lyriv:

eµ.tyriv I mingled

eµ.tyris you mingled (singular)

eµ,tyri he, she, it mingled

They are also found in Eµ,(x0riv:

eµ,tx&i)v I was mingled

,l;µ,tx811s you were mingled (singular)

&µ,tx&.J he, she, it was mingled

&p'ljµ,cev we went, we stepped

&PTJT<E you went, you stepped (plu.)

Ji.P'llo-uv they went, they stepped.;

&µ,Lyriµ,cev we mingled

eµ,ty'f]T<E you mingled (plural)

&µ,t')l'T]O"o.v they mingled

i1;_µ,( x&rJµ,EV

&µ,txe'IJ'l'E

eµ,i.x0"lcmv

we were mingled

you were mingled(plural)

they were mingled

The aorist passive in Greek is therefore likely to have been added late to

the language, and endings like the syncopated strong aorist aaive &PTJv are

used for it.

Aorist indicative passive endings

-(0)'1'\v I was... &M&r]v

-(0)'1'\s you were... V,u811,

-(0)'1] he/she/it was... &M0'11

you both were

they both were

-(0)'1]µ,Ev we were ...

-(0)1]Tce you were .. .

-(0)'T]auv they were .. .

&A.u&ri'l'o\l

k)w&q"M]v

&M&ijµ,Ev

&Xu&rJTE

&Au0'1]0'<l1/

6The duals are: E.~ 11 ,ov (2nd person), i~~T'l'jV (3rd person).

1 was loosed

you were loosed

he/she/it was loosed

you both were loosed

they both were loosed

we were loosed

you were loosed

they were loosed

7Compare Eyvwv on p.17O (section 14) where endings are the same, but the vowel is

and not 11·

w


Other examples:

eMxOJiv I was said (from My(J) : l say)

e:µ.v~o&qv (with genitive) I was reminded, l remembered, I

made mention of(from fi-Lll-v~o,cw: l remind) 8


l.J.p' eM0rrre; 2:r(s eAu0Tj; 3. TLVES lJ'TrO TWV 1TOALT(J)V eAu0'ljo-av; 4.TL U1To

,j.. ~ '\ I e 5 I t rt < \ I <\ < \ ~ ,j.. ~

TOU 0-0'!'0U E/\EX 'lj; .'TLVES 'ljO"UV OU'TOL OL /\OyoL OL U1TO 'TOU cro,,,ou

eAex0TJCTUV; 6.oi'iK eµ.v~o-0'ljv, 7 .OLCl 'TL OUK eµ.v~<T0'ljs; 8.1T(J.V'TES yap ot

&'.AAOL µ.a0'ljTUL eµ.v~0"0'ljCTUV. 9.oi'ioe fl,~V ~OUCTfl,(J.TWv"011TJpOS eµ.v~0-0Tj.

(Republic 404c7-8) (-ro 11ou0"µ,a, -roil ~8uO"µ,a-ros: sauce.) 9

The rules for the augment are the same as for other past tenses; i.e.

if a verb stem begins with a vowel, an initial a or e is lengthened to

TJ, and an initial o is lengthened to (J).

Example:

~x&i]v: I was led from dyw: l lead.

If the present tense of the verb is prefixed by a preposition such as

"by", "to" or "from", the preposition comes before the augment

Example:

o.1T.fix6'qv: I was led away from o.1T&.yw: I lead away ( esp. to prison).


Lot ~€VOL ~(q. ets T~V 1r6ALV ~x0'TJO"OV. (o ~evo~, 'TOU ~evou: the foreigner, the

stranger ~(q.: by force)

2 , , , • e , , ,l..' t , , , ~ 'I,' ,

,U1TO 'TWOS 'TJX 'Tj'TE ,rpos T'ljV CTO'!'Lav, (I) VEUVLUL; U1TO 'TOU "-(J)Kpa-rous.

KUAWS ~x0'1Jf1EV" ~fl,l.V oov o.peT~ eyeveTo.

8µ,Lµ,v~O"Kw: I remind is only found in Homer. Even the present passive is n~found in

later Greek, where l remember is the perfect passive of this verb: µ,eµ,vwaL: J have

been reminded.

9 Socrates has mentioned that in Homer the heroes when on campaign at Troy never

ate fish or boiled meat.

Section 18

231

\ ~,A I\ \ \ rk' " 0 ' " 9 '

3.t'nro TOU pWTOTE/IOU', 1rpos TT)V CTO'l'LUV TJX T)V' TIEPL'ITUTT)TllCO<; ap ELfLL

! / JO

eyw.

4.oL &x8pol <l'ITO T~<; 'ITOIIEW<; a:rr~x8riaav.

· 5.b CYO~LCTT~<; W', 'YOTJ~ iJ•rro TWV TIOAl TWV h~xeri. ( o YO'IJS, TOU YO'IJTO<;: the

wizard, sorcerer)

The aorist indicative passive of verbs with stems in - a or - E ends -118riv,

"'IJ&r]s, etc. The aorist indicative passive of verbs with stems in -o ends -w&ijv,

-w0'T}s, etc.

(from t'IJTew: I seek) 11

et'TJT~&ijv I was sought

&t TJ'i'~Briµ,Ev we were sought

~'TJ'Ml0ri, you were sought {sing.) '1l1F~8ri'i'e you were sought (plural)

e(11'M18ri he/she/it was sought J:t11T~&ijaav they were sought

(from 811Mw: I show) 12

e81111w&r]v I was shown

&87111.wBriµ,ev we were shown

e8'TJAti>&ijs you were shown (sing.) eo 11 >.ro0 11 -rE you were shown (plural)

e8'TJAoo0"1 he/she/it was shown &o1111w&r]crav they were shown


U~LA~811v. 2.dp' E~LA~811s; 3.ot &x8pol, outc E~LA~811cmv. 4.&t11T~811 o

~ 5 ' , '8 6 / , '8 13 7 ' ,,J.. 0 ' ' '

'ITUL<;. .TL EPWT11 11; .'TLS 11PWT11 11; .TL<; CTE W,pE/\T)CTEv; o.u1ro TLVO<;

W~E/1~811,; 9.Tl E<YTLV TO tca/1/los; &pp~8lj ((it was spoken of) yup u/1/1' oux

Lrnvw<; &0111100811. ( TO K0,/1/\0<;, TOU 1((11\/\0U<;: beauty) 10.av (= &av) TOlVUV TUUTU

oµ,o/loy~awµ,Ev, yEAciCTETUl TE KUl EpEL "'O 2:wtcpaTES, f1Ef.lV11CYUl Ol)V o TL

~pwT~811,;" (Hippias Major 28%1) (µEµv11am: v. note 8 above. oµoAoy~crwµEv: 1st

plu. aor. subjunctive active of oµoAoyiw: I admit. yEMw (fut. yEMaoµm): I laugh.

10 1rEpt1raT'IJTLK6,, 1rEpL1TUT1JTLK6v (feminine as masculine): one that wall<s about (a name

applied to the school founded by Aristotle).

11The duals are: El'IJT~&ijTov (2nd person), E(1JT1Jt}qTlJv (3rd person).

12

The duals are: E01JAW&ijTOv (2nd person), Eo11Aw8~T1JV (3rd person).

13 NB the passive of EpwTaw can be used in two ways: to express e.g. "the question was

asked" (when the subject is something), and to express "Socrates was asked" (when

the subject is some one).


Note the following irregular aorists passive:

EKA7J0"lv: J was called from imA.tw: I call

l:pp7J~V (more common than V,.fx0TJv): J was said from AE'jlw: I say

ecrlil~v: J was saved from O'i{itw: I save

w<p~v: I was seen from opuw: I see.

Aorist passive ending without 0:

e~All~'T]V: I was harmed from ~A(j.'jf'f{IJ: I harm

l:<pav'T)v: I was shown (used for I appeared) from <pa.tvw: I show

Aorist passive, but active meaning in English:

e~ouX.fi0T)v: I wanted from ~OUA.O[J,UL: I want

e8E110T)v: I begged (a favour from) from Moµ.m: I need, beg for, beseech

(with genitive)

01i6T)v: I thought

€)(11.p'T)v:J rejoiced, was glad

from olp,cn: I think

from xa.tpw:J rejoice.


I .o' cro't'o<; ,!,' £..WKPUT1JS "' ' EK/\l] ' \ '0"l· 2 .yEpwv ' WV, " OUOE1TOTE '"' ( never ) w't' ",j,0'T] El ' 11-'TJ ' EV '

TUlS 'A611vms. (o YEPWV, TOU yEpoVTo,: the old man) 3.1TOAAol U1TO KUICWV

(.l\ l(.l 4 > '0 ~ " > 5 > 1

ETULpwv Et-'/\Clt-''TJUUV. .Epp'T) 1l TUUTU 'T] ou; .Cl1TOKpLVE(J 0 \ ' ,

UL TO EpWTWfLEVOV

~ ?~ '0 < .J.' 6 '\\, , 'f.l \ '0 ? I 0 , 7 9 > < \

O"OU EOE'!] 'T] 0 O"O't'O',. .U/\/\ OUK Et-'OU/\'T) 'l}V U1TOKpLVEO" UL TOUT(jl. .up U1TO

o-ou EKt..7161] ~ a.pET~ ouvuo-0m 1ropCtrn0m Ta.ya0o.; ( To.yu06. stands for To.

o.yu06.). 8.vuvo~ EXUP'TJfLEV" 0116'!]µ.'T]v yup OTL 1TO.VTU TO. iipya ~µ.wv E1Tpa.x01J.

9.1Toppw6Ev (from afar) OE opwv unov OV OU YLYVWUKW, 01161JV (auTOV)

ELVUL lwKpO.T'T] ov oloa. (Theaetetus 191b4) 10.KUl µ.ou AU~OfLEVO<; TTJS

XELpo,,'O Lw1<pUTE<;, ~ o' o<;, 1TW<; Eo-til611s EK TTJS µ.a.x11,; ( Charmidcs 153b3)

( ~ XEtp, T'ij, XHp6,: the hand. ~ 116.xTJ, T'ij, µ,6.xTJ,: the battle) 11

.1epp~01jv is the aorist passive of Epw: I shall say. (e- is an augment.) Those parts

which have no augment ( e.g. pTJ0e[,, the participle, below) begin with onf p,

but if p is not the first letter, it is doubled

e.g. 1rpopp718ek previously announced ( 1rp6 (beforehand+ p1]8Et,).

(I

14The dialogue Charmides is set in 430. Socrates is about 40 years old, and is depicted

returning from the Athenian expedition against Potidaea (for his military career, see :

Apology 28e, and Alcibiades' tribute to him at Symposium 219e-22 lc). ·

Section 18

Aorist participle passive

Masculine Feminine Neuter

singular

(nominative) i\uMs i\u0<c'i.aa i\u0Ev

(a man) (a woman) (a thing

having been having been having been

loosed loosed loosed

(accusative) }w0kv..a i\u0acmv i\u0i&v

(a man) (a woman) (a thing



(genitive) i\u0Ev..os i\u8e1.o"YJS }w0ev-ros

of (a man) of (a woman) of (a thing)



(dative) i\u8E11·n i\uMa11 i\u8h-n

to/for(a man) to/for (a woman) by (a thing)



233

dual Au0ewE ,\u0El<Ya Au0ev-rE (nom.,acc.)

/lu8e11-roLV 11u81,fonLv 11u0ev-row(gen., dat.)

plural

(nominative)i\u0ev'f~, i\u0am:u i\u0E111U




( accusative) i\u0k1nas i\u0e(<Ya<; Au0Ev-ra




(genitive) i\u8Ev-rwv Au8Eu1w11 Au0<£v'fwv

of (men) of(women) of (things)



(dative) AuMo-~(v) i\u0etcmts }rn8am,(v)

to/for (men) to/for (women) by (things)



The aorist passive participle is formed on the same principle as the

present active participle.



l.1eA17Ms. 2.EpwT170Et,S. 3.otji0ElS, 4.cbrux0ds. 5.µ,v17cr0ElS. (see p.230) 6.o

" e , "' , ' e ' 7 ' ' e' 0

av pWTIOS O bWKpUT11S K/\11 HS, .TO M'-X EV. O.TU , U1TO , , TOU - "' bWKpUTOU<; ,

AEX0EvTU. 9.~ UTIO TOU :EwKpUTOUS EpwT170EL<JU, 10. TO urro TOU :EwKpaTOU<;

Epw,-170lv. 11.~ TIOALTElU ~ p170E'i:cru UTIO Tou :EwKpaTous. (~ 110/\LTELa, T~,

110/\m(a,: the constitution, the republic) 12.,-4'> IwKpaTEL ~µ,wv SE170lvn ou

TIWS UTIOKplvE0'0UL Suvaµ,E0u.

Aorist infinitive passive

The aorist passive infinitive may be either declarative or dynamic

(see p.173). It is used when the action considered is simple and

complete. The Greek ending is -(0)~vm

e.g. 11.u0l)vaL : to be loosed.


1 :rrpux0~vaL. 2.ux0~vm. 3.1eA170~vUL. 4.p178~vm. 5.oqi0~vuL. 6.xap~vm.

HpwT170~vm. 8.Sq0~vm. 9.qiav~vm. 10.Tij croqi1,q. TlS wq>EA178~vm

AEYETUL;

As an aorist passive infinitive can be declarative, when it follows a

verb meaning "say" or "think" it can have a past meaning, e.g. r0

<}6.a1eovn ~Aa~~vm: to the man claiming to have been injured (Laws

936d7). ( For ~a.aKwv see section 10, p.104.)

Aorist imperative passive

For the meaning of an aorist imperative, see p.186. The endings

are:-

singular

plural

Mfu:in_ be loosed! ;\{,01!Th be loosed!

11.u~ let him/her/it be loosed ;\u0ikv-rwv let them be loosed

duals: AOfl,qTov (2nd person), Au0~-rwv (3rd person).


l.wq>EA~817n! 2.KA~017TE! 3.JpwT178~TW. 4.p170EVTWV. 5.Tipax0~Tlll. (E11pa.x0riv

is the aorist passive of 11po.TTw.) 6.ED Tipax0~Tw Ta TT)S TI0/1.EWS. 7.~ouA~017TL

uya0o. Suvacr0uL. 8.uy1,nu KUl, 1T/I.OUTOS KUl XPU<JlOV 1(0,l, upyupLOV uya0o.

Section 18

235

KA1J0EVTWV. 9.Suva.a0m ciya.0a -rrop((rn0m cipET~ KA:r18~T(J). 10.TOLa.UTO. 0.VElJ

OLKO.WO"UV'T]S -rrop((rn0a.( O"Ol cipET~ ~a.v~TW' ciA.\' EfJ.OlYE oux ouTw<;

cpaLVETm.

Aorist subjunctive passive

The aorist subjunctive passive has no past significance. It is used

when the possibility of things being done which are simple and

complete is being considered.

Endings:

-(0}w Au0ro I may be loosed, (let me be loosed)

-(8)11c; Au%s you may be loosed (singular)

-(6)11 Au% he, she, it may be loosed

-(0)-ij-rov Au&ij-rov you may both be loosed

-(6}ij-rov Au&ijTov they may both be loosed

•(0)wµ.Ev Au0wµ.Ev let us be loosed, we may be loosed

•(0)'T}-rE Au0-qTE you may be loosed

-(0)wo-t(v) Au0ooo-L(i,) they may be loosed

The aorist subjunctive passive is used like the other subjunctives

with µ.~ 9 ea.v 9 ,Mv µ.~ 9 oTo.11 ( whenever, section 20, p.255) 9 oTa.v µ.~, in

deliberative questions and generally where a subjunctive is

appropriate.


Passive prohibitions can be expressed by µ,~ with the aorist

passive subjunctive, e.g.


1.a:ya0ol, KA~0wµ,Ev.

µ, ~ KaKos KA ~01Js

do not be called a bad man.

µ,~ KUKOlS XO.P'TJTE

do not rejoice in bad things.

2.µ,~ 1Tp0.T'TE 'TOUTO! OEOfJ,UL <JOU i'.va TOU'TO fl,~ 1Tpo.x01J,

3.rnKol, µ,~ ~6.vwµ,Ev -rois EX0po'Ls. (Ko.Ko, often means cowardly)

4 " - , - \ I ',k \ '0 I

,EUV TOL<; Efl,OLS /\OYOLS W't'Ei\'Tj 'TJTE, xmpw.

5.€0.V TOUTO op0ws AEX01J, fows UA1j8ws AEym. (o.A110ws: truthfully)

6.fL~ OE~0wµ,Ev TOU 'T!/\OUTOU fl,'TJTE T~S uyu,(n,, o/\Aa T~S o-wcppoo-UV'TjS 1ml,

'T~S OLKUWO-UV'TjS,

7.€0.V ~ouA~01J, Ofl,ELVWV y[yvw0m, µ,~TE opyup(ou fl,'T]TE )(pUO-LOU €1TL8uµ,~o-1J,,

o)Aa. OLKUWO-UV'T]', KUL o-w~poo-uv11s, (for 0.jl,ELVwv: better see p.297)

8. €0.V XPUO-LOV KUL opyupwv UOLKWS (JOL -rrop(o-0wo-Lv, 1TWS TOUTO apET~

E<JTLv; ( 1rop£(01,Lo.L with dative: I accrue 10).

9 \ I I t\'l\~\~,.., .-1' 9 f /

.Km yvwo-11 TOUT({) our; UV qw 11ywµ,m (J0~)0US ELVUl' EUP'TJO-EL<; yup fl,E ...

-rruv0avoµ,Evov 11up' UUTOU i'.vu µ,a0wv Tl <Il~EA~0w. (Ilippias Minor 369d8-e2)

( TOUT<\> is neuter: by this. 1ruv8ci.vol-'-o.L: I enquire. 1ro.p ' stands for 1ro.pa here

simply meaning from. We might have expected o.uTwv after our;, but we get

uuTou, singular instead of plural.)

lo

> ~ " > \ I ',). ' \ ><;, I ><;,\ " \ > '

,OUKOUV EL TLS UUTO TOUTO n't'aLpEL, 'T'l]V UULKLUV, OUUEV UHVOV UUT<j)

(fornL) µ,~110TE oOLK~01J, ( Gorgias 520d4-5) (o.~mpfo,: I take away, remove. ~

ciow(o., T~s aOLKto.s; injustice. ouoh OELvov: nothing terrible= no fear. µ,~1roTE: Jest

ever. o.OLKEw: J lreal wrongly, commit injustice against.)

Section 18

237

AQrisl optative passive

endings:

-0et riv Au0Et 'TJv

0 that I might be loosed!

-(0)m·ov

-(0)ELTIJV

M0Evrov

~IU0ELTIJV

0 that you might be loosed!

(singular)

0 that he/she/it might be loosed!

Othat you might both be loosed

Othat they might both be loosed

--0aµ,EV

--0EL'fE

--Oe'iev

Au8aµ.Ev or A.u8ELT(f1EV

Au8a-r<E or A.u0Et'!JTE

)w0E~Ev or Au0EL'!JO'CW

0 that we might be loosed!

0 that you might be loosed!

(plural)

0 that they might be loosed!


l.6.ya8o, KA178ei, 17v.

2.xpuaCov KU[, a.pyupwv ~µ,'t,v Tiopw8e(17. (1rop((w: I furnish)

3.0lKUlOO'UV17S KUl awppoauv17s oe178Et-TE.

4 , , , ~ , ~t , , \ e , • " , e ,

.El 17 µ,nu UlKUlOO'UV17S TipU1:,lS apET'Tj Kf\'Tj n17, EU av P'TJ El17;

5.d p178ei,~ olov .. , ELVUl Tuya8a rropLtrn8m upET~V ELvm, Tl a.v cpu[17,;

(rd.ya0a. stands for TO. a.ya0a.. q>aL'!]V is the optative of q>'!]µ,L)

6.EL xpuofov KUl upyupwv µ, ~

OlKULWS Tropw8EL 17, ()"l) a.v UUTll 'ITOpLtrn8Ul

cipET~V KU~IOLTJS;

7 .d.p ' OUK av TOUTO Cl◊lKOV ~UVEL ri; 8.avayKULOV a.v et 'Tj, El TOUTO

1rpax8EL1J.

9.EL OlKUlOO'UV17 µ,~ TIPO<YELTJ, 'ITW<; OUK UV U◊lKOV ~UVELTJ; (·!l'pocmµ,t I am

present)

\ ,..., ~ / J,_I ~ I I ,I /

.apa pc,x.uwv TUYXUVEl ov TO yvwvm eauTov; ... 'l'EPE 017, TlVU av TpoTIOV

Eupe8ELTJ auTo Tou-ro; (Alcibiades I, 129a2-bl, adapted. To yvwvm EauTov: (the

lo ';' ~ /~ / i\

art of how) to know oneself. <j>.'.pE o~: come, then. TLva Tp61rov (accusative of

manner) in what way, by what means ) (for fouT6v see section 25, p.338; yvwvat

is the infinitive of Eyvwv, p.170).


Plato, Meno 77 aZ- 77 e4

Meno tries to define excellence as to rejoice in fine things and have power to

obtain them.

'-'A 'A\\, , 0 , rs ,._,, , \ ,, 1 16 , ~ ,, 11

£,.~6. /1/\U µ,11v 11po uµ,ws YE OUOEV U'ITO/\El~JW, KUL 0-0U EVEKU Kul,

' "" \ I ,,.._ '\ \ 1 rJ \ ' 7 I ' ,t 18 \ \ \

Eµ,auTou, /\Eywv TOLUUTU" U/\/\ O'ITW, 1-1-11 oux ow; T Eo-oµ,m 'ITO/\/\U

~ \ I !\ \ ! "0 19 \:, \ ~ \ \ j \ \ e I 20

TOlUUTU /\E')'El V. U/\/\ l l O'lj 'ITElpW KUL 0-U E!-1-0l T'ljV U1T00-XEO-LV

! 's, ~ 21

UTIOOOUVUl,

\ '1\ 22

KUTU 01\0U

' \ ' ~ I 23

El 'ITWV apET'lj', 1TEpl

e/ 24

OTl

' I \ ~ 25

EO-TlV, KUL 'ITUUO-UL .

15 ~ 1Tpo0uµfo, ~' 1Tpo0uflfo,: willingness.

16hoAEL4,w is the future of ci1roAEL1Tw (with genitive): I am lacking in.

17evEKu (preposition with genitive): for the sake of. i!vEKa usually follows the noun or

pronoun it qualifies as here, o-ou evEKu though it also qualifies EfLUuToiJ. Ef1UUT6v: myself

18A verb such as "I am afraid" is understood before 01Tw,. 01rw, f1~ following a verb

meaning "fear" is like a purpose clause (p.176). If f1~ is translated as lest, the literal

meaning is I am afraid how lest I shall not be able to say many such things , i.e. Jam

afraid that I shall be unable to say many such things Stock ( Plato, Meno, Oxford

1887) notes that the same expression is found at Republic 506d7. '

19ci>..>..' stands for ci>..M. '(BL ( come!) is 2nd person singular imperative of EifLL (J shall

come/go, section 25, pp.330-1) (note the circumflex accent on 1st person singular)

which is used as the future of EPXDfLUL. 'ITELpw is 2nd person singular present imperative

of 1TELpo.01iuL.

20~ u1T6o-xrnL,, TT}, u1Too-xfoEw,: the promise; what is promised is Et 1TELv ciper'ii, 'ITEPL 31l

E<TTLv. Translate cipE~, 1rEpL as if 1rEpl. cipETT},. The inversion does not affect the

meaning except to emphasise cipeTT},, NB, the accent on 'ITEPL moves forward when it

comes after the noun it qualifies.

11ci1TooouvoL ( to fulfil) is the infinitive of u1TEOwKo, the aorist of ci1rooLOwf1L: I give back, I

pay what is owed (here, I fulfil a promise). For oouvoL see p.313; for u1ToOLOWf1L see

p.316. ci1Tooouvm goes after 1Tupw.

22Ku-ru o>..ou: in respect of the whole of. (o>..o,, o>..11, o>..ov: whole.)

24oTL stands for o TL

(what).

251Tuuo-0L is 2nd person singular imperative of .\1ruucro.f111v, the aorist of 1Touof1m: I cease,

stop (doing something). (cf. English "pause".)

Section 18 239

\ , ,... , ,., c , 26 u .J_ , , , A , 27 e , ~

1fOA/\U 1TOUOV EK TOU EVO<;, 01TEp 't'(LO"L TOU', 0-UVTPLt-'OVTU<; TL EKO.O"TOTE OL

j \ \ \ ' I 28 P/\ \ e .-. 29 ? \ 1 I \ ~ I

a1<W1TTOVTES, UI\/\U Euo-us 01111v Km uyL1l ELTIE Tl E<YTLV upET1l· TU uE

I:, I • 30 j j A '1\ ,+.

yE 1mpuuELYfLUTU .Tiup EfLOU ELl\1l't'Ct, •.

EN

A A / 9 "' I I ' \ '

ivf . 0 / 31 ' \

DOKEL TOLvuv fLOL, w bawKpun,,, upET1l ELVm, KU u1rEp o TIOL1lT1l'>

" I 32 \ A \ <:' I 0 " \ , \ A \ / , /

M.yEL, xmpnv TE KU/\OWL Km UUVUO" m l((lL Eyw TOUTO /\EYW upET1lV,

8

A

e1TL UfLOUVTU

A \ A \ /V

TWV KUI\WV OUVUTOV HVUL -rropLl,,EO" UL.

33 ~ 9 0

2610 /iv, Tou Evo,: the one (thing).

27kKaaTOTE: every time. 01JvTp[~w: I break. Translate in the order: 01rEp EKa<TTOTE oL

aKW1TTOVTE<; <j,uo-i. Tou<; cruvTpL~ovTcis TL (1rpcinELv). Tou<; auvTpl~ovTa<; TL: those breaking

something.

28Maa, is masculine nominative singular of the participle of Efoau, the aorist of Mw: I

]eave ( something) as il is • The object of this participle is T~v apET~v ( understood).

Translate as if: CL/IA.a. ECl<TU<; T~V apET~V 0/\'TjV KUL uyL~ EL1TE TL E<TTLV.

29uyL~ is feminine accusative singular of uyL~,: healthy, of pottery, unbroken. (For

the ending of uyL~ see p.265.) oA1Jv and uyL~ qualify T~v apET~v understood with Eaaa,.

30To 1rupciOELYIW, Tou 1rupa8E[yµaTo<;: the example (cf. English paradigm). 1rupci with

genitive: from. For ELA1J<pa, see section 17, p.217.

31KU0U1TEp:justas. b 1TOL'TJT~<;, TOU 1TOL'TjTOu: the poet.

31xulpw (with dative): J rejoice in. KaAoL<TL stands for KaAo'i:, and is neuter. 8uvua0m can

mean to be powerful as well as to be able (to do). The poet is unknown (Sharples,

Plato: Meno, p.137).

33.\1rL6uµouvrn (masculine singular accusative of the present participle active of

.\1rL6uµEw): one desiring. NB with genitive: I am desirous of.


kit.'

'\'II "A pa \/\EyEL<; Tov TWV r<a11wv \ Em ' 0 uµouvTa aya ' 0 wv errL ' 0 uµ:r]Tl]V ' 34 uvm;

9

MEN. Mo.AWTO. YE.

t.,~t. '\'II 'A pa ws ' OVTWV " TlVWV - 35 OL " T(J)V - KUKWV - ETIL ' 0 uµou<JLV, - ETEpwv ' ' UE. ~' OL " Tiov

aya · e- wv; OU ' 'ITUVTES, , wpw-rE, " 36

UOKOUCJL <;, ~ ' CTOL TWV - aya ' 0- WV E.1Tl ' e U[1ELV; -

MEN. OuK eµoL YE.

:EQ. 'At.Ao. Tl VE<; TWV rnr<wv;

MEN. NaL

:EQ. otoµ.E.VOl TO. Ko.ICU ciya0a. ELVUl, AEyu,, ~ KUL YlYVWO-ICOVTES OTl KO.KU

foTlV oµ.ws Em0uµ.ouO-lV U\JTWv;

MEN , A ,1,., 37 ,, '-' -

• f-1-~,0TE.pa Ef-1-0LyE. OOKOU(JlV.

"'n 'H , "' - , 38 , M' , , , ,, , ,

bit. yap UOKEl Tl<; 0-0l, W E.VWV, YlYVWO-KWV TU KUKU OTl KO.KU EO-TLV

oµ.ws Em0uµ.dv au-rwv;

MEN. Mo.AWTU.

'\'II T' , 0 - , , , , 0 39 , _

£.~L. L E.'!Tl uµ.ELv /\EyELs; 'T] yEvE.o- UL au-r4J;

MEN. frn~o-0av Tl yup c01Ao; 40

340 ETIL0ufl'TJT~s, Toii E1TL8uµ,11Toii (with genitive): one who is desirous of; lhe desirer.

Socrates compares fine things (rnM) with good things (dya8ci).

35ovTwv TLvwv: there being some (people) (ovTwv is masculine genitive plural) mpwv:

there being different people ... (for the construction, see "genitive absolute", section

19, p.242ff). there being some (people) who ...is equiv;i.lent to assuming that lhere are

some people who ...

36wpum stands for til upum (literally, Obest man!): my dear fellow! (sarcastic). The

question is in the form that expects "yes", but that is not the answer which is coming.

37 aµ,~oTEpoL, dµ,~oTEpaL, aµ,~oTEpa: bolh. (Neuter plural accusative: this is an accusative

of respect (see pp.36 and 348) and means in (respect of) both cases.)

38 ~ ycip is used here in a kind of protest: does anyone really seem to you ... ? N.B. the

accent on TL, is from croL, which is enclitic. Translate as if -rL,.

39yrnfo0aL is the infinitive of EyEvoµ,11v, the aorist of y,yvoµ,m. To happen to him can

also mean to become his (property). The repetition of yEVElcr8aL by Meno is equivalent

to "yes".

40uAAo: else. (Something else is something other.) Understand EI'TJ (for what else

would be the case?)

Section 18 241

1XJ. IloTEpov ~youµEvoc; TU Kal(O, Wq>EAELV EKELVOV ~ av YEV'T]TUL, ~

I \ \ rt A\ I ? ,1 '"' 41

yvyvwoxwv TU KUl<U OTL t-'I\UTITEL <p av 1rap11;

? , , "

EN E 42 c , , , , .-k \ -.. ' ' ~ ' " '

:M . LO"L [J,EV Ol 17youµEVOL TU KUKU W<yEI\ELV, ELO'LV OE Ol YLYVWO'l(OVTES

g,-L pM,TITEL.

ro. 1 H KUL ◊OKOUO"l

, , ~ \ ~ 43

1CI KUKU W<yEIIELV;

0-0L YLYVWO-KEl V TO, ICUKU OTl l(O,l((l &o-n V oL ~YOUfJ,EVOl

MEN 0 1 I ~ ~ ~ I 44

, U 1TUVU fJ,OL UOKEL TOUTO YE,

,;'{"\ 0, ~ 45 <:, ~ \ " ' ' , , 8 '

;.,U, UKOUV U'T]IIOV OTL OUTOL fJ,EV OU TWV KUKWV E'lrl UfJ,OUO-LV, Ol

' ,... ' I 9 \ \ \ ' I e\ '1 46 ~ 8 \ '? ,t 47 ~ \ ,.., I

nyvooUVTE<; UUTU, U/\1\U EKELVWV a (pOVTO aya a ELVUL, EO-TLV OE TUUTU

I rt 48 ~ , ,... , \ \ , , , 8' 1 '°"'\ rf

')'E l(Ul(U" WO-TE OL ayvoOUVTE', UUTU KUL OlOfJ,EVOl aya a ELVUL O'T]I\OV OTL

rwv dya8wv ETIL8UfJ,OUO-LV. ~ ou;

MEN. KLV◊UVEUOUO-LV ODTOl ')'E,

4111ap~ is 3rd person singular of 'rrapw, the subjunctive of 7!upHf1L The subject is Tu

KUKu (NB neuter plural). ~ iiv 71ap~: to whoever they (bad things) may be present.

42dat µEv o'i, ... there are some who (desire 1hem) thinking evil things ro help, and

some who (desire them) knowing that they harm.

43Translate in the order: 'H rnt ol ~youµEvoL Tu KaKu w~EAEiv ooKoua[ o-oL yLyvwatcELv Tu

KaKu oTL rnKa EO"Tt.v;--· ~ rnt emphasises a question indignantly, cf. Aeschylus,

Agamemnon 1362: ~ Kat ... u11d~oµEv; What! Shall we submit? (u7rd1<w: ! submit.)

44 01\ 1!Ci.vu: not at all. TouToyE = ToilTo YE ( this, indeed). Translate as: this, indeed,

doesn't seem at all (so) to me.

45ouKoilv: surely, then. Understand fo,-t. with ofj/\ov.

46 4\ovTO is 3rd person plural of 4\0µ11v, the imperfect of otf.LUL

4 iTUUTU is the subject of EO"TLV. TUUTU defines a. in a. lpovTO o.ya0u EtVUL.

48wo-TE: so that introducing a conclusion that follows logically. Translate as if: W<YTE

o~Mv EO-TLV OTL OL cl.yvoouvw; UUTU l(UL Ol.Of1EVOL UUTU ElVUL ri.)'a8a E1TL8up.,ot10-LV

TWV a)'a8wv. TU o.ya8ci: good things.

242

New words:

civeu (with genitive)

Section 19

without

<'ipn

just now

E1TLXELpew (with dative)

I attempt 1

µ.kµ,v11µ.m (perfect passive of µ,q1v~01<w) I remember

, ,

[J,'1)1TllJ or [l,'l)oo,'i'i'llJooo

'TO µ.6pwv 1 -rou µ.optou

oµ,oXoye.w

ou8e

ou8E ,,, ou8E ,,,

oU-re. ooo o'U'TE. ooo

'ITOAAOU Sew

cruµ,~at veL

TL M;

not yet (when the negative required i:

part

I agree'

and not, but not, nor, not even

(µ,11oe when plain negative would beµ,~)

not even ... nor yet ...

neither ... nor ...

I am far from

it follows logically 3

And what about this?

(used to introduce the next point)

THE GENITIVE ABSOLUTE

A phrase which contains a participle can qualify the subject of a sentence,

e.g.

1roAAo.s utl 'T]Op~KU[J,EV a.pETo.s j11..UV k'.!!TouvTES (Meno 74a7-8)

we have found again many virtues, seeking one

where seeking one qualifies the subject, we. Such a participle will be in

the nominative case. Similarly, in

,u., I , \ I\ , \ ' \ ,.I..' ,,, A-. (M 70b3 4)

.!a!,!JLLKOfLEVOS ELS T'T]V 1TOI\LV EpUO-TUS E1TL O"OTL</- ELl\'T],vEV eno -

having arrived in the city he has captured lovers for his wisdom

having arrived qualifies he.

1 Also, as a dialectical term, I attempt to prove. From E'TIL ( over) and xElp ( h;:

literally, I set my hand on.

2 From oµ,oLu and M:yw: I say similar things.

3 From cruv ( with) and ~ulvw (J go, step).

Section 19 243

A phfase with a participle in the accusative can qualify the object of a

sentence, e.g.

' \ \ , ' I ',' ~ ..-.. I'(.-.~,,..,.,.,.,. \ 11 ~ \ I ';'

8a CLU'T'T]V TTJV Oll<WV ,EU OlOlKHV, Q:lp~ TO EVOOV KClL KCLTTJKOOV Qllifil]L

TOU dvop6s. (Meno 7le6-8)

It needs her to manage (she must manage) the house well, saving the inside (i.e.

the contents) and being (the) subordinate of lhe man

where saving and being qualify her.

A participle in the dative case can qualify an indirect object, e.g.

f.l .10 Ef;!WTuJVTl (dv0pw·rrip) OUTWS ~ 1TEpL oX~fJ,CLTOS ~ 1TEpL XPWfJ,UTOS El'!TES OTl

Ill\\' ''-'' 0' ,, " A I\ s,, 0 ,~, ""' " \/ II

[LI\/\ OUOE µ.av avw E')IW')IE O Tl ,-,OU/\EL, W av pW'ITE, OUoE OLoa O TL IIE')IELS ,

to-ws av E.0auµ.aaE (Meno 75al-4)

ff to the man asking in this way either about shape or about colour you had said

"But I indeed do not understand what you want, 0 man, nor do! know what you

mean", perhaps he would have been surprised.

Participles are frequently found in the genitive case; they may sometimes

qualify a possessor, but more often they refer to something or someone

neither subject nor object nor indirect object, but contributing to the

circumstances, e.g.

\ ,. ' \ I ~ ,..,. ? I r, , I \ " rt

KClL au El TiEpL XPWfJ,a'TOS WO'UUTW<; UVT]pETO O TL EO"TLV, KUL EL'!TOV'TOS O"OU OTL

, ' , , ~ , ,, A , , ~ "n, , ' , ~ , ,

TO I\ElJICOV, fJ,E'Ta TaUTa U'iTEAa,-,EV O EpWTWV" OTEpOV TO /\EUKOV XPW[l,U EO"TlV

'I] " xpwµ.a ~ ' 'TL " EL'ffE', ' av " OTL " xpwµ.a ~ ' Tl; (M CnO 74 C 5 -8)

And if again likewise about colour he had asked what it is, and J!QJ.1.Jiaving saiq_that

white (is), after that the questioner had interrupted: "Is while colour or a colour?",

would you have said "A colour?"

you having

In the last example, you is not subject, object or indirect object.

said indicates the circumstances of the interruption, and could be

paraphrased as when you had said or if you had said.

Such a phrase with a participle and noun or pronoun in the genitive case

is called genitive absolute. This use of the genitive case is consistent

with Greek expressions of time, in which the genitive case is used to mean

during, e.g.

Tfjs 'TTPWTTJS ~ftEpus: during the first day. 4


00 ,- 0 (vuv T~<; E1TLOU0-1)S ~µ,Epas olµ,m auTo ~~ELv ( Crito 44a5)

WeJI J do not think it to be going to have come during the day (which is)

' approaching 5


1.-rou<; 1TUl0US 1Ta(tovrns opwµ,Ev. (not genitive absolute)

2.-rwv 1rurnwv 1rmt6v-rwv, mu TTMTwvos ~Kouoµ,Ev. (genitive absolute)

3.-rou ITM-rwvos /\E')'OVTOS, TIUVTE<; ~Kouov.

4.TOU IlAaTWVOS TUUTU EL1TOVTOS, TIUVTES l8uuµ,ao-av.

5.-roG TTAUTwvo<; rnGrn ELpTjKOTOS, TiaVTES EL<; T~v TIO/\LV ~A8ov.

6.TOU TIM-rwvo, h T1J TIO/\EL ovw,, 1TUVTES c&xap110-av.

7.ifµ,ou oeoµ,Evou, T~v uA~8ELuv O~/\wo-ov!

8.ifµ,ou oq8Ev-ros, T~V UA~8uav o~Awo-ov!

9.E.µ,ou 0E0[1EVOU, U'TrOKplVOLO av;

10.Eµ,ou 0E1]8EVTOS UTIEKp(,011, av;

l l .µ,a811-r~, -rou TTM-rwvo, wv, out rnurn 1ro/\Aou oe'i:,c; TOUTO uyvoe'tv.

12 ~'A '' 8 ~ - TI'' " A: ' f/ , , ....

~.TOU pLO-TOTE/\OU<; µ,a 'T]TOU TOU /\UTWVOS OVTOS, o-uµ,t-'ULVEL OTL KUL UUTOU

UKOUEL V E8EAOf-1,E V.

13.-ru OU1TW OEO'Tj/\Wf-1,EVU 'TrUVU uyvoouµ,ev.

14.Tu µ,~TIW OEO'T]/\Wf-1,EVU 1TUVU uyvoouµ,Ev.

15.Tu apTL AEX8EVTU U'T/0 TOU Il/\aTWVO<; o:yvow.

16.TOUTWV U'TI'O TOU TTAa.TWVO<; apTL AEX8Ev-rwv, OLCL TL OUK olo-8a T~V O.A~0ELuv;

17.vuv 0~ EKELVU ~011, Ji l(j!)a'i,opE, ouvuµ,e8a KplVHV, TOUTWV wµ,oAO')''TJ1-1EVWV.

(Phaedrus 277a6-7) (ti1µ,011oy11µ,lvwv is neuter plural genitive of the perfect participle

passive of 0µ011oyEw)

1 SJµ,ou u1r0Kp(vrn6m ETILXELpouv-ros ou1< ~KouE,.

19 ' ' ' ' ~ 8' " ,!..'

.TOUTWV fl,ETU µ,opLOU apET'T]S 1rpax EVTWV, W<; 0-U 'i'\l>,

KUTUKEpftaTllEL,; (Ku-ruKEpµ,u-rLtw: I chop up small)

20.TOUTWV 1TO/\/\UKL<; AEX8EvTwv, OU'IT(J) f-1,Ef-1,V'T]0-0UL ouvaµ,e8u. ( 1TOAl\o.1<t<;: often, many

times) (A participle clause can be equivalent to the English although ... )

5E1rlwv, E1rL0Ucro., e1r1.,ov: approaching, the participle of E1TEL~u: I approach. For

Lou<Ju, Uiv, seep. 331.

'' LWV,

Section 19

THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE

The future passive tense describes what will be done to the subject;

e.g. "I shall be saved". 6 It is formed by affixing future passive endings

to the unaugmented stem of the aorist passive.

245

Future passive endings:

-(0),IJaoµ,m I shall be ...

-(0)11o"YJ you will be...

singular

Au&t'jaov,m

)rn&t'Jo"ll

I shall be loosed

you will be loosed 7

-(0)110-E'faL he/she/it will be...

-(B)eoflov you wiJJ both be ...

-(0)eoflov they will both be ...

Au&ficre-r1u

he, she, it will be

loosed

dual

Au0·qo·eoflov you will both be loosed

Au0·qo-eo-Oov they will both be loosed

•(0)'Y]<Yoµ,e8a, we shall be ...

-(0)'1Jaiso0rE you will be ...

•(Elh<Yovwu they will be ...

plural

A:u0110'0µ,e6a

A. u&t'ja1Ea6e

A.u&t'jrronai,

we shall be loosed

you will be loosed

they will be loosed.

Examples:

ypa.<p~O'oµ,cu: I shall be written

011A.w&t'jaoµ,m,: I shall be shown

KA11&t'Jrroµ,at: I shall be called

AE)(&t'jaoµ,m, also p118'1iao11-m: I shall be said

1Tot718rjrro11a~: I shall be made

1ipax8rjaoµ,m: I shall be performed

cpav~aoµ.a~: I shall appear, be demonstrated

6Very occasionally, a future middle is used where we should expect a future passive,

e.g. 'Co·W$ 1rapo. TO &0os yEAot.a a.v ~a[voL-ro El :rrpo.cE-rm ~ AEyETm (Republic 452a7-8)

Perhaps against (our) custom they would seem ridiculous if they are done as it is said.

(1rapn with acc.: against, contrary to. yeilot.os, yeilo[a., yEAofov: ridiculous)

7 Alternatively ilu8~cm, but -8~0"\l is the usual ending in Plato, e.g. ou yup a.µ,EATJ8~cr11

(Laws 905a4) for you will not be neglected (from a.µ,EAEw: 1 neglect).



l.1Tws Au817cr6µ,e8a; 2.8La Tl trn8~o-ovrm oL

8ou/\oL; 3.Tl 1TOLTj0~CYETO.L;

4.auToL voµ,o8eTm KA.178~0-ovwL. (o voµ,08h11s, roil voµ,08.srou: the legislator)

(Laws 68ld2)

5.TU T'JlS -rr6/\€WS ei U1TO TWV CTO~WV -rrpax8~oum.

6.EUV TOUTO µ,a.v86.v'\]S, at..178ws (truly) µ,a817r~s TOU TIA.6.Twvos ~O.V~0-1J.

7.-rrepl. EKO.CYTTJS EpWT~CTEWS ~ at..~8ELo. O\J 017t..w8~CYETaL. (~ EPWT1]0-LS, T'T}S

Epwr~o-Ew,: the question)

8.u~' ~fl,WV TOLUUTO. OU AEX8~CYE.TaL.

9 ' ..J.. I ( < ' \) ' I "\ e \ l<i, ', 'I;' I

.EL 'l'UVT]CTE.TO.L 17 apETTj E.1TLCYT'T]fl,Tj 01\0V, ws (YU CYTIEUOELS, w bWKpaTE.<;,

8auµ,6.uwv form µ,~ ◊LOO.Krov ov. (Protagoras 36lb5) ( ~ E1rwr~µ,1J, r~ E1rwr~µ,11s:

science, knowledge, learning. ollov (neuter): asa a whole thing, entirely. o-1rEuow:

I insist. 8cwµ,cio-ws, 0uuµ,uo-(u, 8uuµ,cio-Lov wonderful, remarkable. OLOaKr6s, OLOaKT~,

OLOaKr6v : able to be taught.)

10 .rouTo ~ oure " \/\EX 8' 17uerm oure " ypa'l'17creTm ,k' ' TIOTE aveu " rexv17s. ' (f rorn

Phaedrus 271b7) (~ TEXV1J, r~s rExv11s: art, skill in this context, literary skill.)

The future passive infinitive

Au~aea0m ( to be about to be loosed)

KUL d f!,EAAEL oA(yov xp6vov uw8fiuw8a1,_ (Apology 32a2)

even if he is going to be saved for a little while

µ,D.Aw: (with future infinitive) I am going to ol\[yov xp6vov: for a little while

The future passive participle

11u&rp6µ,;;:vos 9 Au817croµ,kv119 AuEl-1jo-6µ,Evov (about to be loosed).

uvbpes ofous ◊EL EV 1r6AEL TOUS o-w81jCYOV,,EVOUS (dva.L) (Theaetetus 176d4-5)

men such as those about to be saved in a city must be

A note on µ,~hAw: I in tend to, am going to... ~

fl,EAAw with an infinitive is used as a way of making a statement

about the future. µ,et..Aw is found in Plato followed by present, future

and aorist infinitives e.g. with a present infinitive:

Section 19

247

~-EA.Aw croL Ta µ,ucrT~pw 11.EyELv ( 11ieaetetus 156a3)

I am going to tell you the secrets

( To µuO"T~pLOv, Tou µuO"n1p(ou: the mystery, the secret)

with a future infinitive:

fJ,EAAw yap uµ,us OL6<l£ElV (Apology 2lbl)

For I am going to teach you.

The subject does not have to be a person:

EL µ,Ell.AH ~ 1Toll.L TELU a0(rn0m (Republic 412a10)

If the constitution is going to be saved ...

~ 1roALTELa, TTI> 1roALTELa,: the constitution

An aorist infinitive is rarer, but there are some in Plato, e.g.

EL µEA/I.EL KUKO<; :YEVEcrtlm, OEL UUTOV 1rpoTEpov ciya0ov yEvfo0m (Protagoras 345b7)

if he is going 10 become bad, he must first become good.

Smyth (Greek Grammar, para 1959) notes that an aorist infinitive with µEAAw

stresses the beginning of an action or that it is the consequence of something

else.

µEAAw can mean I delay.

µ~ µ.\AAwµev fo: Jet us not delay any longer.(Laws 712b3)


1. ola0a oDv o µ,EA.Ans vuv Tipa.TTELV. (Protagoras 312b7)

2. Aav0a.vETw, El fJ,EAAEL aqioopa UOLKOS ELvm. (Republic 361a3)

(Aav0uvw: I escape nolice, am not noticed (T(j,6opu: very, exceedingly)

3.(My supernatural sign would oppose me) EL TL µ,EAAOLfJ,L v-~ op8wc; TIPU£ELV.

(Apology 40a6)

Hyw <po~ouµ,m 1TEpl TWV fJ,EA/1.oVTWV p170~arn8m. (Symposium 189b5)

(qio~oDµm: I am afraid Twv µeAAovTWv is neuter)

5 .. EL fLET0.1TL'TTTEL 1TUVTU KO.l fL'T]OEV fLEVEL ... OUTE o yvwaoµ,Evos OUTE TO

yvwa017a6µ,evov o.v e'i'.17. (adapted from Cratylus 440a7-b4)

(µeTa1rt1rTw: I change suddenly (literally, I fall differently) µ11okv: nothing

yvwO"oµuL is the future middle with active meaning of yLyvwo-Kw yvwo-0~o-oµm is

the future passive of yLyvwo-Kw)


'

A

oanao1llv

oo-Turoi.lv (anybody whatsoever) and OTLoi.lv (anything whatsover) are found

in Plato in the following cases:

singular

nominative (masculine) OO'TLUOUV (neuter) cmouv

accusative

genitive

dative

nominative

(masculine) ov1woi.lv or OVTLvuoi.lv

(feminine) ~v-rLvouv or ~v-rLvuouv

(masculine) o-rouofrv

(feminine) ~o-TLvoo-oi.lv

(masculine) oToi.lv

(feminine) ~1wLouv

plural

(neuter) o'!'wuv

(neuter) OTOUOUV

(neuter) OT(j)oi.lv

accusative

genitive

dative

(masculine) ouo-TL vo.o-ouv

(feminine) ao-TLvuo-oi.lv

(masculine) wvTLVt.tlvouv

(neuter) wvTLvwvouv

(feminine) wvTLvwvoi.lv

(masculine) oLo-TwLvouv

(feminine) ULO'TLo-Lvoi.lv

(The forms shown in bold type are the more common.)

Note particularly the use of the neuter accusative singular o·rLoi.lv to

mean in the Jeasl, al all (e.g. in no.3 below.)


1 , , '' , , ,1,. " , - ,,, ' , , , ' e- , ,

.E.L fLE./1/\E.L O O-W~1pwv 'T] 00-TLffOUV U/\/10', TOV (ll', 0,/\lj (t)', LUTpov

3wyv@o-rn0aL, Ka.l. Tov µ,~, d.p' m',x Joe. TIOL~o-u .•. ; (Charmides 170e4-5) 8

2.EL ECJTLV OLOUKTOV OTl.OUV Tipiiyµ,u, 1-1~ µ,ovov apET~, OUK (eo-·nv)

avayi<u'i:ov U\JTOU KUL OLOUCJKO./\OUS KUL µ,a0l]TCIS E.LVUL; (Meno 89d6-8)

(1lLom<'r6s: able to be taught. b 1koa.o-Ka.\o,, Toi', oLoao-Ka..\ou: the teacher)

8 0 o-w~pwv: the prudent or sensible man. ws o..\110w,: as truly, i.e. genuine. owyLyvwu,

(future owyvwo-01Lm): I detect, tell (cf. diagnose). <iloE: thus, in this way 1roLEw (here):

proceed.

Section 19

249

3Jµ,0L 0a11a.1·ou ••• µ,EAa ouo • o-rwuv. (Apology 32dl)

(b 0a.va:ros, -rou 0a.va:rou: death f1EAEL: it matters. /mouv: in respect of anything af

all)

.4:rrws a.v EUOaLµ,wv yevovro av0pw1TOS oouAEUWV O'i"(J)OUV; ( Gorgias 491e5)

(eu8a.lµ.wv, Eu8a.Lµ.ovos: fortunate. OOUAEUW (with dative): I am a slave to. OT(pOUV is

masculine).

5 ' \ \ '1 ' \ \ \ \ ' \ ti t\ " " (' ) I

,a,UTO TO urov, ClUTO TO KCll\OV, ClUTO EICClO'TOV O EO'TLV, TO 011, apa 11-'TJ

1TOTE µ,eTa~oA'TJV Kat ~v-nvouv E116Exei-aL; (Phaedo 78d3-5)

(i:cros, LITT], \'.o-ov: equal. To ov ( the being (neuter)) is used for the real. apa. µ.~

introduces a question expecting the answer "no". ~ f1ETa.~OA1J, ,-~s f1ETa.~oA11s:

change. iv8exoµ.a.L (with accusative): I allow of, I accept, I admit Ka.l (here):

even.)

Plato, Meno 77e5-7 8c3

Meno, allhough he has argued that not everyone desires "good" things, is

compelled to agree that nobody wants to become wretched by obtaining "bad"

things, and to accept Socrates' interpretation of his definition of excellence.

m. T(, of; OL TWV KClKWV fLE.V E.'iTL0uµ,ouvTES, ws <p~s cru, ~youµ,evOL OE TU

\ Q\ I , .,.. t " / / ~ / r/

KClKCl 1-'I\Cl'ITTHV EKHVOV 41 av 'YL'Yll'TJTClL, 'YL')IVWO'KOUOW O'Tj1'fOU O'TL

R' (.I , 9 , , , ~ 10

t'I\ClJ-''TJO'OV'TaL U'IT ClUTWv;

MEN.' Ava.yK'Tj,

io.' AA/,u TOUS ~AU'iTTOfLE.VOUS OUK OLOl/TClL a.0X(ous ELVUL Ka0' 00-0V 11

~Aa.'il''TOVTUL;

MEN. Kat TOUTO a.va.yq.

~() T ' ,:,, '0' I ' <:, I 12

k,U, ous OE Cll l\LOUS OU KUKOoCll,µ,ovas;

MEN. OLµ,m, ~')IW')IE,

:£0.VEcnw o'Ov OCYTL<; ~OUAETUL a0Aws Kill KClKOOa(µ,wv ELVClLj

MEN. Ou jJ,OL ◊OKEL, (11 l:w1<paTES.

9~Aa.~~O'ovTm is 3rd person plural of PAa.p~O'oµ.m, the future passive of PMmw, and

means they will be harmed.

10inr' a.ihiiiv: through their agency.

11Ka.0' oO'ov: in so far as. Translate as if: 'AAM oOToL ou1< ofovwL Tou, ~Aa.1TT0µ.evous

d.BX.lou<; Elva.L 1<0.0' OO'OV ~Au'ITTOVTa.L;

12o'i'.ovTm is understood. Translate as if: clp ' oU v-EvTot. otov7a.L TolJ~ d.0/\(ous e1vat.

Ka.1<080.Lµ.ova.s;

For a0Aws and 1<a.ico8a.Lµ.wv see p.217.


"'n O' " f.l ,, , M' ' ' ,~ , 13 " 14 ' f.l '\

k<H, UK apu /-'OU/\ETUl, w EVWV, TU 1(0,1(0, OUOElS, EVITEP 11-TJ /-'OU/\ETUL

"" 9 / ' "\ \ 15 ' \ "0' 9 'I\ 16 9 0 - -

TOLOUTO', ELVUl. Tl yup U/\/\0 EUTlV U /\LOV ELVUl TJ ETIL uµ,uv TE TWV

1<a1<wv 1<al KTiia0m. 17

MEN. KLVOUVEUElS O.Al]0~ 18 AE')'ElV, c1 lwKpUTES, l((lL ouod, 19 ~OUAEa0m

' ,

TU KUKU.

~" O' - -.:,, "' 20 ,, ,, , , , f.l '\ 0 , , 0, 21 ,

i,;U, UKOUV VUVO'T] E/\E')'ES OTL EO-TLV TJ upETTJ /-'OU/\EU UL TE TU')'U U !CUL

ouvua0m;

MEN. E:rrov yap. 22

1\'CrrEp: if indeed.

15 1£11110: else.

16 ~: than.

17,c-rii0'0aL is the infinitive of K-ruoµ,aL (section 16, p.206; for the infinitive ending, see

p.207).

18u11118~ is neuter plural accusative of u11118~,: true, and means true things, i.e. the

truth.

19,cLvouvEun is understood with ouoEt, (nobody).

10vuvo~: just now. e11EyE, is 2nd person singular imperfect of AEyw.

21-ruya06. stands for -ru uya86. here and throughout the dialogue.

22When yup is not used to explain something which has gone before, but as part of an

answer to a question, it can mean yes as here or no with a negative.

Section 19 251

~n O, ~ ~ \ 0, 23 ' ' R '\ 0 ~ ' ' '

µ•• UKOUV TOUTOU /\EX EVTOS TO [LEV t--'OU/\EU m TfUUlV U'Tmpxn, Km

, 24 , ~, , " ~ , , R \ , 25

1a\JT1] 'YE OUOE.V O E.TEpos 'TOU E'TEpou t--'EI\TlWV;

' 26

MEN. ql)a[vETUl.

to. , AA/1.U O'TjAov 27 OTl El'ITEP EU'TL ~E/1.'TlWV aA/1.os (l{\/1.0U, 28 KUTU TO

Suvau

/ 0

m av .,,

ELTJ

" 29

UfLHVwv;

' '

MEN. nuvu -yE. 30

2\ouTou AEx8hTo,, this having been said, is genitive absolute. "This" refers to Meno's

definition of excellence: E(mv ~ apET~ ~ouArn8a( TE Taya0c'r. Kat ouvmr8m. There are two

parts of the definition: it is (i) to want, and (ii) to be able (to obtain) good things. To

fLEV ~ouArn0a.: the on the one hand thing, to want, i.e. the first (part), wanting.

Socrates aims to contrast ~ouArn8m and ouvao-0m. Translate in the order To µ,Ev

~ou>.rn0m u1rupxn 1riio-w (av8pw1rw;). (Here, in particular, the translation excellence

for a.poi seems to suit Meno's aristocratic outlook better than virtue.)

24The feminine singular dative of olno,, TaUTlJ, is sometimes used alone to mean on

this paint or in this way.

25~EAT(wv, ~EA·nov (feminine as masculine): better (section 23, p.296). o ETEpo, ... Toil

hEpou ... : the one .... than the other .... (NB use of genitive to mean than, for which see

section 23, p.301. Here, there is no idea of contrasting two particular men, but any

two men, as in the English one man is in no way better than the next.)

26It seems (so). Socrates' interlocutors often say this when they only accept what

has just been said with some reservations.

27Translate as if o~Mv Eo-nv.

28ii>.>.o, ... u>.\ou ... :one .... than another.

29Ei'.11 is 3rd person singular of the optative of Elµ,L aµ,E(vwv: better (see p.297.). (a.µ,E(vwv

is more or less synonymous with pEh(wv, and both are very common in PlaLO.) This is

a mixed condition, i.e. the condition itself is open: if indeed one man is better than

another but the conclusion is unlikely: he would be better l{(lT(t ,o 8uvm:r0aL

301ruvu YE (alloge1her, indeed) is oflen used to express complete agreement with

Socrates: quite so.


't'n e " 31 , , , \ , , t' , 32

,s,,~L. Toih' EO-TLV upa, ws EOLKE, KUTU TO aov 11oyov apET~, OUVU[J,LS Toil

1rop(lrn8at Ta.ya0ci;

MEN. TiavTCl'ITUO-L 3 3 [1,0l ◊OKEL, til !wKpaw;, ourw,; EXELV ws 0-U vilv

< \ ~ I 34

U'IT011aµ,l-'aVEL',.

311n w, EoLicE, the subject of EOLKE is il. w, EOLKE: as it seems .

.lZ~ ouva.µL<;, .~, ouvaµEWs: power, ability (with genitive expressing what it is the power

of).

3\mv-ra-rmcn(v): in every way, all in all.

34i'i1ro.\a.µ~avw: I understand, interpret (literally, I take up what is said in a certain

way, cf. the English expression I take it). ou-rw, EXELv: to be so.

253

New words:

·a~' of>

i1Tet 9 ,h,a8~

J:ra

ew,

t811

~vtr<a

Section 20

(pluperfect of oloa, used for its past tense)

p,kxf>L

0 ~EVOS9 'iOU ~EVOU

oAtyos 9 011.t'Y"h oAtyov

ofe

ever since

when, after, since

then

until, while

l knew

at the time when

until, (with genitive) as far as

the stranger, the foreigner 1

little (in plural, few)

at the time when

1Tpb (with infinitive except in a negative sentence) before

(fo) 1rp6-r.r;pov (adverb) earlier

I

O'l(E'ITTO(J,UL

, ,I, I L

EO'KE't'Uj1 '1)11

I consider, examine

I consider( ed)

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

In English, clauses beginning when, at the lime when, as soon as, ever

since, after that, until, while and before are adverbial clauses of time, i.e.

they give the circumstances of an action, e.g.

when I had learned geometry, I became a student at the Academy.

"When I had learned geometry" describes the circumstances in which I

became a student there.

o-re and 'llvt1eu mean when, al the time when:

fopyLq. oDK JveTUXE, OTE lv8a./)E ~v; (Meno 7lc5)

Did you not meet Gorgias (at the time) when he was here?

1Also sometimes the guest, especially the guest-friend with whom one would stay in

a distant city, who would reciprocally stay with you when visiting your city.

2Aorist both of crKE.1TToµ.m and cr1<01rew, where it has active meaning.


' ' ' 0' " ' ' 0 A " '

TJVLKU Efl,UV UVETE, omrw 1]1TWTWJ E TUUTU a Efl,UV 0' UVEH:; (E·ut h y d emus 276a7-8),

At the time when you were learning, you didn't yet understand those things Whi b

you were learning, did you?

c

( ~1rLama8E is 2nd person plural of ~Tiwro.µ'l]v, the imperfect of E1TLO"Ta.fLUL, I understand)

hEt 9 hE~o~ mean when, after, since:

'Op0ws YE /\Eywv au, E'ITEL KUL iyw /\Eyw OU µ,ovov OLKULOCJUV1]V (],/\(\(1 KUL U/\/\us

ELVUL apETCl',. (Plato, Meno 73e8)

Indeed you ( are) speaking correctly, ~ince I also say there to be not only justice but

also other virtues.

'EKE'i.vov µ,Ev To(vuv lwµ,Ev, EJTELOh Kal a11wTLv. (Plato, Meno 7ld4)

So let us on the one hand disregard him, since also he is not here. 3

we; means when (i.e. after) as well as as:

' <;,\ "' I 0 \ j \ A j 9 (' e I

) j / < / '

!!!S, 0€ OLETIUUO-Ufl,E U KUL EYW TUUT EL1TOV, 0 ~paO-Ufl,UXOS OUKETL ljO-UXLUV 'T]YEV

(Plato, Republic I, 336b4)

But when we had paused and I had said these thinp, (Thrasymaclws) did not keep

quiet any longer.

Notice that Greek often uses an aorist verb in a temporal clause where

English would use a pluperfect ("had").

Note also d.<j,' oo: ever since.

ews means until, while:

◊LE/\Eyoµ.E0u ills. o-uvwµ,o/\oy~o-aµ,Ev 0./\/\~/\0LS. (Plato, Protagoras 314c7)

We conversed until we had agreed with each other. 5

I\",,,-,

'A\\\'''",!,. ''HI\

/1/\U ICUL EfLE, faplj, TOV iO/IEWV 1TUpUKU/IEL, £.!!!S, ETL OW', ECYTLV,

But summon me also, he said, (as) !oleos, while it is still light. 6 (Plato, Phaedo 89c7)

Section 20 255

fL~XPL means until:

o OE ELo-T~cm ~ EWS EYEVETo. (Plato, Symposium 220d3)

and he stood unW. dawn J1appe11ed. 7

Plato seldom uses µEXPL for until, and he does so here presumably to avoid Ew, Ew,

JyivETo for until dawn happened. More commonly, he uses µEXP' (with genitive) to

mean up to, as far as, e.g.

11EXPL Tou µfoou: as far as the middle ( of the earth, Phaedo 112 el ). 8

Temporal clauses referring to the future, and indefinite

temporal clauses

When the sense of the main clause is primary (present, perfect or future),

these are expressed by av and the subjunctive:

Indefinite clauses:

I I ' \/ rl \I rt .... ~ \ ~ I 't

TOUTO yap ECYTlV ilE'/ELV, OTUV /\E')'1\ TLS, OTL 1TU(JU lj fLETU OLKULOO'UVljS 11pU<:,L<;

apET~ ECYTLV. (Meno 79c6)

For this is to say, whenever anyone says ( it), that every action with justice is virtue.

(ihuv stands for oTE /iv)

, ~, , , 0 ,

ETIElOUV TLS 1TEpL fLljpOU fLVljO-0 _ , 8 , , , , , , ,._

1], EU US TE E')'pljyopa KUL 11pOO-EXW TOV VOUV

Whenever anyone, mentions Homer at once I both wake up and pay attention.

(Ion 532c2)

(E1rELOO.v stands for E1TELO~ + a.v. Eu8u,: at once. µv11a8~ is 3rd person singular of 11v1Ja8fu,

the subjunctive of ,\µv~o-0-qv (p.230). lyp~yopu, the perfect of iyE[pw I arouse is used to

mean I am awake, have been aroused. 1rpoaExw Tov vouv: I pay a1tention, apply (my)

mind.)

With reference to the future:

E1TEL◊av 9

fLOl (Yl) TOUT' Eh11s, Ji Lh1<pUTES, Epw 0-0l. (Meno 76b2-3)

.When you say this to me, 0 Socrates, I'll te/I you.

3Eo.w: I let go, allow, permit, disregard.

4

ow1ruuorcm: I pause. -~auxLav a.yw: I keep quiet.

5auvoµoAoyew: I agree (with dative).

61rupuKUAEw: I summon, call to my aid. To ,pw,, Tou ,pwT6, (contracted from To ,jJa61):

(day)Jight. (loleos (or Iola us) was Heracles' nephew, upon whom, when fighting the

hydra, according to Plato (Euthydemus 297c) he called for help.)

\laT~KEL is 3rd person singular pluperfect of EOT1JKU, I stand (p.91). See also section

24. ~ ew,, Tij, ew: the dawn.

8µfoo,, µfo'l], µ,foov: middle.

9i11rELoo.v with an aorist subjunctive here ( d1r11,): at such time as. NB Epw is the future

ofMyw. (section 12, p.136).


" '" '0' "'t" ' '" ('·/[ 97br.6

£WS. 'Y av 1rnu op 11v uo.,av EX1J, •.. "T]")'E[LWV E◊'TUL. 1v1eno ::,- )

Indeed, ~ong_as he has correct opinion, I pr:esume, ... l1e will be a leader.

(o ~yEµwv, Tou ~yEµovos: the leader, guide.)

µ&XOL oD:rrEp uv (w◊'LV (Protagoras 325c5)·

for as long as they may live. 10

(Literally, this means: up to the very (point) they may live).

When the verb in the main clause is historic or secondary (imperfect

aorist or pluperfect) 11 or is in the optative, a future or indefinite temporal

clause does not have av with subjunctive, but a verb in the optative:

E1TEL~ OE ... OEOL. CiE OLOOVUL Myov, wo·auTW<, UV OLOOL11'> ..• EWS E'iTl TL lKUVov

/L\0oL<; (Phaedo 101d6-el)

but whenever it was necessau for you to give an account ... you would give it in the

same way ... until you should come upon something sufficient 12

I

'ITf»ll,V

1Tptv: before is usually followed by an infinitive (rather as we say "before

speaking" instead of "before I spoke").

'Q LwKpUTE<;, ~KOUOV €YW'YE 1[~ KUl CTU:Y:YEVE.<30m CTOL ... (Meno 79e7)

0 Socrates, I myself used to hear even _before U.JF.J.:LOu .. ... 13

1rpl.v OE Au0~vaL aurnu T~V 0u·yaT~pu, Ev" Ap·yu €<p"T] (o.uT~v) y11pa.cmv.

and before his daughter was set free, he said her to be going to grow old in Argos (i.e.

that she would grow old in Argos.)(Republic 393e7-8)

~ 8uy6T1JP, TTJS 0uyaTEpos: the daughter. )'1Jp6o-w is the future of y11p601cw: I grow old.

"ApyEL is the dative of "Apyos.

1,6.w: I live.

11See section 8, p.76.

12oloovm is the present infinitive active (p.3O9) and oLOoL1J~ is 2nd person singular,

present optative active (p.310) of WlwµL: I give. oLOoL 11s is the verb in the main clause.

hr( with accusative: upon.

13o-uyylyvoµmwith dative: I meet.

Section 20 257

\ ' \ I,/ ~, " I ll \ \ I ~ \ ' \ P.

TU UW)(pO. lpE'YOl UV ETI., VEOS WV, Jif).1)!. t\Oyov OUVUTO', illfil /\0,f-'ELV.

He would object to shameful things while still young, ])__efore being able to grasp the

reason. (Republic 402al)

ataxp6,, uto-xpu, u'Co-xp6v: shameful. tj"~yw: I censure, objecl to. vfo,, vfo, vfov: young

8uvuT6,, ouvuT~, ouvuT6v: able.

In negative sentences when ·rrpCv can be translated as until, it follows the

same rules as &·mL

' ,, ? ,I / 0 / " (;'.:- ~ \ 14

Q!lK av EO"l(E~JUµ.E a 1TpOTEpov ElTE OWUKTOV

,1 ') ~ ~ \ ~ ' I \ ~I

ElTE OU 01.,UUKTOV 11 apET'fj, 1Tpi.,V_ 0

Tl &cnt.v 1rpwTov Ek'.JF'.IjO"Uµ,Ev mh6. (Meno 86d4)

we would not have considered whether virtue is something teachable or not

teachable until we had so.JJght first what it itself is.

In negative sentences when ·rrpCv must be translated as before, it is followed

by an infinitive:

TCLUT\l T~ LO.TplK~ OUK &xpwvTo 1rpt.v 'HpoOLKOV yEvfo0m. (Republic 406a6-7)

They did not use this medical art before Herodicus was born.

11 tuTp1.,K~, TfJ, tuTp1.,K-ij,: the medical art xpuoµ,u1., (with dative): J use


l.oTE oL µ.a0TjTUl &v T~ TIOAEl ~O"O.V, o rn,O.TWV o.1r11v.

2 , \ ' fl\ ' ' ~ ' , \ ~ "\ \ ,I ~ "

.E'ITEl O I\UTWV O.Tf'TJV, ElTO. EYW TWV 0.1\1\WV O"O~)WV 'TJKOUOV.

3.ws OE. o TTA6.nov ~A0Ev ELS T~V TIOAlv, 1TO.VTES O.UTOU 0.l(OUElV EpouAOVTO.

4 .Ewe; " 0 ' 1-n U\O.TWV ' EV ' T1] ~ 'ITO/\El '\ EO-TlV, ' O.UTOU ' ~ O.KOUElV ' ' 1TO.VTES ' P ~•OU/10!-1-E \' 0 a.

5.1ruvTES Ev T~ 1r6AEL ~µ.evov, E(!)<; Tou Tou TIMTwvos Aoyou ~Kouov.

6.o'A.Cyo1., TWV EV T~ 116AEL iiµ.nvav, EW<; TOU TOU nMTwvoc; Aoyou ~KOUO"UV.

7.1rpl.v TOV ITMTwva TOUTO AEynv, 11'0.VTE/\W<; ~1ropouµ.Ev.

8.1rpl.v o TT'A.chwv el'ITEV, TOUTO 811Aov ouK ~v.

9.TO OE µ,~ 1ropCtrn0m xpuo-Cov KO.L a.pyupwv, OTO.V µ.11 OlKUlOV ~' OUK a.pET~

EO"Tl.,v; (from Meno 78e3-5)

10. KU0apEuwµ.ev o.1r' O.UTOU EW<; UV o 0Eo<; UUTOS (l1TOA.U0"1] ~µ.a,. (Phaedo 67a5-6)

(Ku0upEuw: Jam pure. d:rr' uuTou refers to the body. cho11.uw: I release.)

1 Uo-TLV O\)V OO'Tl', TOUTOV 1TO.VTO. 8eoCoaxEv; OlKULO<; yup TIOU El ELOEVUL, aAAwc;

TE ETIELO~ Ev Ti\ <ri\ OlKL(I, yEyovEv.

(Meno 85e3-5)

(oLKuLo,: the right person li.11.11.w, TE: especially TouTov refers to Meno's slave boy.

yeyova (here): I liave been born.

148LouKTov (neuter of 01.,ouKT6,): something capable of being taught.


12.ouKOUV, ~v 8' Eyw, oDTOl YE TOLOlOE. yCyvoVTUL LOL<), KUL TrPLV upxELv;

(Republic 575e3-4) (iotq,: in (their) private life .. o~TOL refers to tyrannical men.)

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE

"I had done", "you had done", etc. (sometimes called "the past perfect" in

English) is used to describe a past action that happened before another

past action. (Its name comes from the Latin plus quam perfecwm: "more ;

than perfect".)

Because an aorist is often found in Greek where in English "had" occurs in

temporal clauses, e.g. after "when" or "until", in past time referring to a

previous occurrence, the pluperfect tense is more rarely used in Greek

than in English. Its effect is to stress that one action completely preceded

another.

The pluperfect active

This is formed from the perfect. It has an augment as well as

reduplication, and is as follows:

endings:

singular

-11v (&)AEA.uKJ:i I had loosed

·11s (e)AEA.uK!!£ you had loosed

•Et (<E)AeAUKEt(v) he/she/it had loosed

dual

'"'ETOV (Js)AeAIJKETov you had both loosed

'"'E'M)V (Js)l,E/l.uK~T1JV they had both loosed

plural

•EiJ,EV (E)AeAuK~v we had loosed

·E'i"E (e)AEA.urce'l"e you had loosed

•EUUV (e)AeAuKE()"(lV they had loosed

A pluperfect is occasionally found after EL where in Greek arf aorist is

usual; it emphasises that something had or had not happened completely: Jj

15Smyth, Greek Grammar, para. 2306.

Section 20 259

d [1,EV o1)v eyu) .!j!IT)!SQ!I ·11apa IlpooC1rnu T~V 1TEVT'ljl(OVTUOpaxµ,ov E1TL0El~L V

'~\ ">\ 'I I') I 't;:-I \ ''\ '0 \ ? 1 'I 0'

OUUEV av El(Wt\UE O"E ElUEVUl T'ljV U/\'T] ElUV 1TEpL OVO[LUT{J)V op OT'ljTO<;.

(1'JK'T]K01] is augmented from the perfect, UK~Kou)

At any rate, if J hadh.eard the fifly-drachma 16 demonstrafion from Prodicus right

through, nothing would be preven Ung you to know the truth about correctness of

names. ( Cratylus 384b2-6)

The most common use of the pluperfect is to supply the past tense of

verbs like ol8a: J know and fo-r111m: J stand, both verbs which are perfects

used with present significance.

~8-ri I knew [el,aT~K'lJ I stood]

~611oBa you knew [ELO"T~K'rJs you stood]

~6eL(v) he/she/it knew ElcrT~rm he/she/it stood

[~aµ,ev we knew] [fornµ,Ev we stood]

[~a-re you knew] [fornTE

~6ecra.v they knew 11 [fowo·av

you stood]

they stood]

The pluperfect middle and passive

endings:

singular

·µ,11v (&}AEAU~ I had been loosed

•(10 (E}h<&Aucro you had been loosed (singular)

•TO (&)MAu-ro he/she/it had been loosed

dual

-a0ov (&)W,ucr0ov you had both loosed

-a01]v

( E )XEA:6cr811v they had both loosed

plural

•µ,eBo. (&).>veAUl,L<EBa we had been loosed

-0'0e (e)MA.ua0e you had been loosed (plural)

•VTO (&)MAwro they had been loosed

•••

16 1rEVT1]KovTa.opuxµ,o,, -rrEVTl]KOVTa.opuxµ,ov (feminine as masculine): costing 50 drachmas.

~ e1rCoEL~L<;, T'Tj<; €1TLOEL~EW<;: the demonstration. ~ op06T1]<;, Tij, op06Tl]'TO<;: correctness. For

Prodicus, see section 16, p. 213, footnote 19.

17The dual ( ~crTov (2nd person), ~crT11v (3rd person)) is not found in Plato. In some

writers, the plural is found as: ~OEµ,Ev ( we knew), ~OETE (you knew), ~cruv ( they knew).



1.clpa b TWV EVOEKU u1117ph17, TOV owµ,00T1711 EAEAUKEL; (oL EVOrnu: the eleven

(the police magistrates at Athens)) b u1111ph11s, Tou u1r11pbou: the assistant /:,

OEO"fLWT'ljS, TOU OEO"fLWTOU the prisoner) 2.ci> u1117peTU, OUK EAEAuK17, TOV

OE◊-j.LWT'T]ll. 3.ouK E.AEADKETE TOUS owµ,wrns. 4.Ehu b ornµ,00T17S OUK EAD\UTO.

5.clp' OUK EAeAuao, J; owµ,wTU; 6.clp' ~ona0a TOUTO; 7.clp' oux OL

110/\lTUl ~OE◊-UV TOUTo; 8.Eyw ~017 TE KUl TOUTOlS 11pouAEyo11 OTl au

ci110KpL11aa8m OUK E.0EA~◊-ELS. (adapted) (Piato, Republic I, 337a5-6)

(Thrasymachus to Socrates) ( 11pouAqov stands for 11poEAEyov. 11p0Myw: I predict.)

(.,0EA~ous is the reading in one manuscript. See the note on 337a6 at the foot of

p.16 of S.R. Slings' edition of the Republic, Oxford Classical Text, 2003. The

majority reading is on p.267.)

9.1rws E'Co·11 OTl TOuT6 fonv o CJD OUK ~017a8u; (Meno 80d8) (Efo·'\l is 2nd

person singular of Efo·o11a1, the future of ot8u.)

10 , ' (' ~ ) ' "(;;.' e "k '\1 , ("'

.KUl µ,1711 0 1TUlS OUK 1JOEL YE, w, E<l'Ufl,EV 01\Lyov -rrpoTEpov. }vieno

85c2)

Plato, Meno 7 8c4-79a2

If excellence is the ability to obtain good things, does it matter how they are

obtained?

EO. "Iowµ,Ev 16 0~ KUl TOUTO EL ciA178E<; Aeyns· 'Caw, yup UV ED AE)'Ol,.

Tuyu0u <p~s 19 ol6v ,-' ELVUl 11opCtrn8m upET~V Elvm; 20

MEN."E)'W)'E.

m.' A)'u0u OE KUA.ELS ouxl olov U)'LElUV TE KUl -rrAofrrov; n

1&c8wfLEv is 1st person plural subjunctive of ELOov, the aorist of opciw:. Kal. TouTo: in

respect of this also. ci11116E, is neuter singular accusative of cl.11116~,: true. EL aA'I]eE1

AEyns: if you are saying a true thing, i.e. something true.

19<}fis is 2nd person singular present of <}1wl.

l!Translate as if: ci.p, OU fLEVT01 ciyu0a KUAElS olov uy[E10.V TE l((l[. 11Aoihov; (however,

don't you call things such as uy(uciv TE iml. 11AouTov good?) olov is singular because ii

applies individually to uyluciv TE rnl. 11AouTov, but dyu0a is plural because it applies to

them together. ouxl is a lengthened form of oux.

Section 20 261

MEN. KaL xpuofov A.Eyw KUL upyupLOv 1niio-Bm l(Ul, TLµ.us EV 1r6A.EL KUL

, I 22

apxos.

"'n M' "\ \ ' ,, zi \ , , 0' " , ~

~·- 11 01\/\ · OTTO /\EYEL<; Toya o 11 TU TOlUUTU;

MEN. Ou1<, UAAO. TIUVTO AEyw 24 TU TOLoum •

._,n E' 2s , ~' ~, , , ' ,y 8 ' ' ' " .1-

M' < ~ I\ Q \ I \ t I 26 I e

,_u. LEV" . XPUO-LOV OE 011 KOL upyupLOv 1TOpLi,EO- UL opETT] EO-TLV, W<; 'P110-L

~ 27

EVWV O TOU jJ,Eyo,1ou t,100-LIIEW<; 1TUTPLICO<; <,€VO<;. 1TOTEpov TIPOO-TL EL<; TL

ii~ cipx~, T~c; cipx~,: rule, position of authority. Translate as if: Kat Myw apET1Jv Etvat

ol6v T 0 elvaL KTiicr8m xpuofov KaL cipyupLOv Ka~ TLIJ,OS EV 110/\EL Kai. cipxci.,.

23µ,~ stands for clpa µ,11 ( expecting the answer "no"). /i,\,\' ana: any other l11ings, i.e.

anything else .. /i,-m (NB smooth breathing) is not derived from ocrTt, but from 1tva

(the plural of Tt) possibly being an abbreviation of 110/\Aa.TTa, many somethings. Myw

(here): I call. ~: tban. Taya8cl ( crasis) = Tu ciya8a.

24Here, A.Eyw: J mean.

2\lev: very well. (An expression of agreement used when passing on to the next

point.)

26Tou µ,eyci.,\ou ~acrtAEwc; is genitive singular of o µ,.[yac; ~acrtileuc;: the greal king. For

~acrt/\euc;, see section 7, p.70, and for µ,lyac;, see section 23, p.293. 11uTpu<6c;, 11aTpu<~,

11aTptK6v: hereditary. b ~Evoc;, Tou ~Evou: the guest friend. Sharples, Plaro, Meno, p.140,

notes that the Aleuadae (Meno's family) had sided with the Persians in the great

invasion of 480B.C. and that friendship with Persia and financial greed went together.

Later it was Persian policy to provide money in the form of bribes to one side or the

other to foster dissension among the Greeks. During the Peloponnesian War the

Persians had funded the Spartans against the Athenians, and after the war they

funded the Greek states, including Athens, which were allied against Sparta. There

are references to this e.g. in an interlude in Aristophanes' Acharnians (lines 61-125),

a comedy written during the Peloponnesian War when the Athenians weren't getting

Persian money in spite, Aristophanes implies, of trying, and in Xenophon Hellenica

IV, 1, 32.

27For 116Tepov see section 12, p.131. 11pocrTL8e1.c; is 2nd person singular present of 1rpocrTl01]µ,L

(p.317): I put (something) to (sometbing else), i.e., I add. For the present indicative

active of Ti.8T)µ.t, see section 24, p.308. The object is Tt, namely To otrn[wc; ml, bcr[(JJ,,

which is added to (and so qualifies) TOUT(p T(!l 116p(p.


1 1 28

TOUT<!) Tljl 1T0p<!),

,

w

M 1 \ ~ 1 , e ,

EVWV, TO OLKULW<; KUL ocrLwc;,

,\ ? ~ , ~ ,,1.. 1

11 OUOEV O"Ol OW,vEPEL,

29

a/\Aa, Ka.v 30 UOLKWS TLS aDTO 1TOpL( 'T]TUL, OIJ-,OLW<; au aUTO apET~V Kall.EL<;;

MEN. Ou 0~1TOU, Ii) I:wKpaw;. 31

1:0. 'All.AU KUKLUV.

MEN. TTctvTWc; 32 0~1rou.

1:0. .1EL a.pa, W<; EOLKE, TOUT<!) Tljl 1TOp<iJ OLKULOO"\JV'T)V ~ O"W4Jpoauv11v ~

()(fl0T'T]Ta 33 1rpocrELVUL, ~ a./\Ao Tl µ,opwv «pETT]S' El OE µ,~, OUK fornL 34

, I I 35 9 t'( ' e,

apET'T], KUL'ITEP EK1TOpLsouaa Taya a;

MEN TI ,..,, , " , , , , , " 36

. we; yup UVEU TOUTWV apET'T] YEVOLT av;

280 1r6po,, -rou 1r6pou: provision, act of provi~ing. (The same root as 1ropttoµ,uL.) 1Topo,

occurred at Meno 76c as pore, aperture (section 17, p.224 footnote 20). Here it is used

as the opposite of choplu, not providing, failure to provide, which will occur below.

29oofoi, (adverb from oCJ'Lo<;, bota, fowv: holy, pious): piously. To OLKutw, Kul ocrio~

stands for To OLKaLw<; Kal ootw, 1ropltE0'8m. ~: or.

3°Ka.v stands for Kal J6.v ( even if). Ea.v uotKw<; TL<; uuTo 1roptt 1JTUL is a general condition

(see section 12, p.146). uuT6 is neuter because it refers back to xpuO'(ov Kal upyupLov.

bµ,otw, (the adverb from oµ,ow,): likewise, all the same.

llo{prou means perhaps, presumably. ou 8~11ou (answering a question) means surely

not.

32 1ra.vTw<; (in all ways): certainly. 0~1rou (here): of course. On 0~1rou, see Denniston, Tl1t

Greek Particles, pp.267-8.

J3~ oCJ'LOT'T],, T-ij, oCJ'LOT'T]To,: piety, holiness. The accusatives OLKmoCJ'uv11v, CJ'w~poO'uv'TJV and

OCJ'LOT'T]TU are with OE'i. 11poO'ElvuL is the infinitive of 11pfoELfl-L (with dative, I am preseut

with, am added to).

34foTm is 3rd person singular of fooµ,uL, the future of Etµ,t (section 12, p.139).

If;

35KaL11Ep (with participle): although. EK11op[touou is feminine, agreeing with ape1i

EK11opttw: I provide (section 9, p.89).

36yevoLT' stands for yevoLTo, 3rd person singular of yEvotµ.11v, the optative of EyEvo~~v,

the aorist of ytyvoµ,m. The verb is optative because fliil<i uvrn -rouTwv d.pn~ yE'.voLT /iv; is

0

the conclusion of an unexpressed unlikely condition such as if that were so. The

subject of yEvoLTo is it. upET~ is the complement, i.e. what is needed after y.ivoL10 to

complete the sense. Translate as if: Tiw<; ya.p yevoLT' av a.pET~ livEu TouTwv;

Section 20 263

n T' ~\ , 37 , ''f 1 , , , r/ 38 , ~' -;

iu. ,o oE µ,17 EK-rropLsELV xpuuLov 1mL upyupwv, oruv µ,17 oL1mLov 1],

1 .39 ~ ,,.., , "\ \ , 9 , , rt , e , 1 40

µ1]TE UUT(j) fl,l]TE 0,/\/\(j), OUK upETlj KUl UUTlj EO"TLV 17 a:-rropw;

MEN. ¢,o,(,VETUL.

ro. Ouoev apu µ,a.1\/\0V b -rropo<; TWV TOLOUTWV o.ya0wv ~ ~ a:rrop(o, o.pET~

\ ,I 41

b,v ELl],

'\ \ / ~ ,1 f\

U/\llU, W<; EOLl(EV, 0

\ i\ \ ~ / I ? \

f!,EV av fl,ETU OLKULOO"UVlj<; YLYVl]TUL, apETlj

42

£1JTUL, 0 43 0' UVEU 'ITUVTWV TWV TOlOUTWV, KUKlU.

MEN. LioKEL f!,OL avayrn"i:ov ECVUL W<; AE')IEL<;.

37The negative with E1<11opt(ELv is µ,11 because, as an infinitive, EK11opt(ELv is used in a

general sense.

38oTuv (with subjunctive): whenever (see p.255 above). ~ is 3rd person singular of tri,

the subjunctive of ELIJ,L, o[KuLov is neuter, referring to To µ,~ EK11opttELv.

39µ,l]TE ... µ,l]TE ... : neither ... nor ... ( following µ,11 in To µ,~ EK11op[tuv). uuT{il: for oneself

(dative of fouT6v, oneseJf(section 25, pp.338-9)). To understand the point of Socrates'

question, it is necessary to translate u11op[u as the opposite of -rr6po, (i.e. not getling or

not providing), which has occurred earlier in rnuT41 T<Jl -rr6pq,, as hop[u means literally

"not being with -rr6po,".

4°Translate as if: c\.p' oux uun1 ~ u-rrop[u EO-TLv KCLL a.pETlJ; (Ku[: also.)

41 ~: than (see p.301 below). upETlJ is needed after E't17 to complete the sense. EI17 is 3rd

person singular optative of etµ,L (section 13, p.154). iiv Ehl implies an unlikely

condition (section 13, p.l 57): wouldn't be ( if this were so).

420 is the neuter of 3,, 11, 3 ( which thing, what) and is the subject of ylyv'T]TCLL, which

is 3rd person singular of ylyvwµUL, the subjunctive of yCyvoµ,UL. This verb is subjunctive

with a.v because it expresses indefiniteness. Translate this sentence in the order: cl.pa

0 -rr6po<; TWV TOLOUTWV uyu0iiiv iiv E'l 17 OUOEV µiiAAov a.pET~ ~ ~ u11oplu (Tiiiv TOLOUTWV o.yu0iiiv ),

a/\Aa, ws EOLKEV, o fJ,EV iiv YLYV'TJTCLL fJ,ETU OLK(LLO()"IJV'fj<; EO-TCLL a.pETl], a o' (iiv ylyv'T]TCLL) <lVEU

110.VTWV TWV TOLO\JTWV (fowL) KCLKLCL. a.veu: wilhoul (section 18, p.227). ouoev: in no way

(p.114).

43The second o is also the neuter of 3,, 11, 3: what.

264

Section 21

New words:

tt0avaT0<; 9 ci.0a.va'i'OV

(feminine as masculine)

ci.tcpL~~S

O/IT00V~O"KW

◊

~LOS9 'TOU ~l01J

Efooµ,aL (future of oioa)

0e'ios 9 0eta 9 8.iiov

'Iii 0e'ia (neuter plural of foregoing)

(.L~AEL f.LOL

o0ev

ot

O'll'"!J

OO"OL9 Q(f(lL9 oaa

OO"OS9 00'1]9 oaov

ouoho'fE

'll'01J (enclitic)

o 'ITOVT]'f~S 9 'fOU 1roi 11~·oil

ao.cp~s

O'U'Y)'EV~<;

I

'TOTE

I

'TOTE ••• TOTE ...

l)seuo~s

~ l)sux~9 TljS $U}{'ljS

I

immortal

accurate

I die

life

I shall know

of the gods, divine

religion, things of the gods

it is a care to me, I care about

whence

whither

in what way, how

how many, as many as

how large

never

(1) somewhere, anywhere

(2) in some degree, perhaps,

I suppose

the poet

clear

akin, related by family

then

at one time ... at another time ...

false

the soul 1 .,-,::

10ften best translated as mind. It is most frequently used by Plato to denote the

principle of life and thought, but sometimes simply to mean life (des Places, Lexique

de Platon, p.574),

Section 21 265

Contracted Adjective Endings (Third Declension) 2

·· These are regular third declension adjectives but as their stems end in e, they arc

contracted. The. endings in smaller type in brackets are the uncontracted endings

·from which the contracted endings come.

(nominative)

(accusative)

(genitive)

(dative)

(nominative & accusative)

(genitive & dative)

(nominative)

(accusative)

(genitive)

(dative)


SINGULAR

a.A'1J6~s true

&111l6~s true

&A'YJ&i1 ha) true

aA'YJ0~s true

a.lt'1J0ous (-eo,) of true aA'YJ0ous ho,) of true

aA'YJ0a to, for true d111lM (to, for) by true

DUAL

o.A116,i (all genders)

o11l0o'i.v ( all genders)

PLURAL

UA'fJ0<liS (-eec;) true

u1111&il ha) true

aA'YJ0,i, true dA:q8~ true

d11710wv oftme d.11.1l6wv of true

aA'l]0E.m,(v) to, for true cl.11'1J6foi(v) (to, for) by true


1.b M>yos O aA'1]6~,. 2,ot µ,u8oL 3 OUK O.EL UA'1]0EL<; El(J"LV. 3.oL µ,u8oL Ol 'ITEpL TWV

Ev" ALoou 4 AEYOILEVOL 'ITOU OUK UEL aA118EL<; EL(J"LV. 4. Ull1J611 Myov OU ~ou/,OVTUL

\ I 5 ~ >\ e ~ \ I ) Q > I 6 > S~ 1 ' I

1\EYELV. • TOD U/llj ODS /loyou OU JJODI\OVTCll UKOUELV. .OUI( OLUU EL OL TOUTOU

- ' e I

- , 7 \ ,, 0' , Q I\ \ I 8 \

\ I ,,

TOD av p<1JTrou /\O')'OL U/\lj

e

EL<; ELCTLV. .TO U/l1j ES OU t-OU/lOVTUL /lE')'ELV. .TU

a.A.11611 OU ~ouAovTUL AEym. 9.~ UAl]0~c; oo~a. 10.o.VEU UA'1]80uc; ooe11,,

11.dvSpwrroL 0.VEU O.Alj00u<; 00~1], ELVUL OUOE.'ffOTE ~ouAovTUL. 12.o UKpL~~-

\ I

/lO')'O',.

I 1 < ~ ) Q ~ \ I 1 I

.TL ECTHV 1j T'{) UKPLJJEL llO'Y'{) UpET1j;

I ) t ~ ,_- I

.TLVE<; EWLV OL TOU kWKpUTOUS

13 14

- 15 ) I\ \ ) \ 0' ~ - j Q - 'i 16 I ' '

auyyEVEL<;; • EL fl,E/\EL O'OL TO U/\'l] ES, OEL O'E UKPLl-''TJ ELVUL. .'IL EO'TL TO

uA116Es; o.KpL~w, µ,oL u1r0Kptvm

(aorist imperative). 17.TouTou ol MyoL ouTE

UKpL~ElS EL(J"LV OUTE aaq>EL<;. 18.KUTO, TOV axpL~fj Myov ... OUOEL.<; 5 TWV

2eu'll0-~s: silly (Meno 75c2, section 15, p.194 footnote 39) is an adjective of this type.

3 b µ,u0o,, TOU µ,u0ou: the myth

4 "AL8ou (always in the genitive case): (the house) oflfades, i.e. the world of the dead.

5ou8E(,: no one, none


87]µ,Loupywv 6 uµ,apnivu. 7 (Republic340el-3) 19.ctpa aµ,a0[av 8 TO TOLovSE (this

kind of thing) AEyELS, TO ijiEuS~ exuv So~av; (from Protagoras 358c4). 20.ijiEuofoLv

upa ~Sova'i.s 9 Tct 1roAA.a (accusative of respect: for the most part) oL ·rrov'l]pot

xaCpoucnv, oL S' aya0ol. TWV av0pumwv a:\110foLv. (Philebus 40cl)

REPORTED SPEECH

When a statement is reported, Greek uses oTL or ws like the English that.

aTpoyyuAoT'T]TOS 1rE.pL E'C1roLµ,' a.v OTL Q)(I!V,O. TL EUTLV (Meno 73e4)

about roundness I would say that it is a certain shape

Tfl8E 10 yap 'Caws O.K~KOUS ws'E1rLV,EVL8'.)ls :YE:YOVEV UV'.)lp 0E'i.os. (Laws 642d5) for

perhaps you have heard that Epimenides. a religious man. was (literally. has been)

born here. 11

N.B.(i) Greek uses, after that, the tense of the direct speech (i.e. the

tense actually used by the speaker).

ii.:\qov OTL 1roAA~ µ,oL a.1TEX8ELa 12 yEyovEv (Apology 28a6)(adapted)

I was saying that much hatred had happened to me (i.e. that I had incurred much

hatred).

Greek says literally "much hatred has happened to me", where in English

the verb goes back a tense to the pluperfect because the main verb I was

saying is past. Similarly, I said that this would happen becomes in Greek

E11rov oTL TouTo yEv~<YETm, literally, I said that this wiJJ happen.

(ii) It is optional in Greek to use an optative verb after oTL when the

main verb is oast. So, at Charmides 155b3 we find:

60 011µLOupy6s, Tou 01Jfl-Loupyou: craftsman

7aµupTcivw: I am mistaken, make a mistake, am in error (literally, I miss the mark).

8 ~ d.µu0(u, -rijs d.µu0(u,: lack of understanding, ignorance.

9 ~ ~oov~, -rijs ~oov~s: pleasure.

10 T~OE: here, in this place.

11has come into being here i.e. is a native of this place.

Section 21 267

EAEyEv OTL ci.o-0Evo'i: 13

he was telling (me) that he was ill.

Notice that a future verb can become optative in reported speech, where

it can be used if the main verb is past. 14

EYW ~811 TE KUL TOUTOL', 11pouAEyov OTL 0-U 0.1TOKp[vao-0m fl,EV OUK EBeA~O-OL<;,

e1.pwvEuo-oLo 8E ... (Republic 337 a 5-6)

I both knew and predicted to these men that you would be unwilling to answer but

would feign ignorance ... 15

Plato often uses the optative in preference to the indicative after

when the main verb is past.

oTL

What is th.e English for

1. AEyw OTL 1TUVoupyo, eL 2.o !wKpUT'Y]S El'ITEV OTL o MEvwv Tiavoupy6, EO"TLV.

3.o MEvwv ELTIEV OTL o Aoyos ICUAW<; AEyeo-0m 8oKEl. 4.Myw OTL El n µ.'lj

olo-0a, UUTO oux EDp~o-w;. 5.o MEVWV lAeyEv OTL oux EDp~O-EL', o TL 1111 oio-00..

ud.a8Evo1, is 3rd person singular of d.a0EvoLµ.L, the optative of ua8EvEw: I am ill.

14A future optative is occasionally found after ihrws, either introducing a command or

prohibition (Smyth, Greek Grammar, paras. 2212 & 2218) or in a purpose clause in

historic sequence. This is rare in Plato but is found at Apology 36c7 01rws ws ~EATwTo,

Kat ~povq1wTaTos fooLTO: so that he might be as good and practicaJly wise as possible.

(~DmaTos -11 -ov: best ~pov,µ.w-raTos -11 -ov : wisest practically. For the construction of

ws ~EATwTos, see p.301.)

15TrpouAEyov = 1rpoD1eyov. 1rp0Aiyw: I say beforehand, predict. dpwvEuoµu,: I feign

ignorance. b Ei'.pwv is the dissembler, the man who says less than he thinks. (The

speaker is Thrasymachus; he is claiming that Socrates' profession of ignorance

when he is debating with sophists is affected.) This sentence occurs also on p.260

above, where a variant ms. reading, J0EA~aELs, is used. Both are correct Greek.


6.o M~vwv V,E')'EV OTL oux rnp11aoLEV u [111 LCYUCYLV. 7.d LO"TE OTL 0./\1]0l~

28 7) 8 ,;,-,, (' ) ,, ,, 0- 10 , ,11 ",,

EO"TLV. (Apology a ,011/\0V ECYTLV OTL EUV µ.u w, 'ITUUCYO[l,a.L ')'E O UKwv 18

26 4) 9 , - , M'' 19 " - , , ,, ,

'ITOLW. (Apology a .opq,c;, w E/\11TE, OTL CYL')'C/S KUL ouK EXELS EL1TELv·

(Apology 24d7). 10.o.'ITEKpt,VUTO OTL oL aoq>ol ELEV ot µ.uv0uvovTES.

(Euthydem:,s

276al) 11.el EVTDXOLS UUT<JI, 1rws ELCY1J OTL TOUTO EO",LV o au ou1< ~0TjCY0u; (Meno

80d8) (evruxoL, is 2nd person singular of evTuxoq1L, the optative of '1.vhuxov, the aorist

of evruYXavw (with dative): I come across. auT0 is neuter.)

Accusative and Infinitive used for Reported Statements

In English, a statement can be reported by the use of an infinitive instead

of by a clause beginning "that". For instance,

I say that this is true= I say this to be true.

Similarly in Greek:

"0µ.11po, yup" An1v 0Eov TE ~11CJLV ELVUl KUl chruA~v. (Symposium 195d2)

for Homer says Ate (Fate) to be both a goddess and delicate=

for Homer says that Ate (Faltli..5. both a goddess and delicate

(o:rra/1.6, -~ -bv: delicate) .

• \ ~ , ,;, ' ,,, \ ,l, ,,, \ ,;, ~ ' ~ , 20 ' ,;, , ,

O[l,01\0')'0U[J,EV yup 011 U/\/111v 'l'UCYLV U/\/10 UELV E'ITLT'T\UEUELV, yuvaLJ<O', OE l(Ql

avopo, a'AA.11v ELvm. (Republic 453el-3)

For indeed we agree a different nature to need to practise different things

(literally,a different thing), and (the nature) of woman and man 10 be different=

For indeed we agree that different natures need to practise different things and

that the natures of woman and man are different.

161st person singular subjunctive of i[µ.u8ov.

171mucroµ.ul is 1st person singular of the future of 1rauoµ.aL: I cease.

18/iKwv, uKoucru, uKov: unwilling. Note, from its accent, that o comes from 3,, ~. o:

which, not from o, ~. To: the.

19One of the prosecutors of Socrates. crlyaw: I am silent.

20E11lT1JO<ouw: I practise.

Section 21 269

There is a definite preference for oTL after Mcyw and for an infinitive after

cp11µ,L 21 So after the previous sentence, Socrates continues (with cp11µ,(,):

ros OE. aAAus cpucrw; TU UUTU cpuµ,E.V vuv OELV hrLT'TjOEUO'UL. 22 {Republic 453e3-4)

But now we are affirming differenl natures to need to praclise the same things=

But now we are saying that different natures must practise the same things.

When the infinitive construction is used to express a reported statement,

the subject normally becomes accusative, as Tas cpuuELs above, or as:

TOV av0pw'ITOV <pUfLEV O'O<pov ELVUL

we affirm the man to be wise =we say that tlie man is wise.

However, if the subject of the reported clause is the same as the subject

of the main verb, e.g. if a speaker is talking about himself, the subject is

either not expressed, e.g.

~:ywyE q>'Tj[l,L TouTo TIOLELv ( Charmides 166d2)

I indeed say that I am doing this (I indeed affirm to be doing this)

or any words qualifying the subject are in the nominative, e.g.

oµ,oAoyw Q.QQ&_<!.'..ITjS. ELVUL KO,l, 1TULOEUELV 23 av0pw1TOUS {Protagoras 317b4)

I admit that I am a sophist and educate people

(literally, I admit to be a sophist and to educate people).

Usually, if a negative statement is reported, cp11µ,( is negatived, e.g.

,, • ~ , ~ • ~ 24 ~ ~ '\ 25 " ,1-. ' (L 1 186bl)

EL TLS 'T]f.LWV UUTWV EUUTI!) OLOUO'KU/\OV OU 't''TJO"L '/EYOVEVUL ac 1es

if any one of us says lhat he has not had a teacher

(if any one of us denies (does not affirm) a teacher to have happened to himse]D

21This is not an invariable rule; for instance, an infinitive clause is found after ,\ciyw

at Laws 661c8: EYW fLEV yup /\eyw cra~ws TU µh KUKU AEYOfLEVU ciya8u TOLS aOLl<OLS ELvm : For

I indeed am saying clearly that the things which are called bad are good to llie

unjust.

22E1TLTTJOEucrm is the infinitive of E1TE'T~Ornua, the aorist of E1TL'T~oeuw. For this use of an

aorist infinitive, see p.173.

24 fouTi$ to himself (reflexive).

250 0Loacr1<0.Aos, Toti OLoacrKo.Aou: the teacher (p.35, footnote 16).


but sometimes the negative applying to the infinitive is found after ~'IJ~(:

'l''TJfll ~ ' OUK ' HoEVm '"'' OUT ' ' n ' uyu ' 0' ov OUT ' ' n ' KUKOV ' EO'TlV ' (A po I ogy 37b6)

I say that I do not know whether it is a good thing or a bad thing

(I say not to know whether it is a good thing or a bad thing).

Plato omits introductory words like ~'TJO'L (he says) or 1f~11 ("he said") in

long stretches of reported speech, simply going on in the accusative anct

infinitive construction, e.g.

E~'TJ OE 0~ 0 'Avwp1ov AEynv TOV TTu06owpov on (l,~LKOLVTO 26 1TOTE els

[1 0, , ,, 27 z, , n ,~ , , , n

ava TJVUW Ta f1E')'U/\a TJVWV TE KUL apµ,EvLo'Tj,, TOV µ,Ev ouv apµ,EVLO'ljv

El) µ,at.a ~O'TJ 1rprn~UT'TJV dvm, o-~6opa 1TOALOV, 28 KUAOV OE Kuyu0ov T~V O~LV 29

\ " 30 I\ 3} I \ ft I z I ~ \ 1 \ 32 "" I

1TEpl ET'TJ flU/\l(JTU TIEVTE KUL Es 'TJKOVTU. 'TJVWVU OE E"yyus TWV TETTapa1<ovru

TOTE ELvm ... (Parmenides 127a7-b4)

And indeed Antiphon said that Pythodorus said that both Zeno and Parmenides once

arrived at the Great Panathenaia (a festival at Athens). (He went on to say that)

Parmenides on the one hand was already really quite an old man, very grey, but

fine and noble wilh respect to (his) appearance, about sixty five years more or less:

however, Zeno was then nearly forty ... 33

2\icjlKotvro is 3rd person plural of u<ptKolµ'l']v, the optative of u<puc6µ'l']v, the aorist of

u<ptKVEoµat.

27µeyciAu is accusative plural neuter of µEyai;: great.

28<r<j>6opu: very. 110/\LO<;, 110/\LU, 110/\LOV: grey.

29~ otjiL<;, T~<; otjiEwi;: appearance

30ro hos, rou hous: year. 11EvrE: five. /c_€~Kovru: sixty.

31µciAwru with numbers means approximately, more or less.

32Eyyus: near. rEnupciKovm: forty

33 Another notable stretch of reported speech is the Myth of Er ( Republic X, 614b-619e).

The Symposium, from 174a3, is narrated in a framework ofreported speech beginning

E<p'l'], where Apollodorus' account of the banquet is the setting of the speeches made

there.


Section 21 271

l.~'T]f1l TOV !wKpUTl] o-o<pov ELvm. 2.o MEvwv TOV M-yov O.KpL~WS AE)'E0"8uC

' ~'ljO"L. 3.o Se LwKpUTl]~ 01) <p"TJO"L

TOUTO Elvm O.Al]8Es. 4.TL <pa<JLV b mvSupos

l(Cl,l ot a/1.AoL 1TOLl]TUl; 5.T~V TOD uv8pw1rou tJiux~v <pUO"LV u8avuTOV Elvm, KUl

-rOTE f1E.V TEAEUTUv 34 TOTE Se 1TUALV )'L)'VE0"0m, 0.1TOAAuo-8m s' ouSE1TOTE.

Jvfeno 8lb2-6) 6.olµ,m UUTO xo.Arnov Elvm. (Apology 19a4)

(after

7 , , 0 3s ~, , , , 36 "E , , , , - (S' .

. lj)l] l]S OE ... TO EPWfJ,EVOV pwTO. ELVUL, OU TO Epwv. ymposwm 204cl)

80 ' ,,... / 37 r1 '\ I I I ' ,... "J._ 38 ',

, UKOUV TOUTWV EKUCTTOV 0/\L)'OV 1TpOTEpov µ,opwv apETl]S E'f'O.fJ,EV ELVUL, T~V

SLKO.LOO-UVlJV rnl. o-wqipoo-uvl]V rnl. 1ravTa Ta TowuTU; (Meno 79a3)

9.00~-r1Jv 39 1iµ,iis 1ruC(uv. (Euthydemus 283b8)

10.ctpu I\E)'ELS TOV TWV KO.I\WV E1TL0uµ,ouvTU d-yu0wv E1TL0uµ,l]T~V dvm;

77b5-6) 40

(Meno

Reported speech introduced by verbs meaning "know" or "see"

After verbs meaning "know" or "see", o-rL or ws can be used for "that":

KUlTOL oloq_ ... OTL O.UTOlS TOUTOLS 0.1TEx8avoµ,m 41 (Apology 24a7)

and indeed I know that I am making myself hateful to these very men

34-rEAEuTiiv is the present infinitive of TEAEUTa.w: I finish, come to an end.

35 ~~611s is 2nd person singular of ~~61]v, the aorist of olfLuL.

36To EPWfLEvov is accusative singular neuter participle of .tpGifJ-m ( contracted from Epa.ofLuL},

the passive of Epa.w: I Jove. Epwv (the thing loving) (contracted from &pa.av) is the

accusative singular neuter of lpwv, Epwcm, .\pwv, the participle of Epa.w (which is

active). o "Epws, TOD "EpwTOs: Love, personified as the god of love.

31-rouTWV, of these, refers to 0LKULO<JUV1], aw~poauv11 and OO"LOT1j<;. ~ 00-LOT1j',, TT)', OO-LOT1JTOS :

piety. npoTEpov: earlier.

381icjmfLEV is 1st person plural of E~1Jv, the imperfect of cpw[.

393rd person dual of ~611v, the aorist of olfJ-m.

40Both Twv KaAwv and ciya6wv are neuter. Note that here MyELs introduces accusative

and infinitive. o EnL6ufl-1JT~s, TOD ,h,6uf1-1JTOD: one who desires, the Jover (of}

41cinex66.vofLUL (middle): I am making myself hateful (cf. ,\6p6s)


, , ,k R ~ 0 - , ,"', • (• ,I, , )

1TpO<Y'T]KEl yup 't'Or'E.W m ... Tlp '6, , ,

[11'] HOOT_\,_ ... w, 11 't'UX'TJ a avaTOV Eo·n

(Phaedo 95d6-el) 42

for it is fitting for the (man) not knowinglhat (the soul) is an immortal thing to be

afraid.

The tense after oTL or w, is the tense of the direct speech (what is

actually known or seen) and the verb can be optative if the main verb is

past.

Participle Construction with "Know" or "See"

After verbs meaning "know" or "see", "that" is not expressed by the use

of an infinitive but a participle:

TOV uv6pw1rov opwµ,Ev crocpov OVTU

we see the man being wise =We see that the man is wise.

TOV \ av " 0 pw'ITOV " L<Y[-1,E.V 0-O'l'OV ,+.' OVTU "

we know the man being wise =we know that the man is wise. 43

uv611Tov 44 -rrpii-yrw opw ')'L')'V0[-1,E.VOV ( Gorgias 519b2-3)

I see that a foolish action is taking place.

T6TE 1(0,l, ELOOV E')'W 0pucruµ,axov Epu0pLWVTU 45 (Republic 350d3)

Then I actually saw that Thrasymachus was blushing.

When the subject of the verb of knowing or seeing is the same as the

subject after "that", the nominative of the participle is used:

(~ qJUx~) a0avaTO', <pULVETUL oi'icru (Phaeclo 107c8)

The soul is shown to be immortal. 46

42,rpocr~m (with dative): it is fitting. q,o~foµ,cu: J am afraid. (NB, Et◊w, is the

participle of olou.)

4Juknow" and "see" are connected in Greek; olou: I know is from the san'fe root as

doov: I saw.

44civ61rro<;, civo'T}Tov (feminine as masculine): foolish, without sense

45 &pu0puJ.w: J blush ( lpu0p6,, Epu0pci, kpu0p6v: reel)

46Cited by Smyth, Greek Grammar, para 2106.


Section 21 273

1. 'ApXEAO.OV opqs apxovTO. Mrn(EOOVLUS; ( Gorgias 47OdS) 2.d.p' OU)( opqs 0Tl 0

~ I '·0/ 3 9 ' '•~ \ 'j;' , > 0' 4 9 ' >

9~ ' 'j;' I ,· e 5 9 j > ,,~ < "' / e, ' 0 /

I

~WKpUT!jS O.'iTO-V1J<YKEL; .o.p OU)( Op<;LS TOV £.,UJKpO.T'Tj O.'Ir0-V1JCYICOVTU; .up OUK

OLOEV O £.,UlKpO.T'TjS U1TO V1J<YKwv; .ap OUK 1JOEL O £.,uJKPO.T'TjS OTL 0.'ITO V1J<YKEL;

6.ap' OU!( ~OETE OTL µL\EL T({l lwKpO.TEL 'TiEpL TTJS UA.'Tj0ECo.s-; 7.d.p' OUK ~OE'TE

'\ 47 A ;,,, I \ ' '\ e Q )/ e, ' (.{' '<;, I

fJ,E/\OV T!Jl k<WKPO.TEL TIEPL T'Tj<; 0./\'Tj uas; o.L<Yf.LEV OTL O 1-1LO<; OUOE1TOTE

j /\\

CL'ITO/\/\UTO.L.

9" \ (.{I I \ \ , I ~\ I\ /

.L<Yf1,EV TOV 1-'LOV 'TOTE f.LEV 'TE/IEUTWVTO. TOTE OE 1TU/\LV yvyvoµ,evov,

I

j\ \ ? ><;,I ? \ \ I 48 10 " ,I_ < 0 ~ \ \ (:l' \

0./\/1 OUUE'lTOTE 0.1TO/\/\UµEvov. .OU 't'O.<YLV OL ELOL 1TOL 'TjTO.L TOV 1-1LOV TO

1TO.po:nav (),'ff0/\.AU<Y0m. 1 UK TUUT'TjS T~<; ~L~Aou 49 Eforn0E TfOAAou<; li.AAou<; TWV

1TOL 11-rwv TO. uuTu /\Eyovrns.

Relative Clauses, Direct and Indirect Questions

A word like ocroL (how many) can introduce a relative clause:

1m((ouo-Lv oL TrULOE<;, oo-oL etatv Ev Ti\ 1r611.u

the children are playing, as many as are in the city

(i.e., all the children in the city are playing).

In a direct question, oaoL becomes 1r60·0L:

1TO<YOL TIO.LOE<; ElO'LV EV Ti\ TIO/I.EL;

how many clJildren are in the city?

This question can become the object of another verb, and is then an

indirect question:

OUK foµ,Ev (0)1r60-0L TIULOE<; EL<YLV EV Ti\ TIO/I.EL

we do nol know how many children there are in the city.

47 µ,ci.Aov is the neuter singular participle (accusative) of µEAEt.

48 TEl,EuTiilvTa is masculine accusative singular of TEAEuTiilv, TEAEuTiilcm, TEAEuTcov, the

participle of TEAEuTuw: J end, finish (usually, my life),


Other words have the same pattern, e.g.

relative direct question indefinite

'

l.tlS

how

1rws;

how?

1TWS

somehow

indirect indefinite

question

01Tl.tlS 011w,

how

how ever

oaos ·11

how big

I

•OV 1TO<YOS "'I} •O V 9

how big?

I I I

'ITO<YOS ·'I} -ov

some size

01TO<YOS "1'] ·ov OTiocros-'l] ·ov

how big however

big

81TOO'OL •UL •a

O'ITOCTOL •Qt

how many

how many?

some number

how many

·a

however

many

O'ITOWS 4l, -ov 01TOLOS -a

of which kind

8-re

when

what kind of?

-rro-re;

when?

of some kind

'ITO'TE

some when

-ov

what kind of of whatever

kind

O'll'O'TE

when

01TOTE

whenever

ol>

where

1TOU9

where?

1TOU

somewhere

01TOU

where

01TOU

wherever

ol

whither

o8ev

whence

~

in which way

Os?"), 0

who, which

-rroi;

whither?

1To8ev;

whence?

irij ;

in what way?

I I

,v,, -rq

who? what?

1TOL

some whither

1To0~v

from some place

"IT'U

in some way

TLS n

someone,

something

81TOL

whither

o-rro0ev

whence

o'IT'U

in what way

oaw;, on

who, what

O'ITOL

whither

so ever

01To0ev

whence

so ever

01T'U

in

wha tev~r way

0CY'TLS, 8 'Tl,

whoever

whatever

Section 21 275

The indefinite form is followed by av with a subjunctive verb in primary

sequence or an optative verb in historic sequence:

yaµ,ouu~v 01ro8Ev av ~ouAwvTUl (Republic 613d3)

they marry (find their husbands/wives) from wherever they want 50

The relative form is often found instead of the indefinite form:

at OO~Ul at uA118E'i:<;, OG'OV av xpovov 1mpaµ,EVlllCJ'lV ... 1TO.VTU d:ya0o. lpyo.toVTm.

(Meno97e6)

True opinions, for as much time as they remain ... do all their work well. 51

Indirect questions

These follow the same rules as reported statements after on:

foTE &~ olo, ~v XmpE~wv. (Apology 2la3)

indeed, you know what kind of man Chaereplwn was.

Direct question interrogatives may be used in indirect questions, e.g.

El OE CTE ~poµ,11v Tl ECJ'Tl TO rmAov TE KaL uluxpov ... (Hippias Major 289c9)

but if! had asked you what is both "beautiful" and "ugly" ... 52

as can relative adjectives, pronouns and adverbs:

TO &' oDv KE~o.Amov E~TJ TOOE Elvm, ocra TfW1TOTE nva ~OLKTJ<mv real. OCTQ12S_

EKacrToL {Republic 615a6)

Bul he said tlia1 the main question was lhis: how many things they had ever yet

done unjustly, each one, and (in respect of) how many people. 53

50yuµiw:J marry

510 xp6vos, -rou xp6vou: time (p.36, footnote 20). The accusative expresses time "how

long?" 1rupuµ,EvwcrLv: remain with (us), remain at our side. .½pyo.toµ,m: I worlc The

literal meaning is work everything (as) good.

52ut<T)(P6,, utcrxpo., utcrxp6v: ugly { opposite to KuAov). The article shows that both Ku116v

and utcrxp6v are used in a general sense.

5 \o KE<po.AuLov, -rou KE<pu11u(ou : the l1ead, or main question. 1rw1ro-rE: ever yet. ~8(K11cruv

is 3rd person plural of ~3(K11cru, the aorist of o.◊LKEw: I wrong, act unjustly towards.


The tense is that of the direct question.

Direct question:

TL 1TOTE 11.E'}'El o 0Eo,; (Apology 21b3)

Whatever is the god saying?= Whatever does the god mean?

Indirect question:

'ITO/\UV [J,EV xp6vov 54 ~Tiopouv 55 TL 1TOTE 11.E'}'El (Apology 2lb7)

indeed, for a Jong time I was at a Joss (could not understand) what ever he meant

(literally, indeed, for a long time I could not understand what ever he means).

As in indirect statements, an optative can be used in an indirect question

if the verb of the main clause is past:

1TLEO"U<; uuTou Tov TIOOu ~pero El ut0"0a.voLTo (Phaedo 117e8)

Squeezing his fool, he asked if he felt (it). 56


1.ofo0u Eu8uo11µ,ov O'[fOO'OU<; 000VTOSS7 EXEL, KO,l, o Eu8uo11µ,oc; 01TOO'OUS au;

(Euthydemus 294c4)

2.0Et, O:vopu TOUTO µovov O'KO'ITEl-V, 1TOTEpov OLK(LLU ~ ClOLKU rrpa.TTEL. (from

Apology 28b 6-9)

3.~pETO El TLS &µou El'TJ O'O~WTEpos.(Apology2laS-6) 58

4. 01ro0Ev 1TOTE TUUT'TJV T~v E1TWVUfLLuv 59 E/\U~ES TO µu/\cll<o, ° 6 KUI.E'i:0"8m, OUK

olou E'}'lll'}'E, (Symposium 173d7-8)

541ro1,uv xpbvov (accusative of 1r0At\, xpbvo,: much time): for a long time

55~1r6pouv is 1st person singular imperfect of o.1ropfo.

561rLESW (aorist: J,r[rna}: I squeeze. b ,rou<;, Toii 1roo6,; the fool. a[o6civofl-UL: I feel.

57/i ooous, Tau o86vTos: the tooth

58EfJ-OU oocpw-repo,: wiser than I. (For genitive meaning than, see p.301.)

59 ~ E1Twvuµfo, Tij, E1rwvufJ-[a,: the nickname.

60fl-aAaK6,, fJ-UAaKoii: "Softy" from the adjective fl-aAaK6,, 1wAaK~, fl-UAaK6v: sofl. 1°

KaAao6m is the complement of T~v E1rwvufl-lav. We would say "of being called".

Section 21

Plato, Meno 79a3-79c10

Meno has divided rlpET~ up but has not defined it as a whole.

'('n O' ~ , " '\' , , , ~ ",!_ ~

J.,H, UKOUV TOUTWV EKU<JTOV 0/lL'YOV ·rrpoTEpov f10pLOv apET'Tj, E<vUf!,EV ELVUL,

0

1~v OLKUL00-uv11v KUL crtocppoo-uv11v KUL -rravTa Ta Towiha;

MEN. NaC.

ro. Elrn, Ji Mi:vwv, 1m(tELs 1rp6, 61 µ,E;

MENT,~''"'' • L U'T], W 62

✓-,WKpUTE<;;

'('n "O " , ~ ~ 0' 63 , , ~, 't ,

;,,H. TL upTL Efl,OU UE'T) EVTOS crou µ,11 l(QTayvuvaL fl,'T]OE KEpf!,UTLoElV T'T)V

apET~V, KUL OOVTOS 64 'iTUpaOEL')'fl,UTU rn0' a 65 OEOL U1TOKp(vw8m, TOUTOU

\ 'J I\ 66 \ / ~/ f/ ? I ? ~ ? 8'

fJ,EV 'T)fl,E/\'T)<JU<;, /\E')'ELS OE µ,oL OTL apET'T) E<JTLV OLOV T ElVUL TU')'U (J,

-rrop(tw0m fl,ETU OLKULOCYUV'T]'," TOUTO OE <p~s fLOpLOv upET~S Elvm;

MEN."EywyE.

277

61In English, with rather than towards. Sharples translates 1ra[(uv 1rp6, as tease.

621[; stands for oto. 1(; : why? o~ emphasises the question. Why so?

63Tackle this sentence in sections. "Ort (because) introduces the answer to T[ 817;

(a) iiprt E!),OU OE'Q0ElL.TQS. O'OU µ~ imrnyvuvat µ170/c: l<EpfLUTLtm T~V cipET~V, E[LOU OE1j0EVTO<; is

genitive absolute and introduces the two infinitives. 0E170Evro, is genitive masculine

singular of OE170d,, the participle of EOE~017v (section 18, p.232, and for the declension

of the participle, p.233). CYou:you genitive, means from you. 1<a16.yvuvm is the infinitive

of im16.yvuµt: I break down (into its parts). KEpµa,-[tw: l chop up.

64(b) «at .QQJ!J.QS. 'ITapaoE(yµa-ra. (Eµou) 86v10, is also genitive absolute. o6v10, is genitive

masculine singular of oou,, ooiio-a, o6v, ha.ving given, the participle of EOwKu, the aorist

active of o[o1tlµt: J give (section 24, p.313). 10 1mpo.8ELyµa, 10D 1rupaodyµarns: 1/Je example

(section 18, p.239 footnote 30).

6\c) Kn0' ii ofot ci110Kpcvrn0at rn0' ii stands for 1<u10. ii. ofol is optative because the

clause beginning according to which ( = how) follows a past verb (the participie

06v10,) and begins an indirect question (see p.275). o-E is understood. "Having given

examples according to which you must"= "having shown you how you must."

66(d) 1ou1ou µ/c:v ~µD,170-os, AEyn, OE 110t OTl cipET~ EO'Ttv ol6v T' dvat 1clya0o. '!fop[trn0at

f-LETo. OlKuto0'1Jv11, is a double main clause linked by µ/c:v ... OE ... ~1iEA17CYa, is 2nd

person singular of ~µEt..170-u, the aorist of ciµEAEw (with genitive): I disregard. µEv ...

oL could be translated on the one hand ... 011 the other hand... but this translation

would be stilted here, and µEv serves to strengthen OE which can be translated and

nevertheless.


6] Q I 't f \ ( \ ,..,. \ 68 \ I , ,...

1:0. OuKOUV auµ,1-'UlVEL E<,, WV av oµ,01\0')'EL<;, TO f1ETU µ,oplOU upn11,

I

TIPUTTE.LV

ti 69

0TL

,1

UV

I

TIPUTTlJ,

'"'

T0UTO

' \

upET11V

9

EL VUL ·

\

T11V

\ ~ I

yup ULKUL0CJUv11v

1 A .. , , ,..,. , , r1 , 10

µ,opLOV 't'1J'> upET11<; ELVUL, l<Ul EKU<JTU T0UTWV.

MEN 11 TL oDv o~;

\ I '1 72 > ~ ~ 0' 73 '1\ > ~ 74 \ > / j \

Lfl. TOUTO /\E')'W, O'TL EfJ,0U UE'f] EV'T0<; 01\0V EL 1TELV T'f]V UpE'T'f]V, UlJ'T'f]V

µ,ev 1TO/\/\OU 0EL<; El 1TELV 0TL E<JTLV, 1TUCJUV 75 OE ~~- 1Tpu~LV a.pET~V ELVUL,

67ouKoiiv (not introducing a question): very well. For o-u11~atvEL see section 19, p.242.

o-ufL~atvEL (it follows) introduces a "that" clause in accusative and infinitive: To flETa

fLOp[ou aperfis 11po.TTELV OTL av 11pUTT1J, TOUTO o.pET:qv ElVUb where TOUTO sums up TO flETO.

fLOptou o.pETfj, 11po.TTELV OTL av 11pun11.

68To qualifies 11pa.nEtv. When the definite article is prefixed, an infinitive becomes

an abstract noun e.g. 11pa.nELv: 10 perform, to act, to do, To 11pa.nELv: (the) doing.

69Equivalent here too TL (whatever). 11pa.TT1J (present subjunctive, with iiv) is third

person singular for an indefinite subject whatever one (a person) may do.

70TouTwv is genitive of wiim, these things, referring to OLKULoo-uv'T], o-w~poo-uv1J Kut 11<ivru

Ta Towiim (above).

71Some editors allocate Tl oov o~ rniiTo Myw; to Socrates, making it a rhetorical

question: Why am I saying this? Sharples (Plato, Meno pp.140-1) notes, however,

that Socrates usually only uses such a rhetorical question when he has introduced a

point which might seem irrelevant, and that this is not the case here. TL 01)v 8~; is

sharper than Tt o~; and Sharples translates: well, so what?

72ToiiTo Myw, oTL introduces the answer to Tt oov o~;

73Tackle this sentence in sections: (a) Eµoi', OE:Q0£vrns 73 oAov d11ELv 73 T~v apET~v,

EfLoii OE1]0hTos is genitive absolute. o-ou (you, genitive with ofoµ,m, see footnote 63

above) is understood. EL11Eiv is the infinitive of ehov the aorist of AEyw. d11Eiv here

means not just say or mean, but rather define. oAov: as a whole thing, i.e. in its

entirety. ~·

74 (b}auT~v fLEV 110AAoii OEL, El11E'tv oTL E<rTtv, contains a main verb (110AAoii OEL,) and an

indirect question oTL eo-T(v. 3-rt here is equivalent to 3 TL:what. 110/\Aoii OEw (with

infinitive): I am far from (section 19, p.242).

75 ( c) <j>~s OE 116.0-av 11po.~Lv ElvaL o.pET~v Mv11Ep 11po.TT1JTUL µ,eTa fLop(ou o.pET-ij,. The

definite article is used (T~v o.pET~v) because apET~v is meant in its general sense.

Mv11Ep: if indeed.

Section 21 279

'/" \ I ' ,... I · ti ? \ 76 r/ ) / '

tUVTIEP fl,ETO. µ,opwu o.pET'T]S TIPO.TTTjTCJ.l, W<Y1TEp ELp1]KWS OTL a.pETTj E<YTLV

\ ~!\ \ "~ I '1 77 \ 78 ) \ \ !'f ,

'1"0 01\0V KO.L 'T]U'T] ')'VW<YOfl,EVOU Efl,OU, KUL EO.V <YU ICO.TUKEpfl,0.TL',, 1JS UUT~V

\ I .,;, ~ 79 S /\ 't , ~ 8Q < " \:, - - , _

KUTO. fl,OpLU. UELTCJ.L , OUV O"OL 1T0.1\LV Es O.PX'T]S, WS Efl,OL UOICE.L, T1lS 0.UT'T]S

, I ', J.I \

e.pWTTj<YEWS, w ~,LIIE

!\./II

.VlEVWV"

I ' ' I ) \ I 9 ..., ,...,

TL E<YTLV apET'T], EL fl,ETO. µ,opwu apETTjS 1TO.<YU

8J

,-.t_ ) \ ,1 ,t 82 " I , \ I 83 ti 84 \ I

'11p0.<.,LS apETTj UV EL 11; TOUTO yap E<YTLV I\E.')'ELV, OTO.V IIE')'1J TL<;, 8TL

76(d) wo--rrEp ELPTJKWS oTL a.pET~ Ecr-rLv To oAov dpTJKWS is nominative singular masculine

of the participle of ElpTJKU (section 9, p.89) and expresses a condition: as having said

is equivalent to as if you had said. OTL a.peT~ E<mv: what virtue (excellence) is, To oAov

has the same meaning as oAov (footnote 73, above).

77 ( e) Kai. ~OTJ yvwo-oµEvou ifµ.ou yvwo-oµ..§vou Eµou is genitive absolute and expresses a

condition: and me being about to recognise is equivalent to and as if I would recognise .

yvwo-6µevoc; is the participle of yvwo-oµ.aL, the future of yLyvwo-Kw (section 12, p.138). (At

Meno 75d (end) (section 15, p.195) Socrates has laid it down that in logical discussion

by question and answer (owAeKTLK~) answers should be given in terms which the

questioner has already agreed he understands.)

78(f) Kai. Eav cru rnmKepµm[(u, auT~v Ka.Ta µ6pw. Concluding condition in future time:

Kai. J.uv: even if... KuTa µ.6pw: according lo (its) parts. KUTUKEpµ,uT[tw: I chop up small

(literally, chop down).

79oeLmL is 3rd person singular ofofoµ.uL which comes from Mw: I lack. Used impersonally,

as here, it means !here is need of (with genitive, T~c; uuT~c; EpwT~crEws). OELmL croL:

there is need to you, i.e. you need. ~ EpWTTJcrLs, ~c; Epw~o-ewc;: the question, the

investigation. The EPWTTJO-Lc; meant is TL E.CTTLv a.peT~;

80E~ a.px~c;: from the beginning. (~ a.px~: the beginning, cf. o.pxo11aL.)

81The editors print a comma here, but a semi colon enables the beginning of the

sentence, which is a statement, to be separated from the end, which is a question.

82Translate the last clause of this question in the order El -rra.o-a -rrpa.~Lc; µ.na. µ.op[ou

upETijc; dTJ iiv d.pe~. ELTJ: were to be (the condition after el is unlikely to be true).

83Translate in the order yo.p E<YTLv AEyELv TouTo. TouTo is the object of AEynv. For it is

to say this ..., i.e. for this is what is said ...

84

3rnv with subjunctive: whenever. (Section 20, p.255)


,... ~ \ Ii:' I "f' 1 I ' i\ ; (' .,... /\

Tmo-u 11 iJ,ETU ULICULOO"UV11S -rrpat;;L, apET11 EO-TLV. 11 OU OOl(EL O'OL Ti'UIILV

., - 0 ss _ , _ , , '\ \, ,, 86 , ,,:, , , , _

UEW 0.L T11S UUT11S EPWT110-EWS, 0./1/\ OLEL nva. ELOEVO.L µ,opLOV apET11S

~, 87 , , , , j~/ 88

OTL EO'TLV, UUT'T]V iJ-11 ELUOTO.;

MEN. OuK eµ,oL')'E ooKEL.

85Ma8aL (thereto be need of) is impersonal like odwL (footnote 79 above).

86o°CEL is 2nd person singular of olµ.aL The accusative and infinitive -nva. ELOEVo.L µ6ptoi

upETijc; OTL EaTLV, mh~v µ.~ ELOoTa after o'CEL is equivalent to o'CEL OTL TLS oloE O Tl E<r7tv

µ.opLov a.pET'ij,, µ.~ ELOwc; uuT~v; ( do you think that anyone knows .. .?) µ.~ ELOt;1, is itself

equivalent to d µ.~ ol1iE. uuT~v stands for a.pET~v uuT~v. Eio6TC1 is masculine accusative

singular of Et1iw,, the participle of oloa. Translate as if: aAA' o\'.EL TLva., µ.~ Eio6rn mh~v.

dMvuL oTL ( what) µhpLov cipET'ij, foTLV; o.uT~v(i[) stands for cipET~v.

87Equivalenthere too TL (what) ..

88ELOEvaL is the infinitive of oloa. ELOOTu is accusative singular masculine of ELOwc;, the

participle of oloa. It qualifies ma. (anybody), and here stands for an "although"

clause: Not knowing it itself is equivalent to alrhough he does not know it itself.

uuT~v (accusative feminine singular) stands for apET~v.

281

New words:

/i:rE

la•nfo-Taµ,a.1,

ewpmm

0auµuo·T◊S 9 0m,p,ao-'f~ 9 0uuµaa'f◊V

I

KaL'IT<Ep

KWA1JW

µ,E'l"a){ELpL(oµ,a~ (with genitive)

ou8Ets, o&lkµJa, oi'ioev

-rro/\Aa!HS

Section 22'.

because, just as, in as much as

I know, understand, originally, esp.

know how to do

I have seen(perfect of op6.w)

wonderful

although

I prevent

I manage, administer, have

to do with, handle (from p,ETo. + ~ xctp,

TijS XELpoc;: hand)

nobody, nothing

many times, often

KWA1JW

KwAuw: I prevent is followed by an infinitive:

ou◊Ev {.LE KW/\uEL /\E')'ELV(Symposium 194e2) Nothing prevents me (from) speaking.


ouoEv 1<w/\uu (~µ,a,) KUL &v T({l {hrv4J ooi<Elv 0)1,N,oc, oca/,E')'Eo-0m. ( Theaeterus

158c5) ( o ihrvoc;, Tou ihrvou: sleep)

ouoEv 1<W/\uH and Tl yup 1((J)AuH; are often found meaning "all right."

r,

IOL'f\€

aTE, followed by a participle, is often used by Plato for because,

e.g. at Meno 70cl:

" \ ' \ I ' \ ' ~ ~ 'E\ \ I ~ (.l \ I

UTE C<Ul UUTO<; 1HlPEXWV UUTOV EpWTUV TWV lll\TjVWV T4) t-'OUI\Ofl,EV4)

because always offering himself to the one of the Greeks wanting to ask=

because he always offers himself to any of the Greeks who wants to ask

and at 76b8:

UTE TUflO.VVEUOV-1££ EWS av E.V wpq. <ilO'lV

because acting like tyrants while they arc in their prime=

because they act like tyrants while they are in their prime. 1

1 TUpuvvEuw: I act the tyrant. ~ wpu, T~, wpu,: the prime, season


UTE expresses the reason according to the speaker and can often be

translated "in as much as".

At the opening of the Republic we find:

, r:i 2 6, 3 , TI .4 , , , s r:i \ , 0 , 6 6 ,

KUTEt-t1JV X ES HS ELpmu, ... TTjV EOpT'l']V t-tOU/\Oµ,Evos EUCYUCY Ul TLV(t

Tpo-rrov 'ITOL~CYOUCYLV UTE '1Tp11lTOV o.yovTES7 (Republic!, 327al-4)

I went down to the Piraeus yesterday ... wanting to see the fesUval, what way they

would do (it) because the first lime performing=

I went down to the Piraeus yesterday ... wanting to see how they would hold the

festival because they were performillJI._it for the first time.

In all of these examples, the participle is nominative; however, its case

depends on the case of what it qualifies; e.g. it can be accusative:

EOO~EV ~µ,t.v Hµ,awv UTE OVTQ ao-Tpovoµ,LKWTUTOV, rnl 1repl <pUCYEWS TOU 1TUVTos

dOEVQL µ,o.Awrn Epyov 'ITE1TOL1J1LEVOV -rrpiihov AEyELv ci.pxoµ,evov O.'ITO T~S TOU

Koo-µ,ou yEvfoEw,.( Timaeus 27a3-6)

It seemed good to us Timaeus, because being most astronomical, and having made his

task especially to know about the nature of the universe, =

it seemed good to us that Timaeus, in as much as he was the most astronomical, and

had made ii (his) task especially to know about the nature of the universe, 8 should

speak first beginning from the coming-into- being of the cosmos

2,cuTE~1Jv is 1st person singular of the aorist indicative of Kurn~utvw: I go down.

\8k yesterday.

4TTupULci is accusative singular of llELpuEu<;, 3rd declension masculine, Piraeus, the

port of Athens.

5~ EopT~, Tii, EopT-ij,: the festival, the feast.

60Ecicma0uL is the infinitive of J0rnaciµ,11v, the aorist of 0Ecioµ,m: I see, am a spect'fftor of.

7/i.yw (in this context): J perform.

80.aTpovoµ,LKWTUTo<;, -11, -ov: most astronomical. To ,riiv (here): the universe.

Section 22 283

or it can be dative:

(.l I ,.J.,_ , ? I " \ I , / / u

KUTUO),EVVUTUl, o-uµ.,l'UES OUICETl T!p Tfl\'ljO-lOV UEpl yvyvoµ,Evov, UTE 'ITDp OiJK

hovn ( Timaeus 45d5-6)

it is quenched, becoming no longer of like nature with the nearby air, because it

(the nearby air) has no fire, 9

or, where the cause mentioned is not found in the main clause, uTE can be

followed by genitive absolute:

0 0~ 0pao-uµ,uxos wµ,oMy'ljO-E 'ITUVTU TUUTU fl,ETO. LopwT0, 10 0uuµ,ao-Toil oo-ou, UTE_

1mL 0Epou<; 11 iSvTOS (Republic 350cl2-d2)

In fact, Thrasymachus agreed all these things with sweat, wonderful how much, it

being indeed summer=

In fact, Thrasymachus agreed all these things with a remarkable amounl of sweat,

because it was indeed summer(= because it actually was summer).

Sometimes olµ,m (J thin~ is found after uTE in parenthesis, not affecting

the construction with a participle:

(oL KUKVOl) UTE olµ,m TOU 'ArroAAWVO', ()VTES fl,UVTlKOl, ElO-lV KUL TIPOElOOTES TO. EV

"AlOOU dyu0o. ~oouow. 12 (Phaedo SSbl)

(Swans), (on the day when they think they will die), because, I think, ·being of Apollo

are oracular and knowing the things in Hades beforehand sing ( of) good things =

Swans ... , because, I think, they belong lo Apollo, have oracular powers and because

lhey know beforehand the things in Hades, they sing of good things.

9Timaeus is explaining why the stream of vision is cut off in the darkness of night.

KaTucr~Evvuµ.l: I quench. cru11~u~,: of like nature ( literally, with common nature).

1r1111crlov: near. o d,~p, Toti Mpo,: air. To irup, Toti 1rup6, fire. The subject of KaTucr~hvuTCLl

is the stream of vision. Timaeus thinks vision occurs when light inside the eye meets

light outside. ~xovn refers to Mpt.

100 Ulpw,, Toti Lopiiho,: sweat. wonderfo.l how much~ a remarkable amounl of.

11To 8,spo,, Toti 8ispou,: summer.

120 KuKvos, Toti KuKvou: l11e swan. 1rnvTLK6, -~ -6v: oracular. irpoaoo,, (participle of

1rp6olou): knowing beforehand. ~ow (with accusative): I sing about.


urE can be used ironically, when the speaker says, as truth, something he .

does not believe, e.g.

, u , ~ , ~ , M ~ , , 0, , 14 , ,

UTE µ,eywTa UOLKI]!ili!S. TWV EV UKEOOVL<;L, U 1\LWTUTOS ECYTL 'ffUVT(l)v

MaKEbovwv ( Gorgias 4 7 lc6)

Because having committed(= because he has committed) the greatest injustices f

those in Macedonia, he is the most wretched of all Macedonians.

0

f

1}(11],1,'TI'~?

KaC1rep, although,is also followed by a participle, e.g.

'\ ''t' ,,;,, ''Y\'t ' ,l..',, (Ehd

EL yap µ, 'T] Es 11µ,aprov, ouoE CYD E<,E/\EY\,EL'>, KUL'IT€jl cro't'o, l!!Jl. ·ut y emus 287e4,

For if I was not mistaken, not even you will refute (me) although being wise~

For if I was not mistaken, not even you will refute me although you are wise.ll

M' ~' ' Q f.l.' " ,!..'\ ' 'Y

aKpwva,; OE KUL1TEfl. i"apr'apou,; OVTU.S. ••• 'l'LI\OU<; EVOfJ.LsO[J,EV.

But we thought the Macrones friends iJl111mlgh_ they were barbarians. 1 "

(Xenophon, Anabasis 5.5.18)


1 .TOV \ " £.WKpUT'Tl ' 't'L/\W ,J..\~" UTE CYO't'OV ,l..' OVTU. ,, 2' ,UKODO[J,EV ' TOD ~" h<WKpUTOD', ' UTE " 0'0, .k 1 ,ou

>I 3 I ,J._ \ ,t ~ ,.kl ~ ? ? -;- ,,. ? 1 e

OVTOS, .KUL'lTEp cro'l,OL OVTE,, OL cro't'L<JTUL oux OLOL T 'T]CYUV TUDTU E1TWTUU UL,

13f1Eyurro,, flEYLar'T], f1Eywrov: grea1es1, most. -l10LK'T]KW, is nominative masculine singular

of the participle of 110CK'T]KCL, the perfect of uOLKEw: I commit injustice.

14u0ALWTCLTO<;, u0ALWTO.T'Tj, u8ALWTCLTOv: most wretched. oL MuKEOOVE<;: t/Je Macedonians. The

speaker is not Socrates, but Polus, who is attacking Socrates' argument that to commil

injustice is the greatest of misfortunes. Polus is speaking about Archelaus who

became king of Macedonia by a series of murders, and pretends to accept Socrates'

argument in order to show that it is absurd. Archelaus, a friend of Athens and patron

of Euripides, was himself assassinated in 399 B.C., the year of Socrates' death (a doublf

irony which would not have been lost on the first readers of the dialogue).,.

ij1'

15E~~f1uprov is the aorist of E~u1wprcivw; I err. E~EAEY)(w: J refute (emphatic for EAEYXw).

16The Macrones were a tribe met by Xenophon and the Ten Thousand during their

escape from Persia. ~cip~upo,, ~cip~upov (two termination adjective): barbarian. vo1Ll(,1

I consider, think.

Section 22 285

4,KaL1T<cp EV T~ 1TOAEL 1TOAAUKL<; wv, OUOE.1TOTE E.wpaKU TOV :Ewrcpa.T'Tj. 5.UTE

, \ / \ ~ I ~ I '? ,r 1 \ ' '1 ' I 17

110t,l\ar<L<; Tov ,:'.,,WKPUT'T] Ewprn<0TE<;, EU LO"fl,EV uuTov our< ovTa EUO;('T]µ,ova. 6.aTE

crocpol OVTE', or T'T]S Tpay!J)OLU<; TfOL'T]TUl o-uyyLyvwm<OUO"lV 18 ~µ,'i,v. (Republic 568b5}

·, , \ , ~\ 1 e ? ,.., I\ '~ \,.J,. 1 rt 9 ,,,. ,,

7,EaTE [LEV yup 011 TfUVTE<; OL EV T1J TfO/\El UOE/\TOL ... UTE ouv o·uyyEVEL<; OVTE<;

116.vrE<; ••• (rm'i,oac;) Ofl,OlOU<; UV uµ,'i,v UUTOL', YEVV(JITE. (Republic 415a2-bl)(yEVV(j)TE

is 2nd person plural, present optative active of yEvvciw: I breed children). 19 8.aTE oi'iv

~ ~ux~ cl.0a.vaTo, TE oi'io-u Kal 1ro/\Aa.KLS yEyovu'i,a, 1ra.vrn fl,Eµ,a.8111<Ev. (Meno

slcS-7 adapted). (NB ')'Eyovuiu is feminine nominative singular of ')'Eyovw,, the participle

ofy.%yovu, p.92.) 9.oDK EO"TUL apET~, KUl.1IEp EK1T0pllouo-u 20 Tayu0a.. (Meno 78e2)

lo .KUL1TEp / T'Tji\ll<OUTO', \ - ( SO O Jd) KUL ' 0-000<; I ' WV, ,, KUL ' 0-U, / EL ' TL<; / 0-E OLOUO'KOL " "/ O " fl,'T] '

ru'Y)(O.VEL<; ETILO'TO.f-1,EVo,, ~E/\T[wv (better) av y(yvow. (from Protagoras 318b2-3)

The English conjunctions because and although are sometimes conveyed

simply by participles, and a.TE and 1<a(,1rEp can be regarded as indicators lo

show more precisely the particular function of an expression with a

participle, e.g.

EL.Ow, T~v cl.)l.~0ELav o MEvwv cl.1rEKp(,vuro

Meno replied knowing the truth

can imply Meno replied because he knew the truth , i.e.

while

UTE ElOWS T~V a/\~0uav o MEVWV U1TEKpLVUTO,

Ol)K EL◊WS

T~V u/\~0rn:w O MEvwv (l1fEKpLVUTO

Meno replied not knowing the truth

can imply Meno replied although he did not know the truth, i.e.

KUL'ITEP ou1< El◊wc;;

T~v aA~8nav o MEV(t)V U'ITEKp(vaTo.

1\uax1111wv, EDO)('Tjµ.ovo,: handsome, of good appearance.

18 rruyy~yvwm@ with dative: I forgive, pardon.

19uv with optative: future unlikely. "If you should breed children" is understood.


~xw with Adverb

The normal Greek for how are you? is 'IT(J)S E)(ELs; The usual answer is K<tA1n1

ixw: I am well.

EXw with an adverb has the same function as etµ,t with an adjective:

u ' ... 0 upputlEWS \ ' 21 Eyw ' ' EXW " 1rpos ' 0' uvuTov 22 'TJ " µ,'Tj ' (A po 1 ogy 34el)

if I am cheerful towards death or not ...

EXW is often found with adverbs like how which are not formed from

adjectives:

Aux11Tu 23 OE TOVOE opu 01TW<; EXEL (Laches 188c2)

but see how Laches here is.

The subject is often it in English. The phrase ourns EXEL it is thus, that's the

way it is, it's like this is particularly common.

KLVOUVEUH ouTws EXELV (Meno 99c6)

It is likely this to be so =it is likely that this is so.


l.ouK op0ws UV EXOL (Protagoras 338b5) (The subject is "it".)

2.ourns ~ a./1.Aws EXEL; ouTwc;, E<p'TJ, qiuCvETUL. (Republic 342 b7)

3.0EULT~T(Jl EVETUXOV ... twvTL 24 ••• µ,a/1.u iL0/1.ls· ... XUAE1Tw<; yup EXEL. (Theaetetus

142a(i-bl)

210uppMEo,, 0uppo.Arn, 0uppo.AEov: cheerful, confident.

220 06.vu-ro,, Toti 0uvo.Tou: death. 1rp6, (in this context) with regard to.

230 Aux11,, Tou Aux11To,: Laches (the name ofan Athenian general). 1,i

24EvTuY)(6.vw (aorist, J.vhuxov ), with dative: I meet, faJJ in with. EVETuxov is 1st person

singular. tuw: I live. µ.6At,: barely µ.o.Au µ.6AL,: exceedingly barely, i.e. only just.

Section 22 287

NUMERALS

the following are the Greek numerals from one to ten:

iJs, v,La9 EV 1 'ITfll!l'i"_OS "11 °011 first a'li'a " ~ once

860 2 8Eti-r~pos ·a ·ov second ots twice

~ I I

I

'l'~LSi -rpw, 3 -rp.ws 1') -011 third -rpts

0 three times

1k•rrap1:s 4

I

-rE-rap-ros ·11 ·ov fourth

I

'iE'i"paECis four times

I

I

11kvTE 5

0 0

'ITE!1'll''TO<; '1] 011 fifth 'lJ'EV'ialUS five times

&~ 6 EEC ' 'iOS "11 °01l sixth E~U.ECLS six times

t I I

E1M'O- 7 E~OO(.I.O', "'lj 01' seventh <£'1l"1'(1,1Ct<; '

0 seven times

otc1'w 8 o-y8oos "'lj 01/ 0 eighth

I

OCC1'(1,£CL', '

eight times

&vvfo 9 <Eva " 1'0<, "11 ·o v ninth Evmus ' I nine times

Seca 10 oern:ros "11 °011 tenth OEKQ,£C!,', ten times

(The other numerals up to 10,000 are given in the appendix on p.374.)

The cardinal numbers 1-4 have case endings, but 5-10 do not. The

ordinal numbers, flrst, second, third etc all have endings like 1mA6c;. The

numeral adverbs meaning once, twice etc do not change.

One is third declension in the masculine and neuter, but first declension

in the feminine:


nominative EL', • p.ta ' E.v

accusative Eva µw.11 ' &v

genitive €VOS µ1.6.s &vos

dative E.vi (.LLfl, &vu..

Two is dual:

nominative & accusative

genitive & dative

all genders

ofoZS

ouo'i.v

25 ouw is found once in Plato, at Republic 393a5, where Homer, Iliad I, 16 is quoted:

(eAfoouo) 'ATpEtoa ouw ... Koaµ.~TopE A.awv ( he was beseeching) the two sons of Atreus

(i.e., Agamemnon and Menelaus) ... the orderers of the hosts. ;\,(aaoµ.m: I beseech. b

Koaµ.~Twp, Tou Koaµ.~Topo,: the orderer. b A.a6,, Toii A.o.oii: the host, army.


Three is third declension:

masculine & feminine

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

-rpEiS

-rpas

-rpirov

-rpto{(11)

Four is third declension:

masculine & feminine

I

nominative -r<E-r-rap<.s

I

accusative -r<E-r-rapas

genitive -re1·'l'o.pwv

dative -r~i·Tapot( v)

-neuter

-rpta

I

-rpu1

-rpiwv

-rpwt(v)

neuter

I

'i"ET-rapa

I

1'E'l"'TCl,f)O.

T-sna.pwv

'T~'TT<lpO'L ( V)


l.µ,Lo.<; '\TOAEWS, 2.ouot.v 'ITUVoupywv. 3.ouot.v '\TUvoupyov,. 4:rp(o. E'lo17. 5.TETTUpEs

apE'iUL.

6 , \ <;, \ I ('" I 26 ~ r I ) I \ , I 0 ~ I 27 "i\\

.H(YlV U'lj TETTapcs LuEUL TWV ,epwv , [J,W [-LEV oupavlOV EWV YEVO<;, U 111]

~ \ \ \ ' I 28 I ,;, \ '1 ,;, 29 9<;, r \ <;, \ \ ~ JQ

uE -rr-r17vov rem aEpo'!Topov, TPLTTJ oE EVuupov ELuos, '\T€\,OV uE Km XEPO-ULOV

ThupTov. ( Timaeus 39el0-40a2) (oE: and)

7.(ev TOLS TOD IlAo.TWVOS [1U817wt.s ~o-av) yuvat.KES Mo, Aau0EVHU MavTLVLI(~

' 'At 8' ,if,i\ I " ' , <;> ~ ' I 31 ' ..J,. I t, I

ICUL <:,LO EU "JI'' ELUO"W, 'T] ICUL avopua TJI.L'ITLffXETO, W', '!'110-L L.lUCULllpxos.

(Diogenes Laertius, 3, 46)

26 ~ tMa, Tijs rnfo,: the class, the kind. Twv t0wv means of living creatures rather than

of animals.

27oupUVLOS, oupuvw, oupuvLOv: heavenly. TO y.\vos, TOU y.\vous: the race.

2811TIJv6s, 1fTIJV11, 1fTIJv6v: winged. aEpo1r6pos, aEpo1r6pov (feminine as masculine): going

on air. 11n1v6v and c'ucpo1Topov are neuter because y.\vos is understood.

29huopos, huopov (feminine as masculine): living in water.

3011Etos, 1ret11, 1res6v: going about on feet. xepaaios, xepaa(u, xepcmfov: living on dry land,

31MavTLVLKos -~ -6v: from Mantinea. (1)>.ELaa(o,: from Phlius. Ta. o.vopE°ln: men's clothes.

aµ1r(uxoµui: I wear. Dicaearchus of Messana, a pupil of Aristotle who wrote many

books including a Life of Plato.

Section 22 289

9 " 6 ' ' ,., e/ . ' ' ~ '~ c;;:,, ,\ t ~? rt

g,5-rrws µ,oL, (t) av pwTrE, 1111 EpEL, OTL EffTLV TU OWOEKU OLS Es µ,170 OTL TPlS

-;,, " 't' <;,' ,,, " ' ' ' ' '

,drra.pa. µ,170 on Esa.KLS ouo µ,170 OTL TETpa.KL, TpLO: ws ouic a:rrooEsoµ,m

<;,'t '

o-ou

[av rowvw' ~l'l.ua.p~s. (Republic 337b6-8) (For 07iW!, µ:q + future, see p,191. OOJOE1<Cl:

twelve. ws stands for E~ fo-8L ws: know well tliat! o-ou (here): from you. cp11uupEw: J

talk nonsense.)

91.< f 9 ~ f

O'Q.ll[J)<Ea.S9 <D'Q.lo(l:v

The negative of ELS, µ,Ca., EV is ouM--El,, ouof-µ,Ca., ouoHiv: not even one

(man), not even (woman), not even one (thing) , i.e.

ou8ets 9 ouoeµ,ta. 9 ouMv: nobody, nothing.


nominative oiloets oilo1eµ,ta oi'.ioev 32

accusative oi'ioeva oMeµfov ot'ioc&v

genitive OU◊<Ell◊S oil◊Eµ,uis oil◊EV◊S

dative 01JOEVL oi'.i8e11i~ OUOEVL

Where the negative required is F~, nobody, nothing is µ,170ECs, p,170E11Ca.,

µ,110Ev.

A plural, nominative ouOEVES, accusative ouoEva.<;, genitive ovoEvwv occurs

occasionally (the dative of the plural (ouofoL) is not found in Plato):

o.va.6~µ,o.o{ TE ~CEtCOff[l,~KU[l,EV TU LEpa UUTWV wr.; OUOEVE<; aA.Ao"-

And as no olher people we liave adorned tlieir temples willi offerings.

(Alcibiades II 148e6)

( To dv6.8riµu, Tof, dvu8~1wrns: the offering. 1<00-11Ew: I adorn. To LEpov, -roii tEpoil: the

1emple)

ouoE(,, ouoE11ta., oul\Ev can be used for the English none:

OUOEIS TWV EfLWV l<O.T'Y]'yopwv (Apology 35d7-8)

none of my accusers 33

ouoEv is used as an adverb meaning in no way, not at all.

OUOEV owcpEpOUffLV ~ [l,El'I.LTTUL ElO-LV.(Meno 72b8-9)

They differ in no way, insofar as lliey are bees.

32ou8tv is sometimes found instead of ouofo in Alcibiades II.

330 rmT~yopos, mu KuTqyopou: the accuser.



,., , , ~ , 34 3 • '"' ,, , 1r 3S

l.ouOE.VOS O.KOUW, 2.ouoE.VL TOV vouv 1rpoaE.xu. .OUTOS OUOE.V E/\/\'T]VLi,El.

4.TOUTO OUOEV 0auµ.a<rTOV ECTTLV. 5.tu-rpos OIJOElS.(Republic 342d5) 6.o.A.116E, 'Y'

(A 1 17 4) 7 , , , 0' , , , '" , I. ,

OIJOEV E.Lp~KUCTLV, po ogy a .KClTU TOV op OV i\O')'OV KUKlUS ouoeµ.w lpux11

µ.E.0E~n. 36 (Phaedo 94al-2) 8.ouoEµ.w TIO/I.LS EvT(µ.ws uuTu EXH, (Republic

528b5-6) 37 9.µ.'T]OEV /1.EyE 1rpos mum. (Symposium 214d6-7) 38 10.o.pn E./\Eyov

I '6'\ e I " ' ' '\\I ' 1r e 39

µ.'T]OE.VU E E/\HV El<OVTCl apxuv KCll TU U/\/\OTplCl KUKU fLETUXHPLi,,E.CT Cll.

Multiple Negatives

Two or more negatives, each of which is in a separate clause , retain

their negative force:

OL◊E

µ.e.v OIJOELS TOV 06-vuTOV ouo, El TUYXUVH T(fl d.v0pum~) µ.iy1aTOV ov TWV

ciyu6wv. (Apology 29a7-9)

Nobody knows death, not even if it happens to be for mankind the greatesr of good

things.

(o 0civCLTos, Tou 0CLvciTou: death. µlyunos, µ,qtcrTTJ, µ,Ey1crTOv: greatest)

In the same clause, two or more simple negatives ( ou orµ.~) each

belonging to a different expression keep their own negative force:

6Ewv OUOElS ~L/\OCTO~El ODO' h18uµ.e'i: ao~os yevfo0m - E.<JTL ycip - o.ii.6.' Et

TLS o./1./1.os aoqios, OU qi1/l.oaoqiEL. (Symposium 204al-3)

None of the gods pursues wisdom or desires to become wise - for he is - nor does

any other wise person pursue wisdom.

341Tpom:xw Tov voiiv; I apply my mind, pay attention (to) with dative.

35EAI\Tjvttw: I know Greek.

36µ,E0E~EL is 3rd person singular of µ,E0E~w, the future of µ,ETEXW (with genitive): I share.

37EvTtµ,ws ilxw: J hold in respect. mhci ("it") refers to the study of solid geometry.

38'1Tp6s (here): in reply to.

39(Republic 346e8-9) EAEyov is 1st person singular. uAAoTpws -(1 -ov ( belonging to other

people, other people's). EKwv, EKOVTos: willing, as a volunteer. (The adjective is used

here where in English we would have an adverb.) This sentence is an example of AEyw

+ accusative and infinitive (see p.269,footnote 21). The negative µ,~ indicates greater

emphasis in the denial (Smyth, Greek Grammar, para.2723, says that µ,~ in accusative

and infinitive in indirect speech implies a wish that the denial may hold good).

Section 22 291

If two negatives, one of which is simple, in the same clause belong to

me same word or expression, if the second negative is a simple negative

( ou or µ, ~), they make an affirmative:

. KaTU)IEIH\J'T] UV ~µ,wv o~OELS gems oiS, 40 EL ~Ul.f-l,EV µ,~ ~Ou Elvm 9'>uyEt.V, a/I.Au

1mMv. ( Hippias Major 299al-2)

(KuwyEAciw with genitive: I laugh at. ~Su,, ~Mu, ~8u: pleasant. <j,uyEiv: to eat 41 )

There would Ia ugh at us nobody who not if we should say that to eat is not

pleasant, but beautiful=

Everybody would laugh at us if we should say that to eat is not pleasant, but

beautiful.

Plato, Meno 79d 1-e6

Socrates tries 10 persuade Meno to try again to define aper~ without giving an

answer through things which have not already been agreed.

'('" E, , , , 42 r, , 43 , , ,, , , , ,...,

£.,~L. l yup KUl f-l,Ef-1,V'T]O"Ul, OT E)'W 0-0l upTL U1TEKplVUf-l,'T]V 1!Epl TOU

I ' A_ I\\ I 44

U){'T]f-l,UTOS, U1TEt-'U/\I\Of-l,EV

\ I ' I \ 45

1TOU T'T]V TOlUUT'T]V U1TOKplCTlV T'T]V

~ \ ,... ,1

UlU TWV ETl

e

r I 46 , / e \ I 47 1 ~ 1 I

~'ljTOUf-1,EVWV KUl f-l,'T]'ITW Wf-1,01\0)''T]f-L,EVWV E1TlXElpouo-uv U'ITOKplVEO- UL.

MEN. Ka.1 op0ws YE U'ITE~UAAoµ,Ev, J :EwKpUTE<;.

40ouoE1, ocm, ou is usually found for ot',oE1, ou. ou is proclitic, i.e. closely connected

with the following word, and if there is none can have an acute accent.

41The infinitive of E<puyov, the aorist of fofKw: I eat.

42For 11Eµv11µuL and lipTL, see section 19, p.242.

435.,.' stands for oTE: when.

44

0.1rE~aAAoµEv is 1st person plural of h.f~uAAov, the imperfect of d.1ro~aAAw: I reject.

ci1ro~aAAw literally means I throw away, from ci1r6 and ~aAAw: I throw.

4

\~v oul. ... the one through ... 1llll oul. TWV ETL (11rnuµhwv KCLL µ~1rw wµoAOY1]µEvwv

E1TLXELpoucrav refers to T~v ToLCLuT11v ci1r6KpwLv. For E1TLXELPEW and µ~1rw see p.242.

Translate in the order o.1TE~aAAoµEv 1rou T~v TOLuuT11v h6KpwLv -r~v E1TLXELpoucmv u1r0Kptvw6m

OLa. Twv (neuter) ETL t11TouµEvwv rn1 µ~1rw wµoAoyouµEvwv. 1rou: I suppose.

4r't1JTOUfLEvwv is neuter plural genitive: through things still (fo) being sought.

47

tiiµoAoy1]µEVWV is genitive plural neuler of wµ0Aoy11µ.lvo<;, the participle of wµoAoy11µuL,

the perfect passive of oµoAoy.lcu.


"'"' M,48 I ', " 49 C,.\ \ v '( I ? ,.., rt\ rt ,

£;H. 11 TOlVUV, (t) apUTTE, f-l110E 01.) E.Tl s11TOUfJ-,EV11<; apE.T11S 0,111s OTl Ecrnv

oi'.ou &ur TWV TUUT11S µ,opi:wv U1T01<plVOf-LEVOS &11/\wcrHV UUT~V cmpouv,

""\\ ' - , - ' - , ,, ,,,,so ,, - , -

11 U/\/\0 OTlOUV TOUT<(l T<(l UUT<(l TPOTI<(l /\Eywv, U/\/\U 1TU/\lV T11c; UUT11c;

&E~crw0m EPUJT~CYEUJS, TLVO<; OVTOS apE.TTJS /\EyELS u Myw;· ~ O\'i&Ev <YOl

&oKw /\EyELv;

MEN."Eµ,olyE &oKE.l,<; op0ws /\EyELv.

1:0. 'ATioKplvm 51 TOLVUV 1'fU/\lV E\; upx~s- TL q>~s apET~V El val l<Ul, o·u KO.l 0

, ~ ~ 52

ETmpos uou;

48This long sentence is translated in two parts. The first is a prohibition: M~ roll,),_

Ji iipwTE, f-L'J]OE O'l) ETL t 'J]T0ll11EV'J]S upEr-ijs OA'J]S OTL ECYTLV OlOll OLU TWV TUUT!j<; f-Lop[wv

a,roKpLVOf-LEvos 011:\wcruv uur~v /mpoilv, 11 o.AAo OTLoiiv Tourcp ri)l uuTi)l Tpo1rcp AEywv. µ, 1

qualifies ofou (2nd person singular imperative of olf-Lm). NB since ofou is a~

imperative, f-L~ rolvuv o'i'.ou means so stop thinking! and is followed by 011:\wcrm u,h1,.

/ncpoilv. Since the subject of ofou is the same as the subject of 011:\wcrav, the subjectoi

011:\wcruv is simply not expressed (section 21, p.269), and f-L~ ofou 011Aw<mv = f-L~ ofou on

011:\wcreL, ( that you wiJJ show). f-L'J]OE cru: even you! f-L11oe: repeats the negative of µi,

ofou. orL forLv is an indirect question after 011:\wcrus "what it is" i.e. its real nature.

orcpoilv to anybody at all u1roKpLVof-LEvos ( answering, i.e.if you answer) OLa Twv ruu11]i

f-Lop1,wv ( through its parts) ( ruuTTJ, ( its) refers to uperijs) t11rouf-Lh11s aperijs 01\11, is genitive

absolute, equivalent to while excellence as a whole is being sought (o:\11s as a whole.

genitive qualifying aper-ijs) 11 or ii:\:\o brwi',v anything else at all rourcp r~, uur0 rp6n\

AEywv speaking in this way.

49For lipwre, section 13, p.151.

50The second part is a command: a/\Aa. (o'cou) 1TU/\LV Tij<; uurij<; OE~O'E0'8UL EpulT~O'EW<;, rlvo1

OVTO<; upeTijs /\EyEL<; /J. AEyELs. Translate as a/\Aa OLOll 1TUALV OE~O'E0"0m T'l]S UU71]i

Epwr~crEws, but think tliat there will be need of the same enquiry , i.e. that the samt

enquiry will be necessary (oe~crrnllm is the infinitive of oe~crETUL, the future of oEirm:

there is need of , the third person singular of OEOf-LUL used impersonal!~; oE~aeaflm

following ofou is the equivalent of orL oe~crErUL) r1,vo, ovrns apeTijc; ( what being

excellence) (rlvos ovros apETijs is genitive absolute) AEYEL, Ii :\.iyas (you are saying

what you are saying). The sentence is most easily translated as if, after Epwr~crEws, ii

ended 'TL EO'TLV ~ upET~ (1rEpt ~<;) Myu, Ii AEyEL<;.

51a1r0Kplvut is 2nd person singular imperative of u1reKptvUf-L'J]V, the aorist of a.1ro1<plvof-LUl·

52This refers to Gorgias.

Section 23

293

New words:

at<Y)(P6s 9 al<ry(Pa. 9 a.L<rylfl611

•~' ,1:, ~ ,1:,,

1JOUS9 'TJO<Ei,(1,9 'TJOU

. ~auxos9 ~m'.,X'l'Ji ~mrycov

I

1cavroi

I I\ I

11eyas 9 [l,Eya117J 9 µ<Eya

11a1<p6s 9 µ,<Itcpa 9 µ,a.Kp611

I I I

µ,ea-ros 9 µ,ea'M] 9 µ,eaw11

11u<p6s9 µ,ucpo.9 fUKp6v

1ra11-rEAws

'i/OA'US9 '!iOAA.~9 '!iOAU

'!'O.XUS9 'l'U){Et.U,9 ·mxu

singular

nominative

accusative

masculine

I

µ,1:yas

I

µ,eya.v

genitive µ,EyaAou

dative µ,E')'0.1.1!)

dual

nom. &acc. IJ,E'\'OJW

gen. &dat. µ.eyaAoLV

plural

nominative [l,E')'Ci.AOL

accusative µ,ieyal'l.ous

genitive (J,E')'O.A.0011

dative (J,EyaAoLs

shameful

pleasant

quiet

and yet (usually introduces an objection)

great

long

full of (with genitive)

small ( also o-µ.ucp6s, o-µ.tKpll, o-µ.ucp6v)

utterly, altogether 1

much (in plural, many)

swift, quick 2

Irregular Adjectives

µ,Eyas: great

feminine neuter

!),E)IO.A.1]

f!,E')'llA.'T}V

[LE')'Ci.h1]S

11eyaA11

IJ,E'YO.AU

f1E'YUA<lLV

µeya.Am

µ,ieyo.Aas

µ,eya.Awv

µ,EyaAaLs

I

fJ,E)IO,

I

!1E')'U

[LE')'alwv

µ,eya.?1.1!'

µesyo.Aw

(l,E'YClAOLV

~,<kya/1.a

!J,E1fll.AU

~LE)'0.11.WV

µ,Eyo.Ams

1Also used by Plato in answers, to mean most certainly, e.g. 1ravTEA/ii, fLEV oliv: assuredly

(Republic 573cl0).

2The modern Greek for postman is TC1xuop6µ.os, "he who runs quickly".

q.


1r0Ms: much (in plural, many)

singular masculine feminine neuter

nominative 1TOI\.US 'ITOAA~ 'iWM

accusative 'ITOAUV 1roAA~v 1mM

genitive 'IToi\.i\.oil 'lToAA:i\s 1,0/,i\oil

dative 1ToAA4i '!TOA.Ai\ 'IToA)ui,)

plural

nominative 'ITOAAo[ 'IToAi\.at -rroi\M

accusative 'IToAXous 'rroi\.Ms 'ITOA/1.a

genitive 'lTOA/1.rov 'ITOl\hWV 'ifoi\.i\.wv

dative 'ITO~.Ao'is TioAAaLS 1ToAAois

µhya.s and TroMs are irregular only in the nominative and accusative singular,

masculine and neuter. In the other cases, the endings are like those of

· KaAos, KUA~, KuAov.


1.~ [1Ey6.i\.1j 1r6i\.v;. 2.1roi\.i\.u1, o6~uL. 3:rroi\.i\.wv yuvuLKWV. 4.1roi\.i\.6.. 5.ot TIOAA.o[.

6.(o i\.oyos) ... [1f.yus TE T[<; f10l <jlo.L\/ETUl l<UL OU p~OlO<; OllOELV.

3 ( Phaedo 62bSj

7 .'!TOA.UV OE xpovov (ut UA1j8Et,S oo~al) OUK E8EAOUCTl 'ITUPUf1EVElV, ai\.i\.a opa'ITE.TEUOUOlV

EK T~S tJiux~s TOU uv8punrou. (Meno 98al-2) 4 8.TOUT, oLµ,m TOl,S 1TOAA.Ol,<; OU

ouva16v.( Gorgias 492a3) 5 9. <Pti\.u[OTJS Trapa ~UCTLAEWS ~KWV TOD µ,ey6.i\.ou nEyi;:v

'!TE.pl uoil. (Letters xiii, 363cl(' 10.ouOE TOV µ,Eyav ~U<Yl/1.EU YLYVWCYKElV <ji~Oll\

Euoa[µ,ova ovrn. ( Gorgias 470e4-5) (Eiloutµwv, Euoutµovo,: fortunate)

3ouoEi:v is the infinitive of lhi:oov, the aorist of oLopciw: I scrutinize, I fathom.

4 o xp6vo,, Toii xr6vou: time. 1ro/\uv xp6vov is an accusative of extent of time (p.348).

1rupaµEvw: I wait (at someone's disposal). opa1rETEuw: I run away. Toii dv6pwifbu: of a ma1

(in gcneral)(See NB 1, p.10.)

5ouvuT6, -~ -6v: possible.

6Philaedes: otherwise unknown. For ~Kw see p.79. Plato's letters may not be genuine.

Section 23 295

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

Adjectives and adverbs may be positive, comparative or superlatNe .

. Positive - a wise man -ao~6, uv0pwTio,

Comparative - a wiser man - o·o~WTEflOS uv0pw1TO<;

Superlative - the wisest man - b ao~wmros uv0pwno,.

comparative adjectives ending --rEpo, have case endings like µ,mcpos 9 µ,aKpa 9

j.1,a1<pov,

Superlative adjectives ending --ro.To, have case endings like 1mA.6s9 i<aA~9

1<aAOV,

The comparative and superlative endings are attached to the masculine

stem -o, e.g,

oumLO'TEflOS9 OUCO.W'T<Eflll.9 OUCClLO'TEpov more just

0L1emo-ra'Tos9 0L1eaw'Ta-r1h ◊LKmo'Ta'Tov most just

or to the stem ending -E in third declension adjectives ending -TJs,

o.X110foT<epos 9 o.X111k(l"r4pa 9 a.A'l'J0fo,-,epov truer, more true

dA118eC1-raws 9 d.A110eCJ"Ta-r'TJ 9 a.A'TJ0fornwv truest, most true

Adjectives ending -·os in the masculine singular have the comparative and

superlative endings ·-wTepos and -ro'TaTos if the vowel in the syllable before

the last is short, e.g. from cioucos: unjust

<iOL1<6J-repos9 doucw-repa.'9 d.81,Kti>TEpov more unjust

doucro-raT0',9 doUC(IJ'i'!!.T'IJ9 d8i1<WTUTOV most unjust. 7

Some others are slightly irregular, e.g

<j>tXoc; friendly, dear cp(ATepos friendlier, dearer cpU,,-a-roc; friendliest, dearest

~croxos quiet ~croxut'iepos quieter ~croxuha-ros quietest

7For this purpose, a short vowel followed by two consonants counts as long: so the

comparative of µ,aKpos Jong, is fWKpoTE,pos, longer and the superlative is µ,aKpoTa-ros:

longest.



l ,xa11.rnw-mTOV, 2. a0ALWTEpos. 8 3.0aUfl,O.O'TOTEpa. 4.M~u UA'lj0EO"TE.pu. 5.uKpL~EO-TEpu

1TUL0ElU. 9 (Laws 670e2) 6.to-xupoTEpos O, Eyw 1(0,l VEWTEpos ( EL~,L). ( Phacdrus 236dJ)

((vfo, -(1 -ov: young ). 7 .OUTW " yup ' EUOUL[!,OVWTUTO<; 'I! ' YLYVETUL ' av " 0 pw1ro<;. ( Republic

t I \ \\ \ -. ~ e I '~ I \ '1

619bl). 8.Eup11aas yup 1T0/\11ous Twv av pwnwv aoucwTa.Tous [!,EV ov-ra,s !CUL

, , , , ' , , , e , , <:, , ~, ~ " ,

UVOO'LWTUTOUS KUL UKO/\UO'TOTUTOUS KUL Uf!,U EO'TUTOU<;, avopHWTUTOUS OE OLU~lEpovTws,

(Protagoras 349d6) 10

The irregular comparative PEA:rlwv: better


singular

nominative ~EAT[wv ~GA'MV

accusative (~EAT[ova) or~EATtw ~GA.1·wv

genitive ~EATtovos ~EA:rtovos

dative ~EATLOVI, ~<EA:1fov1,

plural

nominative (~<EA-rLov1cs) or ~EA7fous ~EA1fova or ~EA-rf.111

accusative (~EATlovas) or ~EA.1fous ~EATtovu or ~EA'l'LW

genitive µEA·novwv ~EATLOVWV

dative ~EltTLocn( v) ~E:ATtoaL( v)

Plato uses the shorter forms 11 except sometimes ~Et.TCova (acc. sing.).

8a.0t..LO,, d.0>..lu, a.0>..wv: wretched.

9 ~ 11utodu, TfJ<; 11ut0Elu,: education.

10a.v6cnos, avoaLOv: unholy. O.KOA.aaTO<;, O.Kot..aa-rov: undisciplined d.µa8~<;, d.µu8E\i ignorant

d.vopELO<;, d.vopElu, d.vopELOv: brave. OLC1<pEp6v-rw,: extremely

11They are formed by contraction; ~Ei\-rlw from ~Ei\-rlo(a)a. and ~Ei\-rlou, which is used

both for nominative and accusative plural, from ~Ei\-rlo(cr )Es. The duals are, all genders:

~Ei\-rlovE (nominative and accusative), ~EATLovotv (genitive and dative).

Section 23 297


l.~EATLOU<; 36~m. 2.~EATLW o6~av iixw. 3.~EATLW /ipyu 'ITOLOO.

5.~eATCous 'Myous . eupLm<w. 6.TLS auTous ~eATCous 'ifOLE'i:;

4.~E/\TLOUS A6yoL.

(Apology, 24d3) 7.oL

rt 12 f \ ,..., t ,..., 9 .J. \ "" \ Q_ \ / I

L1T'li0L U'TfO TT]<; L1TTfLK'ljS W't'E/\OUVTUL l(UL t-'E/lTLOUc; 'YL'YVOVTUL. (Euthyphro 13b9)

8.KUL a/\/\ous (YOL 1Taµ.-rro/\/\ous EXW AEyELv, Ol d.ya8oL UUTOL OVTES OUOEVU 'ITWTIOTE

~E/\TLW J1ToL'IJ<Y«v. (Protagoras 320bl) ( 1raµ1To/\/\0L -(lL -(1: very many 1Tw1roTE: ever yet)

The following adjectives have comparative ending -(L)wv (like ~«-AT(wv)

and superlative ending "4.0"Tos (masc.), -,,aTIJ (fem.), ..,,o.,.ov(neut.): 13

cl,ya6os: good aµ,<Etvwv:better 14

~EA-rtwv: better

Kp<EL nwv: be tter 15

(Al\)wv· better 16

a.Lcry{p◊s:shameful atcrxt~w:more shameful

~x6pos:hostile &x6twv:more hostile

~8-6s: pleasant ~otwv:more pleasant

apurros:best

~8TLa-ros: best

Kpa-rwTos:best

A41a-ros:better)

a'lO)(La-ros:most shameful

ix6w·ws: most hostile

,f\ourros:most pleasant

120 i'.1T1To,, ToiJ i'.1rnou: the horse. ~ L1T1rL1<~, TTJS t1T1Tuc~c;: the art of training horses.

13y.\uKuc; (sweet) has as the comparative y.\uK(uiv and as the superlative y.\u,cumToc;.

o.A.yELvoc; (painful) has as comparative either ci.\y[(t)v or ci.\ynvoTEpo, and as superlative

either cl..\yunoc; or ci.\yuvoTaTo,, but ci.\y[(t)v and cl..\yunoc; do not occur in Plato.

141n the sense of more excellent. At Laws 627a7, of ciµE[vovec; means the upper classes.

15 Often in the sense of mightier.

161n the sense of finer, nobler; finest, noblest. (Rarer than o.µELvwv, ~eh[wv, KpeLTThiv,

but found once in Plato in the nominative singular, ~v o.vopwv Aq\<noc;: he was rhe besl

of men ( Phaedo, 116d, 6-7) and more often in the vocative, .\qicrTE: my dear sir!

298

KaK6s:bad

Ka'Ms:beauliful

µ,e'}'a.s:grea t

I ]]18

µ,LKpos:sma

, \ I 1 • 1 20

o,wyos: 1tt e

1r0Ms:much

{l48ws:easy

mxus:quick


KaKlwv:worse

KetKUY'ios:worst

X<Etpwv:worse 17

xetpt.o-Tos:worst

KaAA(wv:more beautiful. K!tAAw-ros:most beautiful

µ,,:;(twv:greater µ,e'Yur-ros:greatest

EA.awwv:smaller, less 19 EAaxw"ros:smallest, least

oAt')lto''ios:least

-i)nwv:less 21

[-qKto''l'O<;:least]

'lTAELwv:more

'ITAEtO''ios:mos1

fliwv:easier

pq,o-Tos:easiest

0anwv:quicker

TliXLO''iOc;;:quickest


1.LwKpUT'T],: T(vas AEyELs mus ~EAT(ous Elvm; KaA.ALKA'T]S: Tous aµ,E(vous ifywy~.

{ Gorgias 489e3-5)22 2.E'l o-oL ~owv fonv, Eyw Epw. { Gorgias 504c5) 23 3.~11.umoµevoL

o' h1roL ~EAT(ous ~ XElpous y(.yvoVTm; {Republic 335b6) 4.ouTws EfLOl 001<d"Epw 1

{Love) KUAAWTOS Kal, upuYTos.(from Symposium 197cl) 5.~ 1''T]S tJiuxTJ, TIOV'TjpLu

17Often in the sense of inferior.

18 fLtKpoTEpos (at Critias ll 7dl) and <JfLtKpoTUTOS {at Statesman 270a9) are also found

occasionally as the comparative and superlative.

19From EAuxus: small, little, mean (poetical and rare).

2°Found usually in the plural: oA[yoc, oA[ym, oA[ya:few.

21From 'flKa· a little, gently {NB change of breathing). ~KwTos is not found in Plato

although the adverb ~Kt<JTa: not at all { for which, see p.300) is.

22 ~EAT[wv is a general word for better. While ci.fLdvwv can mean better in the sense of

stronger, mightier, Socrates'next remark "You are saying mere words, but signifying

nothing" shows that ~EAT[wv and ciµE[vwv can be taken to mean more or less the same.

23The subject of E<JTtv is "it".

Section 23 299

arcrxwTOV EO-Tl 1TUVTWV. ( Gorgias 477el) 24 6.TO 1TPOTEpov EV 0-fW<po'i.s KUI. p~OO-lV

(11pciyµacnv) ~µ,as OE!. UUTO. fl,EAETav.(Sophist 218dl, adapted) 25 7.~ OLK'T) ~oov~v

11AELO'T'T)V 1TOlEl. ~ W<pEALUV ~ uµ,cj>oTEpa. (from Gorgias 478b6) 26

Other meanings

The comparative can be used for the English rather or too:

r6n: fi,EVTOl Eyw OU Aoy aD EVEOEl~Ufi,'T)V OTl Efi,01. 0avaTOU fi,EAEl, EL

µ,~ u:ypolKOTEpov ~v EL1TEl.V, ouo' OTlOUV (Apology 32c6-d2) 27

Then, nevertheless, I, not in word but in deed, again showed that to me death matters

not at all, if it were 1101 rather a crude thing to say.

The basic meaning of the comparative here is more than one should, and the point is

that the remark is more inappropriate than it should be because Socrates is in court

on trial for his life.

The ~ive without the article can be used as the equivalent of the

English veryor most, e.g.

av~p o-ocj>wrnTo,: a very wise man, a most wise man

or with the article:

u110 Tou o-ocbwTaTou XeLpwvos 11rnmoeuµ,Evov (Hippias Minor 371dl)

educated by the very wise Chiron. 28

24 ~ 1rov'T]pla, T~, 1rov'T]pla,: wickedness.

25 jJ,EAETuw: J practise.

26 ~ OLK'T], ~- OLK'T],: justice. ~ ~oov~, ~- ~OOV~<;: pleasure. ~ w<),eAla, T~<; w<),el\(a<;: benefit.

djJ,<j,6TepoL -aL -a: both.

27 JveoeL~cii-''TJv is 1st person singular aorist middle of EvoelKvul-'L: I show, demonslrale. b

8civaTo<;, Toii 8avciTou: death. j.lEAEL j.lOL Toii 8avuTou: ii matters to me of death. a.ypoLKo<;,

a.ypoLKov: unpolished, unmannerly from o dyp6,, field. Country people were thought

less polite than townsfolk.

28Said of Achilles, who was educated by Chiron the centaur. 1rmoeuw: I educate.


Note the difference from the use of the superlative in comparisons:

() TWV E'lTTU 0-0~WTUTOS :Eo/\wv ( Timaeus 20d8)

The wisest of the seven, Solon ...

Comparative and superlative adverbs

The neuter singular accusative is used for a comparative adverb:

uA118fo-rEpov: more truthfully

-roUT, O,A:r10Ecr1"Epov E'lp'f}KOS, tiJ LWKpaTES. ( Gorgias 493d4)

You have said this more truthfully, Socrates. 29

However, comparative adverbs ending -ws are sometimes found in Plato ,

e.g.

1To-rEpov uA118rn-ripws OOKEL o-ol /I.E:yrn8m; (Republic 347e5-6)

Which of these two seems to you to be said more truthfully?

The neuter plural accusative is used for a superlative adverb:

ci11.118fo-ru-ru: most truthfully or very truthfully.

aA118fornrn AEyEls (Laches 193e5)

You are speaking very truthfully.

Irregular comparative and superlative adverbs

µ.a.11.a:very

7rofl.'6: much

·mxu'

or ·ro.xo.: '

soon, quickly

µ.iiAAov:more, rather

~-r-rov:less

7rA~ov:more

8ii."l'Tov:sooner,

more quickly

µ.al\.UYW.:most, especially

'flKLO-'rn,:least, not at all.

,rXau-ra: most

"l'ttxw-ra:soonest


l.u/1./\' EYW UOl (fU~E<JTEpov Epw. ( Gorgias 500d6)

2.hp86rn-ru, lq>'T}V, 1J1TE/l.a~es. (Republic 394b9) (u1T0Aa11~6.vw: I understand) 114 .

29But clJ118fo-rEpov could well be an adjective here "this is a more truthful thing you

have said, Socrates". (See Brandwood, A Word Index to Plato, p.33)

Section 23 301

3.uKpl~E.O'TUTU, ~v O, E'YW, ava.µ.Lµ.v~mm, µ.E. (Republic 522b1) 30

4.KUL f op'YLOU µ.o.ALO"TU, Ji I:wKpO.'TES, mum <l'YO.[J,UL (Meno 95cl) (ayC1fLC1t: I admire)

. 5.rnuTu o' ETL ~TTov ·rrELarn0E [LOL AE'Yovn.(Apology 38a6) 31

w, or on preceding a superlative adjective or adverb

ws or orri before a superlative mean as ... as possible , e.g. with an adjective:

... 011ws OTL 'ITAELO"'TI] UU'TOL<; EUOuq.1ov(a. E'Y'YEV~O"E'TUL. (Republic 421 b6-7) 32

... so that as much happiness as possible may arise among them.

with a superlative adverb:

oui<ouv EV ypa.µ.µ.una-rou KO.L EV KL0o.pLO"TOU oux ws :qau;xuLTO.Ta. a.AA' !Q.<;__..J~m

EO"TL 1<0.AAwm; ( Charmides 160a4-6) 33

In (the school) of the writing master and in (the school) of the teacher of the lyre,

isn't it (sc., to understand what is said) 1101 Es quietly as possible, but as quick]J!- as

possible lhat is finesl?

Than

Than, indicating a comparison, can be expressed in Greek either by ~:

\ \ \ , I " ' A '"' " ' A <;, I f.l' (R bl' 358 5) 34

'ITO/\U 'YUP o.µ.nvwv a.po. 0 TOU UULKOU ::ti O TOU ULKULOU /-'LO<; epu JC ,c

Form uch better, then, is the life of the unjust than of the just man.

or by the genitive case:

TouTou µ.E1tov µ.q(a-rou ( Gorgias 509b2)

greater Jhan this greatest

311TELO'EuilE is 2nd person plural of 'ITELO'ofLat, the future of 1TEL6oµat (with dative of

person): I believe, sometimes I obey.

32EyyLyvoµm(with dative): J arise among.

33b ypafLµaTwT~S, Tou ypafLfLC1TwTOu:elementary teacher of writing (also means clerk)

b Kt0apwT~s, Tou 1<t6apwTon: instructor in playing the lyre (more usually, lyre-player).

34This comes from Glauco's challenge to Socrates in Republic II.


Tl, o' (,(JTlV µ,et.(ov a:yu0ov dv0punrol<; U')'lEL.Q,S.;(Gorgias452a9-bl)

What greater good for men is there than health?

When 11 is used the nouns or adjectives compared are in the same case.


l.a.µ,Hvov lo-·n OLKUlOV ELVm ~ a.oucov; (Republic 357bl) 2.KlVOUVEUO"ltl ... O"O~WTEpos

TOU OEOVTOs 35 yivrn0uL ( Cralylus 399a4-S) 3.oUOEV a.pu op0~ o6~u E.1TlO"T1ll11lS

xet.pov earnl Et-S

(for) TUS 1rpci~us. (from Meno 98cl) ('/1 l:11urT'T}fl-1J, T'T}, l:11LcrT1li11]s:

knowledge, understanding) 4.E.a.v µ,e d110KTELVTJTE 36 ... ouK E[l,E µ,e1,(w ~/\a.~ere ~

uµ,us UUTOUS. (Apology 30c7) 5.lwicpa.TTJ OU TIWTIOTE µ,uA./\OV ~ycia0TJV 37 ~ r6rE

Tiupuyev6µ,evos. (Phaedo 88e6) 6.1rdaoµ,m 38 µ,u/\A.ov Tqi 0e0 ~ uµ,t.v. (Apology

29d3) 7. E')'W 00v ao~wTepos EKELV<llV -yev{iaoµ,m. (Phaedrus 243b3) 8.EO"Tlv o~v

oam ~OUA.ETUl ... ~A.a.mrn0o.l fLUA.A.ov ~ W<pEA.Et.a0ul; (Apology 25dl) 9.rci TE

yup ci.11.11.o. (and indeed in respect of the other matters ) euomµ,ovfoTepol Elalv ol

EKEl. TWV ev06.oe. (For EUOO.l.[l,ltlV see p.294, sentence 10.) ( Apology 4lc5-6). 39 10.

all.A.a. µ,~ OU TOUT ' ~ xo.Arnov, fjJ ovopes, 0civo.TOV EK<pU')'E:iv, all.A.a 'ITOA.u

xo.A.ETIWTEpov TIOVTJPLUV' 0uTToV yap 0o.va.TOU 0Et.. (Apology 39a6-bl) 40

35To Mov, Tou ofovTO,: the necessary thing, what is necessary (neuter ptcple of OEL).

3"c1110KTELV1JTE is 2nd person plural of the subjunctive of o.1101eTElvw: I kill.

37~yacr0'ftV is 1st person singular aorist indicative of iiyaµ.uL: I admire.

38See footnote 31, above.

391:1eE'i: there.

4°For µ11 ou, see p.191. EKq>DyEi:v is the infinitive of l(;.,q,uyov, the aorist of l:Kq>Euyw: I

evade. For~ nov11rfo, see footnote 24 above. For o 86.vuTo,, see footnote 27. 0Ew: I run.

~

Section 23 303

'l"axa can be used with o'.v to form ;,&,)£' ii.v, meaning probably, e.g.

Tax' /iv UIS ')'O'l]S u-rrux0EL1JS. (Meno 80b7) 41

You would probably be Jed away (to prison} as a wizard.

11a;>.,wv is often used to contrast tvvo notions or mark a change of mind in

the progress of a sentence:

/\E~')'OO o~ ui'i TO [LE Ta Tou-ro, 11iiAAov &' Epw-rw ( Crito 49e5)

Ofcourse, again, I'm saying the next thing (literally the after this),

or (literally but) rather I'm asking (you} ...

8aq, '" -roo-ou-rqi (literally, by how much ... by so much ...) are used to

correlate comparatives:

e 0 I 42 \ \ ~ > t J ( iJ ) > I > 0 I iJ > ~ \ I I

17 1rpo uµ,w <YOU 1TO/\/IOU Ui,W EL1] u [LETU TLVO', op OT1JTOS El1]" u OE fl-11, .QQ!JJ.

[LEl(oov TO<YOUT(J) (Ei'. 11) xu/\E'!TWTEpu. ( Crito 46bl-3)

Your zeal would be worth much if it were accompanied by a certain correctness; but

if it were not, the greater it is, the more difficult it would be (to bear} (literally, by

how much greater. Q.\UiO much it would be more difficult to bear}.


I.Tax' UV El1] ~ upET~ OUK E'fTUYT~[L'l] w;.(Meno87d5-6).(€1TLCTT~f1'lj:knowledge)

2.oUKOUV ~[LEl,S uv8pw1rou, µ,u/\/\ov OE 'ITUVTWV uv8pw1rwv OO~U<; /\Eyoµ,Ev.

(1,.fyw here: J say, express) ( 111eaetetus 170a6-7)

3.00-4> UV OOK~ uµavov /\E')'ElV, TOO"OUT(Jl µ,iiAAov (AU'fTEl [LE). 43 (Laches 188e3)

4 ' \ I ~ ., ' RI\ ' I " (

.1TEpL 'fT/\EWTOU 'ITOL1J O'ITWS OJ<; 1-'E/\TLO"TOL OL VEWTEpoL EO"OVTCLL; A po 1 ogy 2d. ,C 10 -dl )44

5./\E')'E 0~ W<; TUXLO"TU '!Tpo<; 0EWV. ( Hippias Major 29ld8) 45

41chax0Et'T], is 2nd person singular of d1rux0d11v, the optative of d1r~x611v, the aorist

passive of d1rciyw: J lead away (to prison}. b y611,, Toii y611To,: sorcerer.

42 ~ 1rpo0uµla, TTJ<; 1rpo6uµ[u,: zeal. ~ op06T'l],, TTJ, 6p06T'T]TO<;: correctness. d(;[o,, d~[a,

d~tov:(with genitive): worth.

43Au1rEw: I hurt, gr.ieve, upset.

441rEp1. 11AELCTTou 1r0Loiiµ.m: 1 consider most important. ol vEwTEpoL: the younger men, lhe

younger generation. For this use of 011w<; see p.176.

451rpo, 0Eiiiv: for heaven's sake.


Plato, Meno 79e7-80b7

Meno figh ls back.

ME ,...(") ~ I " 46 \ ?/ \ 47 \ I 8 ag

N. 'H .s,WKpaTES, 1JKOuov [LEV eywyE ·irpLv Km o-uyyEVE<Y m · 0-0L OTL ,

Ou

OUOEV iD\l\o ~49 UUTO', TE O.TIOpEL', ICUL TOU', cC\l\ou, 1TOLELS O.TIOPELV' KUL vuv "

' (lJ~

YE µ,oL OOKEL,, yo1jTEuELs 50 [LE 1<al ~apµ,a.TTELc; 51 ical O.TExvwc; 52 ICUTE1T(/.OEL~,si

waTE 11rnTov a.11op1.ac; yqovEvm. 54 ical OOKELS [LOL 1ravTEAwc;, 55 El ◊EL

TL 56 KuL

461st person singular imperfect of a.Kouw.

47For Tip[v, see section 20, p.256.

48 auyyEivrn0aL is the infinitive of <ruvEyEvoµ11v, the aorist of auyy[yvoµm, from auv (,

dative, wjth) and y(yvoµm, meaning J meet (literally, I become with).

49ouoev iir,Ao ~: simply. (The literal translation is in no other respect than.)

50

yo1JTEuw: I bewitch.

51qiapµuTTw: I enchant. Socrates is accused of this in another dialogue, at Symposium

194a5, where the poet Agathon says: qiapµuTTnv ~ouAEL µE, J .ubr<paTEs. The word is

connected with TO qiupµaKOV, TOU qiapµu,cou: the drug.)

52a.TExvws: simply. (Derived from ci- ( un) and TEXv-11: art, skill, it means literally without

art, which is close to the English "simply".)

5\aTrnq,o<u (literally, I subdue by singing): I cast a spell on (with accusative).

54yqovevaL is the infinitive of yeyovu, the perfect of y[yvoµm. For µrnTo,, see p.293

above. For wo-TE see p.94.

55For TiavTEAws, see p.293 above.

56r<al.: indeed. Sharples translates it as "actually". TL here means to a certain extent,

at aJJ. ar<iii~m is the infinitive of [mwtlm, the aorist of cnc<bTITw.

Section 23 305

crKWo/Ul, 6[J,OLOTUTOc; 57 ELVUL TO TE dooc; 58 l(O,t, TO.II.Ao, TUUTlJ T1j 1TAUTEL<), vap1q1 T1j

0 , , s9 , , " , , , \ 'r Go , , , 61 0

al\a:TTL<),' l(UL yup UUTl] TOV UEL 1Tll1J<YLU,OVTU l((lL U1TTO[J,EVOV vapKO.V)

'lfOLEl, 1ml. (Yl) OOKElS fl'.OL vuv E[J,E TOLOUTOV TL 1TE1TOL 1'Jl(E.VUL, 63 [ vup1<6.v ]· aA110w~

· , " ' , .I. , ' ' 1 64 ,. ' ~ " rt ~ , 1

yo,p EYWYE Km T1JV 'l'UX'TJV Km TO <YToµ,u vup1<w, 1caL OUK EXW on u1roccpLVwµ,m

s;ofLouSrnTos, OfLOLOTaT11, OfLOLornTov (with dative): most like, most resembling

58.,-o <loo, Kat TciAAa is accusative. ( TciAAu stands for .,-a aAAu .) The force of the accusative

is in respect of. The root meaning of To ,Joos is exterior form, or aspect, and Meno no

doubt has in mind Socrates' snub nose, which might make him seem rather like a

fish. (See the note in Sharples' Meno, p.141.) KUL TciAAa: and in other respects.

5911AuTu,, 1111.a.,-E(u, 11AuTu: flal. ~ vupK1J, TI), vupK1J,: the torpedo fish, an electric ray of

the genus Torpedo. 0uMTTw,, 0aAaTT(u, 0aAuT'TLov: found in the sea.

601111.11cnci(ovm is masculine accusative singular of 1rA1JoTcitwv, the present participle of

1111.110-Lci(w, I approach. o aEL 1111.110-Lcitwv: the man who approaches (it) at any time.

62 vapKuv is the infinitive of vupKaw: I grow numb (cf. English "narcotic").

63 1rE110L1JKEVaL is the infinitive of 1rE1TOL1JKU, the perfect of 1TOLE.w. vup1<uv after 1rrnoL111c12vuL

has been bracketed in the text because, as the infinitive of vapKciw, it means to be

numb, whereas what Meno says Socrates has done to him is to make him numb, and

the translation is easier without vupKiiv after 1rrnoL~1cEvuL. There is doubt in this case

whether to keep vap1<iiv in the text or omit it. 1r0Lew is sometimes nearer to "I make"

than "I do", and, taking ,oLoflTov as masculine and TL as accusative of respect, we could

translate ooKELS µoL vflv EfLE ToLoil.,-6v TL 'ITrnoL 1JKEVUL, vapKuv as "you seem to me now to

have made me like this, in a certain way, to be numb", thus keeping vup1<iiv in the

text. An infinitive used to explain another word, as vup1<uv is used to explain ToLou,6v,

is said to be epexegetical (from E.1TE~1Jyfoµm: I explain besides). Another example, cited

by J.L. Stocks, The Meno of Plato, Oxford, 1887, is at Meno 76a 9-10 civopc 1rpEcr~{,T1J

1rpciyj.1,uTu 1rpoo-Ta.TTEL, ci110Kptvw0m you enjoin actions on an old man, (namely) to

answer, where a'IToKpLvrn0aL (lo answer) explains 1rpayµum (actions).

6 4-ro 0-TOfl,U, TOU crTOfl-U'TOS: the mouth. I 11 J(O,L T~V qrox~v KUl TO 0-'TOfl-U, TO m61m is

accusative; in both words the accusative means with respeci to.


6S , , 66 , , - , \ \ 6 7 \ 1 "

O"Ol •. KUlTOl µ,upWKlS 'YE 'ITEpl upETT]S 1TUf1,1TO/\/\OUS /\O'YOUS HpTjl(U Kul, \

I 68 \ / ', (/ ~ ..., 69 ' I '"' \ 1 ~t 70 U 1Tpo,

1rnAAous, KUl Tiavu rn, w, 'YE EfLUUTI\\ I\ - - I ' " 74 (

ouo U'ITOOT]f1,WV" El yup 1:,EVO<; EV U/\1\'TJ 'l/01\H TOWUTU TIOlOl<;, TUX av ws y6 '

j 8 I 75 ~\

U'ITUX HT]S,

650-rL stands for o -rL (see section 17, p.221 ). a.110Kp(vwfl-a.L is 1st person singular subjuncuv

ofa.110Kp(vof1-0.L a.·rroKp(vwfI,m isadeliberative subjunctive (section 12,p.144). orL a.1ToKplvw e_

cTOL: ( anything) which I am 10 reply to you.

µuL

66For rn(-roL, see p.293 above. f!,upuiw;: very often (f1-upLa1<Lc;: 10,000 limes, p.377).

6711af1-110AA0L -a.L -a: very many (from 11ac; and 110/1.Ao(). For c'tp11rn, see section 9, p.89,

68 = 11poc; 1161111ouc; a.v0pumouc;.

69Ef1-a.u-r4): to myself (see p.337). EOoKouv is 1st person singular imperfect of ooKEw.

70ouo, stands for ouM. OTL = 0 TL: what. Translate in the order: ouo' EXW El1TELV TO

I fl ' I

110.pa.110.V OTL E<JTLV,

71~ouAEurn0m is the infinitive of ~ouAEuofl-a.L: l make a plan for myself. It is followed

here by a participle, as we would say in doing so-and-so, rather like the English "you

are well advised in doing so-and-so".

71EK11AE.w: l sail abroad. Ev0E.vOE: from here. (Meno means, of course, from Athens; it is

well known that Socrates never left Athens except on military service, and indeed in

only one of the Platonic dialogues, the Phaedrus, is he depicted outside the city walls,

and then only a very short distance away.) a.110011f1-Ew: l live abroad.

73 As a foreigner.

74 -rax' iiv stands for -raxa uv: probably (p.303 above). For y611c;, see footnote 41 above.

75 ha.x0E(1Jc; is 2nd person singular of a.11ux0El1Jv, the optative of a.n~x011v, t@/ aorist

passive of a.nciyw (from a.n6 and uyw): I arrest and lead away to a magistrate or to

prison.

Section 24

307

,New words:

•· a-iro8LOWIJ,L

8t8Wf!,L

lv')"l)'Y){itvw (with dative)

'l1]fl,L

lcmJf!,L

'la'l'aµaL

(middle of.'.aT'l']f1L)

t A A /

0 'iTCl,VOUf>)'OS9 TOU 1mvoupyou

-rrpo<YTL&rJ[LL

r£1h]µ,L

I give back, render what is due

I give

I meet

(I send), I utter (see also p.324)

I set up, establish, weigh 1 , bring to a

standstill

I set up for myself, I am stationary

the rascal 2

I put to, add

I put, put down as, suppose, classify,

define

µI!, Verbs with Stems Ending ""U9 -=o or~,

The verbs 'lO''i'YJ[LL (I set up) ( a stem), n&rJµ,t (I puQ ( E stem) and l\tawµ,L

(I give) (o stem) have endings like a:croAAuµ,L in the 12resent (p.44), and

like Set.Kvuµ,L (p.77) in the ~-The present and imperfect tenses

are reduplicated (t'.CYT'T)fH was formerly a(T)[crT'l']f1L) (Sihler, New Comparative

Greek & Latin Grammar, para.443A). The aorist ingicqtive active is irregular,

being weak in the singular and strong in the dual and plural. The future

is regular, like Auo-w,

The dual of these verbs is rarely found in Plato.

In the present indicative active, the stem ends in a long vowel ( 11, w, 11)

in the singular, and a short one (a, o, e) in the dual and plural.

Example of'l<YT'T)µ,L:

(The word) ~'iTWTIJi111 (knowledge) ... iiou<e (<'>v6µ,aTL) o-~µ,mvovn oTL LQI!).O'LV

~µ,wv rn TOl.<; 1rpa.yµ,ao-L T~V tjiux~v. (from Cratylus 437a 3-5)

The word JrncrT1Jl:'l ... is like (a name) signifying that it brings our mind to a stand

over things. (cr'l']µa(vw: I signify, show, signal)

1By setting up on scales.

2literally, a person who would do any work.


Present indicative active

SINGULAR

'LO"Mjµ.L I am setting up ot81i)µ.L I am giving

-n&rJµ.i I am putting

'lm11s you are setting up ot8wc; you are giving

'lcrTIJcrL(v) he, she, it

is settingup

ot8wai(v) he/she/it

is giving

'li0'Y}s you are putting

or·n0as

-r£&riat( v) he/ she/it

is putting

lcr-raTov

LcrTOTOV

OLOOTOV

OLOOTOV

DUAL

Tl0ETOV

Tl0ETOV

'(,a'Taµ.<Ev we are

setting up

'la-ra'Te you are

setting up

tma.at( v) they are

setting up

PLURAL

otooµ.<Ev we are giving -rt81eµ.ev we are putting

SU\o-r<E you are giving -rt0<E-r<E you are putting

Stooaat(v) they are giving -rt0~mn(v) they are putting

Present indicative middle/passive

SINGULAR

'(a-raµ.ad am setting up SUloµ.cn I am giving

for myself, being set up for myself, being given

fo•mom

Ot8oaaL

lO'Ta. TUL

oloo1m

TWeµ.at I am putting

for myself, being put

Tt0<EO"UL

-rWE-rm

i'.cTTaatlov

i'.arno-0ov

Wloo-0ov

Wloo-0ov

DUAL

Tl0rn0ov

TWEatlov

la'l"o.µ.e0a

'LaTaa0e

'laTa.v-r<n

OLOOµ.e0a.

8t.8oa0e

oLoov-rcu

PLURAL

·n0~µ.e0a.

1"L0Ea0E

-rt0evTm

What is the English for €TI' EuTUxLq, T1] µ.E'yCcr-r11 1rapo. 0Ewv ~ ToLauTrJ

µ.avCa 3C3oTUL (~11:i:v ). (Phaedrus 24Scl) ( E1rt with dative: for.~ EuTux(u, T'TJ,

EuTUx(uc;: happiness.~ µ,av(a, Tijc; µ,av(ac;: madness)

'

Section 24

present infinitive active

', ta1'ctVat, to set up s~MvaL to give 'Tt,0ivaL to put

309

present infinitive'middle/passive

tu1'aa0aL to set up Stsoa8a.L to give for oneself -rWiw·0o,L to put for

for oneself, to be set up to be given oneself, to be put.


This is like Mw (page 140) except ornwµ.t,

The duals (2nd and 3rd persons alike) are: 1mi-rov, otowTov, -rt8i-rov, not found in

Plato.

SINGULAR

tarw I may (let me) set up o,Sw I may (let me) give ·n0ro I may (let me) put

tu-ms you may set up OLO(\IS you may give ·n0fls you may put

tu'l'ij he, she, it may srn~ he, she, it may 'oL&i1 he, she, it may

set up give put

PLURAL

tu·ruiµ,<Ev let us set up, OL8uiµ,ev let us give TL0wµ,Ev let us put

we may set up we may give we may put

t A

LO'"i"l'j'rE you may set up 0L0«7HE you may give 'fL0-qTE you may put

LO'-rwcn(v) they may set up OLSwcn(v) they may give ·n0wo-L(v) they may put

Present subjunctive middle/passive

The duals (2nd and 3rd persons alike) are: laTia8ov, otowa8ov, T,8ia8ov, not found in

Plato.

SINGULAR

LO''!'W!J,m. 1 may (let me) OLofuµ,at I may (let me) give 'l'L0wµ,m I may (let me)

set up for myself, be set up for myself, be given put for myself, be put

Lcr'rfl you may set up S.Sq\ you may give 'T,0ij you may put

for yourself, be set up for yourself, be given for yourself, be put

L<YTTJ'TUL OLOWTUL Th0-q'l'm,

L<YTWµ,E0a

L<Y'T-ijo-0E

A

L<Y'TWV'TUL

PLURAL

o,Mµ,E0a

OLOwa0E

l>LOWV'l'O.L

•n0wµE0a.

n&qo-0E

n0WV'f0,L


'l'ETO.pTOv TOlVUV, ~v o' eyw, TL0wµ,Ev µ,u0wa. U<JTpovoµ,(av.(Rcpublic 528el)

( To µ.6.011µ.a, Tau µ.u0~µ.aTo,: the subject,~ cicnpovoµ.[a, nis dmpovoµ.la,: astronomy)


Present optative active

The duals Lcrrahov, LcrmLT1JV, otooi:Tov, otooh11v, TLBEi:Tov, .t0ELT1JV do not occur in Plato.

SINGULAR

ta'Tat11v Othat I might 81,8ot11v Othat I might -n0EL1]V Othat I might

set up

give

put

< I

UM'ClL'TJS

LawL'l]

LO''l"ClL!J,<EV

' LO''fClL'l'E -

8L8mµ,EV

8L8m-r<E

PLURAL

n0aµ,ev

,.~ea,,<E

8L80LEV

•n0a.EV

Present opta tive middle/ passive

SINGULAR

lcnatµ.11v Othat I might 8L8otµ,11v Othat I might

set up for myself, give for myself,

be set up

be given

' LO"l"Clt.'l'O -

n(Mµ.11v Othat I might

put for myself,

be put

LcrTalcr0ov

LcrTa[u011v

0LOOLcr0ov

otoo[a811v

DUAL

TL0Ei:a0ov

TL0E[cr011v

La•mtµ.ie0u

La-rafo0ie

8L801.µ,e0a

PLURAL

-rL0<Et1u,0a

-rdkia0<E

8Loo'i.a81e

Lo-ra.i V'fo Ot8oL v-ro 'it.0B V'ro

The present optative dual is found at Euthydemus 294d ( Et E1rwTa[a811v if they both

should know, from hlcrmµm).


l.ouK UV TL8dµ,11v TCl\JT'TjV T~V ljif]qiov.(Laws 674al-2) (11 ,j,f)cpos T'r)S ,j,11q,ou:1111e

vote (cf. English "psephologist"). T[BEµm (middle): I cast a vote, put it in the urn)

2.clpa ouv OU 'TOD apLO-TOU EV<EKCl '!TUV'TU a.v TO. v6µ,Lµ,a. TL0EL1] 1TOS (o

voµ,o0ET'l']S); (Laws 628c6-7) 3

3EvErm with genitive, usually preceding: for the sake of. To voµqwv, Tofi voµ[µou:

the Jaw (the more usual word is o v6µo, ). v6µtµov or voµov T(81]µL: I enact a law. !:,

voµoBET1],, Tofi voµo0eTou: the legislator.

present imperative active

t(Tl"T] set up!

. t<1'f<t'TW let him/her

set up!

fo"TU'TOV

tcrrci.Twv

t<T-ra'fe set up!

Section 24

SINGULAR

8t8ou give!

lkM-rw let him/her

give!

DUAL

◊u)OTOV

OL<)OTWV

PLURAL

8t&o'i<!o give!

ta'T<tVTwv let them set up! OL86nwv let them give!

Present imperative middle/passive

SINGULAR

t<Ym<Yo set up for

yourself, be set up!

ta'ia,o{)w let him/her/it

set up for him/her/

itself, be set up

[amoBov

LuTa.cr0wv

to,,.ao-0€ set up for

yourselves, be set up!

8t◊o<Yo give for yourself,

be given!

oLo6otlw let him/her/it

give for him/her/

itself,be given

DUAL

otl\ooBov

OLOOu6wv

PLURAL

8(8oa8E give for

yourselves, be given!

l<m.tcr8wv let them set up 8L86otlwv let them give

for themselves,

be set up

for themselves,

be given

Present participle active 4

masculine

feminine

' UYTCLS '

' L<Y'iO.<Ya. -

IMous

-n0ets

Stoofoa.

'iL0acra

1{0EL put!

'TL0hw let him/her

put!

Tt6ETOV

n0hwv

'TWE'iE put!

-r;,0tv'iwv let them put!

'iWE<YO put for yourself,

be put!

'Tt0fo0w let him/her/it

put for him/her/

itself, be put

Tt6w0ov

n0Ecr0wv

-rWeotlE put for

yourselves, be put!

-n0fo0wvlet them put

neuter

' LCf'iCW '

for themselves,

be put

setting up

311

giving

putting 5

4LuTa.s is declined like d.Koucra, (p.123) except that the accent is on the last or last

but one syllable. oLoou, and nM, follow the same pattern except that they have

stems ending o and E respectively. They are set out on pp.411-2.

5The present middle/passive participles are: LuTa.µ,Evo,, oLooµ,E:vo,, TL6Eµ,Evo,.


Imperfect active

'lcrTIJV I was setting up

'lO'T'l)S you were

setting up

'lcr-r'l) he/she was

setting up

'lcrrn,µ,Ev we were

setting up

'lcr-ra-rE you were

setting up

'LaTacrav they were

setting up

SINGULAR

&W"\ouv I was giving

&ornous you were

giving

&o(,oou he/ she was

giving

PLURAL

EOUloµ,Ev We were

giving

E.Ot◊OT«. you were

giving

&oloocrav they were

giving

hW'IJv I was putting

&-rW.a, you were putting

ETW,a he/she was putting

hWEµ,Ev we were putting

hUkrE you were putting

hW,wuv they were putting

Imperfect middle/passive

SINGULAR

lcr-ra.µ, 'Y]V I was

&ocooµ,'l']v I was giving

setting up for myself,

being set up

tl.a-rncro

'CcrTaTO

&otaoao

kolao,.o

for myself,

being given

hL8e.µ,'l]v I was putting

E'it0EO'O

&1{0ero

for myself,

being put

EO(Oo JJ,E0U

&otooo{k

PLURAL

to-Tctµ,E80,

'/.crTacr0E

&·n0~µ,"0u

hW1ccr0E

fo"f(l,VTO &otoov-ro ETW-EVTO

The dual of the imperfect (see pp.410 and 421) is not found in Plato.


1.-rt OL36acnv; 2. Tl Ol◊UlOW;

6.0L000-8m. 7 LO-Ta<;. 8.~ 'YUV~ ~

OLOOVTUlV. 11.TOUTO ◊L◊oo-8w.

3.-rpcmmov 6 Lcr-ra.µ,E0a. 4.Tt0EVTUL. 5.TL8Evm.

TO -rponmov 'i'.o-rncra. 9.otoou. 10.TOU'TO

12.Tpo'Trmov LOTTJV, 13.Ka-ru ~UO-LV hte~EV TOV

voµ,ov. (See footnote 3.) (Republic 456c2) 14.o Auofo, E'YPU~JEV voµ,ous TL8El<;.

(from Phaedrus 277d) (The orator Lysias died probably c. 380 B.C.) 15.Ev TLVL

E't'.◊EL

CL'Ya8ou T~V OLl<ULOO"UV'l)V n8Et,; (from Republic 357 c-d) l 6.u8ALOL oL

◊LK'l)V oCoovTE<;. (Republic 380b2) (0[1<1JV o[owµ,c: I pay a penalty, am punished)

Section 24

313

The other tenses of olowµ,i and 1,W1111..1,

AQrist indicative active 7

The aorist indicative active of Wlwµ,t and -rrn11µ,t is not difficult if it is

remembered that the singular is weak and contains a long vowel, but

the dual, plural and imperatives are strong and contain a short vowel.

f8w1m I gave

g8w1ws you gave (singular)

i8wKe(v) he/she/it gave

SINGULAR

&&q1ca

&B'YJIWS

l0'YJKE(v)

I put

you put (singular)

he/she/it put

E◊OTOV

,lll6T,1v

DUAL

irnETOV

E0ETY]V

e8oµ,,:,v

e80TE

e8oouv

we gave

you gave

they gave

PLURAL

l0eµ,ev

4\0eTri;:

&0rnav

we pul

you put

they put

(Later, plurals with long vowels came in. E8w1cav ( they gave) and &0111<0.v

( they put) are both found in Aristotle.)

Aorist jnfiniUve active

Souvm to give

0dvm topul

The aorist active participles, subjunctive and optative of 3"3wp,i. and

1{&qµ,i are like the present participles, subjunctive and optative

active, but without reduplication.

Aorist participle active

8ous 9 8ou<Ya 9 Mv giving

Their endings are like oL8oi'is and Tt0ets.

Aorist subjunctive active (see p.413)

(from 8t8wµ,~) ow, 8(Jls, O<JJ, 8wp,ev, Sw-r<E, 8wcn(v)

(from TW1]µ,L) 0w9 8ijs9 0ij9 0wµ,ev9 &rj-rE9 0wcn(v)

7For the aorist oftcr-r11µ.L see pp. 319-321.


Aorist optative active (see p.414)

( from oU'lwp,L) oot11v9 8ot11s9 oot119 oo'iµ.Ev9 OOL'l'E/ OmEV

( from -rtB1jp,L) 0e('l}v9 0<EL'l}S9 0Et7J 9 0e'tµ.Ev9 0EL'l'E9 0e~Ev

Aorist imperative active

Ms give! (2nd person singular)

86-rw let him, her give

SINGULAR

0ec; put! (2nd person singular)

8e'!'W let him/her put

OOTOV

OOTWV

DUAL

fiETOV

0ETWV

MTe give! (2nd person plural)

Mv-rwv let them give

PLURAL

0e-r<E put! (2nd person plural)

0Ev-rwv let them put

Aorist indicative middle

SINGULAR

&Mp,1]11 1 gave for myself

&8ip,11v

eoou you gave for yourself e0ou

&80,-.-0 he/she/it gave for

&0e-ro

him/her Ii ts elf

I put for myself

you put for yourself

he/she/it put for

him/her /itself

EOoa6ov

EOOa81JV

DUAL

E.8ETOV

&8fo811v

&8op,E0a

e8oa0e

eoono

we gave for ourselves

you gave for yourselves

they gave for themselves

PLURAL

e0Ep,E0a

e0ea0e

e0EVTO

we put for ourselves

you put for yourselves

~

they put for themselves

800(1JTE is found at Phaedrus 279b8 in a prayer to the gods.

i40rist infinitive middle

8606m to give for oneself

Section 24

0,fotlm

to put for oneself

315

Aorist participle mjddle

86µ,EVO\; Soµ,kv11 ooµ,11avov giving

for oneself

0E[LEVOS9 0E1J,EV7l9 Seµ,,evov putting

for oneself

Aorist subjunctive middle (see p.424)

(from Stowµ,,) 8wµ,m9 04>, 8wTm9 8c,',µ,E0a., 8wa0e, OWll'faL

(from TL87J1J,l) 0wµ,m9 0i]9 8~1'!J.L 9 0wµ,e0a 9 0~a8E9 0WV'i"!J.L

Aorist optative middle (see p.424)

( from 8t8wµ,L) ootµ,11v Othat l might give for myself9 001,0 9 Sot.To9 8otµ,e0a9

8ot.a0E 9 801,v-ro

( from 1{87Jµ,L) 0Et!J,'!JV Othat l might put for myself 9 0ao 9 0E1.-ro 9 0EL!J,E0a 9

0eLa0E 9 0aV'fO

Aorist imperative middle

Sou give for yourself!

Ma0w let him, her give

for him/herself

SINGULAR

Sou put for yourself!

0ko·0w let him/her put

for him/herself

o6a0ov

o6a8wv

DUAL (not found in Plato)

0fo0ov

0fo8wv

PLURAL

Mofle give for yourselves!

0fo0e put for yourselves!

Ma0wv let them give for themselves 0&a0w11 let them put for themseives


Except for the perfect and pluperfect middle/passive of TLB'T]f•• which

are not found, the other tenses of 3towµ,i and .. t0rJµ,tare like Mw, as

follows:

Future active

Future middle

Perfect active

Pluperfect active

Aorist passive

Future passive

I shall give

3waoµ,uJ., I shall give

for myself

Mow1w. I have given

&oeowK'l} I had given

J;.M0rJv I was given

1\o&fiO'oµ.a.L I shall

be given

&fpoµ,o,L I shall put

for myself

-rE0111m I have put

he&fiicri I had put

,he0riv I was put

T<E&fiaoµ,m I shall

be put

Perfect middle

& passive

Pluperfect middle

& passive

M3ov,(u I have given for 1c<£L1J,aL (I lie down)

myself, been given is used for I have been put.

EOEOOf!,'l)V I had given for <EKEtµ,11v (J lay down)

myself, been given is used for J had been put.


UowKO.; 2.ii0rna.v. 3.0W<YHS, 4.TE01JKO.fJ,EV. 5.&360ri, 6.KElTUL 7.lOEOOTO.

8.oo0~<YETUl. 9. OWO'ETUL. 10.TE0-ijva.L. 11.TouTO 8ds. 12.~ TUUTU Oouaa. )'UV~.

Prefixes

3t8wµ,L, 'LO'T'TJl1L and 1{0'Jiµ.L are often found prefixed by a preposition.

@-

Stowµ,L prefixed by a:rro gives d:rroot8wµ,L: I give back, pay, assign to its proper

place, render what is due e.g.

OUK a.pa. O◊TOS

opos E<YTlV OlKO.W(HJV'TjS, O.A'Tj0-ij TE AE)'HV 1(0.l, a. a.v Ail~'U TLS

a.1ro0Coovm. (Republic 331d2-3)

Then 1his is no1 a criterion of justice, both to speak the truth and to give back

whatever a person may take (and therefore owe). ( o opo,, Toil opou: rhe criterion,

boundary)

Section 24 317

8L8wµ,L prefixed by E'lTl gives E'ITil>Ulw,11,i I make progress

rt (.)_ ~ " ,t \ 't_ I 1 \ ~ -. I 0 ,

e.g. Ol TE t-'paouc; ... El', YE TO o..,uTEpOt, UUTOl UUTWV yvyvECY al '1TUVTES

Emoi'.ooacrlv. (Republic 526b6-9)

And the slow ... all make progress indeed with respect to becoming sharper than

Ibey were (literally, than themselvesJ9

8t8w11,L prefixed by 'rrapa gives 'ITapaSL8wµ.L I hand over, hand down

, , 10 ",t ,

e.g.

K'~,, , ,;,,,;, , - , ,,

!(al [1,EVTOl, E't'TJ O E't'UI\O',, KUL 1TUpUolOW[l,l uµ,lv TOV 11oyov.

(Republic 33ld6)

And now, said Cephalus, I am also handing over the discussion to you.

'l<r'rl]l1L prefixed by cruv ( with) gives <(nJVL<Y'l"lj[l,I, I put together, compose

e.g. TO OE.

OCYTOUV CYUVLCYT'T]O"LV JioE. ( Timaeus 73el)

And he puts bone together (i.e. composes it) in this way. 11

-ri,&qµ.L prefixed by p,era gives µ1:Ta-rt81]µ.1, I transpose.

µ.E'l'a'l'WEµ,m (middle) is used by Plato to mean I change my mind or

shift my ground (in an argument).

,, 0- I - '0 , , - , 't , 12

EO,V [LETUTl 1), ouvEpw<; [LETUTl E<JO KUL 17µ,os 1111 E<:,U"ITUTU.

(Republic 345b9-cl)

If you shift your ground, shift (it) openly and stop cheating us.

11.67iµ.i prefixed by 'ITp6s gives 'ITpoo"ii81Jt1L I add

1r6TE.pov 1rpocrrl0ELS ToDT 1r6p4>, ti) MEvwv~ TO ◊LKa.Lw~ Kat bo"Lws, ~ oUOEv

<JOL owqiEpEL; (Meno 78d3-5) 13

Do you add "jusUy" or "holily" to this act of providing, Meno, or doesn't it make

any difference 10 you at all?

9~puous, ~puOEiu, ~puou: slow. 61.;us, oi;ELU, oi;u: sharp. U\JTWV is genitive plural of

a{n6v (see section 25, pp.338-9). Els with accusative: with respecl to. This is

recommended as a benefit of being trained in elementary arithmetic.

10 µ.ivToL can sometimes, as here, simply show the progression of events. The

nearest English equivalent to µ.EvToL is perhaps well or wcJl, then, which can, in

different contexts, express mild agreement or objection.

11 To orrTouv (contracted from To orrTfov): bone. JioE: thus, in this way (adverb from

ooE). Part of Timaeus' account of the demi urge making the human race.

12 ~uvEpfos: openly. Ei;u1ruTciw; I cheat.

13 See section 20, footnotes 27 and 28.


•;{&ru.1,L prefixed by uuv gives o-uv'l'W'T)µ,L I compose

KO.l El w; a.\.\o<; O"UVT(,0'fl(Yl .\oyou,;; (Phaedrus 278cl)

and if anyone else is composing speeches = and anyone else who is composing

speeches.

TL&rjµ,L itself is often used by Plato to mean put down as, e.g.

KO.l E!LE TOl,VUV, 0 nauKWV E<p'fl, ICOLVWVOV T~<; tµ~cpou TO.lJT'fl', n0ETE 14

and so put me down as a sharer in this vo1e, said Glauco. (Republic 450a3-4)

This is extended to mean call:

M~av TUUT'flV TWE~ avT~c;.(Theaetetus 190a4)

We call this (put this down as) its opinion (mh1J, refers to ~ <Jiux11.).

,{fniµ.L is also used for apply.

-rrnE[J,EV oov Kai, Td.AAa 'ITUVTU ELS TOV OtJTOV Myov; ( Republic 353 dl )15

Do we therefore apply all the others (sc. the other cases) to the same logic?

'l'L&rjµ.L can also mean assume.

E)'W µ,e.v oov ao T(,0'.Q[J,L TaUTa OUTW<; EXELV.( Gorgias 509a7)

I, at any rate, am assuming again that these things are so (that this is so)

vbµ,ov -rteEµ.aL (middle) means I make a law (for myself), legislate:

d,\,\' olµ.m oD-roL 1ea-ru cpuuLv -r~v Tou OLKaLou rnurn 'ITpanouuLv KUL

\ \ A, I \ I I \ ,., ,.J._ I ' I ?I \

VOL µ,u L.lLa ICUTU voµ,ov )'E. TOV T'fl', 't'UO"EW<;, OU fl,EVTOL LO"ul<; KO.Ta

TOUTov ov ~fl-El<; TL0EµE.0u (Gorgias483el-4)16

But, I think, these men do these things according to the nature of juslice

(literally, tl1e just) and, by Zeus, according to the Jaw, indeed, of nature, ycr

not perhaps according to this (law) which we are laying down for ourselves.

1\ornuv6, -11 -6v(with genitive): sharing in. 11 <Jif1c!io, Tl], <Ji11c!iou: the vole.

15·nL\,\a stands for Ta. li,,\,\a.

16µ.a. t.[a: by Zeus! 0 voµ.o,, TOU v6µ.ou: the Jaw.

Section 24 319

.. h f 11 . fl ,.,. \ . I 17 I "' J.. \ \ Q

'comPare t e O owmg: OTUV TUUTU TU -ypaµ,1.1aTa, TO TE U/l<pU l(UL TO tJ'TJTU

KClL iKa<YTOV TWV <YTOLXELWV, TOL', ov6µ,ao-LV d:rro~ Tij -ypaµ,µ,aTLK1]

-· rn , , , ,l '\ 19 " e- " 0- , , , 20

1kxv11, EUV TL U't'E/1\t)[l,EV 11 1rpoa W[J&V 11 V,ETU wµ,Ev TL, OU 'YEYPU1TTUL

' e ,... , " ' ' ' 0"" '\\' ' , ?~, , ?\ \?

~€V 'T][l,LV TO ovoµ,a, OU [l,EVTOL op W<;, U/\/\U TO 1rapa1rav OUOE 'YEYPU1TTUL, U/1/1

eu0us ETEpov ~O"TLV. ( Cratylus43le9-432a3)Andwheneverwe assign_thesewritings,

both alpha and beta and each of the letters (of the alphabet) to names by the

science of writing, if we take something away or adq or change anything round.

the name has not been written by us, nay, not correctly, but it has not been

written at all, but is at once something different (i.e a different word). 21


l.1TEWw O"E µ,ErnTL0w0m (from Gorgias493dl). (1rd8w: I persuade)

2.ouK ~0D,E 1rapuOlbovm T~V apET~V ~v UUTO', a-ya0os ~v. (from Meno 93dl)

(~v (accusative of respect, see p.36): in respect of which)

3.Ji Kp[rwv, if<j>11, T<!J' AaKA11'ITL4J o<j>eC\oµ,ev o.AEKTpu6va· cL\.M h6oorE 1ml.

11~ 0.[l,Ell~O"'flTE (Phaedo 118 a7-8) (ocj,EtAw: 1 owe. b ciAEKTpuwv, TOD ciAEKTpuovo,: the

cockerel. ci11-EAEw: J neglect)

The aorist of Zur7J/1-'

'lOTI]µ~ has two active ,wrists.

foTricra, a weak aorist like JOwcra, is transitive, i.e. it requires an object,

and means / set something up.

( ~ -rroAL,) rp6-rrmov EUT11crev ( Timaeus 2Sc3)

(the city) set up a lrophy. 22

17

To ypa11-11-u, TOU ypa11-11-aToc;: lhe (written) character TO cno.xEiov, TOD O"TO•XEtou: 1he

simplest part, here letter (of the alphabet). "name" here means word or perhaps

noun.

18

ypa11-11-aTu<oi;, ypa11-11-aTLK~, ypa11-11-aTLKov: to do with writing. ~ TEXV1J, Tii, TEXV1J,:

science, set of rules.

19 ucj,EAwµEv is 1st person plural of ci<j,.\.\w, the subjunctive of ci<j,Et.Aov, the aorist of

cicj,mpEw: J take away. 1rpocr8w11-Ev is 1st person plural of rrpocr8w, the subjunctive of

rrpocrE01Jrn, the aorist of rrpocrTt81J11-L.

20

yEypa11Tm is 3rd person singular of yEypa11-11-m, the perfect passive of ypacj,w.

21

1)-EVTo. is used here to emphasise what has just been said.

22 To Tpo11u.ov, TOD Tporru1.ou: the trophy.


The strong aorist of 'lo-'f1J11,i is intra.nsitive, i.e. it has no object:

singular EO"T'T)V I stood plural E<YT'TJ!1EV we stood

EOT'TJS you stood EO"T'lj'l"E you stood

fo-r11 he/she/it stood E<Y"i"Yj<YO,V they stood 23

e<Y'r 11 aav is 3rd person plural both of ,ICYT'TJO'o, ,md foT7JV,

From foT1)<Y(l: a.0uµ,ouvTES uv8pE<, OU'ITW Tp61rmov foT'T]UO.V ( Critias 108cl)

Downhearted men never yet set up a trophy. 24

From foTJ]V: at ... d0avo.Tol 1(()./1.0U!J,EVUl (ljsuxo.O ... E~W 1roprn6ELO'Ul

EUT'T]UO.V E1Tl. T4J TOU oupo.vou VWT4). (Phaedrus 247b7)

The (souls) called immortal, having gone outside, take their stand on the back

of heaven.

( foT11a0-v has no past meaning here, but makes a general statement.) ( ,hropEu011v

(aorist of 1ropEuoµ.m): J proceeded. 0 oupa,vos, TOU ot1pa,voii: heaven. TO

viiiTov, Toii v<{JTou: the back)

The imperatives of eo"r11v and E0"1"1 1 ao, (p.415) are not found in Plato.

The participle of fo,,.,'laa is

<YT~O'US9 UT~<YUO'U9 (Y'i"l]<YUV setting up, having set up.

The participle of fo·r'lv is:

O'T0,<; 9 aTiiO'u 9 <n&.v standing, having stood.

The infinitive of fo·r"laa. is:

a'l"TJO'<H to set up.

The infinitive of fo,y•riv is:

O'TTJVm to stand.

23The weak and strong aorist duals (neither found in Plato) are on p. 414.

24This is a yvwµ.11, a proverbial saying. The aorist (a gnomic aorist) is not past but

applies to all occasions. d0u11Ew: I am downhearted.

Section 24

321

Tbe subjunctive of &o--r'l'Jou is c,',~()'w (like the subjunctive of EAuo-u)

The subjunctive of i:\.c,1'",1v is o·,-w 9 cn~, 9 u .. ·f19 a-rwv,Ev 9 crTfJTeo9 CfTooat(v),

(The duals are on p.415.)

The optative of E<YT'IJ<m (not found in Plato) is o-T110'aiv,L like the optative

of EAuo·a.

The optative of foT'IJv is:

singular

plural

crTa.('TJv Othat I might stand a-wi.~,<Ev Othat we might stand

(l'TUL'l]S

CYTO,L'lj

Othat you might stand

ffTULTE

Othat you might stand

Othat he/she/it might CY'm!.EV Othat they might stand

stand

(The duals are on p.416)

'lcrTI1µ.i prefixed by KaT& gives 1m0t()'T'l'JfLL ( I establish)

e.g. KUTEO-rriaav EV TOUT<J.l To µ.avTE'i:ov. ( Timaeus 7lel)

They established the seat of divinaUon in this. 25

eaT11v and 1m'cEo"r'lv can mean I stopped, took up a position, was

e.g. 1caTECYTTJ El<; µ.foov (Republic 572dl-2)

he took up a posirion in the middle 26


l

f!TT I 11,,,..J._ llrt 112] \ ?? I

. upwTCL')'opas, E,1711, T)l<H, c,1w; Tmp EfLOL (Protagoras 310b7)

2.~ ~ALKI.U 'ITO.V'f(l)V TWV t41wv 11pohov fLEV EO'TT) KUl ·rro.v tii\ov E1TUUO-a1"0 E'iTl

'fo ')'Epa1. TEpov toe'i:v 11opEuoµ.Evov (from Statesman 270d6-8).28

2\0 1 1uvTaov, Toii µ,uvTdou: the seat of divination (literally, the thing to do with

prophecy) refers here to the organ of divination, part of the human body,according

to Timaeus the liver.

26The reference is to the democratic man leading a life compromising between

illiberal and lawless.

27 ~Kw: 1 have come, have arrived, am here (p.79). ,rnpci with dative: beside.

28 ~ ~AlKtu, TTJ, ~AlKtu,: age. To t1JJov, Tau t~ou: the living creature. 1ruuoµ,ul: / cease.

e1rl To yEputTEpov UlE'i.v: towards looking older ( (being) older to see). 1ropEuoµ,ul: I

advance.


3 "O ~ \ f/ fl , ~\ t A,. , 29 9 1 ,

• µ, l]pos ... o'ljl\Ol oTL EWS µ,Ev av 'l] TIEPL't'opa 'U KLvouµ,Evl] KUL o ~ALo~

1TUVTU EO"TL KUI, cn{>(ETUL TCl EV 0EO'i:S TE KUL EV civ0pwTIOLS. El OE O'TUL 1l ... '

1TUVTU xp~µ,m' UV ow<j>0apELl], 30 (Theaetetusl53dl-4)

The aorist middle ( E<TT'lJO'Clf-L lJV) and passive ( EcrTu0lJv) are regular.

The perfect active of Z<1r11µ,i 31

singular E<Y'l"IJKU I am standing plural foTaµ,ew we are standing

E<YT'lJKUS you are standing foTa.TE you are standing

E<l"TIJKE( v) he/she/it is standing foTaaL(v) they are standing

(the dual, eo"ra:rov, 2nd and 3rd persons, is not found in Plato)

The pluperfect indicative active is Ela-r~K'l], I stood, I was standing (p.259).

Although the regular form, <EO'T'IJKws9 <EO'T'lJKu'i.a9 eaT'lJKos is sometimes

found, the perfect participle active standing is usually:

singular


ECT'TWO"O,

ECTTOS . '

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

plural

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

. ~

. ~

.

~

~

.

ECTTW'm

.

EO"TWTL

'

ECTTWTES

. ~

~

ECTTWCTCtV

'

<ECTTWO"'ljS

EO"TWCT1J

EO"Tl.tJO'O,L

~

e I

ECTTWTQ,<,

ECTTWO'(l,S

e I e I

ECTTWTW11

ECTTWCYWV

~ ,,., t I

ECTTWO'i,

ECTTWCJ(l,LS

(The duals of ECJTw, are not found in Plato)

The perfect infinitive active is Ea.,-avm: to stand.

. ~

. ~

e I

EO'TOS

EO"TW'ros

<EO"TWTL

ECTTWTll.

<EO'TWTU

. ~

• I

EO'TWTW11

ECTTWO'L

29~ 1TEpuj,op6., TIJ, 1TEpLq,opii,: the circular movement (of the heavens). KLvouµ,Ev11 is

feminine nominative singular of KLvo{iµEvo,, the participle of KLvoiiµ,aL: J ~,m in

movement. o ~ALo,, Toii ~A(ou : the sun. Kat o ~ALo, means and the sun a?'\vell.

;xp~µaT' stands for xp~µ,aw, things, affairs emphasising 1Ta.vw. For ews av with

subjunctive, see p.256. The reference to Homer is to Iliad VIII, 18-27 where Zeus

says that he could tie the earth, the sea, the gods and all with a golden cord so that

they would all dangle in suspense from a peak of Mount Olympus.

30oLU<j,0apE[11 is 3rd person singular of 0LU<j,8upc(11v, the optative of OLE<j,06.p11v, the

aorist passive of oLa<j,0E[pw in this context: I destroy.

31See p.91.

Section 24

There is also a perfect subjunctive:

ECYTW, kaTfi,, E.aTfi, EO'TW[LEV, ECYT'TJTE, ECYTWal(v ).

323

Examples:

J.0,1ho8l EW8Ev n ELO'T"QKEl O'l(01TWV. (Symposium 22Oc4)

];lg_was standil)_g_ there from dawn, thinking something out. 32

2.LwKpo.n1s ODTOS • . . EV T!j! TWV yu TOVWV 33 Tipo8upqi EO'T'.Q!illl, Ko.µ,ou34

KO.AOUVTO<; OUK &0D1.El dadvm. 35 (Symposium 175a8)

Socrates here is standing in the neighbours' porch and though I am calling him

he won't come in.

3.Kul. o KpCTwv aKouaus [vEuaE 36 T!j! trmSl. 'lfA'T]O"Lov E.O'TWTl. (Phaedo 117a5)

And Crito, having heard, nodded to the slave boy standing near.


A_ ~tr fl A_ ~I'( 1 I A_ I\ ';' \ \ ' I

t-'(lUl\,O[LEV, OTUV t-'UOlo,,W[LEV, OW[LEVOl t-'E/\TlOV Hvm, KUl TO EVUVTlOV,

foTU[LEV oTav ECYTW[LEV, Tou uuTou EVEKu. ( Gorgias 468b2-3) (~uottw: I walk)

N.B. LO'TU[Lm, the middle of\'.o-TI]fLL, sometimes means I stand up straight, e.g. 37

op0ul. ut TPLXES LO"TUVTUl (Ion 535c7)

(my) hair stands on end

32mh60t: there, on lhe spol. Ew0ev: from dawn.

330 yEt-rwv, -roil yEtrnvo,: the neighbour. -ro 1rp60upov, -roil 1rpo8upou: the porch (which

was in front of the door ( 0upu)).

34Kd.fLoil (a crasis) stands for Kut EfLoil.

35eto-tEvut is the infinitive of ELcrElfLt: I come in.

36heucrE is 3rd person singular of ifveuo-u, the aorist of veuw: I nod. 1rA'l')o-cov: nearby.


The Irregular Verb 11111[\,

'hw,L is based on E.· (reduplicated as te- or h1- in the present and

imperfect). Its original meaning is I send Plato uses it rarely, in the

active to mean I utter (a sound) and in the middle to mean I hasten '

rush. However, he uses it frequently prefixed by various prepositions,

e.g. with d.va. 9 o,vt'Y]µ,L: I allow, let go; with d.1ro9 <iqit,. 11,i: I release;with e:n{,

ecpLeµ.aL(middle): I seek, strive for, with µ,e,-a9 1.teOC11µ,L: I let off, release;

with miv 9 auvt111.tL: I understand.

111µ,t is mainly conjugated like ,.t&qµ,t (see pp.425-7).


l.µ,u TOV i'.1Lu, J.1 LllKpuw;;, uAJ, E-YW OU◊E UUTOS 0-UVl'T](.Ll OTL AEyw;.

( Gorgias 463d6)3 8

2.(E<p'T]) E<p' EKaaTou (KuKAou) ~E~'T]KEvm :Eup-ijvu auµ,-rrepL<pepoµ,Ev'T]v, <j>wv~v

µ,Lav 1-ewav, Eva Tovov. (Republic617b6-7) 39

3.<j>uyus o~ -yLyvETUL o -rrpl,v Epao-T~,, KUL lETm cpuyfl. 40 (Phaedrus 241b)

4.-rravu KUAws, @ Lo1<pUTES, 0-UV'l]KU', o El1TOV. (Euthyphro 14 d3) (auv-ijKUc; is a

"timeless" aorist (not referring to the past), with ending as on p.426)

5.µ.~ µ.E0Lu TOuc; avopa,. (Laches 187b6)

6.TOU<; cpull.a1<ac; Uq>EL(.LEVOU<; TWV a/\.11.wv -rraawv 01](.LLOUpyLwv OEl elvm. 41

(Republic 395b9-10 adapted)

38µ.u TOV .1[u: By Zeus!

39 /, KUK/lo,, -rou KUK/\ou: the circle. PcP'fIKEVUl is the infinitive of Pi.P111<u, the perfect

of Pulvw: I step, go (NB accusative and infinitive after e<J>11). ~ Ulpi]v, Tijs Ulp~vos:

the Siren. o-uµ. nEplq>kpw: I carry round with. ~ <j>wv{i, -r~s <j>wv~<; : the sound. _{i -r6vos,

-roil -r6vou: the note. LElS, fEwu, lEv is the present participle active of t11µ.L ~

406 <j>uycis, -rou <j>uycioo<;: the fugitive. ~ qmy{i, Tijs qiuy~s : flight. 1rplv here means

"former". o Epacr-r{i,, -rou J.pao--rou: the lover (see section 7, footnote 14).

410 <j>u11ut -roil <pullaKo,: the guardian. ~ 011µ.wupyla, -r~c; 011µ.wupyla,: craft, occupation.

Section 24 325

Some parts of a.<J>t,u1L are sometimes formed irregularly, e.g. at Apology 29dl: d o0v

fLE ... o.<j>LoLTE, EL1fOLJ.LL av uµ.iv ... therefore if you should let me go ... I should say to

you ... wher,e a thematic ending is used, as in AuovrE, for the regular 2nd person

plural optative, a.<pLE.tTE..

At Euthydemus 293al in Tiiiaav <pu>v~v 'Tj<pLEiv I began to shout at the top of my voice

(literally, I began to send out all voice), 'Tj<jJ(m is 1st person imperfect active and

stands for ci<jJ(ELv (see p.425 for the imperfect of L1JJ.LL) because ci<pL1lJ.LL is treated as a

simple verb and is augmented on the first syllable. 42

Plato, Meno 80b8-81al0

Meno caps Socrates' response with a puzzle on his own part.

:EO. n a voupyos d, ti) ME vwv, l(Ul 0)1C you 43 E~'T]Tf(l T'T]CYUS 44 [LE.

MEN. Ti. 45 fLUAwrn, J.i :Ew1<puTE,;

r,o. fvyvw<Yl{(J) oD EVEKa 46 [LE ~KUO-u<;. 47

42 '1j<pLE'i, 3rd person singular imperfect active, occurs at Lysis 222b2 and in some

texts at Laches 184al.

43

oA(you: nearly (short for oA(you OEL ; if lacks a Jit!le).

44

&~111ro.T110-uc; is 2nd person singular of Eh1ro.-r110-u, the aorist of E~a1raTo.w: I cheat.

45T(;: in what way? TL µo.AwTa; is a set phrase: in what way, precisely?

46ou i!vEKa;

for the sake of what(= why).

47 ~KUo-a, is 2nd person singular of ~Kuo-a, the aorist of ELKalw (with accusative): I

compare someone to something, make a comparison of them. Sharpies ( Plato,

Meno p.142) suggests that this might have been a kind of party game and refers to

Symposium 215a3 where Alcibiades says that he will try to praise Socrates oL'

ELKovwv ( through likenesses) and compares him to a figure of Silenus such as were

sold in statue shops and, when opened, revealed statues of gods inside. In Xenophon's

Symposium (VI, 8) one character says to another uu µ,ivToL oELvo, EL, l(j)[AL1f1fE,

ElKa.tEw ( but you're clever at making comparisons, Philippos ) wanting him to

make a comparison about someone who is being rude to Socrates at a party, and

Socrates stops him, saying o.AA' oµw<; au auTov µ~ EtKatE, tva µ~ Kal. au /l.0LoopouµEv4>

EotK1J, ( but nevertheless, don't go on to make comparisons of /Jim yourself, so that

you may not also be like someone being abusive). OELv6, -~ -6v: clever AoL3opfo11m:

I am abusive. EoLKa (with dative): Jam like (p.91)


MEN. Ti,vo, o~ 48 otu;

rn. "Iva O"E UVTHKUO"W. 49 E"W OE TOUTO 0130. 1TEpl 'ITUVTWV TWV 1<o.Awv so"

I ' 0TL

I ' Y' \ \ -SI

XULpOUO"LV Ell<Ui,,OfJ,EVOL - /\UO"LTE/\El

\ ' - \ \ \ ' ~ \

yo.p O.UTOLS" ICO.llo.L yo.p OLfl,Ul TWV KO.I\WV

,

KUL

e

O.L

, , S2

ELKOVEs· -

'\ \ 1

0./\/\

'

OUI(

' , t 53

UVTHKUO"OfLUL <YE.

' ' ~ 1 54

Eyw OE,

' ' e ,

EL [LEV 'lj vupK1]

~ \ ,-, fl \ \ ll\ \ 55 .-.. '"' '1 ' ,.., ' ~ \

UUT'lj vo.pKWO"O. OUTW Km TOUS 0./\/\0US 1TOLEL vo.pKO.V, EOLl(O. O.UT'ff EL OE µ,~,

OU. OU ya.p EU1Topwv 56 O.UTOS TOUS (l.AAous 'ITOLW o:rropELV, a.A.Au TfUVTOS Si

µ,uAAov O.UTOS U1Topwv OUTW<; KUL TOU', a1Aous 1TOLW a.rropELV. KUL vuv 1TEpl.

48Understand EVEKa.

4"lva (followed by a subjunctive verb): so that. avTELKaow is 1st person singular

subjunctive of avT~moa, the subjunctive of uvTELKatw (with accusative), I compare,

make a simile of in return

50vrnvlwv is understood.

51 /\uoLTE/\Et (with dative): it pays (section 25, p.333).

52Translate as if: oLfLaL yo.p o.L ELKOVEc; -rwv m/\wv doL Ko.L 1<0.Aal.

ml: also.

53uvTELKa.oofLUL is 1st person singular of the future of avTELKa.(w (with accusative): J

make a comparison of in return. The meaning is active. The active form of the

future, ELKaow, occurs once in the poet Aeschylus (Eumenides, 49).

54Postpone translating Eyw M until EOLKa. The point Socrates is making is that he

is in just as much difficulty as the people that he questions in his search for

definitions.

55Why masculine, since vapl<'lJ is feminine? Actually, torpedo fish don't make

each other numb; perhaps Socrates, although speaking of torpedo fish, is already

thinking of the possibility that he might make other men numb. (See Sharples,

Meno p.142.) Possibly one could translate: if indeed the "torpedo fish".,. meaning

the person who is like a torpedo fish. EOLKa: I resemble takes the dative case.

56dnropwv is masculine singular nominative of the participle of Eu11opEw: I a1;well

supplied (with answers), used as the opposite of u11opEw, the original meaning of

which is I am i1J supplied.

51110.vToc; fLii./\Aov: above all (literally, more than any) is a set phrase in Plato, found

also at Meno 96d7. 110.vToc; is usually neuter and -rro.vTo<; µ,uAAov o.uTos a.-rropwv

wouldmeanhere being above all atalossmyself. However 110.vTo,couldbe masculine.

If so, rro.VTos µ,uAAov o.uTos a.1ropwv would mean being more at a Joss than anyone.

Section 24 327

, " n " ~ , , 1 9 ~ 58 \ / " I , ~ 59

apET'T]', 0 ECYTLV E')'W µEv OUK OLOU, (YU µEvTOL LO'W', ·rrpOTEpov µEv ~0Tj<Y8u.

' ' ~ ",I, 0 60 ~ , " s ' '", C,I " ,;,, '8'\

11pLV E110U U't'UCY UL, vuv µEvTOL oµoLO, EL OUK EL001"L. oµw, OE E EllW µETU

~ , ,I, 8 67 , t ~ 63 " , '

o:ou CYKE't'UO' UL - KUL uu_, TJT'T]O'UL OTL 1TOTE EO'TLV.

MEN Ku\, TLvu -rp61rov 64 LTJT~oas, '1 L.oKpuw;, TOuTo o µ~ ofo8u -ro

, " , 65 ~ 66 ' 1 ' 9 0 8' 67 y , " ,

11apu1rav OTL ECYTLV; 1TOLOV yap WV OUI( ow a 1rpo E!-1-EVO', s'T]TTJCYEL<;; 'T] EL

58Translate in the order: kyw µ~v OUIC olou 1TEpt. a.per~<; 0 EO'TLV.

59to1Jo-8u is 2nd person singular of to1J, the pluperfect (used as the past tense) of

olou (section 20, p.259).

60fojmo-0m is the infinitive of ~tjiciµ'T]v, the aorist of a1TTOµm: I touch, come into

contact with. The object of /imoµm is genitive (normally one only touches part of

something). 1rp£v (with infinitive, section 20, p.256): before.

6 1et◊oTL is dative singular masculine of dows, Etouiu, doos, knowing, the participle

of olou. oµows EL◊0iL: like a man knowing.

62o-KEtjiuo-0m is the infinitive of J.m<Etjiciµ1)v, the aorist of o-icE1r-roµut.

63o-ut~T1)0-UL is the infinitive of o-uvEt~T1Jo-u, the aorist of o-ut1J-rEw: I examine lOgelher,

discuss. oTL = o TL: what. For oTL 1roTE Eo-TLv, see section 5, p.46 footnote 9 (also

section 9, p.97 footnote 35).

64-r(vu Tpo1rov (accusative of way or manner, like accusative of respect): in what

way? µ~ is found with olo-0u because the clause beginning o is indefinite and

applies to any such circumstances.

65oTL stands for a TL: what. At this point Meno's paradox is introduced (see

Sharples, Plato, Meno p.142).

661roiov (neuter) here: what kind of thing?

object of 1rpo8Ef1Evo,.

Jv: of the things which. 1r0tov is the

671rpo8Ef1Evos is nominative singular masculine of the participle of 1rpoE8Eµ1]v, usually

contracted to 1rpou8Eµ'T]v, the aorist middle of 1rpoTW1]µL: I put before, set before and

means having set before yourself. (For &0eµ'T]v, aorist middle, see p.314 above.)

The point Meno is making is that you would have to have in mind ( in his phrase,

to have set before yourself) some notion of what you are seeking, or else you

would not recognise it if you were to find it. (1]T1Jo-EL, is 2nd person singular of

t'T]~O'W, the future on'T]Tfo


l(UL on f.LUAWW 68 EVTUXOl<, 69 O.UT(]J, 1TWS 1c'Co-1j 7° on TOUTO E<YTLV O (YU Olli(

~0110-0ii;

,~., M 0' ' P ,, ', ' M' " - ' ' ' i

£.'l,t av o.vw OLOV l'-'OU/\EL /lE'YELV, (Jj EVWV. Op\J,S TOUTOV ws EpLO'TLKOV I

\ , 12 ~ , ,, , 73 r ..... ~

0 , ,, t\ ,~ ,, ,1

/\O-yov KUTU'YELS, ws OUIC upo. E<YTLV ', 'TJTELV UV pw1r4> ou1·E O OLOE OUTE O µ.~

o18E; OtJTE yup a.v O 'YE OLOEV t 'TjTOl. 74 -

olSE ycip, ICU[. OUOEV OEl. 75 T(j) 'YE

TOL01JT(!l ('T]T~O-EWS - ODTE o 11~ OLOEV - OUOE yap oloEv OTL ('T]T~O-EL.

68oTt µ,uAwTa: in the best case. oTt µ,ci\wm = w, µ,ci\wm (as much as possible). cf.

Gorgias 510d8 oTt µ,ci\urm 3µ,oto, foTm EKELvqi: he will be as much as possible

similar to that man. (See section 23, p.301.)

6

9i:'VTuxot, is 2nd person singular of evTuxotµ,t, the optative of evErnxov, the aorist of

EvTuY)(avw (p.307 above). auT0 is neuter; it stands for the thing you are seeking.

70 Efo-1J is 2nd person singular of Efo-oµ,m (section 12, p.138).

7\'.pwrnc6,, epwTtK'l], .\pw-rtKov: sophistical, disputatious (see section 15, footnote 47

and Meno 75c9). w, EpL<YTLKov A6yov: how sophistical an argument.

72KaTuyw (from 1mTu and iiyw): I introduce. Literally, it means I bring down;

metaphorically, it could mean bring home, as at Republic 560e3, where "boastful

conceits bring home insolence and anarchy and waste and impudence" (from

Jowett's translation). At Menexenus 242b3 Ko.-ro.yw means I bring back from

exile. Stock ( The Meno of Plato, Oxford, 1887) suggested that KaTuyu, might mean

you are bringing home to us. (Might Plato perhaps have used rnTuyEL, to hint that

Socrates is not entirely surprised that Meno uses this argument because it is in

some way expected in this context"!) Sharples lists other metaphorical renderings

at Plato, Meno, pp.143-4. He translates KaTuyw; as you are conjuring up.

73 E.<mv here stands for E€rnTLv: it is permissible, it is possible (section 25, p.333).

Translate as: ouK iipa E€eo-Ttv a.v0pw1rqi tr]TE1v.

1t11To1 is 3rd person singular of bJTo1µ,L, the optative of t'IJTEw (section 16, ~,&202).

The optatives indicate a future unlikely condition.

75 ouoEv oa with dative of person needing and genitive of thing needed: there is

no need at all. ~ (11n1cnc;, Tij, t'TJT'l]crEws: the search.

329

ro Ou1c Ej.LOLyE.

MEN"ExELS AEYELV OTr11; 77

'('n "E , , 78 · ,

t.M ywyE. UIC'T]KOU yap avopwv 'fE ICUL yuvaucwv oo~wv 'ITEpL TU 0ElU

,rpa yµ.a TU -

"\ I 79

MEN Ti.vu Myov 11EyovTwv;

ill 'AA.1]0~, Eµ.oLyE OOKEL KaL icaMv.

MENT / ~ , I <)I 80

'lVU TOUTOV, KUL Tl VE<; Ol 11EyovTES;

7"ou1<ouv introduces an impassioned question. cf. ou1<ouv KaAa, mh6v aren '1 you

calling him? (Symposium 175a10), section 15,p.191. Ot,1<ouv 1<aA.ws croL ooKEL Myrn0aL

o Myo, olnoc; is an example of a typical Greek sentence where the most emphatic

element (ouKouv) comes first and the next most emphatic element, o /,,6yo, o~rn,,

comes last.

77 01r11: in what way? For EXW with an infinitive, see section 6, p.54.

78For aK~1<oa, see section 9, p.89.

79 A.EyovTWV refers to avopwv TE KUL yuVULl(ll)V O"O~WV in the line above. This interruption

by Menon may imitate the theatrical practice of avn/,,a~~ ( "grabbing hold") when

a line is divided between two speakers by the second interrupting, sometimes

repeating an idea or a word from the first, e.g. Euripides, Ion 534-5:

534 :Sou6os: Tov cruvavT~cravTa fLOt

535"Iwv: TLVa o-uvavn1crcv; 2:ou0o,: OOfLWV Twvo' l€(ovTt TOU 8EOU

534 Xouthos: the man having met me

535 Ion: What meeting? Xouthos: as I was going out of this palace of the

god

(cruvavTaw: I meet. ~ o-uva.vn1crcs, -rijc; cruvav-r~o-Eu1c;: 1he meeting. ol o6µ,oL: the palace.

E~L<ov (participle of e~E1-µ,c (for EL11c, see p.330): going out)

80Transla te as if: T( va -rofrrov Tov Myov, rnl, TLVES dcrL v oL AEyov-rEs;

330

Section 25

New words:

8LE~<Eiµ,L

<ELµ,L

b vovs~ TOU vov

I go through in detail

I (shall) go

intelligence, intellect,

attention, sense 1

The Irregular Verb ~tµ,1.

PRESENT

IMPERFECT

I (shall) go

~(l,2

I went

you (will) go

he, she, it (will) go

i\<ELoBa. [ or i\<ELS]

i\<ELV or i\EL

you went

he/she/it went

[twv

rc-rov

you (will) both go]

they (will) both go]

[~TOV

'\l"f'TJV

you both went]

they both went

'Cµ,<Ev

LTE

1'.a.aL(v)

we (shall) go

you (will) go

they (will) go

[i\µ,<Ev

[~'TE

~aav 3 orij<Eaav

we went]

you went]

they went

elµ,L I ( shall) go is distinguished from dµ,L I am by the circumflex accent.

Its original meaning is present, I go, but in Attic Greek the indicative is

usually used as the future of epxoµ,m. It only has a present and an imperfect

tense. It has the usual -µ,L verb endings in the present indicative including

a long vowel sound in the singular (EL) and short (L) in the plural.

1 vous is contracted from v6os. The other cases are: (accusative) Tov vouv $:.

( uncontracted once, Tov v6ov, at Meno 95el, quoted from the poet Theognis), ·

(genitive) Tou voG (uncontracted once, perhaps from memory as the traditional text is

different, at Laws 777al, from Homer, Odyssey XVII, 322), (dative) TIJl v0 (uncontracted

twice, v6qi, at Protagoras 339b2 and 344a3, quoted from the poet Simonides).

2Also ~ELv, but not in Plato.

3To be distinguished from ~cmv ( they were) by iota subscript.

Section 25 331

The other parts of ELfLL are all formed on the stem t-

The subjunctive is:

The .QJJtative is:

tw ! may go [foL~,L 4 0 that I might go J

. t11s you may go 'loLs O that you might go!

'l11 he/she/it may go '(oL O that he/she/it might go

twµ.Ev

L'lj'TE

twcn(v)

let us go! 'lmµ.Ev O that we might go

you may go tm:rE O that you might go

they may go 'loLEv O that they might go

(The duals are not found in Plato.)

The imperative is:

rn.

'C-rw

t-rE

LOv-roov or

go!

let him/her/it go!

go! (plural)

L'Tffiaa.v 5 let them go!

(The duals are not found in Plato.)

The infinitive is U,va.L: to go.

The participle is twv 9 Louo-a. 9 tbv going, which is like i\a.~wv (p.167).

Particular care is needed with the infinitive U.va.L, which differs from leva.L,

the infinitive of 'L1Jf1L (I send, let go, not found without a prefix in Plato) in

having a smooth breathing. Both eltJ.L and 'L11µ.L frequently have prefixes

when the breathing disappears leading to ambiguity. Notice particularly:

avLkvm to go up (from uveLp,L, I (shall) go up)

and uwEvm to Jet, allow, give up (from d.vt11µ.L, I let, allow, give up).

01>vLEvm to come together (from 01Jva.µ.t, I come together)

and 01JVLEvm to understand, from O'Uvt11µ.t, I understand.

4Or Loh1v, neither found in Plato.

5Both are found in Plato, hwcmv at Laws 765a6 and 925c6 and t6vTwv at (Laws 956c4).


(E<p'f] OE ~uxo.s) avlEVUL EK T~s y~, µ,rnTo.s auxrwu TE KCLL

1c6vEwc;

(Republic 614d6-7)

(and he said that souls)~ out of the ground full bf

drought and dust 6

TOV a·ya6ov KUV'fJ'YE'T'f]V [l,ETCL0ELV XP~ KCLL µ,~ illL.lEVUL. (Laches 194bS)

The good huntsman ought 10 pursue and not give UQ. 7

I ~ \ ' \ f \ ~ ,-.. I \ \ ,-.. f.;:I ~ \

O'UVlEVQl. OE El<; TU ... lEpU OH 'TTUVTU ... TU 'T'fj/\lKUUTU 'IrULolU, U1TO TplETou,

!J,EXPl Twv E~ &-rwv. (Laws 794a5)

and all the little children of such an age must come togf,thei:, in to the temples, from

three years up to those of six years. 8

KEXP~µ,E0' m) 'T4J "ayvoEiv" TE KCLL T4' "auVlEvm".( Theaetetus 196e5-6)9

Again, we have used both (the terms) "to be ignorant" and "IQ understand".


1 " , , , e , ,;, - , "I, I, , I<' " ~, ~,

,lTW U[l,ETUO'TU'TO<; !J,EXPL ClVUTOU OOKWV [l,EV UOLKO<; OW [-llOU, WV OE OlKCllO<;,

(Republic 36lc8-dl) 10 2.'lwfLEV OE E.1TL

TU uuTu 1raALV. (Republic 353b3) U:rrL with

accusative: to) 3.ouTw o~ uµ,a fovw; Touc; Myou, TIEPL uuTwv ETiowuµ,E0a. (Symposium

173b9) 11 4.aµ,u ~EL 1rpos TU lEpu. (Republic 33ld10) 12 5.E<p'T] yup &pfo0m ClUTOV

orrol i'.ol ou-rw cmAOs YEYEV1]µ,Evoc; (from Symposium 174a3-5). 13

6for flEO'TOS, flEO'T~, flEO'TOV see p.293. 0 uuxµ,6,:drough t. ~ KOVLS, T~S KOVEw,: dust.

7 o KUV1JYET1JS, Tou KUVlJYETou: the huntsman (one who is the leader ( ~YELrm) of dogs

(Kuvfuv)). X/l~ (with accusative): one ought. f1ETu8Ew: J run after, pursue.

8To lEp6v, Tou tEpou: the temple. T'l]ALKoiiw;, T'l]Aumur11, T'l]ALKoiiTov: so old, of such an

age. ro 1rm0Lov, rou 1ruL0Lou: the little child. TPLET~<;, TPLETE<;: of three years, three

years old. flEXPL (with genitive): as far as. ro hos, Toii hous: the year.

9KEXP~f1E0u is 1st person plural of 1cexpwm, the perfect of xpcioµ,m (with dative~:: I use.

100.f1ETC1crruTo,, o.11ETC1crTuTov: unchangeable. o ~Los, rou ~Lou: life (section 21, p.264).

110:µ,u: at the same time. A6yous 1r0Lou11E0u: we have a discussion or conversation.

12Ta. LEpa. (literally, the holy things) means here the sacrifices.

13Epfo0m is the infinitive of ,jpoµ,11v. foL is optative in indirect question; see p.276.

Section 25 333

IMPERSONAL VERBS

The subject of a true impersonal verb can only be expressed by it, e.g.

Ka.Aws ~XEl ( it's all right). There are, however, several verbs found in the

3rd person singular which have as the subject either an infinitive or a

more vague idea, where we naturally express the subject as "it" in English,

e.g. Sci mh~v T~v oLKLav ED OLKELV (Meno 7le6-7)

it needs her to= she must manage the house well

3E'i. is 3rd person singular of Mw (I need), and what needs her is "to

manage the house".

"must" is often expressed by 3E'i.. The English subject of "must" is expressed

as an object in Greek:

3E'i. fLE TLµ,o.a0m 14 (Apology 36e2)

to be penalised needs me: it needs me to be penalised: I must be penalised.

Sometimes the subject of "must" in English is not expressed:

EL ◊EL Tl Kal. aKw~m (Meno 80a4-5)

if it is really necessary to make fun at all.

XP~ with the accusative expresses the English "ought to", e.g.

XP~ OUTE ~fLO.<; rnctElv UfLUS E'lTlopKEL.V 15 ou0' UfLUS rnctw8m (Apology 3Sc5-6)

Neither ought we train you to swear falsely nor ought you be trained.

Other impersonal verbs have the dative, e.g. },uffLT<£AEt: it is profitable,

01J[1<pkp,a: it is ill the interest of, 'ITpe.'ITH: it is suitable, 'ITpoa~KE~: i1 belongs 10, ii is

suitable, it is becoming, µ,D.eL: it is a care, µ.,,m1µ,kAEL: it is the subject ofrepcntance

and E~,w-.1.(11): i1 is permissible.

AUUlTEAEL. yup mho'i.s (ELKasw8m) (Meno 80c4)

for it is profitable for them (to be compared)

'ITPETrEl aoqiwTfl TO. TOlUUTU KOfLtjJEuE0"0m 16 (Laches 197d6-7))

it is suitable for a sophist to invent such subtleties

(these are just the kind of subtleties a sophist would invenl)

1\q1iio-0al is the infinitive of Tlµ,iiiµ,m, the passive of Tlµciw: I honour or, in a law

court, I penalise (from the notion of assessing a penalty).

15 E1rwpKE'i.v is the infinitive of E1rwpKiw: I swear falsely.

16,wµ,ijiEuw0m is the infinitive of Koµ,ijiEuoµ,al: I am smart, make a smart invention.

0


dp, OUXl awµ,aTL µ,Ev wxu 0La/\uw0m 17 1rpoa~1cu, ~JUX~ OE UOLU/\UT<p ELvuv

(Phaedo 80b9-10)

'

is it not natural for a body to be dissolved quickly, but for a soul to be indissoluble?

EKElVOLS T6TE [J,ETa[J,EAEL tilv uv ED 1TOL~CYwow. (Phaedrus 264a2)

then they repent of whatever they have done well (i.e. of all their acts of kindness).;;,

ouoEv µ,EAEL El,l,OL)IE (Meno 99e3).

It in no way is a care to me

= L don't care.

If the subject of the infinitive is expressed or understood, it is in the

accusative.

a/\/\o. µ,~v (mhw c'f0AL6v )IE ELVUL OU /\UO"LTEAEL, EUOaCµ,.9va 19 OE.(Republic 354a6)

But certainly it does not pay (him) to be miserable, but to be happy.

OU yup olµ,m aUf1~EpEL TOLS c'fpxouaL ~pov~µ,am [-1,E)IO.Aa E)l)ll)IVW0m TWV

cipxoµ,Evwv (Symposium 182cl-3)

for, I think, it is not in the interests of the rulers great though ts to arise of the ruled

= for, I think, it is not in the interest of the rulers that great thoughts should arise

among the ruled. 20

Impersonal verbs are found as participles:

::n:pE1rov µ,oL OoKEL ELvm ~µ,'i,v TOLS TiapouaL KoCYµ,fjam Tov 0E6v (Symposium

177c6-7).

It seems to me lo be fitting for us (who are) present to honour the god. 21

1 \o crfuµ,a, ToD CTWfl-UTo,: the body. owAurn0m is the infinitive of owAuoµ,at, the passive

of owAuw: I undo, dissolve. ciouiAuTo,, ciouiAuTOv(feminine as masculine): indissoluble.

18Literally it is a care after to those men of whatever they have done well. fl-ETaµ,EAH

has the genitive of what one repents of. 1rot ~crwcrtv is 3rd person plural aoristsu~junctive.

The aorist indicates completeness.

19EuoaLµ,wv, EuoaLµ,ovos (3rd declension adjective): fortunate, happy.

20Eyy[yvoµ,m: I arise (in). To q,p6v'Y]µ,a, Tou q,pov~µ,a·ro,: the thought. (µ,Eya q,povEw: I am

high-spirited.) o.pxoµ,m is passive here, not middle.

21Kocrµ,kw: I honour (often I adorn).

Section 25 335

Accusative Absolute 22

When the participle is not in the main construction of a sentence, if it is

the participle of an ~..Qnal verb, it is in the accusative case. This

construction corresponds to the genitive absolute with participles of other

verbs.

~ yE1,oiov MyETE 1rpayµ.a., d 1rpuTTEl Tl, rnKu, ylyvwa1<wv oTl Ka.Ku ECJTl, ou

OEOV O.UTOV 1rpuTTElV, ~TTWfl-EVOS U'ITO TWV dyo.8wv.

(Protagoras 355d1) 23

Certainly you arc saying something ridiculous, if anyone performs bad things,

knowing that they are bad, _il noI.P__ctruwecessary him to perform (lhem), being

overcome by the good (i.e. because he is overcome,..).


l.aA/1.' El OOICEL (uµ.iv ), -l1v o' J:yw, OUTlll XP~ (~µ.us) 1TOlELV. (Republic 328b3).

2.1rpoa~1CEl OE 1TOU (T(fl µ,~ El◊OTl) µ,a.8dv 'lTo.pa TOU El◊OTO<;. (Republic 337d4)

3.ou yap olµ,o.l AU<Jl TEAELV tJ-,ETO. µ,ox011p(o.s 24 O'WtJ-,0.TO<; ''TJV av8poml(l. ( Gorgias

505a2)

4.0UK av TrpE.1TOl YE ETfl/\~O'fl-OVO. 25 ELVUl po.4H.t>OOV uvopo.. (Ion 539e7)

5.(accusative absolute) yEvv~aoual 26 1ruious TrOTE ou ofov. (Republic 546b3-4)

22For the genitive absolute, see section 19, p.242. ("abs." in Brandwood, A Word Index

to Plato, e.g. on Mov, does not refer to accusative absolute.)

23~: certainly. yEAo'io,, yEAo[u, yeoAoi:ov: ridiculous. ~TT~fl-Evo, is nominative masculine

singular of the participle of ~TTUOfl-at: I am defeated (literally, Jam made less).

24~ fl-Ox8·11p[u, ·rij, fl-OX8'lJpLU<;: misery, or bad quality. s-ijv is the infinitive of tuw: J live.

For To uiiifl,a see footnote 17.

25EirLA~u1iwv, E1TLA~<Yfl-ovo,: forgetful. /:, pmj;epo6,, Toti pmj;epoou: the rhapsode (professional

reciter of epic, esp. of Homer).

26yEvv~uouuL is 3rd person plural of yEvv~uw, the future of yEvvo.w: I beget.


Verbal Adjectives Ending

0

I I P

"i'OS 9 °'i"1] 9 wv

EXEL<; fLOL EL 1TELV, Ji lwKpUTE<;, apu OLOUKTOV ~ o.pET~; ~ OU 0L0UKT6v, O.~/\'

O.O"K1J.T6v. (Meno 70al)

Can you tell me, Socrates, whether virtue (excellence) is a thing that can be 1aughu

Or whether it cannot be taught, but acquired by practice? ·

OLouK-r6s 9 oLoaK-r~ 9 oLomc-r6v is a verbal adjective connected with 0L◊&cr1<w and

meaning able to be taught.

n01<'TJT6s, d.mc'TJ·r~ 9 d.01C'l'JT611 is a verbal adjective connected with

train, and means able to be acquired by practice.

' I

llO'KEtn, I

Such adjectives are not consistently active, middle or passive, though

many are passive: ouva. .. 6s able or capable , for instance,has both active and

passive senses. 27

OLoaKT6s is formed from eoLMx&r]v (I was taught) by removing the augmenu

and the ending 811v, but there is no consistent rule for forming such verbal

adjectives, and they do not have tense, aspect or person. 28

If a verbal adjective ends"""l"fos 9 4Ea9 4,fov, the meaning must is added:

" \ e ~ / e ~ / \ \ 29 e \ \ ' ~ ' / (, )

EUV TU T)UEU U1TEPJ-'Ul\l\'ljTUL U1TO TWV avwpwv, OU 1rpuKTEU E<YTLV •

(Protagoras 356cl)

But if the pleasant rhings are outweighed by the unpleasant, they are not to be

performed (they must nor be performed).

27Active: EL µ,EAAELS mhu ouva.Tos. yEvfo8al 1mpa.Aa~E'i:v if you intend to become able to

take over (from Timaeus, the previous speaker) ( Critias 108b6-7),p_g.£Sive: Myos ouvuro;

KO.Tavoij<rm anargumentcapableofbeingunderstood (from Phaedo 90c9). NB Kmavo~am

is the aorist infinitive active of KaTavoEw: I undersland, so the literal meaning is a11

argument capable to understand.

28See Y. Duhoux, Le Verbe Gree Ancien, p.313.

29u1rEp~a.AA1JTm is 3rd person singular (neuter plural subject) of u1rEp~a.AAwµ,m, the

subjunctive of u1rEp~a.AAoµ,al, the passive of u1rEp~a.AAw: I exceed. a.vwp6s, o.vwpci., a.vwp61".

unpleasant. 1rpa.K-rfos is formed from E1rpa.x811v, the aorist passive of 1rpa.TTw.

Section 25 337

The net1t£uin.gi1lar is often used impersonally with an active meaning, i.e.

to say what one must do:

(KaC ~'l][.LL) ... o-w~p?o-uv17v [LEV OLWICTEOv 30 1cai. CL<YIC'l]TEOv (fonv ), ct1co/l.ao-Cav ◊E

~EUKTEov ( Gorgias 507dl)

(And I say that) one must pursue a..nd practise prudence but one must shun

in temperance.

What is lhe English for

Loux ~youµ,aL OLOUKTOV ELVUL apET~V. (Protagoras 320b4-5)

2.E<YTL yup TL<; Myo<; a/1.178~, ... EOLKEV o' o0v Kal. vuv /1.EKTEO<;. (lettersVJl,

3.To'i:<; Ex0po'i:, o,·rroOoTEOV O TL av TUXU O~EL/1.o[LEVOV; (Republic 332b5) 32

342a3-6) 31

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

When the subject of a sentence is mentioned in another capacity, we use

the ending -self or -selves in English; e.g. "I found myself in the city", or

"she is talking to herself' or "they are praising themselves". If the subject

is a possessor, we use the word "own"; e.g. "I am showing my own work"

or "they gave us their own bread". In Greek, the reflexives are as follows:

First person singular

( masculine)

accusative &µ.o.u-.6v: myself

genitive &µ.o.1nou: of myself

(my own)

dative

&µ.a.u1·1JJ: to/for

myself

(feminine)

&µ.au'f~v: myself

&µ,m,ri]s: of myself (my own)

&µ,m,-r~:

to/for myself

308LwKTEO<; is formed from J8u{ix811v, the aorist passive of OL01K<o: I pursue. ~ a1<0/l(lO"La., Tijc;

aKoAa.a[a.,: intemperance. q>EUKTEO, is formed from q,euyw: I flee (from), shun, avoid, the

aorist passive of which does not actually occur.

310' ouv: and certainly (Denniston, The Greek Particles, pp.461-2).

32Understand E.O"TLV. TUX1J is 3rd person singular of Tuxw, the subjunctive of huxov,

the aorist of TU'Y)(a.vw. 6q>Ett..w: I owe. a1Too6Teov is from a1Tooc8wµL.


Second person singular

accusative

genitive

dative

(masculine)

aEauTov: yourself

aEauTou: of yourself

(your own)

aEmmJJ: to/for

yourself

Third person singular

accusative eo.u,·6v: himself

genitive fouwu: of himself

(his own)

dative eau-r4>: to/for

himself

(feminine)

a<Eau-r~v: yourself

aeo.uT~s: of yourself

(your own)

O'EO.UTij: to/for

yourself

&au'Mjv: herself &o.u-r6: itself

&o.u-r~s: of herself fou-rou: of

(her own) itself (its own)

eo.u-rij: to/for eo.u-r4': to/for /by

herself

itself

First person plural

~µ.cis o.uwus or ~µ.a.s au'l'as

~µ.wv (l,tJ'iWV

~µ,'i,v au-rots or ~µ.'i,v au-rats

Second person plural

uµ.iis (ltJ'i'OUS or

uµ,wv o;u-rwv

uµ.'i,v o:uTOLS or

ourselves (accusative)

of ourselves

to/for ourselves

yourselves (accusative}

of yourselves

to/for yourselves.

Third person plural

accusative eauTous: themselves (masculine)

eau,-6.s: themselves (feminine)

eau-ra: themselves (neuter)

genitive

dative

fouTwv: their own ( masculine)

eau-rwv: their own ( feminine)

eau-rwv: their own ( neuter)

eau-rots: to/for themselves( masculine)

eauTo.ts: to/for themselves ( feminine)

eauTOLs: to/for/by themselves (neuter)

Examples:

Section 25

w, YE EfWUTq) JooKouv ( Meno 80b4) as I seemed to myself

339

~<wTov fJ,EfJ,<pETO.l (Protagoras 339d8) he is blaming himself

(µEµqioµut: I blame)

e is often omitted from the 2nd person singular reflexive pronoun:

I

I

O"!LUTOV 9 CYO.U'i'i')V

and from the 3rd person reflexive pronoun:

a.l)Tov 9 al)T~v9 0,1)70 (singular)

al)Tous9 al)Tas9 a.1)-ra (plural)

The 3rd person reflexive is distinguished by the rough breathing.

'lTpOO'K<tAE<TOV TWV 1TOAA.wv ciKoAou0wv TOUTWVL, TWV O'O.UTOU EVO. (Meno 82a8-bl)

Call one of these, your own many attendants here (the many attendants of yourself)

('ITpoaKaAE.w: I summon, call towards me o o.KoAou0o,, Tou o.KoAou0ou: the attendant, the

foilower)

'lTO.PEXWV O.UTOV TWV 'EA.A~vwv T(J) ~OUAOfJ,EVtp EpWTUV OTl av Tl', ~OUA~TUl

(Meno 70cl)

offering himself to ( anyone) of the Greeks wan ting to ask what anyone may want

The phrase ahro Ka.0' a,i'.,,.6 (itself according to itself, i.e. the essential ... J is

frequent in Plato, e.g.

r, ,, (' .I. ') , ' ' 0' ( ' ' ' 0, e ' ..... ,, 33

OTl O.V lj <pUX'TJ VOTJ0'1] O.UT'Tj KO. O.UTTJV 0.UTO KO. O.UTO TWV OVTWV .

(Phaedo 83bl)

whatever in her essence (the soul) may perceive (as) the essence of' the

things that are


Uµ,ol, opy((ovTUl, 34 oux O.UTOl-',. (Apology 23c8)

2.1TOTE.pov EOEl UV ~I.LU', CTKE\,JU0'8Ul ~µ,as O.UWU', ~ ou; (from Gorgias 514a9-b3)

33vo~a1J is 3rd person singular of vo~aw, the subjunctive of evo'TJ<m, the aorist of voEu,: J

perceive. Twv ovTwv is the genitive of Ta ovTa, the being things, the things that are.

auT~ KU0' uuT~v refers to~ tJiux~, while uuTo Ku0' uuTo refers to oTL ( whatever).

34c'>py£tovwL is 3rd person plural of opy[toµ,m (with dative): I am angry wilh.


3 ' R I\ 0 '0'' ' A

.El /-'OUI\EO- E, E E/\lll EVITELV KUT

Abyouc;.(Symposium 19%1-2)3 5

4 \ A

qwu-rov, OU 11pos TOUS U~.E'rEpou<;

' ' , ' ' ' ' /

<;, \ , \. "\ j j "~ '<;,' j j \ \ / ""

.TE/\EUTULOV 011, OL(..LUL, 'TOV 'l']IILOV, OUK EV UUUO-LV ouu

.1, , , A ,,, , , , 0' , , , A

EV U/\/\O'rpu1- Eopq,

, A , <;,I , "

't'UVTUO-f.LU'TU UU'TOU, UI\I\ UU'TOV KU UU'TOV EV T1) UU'TOU XlllPI/- UUVULT UV

KU'TLOElV KUl 0Euo-uo-0m ot6, E.<JTLv. 36 (Republic 516b4-6)

e and u<f,lis

nominative

accusative

genitive

dative

i: himself, herself

ou: of himself,

of herself

ol: to, for himself,

o-cpdis-: themselves

a<piis: themselves

crcprov: of themselves

a4>£m.(v) or acptv:

to, for herself to, for themselves

These are personal pronouns used as reflexive pronouns in a subordinate

clause. if is rare, but is found at Symposium l 7Sa6: Kul. E\ µ,Ev E~~

ci-rrov[tuv -rov -rruiou and he said the slave to be washing him : and he said that the

slave was washing him. 37

The plurals are somewhat more common:

cpuo-l, OE OUK EVOUO-'l']S EV T~ tJiux~ E.TILO''T~f.L'l']S .Q~1S. E.VTC0EVUL

they affirm knowledge not being in the soul, they themselves to put it in = they

affirm that when there is no knowledge in the soul, they (themselves) pm it in.

( Republic 5 l 8b9-cl) 38

35rrp6s (here): against, i.e. in competition with

36The subject is "he", the prisoner who has escaped from the cave. TEAEuTui:ov: final,

/, ~/\LOS, TOU ~/\LOU: the sun. uoucnv is dative plural of (To) uowp, UOaTOs: water. a/\AOTpL

a/\AOTptu, aAAoTptov: belonging to another, belonging to something else. ~ Eopa, •

EOpas: the seat, (proper) location. To <j>civrnaµ,u, Toii <j>avTciaµ,aTos: the vision, iJpparitic

~ xwpu, TTjS x<opus: the place. l<UTLOEI.V is the infinitive of l<UTELOOV, the aorist ~f KU0opau

see distinctly. 0Ecioµ,m: I observe. Begin translating at ouvuLT' o.v rnTLOEi:v Tov ~Atov.

37 a,rov(tw: I wash. b 1Tu1.s: the slave boy.

381£vELµ,L: I am inside ~ hw-r~µ,'l], Tijs E1TLaT~fJ-'lJS :knowledge. "They" are educationali:

who believe that they put knowledge into the soul.

Section 25 34]

~,ETO, Taiha EqJ'T] .IT.Q?.,9,..S. ou TIVEl\l

after that he sajd J~g£ to dine =after that he said that they were having

dinner, (Symposium 175c2) (OEL1TVE.w: I dine)

TO y~pas uµ,voucnv OCYWV ICUKWV cl.(&Lv ahwv. 39

They harp on old age the cause of how many evils for themselves.

(Republic 329b2-3)

The adjective o-q>E.TEpo,, o-q>ETEpa, o-q>ETEpov is found meaning their own,

referring emphatically to the subject:

·rou, 1TUl0US 1rapaAa~6vTES 0pE~JWVTUL EV TOlS O-$ETEpo_~c;_ Tp0°ffOWL ICUL v6µ,oLs

having seized the children, lhey (the philosopher kings) may have them nurtured

in lhei_r o~n ways and laws. 40 (from Republic 54lal-3)

aq>ETEpoLs emphasises that it is in the ways and laws of the philosopher kings, and

not in the ways and laws of the parents.

Plato, Meno 8lal0-81e6

Things having reached an impasse, Socrales puts forward a theory according to

which all knowledge is due to recollection from a previous existence.

ID Qt [1,EV MyovTE<; El<JL TWV LEpEwv 41 TE KUL TWV lEpElWV O<YOLS

f1E[l,EA'T]KE 42 TIEPL tiiv 43 fJ,ETO,XELp(lovTm A6yov OlOLS T' dvm oLOovav

39.ro y~pa,, TOU yr1pao,: old age Uf1VEw: J sing about.

40'ITapa11apov-rE, is nominative plural masculine of 'ITapa11aPwv, the participle of 1mpE11apov,

aorist of 'ITupu11a11~uvw: I take by force, 0pE~wvTaL is 3rd person plural of 6pbJJw1rnL, the

subjunctive of E0pE~o.fl:r1v, aorist middle of TpEcpw: I nurture. o v6110s, Tof, v6110u: the law.

41 oL µ,h MyovTE, is balanced by MyEL o/c Kal. (also) Ticvoapo, after the semi colon.

rwv LEpE<dV is genitive of oL LEpEL,, the plural of o lEpeu,: the priest. Twv cEpEcwv is

genitive plural of~ LEpaa: the priestess.

42 f1Ef1Ell'!]KE is the perfect of f1EIIEL and means it has been (and still is) a care.

43'ITEpt wv stands for 'ITEpt TouTwv wv: concerning those things (with) which.

µEmxnplto11m: I have to do. Translate in the order: ot f1EV MyovTE, daL (o0Tot) Twv

LEpEwv TE KUL Twv Lepecwv oaoL, f1E!J,E/\'!]KE oloL, T ' eivat Wiovm Myov 'ITEpL lilv

f1ETUXELp(lovTm. "these ... to as many as ..." = "all those to whom". f1El1E/\'!]KE oloL, T'

dvat oloovaL: it has been a care to be able to give. Myo, here means rational

explanation. For 11Ernxuplto11aL see p.281.


\ I ~ \ \ TI' c; 44 \ "\ \ \ \ \ ~ ~ " 0 ~ ' ,

I\EYEL OE KUl LVoapo<; KUl U/1/\0l 1TOI\I\Ol TWV 1TOVY]TWV oo·ol ELOL ELCYLV.

" ._,, , , TUUTL 45

0. OE /\E')'OUO'LV, EO'Tlv· a.'A'Aa. uK61rEL 46 Et uoL ooKouuLv 0./\'Tj ,, e

~

AE')'ELV.

~aut ya.p T~V t)iux~v TOD av0pw1rou dvm a.0a.vo.Tov, ICO.L T6TE fl,E.V

TEAEUTuv 47 - 0 s~ a.1ro0v~O'KELV KUAOUO'l - T6TE OE 1TO.ALV y[yvw0a.L,

a.1r6A'Auu0m S' OU0E1TOTE' OELV 48 s~ OLO. TO.UTO. W<; OO'LWTUTO. 49 OLU~LWVO.Lso

\ Q.' f SJ \ "II

TOV t-'LOV' OLO'LV yap av -

44Pindar, the Theban lyric poet (probably born 518 B.C.). MyEL means here

speaks about this. Giving a rational explanation is discussed at the end of the

Meno, at 98a4 (see Sharples' notes on pp. 144-5 and 184 of Plato, Meno).

45

wuTt stands for wuw. When it is desired to emphasise the use of o◊To, to point

something or somebody out, L is used as a suffix; so ouTOCrt means this man here.

However, final a, E or o are dropped.

46 crKo.rH is 2nd person singular present imperative of crKo.rE.w (note the accent;

see section 16, footnote 8). See also pp.189-190 for the meaning of the present

imperative here.

4 \EAEuTiiv is the present active infinitive of TEAEuTuw: I end (my life), section 21,

p. 273 footnote 48.

48 oav is the infinitive of 0E1.: it is necessary. ~acr[ is understood.

49ws bcru;naw: as holily as possible, in as holy a way as possible.

holy.) For the construction with w,, see section 23, p.301.

(ocrLOs, ocrw. ocrLOv:

50ow~u:iivm is the infinitive of OLE~twv, the strong aorist of oLa~Low: I lead my whole

life. (oLE~twv is like Eyvwv, on p.170 of section 14.) The infinitive follows oEiv, and as

it is part of a general statement, it means, in English, they say that one must ...

51oLcrLv (a poetical form of oI,) is short for TOUTOL<; tilv. for those (from) whom ... olcnv

ya.p a.v introduces a quotation from a Jost poem (fragment 127 in the Oxford C~~sical

Text, ed. Bowra) of Pindar. Sharples ( Meno, p.145) suggests that it may come from

one of Pindar's Laments (0pijvOL).

Section 25

343

lj[J,Ep<YE<pOVCl 52 1TOlVUV 1TUA.CllOU trev0rns

OE~ETm, 53 ElS Tov ·01rEp0Ev uAwv 54 KELvwv EVO.T<(l if TH

O.VOlOOL tjiuxos :O-O.AlV, 55

' ~ 56 (.l \'~ , ,

EK TWV' r'ClUll\'T]ES uyuuol

' 0' , ,I/ ,

Kill U EVEl KpCll'TTVOl UO't'l~ TE ~EYlUTOL

livopES uu~ovT' ·57 ES OE TOV AOL1TOV xpovov ~pwEc; ayvo1.

1rpos av0pw1TWV KUAEUVTCll. 58

52cl>EpcrE<),6va is Persephone, the queen of the Underworld who, according to myth,

was kidnapped as a young maiden by Hades while picking flowers and stolen from

her mother Demeter.

538{1,;erm is an Epic form of OE£1JTUL, 3rd person singular of M~wµm, the subjunctive

of EOEi,;aµ11v, the aorist of oexoµaL The subject is (J)Epo-E<),ova, and the object is ,rotvav,

a poetical form of the accusative of ,rolv~ (penally, or compensation). -rru11u£ou

11iv0w; is the genitive of -rru11mov 1TEv80,, ancient grief. The meaning so far is: and

for those from whom ever (iiv) Persephone accepts the compensation of (i.e. for)

ancient grief ... (Sharples explains the ancient grief as probably referring to the

killing of her son Dionysus-Zagreus by the Titans, later slain by Zeus' thunderbolt,

from whose ashes the human race was said to have sprung.)

54u1rEp8EV: above. 6'.11Lo, is a poetic form of lJIILo,, the sun. Et, Tov u11Ep6Ev 6'.11Lov

means into the sun(light) above.

55Kdvwv is a poetical form of El<Elvwv. EvaTqi ETEL is the dative singular of &vmov hos,

the ninth year. (Evcnos, evaT1J, EvaTov: ninth (see p.287 above). To hos, Toii ETous

(3rd declension neuter): the year.) civoLom stands for civuolowo-L ( olowµL meaning

(here) I send). KElvwv lvaTqi ETEL civotoo1 tJrnxa.s 1rci11tv means of those (people) on the

ninth year she sends up again the souls.

56eK Twv: out of whom. The definite article is used instead of the relative pronoun.

57~aO"tA'TjE, is the nominative plural of ~ao-LAEu, (p. 70). ciyau6,, ciyuu~, ciyuuov means

illustrious. cr0lvn is dative singular of cr8Evo, (3rd declension neuter), strength,

might. Kpat,rvo,, KpuL1TV~, KpuL1rv6v: swift. For µEyLcrTos see section 23, p.298. uu~ovT'

stands for uui_;ovmt, 3rd person plural of uu~oµut, I grow. EK Twv ~acrt11·ijE, ciyuuot Kut

o-0EvEL Kput1rvo1. O"o<l>i.'1- TE µEywToL iivopE, au~oVT' means ou1 of whom illustrious kings

and men swift in strength and greatest in wisdom grow.

5811ot1r6s, /\Ol'IT~, /\Ol1TOV: remaining. 0 xpovos, TOU xpovou: time. o.yvo<;, a.yv11, o.yv6v:

holy. 1rp6s with genitive can mean by. Ku/\EuvTuL is the Ionic dialect form of

KU/\OUVTUL. ES OE TOV /\OL 1TOV )(POVOV ~pWE<; a.yvot 1rpo<; civ8pw1rwv KU/\EUVTUL means and for

the rest of time holy heroes by men they are called.


"A TE ouv s 11 ' .,. 'l'UX'l}' a, , e, O.VO.TOS ' TE oucm • Ka.L ' 'IT0/\1\0.KlS '' ' yEyovma., ~ s9 KO.l ' Ewpa.Kma.

' ~

1(0,1, TO. ev0a.OE 60 1(0,1, TO. EV ., ALOOU 1(0,1, 1TO.VTO. XP~fLO.TU, 61 OUK E<YTLV OTL 62

, '0 " 63 ·~' 0 ' ' ' ' ~ ' ' ~, \

OU µ,Eµ,a. 'l}KEV" WO-TE OUOEV a.uµa.aTOV 1(0,l 1TEpl a.pET'l}S Kill 1TE.pl 0.11/IWV

f ' ',' ' \ ' 0"' 64 rl I ' ,t 65 f/ (:,f

OlOV T HVO.l O.UT'l}V a.vo.µ,v11a 'l}Vlll, a. '/E 1rpo-rEpov 'l}'lrlO"TO.TO. 0.TE '

yup Tl]S q>UO-EWS ci1T0.0"1'JS auyy1cvous OUO-'l}S, 1(0,1, µ,1cµ,a.0111<ULUS T'YJS t)iux'Y\s

59For a.Te with participle, see section 22, p.281. yeyovu1.a. is nominative feminine

singular of yeyovws, the participle of yiyova, the perfect of y(yvoµ.m. e.wpaKu1.a is

nominative feminine singular of e.wpa1<ws, the participle of e.wpUKa, the perfect of

bpa.w.

6010. ev8a.llE: things here. 10. ev "ALSou: things in Hades. • ALSou is genitive because

it stands for the house of Hades.

61 10 XP~µ.a, 1ou XP~fl-aTOs: thing. 1ra.v1a xp~µ.a1a here means all things. N.B. Elsewhere

(10.) XP~µ.am is very often used to mean money, as at Meno 90a4 and 9ldl and 3.

62ou1< E1mv: there isn't (anything) (NB accent on fo1Lv, see p.17). oTL stands for o TL

which. The subject of µ.eµ.6.01JKE, "it", refers to ~ tJiux~- µ.eµ.a.01]1ca is the perfect of

µ.av8a.vw (section 9, p.89).

63For u\cm, see section 9, p.94. Understand eo-1Lv after wcrre. The subject of fo,w is

otov T, elvaL mh~v d.vaµ.v11cr8~vaL ( so that it is in no way remarkable it, i.e. the soul,

to remember. .. ). The object of d.vaµ.v11°:iB~vaL is o. ye 1rp61epov ,j1r(a1a10 Kat 1rept a.pe~s

1<at 1rept a.XXwv. a.XXwv is neuter plural (genitive).

64d.vaµ.v110"8~vm ( IO remember) is the infinitive of a.veµ.v~0"811v, the aorist passive of

a.vaµ.Lµ.v11mcw: I remind.

65,j1rta1a.10 is 3rd person singular of ~1rLa1uµ11v, the imperfect of e1r(crraµ.aL (p.281).

,j1r(a1a10: ii (the soul) used to understand (1rp61epov refers to before reincarnation).

<' 6 0.1e is followed by genitive absolute: ~s rj>foews 111TO.<Y1JS auyyevous olt,11s, ,cat

µ.eµ.a.0111<u(as tjs ~iux~s a.1rav10.. ou<Y1Js is genitive singular feminine of &v, the

participle of etµ.L (qualifying tjs <j>u<rEws), and µ.eµ.a.011Kutas is genitive singular

feminine of µ.e110.01]Kws, the participle of fl-Efl-a.0-rJKa. (qualifying tj~ tJiux-ijs). o.1rav1a

(neuter plural, accusative) is the object of µ.eµ.a011Kuta.s. The translation is: For

because all nature is akin and the soul has learned all things ...

Section 25

345

chravrn, 01JOEV t((J)/HJEl 67 EV µ,ovov uvuµ,v110-0EVTQ, 68 - ac,9 8~ µ,u0110-Lv 70

KUAffcJO"LV uv6pw1TOL .. '[0,/1./\0, 1TUV'TU UU'TOV UVEUPEl-V, EUV TL<; o.vOpEl-OS 71 ~

\ \ ? , I r ,.., \ \ '( ,.., '1 \ \ 0' ' 1

KUL µ, 11 o:rrocca.µ,v11 ,'T]TWV' TO yap \,'Yj'TELV apu KUL TO µ.av UVELV avuµ,v170-L<;

,t\ j / 72 ,, ~ " '0 e 7' / " ? ~ \ / i4 "

O/\OV EO"TLV. OUKOUV OH 1TEL rn· UL . TOUT!Jl 'T(jl EpWTLK(jl l\0')11.p' OU'TO<;

67The subject of "wMn is ouoEv (for 1<w/l.uw, see section 22, p.281) and its object is

aihov, which here must be translated as a man since there has been nothing

previously in the Greek for "him" to refer to. a.vC1µ,v1]0-8fv-rC1 is the accusative

singular of a.VC1f1V1Jo-Ms, (masculine, remembering, or having remembered), the

participle of 11vE1w~o-81]v the aorist passive of avC1µ,,µ,v~mcw., and qualifies C1uTov. The

object of avaµ,v'T]o-Gfv-m is EV µ,6vov. 1<w11.uw with an infinitive indicates what one is

prevented from doing. The infinitive here is avEupE'i:v, from av1Jiipov, the aorist of

avEUpLmcw (I discover). -ru11.11.u is a crasis and stands for -ra. 111,1,a, the object of

o.vEUpuv.

68Ev µ,6vov avaµ,v1]o-0fvw: (a man) having remembered only one thing is equivalent

to a condition: if he has remembered only one thing.

600: which refers to a man remembering only one thing.

1id.vopE'i:o,, avopE(u, avopE'i:ov: courageous. a'!fo1<6.µ,v'(] is 3rd person singular of the

present subjunctive of a'IT01<a11vw I grow weary, flag. Translate in this order: o.TE

ya.p TTJ, cpuo-EW<; o:rrom1, o-uyyEVOU<; ouo-11,, ICUL f1EllU0TJKUl.U<; Trj, ,pux-ij, ihravTCL, 01',oh

KW/\UEL UIJTOV a.vEUpE'i:v 'ITUVTU T0./1./\U E.V µ.ovov d.vuµv'T]0-0EVTU .. 0 8~ av0pw1TO, ICU/\OtJo-lV

µ,6.8110-Lv .. E.ClV TL<; ~ d.vopELOS l(UL µ,~ 11'ITOKO.f1V'(] tTJTWV.

72 To l'IJTE'i.v and To µ,C1v06.vHv are the subjects. Translate in the order: To yup ''JTE°i:v

Kat To µ,uv0uvElv fo-rLv 011.ov d.vaµ,v110-,, where 011.ov means as a whole, i.e. entirely. ~

11vuµ,v11cnc;, 'T'IJ<; avo.µ,v~o-Ew,: recollection . o.pu: therefore.

1\rEC0rn6u, is the infinitive of nEi.0oµm, the passive of 'ITEi.0w: I persuade (p.217).

74"By ... ", dative of instrument

said at 80d5-8.

oiJTo, o ipw1·,,co, Aoyo, refers to what Meno has


\

f.1,EV

\ ,1 t " ') \ 75

yap av 11µ,a, apyous

I 76

1TOL TjOHEV

\

KUL

,t

EO"TLV

'"'

TOL',

\ " 77

i.La/\aKOLS

"

TWV

d.v0pifmwv ~Su, 78 UKOUCJUL, o3E 79 3E &pyaTLKOUS 80 TE KaL t11TTjTLKOU<; 1TOLEl.

f ') \ / 81 '\ 0 " ', 90/\ \ '"' '( " 1 \ f/ 8') ' I

(p EYW 1TLO"TEUWV at\'Tj El ELVUL E EI\W f.l,ETa O"OU \, TjTElV apET'Tj OTL - EO"TLV.

MEN Na(, J 1:wKpaTES' UAAU 1TW<; AEYHS TOUTO, OTL OU µ,av06.voµ,EV,

'\ \ \ " 83 \ A '0 , I I ' ,, A <:, <:, 't 84

(1/\/\U 11v 1((1/\OUf.1,EV 1w Tj<JLV UVUf.1,VTj<JLS E<JTLv; EXELS f.1,E TOUTO ULUUi,,aL

ws OUTWS EXEL;

7 \ipyos, clpy~, clpy6v: idle.

76iroL~craEv is 3rd person singular of iroL~crmµ,t, the optative of e1ro[110-u, the aorist of

irotew. iiv irot~craEv ( would make) implies a future unlikely condition such as if we

were persuaded by it.

77µ,aAuKO!,, µ,uAuK~, µ,uAuKov: soft.

78~ou,, ~Mu, ~M: pleasant (p.293). cl1<0uo-ut is the infinitive of ~Koucru, the aorist of

0.Kollw.

79ooE stands for ooE o Aoyo,, referring to what Socrates has just expounded.

80Jpyu-rtKo<;, Jpyu-rLK~, Jpyu-rtKov: industrious. (1JTTJTLK6,, (q'T'T]TLK~, {11T1Jw<6v: disposed to

investigate. them is understood as the object of 1rotEi.

81irt<T-rEuw (with dative): I crust, have intellectual confidence in. The antecedent of

~ is OOE (o A6yo,).

823-rL (standing for 3 -rL) is neuter: what thing excellence is.

83~v: lhe thing which. ~ µ,a81J<TL,, TTj, µ,u&rj<TEW!,: learning.

\iii!'

84For l:xw with infinitive, see p.54. otoci~ut is the infinitive of eoCou~u, the aorist of

otOO.<TKW. W<: = o-rt. ouw; EXEL: it is so (section 22, p.286). Socrates' demonstration of

recollection with Meno's slave boy begins soon after at 82a8.

347

Cases & Prepositions

Greek belongs to the Inda-European family of languages. Inda-European

originally had at least eight cases for nouns: nominative, vocative, accusative,

genitive, ablative (used for meanings like "from" and "out of"), dative,

instrumental, locative. 1

Greek has five cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative.

Prepositions indicate the meaning of a case more precisely.

The nominative case

This is used for the .s_ubject of finite 2 verbs:

AEYEl 8€. KUL mv8apo5. KUL UAAOl 1TOAAOl TWV 1TOl ljTWV

both Pindar says, and many others of the poets (Meno 8lbl)

It is also used for the ~ment, i.e. the extension Q.f the.subject after a

verb such as "to be", "to seem" or "to be said":

0ETrnAol Eu8oKlµ,ol ~crav

Thessalians were famous (Meno 70a5)

8oKElS µm Qjb.QlQTUTJ2S: Tij vapK'\]

you seem lO me most like the electric ray fish(Meno 80a4-6).

The vocative case

This is used in exclamations and when directly addressing someone:

E'.xev; f10l ElTfElV, ti) I:wK!29--ES., dpa 8l8Ul<TOV ~ a.peT~;

Can you Lell me, 0 Socrates. if virtue is something thal can be taught? ( Meno 70al)

The accusative case

This is used to define the effect of a verb. It is used for the Qhirct:

1TOAAas ljUp~1mp .. Ev !!f.lETUS ~LlUV ~ 'TJTOUVTES

we have found many_0r1U~.., seeking .Qll!;'. (Meno 74a7)

1A. Meillet, Apen;u d' une histoire de la langue grecque (Paris, ed. K!incksiek, 1965)

p.45.

2lnfinitives have the subject in the accusative.


The accusative of respect is used to denote something in respect of Which

the action of a verb is limited:

" I , I,\ ,;, ,l._ I

11 TOUT(Jl OUOE11. olU,pEpoucnv;

or in this, do they differ .\0th resoect to nothing (i.e. in no respect)? (Meno 72bS)

The accusative of manner serves the same function as adverbs:

Ka1 TlVU Tp61rov ~'T]T~UHS, Ji 1:wKpUTES, TO\JTO; (Meno 80d5)

And in what way. OSocrates, will you seek this?

The accusative is also used to express extent of ~ace:

and!ime_

1ca:rw0Ev oaov OU, ~ TPLU UT(l◊lU

as mych a.uwo or three stades downstream (Phaedrus 229cl) 3

,~\~/ \0,...,4 I ~I

OUK UV UUVUlVTO /\U ElV TplUKOJLTILIW<_~U<;;

tl1ey wouldn't be able to get away with it for thirty d~ (Meno 91d7)

The accusative is used for the_sub~t of an infinitive:

9

Ap' ol)v ot6v TE (E.UTlV) El) OlOlKELV ~ 1r6AlV ~ OLKlUV ~ uA/1.o OTlOUV, µ,~

aw~p6vwc; Kal OlKUlWS OlOlKouvw; (Meno 73a 7-9)

Is it possible to manage well a city or a house or anything else not managjag_

prudenlly and justly?

The accusative is used in indirect speech with an infinitive:

'AAAo. TOD<; ~Aumof!..EVou, o0ic ofovTm ci0A(ous ELvm (Meno 78al)

But don't they think those bein_g_harmed fO be wretched?

and with anarticiQ).e:

UV61jTOV 1rpuyµ,u opw ~,.lfilll,EVOV (Gorgias 519b2-3)

I see that a foolish action is taking [2lace.

3A stade is about a furlong. 1«hw0Ev(literally. from below): downstligam. In tlli'

dialogue Socrates and Phaedrus go for a walk along the banks of the llissus near

Athens.

4Aa0E~v is the infinitive of V,a0ov, the aorist of 11av0avw: I escape notice, am nol

detected. ~ ~µ.Epa, T~, ~µ.Epa,: the day.

The genitive case

This is used to express possession:

Cases 8r Prepositions 349

, ot TOU crou E'TUL_fJQU 'Apun(, 1T.JI.Q1!. 'ff0/1.LTUL

the fellow citizens.QfyJ)ULCOfllPy[llOIJ Aristippus (Meno 70bl).

The .Qartitive genitive expresses the whole of which something is part:

Jiv o cros EpacrT~S EO'TL v ' ApCcrTL 1T1TOS

of whom your companion Aristippus is (one) (Meno 70b4),

The subjective genitive stands to a verbal noun as the subject would stand

to a verb:

ELbEvaL T~v Tou .&pucrrnu <pLAl-av OTL ou 11ET' Euvo(,us yCyvETUL 5 (Phaedrus 24lc7)

to know the lover's friendship (i,e., the friendship felt 12x. the lover), that it does not

occur with good will.

Here, ~ Tou .&pacrTou. <pLACa ( the lover's friendship) implies o .&pom~s <pLAEt.

( the lover is a friend).

The obiective genitive stands to a noun connected with the root of a verb

as the object would to the verb:

~ rou UE~ OVTOS yvwaL<;

the knowledge o[(hat which always is (Republic 527b4)

where To UEl ov (accusative), the always-being thing, or that which always is

would be the object of a verb like yLyvwm<Ul in a sentence such as:

TO UEl 011 yvyvwa1<w: I know that which always is.

Greek, which has no ablative case, also expresses " from" and "out of" by

the genitive case, either with prepositions with these meanings (see p.72)

or without a preposition, e.g.

~~\ ~ .,.f...1 '? I\ ' I ~ ( / ,... e I

OUOEV oLC\,.,Epoucnv, 1l [J,E/\LTTUL EWLV, 11 ETEpa J:!1S. E1.sjlliS.

they differ in nothing, in so far as they are bees, the one frolJ]_l_b_e other

(Meno 72b8-9).

5 ~ Euvow, Tfjs euvo[o.,: good will.


The genitive case can also be used to express measurement or .Q.JJillUit,y:

1roAAou Mw: I am fM. from, ·

and value:

ou TioAAou a.~wC E1-ow (Meno 98a3)

they (true opinions which have not been tied down) are not J1'_0rtlL_a..Jm,

The dative case

This expresses the person for whom something is done:

" 1 .....

EXELS µ,<JL EL 1-ruv;

can you say for me? =can you tell me? (Meno 70al)

uAAN\OLS OLUIIEyrn0m (Meno 7Sd3)

to have a discussion with each other.

The dative case is used for people to whom things are given:

T[v' oi'iv, Ji flpo'napxe, U'U'f(!' o(ooµ,Ev 1iTI6KptaLV; (Philebus 57c5)

What answer, therefore, are we giving to him, Protarchus?

The "ethic" dative ( often µ,oL or Tol ( standing for croL)) is used to express

the interest of the speaker ( µ,oL: pray, tell me) or listener ( ToL: I 1ell you, you'JJ

be pleased 10 know).

El-K6s YE TOL, Ji IwKpaw, (Meno 89b8)

It is reasonable indeed, I tell you, Socrates.

There is a nossessive dative:

, I " ' I

epacrTUL (YOL ETL El(Jl V

there are sti11 lovers for you= you still have lovers (Meno 76b5)

The dative is occasionally used to express the ~ (the person by whom

something is done):

1TOAAUKLS ~[1!,V wµ,0Myr1mL ( Gorgias 522d2-3)

it has often been agreed by us. 6

The dative of agent is found most often with verbs in the perfecf or

pluperfect tense.

6 The agent is usually expressed by u116 with the genitive (see p.74). The dative of

agent with passive verbs often refers to the person for whom something has been

done (see Smyth, Greek Grammar para. 1488).

Cases & Prepositions 351

There is an instrumental dative, expressing the thing by which or with

· which an acpon is done:

Uv1rEp 1.o-xupa ')'UV~ ~, 'f<() m'i-.4\ <Et8EL Kat, TU autji l!J){Ul Lo--,.cupa foTm;

if indeed a woman is strong, will she be strong by the same farm 7 and by the

same strength? (Meno 72e4-S)

xr6.oµm: I use takes the dative case for the ~rson or thin~used in an

action:

oDToL ol MyoL EL<YLV ots ~ p'l)'l"OplK~ XP~Tnl.( Gorgias 45ld6)

These are the words which rhetoric uses.

The cause of an action can be expressed in the dative case:

dpE-rij 'Y' E<Yjl,EV o:ya0o(; (Meno 87el)

Are we good indeed by reason of excellence (virtue)?

The dative case is used to express the things or people that accomp;my_ an

action:

ouw.to<Y0111) Kat, 11w~pom',v11 OLOLK~crouo-Lv; (Meno 73b2)

Will they manage with justice and moderation?

The dative case is also used to indicate the time when something happens:

-r-u yup 1TOU il!Y'Tlef)(ltq. ◊EL fl,E a.1ro0v~aKHv.(Crito44a2) 8

For presumably on the next day I must die.

7with the same pattern of strength (Sharples).

8 ~ u<rrE:po.to., Tijs u<JT€po.to.s: the next day.


Some common uses of prepositions

with accusative with genitive with dative

01111 up, according to,

each (distributively)

Uv,rt

«i'IT6

instead of,

in return for

away from

because of

through

into

out of, from

,

EV

in, among

&ve1m

for the sake of

? I

E'lH.

I

KO,'fll

upon, against

down, according to

after

on

down from

in respect of

with

at, for (because of),

covering, over,

including, for how

much, in the hands of

to the side of, beside

from

about, concerning

in front of, before

I

01)1)

towards

from, in the

name of

near

with

e I

l.J'irEf)

beyond

above, on behalf of

e

I

u1ro under, behind

from under, by next below

353

A Summary of Voke, Mood, Tense

and Aspect in the Greek Verb

The voices of the Greek verb

verbs can be in the active, middle or passive voice.

verbs in the active voice express the action of a subject. This can be

transitive, i.e. the verb can have a direct object

e.g. Socrates is eating his dinner

or intransitive, i.e. with no object expressed

e.g. Socrates is sleeping.

Verbs in the middle voice show that the subject is affected in some way

by the state of affairs concerned.

Verbs in the P-assive voice express what is done to a subject, i.e. what a

subject suffers

e.g. E1l"Et<Y01Jv U'IT ' au-roil (Phaedo 92a3)

I was persuaded by i1 (sc. the argument)

The difference between an active and a middle verb is well illustrated

by the following:

active verb: 1<0Mtw: J punish

ouoE1,, 1<0Aatu Tou, doucouv--ras

nobody punishes wrongdoers

middle verb: KoAa(oµ,m (with accusative of person punished): I exact

punishment (in my own case)

rcoMtovTUl OL UAAOl uv8pw1rol OU<; UV OLWVT(ll UOlKElV (Protagoras 324 a-c)

The other men exael punishment in their own cases on those whom they may

think to be doing wrong. 1

The active voice is neutral as to whether the subject is affected by the

action or not. 2 Active, middle and passive ~ndings in Greek do not

always correspond with active, middle and passive meanings in English,

e.g. ~a[vw: I am stepping, I am going (active endings in present tense)

Epxoµ,m: Jam coming (middle endings in present tense).

1

Y. Duhoux, Le verbe grec ancien, p.114, para 105.

2A. Rijksbaron, The Syntax and Semantics of the Verb in Classical Greek, p.163.


Some verbs have passive aorists but future middles

e.g. from ~ouAOfLUL: E~ouA.~0'T]V - I wanted ~ouA~<YOfLUL - I shall want.

Some verbs have active meanings and middle meanings which are different

e.g. upxw: f rule upxofLUL: [ begin. 3

Verbs which are active in the present tense and middle in the future

include:

o.Kouw: I hear

o.Kouaoµ,m: I shaJJ hear

-yvyvwm<W: I get to know -yvwaoµ,m: I shall get to know

Elf-LL: I am

ECTOfLUL: I shall be

Aa.[L~civw: I rake

fLO.v0civw: I learn, understand

opa.(t1: I see

Note also: oloa: I know

Moods

Verbs are classified according to mood.

A~tfiofLUL: I shall take

µ,a.0~CYofLUL: I shall learn, understand.

ol[iO[LUl: I shall see

ElO"OfLUl: I shall know.

If a verb indicates a simple fact, the indicative mood is used.

Ka.TE.~J!V x0E, Elc; Tiupmu (Republic 327al)

I went down yesterday to the Piraeus. 4

The indicative is used to negate simple factual statements.

fLlU yup XEAlOWV fop OU 1TOlEl (Aristotle, Nicomachaean Ethics I, 1098al 7)

for one swallow does not make a spring. 5

The indicative is also used when a fact is questioned.

"Exus fl,Ol El1TElV, (i) LwKpUTEc;; (Meno70al)

Can you tell me, Socrates?

The indicative is used in a condition that can be realised in principle:

El OE §ouAEl yuvULKO<; o.pET~V, OU xo.AETIOV (fon) 0LE/l.8E'iv. 6 (MenoJleS-6)

But if you want woman's exceIJence (virlue) it is not difficuJr to explain.

3But when iipxoµ,uL is passive, it means I am being ruled e.g.

at TE iipxovTE, Kut ot a.pxoµ,EvoL (Republic 556c7): both the rulers and the ruled.

\u-rE~1Jv is the aorist of KCLTu~ulvw (for E~1Jv, see p.229). x0<i.,: yesterday. TIELpma is

the accusative of b TIELpmEus, Tau TIELpmws (3rd declension, like ~uo-LAEu<;), the

Piraeus, the port of Athens.

5~ XEALowv, ,-~, XEALoovo,: the swallow. -ro fop, Tau fopo,: lhe (season) spring.

6See p.58, footnote 17.

Voice, Mood, Tense & Aspect

355

An indicative verb can have a modal meaning (e.g. "would" or

"should") if it is qualified by av 7

in the imperfect tense:

KUl E'C YE 1rpocm~l1PWTU CfE O'ITOlU, EAE~ av; (Meno 74c3)

And if indeed he were asking you as well what kind, would you be telling_

(him)?

in the aorist tense in past time:

OUKOUV av ~rnrna£E TOU<; 1TUlOU<; EL OlOUKTOV ~v; ( Meno 94c8-dl)

Wouldn't he have taught the boys if it (vir1ue) was a teachable thing?

in the aorist tense without signification of time:

Tl av U1TEKplVW f10l, E.'C CfE ~p6µ,11v; (Meno 72b3)

What would YQJl.[fJW:'. co me, if I asked you? 8

The subiunctive, Qptative and imperative moods are more subjective,

while the indicative is more objective. It is not possible to give a

satisfactory English meaning which would cover all the uses of either

the subjunctive or the optative mood; perhaps the closest would be to

associate the subjunctive with the English "may", and the optative with

the English "might", but in many Greek sentences the English meaning is

different from these and depends on the form of words used.

The subjunctive is used in firstJ'lerson commands , usually plural9:

'i'.owµ,Ev 8~ KUl, TOUTO d al\Tt0E<; AEyw;.(Meno 78c3)

Let us see this too, of course, (to see) if you are speaking the truth.

Negative commands, i.e. prohibitions, are regularly expressed by µ,~ and

the aorist subjunctive:

EL1Tov, Kat. µ,~ q>0ov~a:us. (Meno 7ld5)

Speak, and .90 not grudge. 10

7Le. the present results of conditions that are not fulfilled are expressed by

indicative verbs in the imperfect tense with iiv, and the results of past conditions

that were not fulfilled by indicative verbs in the aorist tense with iiv.

s.Cva ( so that) is very occasionally found with a past indicative verb in an

unfulfilled condition to show that a hypothetical purpose is not fulfilled e.g. \'.va.

11110d, mhous ot€cp8EtpEv (Meno 89b5): (if the good were known to be so by nature we

would guard them) so that no one might corrupt them. See Sharples, Plato, Meno

p.166.

9For an example in the first person singular, see Republic 457c6: AEyE 011, 'tow, iicj,11

Speak then. Jet me see_. he said.



The deliberative subjunctive

Subjunctive verbs sometimes are used if one is puzzled, or making up

one's mind what to do:

wiha 1repl. emu iml. OLKaOe d.1-ra:y:yEAAwµ.e:v; (Meno 7lcl)

Are we to proclaim these things about you at home, too?

The subjunctive mood in conditions

The subjunctive mood expresses less remote possibilities than the

optative, and is used, with Uv (et + av) (sometimes abbreviated to &v)

to express future or general cgnditions :

(a) a future condition:

I e V ", ~' ' I ,.... ' I \ I 'I ' \ J.,;_

µ,axouµ,e a apa, 1JV u e-yw, KOLV1J e-yw 'TE KaL au, Eav 'TLS au-ro .IJ!.J.!.

lLµ,wvCo11v ELp'T]KEVaL. (Plato, Republic I, 33Se8-9)

Then we shall fight, said I, in common, both I and you, if anyone affirms

Simonides to have said it. 11 ~

(b) a general condition:

av [LE.V -yup KOO-f.l,LOL KaL EUKOAOL Jmv, Kal TO -y-ijpas µ,e-rpCws EO"TLV

t1r[1rovov.(Plato, Republic I, 329d4-6)

For ii indeed they are well behaved and contented, old age also is

moderately burdensome. 12

Some constructions using lhe optative mood

The optative mood broadly fulfills three functions: it expresses wishes

(hence its name) and possibilities, and it can also indicate that a

subordinate clause is in the historic sequence. u

The optative mood is used to express wishes:

d0E ypchjiuev (Phaedrus 227c9) (e\'.6e: Othat!)

Othat he might write! =l wish he would write!

uµnxoiiµm is the future of µnxoµnL: /fight. <j>w, <j>ijs. tj>ij is the subjunctive of~11µL

12 /iv = eo.v. KocrµLos, KocrµLn, KocrµLOv : orderly, well-behaved euKoAos, euKoAov: moderate,

good natured, contented -ro y\jpo.s, -rou y~po.os: old age µe-rpLws: moderately hL-irovos,

E'ITL1rovov: burdensome.

13See T.V. Evans, Verbal Sequence in the Greek Pentateuch (Oxford, 2001), p.176.

Use of the optative declined markedly after Plato's time but regained ground with

the revival of interest in Classical Greek style and rhetoric between c. 60 and 230

A.D. known as the Second Sophistic.


357

The optative mood is used to express .futm~_unlikely conditions:

d/1/\(J, .lli.,Q.!._f.LEVOlfl<~ av, ti) 1:wKpUTES, .ti. fLOl, -rroA/lu TOl,UUTU IIE'.'!QlS_.

(Meno 77al-2)

But.L1voulc;i__fil.JJ'., Socrates, if you were to say many 1hings to me like this.

The "if' clause is very often omitted, leaving an unlikely_~J!.Pposition

expressed by av with a verb in the optative mood:

~017 TOlVUV av j!0.00l,S El< TOUTWV ax-i\µ,a O AEyw. (Meno 76a4)

Well. you would understand already from these things wha1 I call "shape".

This construction is frequently used for a polite request

tf 9 ,\ \ / 0 ', ~~ ~ I "" ~\ I \ ,.., rt /~ ?J..I i9

EU ~.filS., 17v O Eyw· EO"Tl, OE Tl, KUl TOU EVEKU TT]Vl,KUOE a.,~U(OU;

(Protagoras 310b6)

"Would vou kindly.2lx'.," said I, "what it is, and for what purpose you have come

at such an hour?" (spoken to a visitor who has arrived at the crack of dawn) 14

The optative mood may, at the writer's choice , be used instead of an

indicative in i_ndircct_weech where the main verb is historic (Le. aorist,

imperfect or pluperfect). Note that the optative may be future:

~'ITlO"TO.fJ,TJV on OU 'TTEpL TWV µ,upaKlWV ~µ,iv o /\oyos §_()"Ol,TO LwKpUTOUS

-rra.povTo<;.(Laches 188b6-7)

I unclerswod that our tall, would not Q.(;. about the lads with Socrates present. 1 s

ConstrncUons using the subjunctive alter a primary ma.in verb

(present, future or perfect) but an optative after a historic

majn verb (aorist, imperfect or pluperfect)

In indefinite or "ever" clauses after a primary main verb, the subjunctive

is used with av:

(b r opyCa.s 1ra.pEXH) a.uTov lpwTiiv Toov 'EltA~vwv Tlfl ~ouAoµ,Evtp Q.I.L.11.!LI!S..

6ouAwm (Meno70cl-2)

(Gorgias offers) himself to those of lhe Greeks wan Ung w ask whatever anyone

may want

1 \ou iivErn: for the sake of what, i.e., for what purpose. T1JVLKai'lE: at such a time.

cl~[Kou is 2nd person singular of o.q>LKOf11JV, the aorist indicative of ci.q,u<vfoµm.

1\0 µupaKwv, Toii µupuK[ou: the lad. fornL (future indicative) would have been

quite acceptable instead of fooLTo (future optative). Indirect speech is the

construction in which a future optative is mainly found.


Note especially indefinite clauses of time, especially after E'!Tuociv or

omv meaning "at such time as" or "whenever":

cl.A.A' ETIHOUV fLOl <:ru TOlJT' Eh:gs. ,1 LwKpaTES, Epw (J"Ol. (Meno 76b2-3)

But at such time as you tell me this, Socrates, I shall teJJ you.

I I ' ' I rt \ I rt I ' ' ~ f

TOUTO yup EO"TlV /\E')'HV, OTUV /\EY1J TlS OTl TIUO"O. 'I] fl,ETU OlKUWO"UV'ljS 1Tp0.~LS

upET~ EO"TlV. (Meno 79c6-7)

For this is what it means 16 whenever someone says that every deed done with

justice is virtue ( excellence).

After a historic main verb, the optative is used without av:

(but their greatest fear was) µ~ yEvolTO EKO.O"TI\) To ~0Eyµa orE uvu6aCvoL

(Republic 616a6) 17

Jest the voice should happen for each whenever he might go un.

After primary main verbs the subjunctive is used with !'.vu or o'!Tws to

express purpose:

TIHPW ELTIElV, lVU KUL :YEV'.QTUl <YOl f!,EA.ET'l] 11po<, T~V 'lTEpt. T~S uper~s

u1r0Kplo-Lv. (Meno 75a8-9)

Try to say, so that it may also become practice for you towards the answer

about virtue (excellence).

Xvu OE 0J OOKWO-LV chopEiv, ru KUTCL 1ra.vTwv Twv ~lAoao~ouvrwv

1rpoxupu TUUTU /\E')'OU(JlV. (Apology 23d4-6)

But so that they may not appear to be at a loss, they say whatever they

have ready to hand against those who philosophise. 18

After a historic mJfo verb the optative is used to express purpose 19 :

ETIOpEuEro o' EKTOS re(xous l'.va µell.Er011 (Phaedrus 228b5-6)

and he was going outside the wall so that he might praclise 10

16Literally, "it is to say this".

17To ~0eyµ,u, Tou ~0ewuToc;: the sound (in this context, a sort of bellowing).

18 Literally, "these things, the things ready al hand against all those who

philosophise". 11p6xnpoc;, 1rp6xEtpov (feminine as masculine): ready at hand.

19But see footnote 8 above.

201TopEuoµ,ut: I go, proceed. EKTo,(with genitive): outside. To Taxo,, Tou TElxouc;; the

wall. µ,EAET~1J is 3rd person singular of µ,eAET~v the present optative active(see

p.2O2) of µ,eArniw; I practise. Plato and Xenophon prefer the optative for final

clauses in historic sequence, but the subjunctive is sometimes found (see p.365).

Voice, Mood, Tense &Aspect 359

Clauses following verbs meaning "fear"

After a verb meaning "fear", µ,~ and the subjunctive are used:

.iacµ,µ,w, " ' .... <yOvHTUL k A ~ ' ' ,I, ' '\ \ " ' ,

~ 'T] 't'UXTJ ... l<U/1/\WV ov TOU crwµ,aTOS

Tipou TIOAADI]TUL. ( Phaedo 9 lc8-dl)

Simmias is afraid that the soul, though it is a finer thing than the body,

may be destroyed before (it). 21

Similarly after a clause equivalent to a verb meaning "fear":

oi'. TE yap AEyoµ,EVOL µ,u0oL 1TEpL TWV EV "ALoou ... TOTE 0~ crTpE~OUCfLV

auTou T~v tJiux~v µ,:q cl.AI]0Et.S WcrLv.(Republicl,330d7-e2)."

And indeed the stories told about the things in (the house) of Hades ... twist

his soul, in case they may turn out to be true.

A clause following a verb meaning "fear" and beginning µ,~ is itself

equivalent to a negative purpose clause; if we fear that something may

happen, we take any steps we can to prevent it. For this reason, if the

verb meaning "fear"refers to the past, an optative verb is possible after

11~:

'JTO,VTE<; E~O~ouµ,E0a µ,~ TLVU TLµ,wpot.TO (Lelters, vii, 329c5)

we were all afraid that he might take vengeance on someone. 23

But if a fear is not that something wiJJ or would happen. but that it is

haopening or has haQQened. an indicative verb follows µ,~.

~o~ouµ,m µ,~ MyoLs Tl.Cfll! tj;EUOECTLV EVTETUX~KUV,EV. (Lysis 218d2-3)

I am afraid that we have found 24 some false arguments.

To be afraid to do something is expressed with an infinitive, as in

English:

<!>o~ouµ,m oDv ~ crE. ( Gorgias 457e3-4)

Therefore I am afraid to refute you.

2

\po~fo11e1t: I fear, am afraid. To crwiw, Toii crwµ.aTo<;: the body.

"/, µ.ii0o,, Toii µ.u0ou: the myth, tale Ev" ALoou: in (the house) of Hades. crTpE<j,w: I twist.

"twist his soul in case they may be true" is equivalent to "make him fear that they

may be true".

23TLµ.wpoii11aL (middle of TLjl,wpEw): I take vengeance on (with accusative).

"Literally, "met". EVTETUXTJKU is 1st person singular perfect of EvTuY)(civ,Il.


"I fear that..." referring to the future can also be expressed in Greek by

01TWS µ.~ and the future. indi.c..anve:

dt\' oTrW,--!b.'.Q oux olos T, fooµm 1ToAAu Towurn AEyuv.

(Meno 77a4-5)

But I am afraid that I shall noi be able to say many such things.

The imperative mood

The im:J;:lerative mood is used to express commands.

Commands can be given with either a present or an aorist imperative.

Present imperative:

M...,'V.§,_ (Plato, Theaetetus 147e4)

{;o on. tell (me). (NB, present imperative; looks for a continuing response).

Aorist imperative:

(J.KOUO"OV KUl Jµ.ou. (Republic 358bl)

Listen to me 100.

It is not always possible to say why a particular imperative is present or

aorist. Certainly, in later Greek, an aorist imperative was thought to

command a single action ( ypa.tjJOv! wrife (this)!) while a present imperative

was thought to command a continuing action ( ypa.~E! go on writing/) 25 • It

may often be the case that in Plato an aorist imperative may be used by

a person who, in a particular situation, feels inferior in some way to the

person addressed (e.g. is having to ask a favour), e.g.

d1r6KpLvu1, ouv 1mt. TU /\ovna. ( Gorgias 505d2)

so do answer the remaining questions also

where Callicles has refused to go on with the discussion and Socrates is

humbly asking him to relent, 26

ond a present imperative by a person who feels no such inferiority, e.g.

(1/\/\0V TL vu EpWTU

ask somebody else!

(Callicles, just previously). 27

25Apollonius Dyscolus, On Syntax 3.253a.

26See ]. Lallot, L 'imperatif de d1r0Kpivw0ai in Etudes sur ]'aspect chez Platon, p.58.

"Duhoux, Le verbe grec ancien, pp.245-6, shows that in verse (mainly epic and

drama) a god giving an order directly (i.e. in the 2nd person) to humans tends to

prefer the present imperative, while humans addressing gods tend to prefer an

aorist imperative.


Sometimes both present and aorist imperatives are found together:

fui!J.PEL (present imperative), ~v 8' &yw, Ji KAElVla, t((ll, {l,'TfOKplV(ll_

(aorist imperative) dvSpELwc;.(Euthydemus 275d7)"

Be bral:f., I said, Cleinias, and answIT bravely.

361

It has already been noted (p.355) that the regular way to express a

prohibition is µ,~ with an aorist subjunctive. However, prohibitions are

sometimes expressed withµ,~ and a present imperative:

'Q 0pauuµ,uxE, Jlll xaAETIOS ~µ,1,v 'i'.a0L ( Republic l 336e2)

0 Thrasymach us, HQP bei.ug_ hard on us.

Such prohibitions are intended to extend into the future rather than to

apply to one particular situation.

Prohibitions are also frequently expressed in Plato by o·rrw, µ,~ followed

by a verb in the future indicative. A verb such as "take care" is

understood, and the effect is like "take care how you shall not ...," Le.

"take care not to ...", i.e. "don't":

"O'ITWS fJ-,Ol, Ji uv0pw1rE, µ~ Ef!ElS OTl EaTlV TU SwSEKu Ole; ~~ 11118' OTL

Tpts TETTupa 11118' OTl E~{lKlS Mo µ,118' OTl 1"ETpct1Cl', TPLU' we; OUK

d1108E~oµ,u( aou EUV TOluurn q>Auap'iJs. (Republic J 337b2-4)'"

Fellow, don't say to me that twelve is twice six, nor that (it is) three times

four, nor that (His) six times 1wo nor that (it is) four times three; (be sure)

that I shan't accept (it) (from) you if you talk such rub!Jish.

The Greek tenses and their aspect

The tenses are classified according to their aspect, which refers to the

degree and mode of development of an action indicated by a verb.

Greek has the following tenses:

Present (Auw, Auop,m) I am loosing, getting loosed

Imperfect ( EAuov, EAuoµ,11v) I was loosing, getting loosed

Future

(Aua(l), Maoµ,m, Au0~aoµ,m) I shall loose, shall

get loosed, shall be loosed

Aorist (EAuaa, lAuaaµ 11v, &Au811v) usuaIJy I loosed, got

loosed, was loosed

Perfect (MAuKa, t1EAuµ,al) I have loosed, have got loosed

"'06.ppEL is 2nd person singular present imperative of 0uppisw, Jam of good courage .

The present imperative looks for a continuing state. o.1r6KpLvaL is 2nd person

singular imperative of o.1TEKpLv6.1111v, the aorist of o.1r0Kp(voµat. The aorist imperative

looks for a single action. uvopE(w,: bravely.

"See section 22, p.289.


Future perfect (infrequent, mostly passive; see p.365, below)

Pluperfect

(EAEADK'TJ, EAEAvµ,11v) I had loosed, had got loosed

All the tenses are found in the indicative.

The present, aorist and perfect tenses have subjunctive, optative and

imperative moods, and have infinitives and participles.

The perfect subjunctive and optative are found especially in verbs like

oloa ("I know") which are perfect in Greek but have meanings expressed

by the present tense in English.

The future is found in the indicative, and has active, middle and passive

infinitives and participles. (For the future optative, see pp.267 & 357.)

The imperfect and pluperfect are only found in the indicative.

Greek has no separate forms to correspond in the present tense to the

English I loose, I am loosing, and I do loose, nor in the imperfect tense,

to the English 1 was loosing or I used to loose. 30

Aspect

The present aspect covers the present and imperfect tenses, and verbs

with this aspect describe a continuous action or an action that is in

progress. 31

The aorist aspect covers the aorist tense, which indicates an action

pure and simple. In the indicative mood its most common use is for

past actions which are complete in themselves, but occasionally aorist

indicatives are used purely in a general sense and do not refer to a

particular action completed in the past , e.g. (of the soul, contemplating

the eternal verities)

TCL ovrn ovTw, 8Eaaaµ,EV'T] ... OlKUOE ~A8Ev. (Phaedrus 247e2-3)\%

and having gazed at the things that really are, it goes home. 32

The Gnomic Aorist is used for proverbial sayings (p.116).

30The Greek imperfect can sometimes also mean "I began to loose".

31The historic present is an exception (D.J. Mastronarde, Introduction to Altic

Greek, Univ. of California Press 1993, p.148).

320E6.op,uL: I gaze at.

Voice, Mood, Tense & Aspect 363

Occasionally an aorist can refer to the future. Most commonly this

happens in Plato (and the Socratic works of Xenophon) after TL ou

I ~ \ \ , \ ' \ ",.J / ' (G .

e.g. Tl ouxu l<Ul Ef.l,Ol UUTOV E~>paow; TlS EO'Tlv; org1as 503b2)

Why don't you tell me also who it is? (~pal;,<u: I tell)

T(, otl KUI, flpoolKOV 1ml, 'J 1T1TLUV EJ<UAE.(YU[J,EV LVU E.1TUKOUO-WO-lV ~µ,wv;

(Protagoras 317 dl)

Why don't we call both Prodicus and Hippias so that they may overhear us?

The aorist imperative, subjunctive and optative do not in themselves

signify time.

The aorist infinitive expresses the idea of the verb pure and simple,

usually without signifying time, e.g.

Efxw; µ,E ◊Loa.~m; (Meno 8le6)

Are you able to teach me?

However, if an aorist infinitive is used with a verb which expresses an

intellectual operation (e.g. believe, think, say), it can have a past sense,

like the aorist indicative:

OOKEl yup µ,ol •.. 1TUVU dyao-8:qval mhou T~V <pUO-lV. ( Theaeterus

142c5-8)"

For he seems to me to have admired his nature altogether.

Since the present aspect expresses continuity, the present ~

can express simultaneity:

1roAAas a~ 1]Up~Kaf1EV o.prn:\s µ,Cav fa:iTOUVTES (Meno 74a 6-7)

Again we have found many excellences (virtues) (while) seeking one

The aorist participle can express an action pure and simple, and is not

always best translated by "having ... ". Sometimes it is coincident with

the action of the main verb:

( ~ ' ' \ ~ ) ' 't ' ' ' .I. ,J.. '

vuv ouv a 1TOI\Oyouµ.m 1-1-11 E1:,aµ.apT1]TE ... Ef10U KU TUw'.!J,ylo-U[LE VOl.

( Apology 30d8-el)

(So now I am making my defence) lest you should err (by) condemning

me.34

33 uyrro-0ijvm is the infinitive of ~y6.o-811v, the aorist of liyuµ,rrd am struck with

admiration, I admire.

"Smyth, Greek Grammar, para.1872. E/;uµ,upntTE is 2nd person plural of E/;uµ,upTw,

the subjunctive of E/;~µ,upTov, the aorist of e/;uµ,upTo.vw: I err. KaTmjrq~wuµ,Evo, is the

participle of KUTlJili1Jf~o-uµ,11v, the aorist of KrrTuiji11f(toµ,m(with genitive): I condemn.


However, an aorist participle can indicate an action previous to

another, e.g.

eno

70b3-4)

for having arrived in the city, he has taken many lovers on account of his

wisdom

'J. ' ' , ' ,, , ' , ' ,v ,,, ,J. (M

llifJLl<OV,EVO, yup El', TT]V 1TO/U,V EpU<YTU<; E1Tl O"O't'l{/, Ell\'T]'t'EV

The .i.!J1.uerfect tense, which has the present aspect, expresses an action

which was in progress in the past, or which was just beginning, or

which customarily happened.

The~l.ect tense, although it does not have the present aspect, expresses

a present state which arises because of an action completed in the past;

e.g. "I have gone to Athens" implies that that is where I am. For this

reason, some Greek verbs which are found in the perfect tense correspond

to English verbs in the present tense, e.g. folKu, I am like, and Etw0o, I

am accustomed.

The pjyperf~l is used to describe the result of an earlier action still

holding at a time in the past.

The aspect system does not apply to the future tense.

The future infinitive has a future meaning:

~ 9 'A ,, ' "t ' ' " 0 , , 't ,

T<\) ouv 'IT0/\1\WVl 'T]U<,UVTO ••• EKUO"TOU ETOUS Ewpwv U'!TU<:,ElV ElS

Ll~Aov. (Phaedo SSbl-3) 35

They vowed to Apollo to (be about to) conduc1 a procession to Delos every

year (i.e, that they would conduct a procession ... ).

"Euxoµ.cu: I vow. ~ 0Ewpi'.a, TTJ, 0Euip(os: the procession. ci1To.~ELV is the infinitive of

ci1T6.~w, the future of ch6.yw, I lead away. To eTo<;, Toti hou,: the year.

Voice, Mood, Tense &Aspect 365

The fyture,._P-erfect tense (passive) is found occasionally in Plato, e.g.

8E8~o·ErnL (he will have been bound) at Republic 36le5, translated by

Adam in his edition as "he will be kept in chains". (Mw: J bind)

The future perfect describes a continuing state resulting from a future

action. 36

The future perfect passive of Auw ( I shall have been loosed) is:

AEAuo·otwL, AE/UJ<Y1J, AEAU<YETUL, AE/\.uaoµ,E0u, AEAUO"E<Y0E, /,EAuo-ovTUL.

Sequence of tenses and moods

Plato, Xenophon and the poets prefer the optative in a purpose clause

when the verb in the main clause is historic, i.e. imperfect, aorist with

past meaning or pluperfect, but the use of the subjunctive is more

frequent in the historians Herodotus and Thucydides because it is more

vivid, and in later writers this use of the optative tended to cease

altogether and past purposes are expressed with a subjunctive, e.g.

EKEAEuaEv mhou, 1rpoauvu~fivm ... Iva yEywv'ij µ,o.l\/1.ov (?Aristotle,

Constitution of Athens 15,4)

he told them to come up closer ... so that he might make his voice sound

more. 37

"The commonest example is Etp·~crETa.L, 3rd person singular future perfect passive

from Aiyw (El'.pwa.L is the perfect passive), found S times e.g. at Laws 918el yEAoiov

µEv EL1rav, oµws oE Etp{1o'ETm: (it is) ridiculous to say, but nevertheless it shall be

said ... where the future perfect is used because the speaker has in mind the effect

of the words said rather than the actual act of saying. ( ')'E/\oios, -a., -ov: ridiculous)

371rpocra.va.~~va.L is the infinitive of 1rpocruvi~11v, the aorist of 1rpocra.va.~a.Lv(J): I step up

closer. For E~'TJV see section 18, p.229. yEywv~ is 3rd person singular present

subjunctive of ')'EywvEw: I project my voice, make it sound clearer. (The Constitution

of Athens is attributed to Aristotle and was probably written c. 330 B.C.)

366

Word Order

"But Plato did not cease combing and curling his dialogues and braiding their hair in

every way even when he was eighty years old. For of course the stories that are told

about his laborious ways are well known to students of language, especially about the

tablet that they say was found after his death containing the beginning of the Republic

subtly transposed as follows: KQTE~'l]V x8is ELS TTnpaLU µnu f'AauKwvos TOU 'AptO"TWVos (/

went down yesterday to the Piraeus with Glauco the son of Arista)." Dionysius of

Halicarnassus, On the Arrangement of Words 208. 1

In Greek, word order is more flexible than in English because the meaning

does not depend so completely on the order of the words in a phrase.

The weight of a Greek sentence is usually at its opening, 2 and the first

word often carries the main item of information. The noble citizen is

usually b KaAos -rroACn1s (see p. 15), but if the order is changed, KaMs 0

TioAL TTJS means noble the citizen!, i.e. the citizen .i.s. noble.

In prose, Greek often forms groups of three words or ideas. The order

article - qualifier - noun applies for qualifiers which are adjectives (as

above) or genitives oL Tou aou huCpou 'ApwTLTITiou -rroA'i:TuL the fellow

citizens of your companion Aristippus, and for qualifiers which consist of

a preposition and a noun, e.g. To E11l, 1ro.aLv TouToLs TauT6v the thing the

same in the case of all these. It can also apply for the object of a

participle preceded by the definite article, e.g. oL Ta o.AIJ0:fl MyovTes those

speaking the true things. For this reason, adverbs tend to precede the

verbs or participle they modify, e.g. TL o.v o.11EKpCvw ouTrn, EpwTTJ0ECs; What

would you have replied having been asked in this way?

An example of reversing the word order occurs near the beginning of the

dialogue Protagoras: Hippocrates, at 310b7, wakes Socrates with the news

1Quoted by ].Adam in The Republic of Plato, vol. 1, p.l. (2nd. ed., Cambridge 1963)

2].D. Denniston, Greek Prose Style (Oxford, 1952), p.44.

Word Order 367

TTpwTay6pus ~KEL Protagoras is here. 3 Hippocrates afterwards explains that

his brother had said to him the previous night ~KEL Tipunuy6pus He's here!

ProtagoraS! and he (Hippocrates) had at once been minded to go and tell

Socrates, but on reflection it had seemed too late.

A word (e.g. the object of a verb) may be moved backwards for the sake

of clarity, e.g. when Meno says (72d2) LioKw ye µ,oL µ,uv0uvELv· ou µ,evToL ws

~ouAoµ,o.C ye TrW KUTexw TO EpwTwµ,Evov I seem to myself to understand;

nevertheless, I do not yet indeed grasp 111f.._g_uestion as I want where ws

~ouAoµ,u(, and oi11w precede 1<0.Texw because they qualify it. The end of a

paragraph can also be stressed. Denniston notes that often an emphatic

word placed at the end of an important section of a work strikes the

keynote of the whole thought.

What is the natural order of the words in a clause or sentence in Greek?

In Greek prose of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., the subject tends to

precede the verb. The object also often precedes the verb, but there is

more fluctuation, and Dover, Greek Word Order (Cambridge, 1970) p.25,

notes that although a consistent preference for Subject-Verb is apparent,

especially when the verb is infinitive, there are conspicuous differences

between the authors he studied (the historian Herodotus, the orator Lysias

and Plato).

As an example of Plato's style, I have taken the first speech of Socrates in

the Meno. Ignoring the verb "to be", ~xw with an adverb because it is

equivalent to ELf-Ll, and oor<n ("it seems"), I have marked verbs as V, or if

the subject is not expressed separately but is implied by the ending, S+V,

subjects as S and objects as 0.

s

9Q MEvwv, 1Tp0 TOU f-LEV 0ETTU/\OL euo6KLfLOl ~aav EV TOL', "EAA'Tj<YlV KO.L

V

E '0 uuµ,m,OVTO

,y

E,,> ',I ' ' L'IT'ITlK1J ~ TE KO.L ' 'IT/\OUT4>, \ ' vuv ~ OE, ~' we; ' Ef!,OL ' ' OOKH, ~ ~

l(Ul

' E'ITl , '

3 ~Kw: I have arrived, am here. The example is from T.G. Goodell, The Order of Words

in Greek, Transactions of the American Philological Association vol.XX!, pp.5-47.


extension of subject

ao¥q., KUl oux ~Kwrn ot TOD o-ou ETULQOU

AupwqLOL. TOUTOU OE uµ,'iv ui'.n6s EO"TL r opyf.u,.

'AgLaTL1rnou_ -rro/\LTUL

V extension of O S+ V

, ,I-. ' \ , \ I\ , \ , \ ,k' "\ J. , A\ ~ -

U't'LKO[LEVOS. yap ELS Tl]V 1TO/\LV §,Q._UO'TQ,S. E'ffL O"O't'LC/- £Jfil1QJ.§J!. I\EUUUWV

0

TOUS 1TpWTOUS, <liv O ao<;; Epacn~s EUTLV 'ApLo-Tl1T1TOS, KU!, TWV aA/1.wv EknuA<ilv.

0 0 S+V

KUL 0~ KUI, TOUTO TO irnos uµ,as Et0llCEV, uq>o~w<; TE KU!, [J,EYU/\01Tprnws

V S O V V, ptcpl, ext. ofO S

\ ,

K UL illITQS.

V 0 V 0 s V

~ i!.\rf.<ll!. Ef)WTUV TWV 'EAA~vwv T0 ~OU/\O[J,EV4) OTL av 1.!S. /iilll~TU.l., 1(0,t,

V (participle, extension of S)

OUOEVL OT<Jl OUK U1TOKpLVO[LEVOS,

TI..C;_pLE<YT'.QKEV'

Ev0u8E 8E, J, q>LAE MEvwv, TO EVUV..JLOV

V s V V

wa1rEp uux11,05 TLS TTJS crnqiCus '/E'Yove, icul. KLv8uJLciu EK TWVOE

V S O S1V V

EL youv TLVO. E6Ei\ELS OUTWS §.P-Ea0m

S* V V S+V

TWV T01TWV -rrap' uµ,o.s oi'.xw0m ~ aowi.a.

TWV Ev6u1k, ou8El£2(T'.[LS OU yE/\aO"EffiL 1(0,1, ~-· "J,, ~EVE, ICLV◊UVEUW O'OL ◊OKElV

0 V (inside clause begi11ning ,h,)

[J,UKCLpLOS TLS ELvm, J!flET~V youv E'i'. TE ◊L◊UKTOV

S

E'i'.6' OT<Jl TPOTI<Jl '.ITClflU'YL'YVETUL

V ** S V O V *** 0

EL◊EVUL,,. E.:y.!!!. OE TOO"OUTOV ◊EW ELTE ◊L◊UICTOV El TE-4J,....Ij. ELQEVJJ.b ws Ol)◊E UUTO, Q

extension of O S+ V V ( participle, governs 0)

TL JTOT' EO'Tl TO -rrapa.Tiav o.pET1j, TU'/XUVW ElOwc;_.

* oi',oEl., ocrTL<; au is taken as = a single word, "everybody" (p.86, footnote 54 ax1d p.96,

footnote 31; also p.286).

te,

** E°LTE o,ouKTov Ei'.8' OTCfl Tp611Cfl 11upuy(yvETUL (" whether it can be taught or in what way

it is acquired") is an extension of cipET~v, the object of Et0Evm.

***The clause E°LTE o,ouKTov E°LTE µ.~ ("whether it can be taught or not") is the object of

Et0<i.vuL ("to know") and 3 TL 110T' foTl. To 1mp6.11uv apE.T~

("what it, excellence (virtue),

actually is at all") is an extension of uuTo, the object of Et0w, ("knowing").

Word Order 369

In this limited sample, taking S+V as V, it seems that Plato generally

prefers the order OV (object before the verb) and SV (subject before the·

verb). Only three .objects are after the verb: -.-ou, 1Tpunous ( the first, i.e. the

mostimportant) which is obviously emphatic, and au-rov (himself), the object

of 1mpExwv in au-ro, TiapExwv auTov, at lines 10 and 11; perhaps this too is

emphatic, and stresses that it was himsel[ that Gorgias offered for

questioning.

the object of J.pw-rav "(offering himself to anyone of the Greeks) to ask

whatever anyone may wish." Here the postponement may well be for

clarity.

The third is the whole clause on av TV, ~ou1111TaL, which is

The order subject-verb is kept more consistently, but see auxµ.,6s w, TTJ,

,..I I I \ ~ I ' ,... ~ ,.., I ' ~ ,... ,t

(TO,flU', YEYOVE, KUl KlVOUVEUEl EK TWVOE TWV T01TWV 'ITUp uµ.,us OLXE<J

e '

UL 11

aoqiCa, where auxµ.,6, TL,, the subject of yEyovE, precedes it, but ~ aoqi[a

follows icLvouvEuu, of which it is the subject. There may be two reasons for

this: first, auxµ.,6, TL<; YEYOVE, KlVOUVEUEl ... ~ aoqi(u forms chiasmus, 4 a

pattern ( e.g. too proud to dig, to beg I am ashamed ) which was popular in

Greek; second, i1 draws attention to ~ aoqJLa at the outset of the dialogue,

and reminds us that this dialogue is in the last analysis about wisdom, the

ability to know things, of which knowing what excellence is, is only an

example.

A reference list of figures of speech is found at Smyth, Greek Grammar paras.

3008-3048. Among those particularly affecting word order are anacolouthon ("not

following"), when the construction at the beginning of a sentence seems not to he

followed consistently, anaphora (repetition of a word at the beginning of several

successive clauses), aposiopesis ("falling silent", breaking off before the end of a

clause or sentence), asyndeton (lack of conjunctions), hyperbaton ("transposition"

or "passing over") whereby words are separated which would naturally belong

together, hysteron proteron ("later earlier"). whereby the temporal order of events

is reversed.

4 Chiasmus is a figure of speech where contrasting pairs of words or ideas are put in

reverse order. The name comes from the Greek letter X and means "crossing over".

370

Duals

'E' ,~,, ",~...i.., ,... ~\ 't:::''

VOS yap U'l] TO 'YE T~ 't''IJO"ELS O"'f]l1ELOV ELVUL, TO UE

-rro/\.A.wv. (Sophist, 237d 9-10)

You will say that n is a sign of one (i.e. singular), and nve of two, and rwe, of

plural.

Duals are quite rare in Homer, the earliest Greek literature that we have

which is written in Epic, an antique bardic dialect. Their use revived ' in

Attic in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., and they are found in the tragedies

of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides and the comedies of Aristophanes·

and more rarely in Thucydides the historian and in Xenophon and, in the '

middle of the fourth century, orators such as Isocrates and Demosthenes.

They occur occasionally in Aristotle. Dual forms are found in Attic

inscriptions but their use declines and is markedly more restricted after

409 B.C. 1 The use of the dual ceased in Hellenistic times, and they are

not found in koine ("Common Greek") as used in the New Testament. 2

Dual forms in verbs have been noted in smaller type because they are

rarer than singular or plural forms.

Duals in nouns and adjectives

The Greek declensions have forms for "two"; in each declension, there is

one ending for nominative, vocative and accusative dual, and another for

genitive and dative dual.

1A. Cuny, Le duel, Paris, 1906, p.79. See also L. Threatte, The Grammar of AtUc

Inscriptions, vol.ii, Berlin, 1996, pp. 19-21, 91-95 and 454 where examples, with an

indication of their dates, are given. I am grateful to Dr. J. Shear for this ref~f~nce.

1Even the dual of "two" has disappeared, and the dative of ouo has become 3rd

declension: ou8Els ouvaTm oucrt Kupto~, oouAEunv nobody can be slave to two lords

(Matthew 6:24).

Duals

371

In the first declension, these endings are -u, -utv

two houses (nominative, vocative and accusative):

of or by two houses (genitive and dative): OlKLULV

' , OLKLU

two virtues (nominative, vocative and accusative): aprni

of or by two virtues apETaiv

two citizens (nominative, vocative and accusative): 'JToA[rn

of or to or for two citizens: 'IToALTmv

In the second declension, these endings are -w, -otv

two men (nominative, vocative and accusative: uv8po'mw

Of Or tO Or for twO men: avfipW'ITOLV

two tasks (nominative, vocative and accusative): 1[pyw

of or by two tasks (genitive and dative): 1[pyoLv

In the third declension, these endings are -E, -otv: two women

(nominative, vocative and accusative): yuvuiKE

of or to or for two women (genitive and dative): yuvmKoiv

two lies (nominative, vocative and accusative): tpEfoµ.aTE

of or by two lies (genitive and dative): tpEuaµ.aToLv

The dual of the personal pronouns ( 1st and 2nd persons) is:

(nom. & acc.) vw we two, us two acpw you two

(gen. & dat.) v0v of, to/for us two

acl,0v of, to/for you two

The dual of "the", the definite article, is

Too (nominative, vocative and accusative)

rniv (genitive and dative)

for all genders.


In using the dual, which he generally does sparingly, Plato may to a

certain extent have been reviving the idiom of an earlier time.

Duals are fairly rare except in the dialogue Euthydemuswhere they

may be used to highlight the pedantic nature of the two elderly

sophists, Euthydemus and Dionysodoms. The dialogue (271a4)

begins when Crito asks Socrates whom he had been talking to the

previous day: E[WL ESo~Ev Elvm ~Evoc; w; ~ OLEAEyou. TL, ~v;

I thought it was some stranger with whom you were in conversation. Who

was it?

Socrates replies: I1oTE.pov KUL EPWT~s; OU yup El, a.A.Au Ou' ~<YTI!Jl.

Which one are you actually asking a/Jout? For there were not one but two.

Socrates goes on, from 27 lc2 : 0DTm To µ,Ev yEvoc;, we; ly0µ,m,

, Ae' 0' , , X' , , ~ , e , ,+. , ~,

EVTEU EV 1TO EV HCYLV EK uou, U1T(JJKT]<YUV OE ES ~ oupLOuc;, 'l'EuyovTE.<; OE

, A

0 ,,, , ,,~ ,, , , ~ , , ~ 'A " ~, ,

EKEL EV 1TO/\/\ 'T]O'T] E.T'T] 1TE.pL TOU<YOE. TOU', T01TOU', OLO.TPLt-'OU<YLV. 0 OE. cru

, A , ,I..' , A

0 , , ,, , , .1- , A ,

EPWT(?S T'J]V <YO,vLO.V UUTOLV,

YE, ouo' ~O'Tj 1rp6 TOD OTL E.lE.v ot 1TUYKPUTLUCYTUL.

UU[LUCYLU, W r,pLTWV' 1TU<Y<YO't'OL UTEXVW<; TW

.'.[.OUT!tl yup illIQ]L

1Wfi,L01] 1mµ,µ,uxw, OU KUT(), T(JJ 'AKUpviivE EYEVECY01].l!. :rw 1TU')'Kf)UTLU<YTa _

_:~_).,+.,!, , / \ \ A I I el I 0 / ',\

~- EKELV!tl fl,EV yup T(JJ crwµ,uTL µ,ovov OLW TE fi,O.XE<Y UL, '.[_OUTW OE

1rpwTov fLE.v T0 awµ,a.n ouvoTaTw foTov - Ev 01r/\ocs yap a.uTw TE aoq2Q1_

1TUVU µ,axrn0m KO.L u/1.Aov, oc; UV OLOlj) µ,w0ov, Ol!tl TE 1TOL'l]<YUL -

E1TEL TO.

T~V EV TOI,', OLKU<YT'ljpLOL<; µ,ux11v K!).UTL<IT.!!!. KO.L o.ywv[crucr0m KO.l al\A.ov

OLOU~UL AEyuv TE KO.L auyypa~rn0m Myous o'i.ouc; EL<; TO. ◊LKO.<YT~pLU.

1rpo TOD [J,EV ODV TUU'ro. OE.LVW ~0-TQV µ,ovov, VDV OE TEI\OS E.TILTE0~KUTOV

TIUYKPUTLO.<YTLK1} TEXV1J, ~ yap ~v AoLTI~ 0.llTOl.1/_ µ,ux11 upyo,, TUUT'T]V VDV

~acr0ov, W<YTE µ,118' UV EVO. O.UTOL', olov T' Elvo.L µ,178' O.VTupav

OUT!tl OELVW :ye:y6vaTOV l.v TOL<; Aoyov, µ,axrn0uC TE KUL E~EAEYXELV TO

' ' '\ I ( I ' I .I. ---~ ' I '\

UE.L /\E.yoµ,Evov, O[LOLW', E.ClVTE. 't'E.UOO<; E.UVTE. 0' .,

0./l'Tj E.<; 11·

~ \ \ ' 9

EYW fi,E.V ouv, w

Kphwv, EV v0 ~xw TOLV 0.VQ()Ol.V 1rapaOouvUL Efi,ClUTOv· KCll yup cjmTOV

EV 0A(y4J XPOV(JJ TIOL'Tj<YUL UV KUL uAAov OVTLVODV TO. ClUTa TClDTCl ◊E.LV61'~ 0

These men, as regards family, as I think, are from somewhere yonder from

Chios, but settled in Thurii, and being exiles from there, have by now spent

many years around these parts. And as for what you ask about the learning

3From Platonis Opera edited by John Burnet, Oxford Classical Texts (1905) by permission

of Oxford University Press.

Duals

373

of the two of them, Crito, it is remarkable. Indeed they are both

wonderfully clever in every way, but I didn't know before now that they

were all-round fighters (literally, all-in wrestlers). For these two, the pair

of them, are entirely .ready for all kinds of fighting. They didn't become a

• pair of all-in wrestlers in the style of the two Acarnanian brothers; for

indeed, those two are only able to fight with the body, but these rwo are in

the first place a most formidable pair physically - for being, the 1wo of them,

altogether a clever pair at fighting with weapons, lhe pair of them can

make anyone else ( clever at that too) who may give them pay - and

furthermore a most mighty pair both at waging warfare in the courts and at

teaching anyone else both to speak and to have speeches composed suitable

for the courts. At any rate, some time ago they were only a formidable pair

at that, but now the two of them have placed a supreme glory on their all-in

wrestling. For what had been for the two of them a kind of battle not

attempted, this now the pair of them have mastered, so that no one is able to

withstand them; the pair o[ them have become so formidable at fighting in

argument and refuting whatever is being said at any time, just the same

whether it is false or true. I, at any rate, Crito, am considering entrusting

myself to the pair of them; for indeed, they both say that they would in a

short time make somebody else clever in respect of these same things.

Notice that plurals and duals can be used together e.g.

arExvws rw yE (line 4). -116.0-oo~oL is plural, but Tw is dual.

11ciocrn<!>oL

374

Numerals

Of the cardinal numbers up to ten, only one, two, three and four are

declinable. The system of cardinal numbers above 10 is simple: 11 anct

12 are formed by prefixing iv, ouo to SEKa.. 13-19 are formed by suffixing

Tpe'ts, TETTa.pE<,, 'lTEVTE etc. to SEKa.. el,, Mo, Tpe't, and TETrnpes are declined

as follows:

•

<ELS


I

nominative Els

µ,w.

EV "

I

accusative Eva

µ,wv

Ev

genitive ivos µ,uis Evos

dative Evt. µ,uj E.vt.

Mo: all genders

nominative & accusative

genitive &dative

Mo l

Suo'tv

,pe'i.s: masculine & feminine neuter

I

nominative TfJELS

TfJU!.

I

accusative -rpe'i.s

-rpw.

genitive TfJLWV TPLWV

dative Tpw{(v} Tpw{(v)

TET'l"O.fl<ES: masculine & feminine neuter

I

I

nominative TETTO.PES

TETTo.pu

I

I

accusative T<ETTO.pO.S

TETTapa.

I

I

genitive TETTo.pwv

TETTapwv

dative TenapaL ( v) "f€TTo.paL(v)

20 is dKocn(v). 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 all end -m<ovTa. or -rii<ovw

and are indeclinable.

1 ouw is found once in Plato, quoted from Homer (seep. 287).

Numerals 375

100 is EKa.rov. 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 all end -1<00-wL,

-a.L, -a., and decline like the plural of Ka.Ms.

1000 is xU,LoL, -m, -a., also declined like the plural of ica.Ms. 2000 is 2 x

1000, 3000 is 3 x 1000 and so on up to 10,000, which is µUpLOl~ -aL, ~uo

All ordinals are declined like Ka.Ms.

Cardinals

els, 11(,0., Ev

ovo

rpas, -rp[a.

rh-ra.pES

I

'ITEVTE

t I

E1TTO.

> I

OKTW

> I

EVVEO.

OE.KO.

EVOEKO.

OWOEKO.

OEKO.TpELS

rhwpEs Kul OE.Ko.

1TEVTEKUL0EKU

EKKUl.SEKU

€1J"TUKUloEKU

6KTWKO.(SEK!l

EVVEO.KUl.OEKO.

E'LKocn(v)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Ordinals

-rrpahos -TJ -ov first

OEUTEpos -u -ov second

TPL TOS ·'T] -ov third

TETo.p-ros -11 -ov fourth

1TE[11J"TOS -'T] -ov fifth

EKTOS ·'T] -011 sixth

E~ooµ,os -'T] -ov seventh

o-yooos -11 -011 eighth

ha.TOS ""11 ··OV ninth

OEKO.TOS -11 -011 tenth

EVOEKaros •'TJ -011 eleventh

ow◊EKUTOS -11 -ov twelfth

TPLTOS KO.L OE.KO.TO', 13th

TE.To.pros 1<ul ◊EKO.TOS 14th

1l'E[11TTOS 1ml OE.Ka.-ros 15th

EKTOS KO.L ◊EKO.TOS 16th

E~ooµ,os 1(0.L OEKO. TOS 17th

o-yooos KO.LOE.KO.TO', 18th

EVO.TOS KUL OEKO.TOS 19th

tL1<ocrT6s

20th


" ? ? ' ,,

ELKOO"L ELS or HS ((0.L HKOO"L 21

TPULKOVTO.

TETTO.pO.KOVTU

11'EVT~KOVTU

E~~KOVTU

k~3oµ, 'TJKOVTU

o'Y3o~KOVTU

EVEV'TJKOVTU

t I

EKUTOV

30

40

so

60

70

80

90

100

'ITpWTos ,ca.L ELKo<Y-rOs

TpLO.KOO"TOS

TETTUpUKO<YTOS

1TEVT'YJKOO"TOS

•t

I

E\,'l'jl<O<YTOS

k~3oµ, 'YJKO<YTOS

o'Y3o111C oa-ros

EVEV'YJKOO"TOS

t

I

EKO.TOO"TOS

21st

30th

40th

50th

60th

70th

80th

90th

100th

3LUKOO'LOL -UL -u

TPLUKOO'LOL -uL -u

TETpu1<00-LOL -UL -u

I

11'EVTUKOCTLOL -UL ·U

E~UKO<YLOL -UL -u

1 I

€1TTUKOO'LOL ·UL -U

'

I

OKTUKOO"LOL -UL -U

> I

EVUKOO"LOL -UL -o.

xC\LoL -UL -u 2

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

3LUKOO"LO<YTOS

-rpLUKO<YLOO"TOS

TETpUKOO'LOO"'fOS

I

1TEVTO.l<OO"LOO"TOS

E~UKOCTLOO"TOS

< I

E'TTTUKOO"lOO"TO<;

, I

OICTUKOO"LOCTTOS

'

I

EVO.ICOO"LOO'TOS

XLALOO"TOS

200th

300th

400th

500th

600th

700th

800th

900th

1000th

3L<JXLALoL -UL -u

TPL<JXLALOL -UL -u

TETpuKL<JXLALoL -UL -u

1TEVTUKl<JXLALOL -UL -u

E~UKLCJXLALOL -UL -u

E1TTO.KL<JXLALOL -UL -u

OKTO.KL<JXLALoL -uL -u

EVUKl<JXLALOL -uL -u

fJ,UpLOl -UL -o,

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

3LO")(LALOO"TOS

Tpl<JXLALOO"TOS

TETpO.ICLCJXLALOO"TOS

1T€VTUKL<JXLALOO"TO<;

E~UKL<JXLALOO"TOS

E1TTUKl<JXLII.LOO"TOS

OKTUKlCJXLII.LOO"TOS

EVUKLO)(LhlOO"TO<;

µ,upwa-r6s

2000th

3000th

4000th.

5000th.

6000th.

7000th.

8000th.

9000th. ti!\·

10000th.

2~ XLALa.s, TTJS XLAui8os means "a thousand" (as a noun); XLAuiSEs are "thousands",

Similarly, ~ 1wpuis, TTJS µ,upL6.8o,: myriad, group of 10,000.

Numerals 377

Numeral adverbs except once, twice and three tirnes end -rncL,

( ="times").

CJ1TU~

OLS

'TpLS

'TETPO.Kl<;

I

'ITEVTUKLS

E~O.l(l',

 I

OKTUKLS

j /

EVUKLS

OEKO.KlS

once

twice

three times

four times

five times

six times

seven times

eight times

nine times

ten times

E.VOEKUl(l<;

OWOEKUKLS

TpEL<YtCUl◊EKO.KlS

TETTUpE<YKUl◊EKO.Kl<;

1TEVTEKULOEKO.KLS

EKKULOEKO.KLS

E.1TTUKULOEKO.KLS

6KTWKULOEKO.KL<;

EVVEOJmLOEKUKLS

eleven times

twelve times

thirteen times

fourteen times

fifteen times

sixteen times

seventeen times

eighteen times

nineteen times

j /

ElKOO'UKlS

twenty times

'TplUKOVTO.ICl<;

thirty times

Tpl0.KOO'll1Kl<;

300 times

TETTUpUICOVTO.Kl',

forty times

TETpatCOO'lO.KlS

400 times

1TEVT'TjKOVTO.KlS

fifty times

''ffEvTu1<00-LO-tct.s

500 times

E~'TjlCOVTUICl<;

sixty times

E~OOf-L 'TjlCOVTO.KlS

seventy times

E1T1·aKOuL0.KLc;

700 tirnes

byoo'TJKOVTUl(l',

eighty times

0KTO.KOOU1Kl8

800 times

j /

EVEV'TjlCOVTUKl<;

ninety limes

E.vaKOO-L6J(LS

900 dines

< I

EKUTOVTUl<LS

100 times

XLAuircv;

1000 times

10,000 times

Compound num.bers above 20 may have the small.est number first and the

largest last, linked by ,ca(,, or the largest first and the smallest last, with or

without rnl e.g. 666 may be expressed either as

E~ Kal. E~~Kovrn Kal. E~aK6<YLoL or

or E~aK6<YLoL rn1. E~~Kovrn real. E£ or E.~aK6o-LoL E~~Kovrn E~.

E f

j / >\ 0 / <<;,I ' Q \ I ~ I ',/. I

xample rom Plato: EUV Tl<; U/\'Tj El()- 'TjUOV'TjS TOV 1--'UO'l/\EU TOU TUpavvou U,pEO'Tl]KOTO.

\ ' ,, , k' , \ ' ,,~ , ' r ~

l\€Y'IJ OO'OV U<11EO-T'TjKEV, EVVEO.KO.lEll(OO'lKO.l€1TTUKOO-l01T/\UO'lO.Kl<; 'TjOlOV UUTOV sWVTO.

Ei,p~<YEL (Republic 587d12-e2)

if anyone says how much apart the king stands in truth of pleasure, standing aparr

from the tyrant, he will find him Jiving 729 times more pleasantly in proportion. (~

~o6v-q: pleasure. ciq,fo'T'!]Ko. (from a.116 + EOTTJKo., p.91 ): I stand apart from. aq,rnT11icw, -ui:o.

-6, (participle of &.q,foT 11 rn): standing apart. iowv: more pleasantly. The ending

1rAo.o-La.KL, means times in proportion.)

378

(-w ending)

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives & Pronouns

Nominative ~ ot1<ta

\

Accusative , '

'TTJV OLl<LCLV

NOUNS

First declension feminine

Singular

Plural

the house

the house

CLL ' OUUCLL , '

\ , ,

-ras OUCLCLS

the houses

the houses

Genitive -r-ijs ot1<tas of the house Twv oLKLwv of the houses

Dative -ri] oLKLq, by the house, Tfils oLKLa.t.s by, (to), for the houses

to or for the house

dual: nom. & voe. -rw otK(u

gen. & dat. -rotv otK(mv

( -au or -na ending)

Nominative ~ µ,~Avr-ra.

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

-r~v µ,~Lwav

-r-ijs µ,~tn11s

-r-n µ,~tw11

dual: nom. &voe. Tw fLEA(nu

the bee

the bee

of the bee

by, to, for

the bee

a.t µ,~vr~-aL

Ta.s µ,<EALnac;

the bees

the bees

Twv µ,<EALwrov of the bees

1·a'i.s µ,<EAL'T'l'CLLS by, to, for

the bees

gen. & dat. -rotv µ.E11(nmv

( -pa ending)

Nominative ~ hatpa

Accusative

-r~v hatpav

'l"TJS - E'TULpas ' '

the (female)

companion

the companion

al halpat the (female)

companions

. \ ,

·ras e'Ta.tpa.s the companions

Genitive

of the companion 'TWV haipwv ofthe

companions

Dative

to, for the

'TCLLS - E'l'a.Lpcns ' , to, for the

companion

companions

dual: nom. & voe. -rw ho.(pu

gen. & dat. -ro'iv hu(pulv

(-TJ ending)

Nominative ~ ape'MJ excellence, virtue al ci.pe-ral excellences

Accusative -r~v cipe'M]v excellence 'TUS «ipe-r&.s excellences

Genitive 'T'IJS apE'T'l]S of excellence -rWv UpeTWv of excellences

Dative

by, to, for excellence 'TaLS apE'Ta'i.s by, to, for

excellences

dual: nom. & voe. -rw uprni

gen. & dat. -ro'iv o.pE-ru'iv


379

Singular

Nominative b r.0Ah-11s

.Vocative w 'll'OAt.'l'a

Accusative

'TOV 'lfoAt'l''IJV

First declension masculine

Plural

the citizen oL 'iTollt.'Tm the citizens

1

0 citizen

It) 'ITO/ll.'l'aL 0 citizens

the citizen TOUS 'ITOAL 'TO,S the citizens

Genitive 'l'ou 1T0Ahou of the citizen 'TWV 'ITOA.LTWV of the citizens

Dative Tq> TioALTlJ to, for the 'l'Ol.S 'ITO/IL'TO'.V; to, for the citizens

citizen

dual: nom. & voe. Tw 1ro11.(Ta

gen. & dat. TOLV 'lT0/1.l'TULV

Nominative O veavla~

Vocative w

1

veavw.

'

the young man

0 young man

the young men

0 young men

Accusative Tov veavtav the young man ·rous veav(as the young men

Genitive -rou veavtou of the young man 'l'WV veavLwv of the young men

Dative 'ff\) vimvtq, to, for the young 'l'ot.s v<Eavtms to, for the young

man

men

dual: nom. & voe. TW vrnv(a

gen. & dat. Toiv vrnvLmv

Second declension masculine

ot av0pW'ITOL

@ dv0pw-rrot

Nominative 6 dv0pw'll'os the man

Vocative Ji dv0pww:c Oman

Accusative 'j'()lJ a v8pw1rov the man

Genitive

Dative

'TOU av0pto'ITOU

'f«(} d. v0pwr,q.i

of the man

to, for the man

dual: nom. &voe. TW civ0pw'ITW

the men

O men

'TOUS av0pw-rrou<; the men

-rwv d.v0pJmwv of the men

w1s av0pw-rmts to, for the men

gen. & dat. TOLV civ0pw'ITOLV

Second declension feminine

Nominative 1J boos the road at bSot the roads

Accusative 'f~V OOOV the road -ras o8ous the roads

Genitive -rijs o8ou of the road 'l'Wv bSwv of the roads

Dative TU 08«(1 by, (to), for the road -rms ooot.s by, (to), for the roads

dual: nom, & voe. TW o8w

gen. & dat. TOLV OOOLV

Feminine vocatives are like masculines.


Second declension neuter

Nominative 'T◊ Jspyov the task

'To, iipya the tasks

Accusative 'T◊ epyov the task

'Ta iipya the tasks

Genitive 'TOU Jspyou of the task

'TWV lpywv of the tasks

'ff\) Epy~ by, to, for the task 1-ms /i\pyov;; by, to, for the tasks

Dative

dual: nom. & voe. -rw Epyw

gen. & dat. -roiv [pyoLv

Any neuter vocatives are like nominatives.

Third declension

Singular

Plural

Nominative ~ 1Ta1,s the child (girl) al 'ITa'ilks the children (girls)

Vocative w nru. 0 child (girl) Ji 'il'ULOES Ochildren (girls)

Accusative -.~v 'll'a'L8a the child (girl) -ras 'l'!'ol8as the children (girls)

Genitive -rfj, 'iTatOOs of the child (girl) 'fWV 'ITaO'lwv of the children (girls)

Dative -rij 'ITmot to, for the child (girl) -rru.s nmo{(v) to, for the

children (girls)

dual: nom. & voe. -rw 'iTuioe

gen. & dat. -rOLv 11ut00Lv

Nominative O 7raLs

Vocative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

, ~

(I) 'ii!U

the child (boy)

0 child (boy)

T◊V 'ITUl,0(1, the child (boy)

·mu 'ffatobs of the child (boy)

ot 1Ta'i8es the children (boys)

Ji 1Ta.t8es O children (boys)

-.ous 1Ta°L8as the children (boys)

'fWV 'IToJ8oov of the children

(boys)

Tlp 'ITO.Lot to, for the child (boy) ~-m, 1Taw{(11) to, for the

dual: nom. & voe. -rw 11moE

children (boys)

gen. & dat. -rOLv 11ut00Lv

Nominative ~ 'StK©v the image, picture at ELKOVES the images, pictures

Accusative T~v elKovo. the image, picture ·ras ELKbvo.s the images,

pictures

Genitive -rfjc; elK6vos of the image, picture -rwv ELK6vwv of the images,

p~tures

Dative -rij ELKOVL to, for, by the image, 'l'llLS eLKo(n(v) by, to, for the

picture

images, pictures

dual: nom. & voe. -rw eLKovE

gen. & dat. -roiv elK6voLv


381

Third declension continued

Nominative 'YJ '!To/\.v; the city

at 'ITOAEt, the cities

Vocative w 1101\.t O city w -rroAa,; Ocities

· Accusalive T11v ·rro/\.tv the city

To,i;; 'ITo/\.,a,; the cities

Genitive -r~s 'IT◊llEw, of the city

Dative T~ 1ro/\.Et by, to, for the city

dual: nom. & voe. Tw ,roAEL

-rwv 'ITO/\.Ewv of the cities

7a1,s 'ITOA.Em.(11) by, (to),

for the cities

gen. & dat. Tot.v ,roAEoLv

Nominative To tjiEi.lO'[W

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

\ .,. -

TO 'l'<EUO'[),Ct

the lie

the lie

TOU ij;Evo-µ,a:m, 0 f the Ji e

Tl{) J;<1:.uo-i,i,o:n

dual: nom. & voe. TW ,~d,cr1LC1TE

by the lie

Singular

Nominative To ¥.0os the habit, custom

Accusative To .e0o, the custom, habit

Genitive TO\J e0ou,;; of the habit, custom

Dative

dual: nom. & voe. Tw E0u

by the habit, custom

' ,I,,

TO, 'l'EUO'[),Ct 'i"U

\ .,. ,

'!Ct 'l'EUO'[),O. Ta.

Twv tjiEUO"f.uhwv

Tot.<; ij,Euaµ.am.(v)

the lies

the lies

of the lies

by the lies

gen. & dat. TOl.V ~1Eucr110.TOLV

\ "A,.,,,

;·a Eu 'I

Plural

the habits, customs

the habits, custon1s

-rwv &0wv of the habits,

customs

-ro1,s i0Eo-L(v) by, to, for the

habits, customs

gen. & dat. Tot.v ,Woiv

Nominative o civ7Jp

the man

Vocative w avEp O man

Accusative 'f()V dvopa the man

Genitive TOU ci.vopos of the man

Dative -roo ci.vopt to, for the man

dual: nom. & voe. Tw a.vopE

W av◊pE<,

the men

0 men

-rotis av8pa.s the men

TWV d.vopwv of the men

TOL', ci.vSpao-1,( V) to or for the men

gen. & dat. TOLV civopo'i.v

Nominative 'YJ yuv~ the woman

Vocative w yova~ 0 woman

Accusative

Genitive

T~v yuvu,'i.1w. the woman

at yuval.K<ES

w yuva'i:KEr,

-rUs yuvillKo.s

the women

0 women

the women

-r~s yuvm.K6s of the woman -rwv yuva1-Kwv of the women

Dative 'i'~ yuvu,uct to, for the woman -ra'i.s 'Yuvai~((v) to or for the

women

dual: nom. & voe. Tw yuvat.KE

gen. & dat. Toiv yuvmKoiv

382


Third declension continued

Nominative o ~a.mi\.e-6s the king ot ~ucrii\.,is the kings 1

Vocative w ~UO'LA.EU 0 king! w ~UO'LA8.S 0 kings

Accusative TOV ~CWLI\E.(J, the king ,-ous ~aaLMas the kings

Genitive -roil ~o.atMws of the king -rwv ~mnAEwv of the kings

Dative

Tq> ~CJ.O'L/1.EL to, for the king w1.s ~aaLAeuaL( 11) to, for the

dual: nom. & voe. Tw ~ucrLA~

kings

gen. & dat. To'iv ~ucrLAEOLv

Nominative

Vocative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

o mKpO.T'IJS Socrates

w Li'iKpa-res O Socrates

TOV mKpO.T'ij Socrates

'roil LwKp&:mus of Socrates

T<jl IwKpa.TEL to, for Socrates

ADJECTIVES

First and second declension

Ka.Ao,: beautiful, fine, noble, good

Singular masculine feminine neuter

Nominative KU/1.()S KO.A~ KU/1.()V

Vocative KO.A.€ KUA~ 1rnMv

Accusative 1co.Mv 1mi\.~11 1taMv

Genitive KUA.OU Ko.A~s KO.II.OU

Dative KaA.4' KUA'U 1ca.i\.4>

dual nom. & acc. ocuAw «aM ICO.AW

gen. &dat. KUAOLV l(UAULV KUAOLV

Plural

Nominative Ko.i\.ot Ko.A.a,( ,ml\.&

Vocative KCJ.Aot KUA.UL KO.Ao. ti.tr

Accusative Ka.Aous e<a.Ms 1co.M

Genitive Ka.i\.wv 1mi\.wv 1mi\.wv

Dative Ko.i\.01.s KO.Acus KUAot,

-----·- ---- - - ·---

1Always ~ucrLA~, in Plato. See p.70.

µ.O.Kpos: long

Singular

Nominative

Vocative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative


masculine

µa.r<pos

1.1-llKpE

µa.i<pov

µa.1epoil

µa.i<pq>


feminine

I

µa.i<pa.

µa.i<pO.

µa.Kpa.v

µa.i<piis

µa.Kpq.

neuter

µa.1<pov

f!,O.Kpov

(10.Kpov

(10.Kpou

(l,llKpip

383

dual nom. & acc. 11a1cpJ,

gen. & dat. ~Kpo'i.v

Plural

I

Nominative fl,O.KpoL

Vocative µ.a.Kpot

Accusative µ.a.Kpou<;

Genitive

Dative

fl,llKf>WV

µ.a.KpoLS

11-mcp&.

11-aKpa.LV

v,a.Kpa.L

I

µ.a.Kpa.L

µ.a.Kp0.S

µ.aicprov

µ.a.KpfilS

I

j.1,0.Kpa.

µ.a.Kpa.

µ.a.KpO.

j.1,0.KpWV

jLO.KpoLS

µ.e-ya.s: great

Singular

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

masculine

11-eyas

jl,E'YIJ.V

µ.eyu.Aou

µ.eya.Aq,

feminine

µ.eyu.A1J

µ.eyu.A1]V

µ.eya.A1]S

µ.eyu.A.11

neuter

I

µ.eya.

!LE'Yll

µ.eya.Aou

µ.eya.Aq,

dual

nom. &acc.

gen. &dat

11-E'}'d.Am

11-E'Y&.Aow

Plural

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

µ.eya.AoL

µ.eyu.Aous

µ.eya.Arov

µ.eya.AoLs

11eyu.Am

11eyu.Aa.s

µ.eya.A.rov

µ.eya.AaLS

µ.eyo.A.a.

µ.eya.Aa.

µ.eyu.A.rov

1-1-eyu.A.oLs



'ITO/I.US: much (in plural, many; dual not found)


Nominative 'lTOAUS 'lTOA.h~ 1TOA.U

Accusative rroMv 'IToAA~v 'ITOA.U

Genitive 'ITOA.Aou 'IToAA-ijs '!TOA.A.OU

Dative 'ITOAA.<\) 'ITO}\A."(J 'lTOAA4l

Plural

Nominative '!ToAAot 'IToAAat 'IToAM

Accusative 'ITOA.A.01 1 )<, 'lioAMs 110AM

Genitive 'ITOAAwv ·rroAMlv 1roAAw11

Dative 1ro11}w'is 110AAais 'ITO/I.Ams

fLEyas and 'lfoMs are irregular only in the nominative and accusative singul:

masculine and neuter. In the other cases, the endings are like those of 1<aA.6s, Kci

KUAOV.

Third declension

app'l'J11 9 Uf)f)EV: masculine, male 2

Singular masculine & feminine neuter

Nominative a.pp'f]11 appev

Vocative [ a.pp1711 uppEv " ]

Accusative appEVll appEV

Genitive appe110<; a.ppevo<;

,,

Dative

appE11~

appE11l

Plural

Nominative Clf)f)EVES Uf>f>EVO.

Accusative uppevas uppevo,

Genitive dppevwv appevwv

Dative appecn(v) dppE<n{v) liif

The dual endings of third declension adjectives are -,;: (nom. and acc.)

-ow (gen. and dat.)

(for adjectives ending -17s see p.265)

2Spelled iipcr'T]v, o.pcrEv ( genitive: iipcrEvos) in poetry and in Ionic and later Greek.


Mixed declension

&ijt,us9 6~!,Eux.9 0'lJAu: feminine, female 3 has 3rd declension masculine and

neuter, but 1st declension feminine .

. Singular mascu1ine feminine neuter

Nominative 0'J]Aus &fi;\.,aa 0fjAu

Vocative 0fjAu 0~A.ELa 0fjAu

Accusative 0fjAuv &!jAELav 0fjAu

Genitive 0~AEos 01JA.Eta.s

Dative 6~AEL 01jAELq.

385

Dual

Norn., voe. & ace 0~AEE

81jAELU

Gen. &dat. 01JAEOLV 81jAELULV

Plural

Nominative 0~1?,ELs &rJAEWL

Vocative 0~A.ELS 0~AELaL

Accusative 0~AELS 01jAELas

Genitive 0'Y]A<kwv 01jAELWV

Dative 0~A.E<n{v) 01jAELULS

8~/IEE

01]/IEOLV

0~A,rn

&qAEa

0~AEa.

071A~wv

&liAEcn{v}

A

'IT<Oi,',9 r!'!'l!)l,l(YIQL 9

A

'ITav: every, all

Singular masculine feminine

Nominative ·mis 'ITao-a

every (man)

every (woman)

Accusative 'ITUV'i:'U ' ·mio-av

every (man) every (woman)

I

I

Genitive

1l'UV'iOS

'ITUO''TJS

of every (man) of every (woman)

Dative

I

"lrll.11'iL

to/for every

(man)

I

'!mO"'(l

to/for every

(woman)

----~-~-- -------~neuter

'ITIJ.11

every ( thing)

'IT0,11

every (thing)

I

'IT'1111'i'OS

of every ( thing)

I

'IT«I'V'TL

to/for (by) every

(thing)

3The masculine of this word is needed for expressions like 0ijAu, 1rou,

(feminine foot) as 1rou, (foot) is masculine, and the neuter for expressions

like 0ijAu ovoµa([eminine name) as ovoµa (name) is neuter, like ,-o ~,eucrµa.


Plural

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

I

1TUV'iES

·mol.s continued

'li'aaaL

I

1TUV'fa

all (men) all (women) all (things)

I

'!l'aV'fa<; 1raous 1rav-ra

'

all (men) all (women) all (things)

I

'TfUVTWV

'!faawv

I

I

'ITUV'iWV

of all (men) of all (women) of all (things)

'!l'a.a~(v)

I

1raaULs

'lf«aL(v)

to/for all(men) to/for/all(women) to/for (by) all (things)

As in 0~11us, 0~Aua, 0~Au, in 1rcis, 1rciao., 1rciv the masculine and neuter are

3rd declension, while the feminine is second.

The third declension comparative ~EA-r(wv: better

Singular masculine & feminine neuter

Nominative ~EA'fLWV ~~'l'LOV

Accusative ~EATLovo. or ~E;>wtw ~~'ftoV

Genitive ~EA'fl.OVOS ~eA:r(ovos

Dative ~EA1{ovL ~EA1fovi

plural

Nominative (~EA'fLoves) or ~EA1fous ~EA,-(ova or ~EA:rtw

Accusative (~El\'ftovas) or ~El\'flous ~EA-r[ovo. or ~EAT(w

Genitive ~EA:novwv ~El\.'fU)VWV

Dative ~El\ T(ocn( v) ~EA1focn( v)

Plato prefers the shorter forms for the accusative singular and nominative and

accusative plural.

wt

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives & Pronouns 387

Comparatives & superlatives

The following adjectives have comparatives ending •(L)wv (third

0

declension) and superlatives ending Lcr-ros

urrov(neut.) 4 ·

c:iyo.0os good

o.µ.<Etvwv better

~<EA:r(wv better

, 5

KpEViTWV b

e tter

(At{>wv 6 better

(masc.) , ·w-. 11 (fem.), _

o'.pw·-ros best

~~-r,.aws best

tepa:runos best

A4la-ros best)

o.LO)(flos shameful atcrxtrov more shameful aLCY){Lcr-ros most

kx0p6s hostile

~Ms pleasant

KaKoc, bad

e.x0trov more hostile

~8trov more pleasant

I

Kainwv worse

KaMs fine, noble, beautiful, good

µ.4yas great

f1LKPos small 8

x1o1.pwv worse 7

KaA.A.i.wv finer, etc.

µet(rov greater

<EA.uwwv 9 smaller

shameful

E)(0LaTos most hostile

{18unos most pleasant

KO.ICLO"TOS worst

X<ELpuno, worst

1ca.AAL0-1·os finest, etc.

µ.kyurros greatest

D..a.xL<YTOS smallest

4

yAuKus ( sweet) has as the comparative yAuK1.wv and as the superlative

yAUKUTUTOS. aAyEtvOS (painful) has as comparative either a/\y1.wv or aAyELVOTEpos

and as superlative either iiAyurTos or aAyELvowTOs.

5ln the sense of mightier, mightiest. The positive, mighty, is found quite

often as KapTEp6s e.g. at Symposium 220c2 (a quotation from Homer, Odyssey

IV, 242) and KpaTEpos at Timaeus 75b5.

61n the sense of finer, nobler; finest, noblest. (Rarer than aµ.dvwv, ~EATLwv,

KpELTTwv).

7Often in the sense of inferior.

8 µ.LKpoTEpos (at Critias 117dl) and <rfJ-LKp6wTos (atStatesman 270a8) are also

found occasionally as the comparative and superlative.

9From EAaxus: small, little, mean (poetical and rare).

388

oA.tyos little 10

'!ToAus much

{>48ws easy

wxos quick


Comparatives & superlatives continued

oA(yw·Tos least

11-r-rwv 11 less

'ITAElwv more

{>4wv easier

0awwv quicker

'JlKW'TOS least

1rAELO'Toc; most

pqm·os easiest

Ta.xwTos quickest

µ.aA.a very

1r0Ao much

-raxa9 wxo soon,

quickly

Irregular comparative and superlative adverbs

µ,iiAAov more, rather

~'l"rov less

'ITMov more

8ii:rrov sooner

µaAL<YTa most, especially

-q1cw-ra least, not at all.

17/\acr-ra most

-raxuna soonest

(-raxu and Tax' (lV in Plato often mean perhaps or probably.)

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

&µ<k orµ1c me

&µ,oil orµ,ou my,ofme

&µ,ot or fLOL to, for me

PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns

ITTJ

I

aE or <YE

you (singular)

you

o·ou oro·ou your, of you

crot or ao1, to, for you

Dual (nom. & acc.) vw we two, us two

( gen. & dat.) vipv of, to/for us two

crcpw you two

crcpipv of, to/for you two

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

~µas we

~µas us

~µ,wv our, of us

~µ,'i.v to, for us

uµ,e'i.s you (plural)

uµ,cic; you

uµwv your, of you

uµ,'i.v to, for you

10Found usually in the plural: 011.[yot, 011.[yat, 011.tya:few.

11From ~Ka: a little, gently (NB change of breathing).

'

'

389


11 oi',.ro, is used for the vocative also, in a slightly rude way - "hoy!" "this man!"

Pronouns continued

9

a1l.J'fi(J)~: ' h e, s h e, 1t .

Singular


9 I

-Nominative

IW'iOS mh~

(l,IJ'i'O

, '

9 I

' I

Accusative

11.UTOV aun1v

, '

UU'l'O

Genitive

9 A

11,l)'i'OU

Utl'T"lS

, A

!1U'l'OU

Dative

dual, nom. & acc.

gen. &dat.

au'acp

au-rw ' ,

/ A

UU'TOLV

au-rij

au-ra ' ,

A

au-ra1,v

au-rw ' ,

I A

aU't'OLV

Plural: they

, I

9 I

Nominative

1:UJ'l'OI, ' '

UU'HU au-ro,

, I

, I

Accusative

UUTOUS au-ras

(l,l)'f(l ' I

Genitive

, A

IUJ'l'WV

, A

UU'TWV

A

(l,U'fl1W

Dative

, A

UU'l'OlS

(l,UTUl.S

, A

UUTOL',

Other pronouns

((J)\J'fl(J)S this, that

Singular

Nominative 12

Accusative

masculine

otiws

TOU1'0V

feminine

O.llT'I]

TO,U'i"TJV

neuter

TOUTO

TOUTO

I

Genitive

'l'OU'i'OU

Dative

'l'll.1J'i"'l)S

'fa1J'l1J

'l'OUTOU

,

,

dual, nom. & acc.

'i'OU'i'W

'fOO'fW

,

I

,

gen. &dat.

'TOU'fOLV

'TOUTOLV

TOU'TOLV

Plural

Nominative

OtJTOL

!ltl'TUL -raiha

I

I

Accusative

'TOUTOUS

TtlUTUS

T(l.UTU

I

I

I

Genitive

'TOU'TWV

TOUTWV

'fOUTWV

I

I

I

Dative

TOUTOLS

TUUTat<; Tou·rois


Pronouns continued

I{)) "Si <E: this

Singular masculine feminine

Nominative 8lk '!]OE

Accusative -rbvoE 'i11vlk

Genitive TOUOE T'l)<YO<E

Dative .. 4>lk -rijOE

dual nom. & acc. ,-Jil\e ,-Jil\e

gen. &dat. 701,vl\e 'TOI.VOE

Plural

Nominative 0°LOE CLLOE

Accusative TOU<YOE 'j(),(YOE

Genitive TWVOE 'i"WVOE

Dative -ro'ialk Tmaoe

-rboE

'i"bOE

-roulk

'i<tJOE

,-Jil\e

w1.vlle

neuter

Ta.OE

Ta.OE

TWVOE

TOLO"OE

TL'i.9 ' ns

-rts: who?and ,.t: what?are third declension

Singular

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

-r(s; who?

T(va; whom?

Ttvos; whose?

TLvL; to/for whom?

-rt; what?

TL; what?

TLvos; of what?

nvL; by what?

duals nom. & acc. ,,.,ve; which two?

gen &dat

,-,vo•v; of, to which two?

1{ve; which two?

1-lvow; of, by which two?

Plural

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

-rtvEs; who?

-rtva.s; whom?

-rlvwv; whose?

-rtm(v); to/for whom?

Ttva.; what?

Tlva.;of what?

TLvwv; of what?

-rlo-L( v ); by what?

-rv,, n ( enclitic) are indefinite: some(one), some(thing).

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive


Pronouns continued

The relative pronoun: who, which

Singular

Plural

masc. fem. neuter masc fem.

Os 11 0 Ol al

,,

ous

Ov i)v 0

lis

OU • 'l'JS • 01) • (t)\I • WV •

• • • ols •

Dative

1\1 11 <l' o.,s

dual (all genders): nom. &voe. w

gen. & dat. olv

neuter

a

a

WV •

OLS •

391

whoever or whatever is made up from os 9 i) 9 o and Tts 9 ....


Nominative OO"TLS fins on 13

Accusative ovnva 'T)V'i'"LVO.

.,

Genitive

OUTLVOS 'l'JO"'lWOS

or owu

,,

on

ofrnvos

or OTou14

Dative ~'fl.Vt iJnv1, ~'ft.VL

orO-rq.,

or 0-r'f)

Plural masculine feminine neuter

Nominative o'(-iw,i;s a.'l-rc,VES UTWO.

or O.T'rn,

Accusative oucrnvas O.O"TLVO.S ii:nva

orawo.

Genitive WV'TWWV WVTLVWV wvnvwv

Or [OTWV] Or [oTWV] Or[oTWV]

Dative o'luTicr1. ( v) afoTUYt(v) o'lanui(v)

OT [OTOLS] 15

13or oTL (nominative and accusative). Often printed as two words to

distinguish it from oTL ("because", or "that" after a verb meaning "say",

"think" or "know").

14The short forms are preferred in authors earlier than Plato. Plato also

uses them, e.g. OT!fl at Meno 92e3.

15 Masculine and neuter: oTwv and oToL, are not found in Plato or Aristotle.

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

0


Pronom1s continued

~ "

<Oil\J''j"ll,l(J'l(])'iJV

ou'1wouv: anybody whatsoever and o-rwuv: anything whatsoever are found in Plato

in the following cases:

Singular masculine femimine neuter

Nominative

A

. O<Y'Ti.<YOU11

~'lWOUV

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

A

OVTLVOU11

A

orov-rivaouv

A

O'TOUOUV

O'T'!!OUV '

A

'l]V'TLVOUV

OT ~1/'fLVUOUV

~O"l°LVOO'OUV

]TLVLOUV

A

O'TOUOUV

A

O'TO'.\IOUV

Plural

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

oua-rwaaouv

A

WV'TLVWVOUV

A

OLO'rr1.0'i.1101JV

A

ao"nvaaovv

A

001/'fLVWVOUV

A

aLO'TUYLVOUV

0.TT, oUv

A

ul1/'TL111tl1/0UV

first person singular

(masculine)

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

&µ,1wToV

myself

&~,mYrou of myself,

&µ,m.m\l

second person singular

Accusative

Genitive

Reflexives

myown

to/for

myself

(masculine)

CTE.au,-6v yourself

<YEau-rou

of yourself,

your own

(feminine)

Eµ.auT,.~v

&µ,aurijs

(feminine)

,

O'Ea1JT'l]V

O'EU1J'l"Y)S

Dative O'E!lU'TCJI to/for O'E(Ul'f]

yourself

myself

of myself,

to/for

myown

myself

yourself

of yourself,

your own

to/for

yourself

\if


393

Reflexive pronoun continued

third person singular

Accusative Eau·rOv himself &au·rO itself

Genitive ~o,u•roU of himself, &au',f\s of herself, &m,-roi:l of itself,

his own

her own

its own

Dative

&11,u1·tjl to/for

himself

Ea.1J'l'1) to/for

herself

Eo~urr~ to/for/by

itself

first person plural

masculine

Accusative ~µ,iis 11,u-rous

Genitive

Dative

~µ.wv a:il-rwv

~µ,'i. V 11.U'iOl.S

second person plural

masculine

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

e " ' ,...

uµ.rov 11.u-rwv

feminine

~p.iis mhas

~µ.wv av-rwv

~[J,LV aum'is

feminine

uµ,as o, U'i"O,S

uµ,wv o:imov

uµ.'i.v aimii.<;

ourselves

of ourselves

to/for ourselves

yourselves

of yourselves

to/for yourselves.

third person plural

(masculine)

Accusative ' ,

EUU'l'OU<;

Genitive ' ~

Ect1JTWV

Dative ' ~

EUUTOl.'.,

(feminine)

(neuter)

&mmi

themselves

their own

to/for/by

themselves

o-E is often omitted from the 2nd person singular reflexive pronoun

I

I

0'0.UT0119 O'UUTTJV

e is often omitted from the 3rd person reflexive pronoun

UUT◊V9 au·r~v, a-h6 (singular)

auTous9 auTo.<;9 11,uTa (plural).

It is important to notice the rough breathing, which distinguishes the

reflexive from

a.u'l'ov9 au'T~v9 ohr6 (singular), him, her, it

a.uTous9 auT<i,9 a.uTa. (plural), them.

"'


Personal pronouns used as reflexive pronouns

e. and a<J>~is (p.336) 16

Nominative a<J>~is themselves

Accusative i himself, herself a<J>as themselves

Genitive OU • of himself, a<J>wv of themselves 17

of herself

Dative oi • to, for himself, a<J>(1n(v) or a<J>b.1

to, for herself to, for themselves

The definite article


Nominative

. •

I

0

11

'l'O

Accusative

I I I

'l'OV 'l''ljll 'l'O

Genitive TOU -rfis TOU

Dative T(tl 111 'l'ql

, , ,

dual nom. & acc. 'j"(l) 'j"(l) 'j"(l)

gen. &dat. 'i"OLV -ro'iv -ro'i.v

Plural

. . I

Nominative

OL IU '1'11

Accusative

I

·rous

I

'l'US

I

711

Genitive 'l'Wll 'l'WV ,·wv

Dative -ro'i.s 'l'Olc;; 'l'O!.S

160-~os is sometimes found in Greek tragedy meaning simply them, e.g.

A1J'¥1J o' fows o-~iis and perhaps you will catch them (Euripides, Bacchae 960).

17Distinguish from o-~0v, the genitive & dative of the 2nd person dual

pronoun you two (pp.371 & 388).

Reference List of Verb Endings & frregular Verbs

395

present

singular (pp.9 & 17)

, I

ELf1L

you El

he, she, it fo'Tt( v)

-stµL "I am"

subjunctive optative imperfect future

(p.141) (p.154) (p.81) (p.139)

<Eh]V

EL'IJS

E'l'IJ

~ (or~v)

~aea

~v

EO"'TCU "

dual

you both

they both

foTov

foTov

~TOV

~TOV

~CTTOV

~CTT'TjV

foEo0ov

forn0ov

plural

we

you

they

, I

E<Y'T<E

,:;:Lm(v)

©µ.<Ev

~'T<E

Jcn(v)

Elµ,1.::v

<Eh<E

• 1

EU£'!/

~µ,EV

~'TE

~aav

fooµ<E0a

fo<Ea0E

EO"OV'Tll.l "

Infinitive

-slvai to be (p.49)

Present participle being (p.101)

masculine feminine

singular nominative wv

000"1!.

accusative ov-ra.

ooaav

genitive 011-ros

OUU'IJS

dative ovn

OU01J

neuter

Ov

Ov

01/'TOS

Ov'i"L

dual

nom. & acc. Ov-re

gen. & dat. ovTotv

oUcra

olJCTatv

OvTE

OVTE

plural

nominative ovT<ES

accusative 011-ra.s

genitive ov-rwv

dative oilm( v)

Oi)Uat

oilaas

, A

OUO"WV

OU<YCI.LS

Ovi'a

ov-ra

OV'TWV

Imperative (p.185) i'.0"0L be! (to one person) fo-re be! (to more than one person)

fo-rw let him/her/it be! foTwv let them be!

(The dual imperatives, foTov (2nd pers.) and foTwv (3rd pers.) do not occur in Plato.)

'Et11cruv is found at Statesman 275c6 and Epinomis 97Sa8.

~


Endings -w verbs 2

active

present present present imperfect fu1.ure 3

indicative subjunctive optative

(p.20) (p.140) (p.152) (p.76) (p.132)

singular

I •Ii) -w ·Ot~~L -ov -aw

you •<ELS ·11s -o~s ·<ES •O"ELS

he, she, it •EL -11 •OL •E •CJ"<EL

dual

you both -ETOV -11rnv -OLTOV -ETOV -O-ETOV

they both -ETOV -1JTOV -QL T1JV -ET1JV -O-ETOV

plural

we ·oµEv -wµEv ·oLp,EV -oµEv -croµEv

you •E'fE "'Yj'l'E ·OL'l'E •E'l'E •O"E'l'E

they ·OUO'L(V) ·lllO'L( V) •Ol,EV -ov ·0'01.JO'L( V ) 4

present infinitive (p.49)

future infinitive (p.139)

present participle (pp.101, 104)

future participle (p.139)

•WV

0

0UO"O.

0

011 ·O'WV •O'OUO'O. •O'OV

present imperative (p.183)

singular dual plural

2nd person •E 2nd person -ETOV 2nd person •E'fE.

3rd person ·E'!'lil 3rd person -ETltlV 3rd person ·OV'l'WV

2Verbs ending -w in 1st person singular, present indicative active.

3Verbs with stems ending -n have as future active endings -~w, -£ELS, -~EL etc.ff

Verbs wit.h stems ending -;\, -v or -p have the following future active endings:

-W, -Els, -EL, -€l.Tov, -~lTov, -oUµEv, -ELTE, -oUcn(v).

4 When a future optative active is used (usually in indirect speech) it is formed by

substituting, for the present indicative endings -o-w, -ans, -o-u, -o-oµ.Ev, -o-ETE,-uouo-L(v),

the optative endings -uoq.1L, -croLs, -croL, -croLµ.Ev, -croLTE, -a0t.Ev. Similarly, the future

middle optative is Aucrolµ.11v, AfooLo, AucroLTO, Aucrolµ.E0a, Aucrow0E, AucroLvTo.

Reference List of Verb Endings & Irregular Verbs 397

Endings -w verbs 5

rniddle (and passive, except future is middle only)

present present

indicative subjunctive

(p.43) (p.142)

singular

I

you

he, she, it

·oµm

0

W!J,(U

7

"'TI or •EL

"'TI

0 E'f(l,L "Tj'TaL

present imperfect future 6

optative

(p.155) (p.76) (p.133)

0

OL!J,"l}V

0

O!J,"l}V 0

<YO!J,UL

"OL0

0

OU "0'1)

0

OL'TO 0 E'fO 0

CY(c1'UL

dual

2nd person

3rd person

-w8ov

-w8ov

-11oBov

-11oBov

-ow0ov -w0ov -o-Eo-0ov

-otoB1jv -Eofl7]V -o-Eo-0ov

plural

we

you

they

·01J.<1s0a ·wµ1c8u

0

E0'8E "'l'jaf)E

0

OV'l'UL

0

WV'iUL

0

0L[l,E0a •oµ,E0a ·aoµ,;;0u

0

0L0'8E

0

E<Y0E

0

0'E<Y8E

0

OLV'iO

0

OVTO

0

0'OV1'UL


·Ea0m

future infinitive (p.139)

0

0'ECY8m

present participle (p.107)

0

O~,<WOS

0

Of1,EV11 °Of1,EVOV

future participle (p.139)

0

0'Of1,EVOS

0

0'Ofl,<EV'i"j ·aoµ,Evov

present imperative (p.184)

singular

2nd person °ou

3rd person °Ea8w

dual

2nd person -Eo-0ov

3rd person -Eotlwv

plural

2nd person ·Eo-0E

3rd person •Ea0wv

5Verbs ending -w in 1st person singular, present indicative active.

6Verbs with stems ending -TT have as future middle endings -~oµ,UL, -tll, -~ETUL etc.

Verbs with stems ending -/\, -v or i' have the following future middle endings:

-ouµ,aL, -11, -ELTUL, -ELo-8ov, -ao-8ov, -ouµ,E0a, -E°LotlE, -OUVTUL.



singular

I

you

he, she, it

indicative

(p.118)

·(a)a

•(a)os

·(o-)E(v)

Endings -ro verbs

Weak aorist active

subjunctive optative

(p.143)

(p.153)

·(a)w

•(cr)mµ,L

•(o}gs

·( a )aLs or ·( o-)aas

·(o-)1}

•(o-)m or-(a)EtE(v)

dual

you both

they both

-(a)CLTOV

-(a)CLT1jV

-(a)1jTOV

-(a)1]Tov

-(a)mTOv

-(a)mT1jV

plural

we

you

they

•(a)aµ,E11

-(cr)a'l'E

•(c,)av

-(cr)wµ.ev -(c,)mµ.Ev

•(<Y)'VJTE

·(cr)m1-e

·( a )waL( v) •(cr)mEv or-(a)euxv

infinitive (p.122)

•(cr)m

participle (p.123)

imperative (p.186)

singular

2nd person

3rd person

dual

plural

2nd person -(a)aTov 2nd person •(a)aTe

3rd person -(a)aTwv 3rd person -(a)aVTwv


0 (

Endings -w verbs

Weak aorist middle

· indicative subjunctive optative

(p.124) (p.143) (p.156)

singular

I ·{ CY )aµ.71v ·(CY)wµ.m CY )a.L[l,'YJV

you ·(o-)w •(o}l) .(cr)a.w

he, she, it •(CY)O.'l"O

0 ( o-)7j'l"a.L •(CY)O.L'l"O

dual

you both ·(a)o.a8ov ·(o-),qa0ov ·(a)o.ta0ov

they both ·(a)o.a811v ·(a)11aBov ·( a )o.ta811v

plural

we •( CY )a.µ.e0a ·(CY)wµ.e0a. •( a )a.tµ.e0a.

you ·(CY}a.CY6e •(CY}!j0'0E ·( O' )aLCY0e

they •(O')av-ro ·( O' )wv-rat

0

( O' )a.LVTO

infinitive (p.125)

0

( CY )a.a0a.L

participle (p.125) •(a)aµ,evos

imperative (p.188)

singular

2nd person

3rd person

dual

2nd person ·(a)o.a0ov

3rd person •(a)o.a0wv

plural

2nd person -(o-}aa0E

3rd person -(CY)aa0wv


singular

I

you

he, she, it

indicative

(p.166)

·OV

•ES

•E

Endings -w verbs

Strong aorist active


(p.169)

••Ii)

·1JS

"'U

(p.169)

·OL!l-•

•Oi,S

•OL

dual

you both

they both

-ETOV

-ET'l)V

-'l)TOV

-'l)TOV

-OLTOV

-OLT'l)V

plural

we

you

they

·OV

·wµ.ev

·'l'JT<:

•(l)Cfl(v)

infinitive (p.170)

-<iiv

participle (p.167)

I

•WV

·OU<YU

I

•OV

imperative (p.187)

singular

2nd person

3rd person

dual

2nd person -ETov

plural

2nd person •erre

3rd person -ETwv 3rd person. -ov-rwv

singular

I

you

he, she, it

Reference List of Verb Endings & Irregular Verbs

' indicative

(p.171)

•0µ.1JV

•OU

•E'TO

Endings -ro verbs

Strong aorist middle


(p.174)

•roµ.a.L

(p.175)

•0Lj11J1l

·11 •OLO

•1J1UL

-ovro

401

dual

you both

they both

-eo{lov

-Eo{l'l]V

·1Jo{)Ov

-'l]o{)Ov

-oLo{lov

·OLo{j'l]V

plural

we

you

they

·ov,e0a.

·ea6e

•OVTO

-wµ,e0a.

.,,of)..,,

•(l)V"i'aL

•OL!J,E0a.

•OLO"&

•OLV"i'O

infinitive (p.173)

•eotla.L

participle (p.172) -oµevos

-oµ.ev11

•oµ,evov

imperative (p.188)

singular

2nd person

3rd person

•OU

-eo-8ro

plural

2nd person

3rd person -m0wv 3rd person

dual

2nd person -eo-Bov

••w·0e

-eo-0rov


The perfect and pluperfect indicative endings 8

(note that most perfects begin with reduplication and most pluperfects with augme

and reduplication)

perfect pluperfect perfect pluperfect

active active middle & middle &

(p.87) (p.258) passive (p.92) passive (p.259)

singular

I ·(rc)a •(re )11

you ·(rc)as ·(K)'l]S

he, she, it ·(rc)e -(K)H

dual

you both -(K)UTOV -(K)ETov -CY0ov -CY0ov

they both -(K)UTOV -(K)ETT]V -CY0ov -CY&rjV

plural

we ·(rc)aµ,ev ·(rc)eµ,ev

you •(rc)a.,-e •(rc)ue

they ·(rc)a<n(v) ·(K)eaav •V'l'a.L

infinitive active (p.90) -(rc)evai infinitive middle &

passive (p.93) 0 o0m

participle active (p.105)

singular nominative ·(rc)ws •(rc)uLo. ·(rc)os

accusative 0

(K)O'i'U ·(K)ULaV

0

(1<)os

genitive ·(rc)o'iOS

0

(K}u(a.s 0

(1< )6-ros

dative ·{rc)on ·(1<)utq.

0

(1< )oTL

0

0

0 0 (1<)0TWV

0 0 (1c)o<n(v)

dual nom &ace -(K)OTE -(K)utu -(K)oTE

gen &ace -(K)OTOLV -(1<)UtULV -(K)OTOLV

plural nominative •(rc)<hes -(K)UL!!.L {1<)0.,-a,

accusative (1<)0.,-0.s ·(K)utas -(1<)014,

genitive (K)O'l'(!)V ·(K)uuiiv

dative (K)O<YL(v) •(K)uta.Ls

nt

8The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding -w, -1J,, -1J, -wµ.Ev, -T'IJE, -wCYt(v) to the

perfect stem, e.g. AEAUKw, AEADK1J,, AEADK1J. It is seldom found, and then in the 3rd

person singular or plural, e.g. E~ECYT~K1J from E~ECYTTJKu (I stand over) at Symposium

175b7. The perfect optative, when needed, is AEAu1<01s Et1JV or AEAuµ.lvos EL1JV,


The perfect participle (middle and passive) (p.109):

masculine

II.EA uµ,Eyos

feminine

A<EAuµ,Ev'l}

neuter

AEA:uµ.ievov

The aorist passive tense

0

indicative subjunctive optative

(p.229) (p.235) (p.237)

singular

I ·(0)'l)v •(0)w (6)<EL'l)V

you ·(0)'1}S ·(0}us ·(0)EL1JS

he, she, it ·(0)1] ·(0)1J

0

(6)EL'l)

dual

you both -(8)1]TOV -(0)'T]TOV -(8)ELTOV

they both -(fl)'T]Tl]V -(0)1]TOV -(fl)ELT1]V 9

plural

we ·(0)1]µ,<Ev •(0)wµ,Ev •(0)EL!1<cV0f

0

you ·(0)'l)'fE (0)'TJTE ·(0)<EL'f<Wf

0

they •(0)'1)0-0.V •(0)wcn(v) ·(0)EL<EV or •(0),i;('l}o-cw

infinitive (p.234) 0

(0)'l)VO.L

participle (p.233) •(0},a,;

imperative (p.234)

singular

2nd person

3rd person

plural

dual

2nd person -(0)11Tov 2nd person •(0}'T)-rE

3rd person -(8)11Twv 3rd person •(0}EvTwv

9 Alternatively, Au0EhJTov and Au0EL~T'T]V but the dual of the aorist passive optative

does not occur in Plato.


The future indicative passive

(p.245)

singular

plural

I

•(8)-qo-01u11. we ·(8}r10-oµ.E811

you •(0)710-'IJ you ·(0}qow81c

he, she, it •(8}1J<YE'T<n they •(0)'TJO'ovmi

( the dual, 2nd and 3rd person, is -811<reo-8ov)

Future infinitive passive •(8)'TJo-Ecr8m (p.246)

Future participle passive (p.246)

•(EJ)'l]<YO[l,EVO':,

0

(0)'1]0'0[1,EV'f]

The rules for contraction

Contraction is found in the endings of the present and imperfect

tenses, and in the future tenses of verbs whose stems end •A 9 •v or

-p, which are contracted with •-E.

For verbs with sterns ending •a,

(i) a contracts with an e sound ( E or 'TJ) to a..

(ii) a contracts with an o sound ( o, w, or ou) tow.

(iii) a. before a or 11 becomes C/- except that a. + Ew becomes av.

For verbs with stems ending •E,

(i) E contracts with "' to EL.

(ii) 1c contracts with o to ou.

(iii) 1c disappears before 'IJ 9 w 9 EL 9 or ou.

For verbs with stems ending •o,

(i) o contracts with E, o or ou to ou. •fi.'

(ii) o contracts with "l or w to w.

(iil) o contracts with Et, Tl or oi to ot except that o + e.,w becomes

ouv.


singular

I

you

he, she, it

indicative

(p.91)

oloa

ol0'8a

ollk(v)

The verb ol8a I know (p.87).

active

subjunctive

(p.141)

~1ow

Et8\}S

Et8ij

optative pluperfect future

(p.154) (p.259) (p.138)

ELOEL'T]V

ELOEL'l]S

1eLM11

"o 11 11

iJ0110"8a.

i\oia(v)

dlaov,at

EL0"1)

ELO"E'l'(H

dual

you both

they both

'l<JTOV

'tO'TOV

El◊~TOV

El◊~TOV

Eloa Tov

ELOELT'fjV

'\IITTOV '

to-r11v

dorn0ov

eforn0ov

plural

we

you

they

foaO't(v)

ELOWfl,EV

ElO'Tj'l'E

Et8WO't(v)

1etlkLµ,1ev

EUIEL'l'E JO

EUIELEV

s

1JO'[l,EV

9

1JO''l'E

s

11cra.v

or ijo,ecmv

in Plato

ELcr6µ,E0a,

Efo-E0"8<E

E!.O'OV'i'll,L

( Timaeus 72e4 & 76e3)


ELOEV!l,L

future infinitive

EtO'<E0--61n I I

imperative (p.185)

singular 2nd person

plural 2nd person

duals: 2nd person fo-rov

3rd person

3rd person

3rd person

LO''l'WV

lCJTWV

10 elod11-re is found for ElOEtTE at Laws 886b5.

11 Not found in Plato.


participle (p.106)

olSa (continued)


singular nominative <ELOWS <ElSuia cst86s

accusative el86Ta ~atSu'i:av <EL86s

genitive 11&86•TO<, <EtSuta., ELMTo<,

dative <ElMTL eloutq, <ELMTL

dual nom& ace eLOO"fe etl\u(a et80"i"E

gen & dat EL86"fo~v eU\u(mv d86-row

plural nominative <ElMT<ES <ELOutm, <ElMm

accusative <ElOOTO.S eloutus relooTa

genitive <ELOOTWV <ELSmwv et86Twv

dative <EL06o-L(v) etsutcw; reLMcn(v)

·11~ verb active & middle/passive endings

o:rro/1/1.uµ,L: J destroy

Present tense (pp.23 & 43)

active

middle & passive

singular

dual

1st person d:rr6AA.u~ a'l1'0,,Au!l,fil_

2nd person a'lT6A.A.us_ a'lT6A.A.uom

3rd person a·«6XX.uoi ,b6AA.UTUL_

2nd person ci1r6Ai1.U1Qli. ciir6AAu<r0ov

3rd person ciir6At..UTOV ci116t..t..u0"0ov

plural

!st person a,roA.A.utJ,fill U'lTOAAoµ,<E0o.

2nd person U'lToAAuT<E a,r6AAuo-0re.

3rd person 0. 1TO/\l\. \J0.01, 1hroA./\UVTUL

e:

Reference list of Verb Endings & Irregular Verbs 407

Verbs ending •µ,L active and middle/passive endings

Imperfect tense (pp.77 & 80)

active

middle (& passive)

singular 1st person ar.tilAAuy U.'ITWhh\J~

2nd person a'ITtilAAus_ O.'ITtilAhU<YO

3rd person a'IT©AAu O.'ITtilAAU'l"O

dual 2nd person <i.11'oSAAu1Ql!. <i.11'oSAAuo0ov

3rd person li1fWAAU!'.Q]!. <i.11'(l)AAU.

plural 1st person U.'ITliJhAU!l&]l d 'ITlllAAuy,E0a

2nd person cbrtiJAAu-re a'ITtiJAAucr0E

3rd person U.'ITWhAU0'0,1/ a'lTtilAAwro

Present subjunctive <i.11'0},Auw (active) and.l.-;roAAuwpm (middle&passive)

(as -w verbs). (p.140)

Present optative d.1ToAAuoLµ.L (active) and d.1ToAAuolµ.11v(middle & passive)

(as -w verbs). (p.156)

Present imperative

hoAAu destroy! (singular)

o.'ll'oAAu!Q!. let him, her, it destroy!

li1foAAu.!ID! destroy, both of you!

d.1?0AM-rwv let them both destroy!

o.1ToAAu.!§. destroy! (plural)

o.1foAM~ let them destroy!

o.1ToAAuao destroy for yourself, be destroyed!

hoXXuoSw let him, her, it destroy for himher-

itself, be destroyed!

li1ToXXuoSov destroy for both your sakes, be

destroyed!

a'll'oAMoSwvlet them destroy for both their

sakes, both be destroyed!

a'll'oAAuo{h, destroy for yourselves, be

destroyed!

<i1foAAuo0wJL let them destroy for themselves,

be destroyed!


Verbs ending -µ,~ active and middle/passive endings

Present participle active (p.104)

a:rro/\AVWV, c11ro/\/\uouo-a, o:rr6/\/\uov or (l'iTO/\/\u,, (l'TfO/\/\uo-a, (l'TfO/\/\uv

But note that some verbs ending -uµt only have present participles ending -u,, -fou.

-uv e.g. OELKVUS, OElKVUO'U, OElKvuv: showing and KEpavvu,, 1<Epavvuo-u, KEpavvuv: mixing.

q>11(-l,t

Present indicative (p.22) Imperfect (p.78) 12

<p'TJµ,t I am affirming E/4JTJV I affirmed

q>~s you are affirming (singular) 13 e/4)'1]S you affirmed

/4)TJo{ he, she, it is affirming &<!>TJ he, she, it affirmed

qio:r611 you are both affirming &qiawv you both affirmed

qin1·6v they are both affirming kq,&.TI]v they both affirmed

/4)aµ.tv we are affirming &<J>aµ,Ev we affirmed

<j>a .... ~ you are affirming (plural) &4>a-r<E you affirmed

cpao{ they are affirming <i&/4)acmv they affirmed

(q>1JfJ.L, q>1JO"L(v), qiaµEv, qia-rE and qiuo-L(v) are enclitic.)

Infinitive (p.49)

4>6.vm to affirm

Participle (in prose) qio.cmwv <po.cmouo-u, qi&mcov like .\uwv .\uouo·a .\uov

(p.104)

Imperative (p.185)

lj>u0t

lj>a'l"W

qio.-rov

qio.-rwv

4>chE

qia.v"i"wv

affirm! (singular)

let him, her, it affirm!

affirm, both of you!

Jet them both affirm!

affirm! (plural)

let them affirm!

Optative (p.154) 14

<j>atTJv Othat I might affirm!

qmLTJS Othat you might affirm (sing.)

qmLTJ Othat he, she, it might affirm!

qia'i,V,EV Othat we might affirw

[<j>at11-r,s) Othat you might affirm (plu.)

<j)m-sv Othat they might affirm

12This is the only past tense of q>11fJ.L, and so is sometimes used to express a complete

action in the past.

13Iota subscript may come from a primitive form ending -at (Smyth, para.463b).

14The dual of the optative of q>1JfJ.L is not found.

Reference List of Verb Endings 8, Irregular Verbs 409

Subjunctive (p.141)

9)TJf1L continued

~v,L verbs with stems ending ~a 9 -E or -o - active endings15

'lcn·TJµ,L ( a stem), -rt8'T}µ,L( E stem) and 8t3wiJ,L ( o stem)

(irregular in the 12resent. w-11erfect and aorist)

Presem indicative active(p.308)

singular

'lcYTT}µ,L I am setting up

'lO'TTJS you are settting up ot8ws

'l<Y'TTJOt(v) he, she, it

is setting up

dual

fl{J"fa-rov you both set up

tO"'rawv they both set up

plural

'lO"raµ,<£11 we are setting up

'linaw, you are settting up

l<Y'TUO't.(11) they are setting

up

8(8w~~L I am giving

you are giving

or.8wcn(v) he/she/it

is giving

ot8ornv you both give

SUlo-rov they both give

otl\oµ,Ev we are giving

8t3o-rE you are giving -.i.0E'l'E you are putting

01-Mao·1,( v) they are ·n0,:;o,cn( 11} they arc

giving

putting

Present imperative active (p.311)

singular

'lo-TIJ set up! SUlou give! '!'WEL put!

-rUhJµ,L I am putting

, Av,. 16

'l'i,v,1S

.

you are puttrng

'l'L&r]cn(v) he/she/it

is putting

-rWerov you both put

-rt0erov they both put]

'l'Weµ,Ev we are puttting

lcno:rw let him/her/it OL86-rw let him/her/it -.-i0,hw let him/her/it

set up give put

dual

LO'TaTov may you both olSo-rov may you both -rt0<E-rov may you both

set up give put

lcml:roov let them both ot86-roov let them both -r,0e-roov let them both

set up give put

plural

'lo-ra'l'E set up! 8l8o-rE give! TWETE put!

lo-ro.v'l'wv let them 8Lo61nwv let them 'l'~0EvTwv let them

set up give put

15

These verbs are reduplicated in the present and imperfect: .llicowµt, :tl.&!]µ•, fo-r11µ•.

k-r11µt stands for ci,<r-r'T]µL.

16

Plato prefers -rt0E1s, but -rW11s occurs twice ( Theae1etus 184e and 186a).


otowv,L, -.t871µ,L & 'LaTIJp,t - active endings

Present infinitive acUve (p.309)

LaT<iVaL to set up

1k86vaL to give

TL0~viu to put

Imperfect active (p.312)

singular

'laTI)v I was setting up 17

'la'i"TJS you were setting up

'lo-r71 he/ she/it was

setting up

dual

i'.o--rmov you were both

setting up

l<M"a."MJV they were both

setting up

plural

'i.aTaµ,ev we were setting up

'(aTa'iE you were setting up

&8i,8ouv I was giving

&Wlouc; you were giving

&8'-Sou he/she/it was

giving

&&lSo-rov you were

both giving

el\LM-r11v they were

both giving

&St8oµ,ev we were giving

ir;:otoo•re you were giving

hte11v I was putting

ETL ' '0 e,s you were putting

hWH he/she/it was

putting

hWE-rov you were

both putting

ETL0E"MJV they were

both putting

hteeµ,ev we were putting

&•rW1cT<E you were putting

'laTaaav they were &ot8oaav they were hWeaav they were

setting up giving putting

Present subjunctive active (p.309) of \'.u-r11µ,l and TWwlis like the present

subjunctive ofAi'iw (p.140) but the present subjunctive ofo[owµ,l is:

OLOw 9 OLO(jl, 9 OLOIJ> 9 8c8wµ,ev 9 8,owTe 9 OLowaL(v ). The 2nd and 3rd person du;1l (not

found in Plato) is llL&w-rov.

Present optative active (p.310)

OLOOL'ljV Othat I might give! n0e(71v 0 that I might put!

1kooL'ljS Othat you might give! TL0eh1s Othat you might put!

~ILOOL'lj Othat he/she/it might TL0E(.1j Othat he/she/it might

give!

put!

lk&o'i-rov 0 that you both might give TL0a-rov O that you both might put

ll.&olT1]V 0 that they both might give -rd:M"MJv O that they both might put

f:C

OLOOLfJ,EV Othat we might give! 'l'L0e'iµ,ev Othat we might put!

OLOOL'TE Othat you might give! '!'L0EL1'E Othat you might put1

OLOOLEV Othat they might give! ·n0aev Othat they might put!

171n the imperfect, Lis augmented and so is pronounced long.


411

present optative.active

' I

W'iaVIJV

La'TaL11s

• I

LCY'TUL'lj

. ~

' LO''TO.I.TOV "

lcnaL-r11v

' ~

LCY'TaL'T<E

LCY'iUL<Ell

Othat I might set up!

Othat you might set up!

Othat he/she/it might set up!

0 that you both might set up

0 that they both might set up

Othat we might set up!

Othat you might set up!

Othat they might set up!

Present participle active (p.311)


giving

singular

Nominative OLOoOc; lkoofoa OlOOV

Accusative ~>L001J'TU OLOOU()'(!,11 oto611

Genitive OL66V'TOS OLOOOITTJS OLOOV'TOS

Dative OLOOll'iL Ol,001JO"'(} OLOOV'TL

dual

nom&acc OL86VTE 11Looucm lk86n,;

gen & dat OL&\v-roLv OLOOUO"aLV OLOOVTOLV

plural

Nominative OL66V'T<ES lk8ouam OLObll'm

Accusative OLOOV'TUS OLOOtlffO.S OLobv-ra

Genitive 8tOOV'TWV OLOoum:ilv OLo6v-rwv

Dative Stooucn(v) O!.OOUCYULS OLOouat(v)

412

singular

No1ninative to·7&.s

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

< I

W"J'CWTa

' UY'i"UV"l'OS I

' LCY'TO.V'TL I


setting up

' unao-av '

to---rao-ris

' I

l,(Y'f(l,O'Q

e I

LO-'f0.11

' I

w-rav

' I

W"iCLVTOS

e I

WTCl,1/TL

dual

nom &ace

gen &dat

e

I

LO"TClll'TE

' LO"T0,1/'TOLV '

'

urTClO"Cl '

'\.0'7aOULV

I

'

'

'

'

LO"TClVTE

LO"'W.VTOW

plural

Nominative lo-rO.v-rEs

Accusative

' I

w-rav·n1s

Genitive

Dative

' I

LO'TUV'(WV

Liniiuc(v)

singular

Nominative n0Ets

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

dual

nom &ace

gen &dat

plural

TL0&vTa

-r1,0Evrns

Tt.0Ev·n

,.,,.0kv-ro:

-r1.0£v-ro1..v

Nominative TL0&v-rEs

Accusative ·n0Ev--ras

Genitive -n6enwv

Dative ,.~ea1n(v)

'

LO-'fUO-aL '

e I

unao-as

'

W"TO.<YWV '

< I

l,(Y'j"(),(Y(l,I,\,

-r1.0E'i.o-a

Tt.06.mw

·n6EL0-1)S

·n0.;{crg

putting

TL0ELO"Cl

·rc0EtO"ClLV

Tl.0El.O-O.i,

--ri0eto-as

-n0ewrov

-r1,8eto-a1.s

' L<Y'fO,VTU I

' I UYT0,1/TU

'

I

LO'TUVTWV

to-'fiio-L( 11)

-rt.0.sv

1·1.0.sv

·n0Ev-ros

TL0EVTL

·r1..0Ev-rE

'fL8€VTOLV

'fL0EVTU

Tl.0EVTU

•n0eVTWV

TL0El.O-l.( V)

The fu wre of St&wµ,1, is Swo-w (I shall give), of ,--t&qµ,1. is 0~o-w (I shall put), and

of'L<YTI]µ,L is a-r~aw (I shall set up), all like Mo-w (I shall loose) (p.132). 18

18 o-T~crw, the future offoT'TJfLL, is not found in Plato.


Aorist indicative active (p.313)

In the aorist indicative active of 8Ulwµ,L and 'f'-&riru the singular is weak and

contains a long vowel, while the dual, plural and imperatives are strong

and contain a short vowel.

singular

l8wKa I gave ie-~rn I put

l8WKUS you gave E01j1cas you put

l8wKE(v) he/she/it gave E01jKE(v) he/she/it put

dual

is3o-rov you both gave E0E1'0V you both put

&MT"]V they both gave &0,h-11v they both put

plural

llSoj.LEV we gave tE0Eµ,EV we put

~So'fE you gave E0E'fE you put

E80<Yl1V they gave l0E<YUV they put

Aorist imperative active (p.314)

86s give! ( 2nd person singular) 04, put! ( 2nd person singular)

86-rw let him, her, it give 0E'fw let him, her, it put

8,hov give, both of you! 0,hov put, both of you!

o6T(J)V let them both give 0&-rwv let them both put

ob-re give! ( 2nd person plural) 0E',E put! ( 2nd person plural)

Mv'fwv let them give 0,Ell'!'(l)V let them put

Aorist subjunctive active (p.313)

singular

ow

I may give, let me give

you may give

he/she/it may give,

1 may put, let me put

you may put

he/she/it may put

dual

OWTOV

OWTOV

you may both give

they may both give

you may both put

they may both put

plural

800µ.Ev let us give, we may give

Ooo'l'E you may give

owaL(v) they may give

0wµ.Ev

O,j'l'E

0w<YL(v)

let us put,we may put

you may put

they may put


otowµ,L & 'fL!hJµt - aorist active

Aorist optaUve active (p.314)

singular

80(71v Othat I might give 0eL-r1v Othat I might put

oot'l]s Othat you might give

0EL'l]S

Othat you might put

ool'T] Othat he/she/it might give 0et'IJ Othat he/she/it might put

dual

l>ot:rov O that you both might give

&tTIJv O that they both might give

0 that you both might put

0 that they both might put

plural

OoLµ,ev

OoL'iE

OoLEV

Othat we might give

Othat you might give

Othat they might give

Aorist infinitive active (p.313)

0aµ,ev

0a'TE

0eLE11

Othat we might put

Othat you might put

Othat they might put

00U110.L to give 0avm to put

Aorist active participles (p.313) 19

8ous9 ooilo-119 8011 giving, having given

8ELS9 8ao-119 0ev

putting, having put

'LO"'f'IJ1-u - aorist active

Strong aorist of 'i.a-rlJp,L (p.320) Weak aorist of't<rrrJµL(p.319)

singular

EO"'i'l]V

EO"T'l]S

<EO"'i'IJ

dual

EOTI)'l"OV

E'.O'TIJTI)V

plural

Ea'f'l]!J,EV

fo-r'IJTE

EO"T'TJO"a.v

I stood

you stood

he/she/it stood

you both stood

they both stood

we stood

you stood

they stood

EO''l''T]O"ll

EO"'l"'l]O"U',

EO"T'T]O"E

&a'i~aap,ev

e.o-T~ao. -re

EO"'i'l]o-av

Err'f11oa.1·ov

E<rTIJcr6.TIJv

I set up

you set up

he/she/it set up

we set up

you set up

they set up

fonpuv is 3rd person plural both of foT110-u and foT1JV.

19Their endings are like oCoou, and T[0El<;.

you both set up

they both set up .;t


'LaTIJf1L - aorist active

415

Strong aorist imp,eraUve(p.320)Weak aorist imperative (p.320)

O''fft0i stand! (singular) O'T'TjO'OV set up! ( singular)

O'TIJTW ' let him/her/it stand! O'T110"Cl'f(l) ' let him/her/it set up

<TTTJTOV stand, both of you! O'T'IJCYUTOV set up, both of you!

<TTIJTWV let them both stand! CY1'1)CYO,T'l)V let them both set up

<T'i"'TITE stand! (plural) O'T'l]O'Cl'fE ' set up! (plural)

O''i"UVTWV ' let them stand O'TTJO"Ct ' V'i"WV let them both set up

Strong aorist infinitive (p.320) Weak aorist infinitive (p.320)

a-r71vuL to stand

The participle of E<Y'i"'YJV (p.320) is

0--.710-at to set up

a-ras 9 a-raaa 9 a-rav standing, having stood.

The participle of fonpa. (p.320) is

cr-r~aas 9 a-r~cra.cru 9 oTftaav setting up, having set up

Both are declined like aKoucra,, aKoucracm, aKouCJav (p.123).

The subjunctive of &o--r11v (p.321) The subjunctive of fo,c11ao. (p.321)

singular

a'fw let me stand, I may stand O"'f1]0'(1) ' let me set up, I may set up

<Y'i"]S you may stand

m~a11c; you may set up

<T'l"'U he/she/it may stand

O"'f1]0"1) ' he/she/it may set up

dual

O't'J]TOll

crri\-rov

you may both stand

they may both stand

O'T'IJCMJTOV

O""M]ITTJ'TOV

you may both set up

they may both set up

plural

cr-rwµ,Ev Jet us stand, we may stand

a-rft-rie you may stand

cr-riilcn( v) they may stand

O"TIJ<TWµ,Ev let us set up, we may set up

O''i~CJ'l]TE you may set up

O-'i"~crwcrt( v) they may set up


The optative of fo .. 1111 (p.321)

singular

amt11v Othat I might stand

a-rat11s Othat you might stand

o·-ro.t11 Othat he/she/it might stand 20

dual

o-TaLTov O that you might both stand

O"i'o.L'M]v O that they might both stand

plural

a'l'a'.i.[.1,EV Othat we might stand

'LaTTJ[LL - aorist active

The optative of &o"r'IJou (p.321)

O''l'~m:uµL Othat I might set up

arriaaLs Othat you might set up

arriacu Othat he/she/it might set up

<n~o-avrov O that you might both set up

cn'l'Jo-aL'M]v O that they might both set up

CY'l'1JCY1nµ,<Ev Othat we might set up

O''l'(U'TE Othat you might stand (plural) aTqaat'TE Othat you might set up

cr-ra'.i.Ev Othat they might stand

a-r~mww Othat they might set up

The perfect active of St8wµ,c 9 ,,te'l]µL (MowKa 9 '!'E81J1rn.) is like 11.Drn1m (see

pp. 316 & 402).

The perfect active indicative of 'lo,·'l]µ,t 9 ECY'i"IJIW,: I am standing (pp.9land

322).21

singular

dual

plural

ECY'i''l]K(I,

EO'TiJtrn.s

EO''T'YJKE

Ecr-ro..1·ov

Ecr'I'a-rov

ecr1·a11Ev

Ecr-ra-re

EO''l'O.O'L(V)

I am standing

you arc standing

he/she/it is standing

you are both standing

they are both standing

we are standing

you arc standing

they are standing

Perf ecl infinitive aclive of lo"r'l]µ,t(p.322)

&cr'!'a.vaL: to stand.

20The dual is not found in Plato.

21 Except for 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons singular, it is mostly formed from fomoinstead

of EOTTJK-.


417

Perfect participle active: standing (p.322)

usually

singular

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

plural

Nominative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

(sometimes) EO"Tl)KW,, EO"Tl)KULa., EO"r1)1<6,.

masculine feminine

' I EO"'TlllS

(£0'',(J)'j"(l.

. ~

' ~

EO"T(J)TOS

,;;(Y'(WCYUV

<EO'TWO"TJS

(' ,.._ (' '

E<YTW'rL

EO"TWCT"(J

The dual is not found in Plato.

'

E<YTWTES

E.CJTW'TO.S

'

EO"TW<YO.~

t I

EO'T(J)O"O.S

' I EO"'i(J)'TW11

EO"'il!lO"W11

' ~

E0"1"W(JL

O I

ECJTW<YO.LS

neuter

e I

EO'TOS

t I

EO"'fOS

' ~

E<YTWTU

E<YTWTa

' I

E<YTWTWV

Pluperfect active of'lm11p,1, (p.259)

singular

~{O'T~GC'lj

ElO'T~GC'VJS

ELO'T~OC•H

dual

Eo·'i·o.:rov

EO'TCLTIJV

plural

&crmp,Ev

ECJTO.TE

EO'TO.CJ!IV

I was standing

you were standing

he/she/it was standing

you were both standing

they were both standing

we were standing

you were standing

they were standing


6U3wµ,L, ,-t&qµ,L & 'LaTIJµ,L middle & passive

Present indicative middle/passive of 8(8wµ,L, -n&ru1L and 'lcrrqµ,L (p.308)

singular

otooµ,aL J am being given, 22

giving for myself

8t8oaaL you are being given,

giving for yourself

8t8o-raL he/she/it is being given, -rWira-rm

giving for him/her /itself

dual

8(Sooilov you are both being given,

giving for yourselves

Wlooilov

they are both being given,

giving for themselves

plural

8.o611e0a. we are being given,

giving for ourselves

8t8ocr0e you are being given,


8toov'iaL

they are being given,


Tt8e11at I am being put,

putting for myself

you are being put,

putting for yourself

he/she/it is being put,

putting for him/her/itself

,{0eoilov you are both being put,

putting for yourselves

Trneo8ov they are both being put,

putting for themselves

'iL0k11e0a we are being put,

putting for ourselves

,{0ea0e you are being put,


'it0ev-rm they are being put,


singular

fo7a.11at

'la'iaam

'lcno:rm

dual

'lomoilov

lo-raoilov

plural

tcr,-&.11e:6a.

'lcr·mcr0e:

'laTaVTll.L

I am being set up, setting up for myself

you are being set up, setting up for yourself

he/she/it is being set up, setting up for

him/her/itself

you are both being set up, setting up for yourselves

they are both being set up, setting up for themselves

we are being set up, setting up for ourselves

you are being set up, setting up for yourselves

they are being set up, setting up for themselves.

22Meaning "I am being given (away)", not "something is being given to me".

Reference list of Verb Endings & Irregular Verbs

419

Present subjunctive middle/passive (p.309)

singular

8Lowµm I may give for myself, be given 23 -n0wµ.m I may put for

myself, be put

8L81lJ you may give for yourself, -n&fj you may put

8Low·nu

dual

oL8oocrtlov

lkowd,lov

plural

8Lotilµ.<E0a

8L8wcr0<E

8t8wno,i

be given

he/she/it may give for

him/her/itself, be given

you may both be given, give for

yourselves

they may both be given, give for

themselves

let us give for ourselves,

be given

you may give for yourselves,

be given

they may give for themselves,

be given

for yourself, be put

·n&i]Ta.L he/she/it may put for

him/her/itself, be put

·n8~crtlo11 you may both be put, put

for yourselves

·n~o-Oov they may both be put, put

for themselves

'!"L0wµ.E0a. let us put for ourselves,

be put

'TL~cr0<E you may put for

yourselves, be put

they may put for

themselves,be put

singular

la-rwµ.a~

ta,-~

L<ITTj'l"UL

dual

lcrtjcrtlov

lcrtjd,lov

plural

Lcr-rwµ.<E0a

t<J"1"-i\cr0<E

' ~ UY'fWV'l"UL

I may set up for myself, be set up

you may set up for yourself, be set up

he/she/it may set up for him/her/itself, be set up

you may both set up for yourselves, be set up

they may both set up for themselves, be set up

let us set up for ourselves, be set up

you may set up for yourselves, be set up

they may set up for themselves, be set up

230r"let me give for myself, be given" if first person command.

0


6Uli.i 11u, nll11nu & fo,11µ.t middle & passive

Present optative middle/passive (p.310)

singular

l>toOL!J.1'111

lliBo'i.o

6tllo'i.TO

dual

6L6o'i.u9ov

l>L6o[a®l]!i

plural

6tllolµd:loi

lli8o'i.o-0ic:

6~6oiv.o

O that I might give for myself, be given!

O that you might give for yourself, be given!

O that he/she/it might give for him/her/itself, be given!

0 that you might both give for yourselves, be given!

0 that they might both give for themselves, be given!

0 that we might give for ourselves, be given!

0 that you might give for yourselves, be given!

0 that they might give for themselves, be given!

singular

n01El!JLiJV

nO<Eio

n01Ei,o

dual

n0ci0'0ov

'i"L9E[U01]!1

plural

nlldft<EOfK

n9i{i.o'll<E

n0<EtV,O

0 that I might put for myself, be put!

0 that you might put for yourself, be put!

0 that he/she/it might put for him/her/itself, be put!

0 that you might both put for yourselves, be put!

0 that they might both put for themselves, be put!

0 that we might put for ourselves, be put!

0 that you might put for yourselves, be put!

0 that they might put for themselves, be put!

singular

lO'rnLµijv

ia,ruo

LO'TOiiTO

dual

ia,ai.u0ov

lo--ra[<10l]V

plural

larnf.µ.<E0oi

LIJTO!LmllE

lo-,ruvro

0 that I might set up for myself, be set up!

0 that you might set up for yourself, be set up!

0 that he/she/it might set up for him/her/itself, be set up!

0 that you might both set up for yourselves, be set up!

0 that they might both set up for themselves, be set up!

0 that we might set up for ourselves, be set up!

0 that you might set up for yourselves, be set up!

0 that they might set up for themselves, be set up!

~


421

Imperfect middlelpassivei_p.312)

singular

e8L00~,'•1V I was being given,

giving for myself

e8U1oo·o you were being given,

giving for yourself

he/she/it was being given, ht0,ero

giving for him/her/itself

dual

&lltlloo-llov you were both being given,


elko6a1}qv they were both being given,

giving fonhemselves

plural

e8L◊oµE0a we were being given,

giving for ourselves

e8U\ocr0E

e8(Sov-ro

you were being given,


they were being given,


ht0Eµ:!]v I was being put,

putting for myself

you were being put,

putting for yourself

he/she/it was being put,

putting for him/her/itself

hWEo-llov you were both being put,


&n0Eo-ll1Jv they were both being put,


ht8Eµ,E8a we were being put,

putting for ourselves

i,{8,rn·0E you were being put,


hWEv'TO they are being put,


singular

tcnaµ:rp,

lcrrmro

dual

'l,no.o-llov

l.o--rCLo&rtv

plural

l.a'!'aµ.e0a

fo-racr0e

'l<Y'TCl,V'TO

I was being set up, setting up for myself

you were being set up, setting up for yourself

he/she/it was being set up, setting up for

him/her/it.self

you were both being set up, selling up for yourselves

they were both being set up, setting up for themselves

we were being set up, setting up for ourselves

you were being set up, setting up for yourselves

they were being set up, setting up for themselves


SlBu!i.u, 'lillvuu & [l)),1'))iJLt middle & passive

Present imperative middle/passive (p.311) 24

singular

fonxcro be set up! S(Boi'.l'o be given! ,WE«YO be put!

set up for yourselfl give for yourself1 put for yourself!

la,du:r0eu let him/her !Mocr0u! let him/her n0ecrllw let him/her

be set up, set up

for him/herself

plural

io',acrllf be set up!

set up for yourselves!

lanxcr0rov let them

be set up, let them

set up for themselves

be given,

give for him/herself

Si8oa0t.: be given!

give for yourselves!

l>L6oa0euv let them

be given, let them give

for themselves

Present infinitive middle/passive (p.3O9)

fo'nm0on to set up for oneself, to be set up

8Llloall1u to give for oneself, to be given

,i81corll1n to put for oneself, to be put

Present participles middle/passive (p.311 ) 25

be put,

put for him/herself

,la,w01c be put!

put for yourselves!

nllicrlloov let them

be put, let them put

for themselves

tl))ii!f!EVOS, li,'faµellfi], tCi'Till!l-fYO!I setting up for oneself, being set up

Stlloµevos, 6t8oµev11, tMoµIEVOII being given, giving for oneself

n0Eµoos, nll1cµEJJiJ, nGeµoov being put, putting for oneself

Perfect Middle/Passive of laTIJµt, SLll(!)JJu, ,t0111.u

Perfect middle/passive of S[Swµ.1 is BESoµ.11.t: J have given for myself, been given,

like).EAuµm, the perfect middle/passive ofAuw (p.92), but only found in

Plato in 3rd person singular (oEoornL) and infinitive (oE'oooilm).

Perfect passive of ,t8111u is 11'.aµm: I have been put(see p.316)

The perfect middle/passive offonuu is not found.

24 The duals are: tarna0ov ( 2nd person), laTaa0wv ( 3rd person)

6[6oa0ov (2nd person), 6t86a0wv (3rd person)

Tl0w0ov (2nd person), n0fo0wv (3rd person)

25 All declined like !,,uoµEvos-, !,,uoµEvq, !,,uoµEvov.


423

8l8111p.i & ,lll111u - aorist middle

,Aorist indicative mk!dle (p.314)

singular

E8op.filll

e6ot1

ello-ro.

I gave for myself

you gave for yourself

he/she/it gave for him/her/itself

dual

l8oa9ov. you both gave for yourselves

i86a911v they both gave for themselves

plural

E6op.da we gave for ourselves

ellocrlJE you gave for yourselves

ellovTo they gave for themselves

Aorist imperative middle (p.315)

lloii give for yourself

lloa0ro let him/her/it give

for him her/itself

86a9ov give for yourselves, both of you

86cr8111v

let them both give for themselves.

86a9e give for yourselves

6oa8wv let them give for themselves

ie81Ell,'IJ!I I put for myself

ello11 you put for yourself

ellllE-ro he/she/it put for

him/her/itself

l8ea9ov you both put for yourselves.

i\:8ea9iiv they both put for themselves

i9teµe9a we put for ourselves

e9ea8e you put for yourselves

i9ElllTO they put for themselves

put for yourself

let him/her/it put

for him/her/itself

9ea9ov put for yourselves,

both of you

9fo9111v let them both put for

themselves.

llfo9e put for yourselves

9fo911lv let them put for themselves

Aorist infinitive middle (p.315)

66a0aL to give for oneself

9ea0cn

to put for oneself

Aorist middle participles (p.315)2 6

8o1,L1EVOS', IIOJlElll'I, BoµEll/Olll giving, having given for oneself

0ep.evos, 9EµEJ11J, 8eµ11:vov putting, having put for oneself

26 Their endings are like 6l6ovs and T[8EL,.


Aorist subjunctive middle (p.315)

singular

Swµ,m I may give, let me give for myself 0w[J,m I may put, let me put for

04\ you may give for yourself

Sw-mL he/she/it may give

for him/her/itself

dual

8wu{)ov you may both give for yourselves

owu{)ov they may both give for themselves

plural

owµ,e0o. let us give, we may give

for ourselves

8Ja0e you may give for yourselves

owv'l'm they may give for themselves

myself

you may put for yourself

he/she/it may put

for him/her/itself

&ijo-llov you may both put for yourselve

811u{)ov they may both put for themselves

0wµ,e0a.

0~a0,s:

0wv-ru.L

let us put,we may put

for ourselves

you may put for yourselves

they may put for themselves

Aorist optative middle (p.315)

singular

ootµ:11v Othat I might give for myself

0etµ,'l]v Othat I might put for myself

oo'io Othat you might give for yourself 0efo Othat you might put for yourself i

001:rn Othat he/she/it might give

for him/her/itself

0:a-ro Othat he/she/it might put

for him/her/itself

dual

OOLo-0ov O thal you both might give for yourselves 0,ii:u{)ovO that you both might put for

yourselves

ooto-011v O that they both mighl give

8Eto-011v O that they both might put

for themselves

for themselves

plural

8o1.µ,e0o. Othat we might give

for ourselves

8o'i.o.flE Othat you might give

8o'i.v-ro

for yourselves

Othat they might give

for themselves

0etµ,,s0o. Othat we might put

for ourselves_,

\:'(,

0-acr(k Othat you might put

for yourselves

Sano Othat they might put

for themselves


425

'L-qµ,t (I send) I utter(p.324)

(found mostly in compounds e.g. cruvL1Jµ.L: I understand and i<j>LE.µ.uL: I seek)

present indicative active middle/passive

.,

Singular, lstperson L'ljlJ,L

'leµ.cu

2nd person

3rd person

Dual 2nd person

3rd person

Plural 1st person

2nd person

3rd person

'l11s

t'ljO'L(V)

'Le-rov

ie'fOV

'leµ,ev

'lere

fom(v)

'leout

LE'l'a.L

'leo0ov

teollov

teµ.e&

'leotle

'£e11'l"O.L

imperfect indicative active

Singular 1st person

Dual

2nd person

3rd person

2nd person

3rd person

Plural 1st person

2nd person

3rd person

ti rl 27

L'ljV OTLIEtV

LTJS

Lewv

tl'M}V

'leµ,ev

'£E'TE

'l<EO'O.V


Singular lstperson

Dual

2nd person

3rd person

2nd person

3rd person

Plural lstperson

2nd person

3rd person

. ~

L(I)

tils

t11

tij-rov

li]'l'OV

troµ.ev

L1]TE

LroO'L(v)

middle/ passive

LEIJ,'T)V

'leao

.,

LE'TO

'leollov

tfoll1JV

te11-e8a.

'l1ea8e

.,

LIEVTO

middle/ passive

troµ.a.t

t11

L'J]Ta.L

t,jcr&v

L,jollov

ti.:i11-e8a

L1]a0E

'~

LOOVT(l.t

27Found in ~<j>Lm: I was uttering from ciq,L'l]fl.L at Euthydemus 293al.


111µ,L (I send) I utter

(The present optative is not found in Plato.)

present imperative active middle/passive

2 singular l£L

,,

3 singular

LETW

2 dual 'lerov

3dual

'' LETffill

2 plural lE7E

,,

3 plural

LEV'i'WV

'LEO"O

UaBw

i'.Ea6011

Lia6m11

present infinitive active

middle/passive

'leaBcu

present participle active

'

LEUYO.

~

L,s.v (like n0ELS, p.412)

.,

LE[J,€1/OS

middle/ passive

LE[J,EVOV

Plural

1st person

aorist aorist

indicative indicative

active middle

~Ka

2nd person ~1ms

3rd person ~KE(v)

Dual

2nd person ELTov

3rd person E'lTIJv

Plural

1st person elµ,ev

2nd person ehe

3rd person elcmv

Elo-8ov

EL<J01]V

aorist

subjunctive

active

J11ev

[~TOV]

[~Tov]

~TE

IYL(v)

aorist

subjunctive

middle

[tiiµ,m]

[~]

[~wt]

Ho-8ov]

[~0-8011]

[wµ,e0a]

[~o0e]

[tiiVTm]

le~


'l.'l)µ,L (I send) I utter

427

aorisf: aorist aorist aorist

optative optative imperative imperative

active middle active middle

Singular

1st person E('ljV EL(.l,'l)V

2nd person il'IJS [EloJ Es OU •

?

3rd person il11

EVro

e,.w fo0w

Dual

.

2nd person Et,1"0V Elcr8ov E-rov fo8ov

3rd person ELTIJV Efo81]V &-rwv fo8wv

Plural

1st person aµ.<Ev • <i(µ,E0a

2nd person <Et'!'€ • ELcr0E €TE Ecr0E

3rd person ELEV ELVTO • <EV'l'WV fo0wv

aorist infinitive active

•

28

<ELVUL

middle

[lfo{:)m]

aorist participle active middle

<i[s EL<m Ev Ef.LEVOS <Ef.1,<EV'lj ' ' .eµ.1cvov

The aorist passive is il&rJv, conjugated in every respect like &M0'1Jv.

future indicative active

11crw (like A:Ocrro)

middle

11croµ.ai (like Aucroµ,ai)

The future indicative passive is E(}qaoµ,at, conjugated like

Au(}qcroµ.m.

perfect indicative active

ELK a (like /1.eAuKa)

middle/passive

elµ.aL (like XD.uµ.aL)

The perfect participle active is not found in Plato. The perfect

participle middle/passive is <ilµ.1cvo, Elµ,kv11 ilµ,Evov.

28The rough breathing distinguishes ElvaL from ELvaL: to be.


elµ,L: I (shall) go (pp.330-1)

Present indicative Imperfect

elµt I (shall) go ~u 29 I was going, went

el you (will) go iJewBa or ta, you were going, went

elaL(v)he, she, it (will) go iJew or i)eL he/she/it was going,

went

['(,Tov

[(TOv

you (will) both go]

they (will) both go]

[~-rov

trqv

you both went]

they both went

tµ,ev we (shall) go

'C-re you (will) go

ta.ai(v) they (will) go.

i]µ,ev

[~TE

~aav

we were going, went

you were going, went]

they were going, went 30

The other parts of ELµ.L are all formed on the stem t-.

Subjunctive

Optative

L<l.l I may go [tOLf1L orLoL11v Othat I might go]

i'.11s you may go '[oLs Othat you might go!

'£11 he/she/it may go LOL Othat he/she/it might go

The dual is not found in Plato.

Llil(-LEV let us go!

1,0L(-LEV Othat we might go

\'.'T)'i'E

'[wai(v)

Imperative

you may go

let them go

go! (singular)

let him/her/it go!

Infinitive t<kvcu toga.

LoL'TE

h-E

Othat you might go

Othat they might go

go! (plural)

LOV'rwv or tTwauv 31 let them go!

(The duals, i'.Tov (singular), hwv (plural) are not found in Plato.)

Participle twv 9 touaa. 9 L6v going declined like Aa~wv (p. 167)

29Also ~uv, but not in Plato.

30~wav or perhaps ~wav is found at Republic 387a8 and to-av at Republic 389e8, in

quotations from Homer, both meaning they were going.

31 Both found in Plato, '(TWo-av(Laws 765a6 and 925c6) and tbvTwv (Laws 956c4).

Answers

429

~_J_ pseudo, character, stigma, crater, catastrophe, psyche, mania, diagnosis,

phlox, Parthenon, metropolis, catharsis.

Socrates, Thales, Diogenes, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Platon (Plato), Zenon

(Zeno), philosophia (philosophy), dialektike (dialectic), metaphora

(metaphor), schema (scheme), thesauros (thesaurus).

~...1 hyperbole, idea, ethos, helix, Orion, hydra, asthma, hypothesis, hippopotamus,

isosceles, aer (air), horizon.

Page 5.Euphrates, automaton.

rhinoceros, rhododendron.

aristokratia (aristocracy), hypokrites (hypocrite), amphitheatron

(amphitheatre), apatheia (apathy), rhapsodia (rhapsody), ode, austeros

(austere), apoplexia (apoplexy).

Anaxagoras, Heracleitus, Aristoteles (Aristotle), Empedocles, Olympia, lsthmos

(Isthmus)

Page (itaxi, lemonada (lemonade), omelctta (omelette), thermos, salami, hygiene,

dyspepsia, tennis, sandwich.

biographia (biography), biologia (biology), ichthyologia (ichthyology),

psycho logia (psychology), psychiatrikos (psychiatric), mechanikos

(mechanic), barometrikos (barometric), eunouchos (eunuch), ephemeras

(ephemeral), autonomia (autonomy), energeia (energy), theoria (theory).

Page 9 Empcdocles, sumphonia (~ symphonia), parallelogrammos, historia,

paradoxos.

Page 10 1.1 am. 2-l am. 3.1 am a man. 4.He is a man. S.You are. 6.You are a man.

7.He is Socrates orlt is Socrates. 8.Wisdom is a virtue (excellence). 9.Who is it?

10.lt isn't Aristotle. 11.lt is Meno. 12.Who is Perictione? 13.Who are you?

14.1 am not Plato.

l.Arc you Socrates? 2.ls he Socrates? 3.Then Socrates is a man.

Page 13 I.First. 2.Second. 3.Third. 4.Third. 5.First. 6.Second. 7.Third.

8.Second. 9.First. 10.Second. 11.First. 12.Third.

I.Meno is my companion. 2.My sister is not Perictione's companion. 3.0dear!

A bee is in your bonnet ( or, there is a bee in your bonnet). 4.lt is a lie; my

opinion is always correct. 5.lndeed, your argument is not always correct. 6.ls

the man Plato? No. Then he is Aristotle. 7.ls the young man your companion?

No (he is not). 8,What (thing) is excellence (virtue)? ls it wisdom? 9.A

picture of Plato is in the Academy ( or there is a picture of Plato in the

Academy). IO.Why are you always Plato's companion? It is my custom.


P,age 15 I.The good friend. 2.The good sister. 3.The bad road. 4.The other task.

S.Another animal. 6.A bad argument or a bad word. 7.The correct opinion ..

8.The other opinion. 9.The good deed. 10.ls Meno a philosopher? 11.Plato is.

philosopher. 12.Is Perictione a philosopher?

a

Page 16 l.The good companions. 2.The bad deeds. 3.The fine roads. 4.The

philosophical sisters. S.The bad citizens. 6.The (boy) friends. 7.The (girl)

friends. 8.The bad argument.

Page 17 I.The fine (or beautiful) cities. 2.The fine city. 3.The good likeness. 4.The

good likenesses. 5.The other lie. 6.The other lies. 7.The bad children (or

boys). 8.The bad children (or girls). 9.The bad child (or girl). IO.The good

children (or boys).

I.We are handsome. 2.Are you friends? 3.Yes. (We are.) 4.The citizens are

friendly. 5.The sisters are beautiful. 6.The children are not bad. 7 .Are you

good? 8.Our opinions are noble. 9.Therefore we really are philosophers. (NB

fcrµEv) 10.The roads are bad. 11.The picture is good. 12.Philosophy is a good

thing. 13.Man is by nature a political animal (an animal which lives in

"cities", i.e. communities.) 14.Therefore tragedy is imitation of serious action.

IS.Wherefore also the majority of them are impudent cowards.

Page 201. We are saying. 2.You (singular) are saying. 3.He is saying or she is

saying or it is saying. 4.1s he saying? or is she saying? or is it saying? 5.He

does not say or she does not say or it does not say. 6.Plato is saying. 7.What are

they saying? 8.They are not speaking. 9.Who is speaking? 10.The men are

speaking. 11.You (plural) are not speaking. 12.The friends (men) are in

charge. 13. Are the friends (women) in charge? 14.We are in charge. 15.We

are not in charge.

~ 1.We know orwe are perceiving. 2.You are hearing or you are listening

(singular). 3.You are playing (plural). 4.Are they learning or do they

understand? 5.Who is listening? 6.The man is listening. 7.The citizens are in

charge of the slaves. 8.We are not in charge. 9.Aren't you (singular) in

charge? IO.The wise are always willing to learn. 11.0n the one hand, the

philosopher is speaking, on the other hand the citizens are listening.

12.Aren't the children !is tening? It doesn't matter.

~ q,,spw (I am bringing), q>EpEL, (you are bringing), q>EpEL (he, she, it is

bringing), q>EpoµEv (we are bringing), q>EpETE (you are bringing), q>Epoucn(v)

(they are bringing)

@'

oEcKvuµt (I am showing), odKvus (you are showing), oElKvucrL(v) (he, she, it is

showing), oElKvuµEv (we are showing), OELKVUTE (you are showing),

oEu<vuucrt(v) ( they are showing).

1.He or she or it affirms. 2.They affirm. 3.Do you affirm? (plural) 4.Socrates

affirms. 5.The men are listening. 6.The majority affirm. 7.We are destroying.

8.Evil men are destroying the city. 9.Is Socrates corrupting the young men?

10.On the one hand the citizens say so, on the other hand Plato does not say so

(i.e. Plato denies it). 11.Friends bring good things.

Answers 431

£_a2e 24 l.We are ~peakin~, you are lis:enin_g. 2.1 am learning, you are playing.

3.Socrates 1s speakmg, we a:e hstenmg. 4.1~ the road bad? S.My sister says so.

What does she say? She dernes that the road 1s good or She says that the road is

not good. Wha~ do you say? 6.We on the one hand are speaking, you on the

other hand are asleep; so you don't hear. 7.It doesn't matter. 8. We aren't

willing to learn that.

£.agu1 I.Meno himself. 2.The citizen himself. 3.Wisdom itself. 4.The road itself.

5.The work itself. 6.The deeds themselves. 7.The friends themselves.

8.The words themselves. 9.The roads themselves. 10.The sisters themselves.

11.Plato himself is in charge. 12.The sisters themselves are playing. 13.The

students themselves are bringing the (i.e. their) work. 14.I myself am

bringing my work.

~s 26-7 I.The same road. 2.The same friend. 3.The same work. 4.Thc brothers are

doing the same work. 5.The same brothers are doing the work. 6.The brothers

themselves are doing the work. 7.The brothers are saying the same things.

8.What does the sophist say? 9.What do you yourselves say, sisters? 10.It is a

long argument or It is a rigmarole. We ourselves are not listening. 11.On the

one hand, the sophist himself is speaking, on the other hand the students are

not listening. 12.Does the sophist always say the same things? 13.The sophist

himself always says the same things, and we are always asleep. 14.So you

aren't learning.

Pages 27-8 I.The deeds are fine. 2.The deeds are fine. 3.The children are playing.

4.The tasks are difficult. S.The children do not do difficult tasks. 6.Do the

students do difficult tasks? 7.Kind men are in charge of the children. 8.The

tasks are always easy. 9.They do not always do the same tasks. 10.Why aren't

the students listening? They say that the sophists are always saying the same

things. 11."We are not willing to listen," they say. 12.Socrates does not teach,

but Anytus says this (i.e. says that he does). 13.ls virtue a thing that can be

taught? 14.Our perceptions do not say "why" about anything, such as why

fire is hot, but only that it is hot. 15.Heraclcitos says of course that everything

is in movement and nothing stays still. 16. A road up (and a road) down is one

and the same.

Page 29 l.You are bringing (singular). 2.You are in charge. (plural) 3.They are

teaching. 4.We affirm. S.J am destroying. 6.What are you showing to us?

7.What does he/she say? ( literally, What does he/she affirm?) 8.What do they

say? 9.What do you hear? IO.I am saying that he is a friend. 11.Do you hear

that they are friends? 12. He/she is saying that "up" and "down" are the

same. 13. Who says so? 14.Heracleitus himself says so. 15. We are listening.

16.The man himself is in charge. 17.The same man is in charge. 18.We

ourselves are in charge. 19.You are in charge. 20.The same road. 21.Who is

destroying the city? 22.We are not destroying it. 23.The enemy are destroying

it. 24.The tasks are not difficult. 25.Is the work fine? 26. We are not saying

that it is good. 27. We are not saying so. 28.ls your opinion correct? 29.The

sophists say so, but the students don't trust them. 30.Why are you alone always

correct? (Why are you the only one who is always right?) I am different or I

am superior.


.P.a.~ l .He or she or it is doing the work. 2.The citizen is doing the work. 3.The

citizens are performing the business. 4.The doctor has a good reputation; gooct

deeds bring a good reputation. 5.1 don't have another brother. 6. Do you

(plural) have a sister? 7 .Why are you hot? Do you have an illness? 8.Is the

sophist making a long speech? 9.The sophists are training the young man.

IO.They say that wealth brings honour. 11.Does health bring happiness?

12.Where are the young man and his sister? What are they doing?

I.We are discovering the truth orwe know the truth. 2.We are discovering it

orwe know it. 3.The bad sophist does not have honour. 4.He does not have it.

5.The man has a sister. 6.He considers her beautiful. 7.People avoid the doctorthey

consider him bad. 8.Has the philosopher a fine son? 9.The citizens say so'.

IO.The philosopher himself is teaching him. 11. Are the pleasant and the good

the same (thing)? 12.We consider Socrates wise.

~I.Weare mocking (making fun of) the citizens. 2.We are performing the

tasks. 3.The city has bad roads. 4.Socrates has a noble son. 5.He does not have

many children. 6 .. Do you teach children, philosophers? 7.We don't teach

them. 8.Then who teaches them? 9. We teach students; schoolmasters teach

children. 10. We do not teach bad habits here.

Pages 3:i-6 1.1 am mocking you (singular). Z.Are you (singular) mocking me? 3.Are

you (plural) mocking us? 4.We are mocking the man. 5.Who is he? 6.We don't

know him. 7 .Perhaps it is Coriscus. 8.0ur friends are not mocking you

(singular). 9.Where are you (singular)? 10.The sophist is mocking you

(plural). What is he saying? 11.He says that time is not waiting for you

(plural) (i.e. time is not on your side) ; but time and tide wait for nobody.

12.Don't you (singular) consider wisdom a good thing? Don't you say so?

Pages 36-7 I .Then time is not change ( or time is not movement), but (the mean;;) by

which change (or movement) has number. 2.Both the many and the wise

speak of) happiness; however, what is it? Many consider it either pleasaure

or wealth or honour, and others something else ( literally, another thing) -

and often the same man (something) different; if on the one hand he has a

disease he considers happiness health, if on the other hand he is poor, he

considers it wealth. 3.Bees do not differ at all, but they arc absolutely all the

same.

~ I.Are you reading the book? (Yes,) I am reading it. 2.Are you (singular)

making fun of my brother? Isn't my brother handsome? I don't consi<ith'r him

handsome. 3.We have a bad reputation, friends. Why do they consider us bad?

I don't know. 4.Coriscus considers the man foolish; however, Socrates himself

considers him wise. 5.Do the sophists have a good reputation? 6.They don't

(have it). 7.Are you making fun of Coriscus? 8.Coriscus is asleep. 9.Then hr

isn't listening to Socrates' argument. 10.Coriscus is not making fun of

the child. 11.The Achaeans are destroying Troy. 12.You are telling a long tale.

13.You're boring me to death. 14.The young man has bad friends. IS.Does

wisdom bring honour?

Answers

£._,iges 45-6 1.l am being found, getting found or finding for myself. 2.You are

answering. 3.He/she/it is being sai?. 4.We are being held orwe are holding

for ourselves. 5.You (plural) are bemg known or you are getting known.

6.They are being admired. 7 .Thessalians (in general) are admired orthe

Thessalians (in particular) are admired. 8.They say that (the) Thessalians are

noble. 9. (The) Thessalians are called noble.10.How do men (people) become

rich? 11.How is this done? 12.Many people want wealth. 13.Do all bees have

the same appearance? 14.Democritus is called the laughing philosopher.

15.The citizens are arriving. 16.The citizens are lucky; the city is not being

destroyed. 17.PlaLO's image (picture) has a noble appearance. 18.Don't many

people admire it? (mh~v refers to~ ELKwvin no.17.) 19.Howis the truth

discovered? 20.lf virtues are many or if there are many virtues, how are they

known? How do we perceive them? 21.Whatever virtue (excellence) is, is nor

known at all (= the real nature of virtue (excellence) is not known at all).

Page 47 l.This sister. 2.This doctor. 3.This affair. 4.This city. 5.This student.

6.This picture. 7.The student himself. 8.The same sister. 9.This man is

listening. IO.Why does this doctor have a bad reputation? l J.Why isn't he

admired? 12.Why don't you answer? I don't know this. 13.The students

admire this sophist. 14.The citizens admire this city. 15.This task isn't difficult.

It is easy, then.

l.My brother. 2.Your sister. ("you" singular) 3.Your task. ("you" plural)

4.Your children are mocking us or your children are making fun of us. ("you"

plural) 5.This child is not mine; I don't know him. 6.What is this child doing?

7.Why doesn't your brother reply? ("you" singular) 8.How is this task done?

9.How do you do your work? ("you" singular) I don't know. 10.Our houses are

of all kinds. 11.They have all kinds of shapes.

f,1g.e 48 J.These men. 2.Thesc men. 3.Thcse (men). 4.These pictures. 5.These

pictures. 6.These tasks. ?.These tasks. 8.These opinions or these reputations.

9.This is my work. 10.This student. 11.Your city. ("you" singular) 12.My

brothers. 13.Our sisters. 14.How do you do this? ("you" singular; "that"

literally "those things"). 15.Who wants to know? These affairs are mine.

Even if they arc many and of all kinds, indeed they all have the same one

form, because of which they are excellences.

If someone does not know at all who Meno is, how does he know whether he is

handsome or rich or also noble?

Excellence (virtue) does not arrive (come into a person's possession, is not

acquired) by accident.

~ l.To be willing. 2.To have or to hold. 3.To hear. 4.To find. 5.To train.

6.To bring or to carry. 7.To perceive, or to know. 8.To be perceived or to be

known. 9.To be said. 10.To want. 11.To affirm or say. 12.To be ahle. 13.Who is

willing to learn this? 14.We cannot always be wise. 15.The children cannot be

found. 16.The philosopher does not want to reply.

433


~ 1.1 must learn this. 2. You must answer. 3. The children must not mock the

philosopher. 4.Must we not discover the truth? S.The truth must be

discovered.

Nobly, luckily, richly, politically ( oras those who live in cities), wisely.

~ 3rd, 3rd, 2nd, 1st.

~ l.of the word. 2.of the student. 3.of the truth. 4.of Diotima. 5.of the sister.

6.of the bee. 7.of the book. 8.of the wise man. 9.of the friend (male). 10.of the

friend (female) 11.of the bad child. 12.of the slave himself. 13.of this busines 1

orof this affair. 14.of the bad woman. 15.of this picture. 16.of the man

himself. 17 .of the same task. 18.of the other brother. 19.ofanother opinion or

ofanother reputation. 20.of the elder citizen. 21.of the fine house. 22.We

admire the wise woman. 23.Ifyou want honey, you have to have bees.

23.The citizens are in charge of the city; they are free, then. 24.The

philosopher's children are female. 25.The nature of man is masculine.

~ l.Who is this man? He is your brother. 2.What is he saying? We can't hear

him well. 3.Who knows this child's sister? 4.Where is this woman's husband)

5.The truth of this matter is not getting known. 6.How must this business be

done? 7.Who wants to know? This philosopher's students. 8.Who is in charge

of this house? The wife or the husband? I can't answer. 9.We want to find

our sisters. Do you know where they are? 10.ls your brother playing outside)

Why can't you hear him? 11.The philosopher is ruling the city nobly. 12.Do

philosophers (in general) rule the city well? Plato says so.

Page 57 (a) l.of the men. 2.of the houses. 3.of the roads. 4.of the boys. of the girls.

5.of the sophists themselves. 6.of us. 7 .of you (plural). 8.1 am listening to the

women or I hear the women.9.The philosopher rules the citizens well. 10.The

images (pictures) of the elders are beautiful.

Pages 57-8 (b) I.Children of slaves are themselves slaves. 2.Who is in charge of this

city? 3.What are Socrates' students saying? I don't hear them well. 4.The

wisdom of this philosopher is admired. 5.The truth of this matter cannot be

known. 6.It doesn't matter; I don't want to learn this. 7.My enemies say that!

am badly behaved (say me to be badly behaved). 8.They say that I am not a

gentleman. (They deny me to be both fine and good.) 9.0fthe children, the

boys are playing, but the girls are doing their work. 10.Do these things have

to happen like this? 11.lfyou want excellence ( or virtue) of a man, (it is) to be

sufficient to perform the business of the city, and to treat (his) frien~s well on

the one hand, and (his) enemies badly on the other. But if you want

excellence of a woman, (it is) not difficult to explain, because she has to

manage the house well, and be (the) subordinate of the man. And a child's

excellence is other (i.e. different), both of a female and a male, and of an older

man, if you wish on the one hand, a free one, and if you wish on the other

hand, a slave. 12.The master of the slave is only (his) master, but does not

belong to him (is not of that one); but the slave is not only slave of a master,

but also entirely his. 13.A doctor (in general) does not consider "health" (in

general) but a person's health.

Answers 435

£age 59 1.I am hearing. 2.You are in charge. 3.They are being held. 4.We are

willing. 5.You (plural) are being taught. 6.The sophist is wondering or is

admiring. 7.The slaves are affirming. 8.The children want to play. 9.The

truth is being discovered.

l .You are a friend. 2.lt is a fine deed or the deed is fine. 3.The deed is fine.

4.We are wise orwe are philosophers. 5.The students are lucky. 6.You (plural)

are lucky.

l.The slaves are learning many things or the slaves are learning a lot.

2.The slaves are being trained. 3.The bandits are destroying the house. 4.The

house is being destroyed. S.We are said to be good citizens. 6.They say us to be

good citizens or they say that we are good citizens.

I.The philosopher's student has fine books. 2.The wives of the citizens

want to learn this. 3.Does a wise man's ( or a philosopher's) child (in general)

become wise himself? 4.We are destroying our enemies' houses. 5.My enemy's

house is being destroyed.

Page 6..Q I.Wisdom and virtue. 2.The bees and the honey. 3.The philosophers

and the students are listening to Plato. 4.The doctor treats men and women.

P~ 1.I can't do this; for it is difficult. 2.This man is rich; therefore he has many

friends. 3.l want to learn excellence (virtue), but this philosopher doesn't

teach it. 4.The citizen wants to have honey; but he hasn't (any) bees.

5.Diotima must be admired; for she is wise.

Page 64 1.I am speaking to you (singular). Hie/she/it is speaking to me. 3.You

(singular) arc speaking to him. 4.You (plural) are speaking to her. 5.lle/shc

is speaking to the doctor. 6.They are speaking to the slave. 7.We arc speaking

to the citizen. 8.You (plural) are speaking to the sophist. 9.The friends are

speaking to her. 10.Are you (singular) saying this to the child? 11.Are you

(plural) speaking to me? 12.We are not answering you or we are not replying

to you (singular). 13.The students are replying to the sophist's slave.

Page 66 1.1 am speaking to the child's sisters.2.Socrates is replying to the citizens.

3.They cannot answer (reply to) these words of Socrates. 4.It doesn't matter to

the children. 5.We aren't saying this to these women. 6.The woman isn't

replying to us. 7.The children are speaking to the women. 8.They aren't

speaking to the men. 9.They don't speak to them or they aren't speaking to

them. JO.We don't want to reply to you. 11.How does excellence (virtue) come

into possession of people (literally, for men)?

l.We know Socrates by his wisdom. 2.Philosophers or the wise ( in general)

have a good reputation for their deeds. 3.By his deeds, a good reputation

happens for the philosopher ( or the wise man) (i.e. a philosopher ( or a wise

man) gets a good reputation by his deeds). 4.The enemy (collectively) are

arriving at the city by this road. 5.1 am persuaded by the truth of his words.

l.The citizens have many slaves (literally, there are many slaves to the

citizens). 2.1 don't have slaves ( literally, slaves aren't to me). 3.The Athenians


have a fine city (literally, a fine city is to the Athenians). 4.The Athenians

have a fine city. 5.The same person doesn't often have intelligence and good

looks (literally, intelligence and good looks aren't often to the same (person)i,

Page 68 I.A certain woman or some woman. 2.Which woman? 3.Which deed? 4.A

certain deed or some deed. 5.What does he/she want? 6.He/she wants

something. 7.To whom are you speaking? 8.You are speaking to somebody.

9.Who can do this (thing)? 10.Somebody can do this. 11.The philosopher is

training somebody. 12.Whom is the philosopher training? 13.Whose is this?

(The dative denotes possession.) 14.By what method is this being done? or In

what way is this being done? IS.They are doing this in a clever way. ( literaJ/\

They are doing this in a certain clever way.)

·'

Pages 68-9 1.1 am speaking to the most important of the citizens; this philosopher

teaches both women and men; and he trains children and moreover does

many other things. 2.Can't you reply to these women? For they ( these

women) want to know something easy. 3.Whose is this house? It belongs to

some rich man. He seems to me to be somebody fortunate. What is the cause of

the man's wealth? 4.0 Meno, you and your companions always reply fearlesslv

and magnificently. 5.But the cause of this matter for you is Gorgias ( or Gorgi~s

is responsible to you for this matter); for having arrived into the city (i.e.

ever since he arrived in the city) by reason of his wisdom he has (as his)

lovers the most important both of the Aleuads and of the other Thessalians;

and moreover he trains you (in) this habit (he teaches you this habit) to reply

fearlessly and magnificently if ever anybody should ask something.

~ I.From the sea. 2.0ut of the house. 3.0ut of the city. 4.From the young

man. 5.About me. 6.About wisdom. 7.Towards the city. 8.ln the road ( oron

the way). 9. Into the city. JO.Towards the Academy. 11.Near the house. 12.The

student is reading the life of Socrates from the book.

Page 74 l.By the philosopher or by the wise man. 2.By the truth. 3.By the words.

4.By the students. 5.The business is done by the most important citizens. 6.The

young men are being taught by Socrates' words. 7.Are you being made fun of

(literally, being mocked) by the children? 8.This ( thing) can easily be

learned by you.

~-18. I.You were learning or you understood. 2.He/she was doing. 3. You (plural)

were saying. 4.We were wondering. 5 .I was teaching or they were teaching.

6. I was wanting. 7.lle/she/it was becoming or was happening. 8.The~orses

were being loosed by the girl. 9.The citizens said this. 10.Who wanted to

know?

Page 80 EUpllTKELS. upxw orupxoulTL(v). (l1f0KpLVOf.LUL, ,ro.po.yLyv6µE0o.. (l1fOKpLVOVTUL,

I.We were teaching orwe used to teach orwe began to teach. We are

teaching. 2.1 was wondering (admiring) or I used to wonder (admire) or I

began to wonder (admire) or they were wondering (admiring) or they used to

wonder (admire) or they began to wonder (admire). I am wondering

(admiring). They are wondering (admiring). 3.You (singular) are saying.

Answers 437

You (singular) were saying or you used to say oryou began to say. 4.He/she

was learning or he/she used to learn or he/she began to learn. He/she is

iearning. 5.The children were playing or the children used to play or the

children began to play. 6.1 was mocking or I used to mock or I began to mock.

7 .1 was being carried or I used to be carried or I began to be carried or I was

getting (something or someone) carried (for myself) or I used to get

(something or someone) carried (for myself) or I began to get (something or

someone) carried for myself. I am being carried or I am getting (something

or someone) carried for myself. 8.They were being mocked OT they used to be

mocked or they began to be mocked. They are being mocked. 1 9.It is being

done or he/she is having it done. It was being done or it used to be done or it

began to be done OT he/ she was having it done or he/ she used to have it done

or he/she began to have it done. 10.They are carrying. They were carrying.

11.They were being carried OT they used to be carried or they began to be

carried or they were getting (something or someone) carried for themselves

or they used to get (something or someone) carried for themselves or they

began to get (something or someone) carried for themselves. They are being

carried or they are getting (something or someone) carried for themselves.

12.You (plural) want (are wanting).You (plural) were wanting or you used to

want or you began to want. 13.It was happening or it used to happen or it

began to happen. It is happening. 14.1 was hearing or I used to hear or I

began to hear or they were hearing or they used to hear or they began to

hear. I am hearing. They are hearing. 15.We were in charge or we used to be

in charge orwe began to be in charge. We are in charge. 16.He/she is

training. He/she was training or he/she used to train or he/she began to

train. 17.You (plural) were finding or you used to find or you began to find.

You (plural) are finding. 18.He/she is replying. He/she was replying or

he/she used to reply or he/she began to reply. 19.Was he/she replying? or

Used he/she to reply? or Did he/she begin to reply? 20.You were destroying or

you used to destroy or you began to destroy. You are destroying. 21.lt is being

destroyed. It was being destroyed or it was getting destroyed or it used to be

( get) destroyed or it began to be (get) destroyed. 22.Was the city being

destroyed? or Used the city to be destroyed? or Did the city begin to be

destroyed? 23.You are having or you are holding. You were having or you

were holding or you used to have or you used to hold or you began to have or

you began to hold. 24.He/she/it was being held or he/she/it used to be held

or he/she/it began to be held or he/she was being held or he/she used to be

held or he/she began to be held. It is being held or he/she is being held.

25. And a little later, Polcmarchus arrived or Polcmarchus was there.

Page 811.He/she was a sophist or he/she used to be a sophist. 2.Previously, I was a

student. 3.Now, however, I am a sophist. 4.Were you enemies? 5.You were

(used to be) famous because of (your) wisdom. 6.Who used to be Meno's

companion? Who is now? 7.The Greeks were wise as it seems to me, and not

least Socrates. 8.lt is the work of a righteous man to hurt neither a friend nor

anyone else.

1cr1<w1rTOµm is usually passive, not middle.


Page 811.This is my opinion, said he. 2.A life without holidays is not a life, said

Democritus. 3.This was not the sophist's opinion. 4.This slave is not mine, said

I. S.Then ( in that case), I said, false opinion does not exist at all.

~ I.Have I written? 2.You haven't loosed. 3.Hasn't he/shewritten? 4.Have we

loosed? 5.You (plural) haven't loosed. 6.We have written. 7.Plato has written

many dialogues. 8.The students have written home.

~ I.He/she has befriended or loved. 2.They have wondered orthey have

admired. 3.We have turned. 4.He/she has read. 5.You have got to know. 6.You

(plural) have brought or furnished. 7.He/she has provided. 8.You (plural)

have carried. 9.You (singular) have said. 10.He/she/it has heard. 11 .We have

had orwe have held. 12.Has he/she wondered or has he/she admired?

1. od\6.rrKw. I have taught. 2.µ.av66.vw. I have learned ( or understood). 3.1ra[{w. I

have played. 4.1rp6.TTw. I have done. 5.EuptrrKw. I have found.

Page 90 1.To have learned ( or understood). 2.To have taught. 3.To have got to know.

4.To have happened or to have become. 5. To have heard. 6.To have wondered

or to have admired. 7.To have said. 8.To be. 9.To have had or to have held.

10.To have written. 11.To have arrived. 12.To have found. 13.Archimedes is

said to have said "I've found (it)! (eureka)" in the bath.

Page 92 1.Do we know? 2.You (singular) don't know. 3.The slave knows. 4.They

know this. 5.Don't you ( singular) know? 6.The sophist's student is so wise that

he knows this ( these things). 7. Who knows that he is fortunate? 8.How can

somebody know that he is truly fortunate? 9.Does Gorgias also seem to you to

know this (these things)? IO.Perhaps he knows, and you know what he was

saying.

Page 93 I.The citizens have loosed the children (set them free) for themselves orthe

citizens have set their (own) children free or The citizens have ransomed the

children. 2.The children have been set free. 3.The wise man ( or the

philosopher) has not been released from the prison. 4.0 men of Athens, why

have you not set Socrates free yet, for yourselves? or Why have you not had

Socrates set free yet? 5.The word has been written. 6.How does one obtain

excellence for oneself? Who has obtained it?

Page 95 I.What kind of men are these? or What kind of people are these? They •.

are so rich that they have fine houses. 2.This is the way I am: I am not sff·wise

as to know this. 3.1 do not know this, so that I cannot say. 4.You (plural) are so

wise that you are likely to know this. 5.What kind of thing is excellence

(virtue)? Don't you know? 6.lf you don't know what excellence is, you aren't

wise (or you aren't a philosopher). 7. If I don't know what excellence is, how

can I know what kind of thing it is? 8.The women in the city. 9.The men

in the road. 10.People here want to know this. (literally, Those here want to

know this.) 11.If any of the people here wants to ask this, I am not able to

reply. Indeed, I myself do not know. ( or For I myself do not know). 12.Wisdom

seems to have gone from here ( literally, from these places) to the Thessalians.

Answers

,&g_e 100 1.That word (that argument). 2.This difficulty. 3.That lie. 4.These friends.

5.Those habits. 6.These sisters. 7.These people or these men. 8.These things.

9.~hose peopl~ or those men. IO.The children of these slaves. 11.I am saying

this (these thmgs) to those people. 12.Perhaps many people know that (those

things). 13.Here we:are back again at the first difficulty!

E..~ 1.Being wise, Diotima is teaching Socrates. 2.The citizens like the city

because it is beautiful (literally, the citizens like the being beautiful city).

3.Being bad students, they do not do their work or they do not do their work

because they are bad students. 4.The women listen to Plato because he is a

philosopher (literally, the women listen to Plato-being-a-philosopher.)

5.Being students, the young men were willing to listen to Plato. 6.These men,

being slaves, are not citizens. 7. Those women, being wives of citizens,used to

have houses in the city. 8.Perhaps this task was easy for Plato because he was

a philosopher ( literally, to Plato being a philosopher, perhaps this task was

easy). 9.To my companions, not being philosophers, this action is difficult or

to my companions, who are not philosophers, this action is difficult. 10.Not

being present, I couldn't listen to Plato or I couldn't listen to Plato because I

was absent. 1 l.I can't listen to Plato because he is absent. (literally, I can't

listen to being absent Plato.) 12.Being ignorant of geometry, we must not

enter Plato's Academy or because we are ignorant of geometry, we must not

enter Plato's Academy.

fag_~ 1.Those present. 2.Absent friends. 3 They are easily putting up with

the present circumstances.

! .Carrying (masculine singular nominative). 2.Having or holding (masculine

singular nominative). 3,Teaching (feminine singular nominative). 4.Saying

(masculine plural nominative). 5.Those (men) (who are) destroying the city.

6. Those (men) who say these things or those who say this. 7.The (women) who

discover the truth. 8.l do not like those who say the opposite to me ( literally I

do not like those who say the opposite things to me). 9.l did not wish to hear

those who say the opposite to me. 10.To each of the listeners Plato seems to

speak well.

Page 105 1.Corrupting (masculine singular nominative). 2.Getting to know

(feminine singular nominative). 3.Ruling or being in charge (masculine

singular nominative). 4.Those in charge or the magistrates. (" Arc hon" is the

title of an Athenian magistrate.) 5.Wondering or admiring ( masculine

singular nominative). 6.Wondering or admiring (feminine singular

nominative). 7.Being present (neuter singular nominative or accusative).

8.The present task. 9.The playing girls or the girls who are playing. IO.The

playing boys or the boys who are playing. 11.Finding ( feminine plural

nominative). 12.The student hearing the philosopher. 13.The woman (who is)

saving the city. 14.Those who say these things or those who say this. 15.We

are getting to know those who say this. 16.We don't listen to those who say

this. 17.We don't reply to the women who say this.

Page 106 I.Perfect. Having written. 2.Perfect. Having done. 3.Present. Doing.

4.Perfect. Having wondered or having admired. 5.Present. Having or holding.

439


6.Perfect. Having had _or h_aving held. 7_.Perfect. H}ving ha~pened or become

(neuter singular, nommat1ve or accusative). 8.Penect. Havmg played

(masculine plural nominative). 9.Present. Being likely to (feminine plural

nominative). IO.Perfect. Having learned (feminine plural nominative).

Page 107 l.The knowing men or those who know. 2.The knowing woman or

she who knows or the one who knows. 3.The one who knows this. 4.Those who

know this. 5.The things that have happened (literally, the having-happened

things). 6.We know the things that have happened in the city. 7.ls the man

present who has loosed the bull in the city? ( literally, the having-loosed-thebull

man). 8.Where is that man? We want to know this. 9.Not knowing this

in the (present) circumstances I am unable to reply to you. 10. But you '

yourself, friend, what do you say about him? Since he is absent, it is difficult

for me to say. I can't reply to you; for you are speaking to one who doesn't

know. 11. Meno says these things, according to each action knowing both the

virtue and the vice, as I think; however, Socrates doesn't say so (denies it).

12.Does it seem to you to be right, about what a person does not know, to speak

as if knowing (literally as a man knowing)?

~ I.Being known (feminine singular nominative). 2.Being found (neuter

singular nominative or accusative or masculine singular accusative). 3.Being

saved (masculine singular nominative). 4.Being done (neuter plural

nominative or accusative). S .Answering or replying (nominative singular

masculine). 6.Arriving (feminine singular nominative). ?.Happening

(neuter plural nominative or accusative). 8.Being wondered at or being

admired(neuter plural nominative or accusative). 9.Being said (neuter plural

nominative or accusative). 10.Wanting (masculine plural nominative). 11.The

man who wants to treat his friends well has many friends. (literally, the

wanting to treat his friends well man has many friends). 12.Those wanting to

manage the affairs of the city well are good citizens. 13.Being said to do this,

the philosopher ( or the wise man) is admired. 14.What do you want? Fe, you

seem to me to want to know something. 15./ hear you now, when you

answer (literally, I now hear you).

Pag,g...lQ.9. l.The women, having ransomed or got the children set free, were glad.

2.The women, having been set free by the enemy, were glad. 3.The things that

have been written (literally, the having-been-written things). 4.We found

Socrates having just been set free, and Xanthippe - for you know (her) - both

holding his little child and sitting beside (him).

Page 116 I.Every man. 2.Every woman. 3.Every deed. 4.Of every child (boy)~,;

S.To/for every sister. 6.By every action. 7.By every word. 8.The whole truth.

9.In the whole house. JO.Of all the women. 11.To/for all the sisters. 12.They

are all playing. 13.Then if virtue (excellence) of all is the same, both of men

and of women, what kind of thing is virtue? 14.lt seems tome that I know;

nevertheless I do not understand the question as I wish. 15.Do all bees have

the same form?

~ 1.Didyou loose? 2.1 did not loose. 3.Did they loose? 4.Didn'the/she loose?

5.The citizens loosed. 6.Whom did you set free, Ocitizens? 7.We did not release

Socrates from the jail. 8.You ordered. 9.The old man ordered the children not

Answers

to talk to each olher. J. O.Because of this, the philosopher was likely to be

somebody lucky.

Pa.ge 119 1.1 heard. 2.T,hey heard. 3.The student heard. 4.Did you hear, students?

S.You did not consent to keep company with me .. 6.Were you willing (at that

time)? i.e. Did you consent? ?.Students, why did you decide not to learn this?

(Why were you unwilling (at that time) to learn this?) ("Decide" is a closer

translation because "were unwilling" sounds like imperfect. "Why did you

become unwilling" is a possible translation, but clumsy.) 8.We refused to be

taught by this man. (literally. "We did not want ... " but this could be a

translation of an imperfect). 9.We owed. IO.The citizens owed a lot (fell into

much debt or came to owe many things).

l.Did they pursue?. 2.Did the philosopher chase the students? 3.Didn't you

chase the students, philosopher? 4.You were not pursuing wisdom, students.

(imperfect) 5.We didn't chase the students. 6.1 ruled completely. ?.You ruled

completely (plural). 8.The philosopher ruled completely. 9.The slaves ruled

the city completely. IO.How did you become rulers of the city? 11.How did you

rule the city? (imperfect) (The aorist refers to a complete action.)

Pagrul9-12Q I.What did you (singular) write (draw)? 2.What were you (singular)

writing? (imperfect) 3.What did you (plural) write? 4.We mocked. 5.The

children mocked. 6.Why did you mock me? 7.l turned. 8.He/she/it turned.

9.The citizens turned their weapons against their enemies. IO.Surely you

didn't turn your weapons against your friends, did you?

Page JlQ l.You taught (singular). 2.They taught. 3.Did we teach? 4.The sophist did

not teach the students well. S.How do you (singular) teach this? (present) 6.1

did. 7.The citizen did everything well. 8.We treated the enemy badly. 9.Then

you don't treat everybody well. (present) 10.The philosophers conducted the

affairs of the city well.

1.1 trained. 2.The philosopher trained the young men. 3.He/she was surprised.

4.They did not all wonder at ( or come to admire) the wisdom of Socrates. 5.We

played. 6.The children were playing in the road. (imperfect) 7 .You saved

(singular). 8.The house is safe; the woman saved the contents (the things

inside).

~121. 1.He/she asked. 2.We asked. 3.What did you ask, student? 4.You befriended.

S.Whom did you (singular) befriend? 6.You (plural) sought. 7./\ccording to

Plato, Socrates sought one virtue. 8.They seemed. 9.Socrates seemed somebody

lucky. 10.1 seemed to you to be learning. 11.We showed. 12.When I asked you,

why didn't you show me that ( or make that clear to me)?

l.We provided. 2.Did you (plural) provide? 3.You (plural) destroyed.

4.The enemy destroyed the city. 5.The philosopher outlined the truth. 6.1

sought one virtue, but you provided a swarm of virtues for me. ?.The

magistrates provided weapons for the citizens.

441

44-2 Learning Greek with Plato

Page 122 I.You (plural) judged. 2.The wise man judged. 3.How did they judge? 4,Why

didn't we judge? 5.You (singular) are judging. (present) 6.They stayed.

7 .They were staying ( or I was staying). (imperfect) 8.They are staying.

(present) 9.The students awaited the philosopher. IO.We all waited by the tree.

l.We were waiting. 2.We waited. 3.You heard. 4.You were listening. 5.He/she

wrote. 6.He/she was writing. 7.You (singular) were providing. 8.You

(singular) provided. 9.1 was ( orthey were) sketching. 10.1 sketched.

l.To play. 2. To provide. 3.To do (to perform). 4.To turn. 5.To wait. 6.To hear.

7.To rule, to be in charge. 8.To seem. 9.To be willing. 10.To ask. 11.You are

likely not to have woken me up at a right time (i.e. this is likely to be

just the wrong time for you to have awakened me). 12.Polemarchus (the son)

of Cephalus ordered the slave boy to order Socrates to wait. 13.if it is necessary

to mock, you are like the electric ray fish. 14.Can you teach me that this is so?

Page 1241.Having risked, or been likely. 2.Having taught. 3.Having turned or

turning. 4.Having admired or wondering. 5.The woman who had played (the

having played woman). 6.The woman who had mocked. 7.The woman who had

saved the city (the having saved the city woman). 8.Those who had heard this

(the having heard these things). 9.Those who had revealed the truth (the

having revealed the truth). IO.The children of the men who had saved the

city (the children of the having saved the city (masculine)). 11. The children

of the women who had saved the city (the children of the having saved the

city (feminine)). 11.1 am telling the truth to those who asked this. (I am

telling the truth to the having asked this.) 12.To you, who have asked me

this, I am not willing to reply. (To you, having asked me this, I am not willing

to reply).

page 125 I.You (singular) replied. 2.They replied. 3.The student made no reply

(replied in no way or did not reply at all). 4.We replied to the citizen. 5.Jid

the philosopher reply to the students? 6.Nobody knows this; therefore nobody

replied. 7.Didn't you reply to the children? 8.When the philosopher asked

this, I didn't reply. 9.They didn't reply to me when I asked. (They didn't reply

to me having asked.) IO.Why didn't you (singular) reply to me when I asked? '

(Why didn't you reply to me having asked?) ·

l.To reply. 2.To ransom the prisoners. 3.To reply to the one who has asked. (To '

reply to the having asked.)

I.Having replied. 2.Replying. 3.The boy, having replied. 4.The girl, hc!!'ving

replied. 5.The one who has replied (the having replied) (masculine). 6.The

one who has made this reply (the (masculine) having replied these things).

7.The women who have made this reply. 8.To you, since you have made this

reply, I do not want to tell the truth yet. (To you having replied these things 1

do not want to tell the truth yet). 9.The one who has made this reply must

reveal something else to the one who asked. (The having replied these things

(man) must reveal something else to the (man) having asked.)

P,ige 126 I.If you were saying this, it would be the truth. 2.lf you were not saying

this, we should not be listening. 3.lfyou knew the truth, you would not be

Answers

saying these things. 4.lf I wanted honey, l would be looking for a swarm of

bees. 5.lf you had asked me this, l should not be replying to you. (To you

having asked me this, l should not be replying.) These are present unfulfilled

conditions except for no.5 where the condition is past, but the conclusion

present.

~127_ l .If you had asked this, I should not have replied to you. 2.To you having

asked me this I should not have replied. 3 .If l had asked you this, what would

you have replied to me? 4.To me having asked you this what would you have

replied? 5.If you had sought one virtue (excellence), l would have shown it to

you. These are all past unfulfilled conditions.

l.lf bees are many and of all kinds, do they have the same form? 2.lf bees do

not differ from each other in beauty and size, can you tell me what the

essential nature of the bee really is? 3.lf they had the same form, would they

in no way differ from each other? 4.lf l wanted to know how bees differ from

each other, what would you be replying to me? 5.lf l had asked you why bees

differ from each other, what would you have replied to me? 6.lf I were

saying to you that bees do not differ from each other in beauty, nor in size, but

in some other way, what would you be saying to me? 7.If you were saying that

bees differ in no way the one from the other, I would be surprised. 8.lf you

had replied this (you having replied this) I would have asked (you) this: what

is the form by which all bees are the same thing? 9.According to the same

simile (likeness), I would have asked whether all virtues are the same thing.

How would you have replied? IO.There is a certain swarm of bees settled

beside you. Do you seem to enjoy great good luck?

Page 132 1.1 shall loose the horse. 2.Will you (plural) loose the horse? 3.Why will

he/she loose the horse? 4.Perhaps we shall loose the horse. S.They will loose

horses everywhere. 6.You (singular) will risk, be likely to. 7 .Will the citizens

be likely to have learned the truth? Probably. (IL seems(so).) 8.He/she will

order. 9.Socrates will order Meno to answer only about excellence (virtue).

10.Nevertheless he is likely to reply about justice; for justice, as he thinks, is

excellence. 11. Excellence, or a certain excellence?

Page 133 I.Shall we ransom/ 2.Will you (singular) ransom? 3.They will not ransom.

4.Won't you (plural) ransom? 5.He/she will not ransom. 6.The citizens will

ransom the prisoners. ?.Will you ransom all the prisoners, citizens? 8.Whal do

you mean by this? (How do you say this?) We shall ransom the friendly

prisoners, but we don't want to save the enemy (ones).

~ l.We shall lead. 2.They will not lead. 3.You (plural) will lead the child.

4.You (singular) will pursue. S.The philosopher will pursue the truth. 6.You

(plural) will not chase the horse. 7.You are not chasing the horse. (present)

8.The strong man will hold the horse. 9.They will be in charge. 10.They will

rule (be in charge of) the city with justice. 1 l.We shall perform. 12.You

(singular) will perform the city's business with prudence. 13.You (singular)

will teach. 14.The philosopher will teach the young men. 15.Will you

think the health both of a man and of a woman to be the same? ( literally, will

the health seem the same to you, both of a man and of a woman?)

443

44-4 Learning Greek with Plato

.E.age 131__1.They will write (draw). 2.Will you (plural) write? 3.1 am not writing.

(present) 4.What will you (singular) write? 5.Did Plato write Socratic

dialogues? (aorist) 6.You (plural) will turn. 7.We are turning. (present)

8.Surely you will not turn (your) arguments against your friends? 9.The

young man will make fun of the philosopher. 1 O.Will you look at the bees?

How do they differ, in so far as they are bees, the one from the other?

Page 135 I .Shall I ask? 2.They will ask. 3.What will the student ask? 4.You

(singular) will seek. 5.We shall not seek. 6.The philosopher will seek the

truth. 7.They will seem. 8.He/she/it will seem. 9.It does not seem to me ( or it

does not seem good to me) (present). 10.You (plural) will show. 11.The citizens

will not show the city to the enemy. 12.Today I am your friend; tomorrow

perhaps I shall not be your friend. (Today I love you; tomorrow perhaps I

shall not love you).

-~ l.We shall not judge. 2.We are not judging. (present) 3.The citizen is

judging (present). 4.The citizen will judge. 5.You (singular) will destroy.

6.The enemy are destroying the city. (present) 7.The enemy will destroy the

city. 8. Socrates will not corrupt the young men. 9.Socrates is not corrupting

the young men. (present: note the accent and spelling) 10.Who will say this?

(these things) 11.Who will be willing to do this? (these things) 12.Meno:

What do you mean? (literally, how do you say?) SomHes: I shall tell you.

I.They will train. 2.The philosopher will train the students. 3.Shall I think?

4.What will you think? (singular) 5.We shall save. 6.Will the philosophers

save the city? 7.How shall we save the evidence (keep the observed facts in

mind)? (literally, How shall we save the things appearing?) 8.1 shall compel

you to say. 9. But they will all consider them all of the same family.

Page 137 I.You (plural) will find. 2.The citizens will not discover the truth. 3.It will

not be necessary. 4.We shall not have to do this. (It will not be necessary us to

do this.) 5.They will have. 6.They have. (present) 7.This philosopher wil!

have many students. 8.Will you (singular) bring? 9.Will the children bring

the books? 10.lt won't make any difference. 11.But as regards being

excellence (virtue) will excellence be different at all, whether in a child or in

an old man or in a woman or in a man?

!'~ I.Shall we hear? 2.You (plural) won't hear. 3.You (singular} are hearing.

(present) 4.You (singular) will hear. 5.He/she won't hear. 6.The students will

hear (listen to) Socrates' words. 7.They will learn the truth. 8.1 shall not tell

you the truth; you will not get to know this from me. 9.You (plural) wnrr,1ever

know where my friends are. IO.How will you know that this is the thing

which you didn't know?

J:ilge 139 l.Are we replying? (present) 2.They will not reply. 3.They are not

replying. (present) 4.They didn't reply. (aorist) 5.What will they reply?

6.How will you (plural) reply? 7.Who will reply? 8.What did you reply?

(aorist) 9.Won't the most beautiful maiden appear ugly? IO.How therefore will

our argument appear correct?

Answers

~';z l.You (plural) will not ?e. 2.vyill you (singular) be? 3.There will be many

students of Socrates. 4. Will mans virtue ( excellence) be one, and woman's

another? _Then they will differ. 5.We shall be righteous and no longer

perform the city's.business badly. 6.Howwill this (these things) happen?

Your argument no longer appears to me to be like the others. 7 .Why will the

magistrates not all become philosophers? (become wise?) 8.Will men and

women be strong by the same strength?

~. I.Let us hear, of course, and let us say. 2.(But if it seems good to you) let us

break off the argument.

fq,g_E;..142 1.Let us answer ourselves again. 2.Let us begin to speak again. 3.It is still

the crack of dawn, but let us arrive at Callias' house and hear Protagoras.

4.Let us not believe these things.

me 143. I.Let us begin the argument. 2.Let us teach ourselves. 3.Let us consider

this again also. 4.Then let us still examine also the things concerning the soul.

.!:i!gg_l14 1 .What are we to do? 2.To whom am I to reply? 3.What are we to say to

this (these things), OCrito? 4.Therefore would you like me to reply to you in

the style of (according to) Gorgias? 5.0 strangers, are we to pay a visit to your

city (literally "to the city to you", possessive dative) or not, and are we both to

bring our poetry and to perform (it)?

Pagg_J46 I.It is a fine thing to be in charge of a city. 2.It is a fine thing to manage

a city well. 3.Is it possible to learn this? 4.ls it possible that a slave should be

in charge of a city? (Is it possible a slave to be in charge of a city?) 5.Is it

possible that a man who is not wise ( or a philosopher) should manage a city

well? (ls it possible a not being wise man to manage a city well?) 6Js it

possible that a man who treats the citizens badly should manage a city well?

(ls it possible a treating the citizens badly man to manage a city well?)

Pages 146-7 I .If you are just, you will manage the city well. 2.If you are not just,

you will not manage the city well. 3.If you manage the city well, the citizens

will be lucky. 4.If (ever) the citizens arc lucky, somebody righteous is

managing the city. S.If (ever) anybody does not have strength, he is not

strong. 6.Then are women and men strong by the same strength? 7.So

the strength in a woman and the strength in a man has the same form.

8.Having the same strength both men and women are strong. (Both men and

women are strong because they have the same strength.) 9.Will an unjust man

lacking self-control ever be a good man? 10.lfl and you lack prudence and

justice, shall we lack the same virtues or not? Or will your justice be one

(literally, another), and mine another? 11.If a man is beautiful by a certain

beauty, and a woman is beautiful by a certain beauty, will they be beautiful by

the same beauty? 12.Man's beauty will only be beauty having the form(~ if it

has the form) of beauty, and woman's beauty likewise. 13.lf indeed a man and

a woman manage prudently and justly, will they manage by the same

prudence and justice or not?

Page 153 1.0 that I might write! 2.Othat we might hear! 3.0 that he/she/it might not

hear! (present optative) 4.0 that he/she/it might not hear! (aorist optative)

445


5.You would never hear these things. (aorist optative) 6.How would you do

these things? (present optative)

~ 1.0 that I might be good! 2.0 that you might not be bad! 3.0 that we might be

wise! 4.We shall be wise. 5.Let us be wise. 6.0 that this city might be free! 7.0

that I were in my house! 8.0 that your companions might not be ill-disciplined

and unjust, my dear fellow! 9.Would virtue ( excellence) be something that can

be taught or something that cannot be taught?

l.l would say so. 2.How would I know? 3.How, therefore, would you know about

this matter, my dear fellow?

m.LJ5Z 1.0 that I might be admired! 2.0 that this might not happen! 3.0 that

they might not be found! 4.0 that we might answer! 5.0 that he/she might

show! (active) 6.0 that he/she/it might appear! 7.0 that we might not appear!

8 Othat I might become wise! 9.0 that the philosopher might reply to us! 10.0

that the citizens might not ransom the prisoners! 11.0 that I were able to do

this! 12.Then the non-existent could neither be nor otherwise in any way

have a share of reality. 13.Then the non-existent one neither is destroyed nor

comes into being (Jilerally, happens) ... nor, then, is it altered ... for already it

would both come into being and be destroyed, suffering this (if it suffered

this).

Pages 159-60 1.If I were to say this, would you be surprised? ( unlikely future

condition). 2.If you were to order me, I should tell you this (say this to you).

(unlikely future condition) 3.If you were simply to tell me what "shape" is, 1

should know. ( unlikely future condition) 4.Do you want to know what "shape" '

is, or "a shape"? (A certain shape.) I want to know in respect of everything. ··

5.If you wanted to know what excellence (virtue) is, I would not be able to

reply. (present unfulfilled condition) (both verbs imperfect indicative)

6.What does Gorgias say that excellence (virtue) is? 7.What does Gorgias affirm j

excellence to be? What is excellence according to Gorgias? 8.\/1/hat do you ·

affirm excellence to be? If I wanted to know, what would you be saying?

(present unfulfilled condition) 9.What do you and Gorgias affirm excellence to

be? If I had asked you, what would you have replied? (past unfulfilled

condition) (both verbs aorist indicative) IO.But what does Gorgias affirm it to

be? If I were to want to know, what would you reply? ( unlikely future

condition) 1 I.Would you be able to reply? 12.lt is not likely. But perhaps

I would reply that Gorgias and I think this; excellence is indeed to be able to

rule (be in charge of) other men with justice. 13.But if I were a slave, would I

not only rule the others, but also my master? ( unlikely future conditi\i'fo) 14.

If I were a slave, does it seem to you that excellence (virtue) would be the same

for me? (unlikely future condition) IS.It would not be altogether the same;

for you would not be able to rule your master. 16.But if 1 were able to rule the

master, would I really be a slave? (present unfulfilled condition; both verbs

imperfect indicative) 17 .Perhaps excellence would really be to rule men

justly. 18.If indeed you are affirming this, you speak correctly. (present open

condition) 19.I say that justice is virtue (excellence), but you say there to be

many virtues. 20.Twice into the same river you would not step.

Answers 447

Toge 164 I.Not all the students find (attain to) wisdom. 2.(Their) sister wanted to find

the children. 3.The children happened to be playing. 4.Diotima happens to be

teachin~ Socrates. 5.They happen to be in the city. 6. Those in the city

happened to be fr,iends ( or to be dear (.to us)). 7.There happen to be other

philosophers in the city. 8.Those in the city really are philosophers. 9.What is

this task really? 10.(One must always indeed represent) what the god is really

like ( of what kind the god really is) whether one is representing him

in epic poetry or in lyric poetry or in tragedy.

~.lfili 1.Did we take? 2.You (singular) didn't take. 3.We found. 4.What did you

(singular) say? 5.Whom did you (singular) see? or What things did you

(singular) see? 6.The citizens suffered many things. 7.1 discovered (found,

hit on) the truth. 8.How did you (plural) come? 9.We had horses. ( E'Lxoµ,Ev is

imperfect, iiaxoµ,Ev is aorist.) 10.Did you learn much (many things)? JI.Not

much; there happened to be as it were a drought of wisdom. I2.We have

suffered (experienced) the same thing again; we didn't learn much. I 3.When

did you come? We came yesterday. 14.Did you see Socrates' students?

15.But Socrates used not to have (didn't have) students. What student did

Socrates ever have? 16.But Aristophanes said none the Jess in a comedy that

Socrates did have students (that students were to Socrates). 17.Nobody ever saw

a student of Socrates; presumably Aristophanes did not hit on the truth.

I.imperfect. 2.aorist. 3.aorist. 4.imperfect. 5.aorist. 6.imperfect. ?.imperfect.

8.aorist. 9.imperfect. IO.aorist. 11.imperfect. I2.aorist

Ei!gg_168 I.present. 2.aorist. 3.aorist. 4.present. 5.aorist. 6.present. 7 .aorist.

8.present. 9.present. 10.aorist. J l.aorist. 12.present.

I .Learning (having learned) this, the students are discovering the truth. 2.On

learning (having learned) this, the woman hit on the truth. 3.On taking

(having taken) the city, the enemy destroyed it. 4.The woman chased the dog

which had taken the bone. (the having taken the bone dog). 5.While you were

saying this, they were all listening to you. (They were all listening to you

saying this.) 6.On your saying this (you having said this), everybody admired

your wisdom. 7.On seeing ( having seen) the child, the woman told him to go

into the house. 8.Not having seen their friends in the road, the children were

unwilling to play. 9.On the citizens seeing the enemy, the magistrates

procured weapons for them (the magistrates procured weapons for the having

seen the enemy citizens). IO.Having found (i.e. if we find) what we are now

seeking, we shall destroy (i.e. get rid of) the perplexity about these very

things (these things themselves).

£age 169 l.Let us come/go. 2.Let us not suffer these things. 3.If they learn the truth,

what will they do? 4.What is virtue ( excellence)? Let us say. 5.Let us not say

this, but rather let us find one virtue in respect of everything ( or in respect of

all people). 6.lf we can, let us take one virtue in respect of everything ( or in

respect of all people). 7.Therefore, do you know why you are surprised, or am

l to tell you?

1.0 that I might learn! 2.0 that he/she might find! 3.0 that you (plural) might

have! 4.0 that we might not suffer! (a present optative) 5.0 that they might


see! 6.0 that you (singular) might not say! 7.You would come upon the truth

8. How would we discover justice? 9.Well then, you would understand by no,:v

from me from these things what I mean by "shape".

~ I.aorist. 2.present. 3.aorist. 4.present. 5.present. 6.aorist. 7.aorist.

8.aorist. 9.aorist (weak). IO.present. 11.aorist. 12.aorist.

~ l.The woman took hold of the child. 2.Were the philosophers getting hold of

the truth? 3.The magistrate criticised the injustice of (i.e. shown by) the

citizens.

Page 172 l.He/she/it was destroyed. 2.You (singular) became ( or you happened).

3.The students asked. 4.How did you arrive in the city? 5.Why did this (these

things) happen? 6.Ile replied that neither would he himself have become

famous being (i.e. if he were) a Seriphian nor that man (if he were) an

Athenian.

(a)The old man became wise (aorist). The old man was becoming wise

(imperfect).

(b)The girls were arriving (imperfect). The girls arrived (aorist).

(c)You (singular) became (aorist). You (singular) were becoming (imperfect).

(d) They were being destroyed (imperfect). They were destroyed (aorist).

I.The woman, having become wise, was teaching ( or used to teach) Socrates.

2.The students, having arrived in the academy, were listening to Plato. 3.1

cannot say where these cities are that were destroyed by the enemy (the cities

having been destroyed by the enemy). 4.But who, 0Phaedo, happened to have

come (arrived)?

~ I.To arrive. 2.To arrive. 3.To arrive. (NB no.3 is a present infinitive.)

l.Let us become wise. 2.Let us arrive at the end of this argument as quickly as

possible. 3.Let us not be destroyed by the ignorance of our friends. 4.If we

arrive tomorrow, we shall ask you what philosophy is. 5.Ifyou get practice

(literaJly, if practice happens for you) for this question, will you be able to

answer Socrates about excellence (virtue)? 6.1'11 tell you, if I become able to.

Page 175 1.0 that I might become wise! 2.0 that they might all become wise! 3.0 that

you might arrive! 4.0 that the city might not be destroyed! 5.lf anyone were to

ask you "what is shape?", what would you say? ( unlikely future conditi,gn) 6.If

you were to say to him that roundness is shape, what would he reply to~'you?

( unlikely future condition) 7.And if he were to ask you again "is roundness

shape or a shape?", would you be able to tell him? ( unlikely future condition)

8.Presumably you would say "a shape" (that (it is) a shape). 9.lf now I were

saying to you in the same way "what is colour?", what would you be saying?

(present unfulfilled condition) IO.If you had said that white is colour, and

after that the person asking had interrupted "colour, or a colour?", what would

you have said? (past unfulfilled condition) 1 I.Would you have said this (these

things) because also there happen to be other colours ( orthere actually are

other colours) no less than white? 12.About shapes (the shapes =shapes in

general) you say that none of them is not a shape, even if they are opposite to

Answers 449

each other, such as the round and the straight ( literally, you say ( of) none of

them that it is not a shape ... ).

fage 176 l.The students are coming to hear Plato (in order to hear Plato or so that

· they may hear Plato). 2.The students came to hear Plato (so that they might

hear Plato). 3.1 am listening to Plato so that I may become wise. 4.1 was

listening to Plato so that I might become wise. 5.So that I may not be longwinded

(in order not to be long-winded), 1 am willing to speak to you like the

geometers (do).

mtllH I .Listen! 2.Listen, 0 citizens! 3.Let the student listen! 4.Let the students

listen! 5.Recognise (get to know) this! 6.Let the children write! 7.Refute me, if

you want! 8.Play with the children or you are playing with the children (2nd

person plural present imperative or present indicative). 9.Treat your friends

well or you are treat.ing your friends well (2nd person plural present

imperative or present indicative). IO.Let the philosopher reveal the truth!

l.Loose the horse for yourself or get the horse loosed! 2.Let the citizens

ransom the prisoners! 3.Get yourselves freed, prisoners! 4.Let the horse he

set free! 5.Reply, students! 6.Let the young man reply! 7.Come early! 8.Let the

children follow their parents home. 10.Whatever has happened? Answer me!

10.Glauco: Well, then I accept this to be courage. Socrates: Yes indeed, accept

(it to be courage) proper for a citizen, and you will accept it correctly.

rue 185 l.Be fortunate, child! 2.Be good, children (boys)! 3.Let the city be safe. 4.Let

the Greeks be free! 5.If the enemy come, be brave, citizens! 6.What is virtue

( excellence)? Be brave; answer me. 7.Let your answer be clear. 8.Let the

other things, which you call shapes, be the same thing. 9.Be sensible, Meno 1

Don't you understand that I am looking for the same thing covering all these

( cases)? 10.Let it be the same; however, I don't know what it is.

1. Know this well. 2 .If I seem to you to be speaking well, say so!

~ l.Set the horse free! 2.Let the citizens set the prisoners free! 3.Listen to

me, children! 4.Refute the sophist, friend! 5.What is virtue (excellence)? Ask

me, if you will. 6.This sophist is somebody argumentative and eager for

applause; refute him, students! 7.If ever this man does not speak correctly, it

is your job to refute his argument. Do your job! 8.Whatever is this thing,

whose name is "shape"? I don't know. Ask Meno. 9.Order the student to tell

you what includes (is covering) roundness and straightness and the other

things which he of course calls shapes. 11.lf the students don't know this, let

them listen to Plato.

rue 187 l.aorist 2.present 3.present. 4.aorist. 5.aorist 6.present 7.aorist 8.present

9.aorist (NB, weak) IO.present.

I.Take this! 2.Learn the truth! 3.Let the citizens learn the truth! 4.Tell

me the truth! 5.Go on telling me the truth! or Tell me the truth in future!

6.He/she told me the truth. 7.Know yourself! (Inscribed over the Delphic

oracle.) 8.What is "shape"? Tell me. 9.Understand that I am looking for the

( thing that is the) same over all these things. 10.Don't you understand? Say,


so that you may get practice for the answer about virtue ( excellence).

~188 I.Accept my argument! 2.Let the philosophers accept (welcome) the

truth! 3.Become friends! 4.Become friends! 5.Become my friend! 6.Do me a

favour! 7 .Let the young man become wise! 8.Become friends to each other!

9 .Become good, boy! 1 O.If I ask you about virtue (excellence), answer

in a proper philosophical manner.

Page 189 I.Stop doing this! 2.Don't do this! (Stop doing that! and Don't do that!

would be acceptable,because TovTo can mean "this" in tlie sense of "what I'm

referring to.") 3.Don't discuss with this man, for he is argumentative. 4.Stop

discussing with this man, for he is argumentative. 5.Let the students not

become argumentative! 6.Let the students not become argumentative! 7.Stop

saying "I don't want to know this". 8.Don't say "I don't want to know this". 9.If

anyone were to ask you either about colour or about shape, what ever it is,

don't say to the enquirer "I personally neither understand what you want,

fellow, nor do I know what you are saying." IO.Don't go on accepting what I

say as of me playing (i.e. as if I were not serious).

~ I.Are they asking? 2.The slave isn't asking this. 3.What are you (plural)

doing? 4.Who is doing this (these things)? 5.What are you (plural) showing

me? 6.We are showing you this. 7.You are spoiled, child. 8.Why? I don't know.

9.What must we do? We are perplexed (at a loss). 10. Do you (singular) desire

wisdom? 11.What are the magistrates (those in charge) doing? They are

considering (looking into) this matter. 12.Why are you doing this,

magistrates? We are helping the city. 13.Why are you calling us? We see the

enemy. 14.What are you looking for, Socrates? 15.1 am asking you this;

what is the essential nature of excellence (virtue)? (What does excellence

(virtue) happen to be?) 16.Then do you see that you yourself are saying mere

words, but are making nothing clear? (literally showing nothing)

I.To call. 2.To desire. 3.To see. 4.To help. 5.To seem. 6.To show. 7.To

love/to like. 8.To seek, to look for. 9.To ask. IO.What do you (singular) want to

ask me? 11.1 am unwilling to show you this. 12.1 am telling (ordering) you to

do something small. (I'm not asking you to do much). 13.The students must help

the philosopher. 14.lt is not a fine thing (for) children to be spoiled.IS.How

can you fail to know this? 16.Surely then we must make the city bigger again.

~..100 I.See! 2.Stop showing. 3.Help me! 4.He/she is helping me. S.Ask! (2nd_

person plural) or you (plural) are asking. 6.Stop seeking! (plural) 7.Sto!f

looking! (plural) 8.Stop looking into (considering)! (plural) 9.Let him/her

love/like. 10.Let them love/like! 11.Let him/her show! 12.Lct them ask! 13.Let

him/her stop desiring! 14.Let them stop being ignorant! IS.Let this man ask

the questions, and I will reply. 16.Therefore either let me say as many things

as I want or, if you want to ask questions, ask (them) or be the questioner.

Page 2011.Let us desire wisdom. 2.Let us not show the secret entrance to the enemy.

3.Let us order the citizens to be on their guard so that the enemy may not see

the secret entrance. 4.lf the enemy see the secret entrance, they will destroy

the whole city. 5.lf you show the secret entrance to the enemy, you will

Answers

destroy the whole city. 6.People (li1erally, men) if someone asks them well

themselves say all things just as they are.

'

Pages 202-3. 1.0 that I might see the city! 2.0 that you might desire wisdom! 3.0 that

· we might ask Socrates this! 4.0 that (our) friends might help us! 5.0 that you

might show us the truth! 6.0 that I might not fail to know the truth! 7.If the

student were to look for the truth, would he find it? 8.Socrates: Would the man

not in need of anything not even cherish anything? Lysis: No indeed.

SD..crates: But what he would not cherish, he would not even like. (This

sentence is ambiguous. o, being neuter, can be taken as nominative (i.e. the

subject). The meaning would become: "whatever would not cherish (show

respect to) (something) would not even like (show affection towards) it".)

9.If I were to show you a surface, and secondly, again, a solid, you would

understand (know) from these what I mean by "shape".

rue 203 I.The students (who are) asking Socrates these things. 2.Those who are

asking Socrates these things. 3.Socrates is replying to the students who are

asking these things. 4.Socrates is replying to the women who are asking these

things.

Ii!.g~205 I.The loving companion. 2.The helping understanding (skill, science).

3.The understanding (which is) helping us. 4.The women (who are) seeking.

5.The women (who are) seeking the truth about this. 6.The spoiled children

(the being-spoiled children). 7.Those who desire evil things literally, the

(people) desirous of evil things. 8.And I mean this (by) virtue ( excellence), a

man desirous of (desiring) good things to be able to procure them. (i.e. lhal a

man who desires good things should be able to procure them.)

I.The philosopher loved (was loving, used to love) the truth. 2.The students

used to ask (were asking) Socrates this. 3.We were showing the city to our

friends. 4.What used Socrates and Meno to call this? 5.Socrates (on the one

hand) was desiring to know what ever excellence (virtue) (the essential

nature of excellence) was (is), but Meno (on the other hand) seemed not to

know. 6.Meno was looking for the truth some other way. 7.About this, both

Socrates and Meno seemed to be at a loss. 8.Socrates was calling Meno a bully .

.E.m..lQZ 1.Aren't you (singular) being asked? 2.You aren't (plural) being loved.

3.Aren't they being shown? (Aren't they being made clear?) 4.We are being

asked. 5.Are they being loved? 6.lsn't the truth being made clear? 7.It is being

made clear to Meno. 8.lsn't the truth being sought everywhere? 9.Who is

being loved? IO.Surely we aren't being asked this, are we? 11.How is it being

made clear? 12.Why are these things (is this) liked? 13. Who is trying to do

this? 14.Who are the leaders of the citizens? 15.Who consider the world flat?

16.Where does one obtain both virtue and wisdom? 17.But if he objects, let him

debate by both questioning and replying.

l.To be seen. 2.To be loved. 3.To be called. 4.Not to be known. 5.To be

helped. 6.1 want the truth to be made clear to me. 7.Truth seems to be sought

by everybody. 8.We don't want this to be considered. 9.These things must not

be asked. 10.I don't want to be helped by you. 11.To try. 12.To obtain.

451


13.To arrive. 14.To consider or to be a leader. 15.How is it possible to obtain

both virtue and wisdom?

P_gge 208 I.Let him/her/it be seen. 2.Let him/her/it not be seen. 3.Let the children

be seen but let them not be heard. 4.Let the truth be sought. 5.Be loved by the

good. 6.Try! 7.Try to say. 8.Arrive early. 9.Let him/her lead orlet him/her

consider. 10.Let the philosopher ( or the wise man) be the leader of the city.

11.Consider me to be altogether a dunce!

~ I.Let us be loved. 2.Let us be seen or let us see for ourselves. 3.If the truth is

being sought, I cannot tell you this. 4.Let us not be asked. 5.Let us not try.

6.Let us not try to speak. 7.If you arrive late, you will not see Plato. 8.Let us not

lead the citizens. 9.Let us not consider Meno to be foolish. 10.May I not be

shown not knowing this (i.e. not to know this).

Page 210 1.0 that this might not be done! 2.0 that excellence (virtue) might be made

clear to us! 3.0 that you might be helped by (your) allies, citizens, for the

enemy are arriving! 4.0 that they might not arrive today! 5. If this were to be

done, what would you say? 6.lf you were asked this, what would you reply?

Pages 210-11 1.So what is loved is dear to the one loving (the one who loves it).

2.Debate with me in (your) turn questioning and being questioned. 3. (And if a ·

letter is added or subtracted, this doesn't matter at all as long as there remains

intact) the essence of the thing revealed in the name. 4.I am willing to speak

about drunkenness, trying if I can to make the correct method (of dealing

with it) clear to us.

Page 214 1.The citizens were being asked this by Socrates. 2.The child (the boy) was

being sought by everybody in the whole of the city. 3.The truth was being

made clear to the philosophers. 4.We consider Socrates wise (present). W"'

used to consider Socrates wise, orwe considered Socrates wise (imperfect). 5.If 1

you did not know these things (but you do) you would not seem wise (but you

do) (present unfulfilled condition, as is no. 6). 6. I would not think you to be

ignorant ( of) this. 7 .Evil-doers (literally, the bad men) were wretched but,

being punished, they were benefited by the god.

Pages 212-13 1.Diotima isn't a lady like Cleopatra. 2.Aristotle wrote dialogues like

Plato (did), but we no longer have them. 2 3.What words Socrates was saying! If

he had always said such things,he would have bewitched everyone so as to

have become full of perplexity (so that they would have become full of

perplexity). 4.Do you call something "end"? (ls there something you call\!

"end"?) I mean such as a boundary or an extremity?

~ 1.We don't know the young man who has taken the money. 2.1 understand

the words which Plato said. 3.Don't you understand the things which Plato

said? 4.Definitely Coriscus doesn't understand the argument which Plato put

(literally, said). 5.So it is clear that this is not the man to whom Plato was

talking just now. 6.I desire the house which you possess. Whatever for?

2Actually, he did write some, but they have been lost.

Answers 453

7.What kind of virtue is il about which Meno is speaking? I want to know.

8.The evil (things) which I don't want (to do), nevertheless these I do.

9.Certainly (any person) to whom bad things happen is wretched. 10.0f

which there were neither teachers nor students, guessing it well would we

conjecture it not tobe able to be taught?=lf anything had neither teachers

nor students, if we were to guess well,would we conjecture that it is not able to

be taught? (The participle phrase with av, ica/1.ws av auTo dr<a{ovTEs, is

equivalent to an unlikely condition: EL uuTo r<u/1.w, ELr<utoLµ,Ev (if we were to

guess it well).

I.This is the very man whom I wanted to see. 2.This is what I wanted just now;

but now I see that it is not good. 3.1 am honouring the very same arguments

which (I did) formerly. 4.For I mean the very man (of) whom I was

speaking just now.

£_:ages 222-3 l.Whoever does these things harms the whole city. 2.1 don't know in

what way we have discovered this. 3.Whoever does not know the truth is

wretched .. 4.Whatever he were to do, he would not be (a) good (man). 5.Say the

name of whomever you want. 6.Whoever thinks ( literally, to whomever it

seems) bad things to be beneficial is wretched. 7.What would be to be decided

by (dative of agent) us? Isn't it both which of these very people will rule and

(which) will be ruled?

Pages 227-8 I.The money belongs to me. 2.But my money is your property(= is at

your disposal). 3.The existing constitution. 4.Either you must rule in the city

or be tyr,mt or be a companion of the existing constitution(= go along with

the existing constitution).

~.230 I.Were you loosed (plural)? 2.Who was loosed? 3.Who were set free by the

citizens? 4.What was said by the philosopher? 5.What were these words which

were said by the philosopher? 6.1 didn't remember. 7.Why didn't you

remember? 8.For all the other students remembered. 9.Homer didn't even

mention the sauces.

Tu.ges 230-1 I.The foreigners were led by force into the city. 2.Ey whom were you led

towards wisdom, young men? By Socrates. We were led well; and so we gained

wisdom (wisdom happened to us). 3.1 was led to wisdom by Aristotle; so 1 am a

peripatetic. 4.The enemy were led away from the city. 5.The sophist was led

away (to prison) as a sorcerer by the citizens.

Page 2311.1 was loved. 2.Were you (singular) loved? 3.The enemy were not loved.

4.The child (boy) was sought. 5.What was asked? 6.Who was asked? 7.Who

helped you? (NB, active verb) 8.By whom were you helped? 9.What is beauty?

For it was said, but not made sufficiently clear. 10.Well, then; if we admit these

things, he will laugh and say"O Socrates, do you remember therefore what you

were asked?" (ouv is used here as a connecting particle, like "Well now, do you

remember ... ?" See Denniston, The Greek Particles, p.426.)

Page 232 I.The philosopher was called Socrates. 2.When he was old (being an old

man) he was never seen except (if not) in Athens. 3.Many were harmed by


bad companions. 4.Was that (were those things) said or not? 5. The

philosopher begged you to answer the question (the thing being asked). 6.But

I didn't want to reply to this. (to this man or to this thing) 7.Was virtue called

by you "to be able to provide good things"? 8.We were pleased just now; for we

thought that all our tasks were done. 9.But seeing from a distance another

man whom I do not know, I thought ( him) to be Socrates, whom I do know.

IO.And taking me by the hand, "O Socrates," he said, "how were you saved from

the battle?"

mw1 I.Having been called. 2.Having been asked. 3.Having been seen. 4.Having

been led away. 5,Having remembered. 6.The man called Socrates. 7.The thing

having been said (what was said). 8.The things said by Socrates. 9.The woman

asked by Socrates. 10.The thing asked by Socrates. 11.The republic mentioned

(spoken of) by Socrates. 12.We can't reply in any way to Socrates, who is

begging us.

l.To be done. 2.To be led. 3.To be called. 4.To be said. 5.To be seen. 6.To be glad.

7.To be asked. 8.To beg. 9.To appear. 10.Who is said to have been helped by

wisdom? or Who is said to be helped by wisdom?

Pages 234-5 l.Be helped! (singular) 2.Be called! (plural) 3.Let him/her be asked.

4.Let them be said. 5.Let it be performed. 6.Let the business of the city be

performed well. 7.Want (singular) to be able (to do) good things! 8.Let health

and wealth and gold and silver money be called good things. 9.Let the ability

to provide good things be called virtue. 10.Let to provide such things for

oneself without justice appear virtue ( excellence) to you; but to me it does not

appear so.

~236 I.Let us be called good. 2.Stop doing this! 1 am begging you (so) that this

may not be done. 3.Let us not appear cowardly to the enemy. 4.If you (plural)

are helped by my words, I am glad. 5.lf this is said correctly, perhaps you :ue

speaking truthfully. 6.Let us not beg for wealth or health, but for prudence

and righteousness. 7.lf you want to become better, don't desire gold or silver

money, but righteousness and prudence. 8.!f gold and silver money are

procured unjustly by you, how is that excellence (virtue)? 9.And you will

know by this whom I consider wise; for you will find me enquiring from him

so that, having learned something, I may be benefited. IO.Surely then, if

anyone removes this very thing, injustice, there will be no fear for him lest

he may ever suffer injustice.

Page 237 1.0 that I might be called good! 2.0 that gold and silver money might~~

furnished for us! 3.Othat you (plural) might beg for righteousness and

prudence! 4.If the action accompanied by righteousness were to be called

virtue (excellence), would it be well said? 5.If to be able to procure good

things were said to be virtue (excellence), what would you say? 6.If gold and

silver money were to be furnished not justly, would you call providing them

virtue ( excellence)? ?.Wouldn't this appear unjust? 8.It would be necessary, if

this were done. 9.If righteousness were not present, how would it not appear

unjust? 10.Is it essentially easy to know oneself? Come then, by what means

would this very thing be discovered?

Answers

Page 24:11.We see the children playing. 2.The children playing, we were listening to

Plato(= While the children were playing, we were listening to Plato). 3.Plato

speaking, everybody was listening(= While Plato was speaking, everybody was

listening)'. 4.Plato_having said this, everybody was surprised. 5.Plato having

said this, they all went into the city (= when Plato had said this they all went

into the city). 6.Plato being in the city, everybody was delighted(= Everybody

was delighted because Plato was in the city). 7.Me begging, reveal the truth!(=

at my request, reveal the truth!) 8.Me having begged, reveal the truth! (=

since I have begged you, reveal the truth!) 9.Me begging, would you reply?

(= if I were to beg you, would you reply?) 10.Me having begged you, would you

have replied? (= if I had begged you, would you have replied?) 11.Being a

student of Plato, for this reason (because of these things) you are far from not

knowing this. 12.Aristotle being a student of Plato, it follows that we want to

hear him(= since Aristotle is a student of Plato, we want to hear him). 13.We do

not know at all the things that have not yet been made clear.14.We do not know

at all any things that may not yet have been made clear. (indefinite: negative,

µ:q). 15.1 do not know the things said just now by Plato. 16.These things having

just been said by Plato, why don't you know the truth? (= since Plato has just

said these things why don't you know the truth?) 17.Now already, of course,

we can judge those things, Phaedrus, these things having been agreed. 18.Me

trying to reply, you weren't listening(= when I tried to reply, you weren't

listening). 19.These things having been done with a portion of virtue

(excellence), as you say, how then are you not chopping virtue

(excellence) up small? (=if these things have been done with a portion of

virtue, as you say, how is it possible that you aren't cutting virtue up small?)

20.Although this has (these things have) been said many times, we ca1!'t

remember (them) yet.

fq.gf 7.46 I.How shall we be loosed? 2.Why will the slaves be set free? 3.What w.ilJ

be done? 4.They (themselves) will be called legislators. 5.The business of the

city will be performed well by the philosophers. 6.lf you learn this, you wi II

appear a real student of Plato (you will truly appear a student of Plato).

7 .Concerning each question, the truth will not be made clear. 8.Such things

will not be said by us. 9.If excellence is really demonstrated (to be) entirely

knowledge, as you insist, Socrates, it will be remarkable not being a thing that

can be taught (if it is a thing that cannot be taught). ( EL with future is an

emphatic condition ("really").) 10.This will neither be spoken nor written

ever without artistic skill.

Page 247 1.Therefore you know what you are going to do now. 2.Let him escape

notice if he is going to be very unjust. 3.(My supernatural sign would oppose

me) if I were going to do anything not correctly. 4.1 am afraid about the

things (which are) going to be said. 5.lf everything changes suddenly and

nothing remains, there would be neither the man (who is) going to know nor

the thing (which is) going to be known.

£.M_es 248-9 l.lf the prudent man or anyone else at all is going to recognise the true

doctor, and the one who isn't (a true doctor), won't he proceed thus? 2.lf any

matter at all, not only excellence (virtue), is able-to-be-taught isn't it

455


necessary (for) there to be both teachers and students of it? 3.To me, death

doesn't matter at all. 4.How would a man become fortunate being a slave to

anybody at all? 5.The equal itself, the beautiful itself, the thing itself which

exists in each case, the real, surely does not ever allow even of any change at

all, does it?

Pages 257-8 l.(At the time) when the students were in the city, Plato was absent.

2.When ( or since) Plato was absent, then (consequently) I used to listen to the

other philosophers. 3.But when (after) Plato had come into the city,

everybody wanted to hear him. 4.While Plato is in the city, we all want to hear

him. 5.Everybody was staying in the city while they were listening to Plato's

argument. (imperfect) 6.Few of those in the city stayed until they had heard

Plato's argument. 7 .Before Plato said this, we were utterly at a loss. 8.Until

Plato spoke, this was not clear. 9.But isn't it a virtue not to provide gold anct

silver when( ever) it is not just? IO.Let us be pure from it until (such time as)

the god himself releases us. 11.Therefore is there anyone who has taught him

everything? For you are the right person to know, especially since he was

born in your house. 12.Surely then, said I, these men indeed become such in

their private lives even before they are rulers, don't they?

~ l.Had the assistant of the eleven police magistrates set the prisoner free?

2.0 assistant, you had not set the prisoner free. 3.You (plural) had not set the

prisoners free. 4.Then (consequently) the prisoner had not been set free.

5.Had you not been set free, Oprisoner? 6.Did you (singular) know this?

7.Didn't the citizens know this? 8. I both knew and was predicting to these

men that you would not be willing to reply. ( Ji1erally, "that you will not be

willing") 9.How will you know that this is what you didn't know? IO.And truly

the slave boy did not know indeed(= really did not know), as we said a little

earlier.

fgges 265-6 l.The true word. 2.Myths are not always true. 3.The myths told abou~

those in Hades presumably are not always true. 4.They do not wish to tell a

true story (to give a true account). 5.They do not wish to hear the true account.

6.I do not know if this man's words are true. 7.They do not want to tell the

truth (literally, the true thing). 8.They do not want to tell the truth (literally,

the true things). 9.True opinion. IO.Without true opinion. 11.People (literally,

men) never want to be without true opinion 12. The accurate account.

13.What is virtue, by the accurate account? 14.Who are Socrates' relations?.

15.If the truth is a care to you (if you care for the truth), you must be accurate.

16.What is the truth? Reply to me accurately. 17.This man's words are neither

accurate nor clear.18.According to the accurate account (i.e. strictly 1~

speaking) none of the craftsmen is 3 in error. 19.Do you call ignorance this

kind of thing, to hold a false opinion? 20.So with false pleasures for the most

part (literally, with respect to many things ( Ta TroAAu is accusative of

respect)) the wicked are pleased, but the good of people (those people who are

good) with true (pleasures).

3The present tense in Greek often has a general meaning, and this means "none of

the craftsman is ever in error" ( qua craftsman; whenever he errs, he is not on that

occasion being a craftsman).

Answers 457

E.~ 1.1 am saying that you are a rascal. 2.Socrates said that Meno was a

rascal. 3.Meno said that the argument seemed to be expressed well. 4.1 am

saying that if you do not know something, you will not find it. S.Meno used to

say (or was saying) that you would not find what you did not know. 6.Meno

was saying that they would not find what they did not know. ( Greek optative

verb is optional in historic sequence.) 7.You know well that it is true. 8.It is

clear that if I learn, I shall cease what I do against my will. 9.Do you see,

Meletus, that you are silent and cannot say (anything)? 10.He replied that the

wise were the ones learning. 11.lf you should come across it, how will you

know that this is what you didn't know?

~ 1.1 say that Socrates is wise. (I affirm Socrates to be wise.) 2.Meno says that

the argument is being stated accurately. 3.But Socrates says that this is not

true. (But Socrates denies this to be true.) 4.What do Pindar and the other poets

say? S.They say that the soul of man is immortal, and ends (dies) at one time

and comes into being (is born) again at another, but is never destroyed. 6.1

think that it is difficult. ( I think it to be difficult.) 7.You thought that Love is

the ( thing that is being) loved, not the ( thing that is) loving. 8.Didn't

we say a little earlier that each of these things is a part of virtue (excellence),

justice and prudence and all such things? 9.The two of them thought that we

were teasing. 10.Are you saying that the man desiring fine things is a desirer

of good things?

£..qgs;.._273 l.Do you see that Archelaus is the ruler of Macedonia? ( literally, do you see

Archelaus being in charge of Macedonia?). 2.Don't you see that Socrates is

dying? 3.Don't you see that Socrates is dying? 4.Doesn't Socrates know that he

is dying? 5.Didn't Socrates know that he was dying? 6.Didn't you know that

Socrates cared about truth? (JiferaHy, Didn't you know that it is a care tcJ

Socrates about truth?) 7.Didn't you know that Socrates cared about trutb?

(literally, Didn't you know it being a care to Socrates about truth!) 8.We

know that life is never destroyed. 9.We know that at one time life stops and at

another it comes into being again, but it is never destroyed. 10.Religious poets

say that life is not destroyed altogether. 11.rrom this book, you will know that

many others of the poets say the same (things).

Pag.e,_176 l.Doyou know how many teeth Euthydemus has, and does Euthydemus

know how many you (have)? 2.A man must only consider this: whether he is

doing just things or unjust things. 3.He asked whether anyone was wiser than

I. 4. Wherever you got this nickname from, to be called "Softy", I indeed do

not know.

~ Nothing prevents us even in sleep seeming to be talking to each other.

Pages 284-5 l.I like Socrates (am Socrates' friend) because he is wise. 2.We are

listening to Socrates because he is wise. 3.Although they were wise, the

sophists were not able to understand these things. 4.Although I am often in

the city, I have never seen Socrates. 5.Because we have often seen Socrates,

we know well that he is not handsome. 6.Because they are wise, the tragic


poets (literally, the poets of tragedy) forgive us. 7.For indeed you are all

brothers in the city, of course, ... therefore because you are all akin, you

would breed children like you yourselves. 8.Therefore because the soul both

is immortal and has been born (literally, has come into being) many times, it

has learned everything. 9.It will not be excellence (virtue) although it

contrives good things. 10.Although you are so old and wise, even you, if

anyone should teach you what you happen not to know, would become better.

Page 286 1.It wouldn't be correct. 2. ls it so, or otherwise? It seems so, he said. 3.1

met (came across) Theaetetus only just alive; for he is dangerously ill. (xa.krr6,

can mean dangerous.)

~ l.Ofone city. 2.Oftwo rascals. 3. To orfor two rascals. 4.Three ideas (or

appearances). S.Four virtues. 6.There are four kinds of living creatures, one

on the one hand a heavenly race of gods, and another (a race) winged and

going upon the air, and a third a form living in water and a fourth (a form)

going on feet and living on dry land. 7.Among Plato's disciples were two

women, Lastheneia from Mantinea and Axiothea from Phlius, who also wore

men's clothes, as Dicaearchus says. 8.Don't tell me, fellow, that twelve is twice

six or three times four or six times two or four times three; know well that l

shall not accept it from you if you talk such nonsense! (This is part of a

criticism by Socrates of Thrasymachus' method of asking questions.)

~ 1. I am listening to nobody ( or I am not taking any notice of anybody).

2.1-Ie is paying attention to nobody. 3.This man cannot speak Greek at all.

4.This is nothing remarkable or in no way remarkable .. S.No doctor. 6.Jndeed,

they have said nothing true. 7.According to the correct argument, no soul will

have a share in evil (i.e. wickedness). 8.No city holds it in respect. 9.Don't go

on arguing in reply to that ( lilerally, don't go on speaking in reply to that).

10.1 was saying just now that nobody is willing to rule as a volunteer (on a

voluntary basis) and handle other people's troubles (literally, bad things).

Page 294 I.The great city. 2. Many opinions. 3.Ofmany women. 4.Many things.

5.The many (i.e. the majority (of people), ordinary people). 6.The argument

both seems to me a large one and not easy to fathom. 7.However, (true

opinions) are not willing to hang around for Jong, but they run away out of

the mind of a man. 8.This, I think, is not possible for the many. 9.Philaedes,

coming from the great king, was talking about you. 10.You will even say that

you do not know that the great king is fortunate.

Page 2% LA most difficult thing. 2.A more wretched man. 3.More wonderful o.~more

remarkable. (neuter plural: feminine singular would be 0uuµa.aToTEpa. because

the final a. is long) 4.A more truthful opinion. S.A more thorough (accurate)

education or training. 6.And or but I am stronger and younger. 7 .For thus a

man becomes most fortunate. 8.For you will find that many people ( literally,

many of people; "men" includes women) are most unjust and most unholy and

most undisciplined and most ignorant, but extremely brave.

Answers

459

~ 1.Better opinions (nominative). 2.1 ~av~ a better opinion. 3.I am doing

better deeds. 4.Better arguments (nommat1ve). 5.1 am discovering better

arguments. 6.Who is making them better? ?.Horses are helped by the art of

training horses and become better. 8.And I can tell you very many other men

who being themselves good (i.e. although they are themselves good) never

made any one ( else) better.

~---8.:2. 1. Socrates: Whom do you say to be the better? Callicles: The more

excellent, I. 2.If it is more pleasant to you, I will say. 3.(When they are) being

harmed, do horses become better or worse? 4.So Love seems to me most

beautiful and most excellent. 5.Wickedness of the soul is the most shameful

thing of all. 6.We must practise them beforehand in small and easier matters.

(/>iocnv is dative plural of /iiwv.) ?.Justice creates the most pleasure or benefit

or both.

~ I.But I shall tell you more plainly. 2.You understood most correctly, I

said. 3.You are reminding me most accurately, I said. 4.And I admire these

things most in (]Uerally, of) Gorgias, Socrates. 5.You will believe me even less

if I tell (you) these things. ( literally, you will believe even less me telling you

these things.)

Page 302 l.Is it better to be just or unjust? 2.1 shall be likely to become wiser than I

have to (literally, than the thing needing, than I must). 3. Then correct

opinion will be in no way worse for actions than understanding ~ then correct

opinion will be no worse for business than knowledge. 4.lf you kill me, you

will not hurt me more than yourselves. 5.1 never admired Socrates more than

when I was (JiteraJJy,having become) beside him then. 6.1 shall rather obey

the god than you. ?.Therefore I shall become wiser than they (those men).

8.ls there anyone who wants to be harmed rather than benefited? 9.And

indeed in other respects those there (sc. in Hades) are more fortunate than

those here. 10.But seemingly this is not difficult, gentlemen, to evade death,

but much more difficult to evade wickedness; for it runs faster than death.

£._q,gu_Ql 1.Probably excellence (virtue) would not be a (kind of) knowledge.

2.Surely then, we are saying ( expressing) the opinions of a man, but rather of

all men. (For ouKouv see section 17, p.217. "or rather" would be more natural in

English than "but rather". 0<- is used here adversatively, to contrast two

notions.) 3.The more he seems to be speaking better, the more he is upsetting

me. 4.Do you consider it most important that the younger genera lion should be

as good as possible? 5.0f course, speak as soon as possible, for heaven's sake!

Page 308 For our greatest happiness such madness is being given (to us) from the

gods .

..!:.age 309 So, I said, let us put astronomy down as the fourth subject.

Page 310 1.1 would not cast this vote. 2.Would not every legislator enact all the laws

for the sake of the best?


~ l.What are they giving? 2.What is he/she giving? (NB, Tl OLOfocnv; (different

accent) is 3rd person plural present subjunctive: What are they to give?) 3.We

are setting a trophy up for ourselves. 4.They are putting for themselves, or

they are being put. 5.To put. 6.To give for oneself or to be given. 7 .Setting up

(masculine singular nominative). 8.The woman (who is) setting the trophy

up. 9.Give! (singular) 10.Let them give this or of men giving this (3rd person

plural, present imperative active or genitive plural masculine of the present

participle, oloous, olooucm, oloov ). 11.Let this be given. 12.I was setting a trophy

up. 13.We were enacting the law according to nature. 14.Lysias wrote enacting

laws. 15.In what class of good do you place justice? (NB, contrast TL0Els in no.

14with TL0E1s in no. 15.) 16. Wretched are those paying a penalty or those

being punished.

Page 31_/i I.Did I give? 2.They put. 3.You will give. 4.We have put. 5.lt was given.

6.He/she/it has been put (he/she/it is lying down). 7.He/she had given for

him/herself or it had been given. 8.He/she/it will be given. 9.lle/she will

give for him/herself. IO.To be put (aorist passive infinitive). 11.Having put or

putting this (masculine singular). 12. The woman who gave this (the having

given or giving this woman).

~ l.l am persuading you to change your mind. 2.He was unwilling to pass on

the excellence (virtue) with respect to which he was himself good. 3.0 Crito,

he said, we owe a cockerel to Asclepius; pay it, and do not neglect (to do so).

(d.1111u, as well as meaning "but", is found in commands at a point when the

argument for action passes into a statement of the action required; perhaps it

could be translated come, now. (Denniston, The Greek Parlicle5, p.14)

Pageu21~ !."Protagoras has come," he said, standing beside me. 2.First, the age of

all the living creatures stood still, and every creature stopped advancing

towards looking older. 3.Homer makes it clear that while the circular

movement is in motion, and the sun as well, everything exists and is saved

both among gods and among men. But if it should come to a stand ... all things

would be destroyed.

Page 323 We are walking, whenever we walk, thinking it to be better, and we are

standing, whenever we stand, for the same reason.

~ I.By Zeus, Socrates, but neither do I myself understand what you are

saying. 2.(He said) that on each ( circle) had stepped a Siren, being borne

round with it, uttering one sound, one note. 3.0f course, the former loverf,

becomes a fugitive, and rushes ( off) in flight 4.You understand very well

what I said, Socrates. ( literally, well altogether) 5.Don't let the men off! 6.The

guardians must be released from all other crafts.

Answers

461

~ I.Let him go unchangeable as far as death, seeming on the one hand

unjust throughout (his) life, on the other hand be.ing just. 2.But let us go back

again to the same things. 3. Of course, going (along) in this way we were

having a conver~ation about them at the same time. 4.At the same time, he

went (imperfect, began to go, set off) to the sacrifices. 5.For he sa.id that he

had asked him where he was going having become so fine (i.e. in such fine

clothes) ( literally, For he said (himself) to have asked him where he was

going etc.)

~lli I.But if it seems good to you, said I, we ought to do so. 2.But I suppose it is

fitting for the man not knowing to learn from the man knowing = but I

suppose it is fitting for a man who does not know to learn from a man who

does. 3.For I do not think that it pays for a man to live with misery of body (i.e.

in a poor physical condition) . 4.lt would not be proper a man (who is a)

rhapsode to be forgetful = it would not be proper that a man who is a rhapsode

should be forgetful. 5.They will beget children one day when they should not

(literally, it being necessary not).

Page337 1.1 do not consider excellence (virtue) to be a thing able to be taught.

2.There is a certain true word ... and certainly it seems that now indeed it must

be spoken. 3.Must one repay to one's enemies whatever may happen to be

owed?

.P..~.13..2:1:Q I.They are angry with me, not with themselves. 2.Would we be bound to

examine ourselves, or not? (imperfect ( EOEl) with av implies a present

unfulfilled condition.) 3.If you want, I am willing to speak according to

myself, not in competition with your speeches. 4.Finally, of course, he would

be able to see the sun clearly, not visions of it in water ( sc. as a reflection) or

in the proper place of something else, but it according to itself ( i.e. in its true

nature, as it really is) in its own place, and to observe what kind (of thing) it

is.

0

462

Word List*

ayu ' 0' oc, 9 ayav, ' A,,/. 19 ayu ' 0' ov

U')IVOEltl

ayw

~ uOEA<piJ, T'l)S O.OEA<p11s

0 a.OEA<pbs9 '!'OU a.OEA<pou

(l◊LKOS 9

U◊LICOV l

'I

Cl<EL

a.0avaT0<; 9 a6aVU'fOV (fem. as masc.)

a6ALOS9 a.6~1fo9 a0A.wv

ULO'){LO''TOS

atcrxtwv

9 I , I 9 I

UUY){POS9 UUY)(P!l9 a.LO)(f>OV

~ o.hta 9 T11S ahtas

,, ' , ,,

(LLTLOS9 ClLTLa9 O.LTLOV

(with genitive)

UKiJKOU (perfect of UKouw)

UICOU(t) ' I (f uture, O.KOUO'O!-L<U ' I ) 2

0.KpL~iJS

~ aA. iJ0EU19 'f'l)S a.i\:q0ELo.s

a.A.1101].,

aA.110w.,

a.AM

<iAAiJAous9 aAAiJAas9 aAATJAa. 3

(l

good (2)

I am ignorant, do not know (16)

I lead (18)

the sister (2)

the brother (2)

unjust (13)

always (3)

immortal (21)

wretched ( 17)

most shameful (23 p.297)

more shameful (23 p.297)

shameful (23)

the cause (7)

responsible for,

the cause of (7)

I have heard (9 p.89)

I hear (3)

accurate (21)

the truth (4)

true (21)

truly (9)

but (7)

each other ( 11)

*The bracketed numbers give the section in which the word first appears, with a

clarifying reference where necessary.

'Feminine as masculine, e.g. yuv~ iioLKo,: an unjust woman.

2Usually with the person heard in the genitive case.

3Not found in the nominative case.

a.AAOS9 IIAA'lj9 a1h.o

aµ,<ELvwv

,av

&. va y1uitw

&.11ayicaios9 ava:y1<aia9 a.11ay1<(1,.:011

e ? / ..., ? I

'I] a1/0.')IK'l}9 'l"'T]S 0.1/U')IIC'T]S

a 110, YK 'I] (,fo·n}

U,11Etf1L

ii.v<Eu (with genitive)

b avfip9 '!'OU a.vop6s

b d118pw'ITOS9 TOil av0pto'IT01J

'I

awqµ,i

O.-na.s9 U'nlx.cra, 0.1rav

U'ITELjlA " (, U'ITO , + ELµt ' )

a:rrh.ws

U'ITO (with genitive)

,hroo~oµ.m

chrootowµ,L

a:ll'o0v~mrn>

U.'lfOl(pLVOj.U:tL

~ U 'IT01CpUYLS9 TI]S a:rro1cplO'<EWS

u'lfoAAuµ,t (future holl.w)

0.'ITOfl~lil

~ hopta.9 'f'YJS o:rroptas:

iiTIToµ.at (with genitive)

a1,111Mp,11v

d.pa

a.pa

Word List

463

other, another 4 (2)

better (23 p.297)

(i) would 5 (11)

(ii) abbreviation of &o.11 ( 12)

I compel (12 p.136)

cogent, necessary (18)

necessity (17)

it is necessary, necessarily so (17)

I go up (25 p.331)

without (18) (19)

the man, husband (6)

the man, human being (2)

I allow, let go (24 p.324)

a 11, quite a 11 (stronger form of 'ITii,)

I am absent ( 10)

simply (13)

from (8)

I admit, accept (in logic) (15)

I give back, render what is due (24)

I die (21)

I reply (5)

the reply (15)

I destroy (3},alsol lose

I am at a loss (16)

the difficulty, perplexity, shortage ( 1 O)

I touch (23, footnote 61)

I was destroyed, lost (14 p.172)

introduces a question (2)

well, then 6 (2)

4 /ill.Ao, ... iiAAo, ... one ... another ... iiAAot ... iiAAot ... some ... others ...

5Modal particle; it makes an assertion dependent on circumstances.

6Drawing an inference.


\ ' I A '} I

w a.pyupw11 9 -rou apyupwu

~ <lf)E'i~9 T~S UfJET~S

!lf)UYTG

!lf)LO'TOS

!lf)f)'T]Vi appEVOS

(3rd declension adjective)

ap-n

apxw

( lipxoµm, middle)

'J I , / 9 I

UU'iOS9 i.l.UT!Ji O.U'iO

~ 'J I f 9 I \ 9 I

0 O.'IJTOS9 'l'J 0.1.J'f'T]i TO m.1-ro

',J.. I

O.'l'UCVEOIJ,(U

'J..' 'i'

O.'t' OU

money 7 (18)

excellence, virtue 8 (2)

my dear fellow 9 (13)

best (23 p.297)

male (7 p.71)

just now (19)

I am in charge (3),( with genitive) I rule (6)

I begin (5)

because (22)

again (14)

he, she, it (3)

the same (3)

I arrive (14)

ever since (20)

I release (24)

~atvw (aorist, E~'lJv)

o ~acnAeus9 Too ~ao-tAE.WS

~Dl-runos

~EATLWV

o ~(os 9 -rou ~tou

~Aa'ITTW

PAE.'IT(t)

~ouAoµat

yap

~

I go,step (18 p.229)

the king (7)

best (23 p.297)

better (23 p.296)

life (21)

I hurt, harm, injure (17)

I look at (12)(p.134)

I want (cU0D,w: I am willing) (5)

'Y

for (because) (7)

7Especially silver coin, as it is derived from o c':ipyupos, Tou upyupou: silver.

8At Protagoras 329c2-6 apET~ is said to include oLKmorruv11 (justice), rrw~poo-uv11

( moderation) and oo-LoT'lJ, (holiness), to which civopEla ( courage) is added at 361 b2.

9Vocative masculine singular of /ipwTo,: best. Sometimes slightly patronising.

')'E ( enclitic) indeed (1)

yeyova (perfect of 'YLYVOfLUL)

'jl~V~O'O!l,O,l ( future of y( YV9f1Ul)

')'Evvmos 9 yEvvai.a9 yEvvo.'i:ov

yt yvoµ,a.L 1 0

'YL)IVWO'C{(I)

I A I

yvous 9 yvouaa9 yvov

Word List 465

I have been born, happened etc.(9 p.92)

I shall be born, happen etc. Cl 2 p.139)

noble (5)

I am born, I become, I happen, I come

into being (5)

I get to know, perceive (3)

knowing, having got to know

(participle of [yvwv: the genitive singular is yvovTo,, yvouo-11,, yv6VTo,)

yvwaoµ,at (future ofyLyvwm<w) I shall get to know, perceive (12 p.138)

yp6-qiw I write, draw (9)

71 yuv~ 9 'l'1JS yuva.ucos woman, lady, wife (6)

o.&

OE8(8axu (perfect of OLOO.CTl<W)

M'l'Jo·E( µ,E ( future of OEL µE)

OEL !LE

OELKvuµ,L

OEKIL

Mcrn:ro~ "1l

0

0v

oeoµ,a.~

(with genitive of person and thing)

8

however, but or and 11 (7)

I have taught (9 p.89)

I shall have to (12 p.137)

I must Qtbehovesme) 12 (6 p.50)

I show (3)

ten (22)

tenth (22)

I need, beg for, beseech ( 12)1 3

1°The aorist tense of this verb is found in a passive form ( '1.yrn~811v) in Epicharmus and

Archytas of Tarentum (who was a contemporary of Plato) and in later Attic writers. A

future passive form ( yrn1 1 0~o-ETo.L) is found once in Plato ( Parmenides 141 el) meaning

"will bemadetobecome".

1 'cl.AM is a strong "but". OE is weaker. Ko.C is a strong "and"(= "also"). Mis weaker.

11An alternative explanation is given in Smyth, Gree/< Grammar, para.93 3 (b) from Mw: I

bind, whereby oeL µE TouTo 1rpa.TTELv would literally mean it binds me to do this.

13e.g (genitive of person) rnuTo uµ,Giv oeoµo.L ( Apology 17c7) I need this from you.

(ii)(genitive of thing). o µEv .I/lQQl1!S. ouoE.v OELTm, Eyw OE ofoµUL (Apo/ogy36d10-el) for

he in no way needs sustenance, but/ do. ( ~ Tpot~. ·rij, Tpot11,: sustenance.)


OEU'l'Epos -a ·o v

OE)(OfJ,UL (aorist is &8.,~a1111v)

0~ 14

O~AOS9 o~A'T], O'ijAov

o~Aov (~o-n)

07]AOW

o~,rou

oui (with accusative)

oui (with genitive)

OLaAEyoµ.ai 1 5

OLa<j>epw

1kaq,epeL

0Ulq>0etpW ( future is 0LO.<p8Eptil)

OUl TL9

oiMmcw

otowµ.L

OLE~EL[l,L

otrnws9 OLKa.ta.9 otrnLov

~ 0U(UL001JV'T]9 'r~S OU(ULOCYOV'f!S

owLo-w (future of owcpEpw)

OLOJK(t)

OOKEL fl,OL

ooKe'i ( often)

OOKE(t)

~ oo~a., Tijs OO~'T]S

0 oouAOS9 -roil OotJAou

Mvaµ.a.L

Mo

second (22)

I accept (15)

in fact, of course, certainly (15)

in a question, surely? TL o~; so what?

clear, easy to see ( 17)

it is clear (17)

I show, make clear, reveal (11)

presumably (14)

because of, throughout ( 11, 14)

through (14)

I say, converse, discuss, debate (15)

I am different from, I am the superior of

(3)

it makes a difference, it is important (3f

I corrupt (1 O)

why? ( literally, "because of what?") (3)

I teach (3)

I give (24)

I go through in detail (25)

righteous, just ( 12)

justice (12)

I shall differ, I shall matter (12 p.137)

I pursue, chase (11

p.119)

it seems (good) to me (8)

it seems

I seem (9)

the opinion, judgement,

philosophical opinion (2)

the slave (6)

I can, I am able (6)

two (22 p.287)

140ften used by Plato with an imperative, e.g. <pEpE 8~: come, then'

15cf.~ oLaAEKTLKt dialectic, discussion by question and answer, philosophical method.

Word List 467

9 I

,eav

, I

<Ell,V'IT<:op

'I '> I

<EUV'TEooo <EO.V'f<E •••

E

if (in future and general conditions)(l 2)

if indeed (when"if"wouldbe Mv)(12)

whether ... or ... ( when "if" would be

e~Soµ,os •11 •ov seventh (22)

e~M~1111 (aorist passive of~M1TTw) I was harmed (18 p.232)

E~ouX~6T]v (aorist {passive form) of ~oui\oµm)

I wanted (18 p.232)

, I

E)'ELpW

E)'EVO!LT]V (aorist of y[yvoµal)

Eyvwrm {perfect of y<yvwoxw)

<E')'Vlil\l

(aorist ofy[yvwcrKw)

participle: yvou,, yvoiJO"a, yv6v

ey(i) I (2)

I awaken (11 p.122)

I became, happened (14)

I know, have recognised (9)

I got to know (14)

ECLV )(12)

E<Je~&qv (aorist (passive form) of ofo1wl)

I needed, begged a favour (of) (18 p.232)

ie.0EA(t) (aorist, 116&;\110-a) (future, t6EA·~aw)

t6(tw (aorist, E'i'.0lo-a)

(future, E0utJ p.1 36)

TO E.0o, 9 ToiJ 1£0ous

EL '

EL µ,~

et8Evcu (infinitive of olou)

e.lSov (aorist of bpa(u, I see)

T6 <Et8os9 Tou Et8ous

I am willing (3)

I train, accustom, make practise (Li)

the habit, custom (Z)

if (5)

if ... not ... (9)

to know (9 p.91)

I saw (14)

the shape ( external form), appearance,

aspect, figure, image, species, class,

character, kind, idea (5) 16

16.Joos. yap 1TOU Tl EV iiKUO-TOV dw8aµEv -rc8rn0m 1TEpL EKU(YTU TCL 1TOA/\a, ols TUIJTOV ovoµa

E1Tl~EpoµEv. Republic 596a6-8 It is our custom, presumably, to posit one certain idea or form

for (literally, about) each of the multiplicities (literally,the manys) to which we apply the

same name. E1.w8a: I am accustomed to (pp. 9·1 and 468).

iJ

Leaming Greek ·with Plato

etMis, 11:lou'ia., et86s (participle ofol8a)

<::kv

' ,

EL!l-L

el!l-L

elev

eL1t&.tro

QKOS (eo-n)

~ etic(J)v, 'l"l]S el1t6vos 17

aA'fl<li« (perfect active ofAaµ~a.vw}

' ,

<E!.!l-L

el11L

IEL'll"Ep

ehov (aorist ofMyw: / say)

ELf>11Ka. (perfect of Myw)

ets (with accusative)

els, µta., Ev

etooµa.L (future of ol3a.)

<::ha.

,, ,,

EL'f'E ,., El.TE •••

e[ootla

eic or &!; (with genitive)

" ' I fl

eica.crros, EK0.0'7'1], <E1Ca.<nov

iEKEWos, ' ,.. iEKELV'IJ, ' ' EKELVOV ' ,..

EKA~&qv (aorist passive of Ka.Mw)

' ,y

EK'll'OpL':,(I)

e ' , '

IEKTOS "TJ •0\1

O.a.pov (aorist ofAaµ~o.vw)

EAa.TTCllv 18

knowing (10 p.106)

well then; very good (15)

(indicating that the speaker is ready to proceed to

the next point)

I am (2)

I (shall) go (25)

well, then; very good. (15)

I am comparing (8 p.79)

it is likely, natural, reasonable (13)

figure, likeness, image, picture,

simile (2)

I have taken (17)

I am (2)

I ( shall) go (25)

if indeed, even though (12)

I said (13 & 14)

I have said (9 p.89)

into (8)

one (22)

I shall know (12 and 21)

then (20)

whether ... or ... (12)

I am accustomed to (9 p.91)

out of (8)

each (1 O)

. that (1 O)

I was called (18 p.232)

I provide (9)

sixth (22)

I took, accepted (14 p.165)

smaller (23 p.298)

17 Also "statue" (e.g. "graven image").

18From lAa.xu~: small, little, mean (poetical and rare).

&Mx~c, .. os

Word List

smallest (23 p.298)

EA~'Y)(W

~AEu8epos9 eAEu8tpn9 &Ae~0<EpOV

I question, examine, refute (15)

free (6)

eMx0lJV (aorist passive ofMyw) I was said (18 p.230)

"EAAlJV 9 "]l;;),),11vos 19

Greek (8)

eµ.n0ov (aorist Of f1UV0uvw)

&µ.v~o{l11v (with genitive)

( from fLLfLV~UKw: / remind)

( ()) &µ.6s9 ( ~) &µ. ~9 (-.o) &µ.6v

&v (with dative)

' I ~ I 9 I

EVll.VTL0<;9 €11!!.VTUL E11!!.11'fL011

\ ' I "' 9 I

'TO EV!!.V'fLOV 9 'IOU EVCI.VTLOU

El/0,TO<; ·11 ·011

&v~voxn (perfect of ~<i.pw)

Ev06.8E

' I EVVE(l

&irru'Y}{ttvw (with dative)

' ~ I

<EV '!''4' '1!'11.POV'f!,

i~

E~EO''fLV

&~w (future of Exw)

Eot.Ka

&1m0011 (aorist of 1rucrxw)

E'lfEL9 &,mo~

hd, (with genitive)

t-rrL (with dative)

E'ITLOtow1;1L

e'l'!"~0uµ.ew

(with genitive)

I learned (14 p.165)

I was reminded, I remembered,

I made mention of (18 p.230)

my, of me (5)

in (8)

opposite (9)

the contrary, on the contrary (9) 20

ninth (22)

I have borne, carried (9 p. 89)

here (9)

nine (22)

I meet (24)

in the (present) circumstances (1 O)

six (22)

it is permissible, it is possible

(25 p.333)

I shall have, hold (12)

I seem likely (to), (with dative)

resemble (9 p.91 &1 11)

I suffered (14 p.165)

when, after, since (20)

on (8)

469

(i) at (ii) for (because of)(8)

(iii) over, covering, including, in the

hands of (15, seealsop.352)

I make progress (24 p.317)

I am desirous of, I desire ( 16)

190L"E\r,11vE,: the Greeks.

20i.e. the opposite thing.


'T) E'ITUY'l"~l1 '1]9 'T'rtS E'ITUY'i1Jl1 'l]S

' I ( • h d . ) Zl

E'lTLXELpEW Wit atlVe

fooµ.aL ( with dative)

• I

E'ITTU

' " ,.,. "

-ro epyov 9 -rou epyou

[epoµ.at] (aorist, ~p6µ11v)

&pp~&qv (aorist passive of AEyw)

epxo11m

&pw (future of.\t\yw)

epw,uw

' I

' .,.,

EO'KE't'Cl!L'l]V

(aorist both ofa1<hToµaL and crK01rEw)

.fooµ.at ( future of dµ()

<EO'X'l]Ka ( perfect of Exw)

foxov (aorist of EXW)

fow01]V (aorist passive ofo~tw)

'T) hai.pa.9 -r'fts ,hatpas

&-repos 9 ~TEpa 9 &-repov

E,-i

&-ruxov (aorist ofTuY)(CLVw)

d,p~aw (future of Eup[CYKw)

I know, understand,originally esp.

know how to do (22)

skill, knowledge, science

I attempt (19)

I follow (15)

seven (22)

the deed, the work (2)

I ask (not found in present indicative)

(14 p.172)

I was said ( 18 p.232)

I come, I go (14)

I shall say (12 p.136)

I ask, question (9)

( epwTfuµm is always passive ) 22

I consider( ed) (20)

(not with past meaning at Meno 86d4)

I sh a II be ( 1 2 p.1 3 9)

I have had, have held (9 p.89)

I had, held (14 p.165)

I was saved (18 p.232)

the companion, girl- or woman

friend (2)

the companion, boy- or man

friend (2)

the other ( of two) (2)

still, yet (12)

I happen (to be), I happened (to

be) (with participle)(14 p .. l 65)

well (6)

I shall find (12 p.137)

21 Also, as a dialectical term, / attempt to prove. Literally, / set my hand on.

22The most common form of the passive is To epwTwµEvov: the thing being asked, the question.

The present indicative passive is rarely found, e.g.: epwTWfiE0a {,~' ~µfuv mhfuv: we are being

asked by ourselves ( Philebus 44b 4-S).

euptmcw

Eq>O.V1JV23

&~te11-o.L (middle) .

E)(O.p1JV ( aorist passive of xaLpw)

ex6~o--ros

ex6trov

'°".,A I ' 6 I ',..A I

E11,vpoS9 E)C pa.9 €11,vpov

E)(«tl

( with adverb)

Mip111ca. (perfect of opa.w)

EWS

Word List

I find (4)

I appeared (18 p.232)

I seek, strive for (24 p.324)

I rejoiced, was pleased (18 p.232)

most hostile (23 p.297)

more hostile (23 p.297)

hostile (o ex0p6s:the enemy)(6)

I have, I keep, I hold (4) I can (6)

I am (22 p.286)

I have seen (22)

until, while (20)

471

t

I seek, look for (11)

~ introducing a question

i\

i\

i\ QOQ

11

000

11'JIEOj.1,0,L ' '

iJ8tw11

(pluperfect of ollla, used for its past tense)

iJMs9 iJ8e'i.a.9 iJM

'qKW'ro.

'qK«tl

~~8ov (aorist onpxoµaL)

1J!LEI.S

11

well, then ... ?(~ ynp ... eh?, is it so?)

(18)

or (7)

than (23 p.301)

either ... or ... (7)

in the way in which (21 p.274)

(i) (with genitive) I am leader of, I lead

(ii) I consider, think (16 p.206)

now, already, by now (14)

I knew (20)

most pleasant (23 p.297)

more pleasant (23 p.297)

pleasant (23)

(in the) least, (not) at all (8, 23 p.300)

I have come, am present (8 p.79)

I came (went) (14 p.165)

we (2)

23 Aorist passive, from qia(voµ.aL, passive of qia(vw.


( 0} ~[l,E.'l"Epo<;9 ( ~) ~µ,e1·Epa9

(,ro) ~tJ,<S.'&EfJ011

1111 is an occasional abbreviation of &av

~v 8' i1til (3rd person:~ ~r Os)

~vt,ca

~poµ,1111 (aorist of [i:poµ,m])

i\01Jxos9 ~crux119 i\ITT.1)(011

~01J){UL 'j(l, 'TOS

~CTUXUl 'iEpos

~'i'i011

., 24

'J)'f'flilll

11up111<a (perfect of EDpto-Kw)

11opo11 (aorist of EDp£oxw)

~x&rjv ( aorist passive of /iyw)

0iinov

06.nwv (comparative ofwxut;)

0auµ,aao11.m (future of 8auµ,a,tw)

0m.iµ,a.tw

0auµ,u,a'cos 9 00.:uµ,11,c,1·~ 9 0auµ,aa'i'OV

0ELoc; 9 8et11, 9 0ELov

0 8rsos9 'iOU 0.;ou

0ftAus 9 8~AELa 9 &i')t,u

( mixed declension adjective)

o ' ' ut'ipos I

l11µ,L

~ I ~ I ~ I

U(11.11os 9 uc11.1111 9 ucavov

our (5)

said I, said he (8 p.81)

at the time when (20)

I asked (14 p.172)

quiet (23)

quietest (23 p.295)

quieter (23 p.295)

less (adverb) ( 14 and 23 p.300)

less (adjective) (23 p.298)

I have found (9 p.89)

I found(14 p.165)

I was led (18 p.230)

0

sooner, more quickly (23 p.300)

quicker (23 p.298)

I shall wonder (12 p.138)

I wonder (at), admire (S)

wonderful, remarkable (22)

of the gods, divine 25 (21)

the god (if feminine, the goddess) (16)

female (7 p.71)

the doctor (4)

( I send), I utter (24 p.324)

sufficient (15)

24From -qrn: a little, gently (f\JB, change of breathing).

25 Tu 8E1.a (neuter plural): religion, the things of the gods

Word List 473

~ 9 f ,... ? I

'I} W'}(US9 'l'YJS W){UOS

tcry(UW

fows

so that, in order that (14) 26

I set up, establish, weigh, bring to

a standstill (24)

strong (12)

strength ('I 2)

I am strong (8 p.79)

perhaps ( 10)

l((l,l, '

ooo K(U \

oo,

KC!.L 8~ 1w.t

((m'l'{Ep'

I

KIU'i"OL

~ KO.((La.9 r•'l]S IW.((tas

I

IW.KUY'!OS

I

Kaiawv

tcmco8a(µ,wv 9 1m1co8atµ,011os 27

' ' ,

KO.KOS9 ICOUC'\'}9 !CWCOV

1rn.Mw (aorist &1c6.A<E<Vu)

ICO.A.AUYTOS

KUA./1.(rov

'TO 1Ca/\.AOS9 'IOU 1tC:.AAous

Ka.Ms 9 1rn.A~ 9 tea.Mv

Ka:r&. 29 (with accusative)

1rn.-r&. (with genitive)

IC

I sit down (11 p.120)

and (4), also, even (9)

both ... and ... (10)

and moreover (7)

although (22)

and yet (23)

badness, often cowardice (10)

worst (23 p.298)

worse (23 p.298)

unfortunate, with a bad daimon (17)

bad (2)

I call (15)

finest, noblest, best, most beautiful

(23 p.298 ).

more beautiful, finer, 81c. (23 p.298)

beauty, 28 lustre (11)

beautiful, fine, noble, good (2)

according to (11)

in respect of (13)

26The primary meaning of \'.vu (found often with the indicative) is where. This is quite frequent

in verse and is occasionally found in Plato, e.g. at Sophist 243b9.

273rd declension adjective; the neuter singular nominative and accusative is Kllt<oomflov.

28 Ku1111.o, can mean physical, moral or transcendental beauty.

29Primary meaning "down". See p.352.


KEL!J,O.L (used as perfect passive ofT(01jµL)

KEAEUW

1uvouveuw (with infinitive) 30

I

rcpaTUTTOS

KpEtnwv 31

KpLVW

I

KTa.oµ,m

KWA.uw (with infinitive)

Aaµ,~&.vw 32

(Aa.µ~uvoµa.L, middle, with genitive)

A~yw

A.EUKOSi AEUK~i AEUKOV

A~ijioµ,a.L (future offla.µ~uvw)

o Myos 1 ·mu Myou

AU01.TEAEL

I Ii e prone, have been put (24 p.316)

I order, command (11, 13)

I am likely to, risk (9)

best (23 p.297)

better (23 p.297)

ljudge(llp.122 and12 p.135)

I obtain (16 p.2O6)

I prevent (22)

A

I take, receive (14)

I take hold of, find fault with

I say, speak (3) mean (16)

white (14)

I shall take, receive(l 4)

the word, the argument (2) 33

it is profitable (25 p.333)

30Derived from b 1<(vouvoc;, ·roil KLvouvou: danger.

31 i.e. mightier, mightiest. The positive, mighty, is found as 1<apTEp6c; at Symposium 22Oc2 (a

quotation from Homer, Odyssey IV, 242) and 1<pa.TEp6c; at Timaeus 75b5.

32

Also, at Meno 7 5 d 2, Myov Aaµ~o.vw / ask for an explanation.

33The primary meaning of o Myoc; is "something said", i.e. a word embodying a concept or idea.

The following uses ofA6yoc; are listed in Liddell & Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (ninth edition):

computation, reckoning (in plural, public accounts); account; measure; esteem, value;

proportion; explanation (legal plea, or statement of a theory); argument; proposition; rule,

principle, law; thesis; reason, grounds; formula; the inward debate of the soul, thinking,

reason, reflection; reasoning (in general); continuous statement, narrative, fable; speech;

utterance, divine utterance, oracle; common talk, tradition; discussion, debate; divisim'l<iJf a

system of philosophy; proverb; assertion; command (the Ten Commandments are of OE.Ka.

AoyoL); matter, subject matter; manner of speech, language, mode of expression; (in

grammar) phrase, sentence, complete statement. des Places ( Lexique deP/aton, 1964) lists

the following uses of Myoc; in Plato: word, discourse, prose (as opposed to poetry), argument,

discussion, theory, definition, legend, reason, interior dialogue, reasoning, principle or law,

proof, judgement, faculty of reason, account, proportion.

Word List 475

Ai'iw

A~(Y'l"OS

t,wwv 34 ,,

µ,a&fiaoµ.aL (future of 11a.v86.vw)

o µ.a011,-~s 9 wu µ.a&qwu

I I I

µ.aKapws 9 µ,a1mpLa9 µ.mmpwv

fLO.KpOSo µ.mcpa.9 µ,aicpov

µ.a.A.a.

[J,O.ALO"'i"Cl

µ.«iAAov

µ,av0avw

µhyas 9 µ.1t-yfiA7J 9 µ.eya

To µ.<Ey1t0os 9 ,-ou µ,1ty40ous

11E')'W'l'OS

µ.1t8l:r1µ,t

µ,1ttyvuµ.t

µ,<l:(twv

µ,EAEL µ,ot

~ µ,,eM,-119 71JS µ,eM-r11s

~ µ,Di.t7-ra 9 71JS µ,EA.tw11s

µ,EA.AW

!1E[J,fi0'T}IC(J, (perfect of flO.V6avw,)

µJµ,V'T}µ.ai (with genitive)

(perfect passive of fllflV~aKw, / remind)

µ,ev

µ,~v 000 8~ ooo

I loose (3) (middle, I ransom (5))

best (23 p.297)

better (23 p.297)

µ,

I shall learn (12 p.138)

the student (3)

fortunate, lucky (5)

long (2, 23)

very (23 p.300)

especially certainly(when expressing

agreement) (17, 23 p.300)

more (adverb), rather (14 and 23 p.300)

I learn, (get to) understand (3)

( very often in Plato, simply "I understand")

great (23)

size, length (11)

greatest (23 p.298)

I let off, release (24 p.324)

I mingle, mix (18 p.228)

greater (23 ~298)

it is a care to me, I care about (21, 25

p.333)

practice, training (15)

the bee (2)

I intend, am going to ( 19)

I have learned, understood (9 p.89)

I remember (19)

indeed (17)

on the one hand ...

on the other hand ... (3)

yet, nevertheless (11)

34 In the sense of finer, nobler; finest, noblest. Rarer than u11 dvwv, ~EATLwv,

KpELTTWV.

[l,@IJJ '

1f,(:O",os9 fl,<Eo"r~9 ~£uTov ( with genitive)

µ,ETa ( with genitive)

µ.e .. 6. ( with accusative)

µ.i.:'l'a. '!'a.il'l'a.

µ.<ETctµ.EA<EL

µ.i.:'l'a. rt81Jµ.t

µ.eTa'l"t&µ.m (middle)

1u,'l'aX<1<Lpttoµ.m

( from µeTa + ~ xe[p, ~-ii, XELp6s: hand)

µ.fxpt ( conjunction)

[J,E)(PL (preposition, with genitive)

µ.~

µ.118€

I

1111'1l"IJJ or !-'-11 'mll

µLa. (feminine adjective)

I I I

1,LLKpOS9 µ.tKpa.9 [1LKpov

I

( also <Tf.LLKpo,, aµucpa, <Tf.LU<pov)

11011011 (adverb)

' I " I

'l'O 11opw11 9 'l'OU 11opwu

µ,wv3 7 (µ~ + O~V)

Leaming Greek with Plato

I stay, (with accusative) I wait for (11)

full of (23)

with (13)

after (13)

after that (after these things), next (13)

it is the subject of repentance

(25 p.333)

I transpose (24 p.317)

I change my mind (24 p.317)

I manage, administer, have to do with

handle (22) '

until (20)

as far as (20)

not (indefinite) 35 (9)

and not, not even, nor (when plain negative

would be µ,~)(cf. oD8E) (19)

truly 36 (13)

not yet (19)

one (11, 22 p.287)

small (23)

only(12)

part, esp. constituent part (19)

surely not? (12)

35µ~ is used for "not" e.g. when expressing wishes or comma,nds or purposes or

suppositions. ou is used typically when facts are questioned or denied.

36aAA.a. µ~v: yet truly.

37But µiiiv followed by a negative can expect the answer "yes" cf. Philebus 37d7-9:

µfuv OUIC op&rjv µe.v oo~uv ipouµEv, o.v (= €0.V) op86T'l]TU L<T)(1J, TUUTOV &E ,joov11v;

dvayKULov. Shall we not speak of correct opinion if it has correctness, and pleasure just

the same? Necessarily so. ~ op06T'1J,, 'l'llS bp0oT'1JTos: correctness. \'.<T)(w is a

reduplicated form of ~xw L<T)(1J is 3rd person singular, present subjunctive active. ~

~&6111], '111> ~o6v11,: pleasure. civayKnfo, -a -ov: necessary.

Word List

477

I

V!!.L

~ I ,,,~ I

0 VEUVLU',9 ~~ou 'VECLVWU

voµ.ttw

(future vop.un)

voµ,ov '((,0Ef11U

o vous 9 ,oil vou 38

vuv

vuvo~

vuvL ( more emphatic form of vuv)

V

yes(18)

the young man (2)

I think, consider (12 p.136)

I make a law (24 p.318)

intelligence, intellect, attention, sense

(25)

now (8)

even now, (referring to past time) just now

(17)

now (15)

~

the stranger, the foreigner 39 (20)

8yooos ·11 °0V

OOE9 ~OE9 'oOO<E

~ bMs, 'o~S boou

o0<Ev

ot

oloa

' I OLl(EW

' ' f ,.. ' '

'~ OU(LCL9 Tl]S ouuas

olµ,m4o

olos 9 oLa 9 olov

0

eighth (22)

this (10)

the road (2)

from where, whence (21 p.274)

to where, whither (21 p.274)

I know (9)

I manage a house (8 p.79)

the house, home (6)

I think (10)

such as (9), of what kind (14)

38vou<; is contracted from v6o,. The other cases are: (accusative) Tov vouv (uncontracted once,

Tov v6ov, at /\1/eno 95e10, quoted from the poetTheognis), (genitive) Toil vou (uncontracted

once, as v6ou, at Laws 777a1 from Homer, Odyssey XVII, 322, perhaps from memory as the

traditional text of Homer is different), (dative) Tei> vii> (uncontracted twice as Tei> v6ep, at

Protagoras 339b2 and 344a3, quoted from the poet Simonides).

39Also sometimes the guest, especially the guest-friend with whom one would stay in a distant

city, who would reciprocally stay with you when visiting your city.

40 Short for o'Coµm.


olos -r~ islµL (with infinitive) I am able to (7)

ofow ( future of ~>Epw)

, I

OIC'l"(t)

bXLyos 9 6A.1,yr19 b11.tyo11

bA.1,yunos

oXos, 0A11, oAov

oµ.ows 9 oµ.ota, oµ,owv (with dative)

oµ.otws (adverb of above)

oµ,oAoy,!;w 41

oµ,ws

\ " ,.., j /

-ro 0110µ.a, Tov 0110µ,a-ros

01/'l"WS

~ .... e I e ....

07i'OLOS9 O'll"OLC1 9 0'1TOL011

O'l'iffiS

O'll"WS µ,~ (with future indicative)

opaw (future oljioµm)

op ' 0' os9 opv, ' A.!. 19 op ' 0' 011

os 9 ,f\ 9 o (relative pronoun)

OooL 9 OoaL 9 Oaa

OO'OS9 oa11, 00'01!

OO''ll"Efl9 1]'IT<Efl9 07i<Ep

oaTLS9 o n or o-rL

OO'TLO'OU119 OTLOU11

O'TE

41 From oµoLu and Myw: I say similar things.

42 Also as large as, as much as.

I shall carry, bear(12 p.137)

eight (22)

little (in plural, few) (20)

least (23)

whole (17)

like, resembling(l 2)

likewise, all the same

I agree (19)

nevertheless (17)

the name, the noun (2 p.15 and 1 5)

really, in reality, on the basis of reality

( 13)

in what way, how (21 p.274)

what kind of (9 p.90 and 21 p.27 4)

how, so that (14p.176 and21 p.274)

don't! (15 p.191)

I see (14)

correct (15)

who, which (17 p.218)

how many, as many as (21 p.274)

how large, how much 42 (21 p.274)

the very (man) who (17 p.220)

whoever, whatever ( 17 p.zz 1)

whosoever, whatsoever (19

p.248)

when, at the time when (20)

Word List

479

fl 9 1

O'TI, 'il'O'f EO"TL V

oo

ou, OUK9 OU}(_9 OU}(_L 45

ou µhvov .,. a.AA.It ical. •••

ou8e

008~ •• • ou8~ •••

oo8ets, OUOE!J,Ca, oo8ev

oul>Ev

OOOEV ~"r'Y'OV

ouo~v µ,iiAA.ov

OOOE.'ITO'fE

' I O\JKE'fL

' ~

OUKOUV

OUKO\JV

o~v

OU'rrlll

~ ouC1(U9 -rijc; OUO"LllS 4 ?

(i) that (e.g. "I say that ... " 43 or

"I know that ...")

(ii) because (3 p.27)

what in the world it is, its

essential nature 44

where (21 p.274)

not (2)

not only ... but also ... (13)

not even, neither (19)

not even ... nor yet ... ( 19)

nobody, nothing (22)

in no way (11) nothing (22)

noless(14)

no more (14)

never (21)

no longer ( 12)

surely then (like clp' oii, expects the answer

"yes" when in questions) ( 17)

certainly not (17) 46

therefore (7)

not yet ( 11)

reality, existence; essence,

essential nature; being, substance (11)

43Used very frequently after AEyw rather than after <J,w(, where Greek more often uses a

form of words such as: "I affirm this to be true".

44See section 5, footnote 9 and section 9, footnote 3 5.

45 oux( is a lengthened form of oux.

46 To be distinguished carefully by its accent from ouKouv which can introduce a question

expecting "yes". Sometimes used in giving orders, formally as an interrogative; "won't you

... " or "aren't you" meaning "get on with it!". ouKouv introducing a question differs from

ouKouv in that the question is impassioned. (Section 15, pp.1 90-1)

47 ~ ouofo, connected with wv, oocm, ov, the participle of ELflL, means "being-ness".


oU·rE ooo o°U'TE ooo

oti-rol. 9 au-rT19 -rofrro

(for declension, see p.389)

ou-rws or oi\-rw

OU'i"WS E)(OO

neither ... nor ... (8 and 19)

this, that (5)

thus, so, in this way (9)

I am in this condition,

this is how I am (9)

I am owing (8 p.79)

'lfattw I play, act like a child (3)

o or~ 'lfats 9 wu or -r~s -rrm36s the child (2) (masc., the slave boy)

'IT<tALv again or back again (14)

0 1ra,voupyos9 'i"OU 'ITUVOUp')/01.l the rascal 48 (20)

'ITav-ro3aTiot 9 7rav-rooo"1rat 9 'lfav-rooawl. of a 11 kinds( 5)

'!fav-raxou everywhere ( 12)

1rav-rEAws 49 utterly, altogether (23)

1ravu altogether (oil mivu: not quite) ( 13)

-rrapa (with accusative) to, to the side of, beside (9)

'll'apa (with dative) beside ( 11)

1mpa (with genitive) from, from the side of (15)

'ITapay<E-yova (perfect ohrupuy[yvoµcn) I have arrived (9 p.92)

w1pciytyvoµ,o"l

·1rapa0Ulwµ.L

(,-o) 1mpu:rm V

'IT

I am beside, arrive, am acquired, (with

dative) come into the possession of (5)

I hand over, hand down (24 p.317)

altogether, at all (S)

I am present (10)

every (in plural, all) (11 p.115)

I suffer (14)

I persuade (17)

I try, attempt (16 p.206)

fifth (22)

poor man ( 4, footnote 3 7)

-· ---·--·- -- - -----··-··

481iterally, a person who would do any work.

49 Also frequently used by Plato in answers, to mean most certainly.

Word List 481

'ITEVTE '

five (22)

'IT<E'ITauw. (perfect active of 'ITCLL(w) I have played (9 p.89)

'ITE'ITov0u (perfect active of 1ro.crxw) I have suffered Cl 4)

~<E'ITpuxa (perfect active cif rrpchTW) I have done (9 p.89)

w .. pt (with genitive)

about, concerning (Bro

'll"U;

in what way? (21 p.274)

'ITAao--ros (adverb: -rri\Eio·Ta)

most (23 p.298)

'lfA.E(wv (adverb: -rri\fov)

more (23 p.298)

'ITA.OUCYl,OS9 'ITAOUO'L0,9 'ITA.OUO'LOV rich, wealthy (5)

(J 'ITAOU'l"OS 51

wealth (4)

'i!"OLEl!l '

I do, make (16)

(J 'llOL'YJT~S9 TOU 'ITOL'YJTOU

the poet (21)

'IJOLOS9 - 'ITOUL9 ' T(OLOV; -

what kind of? (9) (21 p.274)

~ 'ITOA.LS9 Tl]S 'lTOA.El!lS

the city (2)

b 'IT0Ah11s9 -roil Tioi\t-rou

the citizen (2)

'ITOALTLKOS9 'ITOAvnK~9 'ITOA.Lnicov living in,or to do with a city (2 p.14)

'ITOAAal(LS

many times, often (22)

,roi\i\oL 9 Tio},i\a(9 '!foi\M

many (5)

'll'OAA.ou 8<Ew

I am far from (19)

'ITOhUS9 'lTOA;\~9 'ITOAU

much (in plural, many) (23)

'ITopttoµa~

I procure, provide for myself, obtain(9)

'ITOO'OS9 ' 1TOCY'Yj ' 9 '!fOO"OV; '

how large? (21 p.274)

'1oOO"OL9 ' 'ITOO"(U9 ' troo-a; '

how many? (21 p.274)

·rro-re (enclitic) 52 ever, at some time (some when) (15, 21

p.274)

5°The accent is on the first syllable when 1rEpt follows the noun it qualifies, e.g. 1rEpL o.pE'r-ij,

( about virtue) can be written o.pETTJ, 1rEpL.

51 Pluto ( o Il.\01h(l)v) ("wealth") is the god of the underworld because gold is usually mined

from under the ground.

521ro-rE; = when? 1ro-r<: ~ iJiux~ -rij, d.\110Eta, a'.1r-rETat;

with truth? ( Phaedo 65 b9)

When does the soul come into contact


1ro-rEpo11,,. ~,.,

1rou ( enclitic)

'frou;

-ro 1rpii:yµ,a

~ 1rpa~is9 -rijs 1rpa.~Ews

1ipa.nw

whether ... or ... 53 (12)

(i) somewhere, anywhere (21 p.274)

(ii) I suppose ( often where the speaker is only

where? (4, 21 p.274)

pretending to be in doubt)(15)

the action, affair, thing, business (4)

the act, the action 54 (10)

I do, perform (4)

1ipeo-~u-rEpos9 ,rpeo-~uTepa.9 1rpea~O'l'Epov

older (6)

6 1TpEO'~O'T1jS9 '!'OU 'iTpECY~O'TOU the elder, the old man (12)

TrpL11 (with infinitive except in a negative

sentence, but see pp.256-7) before, until (20)

np6 (with genitive) before (8)

'll'po Tou previously (8)

1rp6s (with accusative) towards (8)

(with genitive or dative, see p.73, footnote 2 and p. 352)

'l',po1rrt01]1-u

(To) Trp<>Tepov (adverb) earlier (20)

1ipW'l'OS9 1rpWT1]9 'il'pohov

1TW (enclitic)

1rwc; (enclitic)

'l'l'WS9

1rws o' ou; or 'il'WS ·yap ou; 55

I put to, add (24 p.317)

first, most important (7, 22 p.287)

yet (11)

somehow (15, 21

how? (5, 21

p.274)

p.274)

of course (literally, for how not?)

( 17, footnote 16)

53Direct double questions in Greek sometimes begin 1roTEpov which is not expressed in English;

e.g. 1r0Tepov Tov L.iKpO.T1J ,pLAeis ~ oil; Do you like Socrates or not?, literally Which of these

two things, do you lif<e Socrates or not?

54At Meno 99b2 ~ 1ro/\LTLK~ 1rpo.~Ls means "conduct of a city, political practice". Aristotle

(e.g. at Nicomachaean Ethics 1140a2) uses it for "moral action".

55e.g. at Republic 327c8.

Word List

483

/>48ws9 pq,8i.a 9 />48wv

.fl~O"TOS

{l4wv

p

easy (3)

easiest (23 p.298)

easier (23 p.298)

O'Cl<p~S

OKk'll''fO~,ClL

I

CYKO'lrEW

O'KW'IT'fW '

\ ,.. .... I

-ro aµ,71vos 9 -rou aµ,7111ous

aµ,ucpos

( b) aos9 ( ~) 01), (-ro) <Yov

~ <YoqiCu, 9 TIJS ao<p(as

6 ao<!>L<YT~S 9 -roi', ,yoqiwwu

O'O<pOS9 CYOq>~9 CY041ov

' ' A I

'TO C1Toµ,a9 'TOU a-roµ,a, 'fOS

<Y-rpecpw

cro '

O'UY)l<Ell~S

CYUµ,~a,tva 56

CYUµ,<pep<E~

<ruVELµ,L

CYl)lJL ' 'TJl1L

CYUVTt&l)µ,L

CYl\)tw (aorist, fowcm)

aJcppwv9 awcppovos 57

CY

clear (21)

I consider, examine (20)

I look into, consider, examine (16)

I mock, scoff at, make fun of (4)

the beehive, swarm of bees (11)

see fLLKp6,

your (singular) (5)

wisdom (2)

the sophist (3)

wise (2)

the philosopher (6)

the mouth, power of speech (24)

I turn, twist (9)

you (singular) (2)

akin(21)

it follows logically (19)

it is in the interest of (25 p.333)

I come, go together, assemble

(25 p.331)

I understand (24 p.324)

I compose (24 p.318)

I save (10)

prudent, sensible (12)

~ aw<j>po<YUV7J9 'M]S <YW<ppOO'Ull'TJS prudence, self control, moderation (12)

56From rruv + dative ( with) and ~utvw (Igo, step).

573rd declension adjective; nominative and accusative neuter singular is rriii~pov.


'1"ail'1"◊V ( crasis from To mh6)

-raxa

'f(J.)(' av

'fll.)(W'l'OS

I ~ I

'fll)(IJS 'fll)(ELU9 'fll)(ll

oo,TE ( enclitic)

\

oo,'&E '" KII.L ,,,

-rE0m',µ,a.Ka (perfect active of 8uuµ,utw)

TE-rapws ·11 •ov

,

'fE-r-rapes

-rt o~;

,{0-Yi!J,L

' ,

'I} 'TI.(11'}

, ,

ns; 'fL;

TL o.k;

ns 9 n ( enclitic)

'f0L111JV 59

'TOUJCYOE9 TOU10E9 'fOtOVlk

-rowu-ros9 -roLUU'f1J9 -rowu-ro( v ) 60

TOO'OO'OE9 TO~OE9 '1'00'0\IOE 61

~ , -

'l'00'01J'l'OS9 '1"00"U'IJ'f'l'j9 1"00"0\J'l'Oll

,

'fO'IE

, ,

'TO'TE o o o 'TO'fE. o o o

,.

the same thing (15)

soon (23 p.300)

probably, perhaps (23 p.303)

quickest (23 p.298)

quick (23)

and (7)

both ... and ... (7)

I have wondered (at), admired (9 p.88)

fourth (22)

four (22 p.288)

Why in the world? Whatever for? (17)

I put, suppose, classify, define (24)

honour(4)

who? what? (2, 7 p.67)

And what about this? 58 (19)

somebody, something (as adjective):

some, a certain (7 p.67-8)

well, then; accordingly, (and) so (11)

such, like this (16)

such, like this ('16)

so big (24)

so big (24)

then, at that time (21)

at one time ... at another ... (21)

three (22 p.288)

580ften used to introduce the next point. See Denniston, The Gree!< Particles, p.176.

59Used after a leading question.

60ToLoiiTov is usual for the neuter in Plato ( ToLoiiTo is only found once).

6\oa6aoE is more emphatic than ToaoiiTos.

Word List 485

~ f "" I

0 'TPO'ITOS 9 'fOU 'TflO'lfOU

Tpu<pa.w

'TU'Y)(U,V(IJ

third (22 p.287)

the way, the manner (7)

I am spoilt, live a soft life (16)

I happen, happen to be, find(with genitive)

(14)

by what? (alternative to Ttv.) (7 p.68)

by some (alternative to m.) (7 p.68,

11 p.127, sentence 6)

uµ,,1is

( 0) uµ,<ET<Ef>OS9 ( ~) uµ,hepo,9

u

health (4)

you (2)

( -ro) uµ,<E-r<epov

your, of you (plural) (5)

uTI&.pxw I exist, (with dative) I belong to (18)

tl7rb (with genitive)

(for meaning with accusative and dative, see p.352)

u'ITo .. t&qµ,L

by, from under (8 p.74)

I place underneath, I suggest

( u1T0Tt8Eµ,m, middle) I suppose, I postulate, I assume, make a

I weave (8 p.79)

hypothesis 63

62Enclitic: accent is on previous word. Distinguish from Tlfl (dative singular masculine or

neuter of definite article).

63For an example ofu1T0Tt8e:µ,m: / make an assumption, see Meno 87b 3-5: ouTw 8~ r<a.c 1TEpc

UpET'T)s, E1reLO~ oUK 'Ccrµev oU0' 0 TL EaTl.v oU0' 01roL6v TL, l11ro6E1J.EVO!:. aU,O crK01rWµEv E'C-rE

8.our<Tov dTE ou oLomn6v E<TTLv. So in this way also concerning virtue (excellence), since we

do not know either what it is or what it is like, making (having made) an assumption let us

examine it (to see) whether it is something teachable or not teachable.


qia.(110µ,at (passive of q,a[vw, I show)

qiavoilµ,a1, ( future of q,u(voµm)

qi&.01rn1v (participle of <\>11110

</>~pw

o/1111-t

q>LA.tlil

~ 4>t>.11 9 'l"'l)c; qiGH\s

qit>.oc; 9 <j>0,11, <j>O.av

o qi01.ac; 9 '!'OU d,>01.ou

<ptAoaoqioc;9 <ptMao<pov 6 5

0 <pLAoaoqios 9 '!'Oll q>LAocro<fiou

q>LA'l'aws 9 q>tlw6.r1J 9 qithu:rov

q>LA'!'Ep0<;9 <j>Ltw~U.9 <j>tATEfJOV

~ <p-OCYl.',9 'f'TjS q>UO'<ElilS

d,>

I appear, am demonstrated (12) 64

I shall appear, be demonstrated

( 12 p.138)

saying (10 p.104)

I am bringing, I bring (3)

I say yes, affirm (3)

I love, regard with affection, like (9)

the friend (2)

friendly, dear (2)

the friend (2)

philosophic, loving knowledge (2)

the philosopher (6)

dearest (23 p.295)

dearer (23 p.295)

nature (6)

64q,u[vETaL with a participle means it app,9ars (and is true) i.e.it is evident.

Mi;t µ.o[p<;i ~µ1v q,a[ VETaL ~µ:iv 1ropayL yvoµEV1] ~ a.pE-nj:

it is evident that by a divine dispensation virtue comes to us. ( Meno 100b3) ( ~ µo1pa, TTJ,

µo[pa,: dispensation, fate) (Our observation shows that virtue really does arrive in this way.)

q,a[vETaL with an infinitive means it appears to be ... (but may be so or not)

µu0ov TLVU EKaCITo, <j>ULVETUL µm 8L1J'YELo-0m 1TULO"LV ws Oti<JLV ~111v:

each (of them) seems to me to be telling us a story as if we were children (literally, as being

chi/dren.)(Sophist, 242c 8-9)

( b µu0o,, Tou µ.u0ou: the myth, story. 8L1J'YEoµ.m: I lead through, i.e. I relate, tell)

q,u[vErn( with an infinitive may sometimes, but not invariably, go farther and indicate that an

appearance is false (e.g. KAa[eLv iq,utvETo: he looked as if he were weeping, i.e. pretended that he

was weeping) (Xenophon, Symposium 1, 15, quoted by Smyth). ( icAatw: / weep) ff'

Smyth, para. 2143, indicates that the distinction between q,utvETUL with a participle and

~u(vErnL with an infinitive may not always be maintained. Notomi, The Unity of Plato's

Sophist, (Cambridge, 2001) pp.93-4, says that the philosophical context needs to be

considered also.

65Two terminations; the feminine is like the masculine I section 13.

:ZCZ3¢_

~;;;:;i

Word List

xatpw

)(11AE'IT0<;9 )(UAE'IT~9 xaAE'!l"OV

}{Etpurros

}{ELpwv 66

XP~ (with accusative)

'TU XP~µ.a 'Ta!, 'T<LW XP1J[!,lt -rwv

tf,eu8~s

-r◊ i)iefoµ.u9 -roil ~seu<Yµ.aTos

~ tliux~9 TIJ, iJiux-ij, 68

X

I rejoice (18)

difficult, dangerous (3)

worst (23 p.298)

worse (23 p.298)

ought (to) (25 p.333)

the money, property (plural of

487

-ro XP~f.Lu, -roil XP~f.La-ros: thing, possession)(l 8)

the gold coin (18)

ti,

false (21)

the lie, falsehood (2)

the soul (21)

w

qi~&ijv (aorist (passive form) of ol11m) I thought ( 18 p.232)

Jis as (8), when (20), that (21)

(with a superlative, as ... as possible,

23 p.3O1)

e /

WO'O.U'l"lil<;

in the same way (10)

IJJO"'!l"Ep

Wcr'iE

w<j>eMw (with accusative)

w<j>&ijv (aorist passive of opa.w)

just as (14)

so as to (9) (introduces a result; with

indicative it expresses an actual result, with an

infinitive it expresses a potential result)

I help, am beneficial to (16)

I was seen (18 p.232)

660ften in the sense of inferior.

67

From 0 )(pU<JOS, -roii xpuuou: gold.

680ften best translated as mind. It is most often used by Plato to denote the principle of life and

thought, but sometimes simply to mean life (des Places, Lexique de Platon, p.57 4 ).

Principal tenses ("the principal parts") of some of the more difficult verbs

""'" ..

00

00

These are the 1st persons singular (indicative) of six tenses (except where all six are not found).

From them, all the other parts of the verbs can be found by the correct rules (all the tenses are

explained on p.75, the other terms on pp.353-4); e.g the future passive of o.yw, d.x6110-oµ.a.c is found

from the aorist passive (i'jx611v) by the rule given on p.245. This is the standard form of reference for

Greek irregular verbs.

present

active

cf-yw

I am leading

. ,

aKOUW

I am hearing

d.1r0Kp[ voµ.a.L

I am answering

f3a.Cvw

I am going (p.229)

future

active

a~w

I shall lead

ri.KOUO"O!J,O.L

I shall hear

aorist

active

f\-ya.-yov

I led

fJKOUO"O.

I heard

perfect

active

iixa.

I have led

perfect

passive (and middle)

'tj-yµ.m

I have been led

aorist

passive

f\x011v

l was led

ri.K{iKoa. (also future passive: d.Kouo-6110-0µ.a.c: l shall be heard)

l have heard

a.-rroKpLvouµ.a.L

' ...

O.TrEKpLVO.V-,TJV

' , I

d.1TOKEKpL!J,O.L

l shall answer l answered

l have answered

f3110-oµ.m

I shall go

~f311v

1 went

f3ef311rn

l have gone

r

rt>

~

...

t:l

s·

O'Q

C"l

:i1

rt>

:,,,-

:§ ...,..

::r

'tj

~

8

10r d.1TeKpt011v (passive form, active meaning). ci1T0Kpcvoµ.a.c is a middle verb. Middle forms are not labelled

separately from active forms in this table. Aorists in this table are shown as past (all aorists express completeness

though not all have past meaning).

"fr\

present

active

future

active

aorist

active

perfect

active

perfect


aorist

passive

/3AO.'TTTW

I am harming

/3Mtjiw

I shall harm

ef3::\m.pa

I harmed

l3l/3Aacpa.

I have harmed

f3lf3::\aµ.µ.a.L

I have been harmed

lf3Mf3TJV

or il3Mcp611v

I wa&harmed

/3ouAoµ.m

I want

l3ouA110-oµ,a.L ~f3ouA11611v f3ef3ouA11µ.aL

I shall want I wanted 2 I have come to want

-yl-yvoµ.a.t.

I am happening

')'L')'VWO'KUI

I am discovering,

I know

Uoµ,a.t.

I need, beseech

, 3 ' ,

-yev110-oµ.a~ e-yevoµ,7Jv

I shall happen I happened

-yvwcroµ.a.1, e-yvwv

I shall discover I discovered

8e T)O'Ol,l,O.L

I shall need,

beseech

E8e-fi611v

I needed

besought

')'E.')'OVO.

I have happened

E')'VWKCL

I have discovered

')'E')'E.V'TJl,l,aL

I have become, been generated

~-yvwo-611v

I was

discovered

...,

"1:1

Ei"

r,

.;·

~

"1:1

,.,

s,,

,...

"' ,_,, 0

<

(b

,.,

c:r

"'

2Passive form, active meaning.

3 A future passive form, ye.v116110-ETO.L is found at Parmenides 14le6 - ouTE YEVT)O-ETO.L ouTe yEv116110-ETetL: it will

neither become nor be made to become.

~

'°

present future aorist perfect perfect aorist

~

active active active active passive (and middle) passive

0

..

Mxoµ,m 8i~oµ,m e.8e.~6.µ,'T]v 8i8e.yµ,aL

I am receiving I shall receive I received I have received

8LaAiyoµ,aL 8Lall.£~oµ,m 8Le.A£x8TJV 4 8 LE. (Ae.-yµ,o.L

I am conversing I shall converse I conversed I have conversed

8Lo.cp8e.Cpw 8Lo.cp8e.pw 8uscp8e:Lpo. 8ufcp8a.pKa. 8L£<p8a.pµ,a.L 8Le.cp8a.p'T]V t--

I am ruining, I shall ruin I ruined I have ruined I have been ruined I was ruined "' I"

....

corrupting

::s

8L8a.O"KW 8LM~w e.8C8a.~a. 8e.8l8a.xa 8e.8l8ayµ,aL E.8L8ax811v 0

....

I am teaching I shall teach I taught I have taught I have been taught l was taught

"'

:,;--

::E

8(8wµ,L 8wo-w e8wKa 5 8l8wKa 8£80µ,m e.868TJV ....

::r

I am giving I shall give l gave I have given l have been given l was given

"" p;;-

0

8oK£W M~w e8o~a. M8oyµ,m

l seem l shall seem I seemed l have seemed

s·

C!Q

4Passive form, active meaning, 8ce>..ey11v sometimes in Aristotle.

5See p.313.

,1:r,

lyelpw

I am awakening

lyepw

I shall awaken

1lYELpa.

I awakened

i.yp11yopa

I amawake 6

71ylp811v

I was·

awakened

lMyxw

I am examining

E'TrOfl,<lL

I am following

[epoµ.ac]

epxoµ,aL

I am coming,

going

lXey~w

I shall examine

etj,oµ,m

I shall follow

lp11aoµ,m

I shall ask

elµ,L

I shall come,

go

11Xey~a.

I examined

~a,r6µ,11v

I followed

,ip6µ.71v

I asked

~X0ov

I came,

went

i.X11Xu8a.

I have come,

gone

iX11Xeyµ,a.L

I have been examined

11X~x811v

I was

examined

.., ""'

5·

(")

-5·

~

""' $)l

..,

f;j

0

....,

<

fl)

..,

c:r

Cl)

eupLO"KW . '

I am finding

et>p11aw

I shall find

11vpov

I found

1l~P'TJK<l

I have found

71~p11µ.aL

I have been found

'T)t>pe811v

I was found

°This is an intransitive perfect (i.e. having no object), equivalent to "I have been awakened".

.....

~

j

present future aorist perfect

active active active active

¥.xw E~W 7 Ecrxov EO"")(T]KO.

I have, hold I shall have I had I have had

perfect

passive

( and middle)

aorist

passive

,"'-

'-.P

N

"'

80.uµ,a.(w 8a.uµ,a.o-oµ.a.L ~ea.uµ,a.o-a. 'TE.80.Uj-l,0.KO.

I wonder I shall wonder I wondered I have wondered

-ficrw

, ,

T]KO.

E.lKU

C'Tjl1,L

I send (utter) I shall send I sent I have sent

LO"'T'T][LL O"T'T]O"W eo--r110-a. EO"'TTJKO.

I set up I shall set up I set up I am standing

EO-'TTJV I stood 8

KU/\E.W KUAE.O"W 9 ~KCLAE.O"O. KE.KA TJKO.

I call I shall cal,l I called I have called

E.Lf-l,UL E.'C8'T]V t-'

I have been sent I was sent

(D

.., w

::::s

EO"'TO.j-1,0.L

~ O"'TO. 8Tj V

::::s

ao

I have been I was set up 0

'""I

set up

(D

(D

~

~-

..,,,

s;"

8

KE.KA'T]j-1,UL ~KATJ811v &

1 have been called I was called

'Occasionally crx11aw.

'NB, these aorists have different meanings. See pp.319-320.

9This tense is found in Greek tragedy but not in Plato.

present

active

future

active

aorist

active

perfect

active

perfect


aorist

passive

KpLVW

I judge

KpLVW

I shall judge

EKpLVO.

I judged

KE.KpLKO.

I have judged

KE.KpLµ,a.L

I have been judged

iKpW11v

I was judged

KTaoµ,a.L

I obtain

,

KT'T)CYOµ,O.L

I shall obtain

,

EKT'T)0-0.f.1,'T)V '

I obtained

KE.KT'T)µ,a.L

I have obtained

;\a.µ, j36. vw

I am taking

Myw 10

I am saying

µ,a.v06.vw

I am learning,

understanding

X11tJsoµ,a.L

I shall take

oilpw

(2)Ae~W

I shall say

µ,a.0110-0µ,m

I shall learn

eAa.f3ov

I took

et'.X11c!>a.

I have taken

(1) d-rrov et'.p'T)KO.

(2) EAE~a.

I said I have said

eµ,a.0ov

I learned

µ,eµ,a.8'T)KO.

I have learned

et'.X11µ,µ,a.L

I have been taken

et'.p11µ,m

I have been said

lX11ci>611v

I was taken

lpp11811v

I was said

'"Cl

...,

,.., s·

,;·

!::.

'"Cl

s,,

~

"'

0

.....

<

(1)

...,

0-

"'

10

lpfu, ,ilp11Ka., etp11µ.a.L and epp11611v do not come from i\eyw but from epfu which is not found in the present tense. e1-rrov

is a separate form connected with eiros (3rd declension, neuter): word. Plato occasionally conjugates et-rrov with a.

endings, e.g. et1mn: i]µ.i.v: tell us! (Protagoras 357dl).

~

w

present future aorist perfect perfect aorist ~ "

-ISactive

active active active passive (and middle) passive

I

f--LLf--LV'T]O"KW

µ,e.µ. VTU.LUL

iµ,v{icr611v

I remind I remember I make mention of,

remember

voµ,(lw VOf--LLW lv6µ,u,a. VEV6f--LLKU ve:v6µ,w·µ,a.L lvoµ,(cr611v

I think, consider I shall think I thought I have thought I have been thought I was thought

oloa. e:'laoµ,a.L 1J "811 (oloa is really perfect and fi81l pluperfect in form: see pp.91 and 259.) ....

I know I shall know I knew 2.

::i

c,q

? 11

0

OLf.LUL OLTJ<YOf-1,UL ....

4>17611v

(D

I think I shall think I thought

t-<

(D

;,.>

It>

~

:§.

wcpfrriv 5-

opa.w 12 'I

Olµoµa.L doov e:wpa.KO.

-cl

I see I shall see I saw I have seen I was seen i;;-

8

11This verb is middle in the present and future and passive in the aorist but all the meanings are active.

12 Eloov may come from the stem rco- (cf. Latin video, English vision). otj,oµ,ac and wq,8'Y]v come from the stem o-rrT-.

present future aorist perfect perfect aorist

active active active active passive (and middle) passive

'lTO.CT)(W 'lTE:L0"0(.1,0.L 13 e7ra.8ov 'lTE'lTOV8o.

I suffer I shall suffer I suffered I have suffered

7re.C8w 'lTE.LO"W E'lTE.LO"O. 14 'lTE 'lTO L 0a. or 'lTE 'lTELO"j.1.,UL ~'lTE.LCY0'T]V

'lTE'lTE.LKU

I am persuading I shall persuade I persuaded I have persuaded I have been persuaded I was

persuaded

'lTpO.TTW 11po.~w e11po.~a. 'lTE 'lTpa. xa. 15 'lTE1Tpa.-yµ,a.L t'lTpa.x8'TJV

I am doing I shall do I did I have done I have been done I was done

O"K01Tew 16 O"KE\PO(J,a.L ~mceij,a.µ,'T]v EO"KE.(.1,(.1,0.L

I am looking at, I shall look at I looked at I have looked at

considering

13 1Te1,o-ofl,aL is ambiguous. When it is the future middle of·meWw it means I shall be persuaded.

..., "t:i

5·

n

.;·

~

..., $»

"'

.-,

"' ...., 0

< n,

...,

c:r

"'

14 1ret8of1,aL (middle, with dative) I assent, am persuaded by, obey. The aorist middle is e1TL06fl,'TJV, 2nd pers. sing.

aorist imperative middle (obey!) at Crito 44b6 is 1TL0ou.

"Once 1re1Tpa-ya

(Republic 603c6).

16All the tenses except the present and imperfect come from CTKE'ITTOfl,aL.

~

u,

present future aorist

active active active

perfect

active

perfect


aorist

passive

~

.,

cnpe<j,w O''l"pe41w ecnpe.41a

I am turning I shall turn I turned

[ia-rpoq,o.]

/fo-rpaµ.µ.m

I have been turned

EO"TpO.q>'T]V 17

I was turned

cr<{it,w O'WO'W eawcra

I am saving I shall save I saved

creawKa

I have saved

aecrwµ.aL

or aeawaµ.aL

I have been saved

~crw811v

I was saved

TC0'T]IJ,L 8110-w E0'T]KCI. 18

I am putting I shall put I put

-ruyxa.vw -reu~oµ.a.t e-ruxov

I happen, (with I shall happen I happened

genitive) find

TE0'T]Ka

I have put

'l"ETUX'TJKO.

I have happened

KE.l.iJ,aL

I have been put= I lie

170ccasionally E<npecj,0-riv e.g. <npecj,0ev-ros -roil 1<60-µ.ou the universe having been turned (Politicus 273e6).

e-re811v

I was put

i (T)

~

...

~

:;;·

(JQ

c:,

:il

(T)

,,,..

~-

M

::;-

"Cl

iii"

8

18See p.313.

11\

present

active

future

active

aorist

active

perfect

active

perfect


aorist

passive

c.palvw

I show,

demonstrate

cpavw

I shall show,

demonstrate

ecp11va

I showed,

demonstrated

"ITIE<pTJVCl,

I have appeared

(not in Plato)

1Tecj)Cl,o-µ.ai

I have been shown,

demonstrated

lcp6.v11v

l was··shown,

demonstrated

cpepw 19

I am bringing,

carrying

cp11µ.C

I am affirming 21

xalpw

I am rejoicing

oLO"w

I shall bring

<pT]CTW

I shall affirm

I

xap11crw

I shall rejoice

~veyum

I brought 20

lv11voxu

! have brought

lv11veyµ,m

I have been brought

'ijvex811v

I was

brought

(ecj)11v: I affirmed is imperfect in form, but has aoristic force when needed.)

19oto-w comes from the stem oc-. ijveyKa. comes from the stem 11veyK- (origin obscure, Sihler, New Comparative

Grammar of Greek & Latin, p.563).

lxo.p'TJv

I rejoiced22

20A!so found as strong aorist: ijveyKov. Plato uses weak aorist forms, except -1\veyKov: ,sve:-yKoc (3rd person singular

optative active, see p.169) at Republic 330a5 and -.rpocr,;:veyKet.v (infinitive active, p.170) at Cratylus 430b8.

"' ..,

5·

n

-5·

~

"' ..,

~

~

0

....,

<

11)

..,

er

Cl)

21The imperfect is ecpa.crKov at Laws 901a4. The present participle is usually q,6.crKwv, q,6.crKoucra. q,6.crKov in Plato (see

p.104), but q,6.v-.ec;: affirming (nominative plural masculine from q,6.c;, q,6.cra., <j>6.v) at Alcibiades II 139c3 and 146b2.

22Passive form, active meaning.

~

-.J

498

English index

accents 6

accusative absolute 335

accusative & infinitive 145,268

accusative case 30,347

accusative of respect or

manner 36, 348

active voice 41,353

adjectives 14, 71, 382-8

third declension 71

iffegular 293-4

ending -71s 265

omission of "to be"

with 15

two termination 151

used as nouns 15

adverbs 50

comparative &

superlative 300

agent 74,350

alphabet 1

antecedent 219

aorist aspect 76, 116, 362

aorist infinitive (uses) 173,363

aorist participle 363

aorist subjunctive 142

aorist tense 116, 361

passive 228

passive with active

English meaning 232

aorist tense (strong)

(active) 164

(middle) 171

aorist tense (weak)

(active) 118

(middle) 124

aorist with future meaning

(with -r( ou) 363

apodosis 125

article, definite 9, 10, 394

aspect 76,362

athematic verbs 23

augment 78,118,230,258

barytone

breathings

8

4

case endings, how to

work out

comparative adjectives

comparative adverbs

complement

conditions, future &

general

conditions, past & present

conditions, unlikely future

conjunctions

contraction, rules for

crasis

53-4

295-9

300

10

146

125

157

60

verbs 197,404

26 (footnote)

dative case

declarative infinitive

declensions

definite article

61,350

173

11-12

case endings 9, 10, 394

definite article, use of 10

deliberative questions

( deliberative

subjunctive) 144

demonstrative pronouns 99-100

denials, strong or

doubtful 191

dialects 40

direct questions (with dpu) 10

(multiple) 131

with T(s, TC 67

other words

introducing 274

duals

dynamic infinitive

42,370

173

elided, elision

enclitics

74 (footnote)

8

fearing (verbs of and

equivalents) 359

figures of speech 369

final clauses - see purpose

clauses

first declension 11, 378, 382

first person commands (jussive

subjunctive) 140

Index

499

future tense

future active

middle

optative

passive

gender

genitive absolute

genitive case

361

132ff

133ff

267,357

245

11

242

51,349

imperative mood

360

imperatives

183ff

imperfect tense 75,364

impersonal verbs

333

indefinite "ever" clauses,

words introducing 274

indirect questions 273-4

infinitive, aorist 122, 125, 170,

173,234

infinitive as subject &

object

infinitive, present

infinitive, perfect

instrument

intransitive

iota subscript

middle voice

mood

multiple questions

145

49

90,93

61,351

30,353

5

41,353

354

131

negatives, combinations of 290

neuter plural subjects 27

nominative case 30,347

in reported speech 269

nouns

nouns ending -Eus

numerals

object

optative mood

oxytone

paroxytone

11, 378-382

70,382

287, 374-7

30

152, 355-8

8

8

participle construction in

reported speech with

"know" or "see" 272

participles, aorist active,

meaning 363

strong 167

weak 123

participles, middle & passive 107

participles, perfect active 105

participles, present

active 101, 104

particles 114 (footnote 3)

passive voice 41, 353

perfect tense 364

active 87

middle & passive 92

perispomenon 8

personal pronouns 9, 17, 24,

35,55,56,62,66,388-9

persons 19

pluperfect tense 258-9, 362, 364

possessive adjectives 47

prepositions 72, 352

present infinitive 49

present tense 20, 75, 361

principal parts of verbs

488-497

prohibitions 188,190,355,361

passive

proparoxytone

236

8

properispomenon

protasis

punctuation

purpose or final clauses

8

125

6

176

questions introduced by apu

reduplication

reflexive pronouns

relative clauses

87

337-340

218

words introducing, also

direct or indirect

questions 274

m


reported speech 266 transitive 30

with "know" or "see" 271

result clauses (wcm;:) 94 verb endings, present active

second declension 12,379,382

subjunctive mood 140,355

superlative adjectives 295-9

in comparisons 300

superlative adverb 300

temporal clauses 253

tenses of the Greek

verb 75, 361-2

"than" 301

thematic vowel 23

third declension 12, 31, 34, 52,

56,63,65, 70, 71,265

380-2, 384

-w forms 20

-µ,L forms 22-3

verbs ( -µ,L forms) with stems

ending -a, -E or -o 307ff

verbal adjectives 336

vocative case 70, 347

voice 353

word order with

possessives 54

Greek index

501

a privative

a:yw

O.Kouw (with genitive)

(principal parts)

o.AAci

o.A'IJ0~s

V

av

av ( for eciv)

o.1roKpL voµ.m

app'IJV

apxoµ.aL

apxw

(with genitive)

UTE "

mho Ka0' UUTO

mhos (meaning)

( declension of)

'J..' '?

a,v ou

~a(vw

~acrLAEus

~Aa.1TTUl

~ouAoµ.aL

yap

ylyovu

y(yvo11,aL

"/LYVWCTKW

yvw0L

oe

OE~CTEL

◊Et,

oeoµ.m

Mxoµ.m

◊LaAeyoµ.m

1S1 ow<j>0d.pw 490

488 OL◊ClO"KW 490

54 ◊l◊Ul[l,L 307-317,409-416,

488 418-424(middle &passive),490

60 ◊OKEUl 490

265 OUVCl[l,ClL 49

126

146

488

71,384

41

41

54

281

339

24-26

389

254

229,488

70,382

489

232,489

60

89, 92

489

489

187

60

137

50,333

489

490

490

,,

EUV

f / f I

EUUTOV, EUUT'IJV

E~'IJV

E"/ELpW

eyvwv

eyw

EL◊WS

EL[l,L

EL[l,L '

EL'lTOV

EL'lTWV ' '

etw0a

etp~O-ETUL

EKELVOS ' -

l.:.X.eyxw

E[l,UUTOV, eµ.au-r~v

e~wn(v)

V

EOLKU

E'lTEL, E'lTELO~

€1TO[l,UL

[epoµ.m]

epxoµ.aL

EO"T'IJKCl

foT'ljV

EO"T'IJO"U

• I

<EO'TW!,

EUpLUKW

340,394

146

338,393

229

491

170

9,35,388

106

9,395

330,428

165,168,493

168

91

365 (footnote)

100

491

337,392

333

91

254

491

491

491

91,322, 416-7

320, 414-5

319, 414-5

322,417

491


lxlil

(with adverb)

(with infinitive)

.,

ElilS

. - ,,

'l), fflJ, 1T1J, 01f11

~a

~611

. -

1]!1ELS

~v (= Mv)

~v o' lyro, ~ 6' OS

1]VLKa

' ,

6auµ.6.(lil

6-ij>..us

l8wv

UvaL/LevaL

,,

L'IJl1L

" wa

492

286

68

254,256

274

330

259

17,35,388

146

81

253

492

71

168

331

324, 425-7, 492

176

t<YTI)µ.L 307-312, 319-323,

409-412, 414-422,

(middle & passive, 418-422) 492

Kctl.'ITEp

KaAElll

Kpl.Vlil

(aorist of)

(future of)

KTaoµ.aL

KlllA'Ulil

A.aµ.~O.Vlil

Xeylil

Myos

A.UO'L TEA.EL

284

492

493

122

135

206,493

281

474(footnote)

µ.av66.vw

µ.eyos

(J.EAEL

µ.lhll.111

µ.tvToL

333

246

114

µ.e-raµeAeL

333

µ.~t

255

µ.~

90 (esp. footnote)

(with wcne)

493 opalil

voµ.1.(111

(future of)

' e I

0 'lj TO

(indicating a class)

case endings

o3e ~Se Tolle

o0ev, ir60ev, ,ro0ev,

O'!l'o0ev

95

191

494

494

136

9-11, 15

94

394

99,390

274

ol, 1Tot, 1rot, 01roL 274

ol8a 91, 405-6, 494

olµ.m 494

f ~ I

OLOS, '!TOLOS, 'ITOLOS

01rol.O~ 274

l>voµa

19(footnotel

01TWS 17b, 274

o'!TlilS 11~ 176,191

494

218,391

220

493 os, ~. o

ocmep

333 0O'TLS

OO'TLCJOUV ' -

22lff. 274. 391

248,392

µ.fihll.ov 300

N I

OO'lp • • • 'l"OO"OUTcp ••• 303

Index

503

chav 255 <Tq>IELS 340,394

oTE 253 cr<f>tw

gTE, ir6-re, ,roTE, 01ro'TE 274

00 (genitive of E) 340,394 Tax' UV

V

OUKOUV

' ~

OUKOUV

• ouv

oOTos, aUT'T], TOUTO

,rus, ,rucra, ,rfi v

1T(J.CY)((t)

1TEW00

'lTELpa.oµ.m

'lT0/1.uS

1ro-rEpov • • • ~ ...

,rpa.TTl!l

1Tp€1TEL

,rp1,v

-rrpocr~KEL

191

217

217

60

46,389

115, 385-6

495

495

206

294,384

131

495

333

256

333

496

303

TE 60

TL ou; (with aorist) 363

T(,6'TJ(-l,L 307-318,409-410,412-414

418-424(middle&passive), 496

-r(s, TLS 67, 390

I

TOLVUV

114

TOLocr8E, TOLOUTOS 212

TU'YX,(J.V(t)

163,496

• I

U'ITO

<j>a(vw

q>a.CTl<(t)V

q>epw

<!>11µ.(

17,35,388

227

74,352

497

104,234,497

497

22, 78,497

I

O-EaUTOV

I

O"K01TEW

CTTpEq>W

I

cru

CTU(-1,q>EpH

19(footnote)

338

495

496

9,24,35,388

333

xa(pw

XP~

. ~ "

WS, 'ITWS, 'ITWS, O'ITWS

oos (in temporal clauses)

(with a superlative)

"

497

333

274

254

301

(!)()"TE 94

Greek

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?