'Development of Geopolymeric Materials for Building Application' by S.K.M Mizanur Rahaman

INTERNSHIP REPORT
Development of Flyash-based Geopolymeric
Materials for Building Application
S K M Mizanur Rahaman – Registration No. 0022/CBRI(STM 2022-23)
Under the Supervision
of
Dr. Soumitra Maiti
(Pr. Scientist CSIR-CBRI)
Environmental Science & Technology
December 6, 2022
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
(A Constituted Establishment of CSIR, New Delhi)
Roorkee – 247667 India

ACCREDIATION
The internship “DEVELOPMENT OF GEOPOLYMERIC MATERIALS FOR BUILDING
APPLICATION” is completed under my guidance. The results produced below have been stated
by abiding the research ethics and novelty.
Dr. Soumitra Maiti
(Pr. Scientist CSIR-CBRI)
EST DIVISION, CBRI-ROORKEE
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that internship report entitled(“Development of Geopolymeric Materials for
Building Application”) is an authentic record of our work carried out at CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee
an Internship of two months, under the guidance of Dr.Soumitra Maiti from June 2022 to 2022.
S K M MIZANUR RAHAMAN
602101008
DATE
3RD SEMESTER
SCHOOL OF ENERGY OF ENVIRONMENT
THAPAR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, PATIALA
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to best my knowledge and belief.
DR. SOUMITRA MAITI
(PR. SCIENTIST CSIR-CBRI)
EST DIVISION,CBRI-ROORKEE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My experience in CSIR-CBRI has been truly over-whelming. During the tenure of my training, I
was greatly impressed by the working environment that prevailed in the institute. Everyone in the
institute is easily approachable and addressable.
I would like to thank Nadeem Ahmad, Sr. Principal Scientist & Group Leader (Student Training
& Mentoring), CSIR-CBRI, Roorkee for giving me this golden opportunity to work in this highly
esteemed organization.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Soumitra Maiti(Internship Mentor), Pr. Scientist,
CSIR–Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee and Dr. Shilpi Verma,(Co-ordinator),SEE,
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala.
Without his/her help, guidance this would not have been successful. He constantly gave me the
precious ideas and necessary steps to enhance my learning process.
I would like to thank the School of Energy and Environment, Thapar Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Patiala, Punjab for giving me this opportunity to explore, learn and develop
my learning capability and skills.

ABOUT THE INSTITUTION
The Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) at Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, is a constituent
establishment of council of Scientific and Industrial Research. India and has been vested with the
responsibility of generating, cultivating and promoting building science and technology in the
service of the country.
The institute maintains relationship with national and international standards setting groups like
CIB in the Netherlands: TWAS in Italy; BRE in the United Kingdom, ASTM in the United States;
CSIRO in Australia; RILEM in France, BRS in Canada and UNCHS in Nairobi, Kenya.
At the national level of India, the Institute has close interaction with BMPTC, HUDCO, DST,
Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Rural Areas, Housing Boards and Societies of the
State Governments, engineering and academics institutions, construction and building material
industries.
The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India, has been vested with the responsibility
of generating, cultivating and promoting building science and technology in the service of the
country. Since its inception in 1947 the Institute has been assisting the building construction and
building material industries in finding timely, appropriate and economical solution to the
problems of building materials, health monitoring and rehabilitation of structures , disaster
mitigation, fire safety, Energy efficient rural and urban housing. The Institute is committed to
serve the people through R&D in the development process and maintains linkages at international
and national level.
This is the best place to enrich the knowledge by assisting and working along with the genius
minds of country, to develop the quality of hard work, practicality of theoretical knowledge, and
to deal with the problems efficiently by observing respective scientists is a bonus which a trainee
learns here.

Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Raw Materials of Cement Manufacturing ........................................................................ 6
1.2 Classification of Cement ................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Construction and Demolition Waste ................................................................................. 7
1.3.1 Environmental considerations .................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Economic factors ........................................................................................................ 8
1.3.3 Solving the problem of lack of materials ................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Other uses ................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Characteristics ................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Necessity for the Use of Recycled Aggregate .................................................................. 9
1.6 Major Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................ 10
2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Benefits to Fresh Concrete .............................................................................................. 10
2.2 Benefits to Hardened Concrete ....................................................................................... 11
3 REVIEW OF LITRATURE .................................................................................................. 12
3.1 State of the Art (International Status) ............................................................................. 12
3.2 National Status ................................................................................................................ 13
3.3 Influence of the amount of recycled coarse aggregate in concrete design and durability
properties. ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.4 Limiting properties in the characterization of mixed recycled aggregates for use in the
manufacture of concrete ........................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Compressive Strength and Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration and Carbonation of
Recycled Aggregate Concrete .................................................................................................. 20
3.6 Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Recycled Coarse Aggregate ........................... 21
4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOGY ..................................................................................... 22
4.1 Physical Analysis of Cement .......................................................................................... 22
4.1.1 Determination of consistency ................................................................................... 22
4.1.2 Determination of Setting Time ................................................................................. 24
4.1.3 Determination of compressive strength .................................................................... 24
4.2 Chemical Analysis of Cement ........................................................................................ 25
4.2.1 Determination of Loss on Ignition (LOI) ................................................................. 25
4.2.2 Determination of Silica ............................................................................................. 26

4.2.3 Determination of Combined Ferric Oxide and Alumina .......................................... 27
4.2.4 Determination of Calcium oxide (Gravimetric method) .......................................... 27
4.2.5 Magnesia (Gravimetric Method) .............................................................................. 28
4.3 Characterization of Aggregates ...................................................................................... 28
4.3.1 Determination of Specific Gravity and Water Absorption ....................................... 29
4.3.2 Determination of Bulk Density ................................................................................ 30
4.3.3 Determination of Impact value of Aggregate ........................................................... 30
4.3.4 Determination of Crushing Value of Aggregate ...................................................... 30
4.4 Properties of aggregates .................................................................................................. 31
4.5 Instrumental Evaluation and Characterization of OPC .................................................. 32
4.5.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) of OPC ........................................................................... 32
4.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)..................................................................... 33
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................... 34
5.1 Physical Analysis of OPC ............................................................................................... 34
5.2 Chemical Analysis of OPC ............................................................................................. 34
5.3 Fly Ash and its Properties ............................................................................................... 35
5.4 Evaluation by XRD ......................................................................................................... 37
5.5 Evaluation by SEM ......................................................................................................... 38

Cement
CHAPTTER-I
1 INTRODUCTION
The cement concrete is the most widely used construction material. However, it also makes a
considerable amount of construction and demolition waste.
Cement in a general sense is adhesive or cohesive materials which are capable of bonding
together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass. Cement used in construction
industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic. It is a cementing material resembling
a natural stone quarried from Portland in U.K. the ordinary Portland cement has been classified
as 33 Grade, 43 Grade and 53 Grade [1].
The principal mineral compounds in Portland cement are:
Table 1 Mineral Composition of OPC
Formula Name Symbol
I . Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO.SiO 2 Alite C 3 S
2. Dicalcium silicate 2 CaO.SiO 2 Belite C 2 S
3. Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO.Al 2 O 3 Celite C 3 A
4. Tetra calcium Alumina
ferrite
4CaO.Al 2 O 3 . Fe 2 O 3 Ferite C 4 AF
1.1 Raw Materials of Cement Manufacturing
There are mainly four raw materials used for cement manufacturing:
Calcarious (CaO)
Argillaceous (Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 )
Siliceous (SiO 2 )
Additive (Gypsum)
1.2 Classification of Cement
Cement is divided into following two types: -
Hydraulic cement
Non hydraulic cement
Hydraulic cement

Hydraulic cement mainly consists of silicates and aluminates of lime and hardens as a result of
reaction between water and compound present in cement at room temperature. Thus have
property of setting and hardening under water. Hydraulic cement can be classified broadly as
natural cement, aluminous cement and Portland cement.
Non-Hydraulic Cement
This cement has greater amount of lime & hardens when dry in sunlight thus does not have
resistance for mater.
1.3 Construction and Demolition Waste
The average world production of concrete in our rapid developing industrialized world is about
6 billion tons per year. Since earth is the source of the aggregates (either natural or crushed), then
obtaining these amounts would have an adverse effect on the environment. Furthermore,
demolishing concrete structures and dumping the concrete rubbles would aggravate the problem.
Therefore, recycling construction material plays an important role to preserve the natural
resources and helps to promote sustainable development in the protection of natural resources;
thus reduces the disposal of demolition waste from old concrete. For example, the amounts of
demolished buildings in Europe amount to around 180 million tons per year [1]. Old concrete
and masonry that have "reached the end of the road" can be recycled and used not only as
aggregate for new concrete, but also for a number of other applications in construction. For
example, since 1982 the ASTM definition of coarse aggregate has included crushed hydraulic
cement concrete, and the definition of manufactured sand" includes crushed concrete fines.
Similarly, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Highway Administration encourage
the use of recycled concrete as aggregate in their specifications and guides. The advantages of
using RCA in concrete can be summarized as follows:
1.3.1 Environmental considerations
Environmental considerations regarding the use of concrete, quoted in their own words: “In this
time of increasing attention to the environmental impact of construction and sustainable
development, Portland cement concrete has much to offer:
It is resource efficient-minimizing depletion of our natural resources;it is inert, making it
an ideal medium in which to recycle waste or industrial by-products; it is energy efficient,
it is superior to wood and steel;
It is durable, continuing to gain strength with time; and finally
it is recyclable, fresh concrete is used on an as-needed basis (whatever is left over can be reused
or reclaimed as aggregate), and old hardened concrete can be recycled and used as aggregate in
new concrete or as fill and pavement base material"
The use of RCA in concrete as an appropriate and "green" solution to the anticipated increased
world — wide construction activity.

1.3.2 Economic factors
Recycling concrete is an attractive option for governmental agencies and contractors alike
because most municipalities impose tight environmental controls over opening of new aggregate
sources or new dumping areas. By time, the increase of the cost of starting new quarries is
increased and will be farther away. Hence, the cost and transport distances of conventional
aggregates could continue to increase as sources becomes scarcer. Since landfill space is limited
and can be far away, especially in urban areas, the disposal of demolished rubbles becomes costly
and dumping fees will most likely rise as construction debris increases and the number of
accessible landfills decreases.
1.3.3 Solving the problem of lack of materials
Utilization of concrete that uses RCA as a construction material is expected to contribute to
solving the issue of lack of raw materials, and thus would allow the construction of infrastructures
using a circulatory system for resources. Such situation was faced in Hong Kong and recycling
aggregate was an attractive solution.
1.3.4 Other uses
While unprocessed RCA is useful to be applied as many types of general bulk fill, bank
protection, sub-basement, road construction and embankments, processed RCA can be applied to
new concrete including lean and structural grade concrete, soil—cement pavement bases and
bituminous concrete. Moreover, it has been used to produce high strength concrete. The use of
RCA for the production of concrete involves breaking demolished concrete into materials with
specified size and quality. These materials can then be combined to produce aggregate of a predetermined
grading and hence can be used in concrete.
Construction and demolition waste is generated whenever any construction/demolition activity
takes place, such as building roads, bridges, fly over, subway, remodelling etc. It consists mostly
of inert and non- biodegradable material such as concrete, plaster, metals, wood, plastics etc. A
part of this waste comes to the municipal stream.
It is estimated that the construction industry in India generates about 10-12 million tons of waste
annually. Projections for building material requirement of the housing sector indicate a shortage
of aggregates to the extent of about 55,000 million cu.m. An additional 750 million cu.m.
Aggregate would be required for achieving the targets of the road sector. To achieve this major
emphasis must be laid on the use of wastes and by products in Cement and concrete for new
constructions. The utilization of construction and demolition waste is particularly promising as
75 percent of concrete is made of aggregates. In that case, the aggregates considered are slag,
power plant wastes, recycled concrete, mining and quarrying wastes, waste glass, incinerator
residue, red mud, Burt clay, sawdust, combustor ash and fun dry sand. The enormous quantities

of demolished concrete are available at various construction sites, which are now posing a serious
problem of disposal in urban areas. This can be easily recycled as aggregate and used in concrete.
1.4 Characteristics
This category of waste is complex due to the different types of building materials being used but
in general may comprise the following materials: -
1.4.1 Major Components
Cement and concrete Bricks
Cement plaster
Steel (from RCC, door/window frames, roofing support, railings of staircase etc.)
Rubble
Stone (marble, granite, sand, stone) Timber /wood (especially demolition of old buildings).
1.4.2 Minor Components
Iron, plastic, Pipes, Electrical fixtures (copper/aluminium wiring, wooden baton, Bakelite/plastic
switches, wire insulations), Panels (wooden, laminated), Others (glazed tiles, glass panes).
1.5 Necessity for the Use of Recycled Aggregate
Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, waste arising from construction and demolition
(C&D) constituents is one of the largest waste streams of solid waste within many other countries
all over the world. It is estimated that C&D waste (which are obtained from demolished building
or civil engineering infrastructure) amounts to around 180 million tonnes per years in the EU.
This ranges from over 700kg/person (yr in Germany and the Netherlands to and 200 in Swede,
Greece and Ireland. These estimates for the U.K are 30 million tonnes putting the UK in second
place behind Germany. Every year a large quantity of C & D waste is dumped illegally and thus
construction demolition waste has become a global concern that requires sustainable solution. It
is now widely accepted that there is a significant potential for reclaiming and recycling
demolished debris for use in value added application to maximize economic and environmental
benefits. As a direct result of this, recycling industries in many parts of the world, including South
Africa, at present converts low-value waste into secondary construction materials such as a
variety of aggregate grades, road materials & fine aggregate fine (dust).
Presently in India, about 960 MTS of solid waste was being generated annually as by products
of industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural process. Out of these, 350 MTS are organic wastes
from agricultural sources, approximately 290 MTS are inorganic wastes from industrial and
mining sectors and 4.5 MTS are hazardous wastes. Out of these 10-12 MTS are C&D waste.
Recycling of concrete wastes in construction has been investigated extensively in the past

decades due to environment pollution and exhaustion of natural resources. The present study was
taken with the objective to characterize the cement and recycled aggregates obtained from
demolished buildings and to carry out feasibility studies for development of concrete and valueadded
building components from C & d wastes.
1.6 Major Objectives of the Study
• Physical and Chemical analysis of the ordinary Portland cement
• Evaluation of Cement by modern Techniques
• Characterizations of natural aggregates.
• Characterization of unwashed and washed recycled aggregates
Fly Ash
2 Introduction
The use of fly ash in Portland cement concrete (PCC) has many benefits and improves concrete
performance in both the fresh and hardened state. Fly ash use in concrete improves the
workability of plastic concrete, and the strength and durability of hardened concrete. Fly ash use
is also cost effective. When fly ash is added to concrete, the amount of Portland cement may be
reduced.
2.1 Benefits to Fresh Concrete
Generally, fly ash benefits fresh concrete by reducing the mixing water requirement and
improving the paste flow behaviour. The resulting benefits are as follows:
• Improved workability. The spherical shaped particles of fly ash act as miniature ball
bearings within the concrete mix, thus providing a lubricant effect. This same effect also
improves concrete pumpability by reducing frictional losses during the pumping process
and flat work finish ability.
• Decreased water demand. The replacement of cement by fly ash reduces the water
demand for a given slump. When fly ash is used at about 20 percent of the total
cementitious, water demand is reduced by approximately 10 percent. Higher fly ash
contents will yield higher water reductions. The decreased water demand has little or no
effect on drying shrinkage/cracking. Some fly ash is known to reduce drying shrinkage in
certain situations.
• Reduced heat of hydration. Replacing cement with the same amount of fly ash can reduce
the heat of hydration of concrete. This reduction in the heat of hydration does not sacrifice
long-term strength gain or durability. The reduced heat of hydration lessens heat rise
problems in mass concrete placements.

2.2 Benefits to Hardened Concrete
One of the primary benefits of fly ash is its reaction with available lime and alkali in concrete,
producing additional cementitious compounds. The following equations illustrate the pozzolanic
reaction of fly ash with lime to produce additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) binder:
(hydration)
Cement Reaction: C3S + H → C-S-H + CaOH
Pozzolanic Reaction: CaOH + S → C-S-H
silica from ash constituents
• Increased ultimate strength The additional binder produced by the fly ash reaction with
available lime allows fly ash concrete to continue to gain strength over time. Mixtures
designed to produce equivalent strength at early ages (less than 90 days) will ultimately
exceed the strength of straight cement concrete mixes (see Figure 3-2).
• Reduced permeability The decrease in water content combined with the production of
additional cementitious compounds reduces the pore interconnectivity of concrete, thus
decreasing permeability. The reduced permeability results in improved long-term
durability and resistance to various forms of deterioration (see Figure 3-3)
• Improved durability The decrease in free lime and the resulting increase in cementitious
compounds, combined with the reduction in permeability enhance concrete durability. This
affords several benefits:
• Improved resistance to ASR. Fly ash reacts with available alkali in the concrete, which
makes them less available to react with certain silica minerals contained in the
aggregates.
• Improved resistance to sulphate attack. Fly ash induces three phenomena that improve
sulphate resistance:
o Fly ash consumes the free lime making it unavailable to react with sulphate
o The reduced permeability prevents sulphate penetration into the concrete
o Replacement of cement reduces the number of reactive aluminates available
• Improved resistance to corrosion. The reduction in permeability increases the resistance
to corrosion.

CHAPTTER-II
3 REVIEW OF LITRATURE
The use of crushed concrete as concrete aggregates began in Europe at the end of world war Il
due to large devastation and disposal problem of demolished structures by demolished concrete
pavement as recycled aggregates source in stabilizing the base course for the road construction
and latter on it has been subjected to investigation for a long time First carried out in Germany.
However the use of RCA was mainly confined to low grade applications; such ms unbound
road sub base material and low land filling material. Now-a-days many European Countries
and other countries have established standards, recommendation, regulation and procedure to
encourage the reuse of these materials in construction application. In some countries, many
technologies for recycling concrete wastes have been developed and some recycling
specifications have been established as well (Khater, 2006,Poon al.. 2002 and Shui et al.,
2008).
3.1 State of the Art (International Status)
An overview of international status for use of C&D waste has been given in the below:
New Zealand
In New Zealand 27% of the total waste generated is C&D waste and of this concrete represents
25% i.e. 7% of the total waste. Recycled aggregate is intended to act as a resource in practical
performance as aggregate in concrete in accordance with NZS3104:2003.
USA
USA is utilizing approximately 2.7 billion tons of aggregate per annum, out of which 3040%
are used n road works and 60-70% in structural concrete work. The rapid development in
research on the use of RCA for the production of new concrete has also led to the production
of concrete of high strength/performance.
United Kingdom
The C&D waste generation has been consistent at 90 million tons from the year 2001 to 2005.
lhs has been increased about 21 million tons from the year 1999. Recycling of the construction
and demolition using crushers and screeners has increased from In 2001 to 52% in 2005.
Recently BS EN 12620: 2002 has recommended the designations for recycled concrete
aggregate.
Netherland
Netherland produces about 14 million tons of buildings and demolition waste per annum, out
of which about 8 million tons are recycled for unbound road base courses.

Japan
The former Ministry of construction (MOC) started the "Recycle 21" program in 1992, which
specifies numerical targets for recycling of several kinds of construction by-products. Eighty
five million tons of construction and demolition waste were generated in 2000. Due to strict
recycling policy, the recycling rate of various type of C&D waste is improving from year to
year. Japanese industrial standards (JIS) published two standards namely JIS A 5021" recycled
aggregate for concrete class H and JIS A 5023" recycled aggregate class L in 2005 and 2006
respectively for the use of recycled aggregate and recycled aggregate concrete for high grade
concrete application.
China
The amount C&D waste has reached 30-40% of the total solid waste. Among all the C&D
Baste, the waste generated from concrete is large. In 2006, the annual waste generated from
concrete is about 100 million tonnes. Based on annual cement production, the concrete waste
forecasted for the future will be 239 million tonnes in 2010 and 638 million tonnes in 2020. A
technical code for application of recycled aggregate concrete (DG/TJ07-008) was published in
2007 at shanghai as regional standards. In this code the recycled aggregate are classified into
two types namely Type 1 and Type 2 based on their water absorption, SSD and masonry
content.
3.2 National Status
Rao et al. [2]presented a state of art report with a brief review of the international scenario in
The amount C&D waste has reached 30-40% of the total solid waste. Among all the C&D
Baste, the waste generated from concrete is large. In 2006, the annual waste generated from
concrete is about 100 million tonnes. Based on annual cement production, the concrete waste
forecasted for the future will be 239 million tonnes in 2010 and 638 million tonnes in 2020. A
technical code for application of recycled aggregate concrete (DG/TJ07-008) was published in
2007 at shanghai as regional standards. In this code the recycled aggregate are classified into
two types namely Type 1 and Type 2 based on their water absorption, SSD and masonry
content.
terms of C&D waste generated, recycled aggregates produced from C&D waste and their
utilization in concrete and governmental initiatives towards recycling of C&D waste along
with a brief overview of the engineering properties of recycled aggregates and also some of
the major barriers in more widespread use of RA in recycled Aggregate concrete (RAC).From
the survey of production and utilization of RA in RAC and the properties of RA and RAC, it
was found that RAC can be used in lower amount for applications of concrete.
In eighth-five year plan, it had been found that there is high demand of infrastructural facilities
like houses, hospitals roads highways airport etc due to rapid industrialization growth of
population rising standards of living due to technical innovation in India and large quantities

of construction materials for creating these facilities are needed. Indian construction industry
today is amongst the five largest in the world. The planning Commission allocated
approximately 50% of capital outlay for infrastructure development in successive 10 th & 11 th
five year plans.
Presently in India, about 960 MTs of solid waste was being generated annually as by-products
of industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural process. Out of these, 350 MTs are organic wastes
from agricultural sources, approximately 290 MTs are inorganic wastes from industrial and
mining sectors and 4.5 MTs are hazardous wastes. Out of these 10-12 MTs are C&D waste.
Recycling of concrete wastes in construction has been investigated extensively in the past
decades due to environment pollution and exhaustion of natural resources. In the process
reutilization waste concrete requires further breaking and crushing of demolished concrete.
Generally, two typical grades of crushed concrete aggregates can be produced and classified
by size gradation. One is coarse recycled concrete aggregates (CRCA), part of which can be
used in new concrete or road base materials. Other is fine recycled concrete aggregates (FRCA)
or recycled mortar from crushed concrete waste whose sizes are smaller than 5 mm; recycling,
evaluation and application of both parts are discussed in different researches [3] [4] [5] [6]. On
the other hand, the cement dust contains a mixture of kiln raw feed as well as calcined materials
with some concentrated volatile alkali salts, recycled back into the cement kiln as raw feed. It
also reduces the need for limestone and other raw materials, that saves natural resources and
helps conserve energy. Another principal use of CKD is for various types of commercial
applications in building brick making along with later demolition wastes [7] .
Table 2: State of Art: Construction and Demolition Waste
Sl.No. Author Year Title Work Done
1. Parekh D. N,
Dr. Modhera
C. D.
India, 201 1
2. Jian Yang,
Qiang Du,
Yiwang Bao
China, 2011
Assessment of recycled
aggregate concrete
Concrete with recycled
concrete aggregate and
crushed clay bricks
Basic changes in all aggregate properties
were determined and their effects on
concreting work were discussed at length.
Basic concrete properties like
compressive strength, flexural strength,
workability etc are explained here for
different combinations of recycled
aggregate with natural aggregate.
This study investigated the physical and
mechanical properties of recycled
concrete with high inclusion levels of
RCA and Crushed Clay Bricks and to
explore the potential or the limitation of
this type of mixed recycled aggregate in
primary concrete structures.

3. Marios N.
Soutsos,
Kangkang
Tang,
S.G. Millard,
UK, 2011
4. Konstantin
Kovler ,
Nicolas
Roussel
Israel, 2011
5. Xun Deng,
Guiwen Liu,
Jianli Jlao
China, 2010
6. S.W. Tabsh,
A.S.
Abdelfatah
UAE, 2009
7. C.S Poon,
S. C Kou,
H.W Wana,
M. Etxeberria
Hong Kong,
2009
Concrete building
blocks made with
recycled demolition
aggregate
Properties of fresh and
hardened concrete
A Study of
Construction and
Demolition Waste
Management in
Hong Kong
Influence of recycled
concrete aggregates on
strength properties of
concrete
Properties of concrete
blocks prepared with
low grade recycled
aggregates
A study undertaken at the University of
Liverpool has investigated the potential
for using recycled demolition aggregate
in the manufacture of precast concrete
building blocks. Recycled aggregates
derived from construction and demolition
waste (C&D) can be used to replace
quarried limestone aggregate, usually
used in coarse (6 mm) and fine (4 mm-todust)
grading.
Workability and fundamental rheological
properties, reversible and non-reversible
evolution, thixotropy, slump loss, setting
time, bleeding, segregation are studied.
Special attention is given to the properties
of hardened lightweight and selfcompacting
concrete
A brief review of C&D waste in Hong
Kong & current measures for waste
management adopted in Hong Kong are
analysed. Some strategic plans for better
performance of waste management are
suggested based on a critical stud of the
C&D waste management in Hon Kong.
The study investigated the strength of
concrete made with recycled concrete
coarse aggregate. The toughness and
soundness test results on the recycled
coarse aggregate showed higher
percentage loss than natural aggregate,
but remained within the acceptable limits.
In this study, three series of concrete
block mixtures were prepared by using
the low-grade recycled aggregates to
replace (i) natural coarse granite (10 mm),
and (ii) 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%
replacement levels of crushed stone fine
(crushed natural granite <5 mm) in the
concrete blocks. The results show that the
soil content in the recycled fine aggregate
was an important factor in affecting the
properties of the blocks produced and the
mechanical strength deceased with
increasing low grade recycled fine
aggregate content. But the higher soil
content in the recycled aggregates
reduced the reduction of compressive

strength of the blocks after exposure to
high temperature.
8. A.K. Padmini,
K.
Ramamurty,
M.S. Mathews
India, 2009
9. C.S Poon, C.S
Lam
Hong Kong,
2008
10. C.S Poon,
Dixon Chan
Hong Kong,
2007 [5]
Influence of parent
concrete on the
properties of recycled
aggregate concrete
The effect of
aggregate-to-cement
ratio and types of
aggregates on the
properties of precast
concrete blocks
Effects
of
contaminants on the
properties of concrete
paving blocks prepared
with recycled concrete
aggregates
Relationship between water—cement
ratio, compressive strength, aggregatecement
ratio and cement content have
been formulated for RAC and compared
with parent concrete (PC). RAC requires
relatively lower water—cement ratio as
compared to PC to achieve a particular
compressive strength. The difference in
strength between PC and RAC increases
with strength of concrete.
The effects of aggregate-to-cement (A/C)
ratios and types of aggregates on the
properties of pre-cast concrete blocks are
evaluated in this study. A/C ratios
between three and six and three types of
aggregates (i.e., natural crushed
aggregate (NCA), recycled crushed
aggregate (RCA) and recycled crushed
glass (RCG)) were used in the
experiments. The use of RCA as a
replacement of NCA in the production of
concrete blocks reduced the density and
strength but increased the water
absorption of the blocks.
The properties of concrete paving blocks
prepared with recycled concrete that are
contaminated by materials (tiles, clay
bricks, glass, wood) commonly found in
the construction and demolition waste
were studied. The results show that it is
feasible to allow a higher level of
contamination in the recycled concrete
aggregates for making the concrete
products.

Sl.No. Author Year Title Work done
11. Akash Rao,
Kumar N. Jha.
Sudhir Misra
India, 2007
12. Khaldoun Raha
Kuwait, 2007
13. Vivian W.Y.
Tama, C.M
Tamb
Hong Kong,
2006
14. G. Bianchini,
E. Marrochino,
R. Tassinari,
C. Vaccaro
Italy, 2005
Use of aggregates
from recycled
construction and
demolition waste
in concrete
Mechanical
properties
concrete
recycled
aggregate
of
with
coarse
A review on the
viable technology
for construction
waste recycling
Recycling of
construction and
demolition waste
materials:
A chemicalmineralogical
appraisal
Different aspects of the problem beginning
with a brief review of the international
scenario in terms of C&D waste generated,
recycled aggregates (RA) produced from
C&D waste and their utilization in concrete
and governmental initiatives towards
recycling of C&D waste are discussed. The
paper also gives a summary of the effect of
use of recycled aggregate on the properties
of fresh and hardened concrete.
The results of an experimental study on some
of the mechanical properties of recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC) as compared to
normal aggregate concrete show that the
28day cube and cylinder compressive
strength, and the indirect shear strength of
recycled aggregate concrete were on the
average 90% of those of natural aggregate
concrete with the same mix proportions.
Review on the technology on construction
waste recycling and their viability. Ten
material recycling practices are studied,
including: (i) asphalt, (ii) brick, (iii)
concrete, (iv) ferrous metal, (v) glass, (vi)
masonry, (vii) non-ferrous metal, (viii) paper
and cardboard, (ix) plastic and (x) timber.
The
chemical—mineralogical
characterization of recycled inert materials
was carried out after preliminary crushing
and grain-size sorting. Results indicates that
the recycled grain-size fraction 0.6—0.125
mm could be directly reemployed in the
preparation of new mortar and concrete,
while finer fractions could be considered as
components for industrial processing in the
preparation of cements and bricks/tiles.

Sl. Author Year Title Work done
No.
15. Vivian W.Y.
Tama,
Microstructural
analysis of recycled
This paper proposes a new approach in
mixing concrete, namely, two-stage mixing
X.F. Gaob, aggregate concrete approach (TSMA), intended to improve the
C.M. Tam
Hong Kong,
2005
produced from twostage
mixing approach
compressive strength for recycled aggregate
concrete and hence lower its strength
variability. The effect can be attributable to
the porous nature of the recycled aggregate,
and hence, the premix process can fill up
some pores and cracks, resulting in a denser
concrete, an improved interfacial zone
around recycled aggregate and a higher
strength.
16. J.M. Khatib Properties of concrete The fine aggregate in concrete was replaced
UK, 2005 incorporating fine with 0%, 25%, 50% and 100% Crushed
recycled aggregate Concrete or Crushed Brick. At 100%
replacement of fine aggregate with CB, the
reduction in strength is only 10%.
17. C.S. Poon, Effect
of
Z.H. Shui, L. microstructure of ITZ
Lam
China, 2004
on compressive
18. Salomon M.
Levya
Paulo Helene
Brazil, 2004
19. Amnon Katz
Israel, 2003
strength of concrete
prepared with recycled
aggregates
Durability of recycled
aggregates concrete: a
safe way to sustainable
development
Properties of concrete
made with recycled
aggregate from
partially hydrated old
concrete
Concrete specimens were prepared with a
recycled normal-strength concrete (NC)
aggregate, a recycled high performance
concrete (HPC) aggregate and a natural
aggregate (NA) as control. The influence of
these aggregates (recycled and natural) on
microstructure and compressive strength of
the new concrete were studied. SEM
observations revealed that the NC
aggregate—cement interfacial zone
consisted mainly of loose and porous
hydrates whereas the HPC aggregate—
cement interfacial zone consisted mainly of
dense hydrates.
Fine and coarse recycled aggregates
recovered from demolished masonry and
concrete structures were utilized in the
manufacture of new concrete mixtures. This
research shows that the mix design
nomogram (MDN) is a new and useful tool
that allows the researchers to compare
properties and behaviours of different
concretes.
Concrete having a 28-day compressive
strength of 28 MPa was crushed at ages l, 3
and 28 days to serve as a source of
aggregate for new concretes. The properties
of the recycled aggregate and of the new

20. Jose' M.V.
Go’ mez
Sobero’n
Mexico,2002
Porosity of recycled
concrete with
substitution of recycled
concrete aggregate. An
experimental study
concrete made from it (100% of aggregate
replacement), were tested and compared.
The experimental analysis of samples of
recycled concrete (RC) with replacement of
natural aggregate (NA) by recycled
aggregate were carried out. Porosity
increases considerably when NA is replaced
by RCA and mechanical properties reduced.

3.3 Influence of the amount of recycled coarse aggregate in concrete design and durability
properties.
Kwan et al. (2012) conducted experiments to produce valuable information the durability
effects and mix design method for RAC by taking different parameters like compressive
strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), shrinkage, expansion, water absorption and intrinsic
permeability. Five types of mixtures were prepared by replacing the CA with the RCA at 0%,
15%, 30%, 60%, and 80% of the total coarse aggregate content. It is also found that replacing
the coarse aggregate with the RCA up to 30%, there is no significant reduction in the
compressive strength.
3.4 Limiting properties in the characterization of mixed recycled aggregates for use in the
manufacture of concrete
Agrela et al. [8] have carried out a study on physical and chemical characteristics of mixed
recycled aggregate containing gypsum and asphalt and other impurities for their
characterization in order to find criterions of acceptance for recycled aggregates to be used in
concrete. The main objective of their study was to obtain the composition of coarse recycled
aggregate and its correlation with absorption, density and soluble sulphates content. This study
has established a variety of recommendations for the use of gypsum content, water absorption,
and saturated surface dry density of different categories of coarse recycled aggregates, in
concrete production. This test can be easily done in the C&D W recycling plant, and it will
provide with a criterion to accept or reject recycled aggregate samples for different application.
Table 3 Aggregates AnnalysisTable 4
Parameters Natural aggregate Recycled aggregate
Unwashed
UnwashedWashed
Fineness
modulus
6.95 6.44 6.89 6.13 6.77 6.06
Specific
gravity
Bulk
density
(kg/l)
2.67 2.66 2.40 2.36 2.50 2.46 ö
1.564 1.557 1.436 1.350 1.440 1.365
3.5 Compressive Strength and Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration and Carbonation of
Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Jongsung [9] and Park [6] have investigated the fundamental characteristics of concrete
using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) by various replacement levels of natural aggregate
by fine RAC and several levels of fly additions. The coarse aggregate replacement was 100%
course RCA. Mortar cube compressive strength study base carried out to evaluate the effect of
various replacement of fine aggregate by fine RCA on strength. The chloride ion penetration
resistance can be increased by adding fly ash. The carbonation depth can be increased with the
addition of fly ash. When the replacement level of fine aggregate by RCA was 30% or blow.

3.6 Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Recycled Coarse Aggregate
This work was done by Khadoun Rahal at the Department of civil Engineering, Kuwait
University, Kuwait in the year 2007. The aim of this study was to compare some of the
mechanical properties of RAC with those of normal aggregate concrete (NAC). Since the
larger percentage of concrete available for recycling is form demolished concrete structures,
field demolished concrete is used to produce the recycled aggregates. The recycled aggregates.
To study the effects of full replacement of coarse aggregates on the mechanical properties,
concrete is produced with the same proportions except for the type of coarse aggregates. Due
to the larger water absorption capacity of the recycled aggregate, aggregates are maintained at
saturated surface dry conditions before the start of the mixing operations.

CHAPTER-III
4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOGY
4.1 Physical Analysis of Cement
The physical testing of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC, 43 Grade) was carried out as per
Indian Standard 4031: 1999. To start the analysis of cement, Ordinary Portland Cement was
purchased from the local market along with other laboratory chemicals. Following parameters
were analyzed:
1. Consistency [IS: 4031, Part 4th]
2. Setting time [IS: 4031, Part 5th]
3. Compressive strength [IS: 4031, Part 6th]
4.1.1 Determination of consistency
Consistency of cement paste is the determination of quantity of water required to produce a
cement paste of standard consistency. It is conducted mechanically on hand mixed paste by
using Vicat's apparatus using a 10mm diameter plunger fitted into the niddle holder as shown
in Fig. 3.1. Standard consistency of cement paste is defined as that consistency which will
permit the vicat's plunger to penetrate 5-7mm from bottom of Vicat's mould. The temperature
of constant room, dry materials and water shall be maintained at approximately 27 0 C. The
relative humidity of the laboratory shall be approximately 65%.
Procedure
1. Weigh 400 gm. of cement sample and mixed thoroughly.
2. Prepare the paste of the above quantity of the cement with the weighted quantity
of distilled water.
3. Time of gauging is neither less than 3 min nor more than 5 min. and gauging is
completed before any sign of setting occurs.
4. The gauging time should be calculated from the time of adding water to dry
cement, until cement paste fill into the mould.
5. Fill the mould and smoothen the surface of the paste, making it with the top of
the mould.
6. Mould shakes slightly to expel the air.
7. Place the text block in mould together with the non-porous resting plate, under
the loadbearing plunger. Lower the plunger gently to touch surface of text block
and quickly release, allowing it to sink into the paste. The operation is carried out
immediately after filling the mould. Prepare trial paste with in varying percentage
of water and text as described above until the amount of water necessary for
making up standard. Consistency which will permit the vicat's plunger to
penetrate to a point 5-7mm from the bottom of the vicat's mould when the cement
paste is tested as above.

Figure 1: Vicat's Apparatus
Calculation
Express the amount of water as a percentage by mass of dry cement to first cement to first
place of decimal.

4.1.2 Determination of Setting Time
The initial and final setting times are determined by vicar's apparatus using niddle fitted into
the niddle holder. The temperature of moulding room, dry materials and water shall be
maintained at approximate 27 0 C. The relative humidity of the laboratory shall be 65%.
4.1.2.1 Determination of initial setting Time
1. Weigh 400 gm. of cement sample and mixed thoroughly.
2. Prepare the paste of the above quantity of the cement with the weighted quantity of
distilled water equal to 85 % of the consistency.
3. Time of gauging is neither less than 3 min not more than 5 min. and gauging is
completed before any sign of setting occurs.
4. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, drop the
needle gently until it comes in contract with the surface of the test block allowing it to
penetrate into test block in the beginning, the needle will completely pierce the test
block.
5. Repeat this procedure until the needle when come in contact with test block and released
as described above fails to pierce the block beyond 5mm measured from the bottom of
the mould.
6. The period difference between the times at which the needle fail to pierce test block to
point 5mm measured from the bottom of the mould and start of the experiment shall be
the initial setting time.
4.1.2.2 Determination of final setting Time
1. Replace the needle of the vicat's apparatus by the needle with an annular attachment.
2. The cement shall be considered as finally set when upon the applying needle gently to
the surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression thereon, while the
attachment fail to do so shall be the final setting time.
3. The period difference between the times at which the needle makes an impression the
block and start of the experiment shall be the final setting time.
4.1.3 Determination of compressive strength
To determine the compressive strength of the OPC, cubical moulds (2.5cm x 2.5cm x
2.5 cm) of OPC were cast using water to cement ratio of 0.31 as per IS 4031 (1999). The
compressive strengths of these specimens were determined and the average value of three
specimens is reported. A sample of 400 gm. of cement is placed on a non-porous plate. Mix it
with water equivalent o consistency until the mixture is became uniform. The quantity of water
shall be used of standard consistency. The time of mixing shall in any event be not less than 3
minute and should the time taken to obtain a uniform mixture exceed 4 minutes, the mixture
shall be rejected and the operation repeated with a fresh quantity of cement, sand and water.
Immediately after mixing the mortar place the mortar in the cube mould and prod with the
poking rod. The mortar shall be prodded 20 times in about 8s to ensure elimination of entrained
air and honey-combing. Place the remaining quantity of mortar in the hopper of the cube mould
and prod again as specified for the first layer and compact the mortar by vibration. The period

of vibration shall be two minutes at the specified speed of 12000±400 vibration per minute. At
the end of vibration, remove the mould together with the base plate from the machine and
finish the top surface of the cube in the mould by smoothing the surface with the blade of
trowel.
Testing
Test three cubes for compressive strength for each period of time according to their relevant
testing date. The cubes shall be tested on their sides without any packing between the cube and
the steel plates of the testing machine.
Calculation
The compressive strength of the cubes shall be calculated by dividing the maximum load
applied to the cubes during the test by the cross-sectional area, calculated from the mean
dimensions of the section and shall be expressed to the nearest 0.5N/mm 2
4.2 Chemical Analysis of Cement
The chemical analysis was carried out as per Indian Standard 4032: 1985:
4.2.1 Determination of Loss on Ignition (LOI)
Heat 1.00gm of the sample in a weighed platinum crucible of 20-25ml capacity by placing it
in a muffle furnace temperature between 9000C and 100000, cool and weigh. Check the loss
in weight by a second heating for 5 min and re-weigh. Record the loss in weight as the loss
on ignition and calculate the percentage of loss of ignition to the nearest 0.1. Calculate the
percentage loss on ignition as below:
Percent loss on ignition = loss in weight * 100

4.2.2 Determination of Silica
Transfer 0.5 gm. Of the sample to an evaporating dish, moisten with 10 ml of distilled water
at room temperature, add 5 to 10 ml of hydrochloric acid, and digest with the aid of gentle heat
and until the sample is completely dissolved.
Dissolution may be aided by light pressure with the flattened end of glass road. Evaporate the
solution to dryness on a steam bath. Without heating the residue any further treat it with 10 to
20 ml of HCL (l : l). Then cover the dish and digest for 10 minutes on a water bath or hot plate.
Dilute the solution with an equal amount of hot water, immediately filtered through an ash less
filter paper (what man no. 40), and wash the separated silica thoroughly with hot water and
reserve the residue. Again, evaporate the filtrates to dryness, then treat the residue with 10to
15 ml of HCL (1:1) and heat the solution on water bath or hot plate. Dilute the solution with
an equal volume of hot water and wash the small amount of silica it contains on another filter
paper. Reserves the filtrates and washings for the determination of combined alumina and
ferric oxide. Transfer the paper containing the residue to a weight silica or pt. crucible. Dry
and ignite the papers, first at low temperature until the carbon of filter paper is completely
consumed without inflaming, and finally at 1100 0 C to 1200 0 C until the weight remain constant.
The weight of the ignited sample represents the amount of silica:
Silica percentage = weight of silica * 100

4.2.3 Determination of Combined Ferric Oxide and Alumina
To the filtrates reserved which shall have a volume of about 200 ml, add a few drops of the
methyl red indicator, and heat to boiling, adding a few drops of bromine water or concentrated
nitric acid during boiling in order to oxidize any ferrous iron to the ferric condition. Then treat
with ammonium hydroxide (1 : 1) drop by drop until the colour of the solution becomes
distinctly yellow and smells of ammonia. Bring to boiling the solution containing the
precipitate of aluminium and ferric hydroxides and boil for one minute.
In case of difficulty from bumping experienced while boiling the ammonical solution,
substitute the one-minute boiling period by a digestion period of 10 minutes on steam bath or
a hot plate of approximately the same temperature as of a steam bath. Allow the precipitate to
settle filter through filter paper and wash with 2 percent hot ammonium nitrate solution. Set
aside the filtrate and washings. Transfer the precipitate and filter paper to the same beaker in
which the first.
Precipitation was affected. Dissolve the precipitate in hot hydrochloric acid (1:3) dilute the
solution to about 100ml and re-precipitate the hydroxides. Filter the solution and wash the
precipitate with top 10 ml portion of hot ammonium nitrate solution combine the filtrate and
washing with the filtrate set aside earlier and reserve for the determination of calcium oxide.
Place precipitate in a weight platinum crucible heat slowly until the paper are charred and
finally ignite to constant weight at 1050 0 C-1100 0 C taking care to prevent reduction and weigh
as combine alumina and ferric oxide.
R 2 O 3 per cent weight of residue * 200
4.2.4 Determination of Calcium oxide (Gravimetric method)
Acidify the combined filtrate set aside in determination of combined oxides with hydrochloric
acid and evaporate them wave volume of about 100ml. Add 40 ml of saturated bromine water
to the hot solution and immediately add ammonium hydroxide until the solution is distinctly
alkaline. Boil the solution for five minutes or more making certain that the solution is at alltime
distinctly alkaline. Allow the precipitate to settle, filter and wash with hot water. Wash
the beaker and filters with nitric acid that has been previously boiled to expel nitrous acid and
finally with hot water. Discard any precipitate (of manganese dioxide) that may be left on the
funnel. Acidify the filtrate with hydrochloric acid and boil until all the bromine water is
expelled. Add five ml of hydrochloric acid, dilute to 200ml, add a few drops of methyl add
indicator and 30ml of warm ammonium oxalate solution. Heat the solution to 700C to 800C
and add the ammonium hydroxide (1 : 1) drop wise, while stirring, until the colour change
from red to yellow. Allow the calcium oxalate precipitate to stand without further heating for
I hour, with occasional stirring during the first 30 min, filter through what man filter paper
no.42 or equivalent and wash moderately with cold 0.1% ammonium oxalate solution. Set
aside the filtrate and washings for estimating magnesia.
Dry the precipitate in a weighed covered platinum or silica crucible heat the paper slowly, burn
the carbon at as the low temperature as possible, and finally heat with the crucible tightly
covered in an electric furnace at a temperature of Cool in desiccator (to guard against
absorption of moisture by ignited calcium oxide) and weigh as calcium oxide. Repeat the
ignition a constant weight.

Percentage of CaO = weight of residue * 200
4.2.5 Magnesia (Gravimetric Method)
Acidify the filtrate set aside in determine of CaO with hydrochloric acid and concentrate to
about 150ml. Add to this solution about 10ml of ammonium hydrogen phosphate (g/l) and the
cool solution by placing in a beaker of ice water. After cooling, add ammonium hydroxide
drop by drop, while stirring constantly, until the magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals
begin from, and then add the reagent in moderate excess, the stirring being continued for
several minutes. Set the solution aside for at least 16 hours in a cool atmosphere and then filter,
using Whatman no.42 filter paper or its equivalent. Wash the precipitate with ammonium
nitrate solution. Place in a weighed platinum or silica crucible; slowly char the paper and
carefully burn of the resulting carbon. Ignite the precipitate that
1100 0 C to 1200 0 C to constant weight taking care to avoid bringing the pyrophosphate to
melting. The product of the weight of magnesia (MgO), pyrophosphate obtains and a factor,
0.3621, shall be the magnesium content of the material tested
Calculated the percentage of MgO as below:
MgO percent W* 72.4
Where,
W= gms of residue (Mg2P207), and
72.4 molecular ratio of 2 MgO to Mg2P207 (0.362), divided by
Weight of sample used (0.5g) and multiplied by 100
4.3 Characterization of Aggregates
The samples of construction and demolition waste are collected from ILFS, Delhi and are
broken down into pieces of less than 20 mm using jaw crusher. The grading of recycled
aggregate is done by sieve analysis as per IS 383: 1970 (Indian Standard Specification for
Figure 2: Recycled Aggregates

coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Source for Concrete). The aggregate of different
sizes are shown in Fig. 3.2-3.4. The physical and mechanical properties of recycled aggregate
are determined in accordance with IS:2386-1963 and compared with natural aggregates.
4.3.1 Determination of Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
A sample of about 1kg for 10mm to 4.75 mm or 500g if finer than 4.75mm shall be placed in
the tray and covered with distilled water at a temperature of 220C to 320C. Soon after
immersion, air entrapped in or bubbles on the surface of the aggregate shall be removed be
gentle agitation with a rod. The sample shall remain immersed for 24 to 1/2hours.
The water shall then be carefully drained from the sample, by decantation through a filter
paper, any material retained being returned to the Sample. The aggregate including any solid
matter retained on the filter paper shall be exposed to a gentle current of warm air to evaporate
surface moisture and shall be stirred at frequent intervals to ensure uniform drying until no free
surface moisture can be seen and the material just attains a 'free running' condition. Care shall
be taken to ensure that this stage is not passed. The saturated and surface dry sample shall be
weighed (A).
The aggregates shall then be placed in the pycnometer which shall be filled with distilled water.
The pycnometer shall be topped up with distilled water to remove any froth from the surface
and so that the surface of the water in the hole is flat. The pycnometer shall be dried on the
outside and weighed (weight B).
The pycnometer shall be refilled with distilled water to the same level as before, dried on the
outside and weighed (weight C).
It shall be cooled in the air —tight container and weighed (weight D).
Calculation
Specific gravity and water absorption shall be calculated as follows:
Specific gravity D/A-(B-C)
Water absorption = 100(A-D)/D
Where,
A= weight in g of saturated surface dry sample,
B=weight in g of pycnometer or gas jar containing sample and filled with distilled water,
C=weight in g of pycnometer or gas jar filled with distilled water only, and
D=weight in g of oven dried sample

4.3.2 Determination of Bulk Density
Rodded or compacted weight- The measure shall be filled about one-third full with thoroughly
mixed aggregates and tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the trampling rod. A
further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added and a further trampling of 25 times and the
surplus aggregates struck off using the trampling rod as a straightedge. The net weight the
aggregate in the measure shall be determined and the bulk density calculated in kilograms per
litre.
Lose weight —The measure shall be filled to overflowing by means of a shovel or scoop, the
aggregate being discharged from a height not exceeding 5cm above the top of the measure.
Care shall be taken to prevent, as far as possible, segregation of the particle sizes of which the
sample is composed. The surface of the aggregate shall then be levelled with a straightedge.
The net weight of the aggregate in the measure shall then be determined and the bulk density
calculated in kilogram per litre.
Calculations
Percentage of Bulk Density = value of weight sample* 100/ total value of sample
4.3.3 Determination of Impact value of Aggregate
The impact machine shall rest without wedging or packing upon the level plate, block or floor,
so that it is rigid and the hammers guide columns are vertical.
The cup shall be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test
sample placed in it and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compared by a
single trampling of 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
The hammer shall be raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup and allowed to fall freely on to the aggregate. The crushed aggregate shall
then be removed from the cup and whole of its sieved on the 2.36mm IS sieve until no further
significant amount passes in one minute. The fraction passing the sieve shall be weighed to
accuracy.
Calculations
Aggregate impact value = B/A* 100
Where,
B= weight of fraction passing 2.36mm IS sieve, and
A= weight of oven-dried sample
4.3.4 Determination of Crushing Value of Aggregate
The cylinder of the test apparatus shall be put in position on the base plate and the test sampler
added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25 strokes from the tamp ling rod. The apparatus
with the test sample and plunger in position shall then be placed between the platens of the

testing machine and loaded at as uniform a rate as possible so that the total is reached in 10
minutes. The total load shall be 40 tones.
The load shall be released and the whole of the material removed from the cylinder and sieved
on a 2.36mm IS sieve for the standard test, or the appropriate sieve. The fraction passing the
sieve shall be weighed (weight B).
Calculation
Aggregate crushing value = B/A* 100
Where,
B=weight of fraction passing the appropriate sieve,
A = Initial weight of the sample taken
Figure 3: Crashing Value Test on CTM Machine
4.4 Properties of aggregates
The particle size distribution of natural and recycled coarse aggregate has been shown in Fig.
1 along with minimum and maximum limits of grading specified in IS: 383: 1970. A perusal
of these figures show that all the aggregates are properly graded and satisfy the IS: 383
requirements. It is also observed that both washed and unwashed recycled coarse aggregates
are finer than natural coarse aggregates and the same is supported by low values of fineness
modulus (FM) shown in Table 4.3 for 20 and 10 mm sizes along with

Table 4.3: Physical properties of natural and recycled coarse aggregate
Parameters Natural aggregate Recycled aggregate
Unwashed Unwashed Washed
20 mm1 Omm 20 mm10 mm 20 mm10 mm
Fineness
modulus
Specific
gravity
Bulk
density
(kg/l)
6.95 6.44 6.89 6.13 6.77 6.06
2.67 2.66 2.40 2.36 2.50 2.46 ö
1.564 1.557 1.436 1.350 1.440 1.365
Physical properties like specific gravity and bulk density. The values shown in Fig. 4.5 reveal
that there is a marked difference in the properties of natural and recycled coarse aggregates.
Recycled aggregate has low specific gravity (7-10 %) and density (8-14 %) as compared to
natural aggregate. lt can also be seen from Table 3 that the washed recycled coarse aggregates
have relatively less deteriorated properties as compared to unwashed recycled coarse
aggregates due to removal of old adhered mortar. The main reason for the low specific gravity
and density of 10 mm size aggregates is old adhered mortar which is light and porous in nature
and varies with size and quantity of recycled aggregate. Other physical properties like percent
flakiness index, elongation index and water absorption are shown in Fig. 4.6 which indicates
high flakiness and elongation index of recycled coarse aggregates as compared to natural
aggregates. The water absorption of natural aggregate was observed to
4.5 Instrumental Evaluation and Characterization of OPC
The OPC is evaluated and characterized using modern technique like XRD and SEM.
4.5.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) of OPC
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile, non-destructive technique that reveals detailed
information about (he chemical composition and crystallographic structure of natural and
manufactured materials (Fig. 3.5). XRD is a rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase
identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell dimensions.

Intensity(a.u)
20000
Binder
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
Figure 4: Power X-ray Diffraction of OPC
Fundamental principle of XRD
X-ray diffraction is modern technique to study crystal structures and atomic spacing. X-ray
diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays and a crystalline
sample. These X-rays are generated by a cathode ray tube, filtered to produce monochromatic
radiation, collimated to concentrate, and directed toward the sample. The interaction of the
incident rays with the sample produces constructive interference (and a diffracted ray) when
conditions satisfy Bragg's Law (nX=2d sinϴ). This law relates the wavelength of
electromagnetic radiation to the diffraction angle and the lattice spacing in a crystalline sample.
These diffracted X-rays are then detected, processed and counted.
The instrument was operated through Rigaku Analytical Software Programme and the
instrumental parameters as given below were worked out and kept unaltered for all the samples
investigated:
X- ray tube [Copper (broad focus)], Wave length, (1.5404 A), Divergence slit (Automatic),
Scan speed (10/ min), Range 2-theta (3.0 to 90.00), Operating Voltage (30 kV), Filament
current (40 mA)
4.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a
variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens (Fig. 3.6). The signals that derive from
electron-sample interaction reveal information about the sample including external
morphology (texture), chemical composition, and crystalline structure and orientation of
materials making up the sample. The SEM is also capable of performing analyses of selected
point locations on the sample; this approach is especially useful in qualitatively or semiquantitatively
determining chemical compositions, crystalline structure, and crystal
Orientation using EBSD.

CHAPTER-IV
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Physical Analysis of OPC
The results of physical analysis of OPC for consistency, setting time and compressive strength
are shown in Table 4.1. A perusal of this table shows that water required to achieve a standard
consistency is 29.25 % which gives a workable paste. In Indian standard (Is: 4031), no specific
value has been specified for consistency of cement. The initial and final setting times of OPC
are 4:02hr and 6:05hr respectively and are also shown in Table 4.1 along with the standard
values. The values achieved for initial and final setting time are well within the range of values
prescribed in Indian standard for initial setting time (>30 min) and final setting time (<600
min).
Table 5: Physical Analysis of OPC
Parameter Calculated Values as Per
Values
IS: 8112: 1989
Consistency 29.25% Not specified
Setting time.
Initial
Final
Compressive
strength
1 day
3 day
7 day
28 day
4:02 hr
6:05 hr
219.5 kg/cm 2
345.46 kg/cm 2
452.85 kg/cm 2
481.36 kg/cm 2
>30 min
< 600min
>230kg/cm2
>330 kg/cm2
>430 kg/cm
OPC paste has been tested for compressive strength from 1 day to 28 days of curing at different
time intervals and the results are shown in Table 4.1 along with the values specified in Indian
standard. It is observed that the rate of compressive strength development is very fast in early
age up to 7 days of curing and decreases in later ages up to
5.2 Chemical Analysis of OPC
The results of chemical analysis are shown in Table 6 along with the values specified in Indian
Standard 8112: 1989. A perusal of table shows that values obtained after chemical analysis of
OPC are complying the values of standard and therefore cement may be recommended for
construction purpose.
Table 6: Chemical Analysis of OPC
Parameters Weight (%)
Si0 2 20.65
Fe 2 O 3 3.95

Al 2 O 3 5.13
CaO 60.25
MgO 4%
Loss on ignition (LOI) 5.0 %
5.3 Fly Ash and its Properties
It’s an industrial by-product that from coal-fired power plants. Due to pozzolanic reaction of
fly ash (FA) makes it useful in the concrete industry at large scale where the most important
implement of fly ash is as a partial replacement of Portland cement into 3DCP approx 15% to
305. It has been well established which one appropriate use of fly ash that improves the
properties of concrete both in the fresh and hardened states (e.g., workability, heat evolution,
strength development, durability). The two properties of flyash that are the LOI (carbon
content) and the fineness respectively. They are tens to interdependent because the carbon
particles is coarser(Chen et al., 2019). Fly ash was used as the aluminosilicate source
material in this study. Slag or calcium hydroxide was blended with Class F fly ash. Class
C fly ash isn’t used in this study. The chemical composition of Class F fly ash and slag were
given in Table 2.
Table 7 Fly ash composition (w%)
Composition
F’ Type FA
SiO2 62.29
Al2O3 15.94
Fe2O3 6.24
CaO 7.92
MgO 1.52
SO3 0,001
LOI 4.089
‣ Compositionally the Indian Fly Ashes are Low Class-F type with,
• 15-30% Mullite
• 15-45% Quartz
• 1-5% Magnetite
• 1-5% Hematite
• Amorphous content of Indian Fly Ash: 25-45%,
• Amorphous content of European Fly Ashes Class-F type: 40-70%

DATA (%)
Cement, 25.06%, 27%
Unutilized Fly Ash,
37.31%, 40%
Bricks & Tiels, 7.30%,
8%
Others, 4.69%, 5%
Hydro-power, 0.00%,
0%
Concrete, 0.51%, 0%
Agriculture, 1%, 1%
Roads & Flyovers, 3.60%, 4%
Reclamation of low
lying area, 8.45%, 9%
Ash Dyke Raising, 6.07%, 6%
Figure 5: Fly Ash Generation & Utilization
Specific gravity. Although specific gravity does not directly affect concrete quality, it has
value in identifying changes in other fly ash characteristics. It should be checked regularly as
a quality control measure, and correlated to other characteristics of fly ash that may be
fluctuating.
Chemical composition. The reactive aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate components
of fly ash are routinely represented in their oxide nomenclatures such as silicon dioxide,
aluminium oxide and calcium oxide. The variability of the chemical composition is checked
regularly as a quality control measure. The aluminosilicate components react with calcium
hydroxide to produce additional cementitious materials. Fly ashes tend to contribute to
concrete strength at a faster rate when these components are present in finer fractions of the
fly ash.
Sulphur trioxide content is limited to five percent, as greater amounts have been shown to
increase mortar bar expansion.
Available alkalis in most ashes are less than the specification limit of 1.5 percent. Contents
greater than this may contribute to alkali-aggregate expansion problems.

Intensity(a.u)
40000
FLY ASH
30000
20000
10000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
Figure 6: XRD Graph of Fly Ash
Carbon content. LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon remaining in the ash. It can range
up to five percent per AASHTO and six percent per ASTM. The unburned carbon can absorb
air entraining admixtures (AEAs) and increase water requirements. Also, some of the carbon
in fly ash may be encapsulated in glass or otherwise be less active and, therefore, not affect the
mix. Conversely, some fly ash with low LOI values may have a type of carbon with a very
high surface area, which will increase the AEA dosages. Variations in LOI can contribute to
fluctuations in air content and call for more careful field monitoring of entrained air in the
concrete. Further, if the fly ash has a very high carbon content, the carbon particles may float
to the top during the concrete finishing process and may produce dark-coloured surface streaks.
5.4 Evaluation by XRD
The results of X-ray diffract grams evaluations are shown in Fig. 4.3 and 4.4 for non-hydrated
and 28 days old hydrated cement paste respectively. It shows the various crystalline phases
present in cement and the most prominent peaks in the cement were of tricalcium silicate
(CBS) at 29.4 0 , 32.6 0 , 34.3 0 , 41.3 0 , 51.7 0 , 56.6 0 and dicalcium silicate (C 2 S) at 26.4 0 and 32.2 0
The peaks of ettringite (E) were also observed at 28.6 0 , 34 0 and 50.7 0 in Fig. 4.3 and 44 0
Additionally, the Fig. 4.4 shows the formation of calcium hydroxide at 18.4 0 because of
hydration reactions. After hydration, C 3 S and C 2 S peaks converted into CSVI gel which is less
crystalline in nature and not visible clearly in Fig. 4.4. 28 days which indicates that 60 % of
compressive strength comes in initial 7 days. The possible reason for this may be the hydration
of tricalcium silicate phase and tricalcium aluminate to form calcium silicate hydrate gel (CSH)
and ettringite which is responsible for early strength. The rate of development of compressive
strength along with time is shown in Fig. 4.1. The Fig. 4.1 shows that the development of
compressive strength is a function of curing period which increases with increase in curing
period. The same is also visible from SEM photographs (Fig. 4.2 a-d) at various curing periods.

Intensity(a.u)
In later stage, dicalcium silicate reacts with calcium hydroxide to provide delayed strength due
to formation of CSH gel.
150000
Sand Stone
Granite
PoP
Fly Ash
Binder
100000
50000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
5.5 Evaluation by SEM
Figure 7: Merged Graph of Sand Stone, Granite, PoP, Fly Ash and Binder
The scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of the hydrated cement samples are shown in Figs
4.2 for OPC hydrated for 1 day, 3 days, 7 days and 28 days. After 1 day of hydration of cement,
typical hydration products like calcium hydroxide (CH), Tobermorite (T) and grain structure
appear in the OPC paste together with short acicular and needle like crystals (Fig.4.2, a-b).
After 7 days, the microstructure of the cement becomes much denser with pronounced
formation of needle like crystals and acicular features (Fig. 4.2, c). At 28 days, the hydrated
grains are interconnected by outgrowth forming a continuous structure as shown in Fig. 4.2 (d)
due to formation of CSH gel (Tobermorite) negligible (0.40 %) as compared to recycled
aggregates (3.5-4.70 %). The water absorption of unwashed recycled aggregates was higher
(23-26 %) as compared to washed recycled coarse aggregates.
Further, the mechanical properties like crushing and impact values of recycled aggregate are
shown in Fig. 4.7 along with natural aggregates. Fig. 4.7 revealed that the crushing and impact
values of unwashed recycled aggregates are higher than natural and washed recycled
aggregates. The crushing and impact values of unwashed recycled aggregates were found to
be 43-48 % and 9-20 % and 39-41 % and 9-15 % higher than natural and washed recycled
aggregates respectively. The higher crushing and impact values of unwashed recycled

aggregates are due to the presence of adhered mortars which get removed during testing.
Therefore, the recycled aggregate may be characterized as inferior quality aggregate by being
weaker than the normal aggregate. However, it is also observed that washing with water greatly
influence the physical and mechanical properties of recycled coarse aggregate due to removal
of the adhered loosely bounded cement mortar. Improvement in density and water absorption
of lower size (10 mm) recycled aggregate is more than large size (20 mm) aggregate because
of presence of higher amount of adhered mortar. Thus the loss of adhered mortar is higher in
small size aggregate and is responsible for higher density and low water absorption as
compared to large size aggregate. Because of the relationship between aggregate density and
water absorption, the increase in recycled aggregate density results in the significant decrease
in waster absorption.

Reference;
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Aggregates,, Germany, 2002, p. 100.
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