Samdarshi_Pranshu_Spatial_and_architecturat constructs of tantric buddhist mandala

Chapter 4
Tantric Buddhist Mandalas:
Through the cyclic rebirths,
I hastened,
seeking to find
who framed this edifice
O Architect
at last
I have seen you
No longer shall this
house be rebuilt
For now all
the rafters are shattered
the ridge-pole lies asunder
The mind is freed from
all compositions
This
is the end
of desire
One‟s energy
unfolding
is the universe
Walk to the well
Turn as the earth and moon turn
circling what they love
Whatever circles
comes from the centre
Methodological and conceptual issues
„Emptiness‟ (śūnyatā) is the central doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism − it is a negation of intrinsic
nature of the material and mental phenomena. The non-theological framework of Buddhism also
denies the presence of any supreme creator or an absolute creation of the world. Encompassed in
time and space, all phenomenal reality is accounted to have subjective existence in Buddhism.

However, while negating the intrinsic nature of existence, the ontological reality of phenomena is
not denied. Buddhist Philosophers have asserted that the constituents of the real world come into
existence by the virtue of Karmic dispositions of sentient beings. 1
In Buddhism, this interdependency of epistemological and ontological reality is
formulated on the principle of „interdependent origination‟ (pratītya-samutpāda), another
fundamental Buddhist doctrine, which also connotes the emptiness of any sort of inherent nature
(svabhāva-śūnyatā). 2 This proposition of Buddhism establishes the existence of reality through
one‟s own subjective imputations. Therefore, the fundamental alteration in subjective reality is
supposed to bring a corresponding change in the outer world.
This is a unique Buddhist insight which has been carried to the highest degree of
formulation in the Buddhist tantra. The tantra practices of Buddhism prescribe that one should
work upon the consciousness in order to regulate the nature of interdependent ontological reality,
not for mundane achievements (sāmānya siddhī) but to aim for the attainment of supreme
awakening (sambodhī). This is accomplished through various means such as mantra recitations,
yogic practices on bodily wind channels, fixating the mindstream in an exalted state of wisdom,
and through elaborated and sophisticated rituals accompanied by liturgical implements. The
Buddhist mandala is an example of such liturgical implement. In tantric Buddhist expressions,
mandala renders the spatial concepts in functional form and serves as an aid to manipulate the
dynamics of the phenomenal world through the means of spatial emptiness.
The visual rhetoric of mandala, the way it was conceived by the early scholars of
Buddhism has many interpretive conundrums. In order to recognise the problems confronted by
the scholars who wrote on Buddhist mandalas, it must be realised that prior to publication of
Tucci‟s The Theory and Practice of the Maṇḍala (1961), most of them did not have much idea of
Buddhist tantra rites associated with mandalas. 3 Therefore, as Huntington (1994: 144) has pointed
out, they were „..looking.. for „higher truth‟ cast in their own Judeo-Christian religious beliefs and
not those of the Buddhist world‟. In his seminal writing on mandalas, Tucci (1961: 49) has
observed, „…above all, we must consider how the initiate must read this tangle of hieroglyphics
and how, through images, [s]he may ascend to the hidden meaning which they typify.‟
Mandalas: the meaning and concept
Apparently, the word Mandala means a circle, taking it to mean „round, spherical‟. 4 However, like
most of the technical terms in Sanskrit, it has got multivalent meanings. It has been rendered as
ḥ
ṁ ṁ ṣ ṁ ṁ

„place of divinities‟. Its Tibetan equivalent „dkyil-„Khor‟ means „centre-circumference‟. 5 It can
denote a particular dominion of a state. A mandala can serve as a tool for contemplative
visualisation, a geometric diagram for constructing a sanctified space, a prototype that represents
of cosmos and can symbolise the embodiment of a divine field. 6 David Snellgrove (2002: 199)
points out the mandala-architecture of this form:
The “square,” which is regularly described as having a door on each of its four sides, the
main one being toward the East, and all adorned with an elaborate portal… represents
the normal Indian four-sided temple, many of which survive in Himalayan areas…
Since a temple is primarily conceived as the domain of a particular divinity, the
significance of the mandala as a stylised two-dimensional pattern with identical
intention becomes quite explicit. The centre of the enclosure is its most sacred spot
while the outer ring borders on the profane world.… [T]he significance of the mandala
as enclosing the radiating power of the central divinity remains constant.
Mostly, mandala in its schematic form outlines a designated sanctified space that has been
consecrated for ritual and liturgical purpose. In the framework of tantric semiology, it could
denote the space that encompasses the Buddha‟s power in a concentrated form. This power of the
Buddha manifests in the form of a central deity of the mandala. The mandala-area is protected by
consecrated deities that protect it from external invasion by disintegrating forces. For some of the
practices related to Unexcelled-yoga (Anuttara-yoga) class of tantra, the contemplation on a
mandala is done in internalised mode, however, in most of the tantric rituals, an external and
tangible form of the mandala is needed.
A typical mandala description from Niṣpanna-yogāvalī states, „In the mandala... there is a
Vajra-enclosure, inside it the protective circle, and in its nave among the four elements of wind,
fire, water, and earth, is Sumeru on its top is the trigon, in whose centre is the central enclosure
(Kūṭagāra)‟. 7 This central enclosure may have further surrounds and, in the case of a multi-storied
mandala, it may be located on the rooftop of the mandala.
The central deity or the lord of the mandala (Maṇḍalādhipati) sits or stands on a lotus. The
lotus symbolises the base of enlightenment. The central deity represents the presence of
enlightened consciousness whose presence causes the expansion of the fabric of space that
corresponds to the manifestations of its retinue. The deities in the retinue preside over the
cardinal directions and occupy the surrounding enclosures as spatial signifiers and, the outer gates
have the realm-protectors (loka-pāla) and directional-protector deities (dig-pāla).
It should be noted that the dynamics of centre and periphery of the mandala is not based
on superiority or inferiority. The central deity of the tantric mandala is not a supreme being.
Ratnakara Shanti, a 10 th century CE master from Vikramshila monastic university, in his
commentary on Hevajra-tantra (Shankar and Negi 2001: 77) says, „the meaning of lord of mandala
ṣ
ṭ
ṭ
ṣ
ṭ
ṭ

should be taken as selflessness of self‟ (maṇḍalādhipati nairātmyāmityartḥ). Therefore, the
periphery of the mandala is as important as the centre as they both represent the emptiness of
intrinsic existence.
Architectural liturgy of mandala
In the literature of Buddhist tantra, considering the mandalas, three texts are of prime
importance. They were compiled in different periods in Tantric Buddhist history: from the early
days of the vehicle, the Guhyasamāja-tantra; from its midpoint, the Hevajra-tantra; from its last
days in India, the Kālacakra-tantra.
In Guhyasamāja-tantra, its first chapter, „The section on the establishment of mandalaconcentration
of all Tathāgata‟ (Sarva-tathāgata-samādhi-maṇḍal-adhiṣṭhān-paṭala), provides an
esoteric account of mandala formation. 8 The ritual is rendered in a cryptic way in the „twilight
language‟ (Sandhyā-bhāṣa), which is the distinctive characteristics of texts of tantras. 9 Here the
construction of mandala is portrayed taking place within the „womb of adamantine ladies‟
(Vajrayoṣid-bhageṣu). 10
The text states that the Mahavairocana, a form of Buddha, enters into the meditative
trance and subsequently from his body emanates several Buddhas in male and female forms.
Amongst them, the Bodhicitta Vajra enters into five different types of meditative trance and
utters five incantations and, thus emanate the five forms of wisdom Buddha. These five Buddhas
are assigned with four cardinal directions and the centre.
Again Bodhicitta Vajra repeats the process with alternate meditative trances and chants
and emanates five female deities who become associated with the five Buddhas. Thereupon,
Bodhicitta Vajra resorts to another four varieties of contemplations and incantations and emanates
four guardian deities who are placed on the eastern, southern, western and northern gates, in the
order of their emanations. This way the whole retinue of deities is emanated and the mandala is
formed.
The chapter abruptly ends after the formation of the mandala. In the explanatory verses of
the 17 th chapter of Guhyasamāja-tantra, it is mentioned that the five Buddhas represent the five
psychophysical aggregates (skandha) and the five female deities represent the five physical
elements (dhātu). 11
In the ritualistic visualisation process, such as one mentioned in the Guhyasamāja-tantra,
the formation of mandala happens through contemplation upon the embryonic manifestation of
the enlightened consciousness, which results into the revelation of practitioner‟s own innate
Buddha- nature.
The eighth chapter of Hevajra-tantra, „The chapter on the unification of circle of the
Yogini‟ (Yoginī-chakra-melāpak-paṭala), describes the manifestation of the mandala of goddess
Nairātmyā, along with her retinue. 12 The semiotics refers to yogic practices as the goddess and her
ṣ
ḥ
ḥ

retinue has their placements within the bodily wind-channels. It is implied here that the
internalised mode of tantric-yogic practices related to the wind-channels is supposedly the
quicker means for the realisation of „no-self state‟ (nairātmya).
In the tenth chapter of this text, „the chapter on empowerment‟ (Abhiṣeka-paṭala), there is
mention of a physical mandala „with a square platform and four doors, adorned with garlands,
chains and vajra threads‟ that is meant for tantric initiations. 13 However, the chapter concludes
with highlighting the importance of internalised mode of contemplation of „generation-stage'
(utpatti-krama) and proclaims that „no recitation of mantra, no austerity, no fire-sacrifice, no
retinue of the mandala, and no mandala... all these are aspects of the totality of consciousness. 14
The Kalachakra is another system of Unexcelled-yoga tantra. This practice is vibrantly
alive in the Tibetan tradition. Unlike other systems of tantric empowerment (abhiṣeka), where
the concealment of rites is prescribed and their public display is prohibited, tantric empowerment
of Kalachakra can be given to large gatherings. 15 In the Kalachakra system, for tantric initiation of
the officiants, the mandala is often materially constructed, either as a two-dimensional sand
mandala or as a prototype decorated multi-storied palace (Prāsāda). The schema of Kalachakra
mandala consists of three sub-mandalas, each with its own majestic triumphal gate (toraṇa).
The architecture of Kalachakra mandala, as it is delineated in the root-text and
commentaries, has five layers: Body-mandala (Kāya-maṇḍala), Speech-mandala (Vāṅ-maṇḍala),
Mind-mandala (Citta-maṇḍala), Empty-mandala (Śunya-maṇḍala) that is also translated as
Pristine-consciousness-mandala, and Lotus-pericarp-mandala (Padma-karṇikā-maṇḍala) also
known as Great-bliss-mandala. 16 Body, Speech and Mind-mandala have four decorated entrance
gates in four directions. In the centre of Kalachakra mandala, the Kalachakra along with the
wisdom deity Viśvamātā, stand on a lotus in an erotic embrace.
ṇḍ
ḥ ḥ ṇḍ ḍ
ḍ
ṣ
ṣ
ṣ
ṇ

Lord Kalachakra has four coloured faces in the four directions, the mandala is also coloured in
four colours accordingly; east is coloured in black, south in red, north in white, and west in
yellow. This mandala is surrounded by four enclosures: earth, water, fire, and the wind. They are
coloured in yellow, white, red, and black, respectively.
At the time of initiation, the master leads the disciple through the eastern gate and they
pass through the Body-mandala area. The Body-mandala area has five layers of translucent wall
coloured in yellow, white, red, black, and green, respectively. Next is seen the Speech-mandala
which is based on a higher platform and consists of five walls, similar to the Body-mandala. Then
comes the Mind-mandala, which is higher than the Speech mandala and consists of three
transparent walls.
After crossing the area of Mind-mandala, one sees a square-shaped elevated platform
which is named as Empty-mandala (Śunya-maṇḍala) or the Great-bliss-mandala (Mahāsukhamaṇḍala).
At the centre of the Great-bliss-mandala, there is five-storied pavilion which has an
eight-petal lotus at its centre, which is green in colour. On the pericarp of this lotus, stands the
lord Kalachakra.
Kalachakra mandala is one of the most elaborate mandalas in the Buddhist tantra and
consists of six hundred forty-four deities in total. It also entails a detailed astronomical diagram,
expressive of different constellations in order to signify the inseparability of micro-macro
cosmological homology. 18

Unlike the tantra texts, the sutra texts of Mahayana have a different connotation of
mandalas. In the Mahayana sutras, the prelude often makes an explicit mention of „mandala‟,
which is a circular gathering of celestial beings. These sutras were compiled in the early phase of
Mahayana Buddhism (2 nd century BCE to 2 nd century CE). Most of them mention that the Buddha,
before issuing his teaching, enters into a state of meditative trance and cause a ray of light to
extend from his forehead into the deepest recesses of the cosmos. This ray impels countless distant
Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and gods to join. And thus the circularly arrayed assembly have a radical
expansion of place and audience − a mandala. 20
In the Pali Nikāyas, an analogous instance of the tantric mandala can be found in
Aṭānāṭiya Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya, wherein for the protective purpose, the directional gods are
summoned by the Buddha. 21
Mandala in Vaiṣṇava and Śaiva tantra texts
In the Vaiṣṇava Pāñcarātra system, a 3 rd century CE text, Pouṣkar-samhitā mentions the mandalapractice
that existed as an independent institution 22 . Through the successive introduction of
construction of four types of mandalas to the disciples, the master bestows upon them four types
of tantric initiation in consecutive stages. The text also mentions that at the time of installation of
a statue in a temple, the mandala of that deity should be customarily placed beneath the statue of
the deity.
While the „Architectural mandala‟ (Vāstu-maṇḍala) prescribed in this text, primarily
mentions the construction of two-dimensional mandala, which is specifically important for
tantric initiation (dīkṣa) rites of Pāñcarātra system, however, the Pāñcarātra texts such as
Parameśwar-samhitā delineates the construction of Vaiṣṇava temples based on the systematic
architectural plans of mandala. 23

The nondualist Kashmir Śaivism which shares certain common features with the Buddhist
tantra system mention the human „In-the-body mandala‟ (dehastha maṇḍala) where the bodily
wind channels and the energy centres (chakras) are the dwelling place of divinities (maṇḍalam
devatā chakram) and they are named after the consecrated geographical locations. 24
In the 11 th century commentary on Abhinavagupta‟s Tantrāloka by Jayaratha, which is
considered to be the magnum opus of Kashmir Śaivism, while explaining the ritual based twodimensional
external mandalas, Jayaratha accepts some ambiguity concerning the scale and the
dimensional structure of the mandala construction. Though the entire chapter-31 of Tantrāloka is
devoted to the ritual diagrams, no general view is given on the theory and practice of the
mandalas. 25 It is probable that Jayaratha while writing his treatise, absorbed many divergent
schemes into a single system. Moreover, his writings also indicate that the ritualistic externalmandala
construction was on declined by his time and the internalised mode of mandala worship
was prevailing in the practice. 26
Body-mind metaphor and visualisations of mandalas
The doctrine of the essential inseparability of subjective and objective reality has been one the
key formulation of the Anuttara-yoga-tantra rites, wherein the body-mandala (deha-maṇḍala)
becomes identical with the phenomenal reality.
When practitioners commence such realisation-basis, they cognise the entire cosmos within their
body and generate the realm of space within which arises the all-encompassing nature-matrix
manifestation (dharmodaya). The cosmic axis-mundi, Mount Meru, is identified with the spinal
cord (meru-danḍa) of the practitioner and the chakras are conceived as terrestrial or sacred
centres, placed at the matrix of wind channels, which are spread across the human body. 27
The tantric texts posit that the fundamental nature of mind is „clear‟ and „knowing‟. It is
the cognitive events that determine and possess the nature of knowing and the knowledge which
arises in the clear-light nature (Prakriti-prabhā-svara) of the mind. 28
In contrast to the Anuttara-yoga initiations, in the Kriyā and Caryā tantra practices,
deities are worshipped on the constructed three-dimensional mandalas (such as temple) or on the
two-dimensional mandala (painted on cloth or made of sand). However, Anuttara-yoga practice
of the internalised mandala visualisation is considered to be a superior form of practice, as the 14 th
century Tibetan master Mkhas-grub-rje notes. „The Mahasiddhas have not set forth a method of
that sort [of external mandala worship], but it is maintained by many learned pandits‟. 29
In the Yoga-tantra class, Vajradhātu and Garbhadhātu mandala have been given much
importance. They have been at the core of many esoteric traditions in Japan and China. The

textual basis for Vajradhātu mandala comes from Sarva-tathāgata-tattva-saṅgraha, a fundamental
text (mūla-tantra) of the class of yoga-tantra. 30 The first chapter of this text has the instructions on
Vajradhātu mandala. Its starting is set in a typical Buddhist congregational setting. The historical
Shakyamuni Buddha, in his visit to the terrestrial realm „Akaniṣṭha‟, emanates in his beatific-body
(Sambhoga-kāyā) as Vairocana Buddha. He is beseeched by a group of divinities led by
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra to deliver the instructions.
The text begins with descriptive information of all the divinities present, followed by
praise made by Bodhisattva Samantabhadra. The Buddha goes into a meditative trance named
„āsphām-samādhi‟ and thirty-six deities emanates from his body to form the Vajradhātu
mandala. 31
As per the Yoga-tantra hermeneutics and injunctions, the text can be interpreted as
prescribing its practitioners to position themselves at the core of the central mandala and visualise
themselves as the Vairocana Buddha, surrounded by a retinue of other thirty-six divinities. This is
an allegory of transcending the individuality and identifying oneself with the „uncompounded
truth-body‟ (Dharma-kāyā) of the Buddha. By the expansion of consciousness, the practitioner
visualises the entire cosmos in the Dharma-dhātu field. 32 Thus bringing the deity-yoga (devayoga)
practice of Yoga-tantra, which is the basis for this visualised mandala, practitioner‟s
consciousness is gradually directed to the higher stages of exalted wisdom and finally, they
identify themselves with the Buddha.
This text is mostly known for its architectonic presentations of philosophic dimensions of
the tantric vision expressed through the Vajradhātu mandala which is outlined in its first part. It
has served as a representative scripture for the portrayal of the historical development of
philosophical suppositions of a „visual-dharma‟, as a mandala in India, China, Japan, Tibet and
Central Asia. 33 The artistic representation based on this text has come in the form of painted
scrolls, sculptures, and intricately sculptured monuments.
Borobudur stupa complex in central Java and „du-khang of Tabo in Spiti valley, India are
two such monuments which have derived its architectural basis from this text 34 . Julie A. Gifford
(2011: 162) thinks that terraces of Borobudur might have served as a venue for tantric initiations.
Ronald Davidson (2002: 243-44) has given an interesting account of Vajradhātu mandala initiation
given by Siddha Kukkuripā to the King Indrabhūti of Zahor. The narrative is taken from 810 CE
Tibetan chronicle. It mentions: 35

[T]he Acarya [Kukkuripā] went to Zahor and preached the Dharma to the king and his
retinue... he set the king and his retinue to meditating in the manner of the Vajradhātu
mandala. The chronicle continues to discuss how Kukkura divided up the queens and
the court, each placed at a physical direction in the mandala. They and the princes and
princesses all took their place on an enormous mandala board, in a physical enactment
of the Vajradhātu mandala by the members of the court... at the end, not only did
Indrabhuti become a Vidyadhara but so did all the thousand members of the court. Even
the heir apparent, Śakraputi, and his seven hundred courtiers, as well as his sister, with
her hundred ladies-in-waiting, all became Vidyadharas.
Mandala principle in monumental architecture
One of the earliest surviving mandala based structures of stupas could be found at Lauria-
Nandangarh (3 rd -century BCE-7 th century CE), located in West Champaran, Bihar. With its three
polygonal bases surmounted by three circular one, it seems to be the precursor of the Kesariya
stupa, which is located in its neighbouring district. Among the Mathura reliefs of 100 BCE, there
are depictions of stupas having multiple terraces. Thus the multi-terraced structure of stupas of
Lauria-Nandangarh and Kesariya might have been conceived at least in the 1 st century BCE. 36
Both stupas contained a central crowning stupa. The stupa in Kesariya was further
innovated with life-size images of Amitabha, Akshobhya and other Wisdom-Buddha figures in
the external niches at cardinal points.

The central temple of Somapura Vihara (located at Paharpur in Bangladesh) established by
Dharmapala (775-810 CE) followed a similar plan along with circumambulatory paths accessed by
stairs and equipped with narrative reliefs. 39
The ascendancy of Buddhist tantric system resulted in a trend of constructing monuments
on a mandala based architecture plan. These monuments were used as a religious instrument in
the process of tantric initiation and consecration. This trend could be seen on the monuments
which were built from the sixth century onwards across the Indian subcontinent. Ellora caves
(cave no. 6, 11 and 12), the „du-khang of Tabo in Spiti and the Sum-tsek at Alchi are some major
evidence of this trend.

The trend was not just limited to India but in Borobudur (760-830 CE), we find mandala based
design. Architecturally, Borobudur inherits the features of stupas of Lauria-Nandangarh, Kesariya,
and Somapura Vihara 41 . It also exhibits some concrete features of the tantric mandala.
Some scholars have suggested the influence of Vajradhātu-mandala on Borobudur. 42 As
per the Sarva-tathāgata-tattva-saṅgraha, the Vajradhātu Mandala should consist of the five
Wisdom-Buddhas, along with a retinue of thirty-seven deities consisting of Bodhisattvas,
perfection-goddesses (Pāramitā), offering-goddesses and door-guardians (Dvāra-pāla). 43 With the
exception of the five wisdom-Buddhas, the remaining deities are absent in Borobudur and thus it
is evidently not an exact representation of the Vajradhātu-mandala. However, it seems to
resemble certain features of the Garbhadhātu-mandala, particularly the systematic organisation of
its deities from the highest to lowest realms and the demonic beings carved in the lower fringes of
the stupa. 44 It also encompasses the symbolic representation of the three-world-realms (tri-dhātu)
and the meditational stages (bhūmī) in a Mahayana Bodhisattva path.
The Ellora cave complexes built around early 8 th century CE, have some of the earliest monastictemple
examples of the mandala based multi-storied sculptural and architectural program. Each of
the three floors of Ellora Cave no. 6 and 12 have been based on a mandala representation
consisting of a central Buddha figure, along with the of sculptures of bodhisattvas at sides. 46
Similar arrangements were later adopted in the monasteries of western Himalaya such as the
Alchi in Ladakh, which houses some of the finest sculptures and murals based on the mandalas
that were built for the tantric rituals.

The 11 th century CE inscription accompanying the Kṣitigarbha-sutra at „du-khang of Tabo
suggests that this temple has been used for conducting esoteric rituals in order to avert some
violent activity or danger 47 . The Sum-tsek of Alchi, which has a multi-storeyed mandala based
structure plan, has a 13 th century CE inscription that mentions about mandala of tantric Buddhist
deities. This suggests the esoteric theme for the sculptures and the building. 48 The concept of
multi-storeyed mandala based architecture was subsequently transmitted to Tibet where it
became the model for multi-tiered temples known as Kumbum.
The Kumbums are stupa shaped multi-storied Buddhist temples with stairs ascending to
the higher floors. They have been designed to aid the tantric initiates for visualising the deities
and their mandalas from the base to the higher floors. Keith Dowman (1988: 270) notes the
architectural description of one of the surviving Kumbum, built in 1497 CE, which is located at
Gyantse, „The lha-khangs (deity-houses) of the nine-levels of the Kumbum, decreasing in number
at each level, are structured according to the compendium of Sakya tantras called the „Drubthob
Kuntu‟. Thus each Lha-khang and each level create a mandala, and the entire Kumbum represents
a three-dimensional path to the Buddha's enlightenment in terms of increasingly subtle tantric
mandalas.‟
The mandala complexes of Alchi and Tabo could be seen as a precursor of Tibetan Kumbums. The
„du-khang of Tabo is conceived as Vajradhātu mandala. It was designed in 11 th century CE. The
lord of the mandala (maṇḍalādhipati), Vajradhātu-Vairocana figure is located in the centre, in the
west direction. The assembly hall consists of the thirty-two deities (as mentioned in Sarvatathāgata-tattva-saṅgraha)
on the walls including the central Vairocana figure. The life-size
sculptures of deities, made of clay, are bonded to the wall in such a way that they seem to float in
space. They are surrounded by painted environments.

The walls with sculptures are divided into three sections and the middle section contains
the mandala-deities. The upper section consists of depictions of different Buddha realms. On the
north and south wall are depicted the Buddhas of the ten directions, each with two Bodhisattvas
as an attendant. The lower section of the northern wall has the scenes of narratives from
Lalitavistara that show the Buddha‟s life-events while the southern one has the story of
pilgrimage of Sudhana from Ganḍavyuha, a part of Avatamsaka Sutra.
In the narrative relief works, primacy has been given to Avatamsaka. These narratives
present an ideal example of the arrangement of the space in a multivalent way. The depicted
scenes swiftly enter into the architecture as they fit into the environment of the setting in which
mandala texts are taught. They communicate to devotees and novices who could relate to
Sudhana‟s pilgrimage and his quest for enlightenment and studies.
The „du-khang of Tabo and Borobudur stupa complex share some of the common features as they
both have mandala based design and a similar set of the narrative art. Tabo is still functioning and
serving its purpose as an edifice for tantric initiations. The 14th Dalai Lama held the Kalachakra
ceremonies here in the years of 1983 and 1996. In 2004, he also conducted the Vajradhātu
mandala initiation inside the Tabo „du-khang, which is now celebrated and commemorated every
year.
Some problematic interpretation of mandala
There are many scholars who have speculated the tantric mandalas to be an articulation of the
Buddhist response to the early medieval military and political situation. 51 However, this essay
argues that mandalas in the Buddhist tantras are solely connected with the construction details
and vocabulary for the architectural heritages that have been meant for the residence of the
deities. It is important to note that mandala based planning was not implemented in profane
constructions. There are several stupas, temples, monastic cave complexes which are based on

mandalas architecture but there exist no known archaeological evidence for the construction of
palaces or pavilions in medieval Indian architecture that has used mandala pattern as the
schematic basis for its constructions.
Another instance of problematic interpretation of mandalas could be found in the
discipline of Art history. Most of the art historians have studied mandalas in isolation. They posit
the mandalas just as an object of aesthetics or a sacred transcendental illustration. Gudrun
Bühnemann (2003: 3) observes that „[T]hese approaches are of limited value for an understanding
of the structures and functions of mandalas in the context of South Asian traditions. Since
mandalas are not objects of art per se but are embedded in a ritual context, a purely art-historical
approach to the subject will not do justice to them either.‟
The visual language of many Buddhist monuments is, in fact, rooted in the tantric
meditative system. So the architectural meaning, the process of meaning and the cultural context
within which the monuments were made, need to be redefined.
The studies on Buddhist architecture need to analyse the pattern of interrelated meanings
generated by the form of architecture, the referring myth, the rituals associated, and the doctrine.
The form of architecture should be seen within the conceptual framework of the tradition to
which it belongs.
Conclusion
Buddha‟s first and one of the essential explanations of his enlightened realisations was centred on
the theme of Duḥkha, which generally means the pain or suffering; but it has also an alternate
meaning from its Sanskrit Sandhi derivation, „Duḥ-Kha‟, i.e. the „contracted-space‟. 52 Thus
mandala can be perceived as an applied means to alter our surrounding space, which has been
contracted due to our habituated ignorance of self-grasping and self-centeredness. This
contraction of space can be undone because it does not exist inherently; we can emancipate
ourselves from the default mode of pervasive-conditioned-suffering − the Duḥkha. 53
The Wisdom of Emptiness (śunyatā), the ultimate truth in Mahayana Buddhism, reveals
that all the phenomenal reality is encompassed in the non-composite (asamsakṛta) truth-body
(dharma-kāyā) of the Buddha. In this exalted state of consciousness, the ultimate reality is
perceived in the absence of subject-object dissonance, 54 laying the ground for non-referential
forms of subjectivity and thus, the ephemerality of entire cosmic panorama shines in a transparent
emanation, a play of empty space.
Sudhana, whose pilgrimage has been often portrayed on the motifs of Buddhist
monuments, in the Bhadrācarī-praṇidhāna of Avatamsaka sutra pronounces:
„At the centre of every atom is found a Buddha
Surrounded by countless Bodhisattvas
Thus with no remainder in the entire dharma-dhātu
ḥ ḥ ḥ
ṇ ḥ ḥ

I look with eyes of faith to the victorious ones‟. 55
Like Sudhana, the faithful builders of those monuments had some conviction in the omnipresence
of the Buddha's enlightenment power and they envisioned the prospect of re-invoking and
actualising it through the architectural forms in their fullest expression.
ṣ ṇ ḥ
ṣṇ

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