Inside; Mars [Architectural Thesis]

INSIDE; MARS
A design for a Mars outpost
Chan Jia Qi, Audrey
Master of Architecture Thesis document

SUTD Masters of
Architecture
Thesis Document

Contents
0 ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
6 - 7
8 - 23
1.1 Plan Z for Earth
1.2 Inevitable Mars conquest
1.3 Research Methodology
2 MARS: THE RED PLANET
24 - 29
2.1 Mars 2050 outpost
2.2 The Mars environment
3 HUMANS ON MARS
26 - 79
3.1 Adapting to the Mars environment
3.2 Keeping sane in space
3.3 Earth as a healing property
3.4 Analysing existing approaches
4 MARTIAN TYPOLOGY
80 - 93
4.1 Site establishment
4.2 Underground Mars lava tubes
4.3 Martian DNA

5 VISION FOR MARS
94 - 103
5.1 How people live together
5.2 Programme organisation
5.3 Massing establishment
6 INSIDE; MARS
104 - 127
6.1 How people survive
6.2 How people move
6.3 How people interact
7 MAKING MARS A REALITY
128 - 137
7.1 Equipment and materials
7.2 Construction process
8 REFERENCES
138 - 142

Abstract
Overpopulation, climate change, and the desire for
something new has led many to consider the possibility
of life on another planet. While mass repopulation of
Earth may or may not be a reality, the conquest for space
is inevitable. Humans are continuously trying to step foot
further into space in pursuit of knowledge of the vast
beyond. With the accelerated rate of development and
exploration in the space industry, especially that of Mars,
dreams of a life on Mars is not as far as we deem it to be.
Shelter (or in this case architecture) being a basic human
necessity, will thus also be required on Mars.
Most of the existing approaches and preconceived
designs envisioning architecture on Mars are focused
on survival, where the bare minimum are provided to
ensure astronauts are able to carry out their missions
successfully. While this is important, the intangible
factor of ‘happiness’ and psychological well being is just
as critical, especially when considering an outpost that
houses more than just a handful of people. Interpersonal
relationships, isolation, physical and psychological wellbeing,
as well as happiness levels are some of the key
factors to be considered when designing for a community
of people who has travelled across space to live on Mars,
54.6 million kilometers away from Earth. Of course, some
of these proposals were also developed based on outdated
information and technology, thus a new architectural
design is required to challenge the typical ideas of ‘life
on Mars’.
This thesis aims to approach a design requisite for a Mars
outpost that focuses not just on surviving, but thriving
on Mars. Aside from understanding the physical aspects
that contributes to sustaining life on a foreign planet,
the psychological, and social parameters will be a focus
considering its contribution to the quality of life for the
inhabitants. Through this study, this thesis will also be
analysing the traditional earth architecture typology and
its relationship to architecture on Mars.
In seeking to understand how architecture can play a
role in overcoming psychological barriers of living in a
foreign planet, the envisioned Mars outpost would be the
starting precedent for the future colonisation of Mars.

1 Introduction

1.1
Plan Z
for
Earth
The Earth is dying.
As plainly as it sounds, climate change
is slowly causing our Earth to become
inhabitable if we continue our current way
of life. This is nothing new. Politicians
and non-governmental organisations have
been warning us and emphasising on the
detrimental effects of climate change for
decades, yet industrial processes have only
been on a rise, together with CO2 (carbon
dioxide) emission levels that have only
grown exponentially since,
The heat-trapping nature of CO2 has resulted
in global temperatures to rise, affecting
weather, climate, and geography. Since the
pre-industrial periods, human activities have
resulted in a global warming of up to a little
over 1 degree celcius 1 (NASA-JPL/Caltech,
2019). According to NASA, when we reach
a warming of 2 degrees celcius - 37% of the
Earth’s population will experience deadly
heatwaves twice every decade; 61 million
more people will experience severe drought
than at 1.5 degrees; Nearly 50% of the
population will face water scarcity at 1.5
degrees celcuis, with 184 to 270 million
more people at 2 degrees celcius; There will
be increased occasions of extreme rainfall,
and reduced biodiversity and ecosystem;
Deforestation and wildfires will increase,
resulting in reduced rainforest biomass; 70%
of Earth’s coastlines will experience a 0.2 m
increase in sea level; Oceans warming and
acidification, coupled with extreme weather
will cause up to a 90% decline in the coral
reef ecosystem at 1.5 degrees celcius, and
they will become non-existent at 2 degrees,
homes. The destruction of biodiversities
and ecosystems would affect food supply.
Increased temperatures and precipitation
increases breeding grounds for vector-borne
diseases. Amongst the many results of global
warming, it overall leads to an increase in
the level of uninhabitable areas, which puts
humans at the risk of death.
During the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change) press conference 2021,
the UN (United Nations) general secretary,
António Guterres, has warned that the
current state of climate change “is a code red
for humanity.” and that “billions of people
(are) at immediate risk.” Given the current
rate of increase in CO2 emission levels,
human-induced warming will reach 1.5
degrees celcius around in the near term of
2021 to 2040 2 (IPCC, 2021), and 2 degrees
celcius around 2070 3 . (NASA-JPL/Caltech,
2019). Although fixing the Earth should be
the priority given that it is the only planet
that sustains life, the irreversible effects of
climate change are also forcing humans to
look towards establishing a new habitat for
survival.
Mars, being the only other planet that has
shared similar geography and environment 4
with the Earth in the past, seems to be the
best option if life were to be migrated across
space. Aside, it is also the closest planet to
Earth, making it the most accessible. Coupled
with advancements in technology, a living on
Mars is not as far fetched as it seems.
Sea level rises result in shortage of land and
soil erosion, displacing people from their

1.5°C 2°C
Extreme heat 14% 37%
Global population exposed to severe heat
at least once every 5 years
Sea-ice-free arctic
At least 1 every
100 years
At least 1 every
10 years
Number of ice-free summers
Sea level rise
0.40 0.46
metres
metres
Amount of sea level rise by 2100
Species loss: Vertebrates
4% 8%
Vertebrates that lose at least half of their
range
Species loss: Plants
8% 16%
Plants that lose at least half of their range
Species loss: Insects
6% 18%
Insects that lose at least half of their range
Ecosystems
7% 13%
Amount of Earth’s land area where
ecosystems will shift to a new biome
Permafrost
4.8 6.6
million km 2 million km 2
Amount of Arctic permafrost that will
thaw
Crop yields
3% 7%
Reduction in maize harvests in the tropics
Coral reefs
70-90% 99%
“Code red for
Further decline in coral reefs
humanity”
Fisheries
1.5 3
million tons
million tons
Decline in marine fisheries

Global temperature increase (°C)
4
3
2
1.5
1.27
1
0
1980 2000
2020 204

Predicted rise
0 2060 2080 2100
Year

California wildfires, 2020
Wildfires in Tempe, Arizona, indicate
the seriousness and destruction
of climate change.
Photo by AFP/Josh Edelson, taken from CNA 5

Typhoon Jebi, Japan, 2018
Huge waves caused by Typhhon Jebi
resulted in widespread flooding and
winds of up to 130 miles an hour.
Photo copyrighted by Kyodo, via Reuters, taken
from CNA 6

India monsoon floods, 2019
Delay of the Indian Monsoon
resulted in a dry spell followed
weeks of extreme rainfall. This
resulted in floods, landslides and
swamped coastal regions. Image
shows an aerial view of flooded
Kuttanad in Kerala, India
Photo by Charly K C / AP, taken from The
Atlantic 7

East Africa drought, 2018-2019
Persistent droughts and lack of
water caused death among cattles
and people. This is a result of the
El Nino weather phenomena casued
by the warming of ocean surfaces.
They occur periodically and can last
between 9 months to 2 years.
Photo copyrighted by DW/C, O. Ngereza, taken
from Deutsche Welle 8

1.2
Inevitable
Mars conquest
Going to Mars:
Coupled with the advancement of technology.
developments in the space industry in the
recent years has pushed the idea of space
tourism and interplanetary travel to be less
of a fantasy.
With Elon Musk’s plans of colonizing Mars,
SpaceX has developed Starship 9 , is a fully
reusable transportation system that would be
the main mode of transport of both materials
and people to Mars. Aside from consisting
of a reusable rocket booster, Starship is able
to carry a payload of more than 100 tonne.
This makes space travel more affordable as
time and material is saved from having to
build new boosters for each trip, and the cost
of each space trip is also split among more
people. Using methane as fuel 10 (Rincon,
2021) also contributes to this mission as it
can be generated using Martian resources,
which allows for the spacecraft’s return trip
to Earth.
Amidst these developments, Elon Musk has
suggested over social media that he plans
to send 1 million people to Mars by 2050.
Although the possibility of reaching this
number is extremely low given that space
flights can only occur every 26 months when
the orbits of Earth and Mars align (which
means over 300 trips each day during the
30 day window frame of the Earth-Mars
alignment, assuming each trip carries 100
passengers), even 1% of this goal would
mean a substansive amount of people to form
a city.

MAR
First successful
spacecraft to flyby
Mars
MARINER 4
1964
MARINER 6 & 7
Revealed that
southern polar ice
cap of Mars is
made of carbon
dioxide
1969
MARS 3
1971
MARINER 9
First spacecraft to
orbit Mars
1971
MARS 5 & 6
1973
VIKING 1 & 2
1975
Searching for
water underground
that could host life
TIANWEN-1
2020
PERSEVERANCE
Searching for signs
of past life on Mars
and collecting
samples to be
returned to Earth
for deeper studies
2020
HOPE
2020
FALCON HEAVY
First launch to
orbit of a partially
reusable heavy-lift
launch vehicle
2018
INSIGHT LANDER
Studying Mars’
interior
2018
EXOMARS TGO
2016
SPACEX STARHIP
First successful soft
landing of the world’s
tallest and most
powerful rocket ever
built. The fully
reusable super
heavy-lift launch
vehicle will reduce
cost of space travel
while providing high
performace of cargo
and crew (100
people)
transport to space
2021
INSPIRATION4
The first
all-civilian
mission to
orbit in space,
representing a new
era for human and
space travel and
exploration
2021
ROSALIND FRANKLIN
To search for signs
of past and present
life on Mars
2022
MARTIAN MOON EXPLORARION
Study of Mars’
moons
2024
ESCAPADE
2024

MANGA-LYAAN 2 MARS GLOBER SURVEYOR
Mapped Mars’
topology and
studied indications
of water in the past
1996
2024
MAVEN
Studying Mars’
atmosphere
2013
SpaceX plans for an
uncrewed mission to
Mars aboard
Starship
2024
PATHFINDER
1996
MANGA-LYAAN
2013
MARS ODYSSEY
SpaceX plans to send
first
humans
to Mars in
2024
2024
2001
CURIOSITY
MARS EXPRESS
Exploring Mars’
habitability
2011
PHOENIX SCOUT LANDER
NASA plans to send
their first
human
mission to
Mars
2030s
2003
2007
OPPORTUNITY
MARS RECONNAISSANCE
China plans to send
their first
crewed
mission to
Mars in 2033,
and in every
alternate
year that
follows
2033
2003
2005
Elon Musks’
supposed goal of
sending 1
million
people to
Mars by
2050
2050
Established
permanent
living
settlement
for first
generation
of Martians
[x]
S EXPLORATION TIMELINE

1.3
Researth
methodology
Defining the problem
+ Understanding
the importance
of extraterrestrial
architecture
Understanding the Mars
environment + Identifying
benefits and limitations of
existing approaches and
technology
Upon defining the problem and understanding
the importance of establishing extraterrestial
architecture, this thesis aims to approach
a design requisite for a Mars 2050 outpost
through a systematic manner of research,
Survival
Oxygen
Radiation
Pressure
In chapter 2, an understanding of the Mars
environment and the professions of its future
inhabitants will be the first step in analysing
the basic conditions and requirements for a
Mars habitat.
In chapter 3, the thesis then identifies
the physical parameters for survival on
Mars, and more importantly the social and
psychological parameters that enhances
quality of life for the inhabitants. In
understanding the physical requirements,
existing technologies and proposals for
a Mars habitat will be analysed, whereas
studying of the social and psychological
parameters allows for identification of
programmes and establishment of approach
for a new architectural form suitable for
Mars.
Chapter 4 goes into the establishment of
site and the exploration of architectural and
programmatic forms, that will be further
developed in chapters 5, 6 and 7.
Chapter 2: Mars: The red planet
Mars
environment:
weather,
climate,
geography
First
generation
Martians
Chapter 3: Humans on Mars
Psychological
Comfort
Water
Keeping sane
in space
‘Earth’ as
a healing
property
Gravity

Establishment of site and the
relationship between Mars topology
and typology
Urban planning and
strategies
Proposed design
based on identified
strategies
Architectural
and construction
strategies
Technical
requirements
How people
survive:
Structure and
life support
Programme
and site
establishment
Chapter 4: Martian Typology
What to build
Where to
build
Chapter 5: Vision for Mars
How people
live together
Chapter 6: Inside ; Mars
How people
move:
Verticality in
movement
Chapter 7: Martian Reality
Construction
process -
planning with
materials and
equipment for
the future
Understanding
movement
Verticality in
spaces and
circulation
How people
interact:
Nested
communities

2 Mars: The red planet

2.1
Mars
2050
outpost
2050* Outpost:
The goal towards achieving a large scale
colony of a million people on Mars is
still a far reach. In preparation for future
developments on Mars, an outpost would
be required as a sample test for community
living and inhabitation while further
exploration is being carried out.
While In light of this, we can assume that the
first generation of Martians populating this
outpost would be professions that contribute
to the exploration and development of Mars:
Astronauts
Astronomers
Architects
Biologists
Botanists
Designers
Doctors
Engineers
Geologists
Scientists
Psychologists
* Estimated timeframe, subject
to resources put into accelerating
developments on Mars and other
administative decisions

Alignment of planets every 2
years that allows for launch
SpaceX Starship
capacity
100
2020s - 2030s
Exploration
First stage of human exploration on Mars.
Turnaround visits of 5-10 crew
Sampling of life
2030s - 2050s
Increasing and periodic (every 2 years) human
missions to Mars. Temparary habitation of a small
crew as a sample experiment for future permanent
habitation of Mars.
20 people every 2 years = 100 people
Establishing community
2050s - 2080s
In preparation for future colonisation of Mars, a
permanent community must first be established.
This outpost would be the beginning of permanent
inhabitation of Mars.
1 flight every 2 years =
500
Growing colony
> 2080s
Elon Musk’s goal of 1 million people on Mars
would see multiple trips made everyday during the
timeframe open for transport to Mars.

2.2
The
Mars
environment
Unlike Earth, the natural habitat of Mars
is unable to support human life. Mars’ thin
layer of atmosphere results in extreme
fluctuating weather temperatures, high
radiation exposure, low atmospheric
pressure and frequent dust storms amidst
other factors. A new architectural form
unique to Mars would naturally have to be
designed, as architecture present on Earth
are not fit for purpose. Understanding the
Mars environment 11 (NASA, 2021) is thus a
crucial stage in form-finding.

3 Humans on Mars

3.1
Adapting
to the Mars
environment
Given the difference in environments, it is
crucial to understand the basic systems and
technology in place that would allow for life
to sustain on Mars. This gives better control
in the design of the outpost, and could also
be integrated together with the design.
While oxygen, access to water, livable
atmospheric pressure and radiation exposure
levels are the key factors that affects survival
on in Mars, gravity is a factor that has a
more direct relationship to architecture. By
designing architecture catered specifically
for Mars’ gravity and the way people move
on Mars, it ensures higher levels of comfort
as well.

Atmospheric
Pressure
Due to the difference in atmospheric pressure
on Mars compared to on Earth, a separate
enclosed system is required to create a
livable environment for the inhabitants.
In terms of shape, domes seem to be the
most efficient design for Mars architecture 12 .
Aside from allowing more light into the
space, they are also more resilient to both the
external forces caused by the frequent dust
storms, as well as the stresses caused by the
greater internal atmospheric pressure.
Wind and storm resistance
Air flow and ventilation
Uniform temperature
Maximum solar and light gain
Water
Aside from the seasonal Martian brines that
are found on the surface of Mars, water is also
present in the form of polar caps and possibly
ice below the surface. To obtain water from
the Martian brines via the combination of O2
and H2 obtained from electrolysis, it would
require a huge amount of energy, making it
an undesirable option. Although this method
is currently undesirable, this availability
strengthens the potential for the permanent
livability of Mars for the far future.
While drinkable water is not immediately
available on Mars and still has a substantial
amount of exploration and research needed,
tapping on the polar caps to get fresh
drinkable water would be the short term
solution while strategies are being developed
to extract the salt from the Martian brine.

Oxygen
Oxygen (O2) is a key component necessary
for human survival that is absent on Mars.
To be able to sustain long term life on Mars,
oxygen harnessing techniques are required.
1. MOXIE 13
MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-situ Resource
Utilisation Experiment) is a generator that
uses electricity to convert CO2 abundant
on Mars into O2 through the process of
electrolysis. Its is currently being tested on
board the Perseverance rover 14 that has just
landed on Mars on 18th February 2021.
0.31m
0.24m 0.24m
2. Electrolysis of Martian Brine 15
Brine is a water component that is present
and evident on the surface of Mars. Through
the process of electrolysis, the brine will be
split, simultaneously creating both O2 and
H2 (Hydrogen).
3. Plants
Similarly on Earth, plants can convert CO2
to O2 via photosynthesis. SAGA Space
Architects has experimented the use of
algae 16 as a biological life support system to
not only generate oxygen, but also to make
use of the water to absorb radiation on Mars.

Benefits
Potential for future human missions on
Mars where oxygen generated not only
contributes to breathable air, but also
to being a propellant for take off from
Mars.
Limitations
Moxie produces only 10 grams of oxygen
per hour. This is only equivalent to 20
minutes worth of breathable oxygen for
an astronaut 18 . To support future human
mission on Mars, MOXIE must be 100
times larger, possessing a spatial and
transport constraint.
More efficient as it produces 25 times
more oxygen compared to MOXIE, given
the same input power 17 . This process also
harnesses H2, which is needed for water
harnessing, another crucial component
required for survival on Mars.
Although brine is present on Mars, it
is uncertain how much is present and
whether it will be sufficient to sustain a
long term outpost with a sizable amount
of humans.
Plants provide a good source of food as
well, and possesses benefits to improve
physical and mental health.
Limited production of oxygen in a short
time, and is more effective in a forest
scale. Light intensity on Mars is also
lower compared to Earth, which could
hinder the rate of photosynthesis.

Martian Brine
Dark streaks on the wall of Juventae
Chasma, Mars, which are possibly
seasonal seeps of brine.
Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona 19

Algae as plants
Saga Space Architects use of algae
for oxygen and radiation absorbtion
in a simulated Mars habitat.
Photo copyrighted by Edi Cliff Ent 20

Radiation
Mars having no protective magnetosphere,
results in its surface being exposed to high
levels of radiation (estimated 20 rads a year) 21
(Williams, 2016), as compared to Earth
(0.62 rads per year). If exposed, inhabitants
will face increased risks of cancer, central
nervous system effects, degenerative tissues,
skin injury and even death, among other
health effects 22 (NASA, 2018).
Architecture on Mars has thus always been
designed taking material into account, due
to the need to block out these radiations.
Inflatable structures with gold coatings, 3d
printed structures using Martian materials,
as well as use of the natural Mars topology
are some of the strategies used, which will
be further touched on in chapter 3.4.
Inflatable structures with gold coating
3d printing using Martian rocks as material
Underground habitats: Martian rocks provide
natural radiation shielding properties
Ice and water as a material provides natural
radiation shielding properties

Lower gravity
Movement would be different in a lower
gravity setting. Architectural features
applied on earth thus would need adaptation
when used on Mars.
With lower gravity, it means that humans
have a larger vertical range when moving.
Climbing the stairs will be different, and
could even possibly be obsolete in light of
the possible ‘jumping’ from one space to
another.
Via experiments and studies 23 (Cavagna,
1998), researchers have concluded that work
done (energy) required to move on Mars is
about half that of Earth, yet due to the lower
recovery of mechanical energy, the walking
speeds on Mars will also be reduced by half.
Taking the slow horizontal walking speed and
ease of vertical movement into consideration,
the proposed site and design of the Mars 2050
outpost will be best suited to take advantage
of this verticality in movement and spaces.
On Earth
On Mars

3.2
Keeping
sane in
space
As with all space travel, being far from
home, living in confined and high stress
environments, having limited social
interactions and working high risk jobs
under intense public scrutiny are bound to
take a toll on the Mars inhabitants mentally 24
(Morris, 2017). Aside, major disruptions to
human physiology including sleep changes,
radiation exposure, and gravity shifts, are
potential reasons for change in human
behavior.
Regardless of the precision of engineering
or the success rate of experiments, a mission
could still fail due to the human factor. In
view of a Mars outpost, inhabitants will be
living and working closely with each other
for a minimum of 26 months, the time frame
between which trips can be made to and fro
Earth due to the Earth-Mars orbit alignment.
Any breakdown of an individual places a
risk on both the mission and the crew, which
potentially disrupts the entire functionality of
the community. As the state of one’s mental
health is unpredictable, it is important that
measures are in place to reduce the risk of
mental health issues in space.
To understand the potential psychological
and sociological effects on the future Mar’s
inhabitants, we can study the welfare that is
taken into consideration during spaceflights,
which includes physical, psychological,
interpersonal, and psychiatric issues. Through
several studies, the NASA Human Research
Program 25 (Mars, 2021) has summarized a
list of spaceflight hazard related issues and
its potential countermeasures.

Radiation Isolation Distance
Gravity
Environment
Risk posed
Degenerative
Diseases
Cancer
Change in
nervous system
Behavioral
Change
Sleep problem
Fatigue
Change in Mood
Ineffective medications
Food storage
challenges
Lack of medical care
Equipment failure
Reduced muscle
mass
Change in
sensorimotor
skills
Celestial dust
exposure
Temperature changes
Exposure to
contaminants
Counter-measures
Health
monitoring
Medicines
Healthy diet
Radiation
shielding
Gardening
Journaling
Self assessments
Virtual Reality
Sessions
Food & medicine
packaging for
preservation
Sustainable food systems
Virtual assistants
Clinical decision support
tools
Exercise
Medications
Pressure devices
Fine motor testing
Routine cleaning &
air filter maintenance
Air quality
monitoring
Immunizations
Thermal control
Programmes
Social/shared
spaces that
provide
opportunities for
interaction
Working spaces
Fitness: Exercises that
acts against gravity
Gardens/Farm
Medical facilities
VR/ Hologram
rooms for
contacting
families
Equipment
storage
Private spaces for
self reflection

3.3
Earth as
a healing
property
Studies have shown that living in nature
or in ‘natural’ buildings, brings positive
health benefits both physically and
psychologically. The sensory qualities of
the natural environment “is an antidote for
stress: It can lower blood pressure and stress
hormone levels, reduce nervous system
arousal, enhance immune system function,
increase self-esteem, reduce anxiety,
and improve mood.” (Robbins, 2020) 26 .
Amidst these benefits, being in nature can
also reduce feelings of isolation as well as
speed up rates of recovery, In light of the
psychological strain arising from the high
stress environment of working in space,
nature is thus an all encompassing solution
that could potentially reduce the risk of
mental health in the Mars 2050 outpost.
Mars with a geography similar to that of old
Earth, is already the first step in creating
a ‘natural’ environment. In the process of
generating an architectural form for Mars,
traditional architectural typologies from
olden Earth provides potential insights into
how we can use the earth (in this case, Martian
ground) as a natural healing property.

Troglodyte
dwellings
Troglodyte (cave) dwellings date as far back
to the 6th century, and are likely to be one of
the first few forms of architecture, Hand built
by man, they are often used as a place to take
shelter from the surrounding environment -
weather,animals, and people included.
Generally, these cave dwellings are built
from negative spaces, where living spaces are
created from digging into the ground or are
carved out from a rock surface. Though its
primary intensions were to offer protection
from predators or seeking hidden shelters
in times of war, cave dwellings also serves
as a passive energy solution where the large
thermal mass helps to regulate the internal
temperatures from the fluctuating weather
temperatures. This is evident across the 3
types of cave dwellings - underground, cliffcut,
as well as the nested form.
In the context of Mars, exposure to high
radiation caused by the thin Mars atmosphere
poses an important question and discussion
as to how architecture would be like there,
taking into account the limitations present
of bringing majority of the construction
materials from Earth. The traditional earth
home typology thus provides some insight as
to the possibility of what could be on Mars.
Given the uninhabitable Mars environment -
lack of oxygen in the air; hazardous martian
dust - the Mars outpost will also need
to be enclosed, blocking out any natural
environments. The usage of the traditional
home typology when coupled with 3d printed
materials made of Martian soil thus allows
us to have some form of connection back to
nature and back to Earth. This connection
would also potentially improve the physical
and mental health of residents given the
high-stress and isolated environment they
work in.

Matmama underground houses of
Tunisia, Africa
Settlement in the underground cave dwellings
of Tunisia date back to the 11th century. With
no stone, timber, or water in the mountains
all year round, the Berbers turned to the
ground. They excavated pits and dug through
layers of hard and soft earth to create a cavelike
dwelling. The soft clay allows for easy
excavation, and after contact with air, turns
hard and solid enough to provide as a home
for many centuries.
The typical form of the underground house 27
(Benyoucef, Yassine & Olga, Suslova2019)
follows as such: a central sunken courtyard
open to sky. Its depth varies between 5m and
10m, and diameter between 7m and 15m. The
design of the house was made to be conducive
for people meeting their neighbours, where
tips on construction methods could be shared
between families. Being the main communal
area, a well is often featured in the courtyard,
providing water for the residing families. Its
strength as a social space can also be seen
as this courtyard is where laundry is done,
where niches are carved out of walls as a
resting space, and where a market set-up can
sometimes be seen to be set up as well. From
the central courtyard, tunnels then branch
out radially connecting to private rooms,
and in some cases, a second level is formed
as well often solely for storage purposes.
Access into the courtyard is usually through
ladders or a long tunnel that ramps down
from a separate entrance further away.
Photo by Zihra Bensemra via Reuters,
obtained from The Atlantic 28

A seperate entrance point ramps down
to the courtyard via a long tunnel.
Niches carved into the walls
to create resting areas.
Second level usually used as
a granary/storage.
Central courtyard branches
out radially to form private
rooms.

Nooks carved into the wall
for ease of climbing to
the second level. Usually
accompanied with ropes or
ladders.
Central courtyard branches
out radially to form private
rooms.
Niches carved into the walls
for shelves/storage.
Well is often present in the
central courtyard. This aspect
contributes to the courtyard
being the space where
interaction commonly occurs.

Climbing nooks
Access to higher levels are commonly
using ropes and nooks carved into the
wall for foot placement.
Photo by David Holt/ CC BY-SA 2.0, obtained
from Atlanta Obscura 29

Features:
- Rather than stairs, access to the second
levels are through ropes and ladders that can
be seen hanging from or leaning on the walls
respectively. Nooks are also carved out from
the wall as a placement for the feet to aid
climbing.
- Niches are commonly found carved into
the side of the tunnels, expecially of that
connecting the entrance to the courtyard.
It is likely that this entrance acts as a wind
tunnel, and the niches were created as a
resting space to catch the cool winds that
pass especially in an arid climate.
- Walls of the homes are often whitewashed
to maximise capture of sunlight reflection to
the otherwise dark underground spaces.

“Fairy Chimneys” in Cappadocia
Turkey
Cappadocia’s dramatic landscape is
constructed from the build-up and erosion of
layers of tuff and basalt lava from volcanic
eruptions from Erciyes, Melendiz and
Hasandag volcanoes across millions of years.
Tuff is a porous rock made of 95% ash, thus
making it more susceptible to erosion and
easier to carve. Once the softer tuff erodes
away, it leaves behind the harder layer of
basalt that acts as a protective cap, giving
rise to the form of the ‘Fairy Chimneys’
which have been ingeniously used by humans
for settlement
During the rule of the roman empire,
persecuted Christians had fled to Cappadocia
to take refuge during the 3rd century. Though
this cave dwelling system only expanded
then due to increased settlement while hiding
from the Roman troops, historic explanation
had found that these caves have been
inhabited as early as the first century AD.
The malleable materiality of the landscape
made it easy to carve complex tunnels for
hiding, as well as build networks of caves
that are used as living quarters and churches.
Generally, a living space is cut into the slope
of a cliff, forming a ‘courtyard’. Private
rooms and sub-spaces are then carved into
the 3 sides of the courtyard. Due to the
unique form of each rock face, the tunneling
and formation of sub spaces thus vary from
each other. Often these spaces are connected
to a larger network of underground caves
and tunnels, which connects living spaces
to other programmes such as chapels and
cathedrals.
Photo by Ingoval via Flickr, obtained
from World Heritage Academy 30

Air vents disguised as
wells for ventilation into
underground caves.
Higher levels often used as
kitchens for smoke to exit
through the porous rocks.

Niches carved into
the walls for shelves,
usually to place oil
lamps/candles for light.
Large boulder usually
used to seal the
entrance to conceal the
living spaces.

Fairy Chimney
Common spaces more exposed to light are
carved out at the face of the rock before
branching into private spaces further in.
Photo by Ingoval on Flickr, obtained from
Pinterest 31

Features:
Spaces were ‘free-form’. The nature of
the material allows for spaces to be freely
carved to any desired form, yet at the same
time this complements with the surrounding
environmental context.
Due to its cone-shaped structure, the ground
floors are spacious but lack sufficient natural
lighting. They are thus often utilized as
barns, and the residents benefit from the heat
produced by the animals as well.
Porosity of the rocks allow for thermal
insulation and good internal air circulation.
Inhabitants also make use of this porosity by
having kitchens at the higher levels so that
the smoke could filter out through the rocks.
Whitewashed walls in the internal spaces
allow for maximised capture of sunlight
through reflection. Light holes can also be
drilled to allow for more light to reach the
spaces inside.
Openings and interior spaces are often kept
small to minimize loss of thermal exchange.
These openings are also usually set back
into the walls to prevent penetration of snow
and rain into the living spaces.

3.4
Existing
approaches
By studying existing architectural concepts
and designs that have been pushed by
architects and analysed by those specialising
in the space industries, it grants us better
insight in the design of the Mars outpost. The
pros and cons of different precedents will be
analysed and taken into consideration for a
more critical approach towards how a Mars
outpost should be.
MARSHA
by AI SpaceFactory
3D-printed, beacon-shaped housing
Mars Ice House
by SEArch+ and Clouds AO
Housing made of 3D-printed ice

Mars Colonization
by ZA Architects
Underground housing
Mars Habitat
by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson,
Mississippi
nIcorporating direct use of spacefaring
module

OLYMPUS TOWN
MARS COLONY
Typology
Construction
BELOW FREEZING
SILICA STILIO
ARGONAUT MARS
MARS COLONISATION
REDWORKS HABITAT
STAYE
SEED HABITAT
BUBBLE BASE
EAGLE HOUSE
beacon
bunker
cone
cliff-cut
dome
donut
organic
spiral
tower
underground
others
Material
3d print
expandable
modular
robot
excavation
robot weaving
bamboo
ice
martian rocks
pre-fabricated
structure

NEO NATIVE
MOVING TO MARS
WAZZU DOME
N3ST 01
GAMMA
MASS
FERRIC FRAME
SPACE IS MORE
HYBRID COMPOSITES
THE RADICLE
OUTPOST OLYMPUS
OUROBOROS

DONUT HOUSE
LABYRINTH
MARS HAB N1
CONES OF MARS
ANCILE HAB
MARTIAN VAULT
ZEPHORUS
MARS LAB
REGOLITH GEODESIC
DOME HABITAT
MAAE
HEMISPHERIC
HABITAT
MOLLUSCA L5
MARSAPIA

MARS X HOUSE V1
N3ST 00
MARS HABITAT BY
TEAM PENN STATE
SOLAR CRAFTING
MARSHA
MARS HABITAT BY
TEAM KAHN YATES
ICE HOUSE
SEED OF LIFE
MARS X HOUSE V2
MARS CITY DESIGN
HABITAT
MARS COLONY
NUWA

MARSHA
by AI SpaceFactory
As part of NASA’s Centennial Challenge,
phase 3 of the competition was held in 2019
which puts a focus on autonomous operation
of envisioned design for architecture on
Mars. This challenge required participants to
design a habitat catering to 4 crew members,
making use of 3d-printing technologies.
MARSHA 32 was designed by AI Space
Factory as an envisioned living and working
quarters for astronauts on Mars. Aside
from considerations to the form to suit the
weather conditions of Mars, more emphasis
was placed on the use of 3d printing as a
construction method to minimise human
intervention prior completion.

Features:
Beacon versus dome
Unlike typical dome-shaped concepts that
are envisioned as the ‘most suitable’ on
Mars, AI Space Factory takes on a different
approach by proposing for a beacon shaped
form instead. This allows for maximised
efficiency by reducing wasted space at
unbuildable corners of a dome shape form,
while also allowing the build up of multiple
levels for the separation of programmes, The
beacon also allows for a more perpendicular
anchorage to the ground as compared to
the dome, as well as unobstructed light and
views into the horizon that comes with the
levels.
Dual shell facade
The use of a dual shell separates the
internal shell of the habitable spaces from
the external protective shell. This reduces
structural stresses caused by Mars’ volatile
weather conditions on the internal shell.
This separation also allows for the living
spaces to be more freely designed as it is not
restrained by any structure.
3d-printing
Due to the established beacon shape, the
form also aids in the 3d printing process by
reducing the diameter of the overall model,
allowing the robotic arm system to print in
a continuous process. Reducing unnecessary
stops allows for better control of the printing
as well as a smoother and more uniform
facade, and reduces the possibility of cracks
or leaks that could be formed upon drying.
Feedstock
In collaboration with Techmer PM, AI Space
Factory has formulated a ‘bio-polymer’ as
a feedstock for 3d-printing. It comprises of
an innovative mixture of basalt fiber and
renewable bio-plastic (polylactic acid) where
basalt fiber can be extracted from Martian
rocks, while polylactic acid can be processed
from plants that can be grown on Mars
(plants must be high in polysacharide).This
thus makes the material 100% recyclable as
well.
Advantages of biopolymer
Basalt fiber has super tensile strength (3
times stronger than concrete), are simple to
produce, and also prove as effective thermal
insulators. Bioplastic on the other hand
provides effective shielding for ionizing
cosmic radiation, has low thermal expansion,
and is non-toxic. It is also recyclable and can
be manufactured in-situ to reduce necessary
transport from Earth.
Photo obtained from ArchDaily

Benefits:
The double shell structure is an innovative
construction method that allows for a more
stable structure as it prevents the inner shell
and its programmes from being directly
impacted by the external forces caused by
atmospheric pressure and dust storms.
Being above ground, it allows for views of
the landscape.
Due to the generally tight space, circulation
from ground to the top passes through every
level, providing opportunities for interaction
and conversation. Center skylight also
presents opportunities for visual connection
across floors.
Limitations:
The verticality of the form was said to be for
the following: wider range of views into the
landscape; to meet the required range for the
3d printing so that a continuous printing can
be achieved.
However, the small size and the lack of
windows does not seem to support the aim of
this form, questioning whether the structure
was only done in this manner due to the
confinements and limitations posed by the
construction strategy.
Aside from being able to construct precisely,
3d-printing also allows for a continuous
printing process with minimal pauses,
preventing possibilities of leaks or gaps
within the structure.

Skylight opened at the top to
bring light into the building.
Top floor receives
more light, thus used
as a recreational/
exercise space.
Skylights on each level to
allow light to reach each level.
Stairs printed
together with the
inner shell, isolated
from stresses on the
external shell.
Private living
quarters where
residents contact
their loved ones
on Earth.
Windows for light
and views.
Dual shell facade to
isolate the inner shell
from the stresses
applied on the
outer shell due to
atmospheric pressure
and dust storms.
First 2 floors
catered for
working.

Mars Ice House
by SEArch+ and Clouds AO
Mars Ice House 33 is the winner of phase
1 of NASA’s Centennial Challenge for a
3D-printed Habitat on Mars. This challenge
required participants to design a habitat
catering to 4 crew members, considering the
use of 3d-printing technologies.
Land vs Underground
Unlike many design proposals, Mars ice
house was built on land instead of being
buried underground surrounded by hazardous
Martian dust. This grants more opportunities
for bringing light into the habitat, as well
as connections to the surroundings, both
aspects of which are the main factors driving
the design of Mars Ice House.
Ice as a material
Local martian ice stood out as a key material
in this design, which will be harnessed from
the existing ice caps in the northern regions
of Mars, and 3d printed into its desired
form. As ice aids absorption of radiation,
this design reduces inhabitant’s exposure
to radiation from the design being built
on land. At the same time, the translucent
materiality of ice allows the interior to be
washed with daylight, improving the quality
of life within.

3D printed ice forms a double
shell to provide buffer to
minimize contamination from
hazardous Martian dust
Vertical core provides
access to multi levels
Vertical green house
Intermediate
contamination
zone
Benefits:
Daylight is maximised internally.
Being built on land, large windows allow
for views towards the Martian landscape
which allows inhabitants to contemplate and
reflect, improving long term psychological
health.
Limitations:
Structural integrity is lacking as the ice
would melt if the house is designed at areas
with temperatures above 0 °C.
Lack of spaces catered for recreation and
relaxation.
Unsustainable in the long run due to limited
ice from the northern regions of Mars, which
could also potentially be used as a drinkable
water source for inhabitants.

Mars Habitat
by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson, Mississippi
As part of phase 3 of NASA’s 3D-printed
Habitat Challenge, this design for a Mars
habitat was pushed while considering the
structural, functional and programmatic
aspects.
In this project 34 , a space-faring module
carries a pre-fabricated core to Mars, which
will split off from its exterior shell and
land safely. Printing arms extend from the
roof to begin 3d printing of the foundation.
Upon completion of the foundation printing,
the pre-fabricated core opens up to reveal
and form the programme spaces, while
3d printing continues to form the exterior
protective shell as well as define interior
spaces.
The external shell is formed by a central
martian concrete layer, sandwiched between
HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) layers.
This allows for portions of the central
martian concrete to be removed to let light
in, while keeping the environment enclosed.
Sizes of the light holes are controlled based
on the amount of light required for each
programme, while highlighting the intricate
design of parametric modelling. The shell
was also designed to be sleek to minimise
impact from the frequent dust storms on
Mars.
1. Land
3. Print mat
foundation
5. Unfold second
floor plate, printing
continues
7. Complete shell
printing
2. Print footings
4. Unfold first floor
plate, printing of
shell begins
6. Unfold third floor
plate, 3d printing
continues
8. Bringing in nature

HDPE windows
maximises light
catchment
3D - printer
housing storage
Space-faring
module used
during space flight
Floor plates unfold
to form floor
slabs and base for
printing
Benefits:
HDPE provides radiation shielding while
allowing light in, maximising daylight
internally.
Making use of a prefabricated core allows
for services and equipment to be fixed onto
the structure on Earth. This reduces time,
efforts, and human intervention required to
install and shift them in prior to printing.
The garden provides a natural space for
recreation and relaxation, ensuring long term
psychological well-being.
Limitations:
HDPE is unable to block out all the radiation,
and still serves as a weak point in radiation
shielding if it is used in the majority of the
shell.
3d printer is concealed within the shell
permanently after printing. This prevents
ability for reuse in printing of other modules,
as well as takes up space which could
otherwise be used for planning of other
recreational activities

Mars Colonisation
by ZA Architects
Mars Colonisation 35 is a conceptual project
envisioning permanent settlements on Mars
underground.
Rockets carrying digging robots are first sent
to Mars, where they will be dropped off on
the surface for analysis of ground conditions.
After analysing the strength value of the
underground basalt columns, weaker pillars
equidistant from each other will be selected
as the start point for drilling to commence.
Through a second trip from Earth, astronauts
are required to finish construction by setting
up the addition of technical facilities and
living pods. Robots will finally weave a
spider-like web from generated basalt roving
which can be used in construction to hold the
multiple facilities and living pods together,
while also acting as a spatial connector
between them.
Caves will be formed underground with strong
basalt pillars left untouched for support, and
the holes formed from the beginning stages
of digging acts as a skylight. A network of
rampants will be built to protect the skylight
from wind and dust.
Caves excavated with the help of robots,
leaving strong basalt columns for support

Benefits:
Underground typology makes use of the
natural martian ground to block out a
substancial amount of radiation on Mars.
Usage of chaffs as a rampant to protect the
skylight reduces accumulation of dirt and
blockage of light
Limitations:
Usage of small robots to excavate an
underground cave is impractical. Aside from
being time consuming, considerations have
to be taken as well for the removal of debris
which will require more equipment to be
transported over.
The proposal looks into creating an
environment for locating the facilities and
living pods, but lacks integration of the
programme, living spaces, and site.
Web-like structures for holding of facilities
together may be unfeasible considering the
weight of the equipment needed to support a
community of people, especially in that of a
Mars outpost.
Exposure to hazardous Mars regolith found
in dust increases potential contamination of
living spaces.
Web-like structure to provide
structural support
Living pods to be situated in
excavated ground

Overall analysis
Amidst the various concepts, the overall form
of the proposals can be generally classified
into 3 groups - built on land; built as bunkers
in pit craters; or built as underground bunkers
via excavation.
These forms however are not entirely
effective as humans are still at risk of
extremely high exposure to radiation. While
the underground habitats would resolve this,
large scale ground excavation would be
timely, costly, and energy consuming.
MARSHA
by AI SpaceFactory
radiation
3D-printed, beacon-shaped housing
Mars Ice House
by SEArch+ and Clouds AO
Housing made of 3D-printed ice

radiation
Mars Colonization
by ZA Architects
Underground housing
Mars Habitat
by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson,
Mississippi
nIcorporating direct use of spacefaring
module
excavation

4 Martian Typology

Cave skylight, Pavonis Mons
Collapsed pit crater on Pavonis Mons,a
large volcano in Mars’ Tharsis Region.
Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona,
obtained from National Geographic 36

Cave skylight, Pavonis Mons
Cave skylight on the southeastern flank
of Pavonis Mons, a large volcano in
Mars’ Tharsis Region. The pit is about
180 meters wide.
Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona,
obtained from Space.com 37

4.1
Site
establishment
Hellas Planitia
Hellas Planitia 38 is “an impact basin blasted
into the Red Planet’s surface by ancient
meteor impacts” (Letzter,2020). Located
closer to the equator, it is the most low-lying
impact basin on Mars, at about 7152 meters
deep, thus its surface receives around 50%
less radiation compared to other areas on
Mars.
Underground lava tubes located on Hellas
Planitia thus provide as a viable location for
building a habitat on Mars.
Dao Vallis region
Dao Vallis 39 is a canyon on Mars, northeast
of Hellas Planitia (southwest of volcano
Hadriacus Mons). They are formed by the
collapse of plateaus, and are accompanied
by zones of pit chains and collapsed debris
masses, indicating potential underground
lava tubes.
Average radiation dose recieved in
the US: ~ 6.2 mSv/year
Radiation on higher elevated regions
of Mars: ~ 240 - 300 mSv/year

HELLAS PLANITA
42° 42’ S, 70° 00’ E
Diameter: ~ 2200 km
Depth: ~ 7152 m
Radiation: ~ 125 µSv/year
Atmosphere pressure: 12.4mbar
HADRIACUS MONS
Low relief volcanic mountain
Proximity to volcanoes results in the occurence of
underground lava tubes
DAO VALLIS
-36.870° , 89.498 ° E
Inferred radiation within the lava
tube: ~ 22.24 mSv/year

4.2
Underground
Mars lava
tubes
The discovery of the presence of lava tubes
on Mars presents a great opportunity for its
use as a habitat for humans. Its underground
nature not only provides a natural protection
from the harsh conditions of Mars, but also
contributes to the physical and psychological
well being of inhabitants. Thus, it is a
potential location that allows inhabitants not
just to survive, but thrive.
Physical benefits
Being underground and surrounded by rocks,
the thermal mass of the ground helps reduce
the temperature fluctuations experienced
within the lava tubes as compared to being
above ground, allowing the days to be
cooler and the nights to be warmer. It also
offers protection from wind storms carrying
hazardous regolith dust, reducing external
pressure applied to the external shell and
chances of contamination. The characteristics
of lava tubes on Mars are also comparable to
those on Earth - Giant Ice Cave in El Mapais,
New Mexico. In an experiment 40 conducted by
the Center for Planetary Science, researchers
were able to infer that the radiation exposure
in the interior of the lava tube on Mars would
be decreased by ~82%, reducing the crew’s
exposure from ~342.46 µSv/day to ~61.64
µSv/day.
Collapsed crater
Forms skylight, diameter ranges
from ~ 5m to > 900m
Lava tube
Depth can range from
~25m to > 4500m
Access to lava tube
Direct and easy access for deeper
study and exploration of Mars
Breakdown debris
Can be collected for use as 3d
printing feed, reducing need for
further excavation while at the
same time freeing up the area

Psychological benefits
The geography of Mars is often compared to
that of olden Earth. Likewise, the natural form
of these caves formed by the underground
lava tubes on Mars shares similarities to that
of the troglodyte dwellings on Earth. This
allows us to utilise the natural properties and
form of the caves as a healing property to
improve the physical and mental well being
of inhabitants.
Despite the benefits that an underground
bunker brings, proposals for them are often
criticised for 2 reasons; the ground is too
time consuming and difficult to excavate;
underground habitats do not receive
sufficient daylight. In this case however, the
space is already present and readily available
on Mars, without need for large scale
excavation. Furthermore, several proposals
for a habitat above ground end up having
to compensate between radiation and light
- where walls are built to block radiation,
windows for light are minimal, and where
light is optimised within the space, there
is insufficient protection against radiation.
Given the importance of protection against
radiation, the underground lava tubes thus
becomes a viable location for a habitat on
Mars, where light becomes a factor that can
designed and catered for in the later stages
of the project.
Regolith & Basalt
Natural radiation shielding properties, reduces
temperature fluctuations, and reduce impact
from wind storms
Collapsed trench

Skylights on Mars
Identification of skylights and partially
collapsed pit crater chains indicate
potential connection of an underground
lava tube on Mars. Similarities can be
made to underground lava tubes on Mars.
Photo by NASA/ARO/CTX/APARIS, obtained from
Center of Planetary Science 41

Big Skylight Cave, El Mapais, New
Mexico
Lava tube on Mars is analagous to the
Big Skylight cave in El Mapais, NM.
Photo copyrighted by Stavros Basis, obtained
from Stavislost 42

4.3
Martian
DNA
With the unique site conditions offered on
Mars, a unique architectural typology is
required. This typology with its unique and
distinct characteristics can be thus seen as
the Martian DNA.
Verticality
The verticality of movement caused by the
lower gravity yields possibilities of vertical
spaces and circulation. By using ladders and
climbing walls as a base typology, a spiral/
helix geometry is envisioned for the Mars
2050 outpost
Exploration of this spiral/helix geometry
is done by varying parameters of diameter,
number of turns, number of spines, and
overall curvature. These parameters will be
further defined in chapter 5 and 6, when the
programmes are fixed.

Hybrid spaces
Making use of spaces
both above and under
ground
3d print ice
For printing of
transparent/translucent
material under direct
radiation exposure
3d print using
Martian materials
In-situ printing to seal
off hazardous Martian
regolith and to bring
‘earth’ into the building
3d print HDPE
For printing of windows
not under direct
radiation exposure
Spiral geometry
Exploration of spiral
geometry to cater for
verticality in movement

5 Vision for Mars

5.1
How people
live together
Vision
With the prior investigation, research, and
analysis done with regards to the habitability
of Mars and its corresponding fields in social
and psychological well-being, in establishing
the vision for the Mars outpost, we need to
consider the following:
1. How people survive
Establishing a site that physically allows
people to survive.
2. How people interact
The social and psychological aspects of
living that is especially required within a
larger community.
3. How people move
Leveraging on new ways of mobility and
spatial configurations to suit the unique
martian environment.
In considering how people survive, how
people interact, and how people move, it
would allow a system to be developed for
how people will live together on the Mars
outpost.

life support
How people
survive
how people live
together
social
How people
interact
mobility
How people
move

5.2
Programme
organisation
Future of automation
Considering that this is planned to be an
outpost where exploration and research work
will be mainly carried out, the residents are
likely to have job scopes in the related field.
With common facilities, practices, and
relationship between some of these job
scopes, we can streamline the programmes
into 3 main categories - the life support
requirements; the exploration and research
facility requirements; and the living
necessities.
Astronauts
Biologists
Astronomers
Botanists
Architects
Designers
Doctors
Engineers
Geologists
Scientists
Psychologists

Life support requirements
This includes the systems required to
get the outpost running, to allow for
smooth operations and to create a safe,
habitable space for the inhabitants.
It would thus include the necessary
water, air, and waste systems, solar
cells for power generation, as well as
transport systems considering the scale
of the underground lava tubes.
WATER
AIR
Exploration and research facility
The exploration and research facility
requirements includes the working
labs, fabrication and collaboration
spaces, greenhouses for farming on
Mars, and equipment needed for
spacewalks and explorative work such
as a space suit hatch and a sample drop
off-area.
Living necessities
Lastly, the living necessities. This
includes both private and social spaces
- private being the individual living
pods, and social being communal
spaces such as communal kitchens and
public spaces for recreational or social
activities. Another important space is
also the gym as fitness is an important
trait that astronauts need to maintain
their muscle mass in a low gravity
setting.

5.3
Massing
establishment
Established site as an
underground lava tube of Mars
Collapsed crater acts as a
skylight that brings light into
the tunnel.
Green house and recreational
spaces take up the central
core, for maximum exposure to
sunlight.

Living clusters where the
individual bedroom pods are
in would surround the central
greenhouse as part of a nested
community.
Connecting the clusters for
circulation, and creating an
organic and fluid structure to
aid 3d printing.
Bringing the circulation above
ground, allowing views towards
the Mars landscape, and
creating access for rovers and
astronauts above ground.
Final massing established

Future of
automation
Considering the rise in automation and
ease of remote working as can already be
seen in the present, living spaces can be
zoned seperately from the exploration and
research laboratories. These programmes
are then plugged into the massing depending
on its relationship to the topology of the
underground lava tube.
Recreational spaces will be placed directly
underneath the skylight due to the abundance
of light received that brings life into the
public spaces. Restorative and private
quarters (individual living spaces) will
be situated away from the area directly
beneath the skylight and nearer the wall
face of the lava tube. This seclusion gives
privacy, and its closer proximity to the
Martians rocks boosts physical and mental
wellbeing. Lastly, placing all work facilities
on the lower levels grants easy access to
the tunnels for exploration of the Martian
geography. At the same time, with the
laboratories being in closer proximity to the
tunnel access, it smoothens the operational
procedures of sending crew or rovers in
and out of the outpost, sample drop off and
collection, isolation and sterilisation of crew
and samples upon entry, as well as radiation
protection of laboratories and facilities etc.

6 Inside ; Mars

solar cells
stargazing
hammock
oxygen a
ge
skywalk
hyperloop
transport system

nd water
nerators
recreation deck
3d-printed ice
space suit hatch
and sample drop
off area
hologram / VR
room
discussion / coworking
space
individual living pod
fitness pod
collaboration
zone
trampoline

access into the
living clusters
structural frames
and housing for
pipes and cables
planter pockets
water storage
working cluster
that houses lab
equipments and
facilities etc.

breakout space
planter pockets
hyperloop system
connecting to deep
tunnels and other
future outposts

Overview
Looking back at the vision of the outpost and
how people live together, the outpost can be
split into its components of:
[How people survive}
The structure and life support systems;
[How people move]
Mobility and transport systems;
[How people interact]
Social spaces and nested communities

6.1
How people
survive
Structure
Food, air, water, and shelter.
These are the basic necessities human beings
need to survive.
The central spine thus acts the heart of the
outpost as it is the provider of all the above
necessities.
Highlighted in red in the section, steel frames
run vertically throughout the outpost from
the center to the circumference, contributing
structurally to hold the trampoline and metal
mesh platforms in place. At the same time, it
houses pipes and cables that transports air,
water, oxygen, power, and waste throughout
the outpost. These are the life support
systems, covered in the next section.
The central spine also acts as the greenhouse
where crops are planted and experimented to
ensure a continuous and independent food
supply is available to sustain the inhabitants
in the long term. Planters are integrated into
the wall through the use of textured facades,
and is printed concurrently with the 3d
printed structure.

Life support
systems
Power
Electricity is harnessed from solar cells on
the roof to power the systems, generators,
lab and living spaces etc. Given the generally
lower amount of light on mars and especially
underground. the electricity harnessed is also
critical for powering lights that are needed
for daily activities and plant growth,
Water
Water and oxygen can be generated from
the electrolysis of martian brine, which can
be found seasonally in the martian ground.
Rovers would collect and transport the brine to
the outpost for deposition, which would then
be processed into water and oxygen. Oxygen
will be circulated throughout the outpost,
while water will be stored in a storage tank
at the base, and pumped up along the pipes
when required for watering the greenhouse
planters or for daily consumption.
Waste
Waste from the living clusters will be
collected and processed, then recirculated to
the greenhouse planters as fertilisers.

< this is a blank page >

power circulation diagram
water circulat
solar cells

ion diagram
waste circulation diagram
martian brine drop-off
for processing
planter pockets
(distribution of water
and waste)

6.2
How people move
Verticality in
movement
Trampoline Core
The trampoline core is envisioned as the
main mode of transportation situated at the
center of the outpost, connecting the bottom
to the top. It is an integration of recreation
and fitness into everyday circulation, which
makes movement and the time spent while
moving less stagnant.
Not only does this make moving more fun
which would boost the mood and mental well
being of the residents, the trampoline also
allows them to stay active while moving.
This is critical to ensure that residents are
maintaining their muscle mass in a low
gravity environment, which could otherwise
result in an unhealthy physique.
Climbing wall & Breakout spaces
Wall climbing is done with the use of textured
wall facades and are catered for activities
that require lower rates of movement, such
as work or meditation. Planter pockets
integrated with the printing of the wall
double up as a nook that allows residents to
grip and step on, similar to rock climbing.
Platforms of varying sizes offering varying
degrees of privacy are also placed along the
walls as breakout spaces. Smaller platforms
would suit individuals looking for a place of
meditation among the greenery, while larger
platforms could be used as a temporary
discussion space or even possibly a space for
exhibitions
This is also only possible due to the lower
gravity on Mars, which allows humans to
jump higher than they normally can back on
Earth.
Hyperloop transport system
The hyperloop system is a high speed
transportation system that directly connects
each clusters. They are housed within the 3d
printed organic structure, and are targeted
for immediate transport between clusters
for ease of mobility for injured residents,
as well as for heavy load transfer across the
outpost. It is also the only mode of access to
the sky-walk that is situated at the very top
of the outpost.
In the long run, the hyperloop transport
system could also connect multiple outpost
within the tunnel.

< this is a blank page >

trampoline
climbing wall & b

reakout spaces
hyperloop transport system

6.3
How people interact
Nested
communities
With the high stress nature of the inhabitant’s
job scope, the sensitive nature of the
psychological well being of the inhabitants
drives the importance of the private spaces
aside from the public spaces.
While each resident gets their own individual
living pods, these pods will be part of a
larger network of nested communities that
allows for a gradual integration into and
interaction with the larger community within
the outpost - while maintaining the flexibility
of retreating back into their smaller social
circle or even to their individual pods.
As in the diagram on the right, the first level
of nesting consists of the individual pods
which form a community via proximity with
the neighbouring pods, common kitchens,
group discussion spaces, fitness pods, and
VR/hologram rooms that spot the area.
Individual living pods
Nesting 1: Cluster by proximity and
shared spaces
Nesting 2: Inter-cluster interaction
A collaboration zone would be the next
level of nesting that allows for inter-cluster
interaction, and lastly the central green spine
would foster cross cluster interaction across
the outpost.
Nesting 3: Cross-cluster interaction
Individual living pods
Fitness pod
Communal kitchen
Hologram/VR room
Discussion space

7 Making Mars a reality

Overview
In situ 3d printing will be generally used for
construction of the outpost as it allows for
precise construction and continuous printing
that prevents any leaks in the structure. As
most materials for feedstock can be found
on Mars, it has minimal need for human
intervention. Inhabitants can arrive on Mars
to a complete habitat.
3d printing with Martian rock
Used generally for walls to seal off the
hazardous martian regolith found in the
environment. Using natural rocks for
construction also recreates the idea of using
‘earth’ in homes, which could help with
feelings of isolation and act as a form of
nature to improve well being of inhabitants.
3d printing with Martian ice
If enclosure is under direct exposure to
radiation, using ice as a material would
allows light in while providing sufficient
protection from radiation.
3d printing with HDPE
HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) can be
used for printing of materials which requires
high transparency. This allows for maximised
light penetration while having radiation
shielding benefits. However, HDPE alone
is not sufficient to shield against the high
radiation on Mars, thus it is more suitable for
use underground, without direct exposure to
radiation. Furthermore, it can be made from
bio-polyethylene obtained from plants which
can be grown on Mars.

7.1
Equipment &
Materials
Several modules will be required to kick start
the construction of the Mars habitat. While
these modules are imagined and do not all
currently exist, the technology behind each
part does and construction of a Mars habitat
with limited human intervention in the near
future is more than possible.
1. Inflatable filament mixer
For on site preparation of filament required
for 3d printing; using martians rocks and
bio-polyethylene from plants grown on
Mars on prior trips.
2. Excavation rover
Breaks down martian rocks and clears the
site in preparation for printing. Broken
down rocks to be used for the filament
preparation as well.
3. Solar powered drone
Comes with 4 attachments; 3d scanner
to analyse site conditions; excavation
bowl to collect debris martian rocks;
claw carrier for transport and positioning
of construction materials; and a printing
nozzle for 3d printing.
inflatable filament mixer
solar powered drone
excavation rover
attachment components
3d scanner excavation bowl claw carrier printing nozzle

7.2
Construction
process
Drones carrying all necessary
equipments are flown into the
underground lava tube
Filament mixers are inflated in
the cave
Excavation rovers are deployed
to breakdown site debris.
Drones attached to excavation
bowls transport the debris to be
input into the filament mixers.

Drones attached to 3d scanners
scans and analyses the cleared
site to establish base printing
point
Drones attached to claw
carriers transport and insert the
foundations into the holes dug
out by excavation rovers. These
claw carriers also act as hands
that can be remotely controlled
when required. Base printing
begins.
Drones attached to printing
nozzles begin the printing of
the outpost from bottom to top,
with the help of the claw carriers
to insert necessary structures
between printing. Filament top
up will be done at the filament
mixers.
After completion of printing,
Filament printers and
drones can be used for other
exploration work of the outpost,
or transported to other areas
for construction of additional
outposts.

drones attached to claw
carriers can be remotely
controlled to bring in
and align steel structure
where necessary in
between 3d printing
Input of materials (martian rocks
and bio-polyethene from plants) for
preparation of 3d printing filament
top up of filament tank

drones attached to 3d scanner
scans and analyzes the printing
site before establishing base point
for printing. Also used for remote
monitoring of the construction
process
multiple drones attached to printing
nozzle conduct printing simultaneously
and continuously, with minimal human
intervention
drones attached to excavation bowl help
clear and transport broken down debris
to the filament mixer
excavation rovers
break down debris

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