Journal of African Business Issue 6

THE JOURNAL OF 

AFRICAN 

BUSINESS 

JUL / AUG / SEPT 2023 

TACKLING THE GENDER PAY GAP 

More female-run businesses will mean a bigger economy and more opportunities for 

everyone, says NTHAKOANA MAEMA, CEO of impact incubator, Oribi. 

COUNTRY PROFILES | VISA-FREE TRAVEL | GREEN HYDROGEN | CONSTRUCTION HOTSPOTS

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FOREWORD 

Journal of 

African Business 

A unique guide to business and investment in Africa. 

Welcome to the Journal of African Business. The first issue of the journal was 

published in 2020 as an annual publication. Since then, the quarterly format 

has been adopted, giving our team more opportunities to bring to readers upto-date 

information and opinions and offering our clients increased exposure 

at specific times of the year. 

We continue to cover a broad range of topics, ranging from energy and mining 

to tourism and skills development. Issues relating to the emerging green economy 

are becoming more relevant by the day. On a continent where large numbers 

continue to go without electricity, there is a special urgency to this debate. In this 

edition, a searching analysis is included 

THE JOURNAL OF 

AFRICAN 

BUSINESS 

JUL / AUG / SEPT 2023 

TACKLING THE GENDER PAY GAP 

More female-run businesses will mean a bigger economy and more opportunities for 

everyone, says NTHAKOANA MAEMA, CEO of impact incubator, Oribi. 

COUNTRY PROFILES | VISA-FREE TRAVEL | GREEN HYDROGEN | CONSTRUCTION HOTSPOTS 

on the prospects of green hydrogen for 

developing countries. Rod Crompton 

and Bruce Douglas Young of the Africa 

Energy Leadership Centre, University 

of the Witwatersrand, point out some 

of the potential potholes on the way to 

exploiting this greener power source, 

transport and cost being two big 

concerns. This article first appeared in 

The Conversation AFRICA. 

Where green hydrogen has future 

potential, the green minerals that 

Africa has in abundance are already 

driving investment as the world looks 

to make the transition away from fossil fuels. The mining team at legal alliance 

LEX Africa argue that Africa is well positioned to benefit. African women are 

benefitting from better access to financing through the medium of mobile 

phones, as Rashi Gupta, Group Chief Operating Officer at MFS Africa outlines, 

but Nthakoana Maema, CEO of impact incubator, Oribi, is clear that with regard 

to the gender pay gap, much still needs to be done. 

A snapshot of some of the continent’s busiest regions with regard to the 

construction sector highlights some of the factors underpinning projects, such 

as infrastructure spending. Travel and logistics are the focus of three articles. 

Trends shaping supply chains is the subject of one article. Another looks at how 

access to African countries has improved for travelling Africans, as illustrated by 

the results of the seventh 2022 Africa Visa Openness Index. Finally, ride-hailer 

Bolt has established itself in several African countries, pointing the way to a new 

kind of mobility. An important survey of CEOs has been produced. We publish 

the executive summary of Africa CEO Trade Survey Report 2022 by the Pan 

African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee (PAFTRAC). 

Th e tourism industry is in the spotlight as the Radisson Group, winners of 

the Leading Hotel Group in Africa award, give details of their expansion plans 

for the continent. 

Global African Network is a proudly African company which has been 

producing region-specific business and investment guides since 2004, including 

South African Business and Nigerian Business, in addition to its online investment 

promotion platform www.globalafricanetwork.com. 

JOHN YOUNG 

Editor, Journal of African Business 

Email: john.young@gan.co.za 

Editor: John Young 

Publishing director: Chris Whales 

Managing director: Clive During 

Online editor: Christoff Scholtz 

Design: Salmah Brown. Production: Yonella Ncaba 

Ad sales: Venesia Fowler, Tennyson Naidoo, 

Sam Oliver, Tahlia Wyngaard, Gavin van 

der Merwe, Graeme February, Shiko Diala, 

Gabriel Venter and Vanessa Wallace 

Administration & accounts: Charlene Steynberg, 

Kathy Wootton, Sharon Angus-Leppan 

Distribution & circulation manager: Edward MacDonald 

The Journal of African Business is 

published by Global Africa Network Media (Pty) Ltd 

Company Registration No: 2004/004982/07 

Directors: Clive During, Chris Whales 

Physical address: 28 Main Road, Rondebosch 7700 

Postal: PO Box 292, Newlands 7701 

Tel: +27 21 657 6200 | Email: info@gan.co.za 

Website: www.globalafricanetwork.com 

No portion of this book may be reproduced without 

written consent of the copyright owner. The opinions 

expressed are not necessarily those of The Journal of 

African Business magazine, nor the publisher, none of 

whom accept liability of any nature arising out of, or 

in connection with, the contents of this publication. 

The publishers would like to express thanks to those 

who support this publication by their submission of 

articles and with their advertising. All rights reserved. 

Printing: FA Print 

Member of the Audit Bureau of Circulations 

4

CONTENTS 

CONTENTS 

FOREWORD 

From the editor’s desk. 

THE GENDER PAY GAP IS STILL AN UNCOMFORTABLE REALITY 

There’s much to be positive about, says Nthakoana Maema, 

CEO of impact incubator, Oribi, but still a lot more to be done. 

THE LOGISTICS INDUSTRY NEEDS TO ADAPT TO NEW TRENDS 

Flexibility and agility are the key to servicing clients. 

AFRICA IS MAKING PROGRESS ON VISA-FREE TRAVEL 

Burundi, Djibouti and Ethiopia have shown the most progress in easing travel 

restrictions according to the seventh 2022 Africa Visa Openness Index. 

RIDING FORWARD TO A GREEN FUTURE IN AFRICA 

Regional Manager for East and Southern Africa at Bolt, Takura Malaba, argues that ridehailing 

has come a long way from the days when it was seen as a flash in the pan. 

GLOBAL DEMAND FOR GREEN MINERALS BOOSTS AFRICAN PROSPECTS 

Africa is well positioned to benefit from the green mineral boom. 

CAN GREEN HYDROGEN WORK FOR AFRICA? 

Big problems must be solved before green hydrogen can be extensively used, as Rod 

Crompton and Bruce Douglas Young of the Africa Energy Leadership Centre explain. 

CONSTRUCTION HOTSPOTS 

Infrastructure, renewable energy and hospitality are driving renewed 

growth in the African construction sector. By John Young 

MOBILE MONEY IS EMPOWERING WOMEN IN AFRICA 

Financial inclusion is the most effective way of reducing inequalities, 

writes Rashi Gupta, Group Chief Operating Officer at MFS Africa. 

AFRICAN CEOS ARE POSITIVE ABOUT THE AFCFTA 

The Pan African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee (PAFTRAC) has published its 

Africa CEO Trade Survey Report 2022 assessing the impact of the AfCFTA on African trade. 

THE RADISSON HOTEL GROUP IS TARGETING AFRICAN GROWTH 

As Radisson celebrates winning the Leading Hotel Group in Africa Award, the group outlines its 

strategy in building its African footprint beyond the current capacity of nearly 8 000 rooms. 

COUNTRY PROFILE: BOTSWANA 

The Jwaneng Mine is the richest diamond mine in the world by value. 

COUNTRY PROFILE: ZAMBIA 

Copper’s importance to the global economy is good for investment. 

When e-hailing first launched, passengers were intrigued by the innovation. 

However, there are still many who were sceptical about driving with a stranger. 

And being unsure about the processes involved is also a communication challenge. 

These and many other hurdles need to be overcome for Bolt to be a fully-fledged 

complementary service in the transport ecosystem. 

By studying macro-trends like rising inflation and a much higher cost of 

living, we can get a feel for what the future may hold. For instance, more people – 

especially the young generation – are moving away from buying vehicles and don’t 

necessarily want to own a car. They do however still need to get from A to B, safely 

and affordably. We believe that many will start using riding opportunities with 

e-hailing platforms instead of owning their own vehicles. 

DRIVERS ARE AN EQUALLY IMPORTANT PART OF E-HAILING 


At Bolt, the driver is an equally important part of the transport solution. It 

started with people seeing e-hailing as an opportunity to make additional 

income by driving, and now that’s changed. Today, countless businesses 

have grown out of it and there are many entrepreneurs who have turned one 

e-hailing car into a large fleet. Bolt has car owners who have decided to leave 

their current employment, whether they were truck operators or taxi drivers, 

simply because they prefer to work in a flexible environment with the potential 

to earn more and decide their own hours. 

RIDING WITH THE TIMES 


Ten years ago, when Bolt first entered South Africa, we didn’t think we could move 

the needle on unemployment. But now we’re at a point where we have between 

RIDING 

RIDING FORWARD 

FORWARD TO A 

TO A 

GREEN FUTURE IN AFRICA 


Now established in cities across Africa in nations such 

as Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia 

and Uganda, Bolt is proving that the phenomenon of 

ride-hailing is far from being a flash in the pan. Regional 

Manager for East and Southern Africa at Bolt, Takura 

Malaba, argues that ride-hailing has come a long way. Its 

humble beginnings rooted in a curious and innovative option 

to get around, now e-hailing has evolved into a safe and 

convenient transport alternative for many. He says that as 

more people look for reliability without the fuss, Bolt is a 

popular choice, empowering both passengers and drivers. 

100 000 and 150 000 e-hailers on our roads. If South Africa can emulate mature 

markets where 1% of the employed population are e-hailing drivers, we’re looking 

at 500 000 to 600 000 people with gainful employment in the next couple of years, 

which is a significant number. 

FOCUSING ON THE PRODUCT 


E-hailing started with the bare minimum and was all about getting from one 

point to another. At the time, the team at Bolt probably thought the tech was 

quite sophisticated, but now we’re lightyears ahead of where we were. Safety is a 

cornerstone in our business, and there have been plenty of innovations in South 

Africa in that area. For example, we take full advantage of AI with driver-selfie 

verification, which combats people renting out their profiles to be impersonated 

by others. Using machine learning, these selfies go into government databases to 

be compared with the pictures found in documentation like ID photos. This means 

our drivers are vetted and all sign on to be safety ambassadors for our brand. 

CREATING EMPLOYMENT, ONE DRIVER AT A TIME 

E-hailing provides drivers with great earning potential while also offering rural and 

township residents access to job opportunities in cities, a gap the traditional public 

transport simply isn’t able to fill. 

E-hailing is one of the pillars to solve or at least alleviate the transport challenges 

we face. If you look at South African transportation as an ecosystem, we’re simply 

plugging into it. It’s not here to replace other public transport, but rather to provide 

value in the form of reliability and safety and to ensure that the price point is 

relevant for the consumers in our market. 

LOOKING TO AFRICA 


One of our agendas at Bolt is to go green and initiate sustainability programmes. 

Depending on maturity, our markets have electric vehicle 

categories and we’re looking to introduce that to Africa. Each 

market is different, but we have our sights set on a green future. 

One area we are looking at is liquid petroleum gas kits for 

drivers to add to their vehicles. In essence, this allows them 

to run liquid petroleum alongside traditional petroleum gas, 

which converts to a 15-20% saving in both emissions and efficiency. And this is 

only the first step. 

It’s been an incredible journey so far with many exciting innovations. We 

are no longer a lifestyle convenience for a niche group of affluent people but 

now we are an important transportation option for many. We’ve only caught a 

glimpse of our potential to shape cities and empower people, and our eyes are 

set on the road ahead. 

ABOUT BOLT 

Bolt is the European super-app, with over 100-million customers in more than 

45 countries across the globe. We’re making cities for 

people, offering better alternatives for every 

purpose a private car serves – including 

ride-hailing, shared cars, scooters, and 

food and grocery delivery. 

We believe that most trips in 

the city don’t require the use of a 

personal car. At Bolt, we’re building a 

future in which people are no longer 

forced to buy a car to get around. 

Where people have the freedom to 

use transportation on demand, 

choosing whatever vehicle 

is best for each occasion. 

Passengers enjoy the flexibility of ride-hailing services. 
























ABOUT BOLT 

ABOUT BOLT 



























Takura Malaba 

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where Bolt offers its services. 

Bolt has more than three-million drivers and couriers worldwide. 

15 

14 

RIDE-HAILING 

RIDE-HAILING 

TThe Pan African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee (PAFTRAC) has published its Africa CEO Trade 

Survey Report 2022 assessing the impact of the AfCFTA on African trade. The 2022 report is the second 

edition of the PAFTRAC CEO Trade Survey. What follows is the executive summary of that document. 



The scale of the research was greatly increased for this edition, with more indepth 

questions and far more chief executives taking part. When the survey 

was conducted, it was approaching 18 months since the start of trading under 

the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) was announced, so African 

businesses are gaining more insight about its potential benefits and challenges. 

As the world’s largest free-trade-area initiative, the AfCFTA is a much-needed 

project given that companies of all sizes across the continent are desperate to 

identify new markets and boost exports. Implementing the continental free trade 

area will be a long process that will be achieved by thousands of small steps. Making 

the required legislative and regulatory changes depends on the political will of all 

of the governments involved to make it a reality. 

However, mistrust could easily restrict implementation, particularly where 

businesses on one side of the border fear increased competition from perhaps more 

economically developed markets. 

One of the more surprising results of the survey was that 70% of respondents 

said that despite all the obstacles and the fact that intra-African trade accounts 

for just 16% of total African trade, they already export goods or services to 

other African countries. It is even more unexpected given that most of the 

survey participants lead small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rather 

than large corporations. However, the vast majority export services rather than 

goods within Africa, underlining the fact that physical and regulatory obstacles 

continue to deter trade in goods. 

At present, the vast majority of African CEOs believe that the AfCFTA will have 

a positive impact on both levels of intra-African trade and on their own companies, 

with just 4% expecting it to have a negative impact. The AfCFTA is widely expected 

to help businesses open up new markets for goods and services, while reducing the 

cost and bureaucracy attached to exports. 

TRANSPORT NETWORKS MUST IMPROVE 


Some of the findings of the report are less surprising. For instance, the transport 

infrastructure required to trade goods between African states is lacking in most 

areas. Rail and road networks were developed on a national basis, with far too 

few cross-border links on which to carry freight. There are often too few customs 

posts, while many of those that do exist are slow and cumbersome. Regulations 

often demand that the same cargo is checked on each side of a border, while some 

countries have been slow to adopt digital bills of lading, letters of credit and other 

trade documents. 

Regulatory changes come down to a matter of political will and administrative 

competence but upgrading transport infrastructure requires financing that will be 

difficult to secure. The growing penetration of digital banking services should make 

paying for imports easier but it is vital that the digital transformation is supported 

by both regulators and governments. Half of the exporters surveyed said that their 

companies still required cash in advance on cross-border deals, although letters 

of credit are also fairly popular. This may be the result of a lack of trust as well as 

difficulty in securing hard currency, while many banking platforms still do not 

allow the use of African currencies. 

However, a solution is already on the horizon in the form of Afreximbank’s 

Pan-African Payment and Settlement System (PAPSS), so it will be interesting to 

see how quickly that is embraced by traders. 

CLEAR INFORMATION NEEDED 


The report clearly demonstrates that African businesses find it difficult to locate 

detailed information on the AfCFTA. Progress will be much slower if the rules on 

trade are not widely understood and kept up to date. Moreover, the results of the 

survey reveal that the lack of information on markets, opportunities and trading 

partners is the biggest constraint on exports. Indeed, 70% of respondents called for 

a fully functioning online one-stop information shop but sufficient resources need 

to be put in place to make such an undertaking operate effectively. 

Solutions to the information deficit could come in the form of digital platforms 

provided by the AfCFTA Secretariat or private sector information providers. Other 

constraints to increased levels of trade cited by the participants include unfair 

competition, subsidies, political stability in target markets and a lack of security. 

The ease of trade varies considerably across the continent, with East and 

Southern Africa considered to be the best places to do business. North Africa was 

rated almost as a difficult a region in which to trade as Central Africa. Despite the 

fact that Morocco, Tunisia and to some extent Egypt are thriving manufacturing 

centres, their economies are geared around exporting goods to Europe and 

elsewhere, rather than to the rest of Africa. Greatly improving trade flows in Central 

Africa could have a huge impact on the continent as a whole because it lies at the 

heart of the continent. In particular, new railways across the region would benefit 

not only local companies but would boost trade between West and East Africa. 

ABOUT PAFTRAC 

ABOUT PAFTRAC 

The Pan-African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee 

(PAFTRAC) unites African leaders from the private sector and 

provides a unique advocacy platform, bringing together the African 

private sector and African policymakers to support extra- and 

intra-African trade, investment and pan-African enterprise. The 

platform drives pan-African results by providing a framework for 

private sector engagement in trade and investment issues in Africa, 

including policy formulation and trade negotiations to support 

African economies in line with the ambitions of Agenda 2063: 

“The Africa We Want”. PAFTRAC enhances advocacy and supports 

policy actions and recommendations of the private sector on trade 

and investment issues at the national, trade corridor, regional and 

multilateral levels. 

Volumes are expected to increase with fewer 

tariffs being imposed on intra-African trade. 

Credit: Frank McKenna on Unsplash 

The implementation of the AfCFTA should bring an 

end to long queues of trucks at border posts 

Credit: SANRAL 

25 

24 

TRADE RESEARCH 


A 

THE RADISSON HOTEL 


GROUP IS TARGETING 


AFRICAN GROWTH 


As Radisson celebrates winning the Leading Hotel Group in 

Africa award, the group outlines its strategy in building 

its African footprint beyond the current capacity of 

nearly 8 000 rooms. 

At the 2022 World Travel Awards held in Dubai, Radisson Blu took home the 

prestigious Leading Hotel Group in Africa award. The award is a validation of the 

work done by the group and its accelerated expansion across the continent over the 

past few years. But it’s also an important milestone in a journey that started more 

than 60 years ago and which has seen Radisson Blu become an iconic hospitality 

brand around the globe, including on the African continent. 

Along with the luxury Radisson Collection, Radisson, Radisson Red, Radisson 

Individual and several other brands, Radisson Blu forms part of the Radisson Hotel 

Group. The group’s journey began in 1960 with the opening of the world’s first 

designer hotel in Copenhagen, Denmark. That hotel, now the Radisson Collection 

Royal Hotel, Copenhagen, is still operating successfully. 

“From those early beginnings, we’ve always tried to ensure that the hotels within 

the group set themselves apart,” says Tim Cordon, COO Middle East and Africa – 

Radisson Hotel Group. “We always have, and will continue to, focus our work on 

delivering Memorable Moments, acting as a true host, and being the best partner.” 

The Radisson Blu brand, meanwhile, emerged after SAS International Hotels 

signed a franchise agreement with Carlson Hotels to manage the Radisson brand in 

Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) in 1994. Initially known as Radisson 

SAS, the Radisson Blu brand was birthed in 2009. A year later, it became the largest 

upscale hotel brand in Europe. 

Today, there are more than 380 Radisson Blu locations worldwide, all aiming to 

provide memorable moments by providing unparalleled service, comfort and style 

while creating meaningful and memorable experiences. 

AFRICAN PRESENCE IS GROWING 


The brand has an established presence in Africa, too, with what is now 

Radisson Blu Waterfront Hotel in Cape Town South Africa opening at the 

dawn of the new millennium. In the following years, it would continue to 

grow its presence across the continent, steadily building and expanding a 

substantial portfolio of properties. 

“Our goal is always to create ‘more meaningful and memorable experiences in a 

stylish environment’. In doing so, we recognise that our guests are travelling with a 

purpose and that it’s therefore important that we’re there to support them in even 

the smallest of ways. That commitment is as strong in Africa as it is in the rest of 

the world”. says Cordon. 

“We also look to ensure that our guests are inspired and connected with likeminded 

individuals,” Tim adds. “We do so by creating and facilitating networking 

opportunities and keeping them mentally and physically nourished on a busy day. 

Our commitment to guests is also reflected in the design of our properties, creating 

a stylish environment that enables our great experiences. We’re always there to keep 

our guests inspired through our on-trend public space design features.” 

In more recent years, Radisson Blu has significantly grown its African presence. 

Currently, the Radisson Blu brand has nearly 40 hotels on the continent, either in 

operation or under development. From Casablanca in the north to Cape Town in 

the south, with almost 8 000 rooms. 

“Africa is critical to the next phase of growth for both Radisson Blu and the 

Radisson Hotel Group as a whole,” Tim says. “We are continuously inspired by the 

innovation and enterprise we see throughout the continent, and we look forward 

to opening more hotels in the near future. 

“Our category win in the World Travel Awards validates everything we have done 

in Africa to date,” Cordon concludes. “It has also strengthened our determination 

to keep delivering the magical moments that Radisson Blu is renowned for to new 

and existing customers alike.” 

ABOUT RADISSON BLU 


Radisson Blu is an upper-upscale hotel brand that delivers positive and 

personalised service in stylish spaces. Radisson Blu hotels are designed to make a 

big difference and inspire unforgettable experiences with every stay. Radisson Blu 

hotels can be found in major cities, key airport gateways and leisure destinations. 

Radisson Blu is part of the Radisson family of brands, which operates under 

one commercial umbrella brand, Radisson Hotels, and can be found around the 

world in more than 120 countries, with currently over 1 700 hotels in operation 

and under development. 

Africa is critical to 

the next phase of 

growth for both 

Radisson Blu and 

the Radisson Hotel 

Group as a whole 

Radisson Blu Mosi-Oa-Tunya, Livingstone Resort, is located 

within the Mosi-Oa-Tunya National Park in Zambia. 

Tim Cordon, Radisson Hotel Group 

COO, Middle East and Africa 

An artist’s impression of the Radisson Hotel Casablanca 

Gauthier La Citadelle, which is set to open in 2023 

27 

26 

HOTEL AWARDS 

HOTEL AWARDS 

D 

Burundi, Djibouti and Ethiopia have shown the most progress in easing travel restrictions according to the seventh 

2022 Africa Visa Openness Index, published by the African Development Bank Group and the African Union Commission. 



Despite Covid-19 lockdowns and travel disruptions, 93% of African countries have 

maintained or improved their score on the Africa Visa Openness Index (AVOI) 

relative to 2021. Two-thirds of African countries have adopted more liberal visa 

policies compared to six years ago. 

The 2022 Africa Visa Openness Index report shows African countries making 

progress in their freedom of travel policies, most of which had been severely 

curtailed by the Covid-19 crisis. 

The annual publication, prepared by the African Development Bank Group 

in collaboration with the African Union Commission, is now in its seventh 

edition and was launched on the sidelines of the 2022 African Economic 

Conference in Mauritius. 

The report tracks visa policies adopted by African governments on three main 

criteria: whether entry to citizens from other African countries is visa-free, if a visa 

on arrival can be obtained, and whether travellers are required to obtain visas ahead 

of travelling to other African countries. 

The 2022 report underlines the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 and 

2021, during which most countries restricted movement, both domestically and for 

international travel. Restrictions on international travel ranged from closing entire 

borders to quarantines, screening measures, and bans on visitors from countries 

deemed “high risk”. 

Domestic restrictions included a gamut of measures such as prohibitions on 

travelling between provinces, bans on non-essential movement, curfews and rules 

that limited gatherings. 

The 2022 report reflects on renewed signs of progress: 10 countries improved 

their visa openness score over the past year and visa openness on the continent 

now exceeds that recorded during the year prior to the Covid-19 pandemic and is 

in line with the peak score achieved in 2020. 

Progressive visa policies that increase visa-free entry or to visa on arrival policies 

will ensure that this positive trend continues. The use of technology and a greater 

adoption of eVisa systems will help fast-track the ease at which travellers can cross 

borders. 

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE 2022 AFRICA VISA OPENNESS INDEX 


• African travel has become more open to African citizens in 2022, with fewer 

restrictions overall. There is now an even split between travel that is visa-free, 

and travel where a visa may be obtained on arrival at the destination country. 

• Three countries, Benin, The Gambia and the Seychelles, offer visa-free entry 

to Africans of all other countries. In 2016 and 2017, only one country did so. 

• 24 African countries offer an eVisa, five more than five years ago. 

• 36 countries have improved or maintained their Visa Openness Index score 

since 2016. 

• 50 countries have maintained or improved their Visa Openness Index score 

relative to 2021, usually after removing some of the visa policy restrictions 

implemented during the pandemic. 

• 48 countries out of 54, the vast majority of African countries, now offer visa-free 

travel to the nationals of at least one other African country. 

• 42 countries offer visa-free travel to the nationals of at least five other 

African countries. 

Interestingly, lower-income countries account for a large share of the countries 

that make up the top-20 ranked countries in 2022 with liberal visa policies: 45% of 

countries in the top-20 on the index are classified as low-income countries, while 

a further 45% of countries are classified as lower middle-income. 

EVisas allow prospective travellers to apply for a 

visa from the comfort of their home or workplace 

ahead of travel, streamline the application process, 

reduce time at borders, provide a greater measure of 

certainty ahead of travel, reduce the need to submit a 

passport for processing to consular offices and make 

travel safer and more secure. 

African Union Commission Deputy Chairperson 

Dr Monique Nsazabaganwa, says of the report, “This 

edition links free movement to the development of 

regional value chains, investments, trade in services 

and the AfCFTA. There is greater recognition that human mobility is key to Africa’s 

integration efforts.” 

African Development Bank Group Acting Vice President in charge of Regional 

Development, Integration and Business Delivery, Marie-Laure Akin-Olugbade, 

remarked, “The Africa Visa Openness Index has been tracking visa openness as a 

measure of the freedom of movement since 2016. This year’s edition shows many 

African countries having greatly simplified their visa regime over the past year.” 

The 2022 edition of the report showcases three countries that have made the 

most progress in their visa openness, namely Burundi, Djibouti and Ethiopia. 

Ethiopia in particular has risen several places on the index to retain its position 

in the continent’s top-20 performers after removing the temporary measures 

instituted in 2021. 

In an innovation, the report provides an analysis of free movement of persons at 

regional economic community level in Africa. The Economic Community of West 

African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community are the most open 

communities, with ECOWAS hosting eight of the top 10 countries. 

Commenting on the report, African Development Bank Group Acting Director 

in charge of the Regional Integration Coordination Office Jean-Guy Afrika, said, 

“The Africa Visa Openness Index has tracked the evolution of visa regimes on 

the African continent from before the pandemic to today. As the 2022 report 

shows, African countries are dismantling many of the measures imposed during 

the pandemic. Indeed, on the whole, the continent has returned to a level of visa 

openness last seen just before the pandemic began.” 

SOME KEY STATISTICS 


+ For 27% of intra-Africa travel – travel by African citizens between African 

countries – African citizens do not need a visa, up from 25% in 202. 

+ For 27% of intra-Africa travel, African citizens can obtain a visa on arrival, up 

from 24% in 2021. 

+ For 47% of intra-Africa travel, African citizens are still required to obtain a visa 

before travelling, an improvement on the 51% in 2021. 

ABOUT THE AFRICA VISA OPENNESS INDEX 


The Africa Visa Openness Index measures the extent to which African countries 

are open to travellers from other African countries. Published yearly since 2016, the 

AVOI tracks changes in countries’ scores over time to show how national policies 

evolve on the freedom of movement across Africa. 

View the Africa Visa Openness Report at: www.VisaOpenness.org 

The seventh Africa Visa Openness Index was launched at the African Economic Conference in December 2022 

Credit: African Development Bank Group 

Credit: Nairobi National Park 

Check-in desks at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport 

Credit: Kenya Airports Authority 

13 

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TRAVEL RULES 

TRAVEL RULES 

Contents 

Contents 

The Journal of 

The Journal of 



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ZAMBIA 

ZAMBIA 


Capital: Lusaka. 

Other towns/cities: Kitwe, Ndola, Kabwe. 

Population: 20.2-million (2023). 

GDP: $25.7-billion (2017). 

GDP per capita: $3 200 (2021). 

Currency: Kwacha. 

Regional Economic Community: Common Market for Eastern and South Africa 

(COMESA), Southern African Development Community (SADC). 

Land mass: 752 617km². 

Coastline: Landlocked. 

Resources: Beef, cassava, maize, milk, vegetables, soybeans, beef, tobacco, 

groundnuts, sugar cane, wheat. Copper, coal, cobalt, emeralds, gemstones, lead, 

silver, uranium, zinc. 

Main economic sectors: Copper mining and processing, emerald mining, 

chemicals, textiles, fertilizer. 

Other sectors: Construction, foodstuffs, beverages, horticulture. 

New sectors for investment: Agribusiness, energy, retail and tourism property, 

telecoms. 

Key projects: The International Finance Corporation has initiated the Multilateral 

Investment Guarantee Agency for projects in agribusiness, manufacturing, 

financial and energy sectors. 

Chief exports: Copper, cement, gemstones, gold, tobacco. 

Top export destinations: Switzerland, China, Namibia, Democratic Republic of 

the Congo, Singapore. 

Top import sources: South Africa, China, United Arab Emirates, Democratic 

Republic of the Congo, India. 

Main imports: Copper, fertilizers, medicines, petroleum, trucks. 

Infrastructure: Roads: 67 671km, of which 14 888km paved. 

Port: Mpulungu river port. 

Airports: 88, eight of which are paved. 

Railways: 3 126km, includes Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA). 

ICT: Mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 104. 

Internet percentage of population: 21 (2021). 

ICT Development Index 2017 (ITU) world ranking: 146 (17th in Africa). 

Climate: Tropical climate modified by altitude and proximity to lakes. Lake Kariba 

is the world’s largest reservoir by volume and Lake Tanganyika is among other 

large lakes. The Congo and Zambezi are the major rivers. Rainy season is October 

to April. 

Religion: Mostly Christian, of which 20% Catholic. 

Modern history: Many of the population are poor and subsistence agriculture is 

widespread. Copper has underpinned Zambia’s export economy for many years. 

There has been a recent surge in interest because of copper’s importance to the 

cleaner industrial process that the world needs. Rapid growth has been experienced 

because of good copper prices on the global market but with the country’s 

population expected to triple by 2050, huge social challenges remain. In addition, 

being so dependent on copper can mean that the country’s economy, and its people, 

struggle when prices are depressed. The battle for independence culminated in 

Zambia being founded in 1964. The opening of the Tan-Zam railway line in 1975 

allowed Zambian copper to be exported without relying on then Rhodesia or what 

was then apartheid South Africa. Kenneth Kaunda ruled a one-party state from 

1972 to 1991, having been in power from independence. President Chiluba ruled 

from 1991 to 2001, after which a period of closely contested elections followed. In 

2021, Hakainde Hichilema won 59% of the vote with 70% of the eligible voting 

public registering their choices. 

Sentinel Copper Mine is Zambia’s biggest mine. 

Credit: First Quantum Minerals 



29 

COUNTRY 

COUNTRY PROFILE 

PROFILE 

5

THE GENDER PAY GAP IS 

STILL AN UNCOMFORTABLE REALITY 

There’s much to be positive about, says Nthakoana Maema, CEO of impact 

incubator, Oribi, but still a lot more to be done. 

#EmbraceEquity was the most popular hashtag on Twitter and Instagram around 

the world on 8 March 2023. The slogan was the tagline for International Women’s 

Day (IWD) and in the age of instantly shareable messages, it travelled far and wide. 

“What we’re seeing is a coordinated effort globally to make the lives of girls and 

women better,” says Nthakoana Maema, CEO of impact incubator, Oribi. 

The Oribi incubation model helps women discover economic freedom 

through collective networks and entrepreneurship development. 

Oribi also tackles long-lasting legacy issues and aims to foster a society 

where gender norms are challenged. “The income and pay gap still exists 

in South Africa and the world,” Maema says, “and we need to empower all 

stakeholders to take women’s issues seriously.” The gender pay gap remains 

a global issue that’s of particular concern in Africa and South Africa, where 

estimates put the median wage difference between men and women at a high of 

35%. More female business owners mean a bigger economy with a greater number 

of opportunities for everyone. 

These businesses often benefit wider society as a whole. What challenges still 

need to be tackled for female employees and business owners? 

FUNDING IS A CHALLENGE 

More and more women are entering male-dominated spheres but their ability 

to attract funding for their business is often stymied. “Property ownership 

is typically used as collateral for a business loan, yet female entrepreneurs 

often don’t qualify,” Maema notes. “Banks can be rigid in their approach, and 

when credit is offered, it’s often a reduced sum. This, despite the fact that female 

entrepreneurship creates jobs, lessens poverty and improves living standards.” 

Typically, female entrepreneurs might turn to the government for assistance, but 

the process tends to be less than positive with red tape the norm. 

Often, government agencies don’t understand what the money is needed for, 

responses lack a gendered lens and so female entrepreneurs are forced to use 

their own savings or look for the help of an angel investor. “Regulatory red tape 

is a reality for everyone,” Maema says, “but there’s an unspoken yet pervading 

assumption that female entrepreneurs might be less capable of handling the 

loan, and so even more stumbling blocks are put up in their way.” 

OUTDATED MODELS OF THINKING 

The goal is to stop signalling to children that they’re better at different things 

because of their gender, Maema notes, because all that does is limit people. In 

reality, while women entrepreneurs do sometimes choose jobs in the care economy, 

there are countless examples of female inventors, engineers and scientists who 

deserve a spotlight: incredible women like Dr Keabetswe Ncube, a Genomics 

Specialist at Inqaba Biotechnical, or Dr Sylvia Fanucchi, a Protein Biochemist and 

Senior Lecturer at Wits University. 

“It’s absolutely okay for a woman to want to work in the care economy – this 

work should be valued – but they should also feel free to enter a ‘male-dominated’ 

field,” Maema says. “Yet we rarely publicise the women who do valuable work in 

the sciences and so this creates the misconception that there’s a neat little box 

for each gender.” 

6

GENDER PAY GAP 

STEM FIELDS NEED MORE WOMEN 

The STEM fields, science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics, are a hot topic. In South Africa, 13% of 

STEM graduates from higher education are women, 

while globally, that figure is 35%. “There’s huge room to 

improve,” Maema says, “but the exciting thing is that it’s 

eminently fixable. 

“Look no further than the Inspiring African Women 

community, which was started to continue celebrating 

exceptional women in STEM fields, building on the 

successes of the Inspiring Fifty SA, which began life 

as a simple WhatsApp group. Now, after four years, 

there’s enough influence, intelligence and shared 

common purpose to require a formal platform for these 

changemakers to come together and thrive on.” 

These women do not lack knowledge, Maema says, but 

they do lack a platform. What if there were an advocacy 

drive that gave female STEM leaders their individual 

and collective voice in global reform? “That would be 

incredibly powerful, and it would be enormously helpful 

to the economy too.” 

GENDER-INCLUSIVE SPACES ARE A MUST 

“For too long, offices have pandered to men and left 

women feeling they’re an afterthought,” Maema says. 

“People do their best work in an environment they feel 

comfortable in. By creating gender-inclusive spaces, 

women can build their own networks and design their 

own road to economic empowerment.” Change is afoot, 

however. In February, Spain was the first European 

country to pass a bill allowing unlimited menstrual 

leave for women from work. Spain follows on the heels 

of countries like Indonesia and Japan, who are taking 

women’s needs seriously. “It’s a sign that things are 

changing,” Maema adds. “To have blanket policies in 

the workplace that only enable men to thrive, and don’t 

reflect the huge numbers of women working full-time, 

would be a mistake. 

“These sorts of moves will empower women not only to 

become the best versions of themselves as an employee, but 

to have the confidence to strike out on their own and one 

day become an employer.” 

Women are in the room and increasingly making decisions, but are they being equitably paid? Credit: Christina Morillo on Pexels 

SMALL BUSINESSES CONTINUE TO STRUGGLE 

Globally, SMEs have faced uncertainty since Covid-19 

while large corporate entities have been able to weather 

the storm and come out the other side better positioned 

than ever. On the ground in the community itself, local 

spending often ends up in the hands of corporate players 

that control the supply chain. And female-operated SMEs 

who do work in the area often spend all their time trying 

to keep their business afloat; they simply don’t have the 

time to coordinate with others to increase the economies of 

scale. The result is a shrinking pool of players, with a small 

few controlling most of the stakes. 

7

BIOGRAPHY 

Nthakoana Maema has a strong commitment to creating financially thriving 

and inclusive economies in South Africa. She leverages her extensive 

experience as a development strategist spanning over 17 years. Passionate 

about sustainable cities, social entrepreneurship and promoting youth and 

gender inclusion, Nthakoana approaches complex challenges through the lens 

of equity and systems thinking. Her diverse educational background includes 

studies in Business Science with a focus on Finance, Design Thinking and 

NPO/SE Management. Recently, she furthered her expertise by completing a 

Postgraduate Diploma in Sustainable Development at Stellenbosch University. 

Nthakoana is the founder of FutureProof Consultancy, where she empowers 

leaders and teams to build resilience and cultivate a culture of innovation. 

The girls on this page, and in the main image on the first page of this article, were 

attending a #GirlsinBusiness Innovation Bootcamp run by Oribi in Cape Town. 

THE GENDER PAY GAP IS STILL AN UNCOMFORTABLE REALITY 

There’s much to be positive about, Maema says, but still a lot more to be done. The 

gender pay gap remains a global issue that’s of particular concern in South Africa. 

What’s more, unemployment figures are high among women. As President Cyril 

Ramaphosa noted at the Second Women Economic Assembly in 2022, 47% of 

South African women aged between 15 and 64 are deemed “economically inactive”. 

“Again, it’s a question of opportunity and ensuring all genders have equal access and 

shorter pathways to the heart of the value chain,” Maema says. Ultimately, despite 

these challenges, this is one of the few countries in the world where the number of 

women starting their own business is actually growing, something that Maema says 

can only be a net positive. “More female business owners means a bigger economy 

with a greater number of opportunities for everyone.” And these businesses 

often benefit wider society as a whole. Look no further than Sibongile Mongadi’s 

Uku’hamba project, which is building prosthetic limbs from affordable materials or 

the SME-funding firm Akiba, co-founded by Tebogo Mokwena. “Going forward,” 

Maema says, “the key is to incubate and support budding entrepreneurs while 

ensuring marginalised groups are equipped to navigate South Africa’s corporate 

machinery.” Fostering talent this way is the Oribi vision through and through. 

Discover more about Oribi and its incubator model at https://www.oribi.org.za/ 

ABOUT ORIBI 

Oribi is a non-profit incubator dedicated to catalysing high-impact 

entrepreneurship with, from and for marginalised people and places 

and fostering sustainable development in South Africa. We collaborate 

with many stakeholders to unlock individual and collective action and 

address social, economic and environmental challenges. Through a 

systems approach, we enable people to identify needs, prioritise solutions 

and implement impactful social enterprises. Our focus areas include 

community enablement, food systems, entrepreneurial support, inclusivefinancing 

support, access to networks and policy engagement. Thanks 

to technical support from Value for Women, we apply a gender lens in 

our actions. Join us in creating positive change for a brighter future. 

Visit www.oribi.org.za to learn more. 

8

GENDER PAY GAP 

AFRICAN WOMEN IN STEM 

Young African women who want to pursue careers in science, 

technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM) have increasing 

numbers of inspiring examples to help frame and fan their 

ambitions. There are also more organisations, social media groups 

and media outlets focussing on the subject of women in STEM. 

We focus here on three. WORDS THAT COUNT is a website 

which tells stories about women who are successful in STEM 

careers. The founder and content director is Winnie Nakiyingi, a 

Ugandan statistician who has worked in several African countries 

and Canada, but who describes most of her work as being in 

“academia and STEM advocacy”. 

Some examples of career stories that are featured on the website: 

+ Jordana Esther Muwanguzi, Uganda, computational biologist 

+ Papama Lose, South Africa, diagnostic radiographer 

+ Dr Jennifer Batamuliza, Rwanda, data scientist 

+ Dr Keabetswe Ncube, pictured with a small goat, is a 

genomics specialist works at Inqaba Biotechnical on genetic 

testing that can improve stock animals. She also has her own 

agricultural consulting company. 

INSPIRING WOMEN OF AFRICA 

Inspiring African Women bring together women in STEAM 

fields to celebrate our unique experiences and diverse 

perspectives. We aim to create an inclusive and empowering 

community by celebrating the unique experiences of women 

in these fields and providing them with opportunities to 

thrive and excel. 

INSPIRINGFIFTY 

InspiringFifty SA describes 

itself as a non-profit initiative 

that benchmarks and awards 

the 50 most inspiring women 

in #STEM in partnership with 

@cocreatesa 

9

LOGISTICS TRENDS 

THE LOGISTICS INDUSTRY NEEDS TO ADAPT 

TO NEW TRENDS IN SUPPLY CHAINS 

Flexibility and agility are the key 

to servicing clients, according 

to Bidvest International 

Logistics experts Rhett Oertel 

and Marcus Ellappan. 

TThe logistics industry battled a number of challenges in 2022, among which were 

the war in Ukraine and turmoil over China’s strict Covid-19 policies. 

Despite this turmoil, the world emerged from the worst of the pandemic, 

meaning that supply chains returned to some degree of normality despite the 

conflict in Eastern Europe. 

Within this context, a number of significant developments occurred within the 

industry itself, and the impact of these is anticipated to be felt this year and beyond. 

From a shipping perspective, acquisitions by shipping lines last year changed the 

landscape to some extent. These companies were highly profitable between 2019 

and 2022 and many used some of these profits to enter various landside logistics 

businesses – from warehousing to transport and IT-related services. 

Going forward, this shake-up is expected to create new alliances within the 

industry, with old alliances becoming new competitors. 

Another major development last year was the increased adoption of technology 

and automation to drive efficiencies and reduce costs. 

According to Bidvest International Logistics (BIL) Head of Sales Rhett Oertel, 

in 2023 technology adoption will keep driving supply-chain companies in the 

direction of automation while increasing visibility, improving predictive analytics 

and optimising supply chains. 

“The impact of blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI) and electric vehicles in 

the supply-chain industry will be ongoing. Blockchain is in use in trade financing 

and contract execution and is even tracking AI use in the supply chain to help with 

forecasting,” says Oertel. 

It is a view shared by Oertel’s colleague and BIL Director Marcus Ellappan, 

who says that with the logistics industry under constant pressure to reduce costs, 

businesses increasingly will be looking at automating processes. 

Another trend that emerged in 2022 and should become even more prevalent is 

Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) compliance. 

“ESG will remain for years to come as companies focus on reducing their 

carbon footprint and reducing their overall impact on the environment. The 

emphasis on ESG is at the forefront of a lot of discussions nowadays as companies 

look to partner with people who, like them, invest in green technologies and 

initiatives,” Oertel says. 

This will entail companies needing to be more involved in the entire lifecycle of 

products and packaging. 

For South African businesses, loadshedding and high fuel prices remain a huge 

problem. As a result, Ellappan expects to see them focusing a lot more on efficient 

management of fuel usage and renewable energies. As he puts it, “Burning fuel 

in generators is not the way to go.” 

The industry is of course keeping a 

watchful eye on tensions between 

certain countries. In the event of 

these escalating, new policies that 

will have an impact on trade could 

be introduced. Trade agreements 

or changes in tariffs, for example, 

will affect the flow of goods and the 

cost of doing business. 

Oertel concludes, “I do believe 

as a company one needs to be 

aware of these developments and 

strategically apply the required 

focus on the aspects that will 

impact your market in the most 

effective way. 

“All in all, supply-chain business 

models seem to be changing and 

the need for flexibility and agility is 

becoming key to servicing clients. 

Marcus Ellappan 

E-commerce is continually growing. This in the end leads to the demand for faster 

and more flexible and reliable supply chains.” 

Ellappan confirms this assessment: “Coming out of Covid, together with various 

global supply-chain issues, businesses are forced to become more efficient. The 

benefits of digital transformation, risk management and ESG will most certainly 

talk back to a business’s bottom-line results and sustainability.” 

ABOUT BIDVEST INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS (BIL) 

BIL is one of South Africa’s largest logistics businesses, owned by services, 

trading and distribution powerhouse Bidvest. BIL provides an end-to-end 

supply-chain solution across a number of different industries. It offers 

international import and export services, using road, sea and air. BIL is able 

to clear, warehouse, fulfil and distribute through final-mile distributing 

services. The company has massive coverage and access to a worldwide 

forwarding network. Its leading technological capability gives customers full 

visibility of their orders 24/7, whether they’re single items or bulk, express 

or deferred. 

10

PROFILE 

POLOKWANE INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 

The Gateway Airport Authority Limited has ambitious plans 

for Limpopo’s most important airport, writes Mokgadi Matli, Acting CEO. 

With the appointment of a new management team, a focus on 

restoration and improvements in infrastructure, the new face of 

Polokwane International Airport (PIA) is rapidly taking shape. 

PIA is situated 9km north of the City of Polokwane and like 

some of the more-established airports in South Africa, it was 

previously an airforce base. The Limpopo Provincial Government 

took ownership of the converted facility in 1995. The Gateway 

Airport Authority Limited (GAAL) manages and operates the 

airport, together with other selected airports entrusted to the 

Limpopo Provincial Government. 

The Limpopo government taking over the airport was the start of 

its journey towards a competitive civil-aviation infrastructure to be 

reckoned with. Although troubled with infrastructure failures and 

non-compliance issues in the past, the airport is now on its way to 

full recovery and becoming a true destination of choice for both 

passenger and cargo traffic. 

The board quickly realised it was critical to appoint new senior 

management and fill critical key positions to enable maintenance 

of infrastructure and improving compliance with SACAA and 

ICAO requirements. 

INFRASTRUCTURE IMPROVEMENTS 

Polokwane International Airport is equipped with two runways 

sufficient to accommodate large aircraft of the size of Boeing 747 

and Airbus A346. 

In the medium term, GAAL is planning to refurbish both 

runways 05/23 and 01/19 to improve the friction and strength of the 

runways. Runway 01/19 will also be extended by 1km to complete 

and join it with the taxiway and threshold that has already been built 

in anticipation of this extension. This will allow the airport to handle 

heavy cargo operations, which is the ultimate business objective set 

for 2024-2029. 

The airport has an apron facility of 74 000 square metres of 

parking space and is able to accommodate nine B747-type aircraft 

and 13 B737/A321-type aircraft. Furthermore, the airport has 16 

hangers of 540m² and one 6 450m² hangar, with the immediate 

potential of setting up multi-functional cargo facility. 

Runway 05/23 is equipped with a runway-lighting system and it 

will soon be converted from halogen to LED lights, thereby reducing 

maintenance costs and improving reliability and availability. 

This instrument runway is also equipped with a simple 

approach-lighting system to complement the RNAV procedure 

and to enable access to the airport in bad weather conditions. 

Plans are at an advanced stage to replace the current Precision 

Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) 

system with an advanced LED PAPI 

system. This system enables the 

pilots to observe their approach 

path towards the runway and is 

critical in ensuring a safe landing. 

Compared to the old system, the 

new LED PAPI system has lower 

power consumption, clearer white/ 

red transition and an electronic 

angle display, thereby enhancing 

monitoring by ground electrical 

personnel without requiring 

sophisticated additional systems, a 

reduced calibration frequency and 

fail-safe built-in functionality to 

ensure out-of-tolerance automatic 

switch off. 

Availability of aviation fuel is critical 

for airport operations. Currently the airport has outsourced the 

provision of JETA1 and AVGAS fuel. Furthermore, GAAL is in the 

process of refurbishing the one-million-litre-JetA1 Fuel Farm, with 

an associated 30 000-litre-AVGAS facility at the airport. 

Airport Rescue and Fighting protection level is currently at 

category 7, meaning the airport can regularly service aircraft in 

the categories B737-800 and A320. GAAL has appointed a service 

provider to repair two of its additional major trucks, which will 

guarantee availability of the protection level ARFFS CAT 7 and 

enable the airport to meet the requirements of CAT 9, similar to 

airports such as Cape Town and OR Tambo. 

PROPELLING AVIATION ACTIVITIES 

Aviation activities are the core and heart of the airport and propelling 

and regenerating these activities talks to the existence and survival 

of an airport. Current aviation activity in both passenger and cargo 

terms is low. Short-term interventions which are in progress include: 

• Promoting the airport as a diversion airport for major domestic 

and international operators from June 2023. 

• Introduction of cargo operations from July 2023. 

• Promoting the air service between Polokwane International and 

OR Tambo International Airports from June 2023 to improve 

number of passengers using the airport. 

• Introducing an additional route between Polokwane and Cape 

Town by March 2024. 

Mokgadi Matli, Acting CEO, GAAL 

A progressive and 

true destination 

choice for 

passenger and 

cargo operations 

12

Pioneering convenient air travel 

GAAL is mandated to manage Polokwane International and other designated airports in the 

Limpopo Province entrusted to the Limpopo Provincial Government in compliance with various 

legislative and administrative acts such as the South African Civil Aviation Authority (SACAA) 

and the International Civil Aviation Organization’s SARPS. 

The entity is charged with managing and developing Limpopo airports to provide ease of access to our province 

for tourism and trade. 

Photo by Pixabay 

VISION 

To lead growth of the aviation industry in Limpopo 

MISSION 

+ To operate and develop public airports within the 

province of Limpopo 

+ To create and develop hub-and-spoke flight operations 

network in Limpopo to feed PIA 

+ To develop PIA as the hub of SADC region and the north 

of South Africa 

+ To collaborate with our key stakeholders to stimulate 

economic and social development for the people of 

Limpopo 

Polokwane International Airport is ideally located as 

+ a hub for the SADC region 

+ a transport-shipment centre 

+ a diversion airport 

+ a first stop for tourists visiting Limpopo 

Polokwane International Airport has 

+ two runways big enough for Boeing 747 and Airbus A346 

+ 17 hangars 

+ Category 7 licence 

+ 400 parking bays 

+ Conference facilities 

+ Clinic and emergency centre 

+ Shops 

CONTACT GAAL 

Polokwane International Airport 

Gateway Drive, Polokwane 

Tel: 015 288 0122 

Website: www.gaal.co.za


Burundi, Djibouti and Ethiopia have shown the most progress in easing travel restrictions according to the seventh 

2022 Africa Visa Openness Index, published by the African Development Bank Group and the African Union Commission. 

The seventh Africa Visa Openness Index was launched at the African Economic Conference in December 2022 

Credit: African Development Bank Group 

Despite Covid-19 lockdowns and travel disruptions, 93% of African countries have 

maintained or improved their score on the Africa Visa Openness Index (AVOI) 

relative to 2021. Two-thirds of African countries have adopted more liberal visa 

policies compared to six years ago. 

The 2022 Africa Visa Openness Index report shows African countries making 

progress in their freedom of travel policies, most of which had been severely 

curtailed by the Covid-19 crisis. 

The annual publication, prepared by the African Development Bank Group 

in collaboration with the African Union Commission, is now in its seventh 

edition and was launched on the sidelines of the 2022 African Economic 

Conference in Mauritius. 

The report tracks visa policies adopted by African governments on three main 

criteria: whether entry to citizens from other African countries is visa-free, if a visa 

on arrival can be obtained, and whether travellers are required to obtain visas ahead 

of travelling to other African countries. 

The 2022 report underlines the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 and 

2021, during which most countries restricted movement, both domestically and for 

international travel. Restrictions on international travel ranged from closing entire 

borders to quarantines, screening measures, and bans on visitors from countries 

deemed “high risk”. 

Domestic restrictions included a gamut of measures such as prohibitions on 

travelling between provinces, bans on non-essential movement, curfews and rules 

that limited gatherings. 

The 2022 report reflects on renewed signs of progress: 10 countries improved 

their visa openness score over the past year and visa openness on the continent 

now exceeds that recorded during the year prior to the Covid-19 pandemic and is 

in line with the peak score achieved in 2020. 

Progressive visa policies that increase visa-free entry or to visa on arrival policies 

will ensure that this positive trend continues. The use of technology and a greater 

adoption of eVisa systems will help fast-track the ease at which travellers can cross 

borders. 


• African travel has become more open to African citizens in 2022, with fewer 

restrictions overall. There is now an even split between travel that is visa-free, 

and travel where a visa may be obtained on arrival at the destination country. 

14

TRAVEL RULES 

• Three countries, Benin, The Gambia and the Seychelles, offer visa-free entry 

to Africans of all other countries. In 2016 and 2017, only one country did so. 

• 24 African countries offer an eVisa, five more than five years ago. 

• 36 countries have improved or maintained their Visa Openness Index score 

since 2016. 

• 50 countries have maintained or improved their Visa Openness Index score 

relative to 2021, usually after removing some of the visa policy restrictions 

implemented during the pandemic. 

• 48 countries out of 54, the vast majority of African countries, now offer visa-free 

travel to the nationals of at least one other African country. 

• 42 countries offer visa-free travel to the nationals of at least five other 

African countries. 

Interestingly, lower-income countries account for a large share of the countries 

that make up the top-20 ranked countries in 2022 with liberal visa policies: 45% of 

countries in the top-20 on the index are classified as low-income countries, while 

a further 45% of countries are classified as lower middle-income. 

EVisas allow prospective travellers to apply for a 

visa from the comfort of their home or workplace 

ahead of travel, streamline the application process, 

reduce time at borders, provide a greater measure of 

certainty ahead of travel, reduce the need to submit a 

passport for processing to consular offices and make 

travel safer and more secure. 

African Union Commission Deputy Chairperson 

Dr Monique Nsazabaganwa, says of the report, “This 

edition links free movement to the development of 

regional value chains, investments, trade in services 

and the AfCFTA. There is greater recognition that human mobility is key to Africa’s 

integration efforts.” 

African Development Bank Group Acting Vice President in charge of Regional 

Development, Integration and Business Delivery, Marie-Laure Akin-Olugbade, 

remarked, “The Africa Visa Openness Index has been tracking visa openness as a 

measure of the freedom of movement since 2016. This year’s edition shows many 

African countries having greatly simplified their visa regime over the past year.” 

The 2022 edition of the report showcases three countries that have made the 

most progress in their visa openness, namely Burundi, Djibouti and Ethiopia. 

Ethiopia in particular has risen several places on the index to retain its position 

in the continent’s top-20 performers after removing the temporary measures 

instituted in 2021. 

In an innovation, the report provides an analysis of free movement of persons at 

regional economic community level in Africa. The Economic Community of West 

African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community are the most open 

communities, with ECOWAS hosting eight of the top 10 countries. 

Credit: Nairobi National Park 

Commenting on the report, African Development Bank Group Acting Director 

in charge of the Regional Integration Coordination Office Jean-Guy Afrika, said, 

“The Africa Visa Openness Index has tracked the evolution of visa regimes on 

the African continent from before the pandemic to today. As the 2022 report 

shows, African countries are dismantling many of the measures imposed during 

the pandemic. Indeed, on the whole, the continent has returned to a level of visa 

openness last seen just before the pandemic began.” 


+ For 27% of intra-Africa travel – travel by African citizens between African 

countries – African citizens do not need a visa, up from 25% in 202. 

+ For 27% of intra-Africa travel, African citizens can obtain a visa on arrival, up 

from 24% in 2021. 

+ For 47% of intra-Africa travel, African citizens are still required to obtain a visa 

before travelling, an improvement on the 51% in 2021. 

Check-in desks at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport 

Credit: Kenya Airports Authority 


The Africa Visa Openness Index measures the extent to which African countries 

are open to travellers from other African countries. Published yearly since 2016, the 

AVOI tracks changes in countries’ scores over time to show how national policies 

evolve on the freedom of movement across Africa. 

View the Africa Visa Openness Report at: www.VisaOpenness.org 

15

RIDING FORWARD TO A 


Now established in cities across Africa in nations such 

as Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia 

and Uganda, Bolt is proving that the phenomenon of 

ride-hailing is far from being a flash in the pan. Regional 

Manager for East and Southern Africa at Bolt, Takura 

Malaba, argues that ride-hailing has come a long way. Its 

humble beginnings rooted in a curious and innovative option 

to get around, now e-hailing has evolved into a safe and 

convenient transport alternative for many. He says that as 

more people look for reliability without the fuss, Bolt is a 

popular choice, empowering both passengers and drivers. 

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where Bolt offers its services. 

When e-hailing first launched, passengers were intrigued by the innovation. 

However, there are still many who were sceptical about driving with a stranger. 

And being unsure about the processes involved is also a communication challenge. 

These and many other hurdles need to be overcome for Bolt to be a fully-fledged 

complementary service in the transport ecosystem. 

By studying macro-trends like rising inflation and a much higher cost of 

living, we can get a feel for what the future may hold. For instance, more people – 

especially the young generation – are moving away from buying vehicles and don’t 

necessarily want to own a car. They do however still need to get from A to B, safely 

and affordably. We believe that many will start using riding opportunities with 

e-hailing platforms instead of owning their own vehicles. 


At Bolt, the driver is an equally important part of the transport solution. It 

started with people seeing e-hailing as an opportunity to make additional 

income by driving, and now that’s changed. Today, countless businesses 

have grown out of it and there are many entrepreneurs who have turned one 

e-hailing car into a large fleet. Bolt has car owners who have decided to leave 

their current employment, whether they were truck operators or taxi drivers, 

simply because they prefer to work in a flexible environment with the potential 

to earn more and decide their own hours. 

Bolt has more than three-million drivers and couriers worldwide. 


Ten years ago, when Bolt first entered South Africa, we didn’t think we could move 

the needle on unemployment. But now we’re at a point where we have between 

16

RIDE-HAILING 

Passengers enjoy the flexibility of ride-hailing services. 

100 000 and 150 000 e-hailers on our roads. If South Africa can emulate mature 

markets where 1% of the employed population are e-hailing drivers, we’re looking 

at 500 000 to 600 000 people with gainful employment in the next couple of years, 

which is a significant number. 


E-hailing started with the bare minimum and was all about getting from one 












transport simply isn’t able to fill. 





relevant for the consumers in our market. 

which converts to a 15-20% saving in both emissions and efficiency. And this is 

only the first step. 

It’s been an incredible journey so far with many exciting innovations. We 

are no longer a lifestyle convenience for a niche group of affluent people but 

now we are an important transportation option for many. We’ve only caught a 

glimpse of our potential to shape cities and empower people, and our eyes are 

set on the road ahead. 

ABOUT BOLT 
























Takura Malaba 

17

GLOBAL DEMAND 

FOR GREEN MINERALS 

BOOSTS AFRICAN 

PROSPECTS 

Africa is well positioned to benefit from the 

green mineral boom, according to the mining 

analysts of legal alliance LEX Africa. 

Africa is home to some 30% of the world’s mineral reserves, 8% of its natural gas 

reserves and 12% of its oil reserves, according to the United Nations. 

It also has 40% of the world’s gold, up to 90% of its chromium and platinum 

and the largest reserves of cobalt, diamonds, platinum and uranium in the world. 

Most importantly, Africa is well positioned to benefit from the global green 

mineral boom. 

As the energy transition gathers pace, the production of certain critical minerals 

in the manufacture of everything from solar panels to wind turbines and electric 

vehicles is expected to rise by up to 500% by 2050, according to the World Bank. 

It estimates that over three-billion tons of minerals and metals will be needed to 

deploy wind, solar and geothermal power, as well as energy storage, required for 

achieving a below-2°C future. 

Speaking during a panel discussion on building a regional battery-mineral value 

chain in Africa, Antonio Pedro, acting chief of the UN Economic Commission for 

Africa (ECA), said Africa is home to many of the required minerals. 

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), for example, produces over 70% of 

the world’s cobalt. The DRC and Zambia together supply 10% of global copper, 

while Mozambique and South Africa hold significant reserves of graphite, platinum 

metals, lithium and more. 

“We have clear opportunities not only from the global green mineral boom but 

also from our domestic achievements, such as the African Continental Free Trade 

Area, to facilitate the development of regional value chains for these green economy 

products,” he told delegates. 

A recent BloombergNEF study underlines the fact that the DRC is a favourable 

location for producing sustainable battery materials for high-nickel batteries due 

to its abundant cobalt resources and access to hydroelectric power. 

It suggests that battery precursors produced in the DRC would be cheaper, 

environmentally sustainable and more competitive than material produced in 

China, the US and elsewhere. 

Mining for copper and cobalt in the DRC is on a large scale 

Credit: Vlad Cheţan/Pexels 

18

GREEN MINERALS 

ELECTRIC OPPORTUNITIES 

The Bloomberg report estimates the global market opportunity for electric vehicles 

at $7-trillion by 2030 and $46-trillion by 2050. 

During a panel discussion at the 2022 African Mining Indaba in Cape Town, 

Bushveld Minerals CEO Fortune Mojepalo said it would be necessary to develop an 

estimated 400 new mines, worldwide, to supply the metals that would be needed for 

the transition to clean energy and the production of electric vehicles. 

He said Africa leads the world in six or seven of the metals essential for energy 

transition, including cobalt, lithium and platinum metals. 

Moreover, the opportunity for Africa is not limited to the supply of metals. 

If downstream development, or beneficiation, took place, the economic effect 

would be massive. 

Beneficiation is the transformation of a mineral, or a combination of minerals, 

into a higher-value product, which can either be consumed locally or exported. 

The key constraints to progress in this direction are related to infrastructure, as 

pointed out by Minerals Council South Africa senior executive for environment, 

health and legacies, Nikisi Lesufi. 

However, as World Bank global director for energy and extractives, Demetrios 

Papathanasiou, has noted, the assured long-term demand for transition metals 

would allow for long-term infrastructure development. 

As developed countries seek to diversify their supply of critical minerals away 

from Russia and China, the economic opportunity for Africa is significant with 

the continent accounting for over 40% of global reserves of cobalt, manganese and 

platinum – key minerals for batteries and hydrogen technologies. 

Besides the DRC alone producing around 70% of the world’s cobalt, Mozambique 

and Madagascar have some of the leading deposits of graphite, while Zimbabwe 

has large deposits of lithium. 

China is the dominant player in the processing of mineral ores, refining 73% of 

cobalt, 40% of copper, 59% of lithium and 67% of nickel. 

A large share of these minerals is imported in unprocessed form from elsewhere, 

including Africa. As the International Energy Administration reports, “China 

dominates production at every stage of the electric vehicles battery supply chain 

downstream of mining.” 

China also dominates green technology value chains, producing over 80% of the 

world’s solar panels and over 70% of the world’s lithium-ion battery cells. 

A World Bank report titled “Minerals for Climate Action: The Mineral Intensity 

of the Clean Energy Transition,” says the growing demand for minerals and metals 

provides economic opportunities for resource-rich developing countries and 

private-sector entities alike. 

But significant challenges will likely emerge if the climate-driven clean energy 

transition is not managed responsibly and sustainably. 

Without Climate-Smart Mining practices, negative impacts from mining 

activities will increase, affecting already-vulnerable communities in developing 

countries and the environment in which they operate. 

The World Bank says the Climate-Smart Mining approach has been developed 

in concert with the broader UN sustainable development goals (SDG) to ensure 

that the decarbonisation of the mining and energy sectors also benefits resourcerich 

countries that host these strategic minerals and the communities directly 

impacted by their extraction. 

“Climate-Smart Mining builds on the work the World Bank is doing to help 

ensure resource-rich developing countries benefit from their mineral resources 

and manage them in a sustainable manner, while fostering economic growth and 

development,” says the report. It says the World Bank wants to ensure that resourcerich 

developing countries also benefit from the new mineral demand by de-risking 

investments using sustainable and responsible resource development strategies. 

ABOUT LEX AFRICA 

Established in 1993, LEX Africa is a legal alliance of leading African law firms, 

managed by South African member Werksmans Attorneys for the purpose of 

advising local and international clients on their trade, business, investment and 

other activities in Africa. 

We are proud to be the first and largest African legal alliance with a Pan African 

legal team of more than 700 lawyers providing cross-border and local African 

legal solutions for clients. Our track record speaks to our experience, expertise 

and success over the years, being consistently ranked as a Band 1 leading regional 

law firm network by Chambers and Partners. 

LEX Africa proudly celebrates 30 years of its existence and we thank our lawyers, 

clients and friends who have contributed to our success. We will continue to provide 

world-class legal services, empower our lawyers and encourage sustainability, 

diversity, inclusivity and collaboration between our lawyers. These principles have 

guided us in building successful long-term partnerships with members and clients 

since our formation in 1993. 

Vanadium is among the minerals the world needs now 

Credit: Bushveld Minerals 

19

CAN GREEN HYDROGEN WORK FOR AFRICA? 

Green hydrogen sounds like a win for developing countries. But cost and transport are problems, 

as Rod Crompton and Bruce Douglas Young of the Africa Energy Leadership Centre, University 

of the Witwatersrand, explain. This article first appeared in The Conversation AFRICA. 

Hydrogen is used mainly to make chemicals such as fertiliser and in oil refineries. 

Most hydrogen in the world today is made from natural gas or coal – methods 

associated with large carbon-dioxide emissions. Developed countries are therefore 

looking to “green hydrogen” instead – produced using renewable electricity such 

as solar and wind power. 

Global hydrogen demand reached 94-million tons in 2021 and contained energy 

equal to about 2.5% of global final energy consumption. Only about 0.1% of current 

global hydrogen production is green, but big expansions are planned. 

New applications for green hydrogen are also envisaged. Since the objective of 

using green hydrogen is really to reduce carbon dioxide, the applications to target 

first should be those that will yield the largest reductions in emissions. 

Michael Liebreich’s classification is a useful indicator of the potential markets 

for green hydrogen. At the top of that classification in terms of efficiency are the 

following applications: fertiliser, hydrogenation, methanol, hydrocracking and 

desulphurisation. In the second tier are shipping (using e-fuel or ammonia), steel, 

off-road vehicles, chemical feedstock and long-term storage. By contrast, using 

green hydrogen for metro trains and buses would make no sense, in terms of 

Liebriech’s table. 

But green hydrogen currently costs much more to make than less clean types 

of hydrogen. Using it to produce the 180-million tons per annum of ammonia 

required globally for fertiliser production would have a severe knock-on effect on 

food prices. So it is difficult to see how this transition is going to occur. 

HOW IS GREEN HYDROGEN MADE? 

Green hydrogen is made from water. Using renewable (green) electricity, 

equipment called electrolysers separates the hydrogen from oxygen in water (H₂O). 

The process is called electrolysis. 

Green hydrogen production emits no carbon dioxide, but the construction 

of renewable electricity infrastructure currently uses fossil fuels, which do 

emit carbon dioxide. 

Hydrogen has traditionally been made from non-renewable energy sources like 

coal (black hydrogen) and natural gas (grey hydrogen). When these methods are 

combined with carbon capture and storage, the hydrogen produced is known as 

“blue hydrogen”. 

WHAT CHALLENGES DOES GREEN HYDROGEN PRESENT? 

Although the costs of renewable power generation have been coming down, the 

cost of electrolysis is still not commercially competitive. 

Today, green hydrogen has an estimated energy equivalent cost of between 

$250 and $400 per barrel of oil at the factory gate, according to the International 

Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Future cost reductions are forecast but these 

are uncertain. Current oil prices are around $100 a barrel – much less than it would 

cost to use green hydrogen instead of conventional petroleum products. 

The costs of transporting hydrogen must be taken into account too. 

Unfortunately, the physics of hydrogen is against low-cost hydrogen transport. 

It is much more challenging than oil-based liquid fuels, liquefied petroleum 

gas or liquefied natural gas. Ocean transport of hydrogen has to be at very low 

temperatures (-2530C). Petrol or diesel doesn’t need costly refrigeration: it is 

transported at ambient air temperature. 

And hydrogen carries only 25% of the energy that a litre of petrol does, making 

it much more expensive to transport and store the same amount of energy. 

Alternative ways to transport hydrogen have been investigated. Because 

ammonia (NH₃) is much easier and cheaper to transport than hydrogen, the 

IRENA has recommended “storing” hydrogen in ammonia for shipping. But 

that requires additional equipment to put the hydrogen into ammonia and strip 

it out at its destination. These processes add costs of about 

$2.50-$4.20/kg (equivalent to $123-$207 per barrel of oil), 

according to the agency. 

Hydrogen is more difficult to handle than conventional 

fossil fuels. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless 

gas, unlike conventional hydrocarbons. This makes 

leak detection more 

Renewable energy powering the process gives green hydrogen its status. Zbynek Burival on Unsplash. 

20

GREEN HYDROGEN 

Giant electrolysers are being created for industrial use 

Credit: Hydrogen pro 

difficult and increases the risk of fire or explosion. Hydrogen fires are invisible 

to the human eye. 

Historically, hydrogen has been controlled within factory perimeters and 

managed by trained people. The widespread introduction of hydrogen into society 

will require new measures and skills, including insurance, materials handling, 

firefighting and disaster management. 

WHERE ARE THE FIRST HYDROGEN MEGA- 

PROJECTS LIKELY TO BE BUILT? 

Construction of the first gigawatt-scale green-hydrogen project in Saudi Arabia 

has already started. Many of the pioneering projects will be built in the southern 

hemisphere, mostly in developing countries. This is because they are less densely 

populated and have better renewable energy resources (solar and wind) for 

generating the necessary electricity. 

Although this may sound positive for developing countries, there are big risks in 

developing hydrogen mega-projects. For one thing, the “iron law” of mega-projects 

states: Over budget, over time, under benefits, over and over again. 

Project owners bear the project execution risk. 

Risks also include exchange-rate risk, remote locations, pioneering technology 

and a lack of skills. Prospective host countries will have to balance these risks 

against the temptations of improved investment, employment and balance of 

payments. They would be wise to extract guarantees from their customer countries 

so as to avoid the injustice of the global south subsidising the global north as it 

transitions to cleaner energy. 

South Africa now has a “Hydrogen Roadmap” after many years of government 

funding. There is talk by the energy company Sasol and vehicle manufacturer 

Toyota of a “Hydrogen Valley”, a geographical corridor of concentrated hydrogen 

manufacture and application industries. And the South African government and 

Sasol are talking of establishing a new port on the west coast at Boegoebaai for 

the manufacture and export of green hydrogen. In Nelson Mandela Bay, Hive 

Hydrogen is planning a $4.6-billion green ammonia plant. 

Namibia also has big plans for a $10-billion green-hydrogen project. The 

key to reducing green hydrogen costs in the future lies mainly in technological 

improvements and cost reductions related to mass manufacture and a scaleup 

in electrolysis. And to a lesser extent, incremental cost reductions in 

transport and handling. 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 

Rod Crompton is a Visiting Adjunct Professor at the African Energy 

Leadership Centre, Wits Business School, University of the Witwatersrand, 

and is a non-executive director at Eskom and SANEA. Bruce Douglas Young 

is a Senior Lecturer at the Africa Energy Leadership Centre, University of 

the Witwatersrand. 

THE CONVERSATION 

The Conversation is funded by the National Research Foundation, eight 

universities, including the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Rhodes 

University, Stellenbosch University and the Universities of Cape Town, 

Johannesburg, KwaZulu-Natal, Pretoria and South Africa. It is hosted by the 

Universities of the Witwatersrand and Western Cape, the African Population 

and Health Research Centre and the Nigerian Academy of Science. The Bill & 

Melinda Gates Foundation is a Strategic Partner. 

21

The Nachtigal hydroelectric facility is under 

construction 70km north-east of the capital 

of Cameroon, Yaoundé. Credit: NHPC 

CONSTRUCTION HOTSPOTS 

Infrastructure, renewable energy and hospitality are driving renewed 

growth in the African construction sector. By John Young 

Infrastructure is the key driver of construction activity in Africa. Within that broad 

category, transport and energy are the two strongest sectors motivating builders 

and contractors. Deloitte’s Africa Construction Trends Report 2021 registered 42.6% 

of projects to transport and 19% to energy and power. The report covered 462 

projects with a total value of $521-billion. 

Many large French construction companies such as Vinci and Bouygues 

continue to sign contracts for big projects. While Chinese construction companies 

and railway systems developers have been active on the African continent for 

several decades, a growing trend has seen many Turkish companies taking an 

active interest in the continent. Trade between Turkey and Africa has increased 

enormously and the volume of projects undertaken by Turkish contracting 

companies reached $77.8-billion in 2021 (Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs). 

The country has established joint Business Councils with 45 African countries. 

REGIONS 

Nigeria and Ghana in West Africa are among the countries with the highest 

number of projects while Egypt tends to have high-value projects. 

In Kenya, the construction industry contributes 7% of the gross domestic product 

(GDP), with infrastructure expenditure being a significant stimulus. Nearly 150 

000 people are formally employed in the sector. BMI Research expects an annual 

growth rate for the Kenyan construction sector of 6.2% until 2026, better than most 

other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. 

According to Africa Business Pages, Nigeria is responsible for about 60% of 

the infrastructure projects being planned for West Africa in the short term. Only 

South Africa’s expenditure on infrastructure exceeds the $73-billion that has been 

allocated in Nigeria. 

One of the indicators of the growth of the Ethiopian construction sector is seen 

in the fact that the Big 5 exhibition and conference is held in Ethiopia, arranged 

by dmg events. Having turned the first of these events, in Dubai, into a major date 

on the calendar, other events have followed in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Southern 

Africa and Saudi Arabia. In material sent out by dmg events, Global Data is 

quoted as valuing the Ethiopian construction market at more than $41-billion. 

Furthermore, the expectation is that this will increase by more than 8% in the years 

leading up to 2026, with residential being among the most important subsectors. 

With the headquarters of several organisations located in Addis Ababa, not least 

the African Union, it is no surprise that the nation’s capital city continues to attract 

a lot of attention in the construction and property sectors. 

The city of Addis Ababa has a Bureau of Mega Projects and Ethiopia is home 

to some of the continent’s biggest projects. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance 

Dam, on which construction began in 2011, is almost complete. The $4-billion 

project will generate hydropower but has stirred controversy in a region 

where access to and the control of water is vital to the livelihoods and safety 

of millions of people. 

Large railway schemes have been ongoing throughout the country, which 

spreads over more than 1.1-million square kilometres. The Ethiopian Road 

Authority is pursuing several ambitious projects. One of its multi-pronged 

projects has more than 10 local and Chinese contractors building more than 

1 000km of road in different parts of the country. The New Addis Ababa 

22

CONSTRUCTION 

International Airport has been mooted and most parties agree that a new airport 

is needed, but there are no concrete plans on the table yet. Once land has been 

allocated and contracts agreed, it will no doubt be a major project. 

FINANCING 

The support of lending institutions is an important factor in driving the construction 

and property sectors, and this is particularly true of the infrastructure programmes 

of many countries. 

The signing in Nairobi in May 2023 of a $3-billion Country Programme 

agreement between the Government of Kenya and Afreximbank is a case in point. 

High on the agenda of new infrastructure to be funded is the development 

of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) as a way of improving the country’s export 

performance. Kenya is the first country with access to Afreximbank’s new 

Climate Change Adaptation Facility. Some $800-million of the Country 

Programme package will be allocated to the Kenya Climate Change 

Adaptation Facility which will help fund 200 irrigation schemes under a 

public-private partnership framework. 

SEZs are growing in popularity across the African continent. Seen as a way 

of promoting manufacturing, industrial production and exports, SEZs attract 

incentives and rebates for investors and are the focus of government spending. 

Consequently, they are frequently the site of concentrated building activity. 

Kenya is so focussed on its SEZ progamme that it has a Special Economic Zones 

Authority (SEZA) which oversees 14 SEZs in eight regions. One of the more recent 

zones is the Konza Technopolis outside Nairobi which is designed to cater to the 

information, communications and technology (ICT) sector. 

In the same month that Kenya signed with Afreximbank, the African 

Development Bank (AfDB) approved a $15-million subordinated loan to the 

Nigerian firm, Infrastructure Credit Guarantee Company Limited (InfraCredit), 

to support it in providing funding for infrastructure expenditure in that country. 

InfraCredit is a credit guarantee company that mobilises long-term capital from 

institutional investors, including pension fund and insurance companies. 

Konza Complex (Konza Technopolis Development 

Authority headquarters) in Nairobi, Kenya 

Funding for a major hydroelectric power project in Cameroon is coming from a 

wide variety of sources. The Nachtigal Hydro Power Company (NHPC) has been 

set up as a vehicle to oversee the construction and running of the facility for 

the first period of its existence. Shareholders in the consortium are Électricité 

de France (EDF, France), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the 

Republic of Cameroon, Africa50 and STOA Infra & Energy. Ethiopia’s Ministry 

of Urban and Infrastructure is the main mover in the country’s decade-long 

plan to boost the construction sector and prioritise infrastructure, Ethiopia 

2030: The Pathway to Prosperity. 

Infrastructure is often cited by national governments as a priority and as a means 

of boosting the national economy. South Africa’s 2023 Budget Review pledged to 

spend $46-billion on public-sector infrastructure over a three-year period. Where 

energy installations, water infrastructure and transport networks are working 

efficiently, other sectors can thrive. 

An example of this effect is in the explosion in property prices at key points 

along the route of the Gautrain in Gauteng. The Gautrain is a piece of public 

infrastructure that is not only efficient, but highly sought after and very popular. 

In many African countries, climate change is driving another kind 

of construction activity – of solar farms and wind farms. An amount of 

$9.4-billion has been mooted as the project value of a green hydrogen project 

awarded in 2021 in Namibia. Large solar and wind facilities will have to be 

built to supply enough green energy to produce the planned output of 300 000 

tons of green hydrogen per year. A similar scheme in Mauritania envisages 14 

400km² being given over to Project Nour, a very sizable chunk of property on 

which to conduct one project. 

The African countries that have been most active in the wind farm field are 

Morocco, Egypt and South Africa. This has given engineering and construction 

firms in those countries a boost but a variety of nations have started to explore 

their wind potential, including Senegal, Kenya (the giant Lake Turkana Wind 

Farm was a pioneer project), Niger and Zambia. 

While renewable energy is driving many projects and contracts, another 

subsector related to sustainability is set to have a major impact on the African 

construction industry – green cement. Cement is known as one of the worst 

offenders in terms carbon dioxide and the pressure to improve in this area is 

growing. Companies that can profitably produce replacement products for 

traditional cement will thrive. 

HOTEL BUILDING BURGEONING 

The 2023 African Hotel Chain Development Pipeline report gives an insight into 

the tourism sector as a driver of construction projects on the continent. Egypt 

is ahead of the pack, with a many more rooms planned than the next-ranked 

countries Nigeria, Morocco and Ethiopia. The survey, run by W Hospitality 

Group in association with the Africa Hospitality Investment Forum (AHIF), 

is based on responses from 45 global and African hotel chains, reporting 

on a pipeline of hotel development activity in 482 hotels in 42 of Africa’s 54 

countries. See table below. Of the total of 84 427 rooms in the pipeline, over 37 

500 rooms (about 45%) are expected by the hotel chains to open in 2023 and 

2024. Marriott International, Hilton and Accor are the survey’s leaders, as they 

have been in other recent surveys, with Marriott clearly at the top of the table in 

2023. The survey managers cite a growing trend towards franchising in Africa, 

and Marriott’s relative strength in franchising is noted, with 30 brands in its 

portfolio. The fastest pace in terms of opening new rooms has been achieved by 

the Radisson Group. Four deals signed in Morocco in 2021 led to hotel openings 

in the same year and in 2023, the group is projecting more openings than the 

total notched up by all other hotel chains in 2022. 

23

MOBILE MONEY IS EMPOWERING WOMEN IN AFRICA 

Financial inclusion is the most effective way of reducing inequalities. That is the view of Rashi 

Gupta, Group Chief Operating Officer at MFS Africa, who outlines the several ways that mobile 

money is enhancing the lives of African women in general, and entrepreneurs in particular. 

The success of mobile money in Africa is well known. If you’ve paid any attention 

to the continent’s financial and technology spaces over the past decade or so, you 

probably won’t be surprised to learn that it accounts for around 70% of the world’s 

$1-trillion mobile-money value. 

You would probably also be unsurprised to learn that in Kenya, the country 

that effectively kick-started Africa’s mobile money revolution, mobile money 

transactions now account for 56.8% of GDP. What you might not know is that 

mobile money has long played (and continues to play) an important role in 

empowering women across Sub-Saharan Africa. 

That’s important because, despite gains in political representation (in 11 African 

countries, women hold over a third of parliamentary seats, more than in Europe), 

gender inequality remains stark across Africa. While there are obviously differences 

from country to country, women throughout the continent fare worse than their 

male counterparts in a number of measures, including wages, investment, access 

to capital and education. 

Of course, mobile money can’t fix all of those issues on its own. That requires 

serious investment as well as shifts in policy and societal attitudes. But it can play 

a significant role in making life better for women across the continent, especially 

when it comes to financial inclusion. 

TAKING CARE OF BUSINESS 

That’s not just conjecture either. Research conducted on behalf of the 

World Bank shows just how substantial the impact has been. It notes, for 

example, that mobile money has enabled Kenyan women to move away from 

subsistence farming and towards business and retail, helping alleviate poverty 

in the country. 

The research further notes that for individuals and households, mobile money 

can help reduce transaction costs, reduce travel costs and improve welfare by 

smoothing unexpected income shocks, increase security and facilitate remittances. 

Perhaps the most significant impact, however, lies in what mobile money can 

do for female entrepreneurs. 

Using mobile money leads to a 19.8% increase in the likelihood of female-led 

businesses receiving investment from outside sources. Given that the average 

capital investment by female-owned firms is more than six times lower than the 

average for male-owned firms in Africa, that’s especially critical. 

That same World Bank research shows that such female-owned businesses are 

then more likely to invest that money in fixed assets and the expansion of their 

business, more likely to offer credit to customers, demand credit and have better 

relationships with suppliers. 

Kenya has been a continental leader in mobile money for many years. Nairobi’s many entrepreneurs have adapted to technology with aplomb. 

Credit: Antony Trivet on Pexels 

24

EMPOWERMENT 

Credit: pch.vector on Freepik 

resource intensive and require business owners to travel away from home on a 

regular basis using unsafe or unreliable modes of transportation. Unlocking new 

markets is vital for any business’s ability to scale and grow. 

In the coming years, mobile money will continue to evolve in new and innovative 

ways. And if history is anything to go by, then women will embrace and benefit 

most from those advances. 

A STATE OF CONSTANT EVOLUTION 

It’s also worth noting that mobile money has evolved considerably since it landed 

on the African continent, further enhancing its ability to empower women. 

Advances in interoperability, for example, mean that it’s easier than ever for 

people and businesses on different mobile money systems and in different 

countries to send and receive money. That has massive potential benefits for female 

entrepreneurs as it allows them to sell their products across borders without having 

to rely on traditional international e-commerce infrastructure that can be costly, 

BREAKING BARRIERS ACROSS BORDERS 

Women will benefit because financial inclusion is the most effective way of reducing 

inequalities. That’s especially true for women. And few technologies have fostered 

that kind of inclusion as successfully as mobile money has. It has given unbanked 

communities and people in remote and rural areas the kind of access to financial 

services that would’ve taken far longer if they’d had to rely on traditional financial 

institutions. The fact that it’s had such a profound and lasting impact in elevating 

women across the continent should, therefore, never be underestimated. 

ABOUT MFS AFRICA 

MFS Africa is a leading digital payments gateway supported by a multi-cultural, 

multi-talented, agile team from over 30 different nations that is driven to create 

access to a borderless world, a world where access overcomes borders. 

Through our digital payments hub, our business portal and expanding partner 

network, we provide access to a world of innovative, simple, convenient, secure, 

affordable and compliant mobile financial solutions for all. We connect senders, 

recipients and service providers across Africa’s fast-growing yet fragmented mobile 

payments ecosystem. 

Every kind of trader can take 

advantage of mobile money and 

research has found that women 

entrepreneurs are benefitting. 

Credit: Omotayo Tajudeen on Unsplash 

25

Volumes are expected to increase with fewer 

tariffs being imposed on intra-African trade. 

Credit: Frank McKenna on Unsplash 


The Pan African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee (PAFTRAC) has published its Africa CEO Trade 

Survey Report 2022 assessing the impact of the AfCFTA on African trade. The 2022 report is the second 

edition of the PAFTRAC CEO Trade Survey. What follows is the executive summary of that document. 

The scale of the research was greatly increased for this edition, with more indepth 

questions and far more chief executives taking part. When the survey 

was conducted, it was approaching 18 months since the start of trading under 

the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) was announced, so African 

businesses are gaining more insight about its potential benefits and challenges. 

As the world’s largest free-trade-area initiative, the AfCFTA is a much-needed 

project given that companies of all sizes across the continent are desperate to 

identify new markets and boost exports. Implementing the continental free trade 

area will be a long process that will be achieved by thousands of small steps. Making 

the required legislative and regulatory changes depends on the political will of all 

of the governments involved to make it a reality. 

However, mistrust could easily restrict implementation, particularly where 

businesses on one side of the border fear increased competition from perhaps more 

economically developed markets. 

One of the more surprising results of the survey was that 70% of respondents 

said that despite all the obstacles and the fact that intra-African trade accounts 

for just 16% of total African trade, they already export goods or services to 

other African countries. It is even more unexpected given that most of the 

survey participants lead small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rather 

than large corporations. However, the vast majority export services rather than 

goods within Africa, underlining the fact that physical and regulatory obstacles 

continue to deter trade in goods. 

At present, the vast majority of African CEOs believe that the AfCFTA will have 

a positive impact on both levels of intra-African trade and on their own companies, 

with just 4% expecting it to have a negative impact. The AfCFTA is widely expected 

to help businesses open up new markets for goods and services, while reducing the 

cost and bureaucracy attached to exports. 


Some of the findings of the report are less surprising. For instance, the transport 

infrastructure required to trade goods between African states is lacking in most 

areas. Rail and road networks were developed on a national basis, with far too 

26


few cross-border links on which to carry freight. There are often too few customs 

posts, while many of those that do exist are slow and cumbersome. Regulations 

often demand that the same cargo is checked on each side of a border, while some 

countries have been slow to adopt digital bills of lading, letters of credit and other 

trade documents. 

Regulatory changes come down to a matter of political will and administrative 

competence but upgrading transport infrastructure requires financing that will be 

difficult to secure. The growing penetration of digital banking services should make 

paying for imports easier but it is vital that the digital transformation is supported 

by both regulators and governments. Half of the exporters surveyed said that their 

companies still required cash in advance on cross-border deals, although letters 

of credit are also fairly popular. This may be the result of a lack of trust as well as 

difficulty in securing hard currency, while many banking platforms still do not 

allow the use of African currencies. 

However, a solution is already on the horizon in the form of Afreximbank’s 

Pan-African Payment and Settlement System (PAPSS), so it will be interesting to 

see how quickly that is embraced by traders. 


The report clearly demonstrates that African businesses find it difficult to locate 

detailed information on the AfCFTA. Progress will be much slower if the rules on 

trade are not widely understood and kept up to date. Moreover, the results of the 

survey reveal that the lack of information on markets, opportunities and trading 

partners is the biggest constraint on exports. Indeed, 70% of respondents called for 

a fully functioning online one-stop information shop but sufficient resources need 

to be put in place to make such an undertaking operate effectively. 

Solutions to the information deficit could come in the form of digital platforms 

provided by the AfCFTA Secretariat or private sector information providers. Other 

constraints to increased levels of trade cited by the participants include unfair 

competition, subsidies, political stability in target markets and a lack of security. 

The ease of trade varies considerably across the continent, with East and 

Southern Africa considered to be the best places to do business. North Africa was 

rated almost as a difficult a region in which to trade as Central Africa. Despite the 

fact that Morocco, Tunisia and to some extent Egypt are thriving manufacturing 

centres, their economies are geared around exporting goods to Europe and 

elsewhere, rather than to the rest of Africa. Greatly improving trade flows in Central 

Africa could have a huge impact on the continent as a whole because it lies at the 

heart of the continent. In particular, new railways across the region would benefit 

not only local companies but would boost trade between West and East Africa. 

ABOUT PAFTRAC 

The Pan-African Private Sector Trade and Investment Committee 

(PAFTRAC) unites African leaders from the private sector and 

provides a unique advocacy platform, bringing together the African 

private sector and African policymakers to support extra- and 

intra-African trade, investment and pan-African enterprise. The 

platform drives pan-African results by providing a framework for 

private sector engagement in trade and investment issues in Africa, 

including policy formulation and trade negotiations to support 

African economies in line with the ambitions of Agenda 2063: 

“The Africa We Want”. PAFTRAC enhances advocacy and supports 

policy actions and recommendations of the private sector on trade 

and investment issues at the national, trade corridor, regional and 

multilateral levels. 

The implementation of the AfCFTA should bring an 

end to long queues of trucks at border posts 

Credit: SANRAL 

27




As Radisson celebrates winning the Leading Hotel Group in 

Africa award, the group outlines its strategy in building 

its African footprint beyond the current capacity of 

nearly 8 000 rooms. 

A 

At the 2022 World Travel Awards held in Dubai, Radisson Blu took home the 

prestigious Leading Hotel Group in Africa award. The award is a validation of the 

work done by the group and its accelerated expansion across the continent over the 

past few years. But it’s also an important milestone in a journey that started more 

than 60 years ago and which has seen Radisson Blu become an iconic hospitality 

brand around the globe, including on the African continent. 

Along with the luxury Radisson Collection, Radisson, Radisson Red, Radisson 

Individual and several other brands, Radisson Blu forms part of the Radisson Hotel 

Group. The group’s journey began in 1960 with the opening of the world’s first 

designer hotel in Copenhagen, Denmark. That hotel, now the Radisson Collection 

Royal Hotel, Copenhagen, is still operating successfully. 

“From those early beginnings, we’ve always tried to ensure that the hotels within 

the group set themselves apart,” says Tim Cordon, COO Middle East and Africa – 

Radisson Hotel Group. “We always have, and will continue to, focus our work on 

delivering Memorable Moments, acting as a true host, and being the best partner.” 

The Radisson Blu brand, meanwhile, emerged after SAS International Hotels 

signed a franchise agreement with Carlson Hotels to manage the Radisson brand in 

Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) in 1994. Initially known as Radisson 

SAS, the Radisson Blu brand was birthed in 2009. A year later, it became the largest 

upscale hotel brand in Europe. 

Today, there are more than 380 Radisson Blu locations worldwide, all aiming to 

provide memorable moments by providing unparalleled service, comfort and style 

while creating meaningful and memorable experiences. 

Radisson Blu Mosi-Oa-Tunya, Livingstone Resort, is located 

within the Mosi-Oa-Tunya National Park in Zambia. 


The brand has an established presence in Africa, too, with what is now 

Radisson Blu Waterfront Hotel in Cape Town South Africa opening at the 

dawn of the new millennium. In the following years, it would continue to 

grow its presence across the continent, steadily building and expanding a 

substantial portfolio of properties. 

“Our goal is always to create ‘more meaningful and memorable experiences in a 

stylish environment’. In doing so, we recognise that our guests are travelling with a 

purpose and that it’s therefore important that we’re there to support them in even 

the smallest of ways. That commitment is as strong in Africa as it is in the rest of 

the world”. says Cordon. 

“We also look to ensure that our guests are inspired and connected with likeminded 

individuals,” Tim adds. “We do so by creating and facilitating networking 

opportunities and keeping them mentally and physically nourished on a busy day. 

Our commitment to guests is also reflected in the design of our properties, creating 

a stylish environment that enables our great experiences. We’re always there to keep 

our guests inspired through our on-trend public space design features.” 

28

HOTEL AWARDS 

An artist’s impression of the Radisson Hotel Casablanca 

Gauthier La Citadelle, which is set to open in 2023 

In more recent years, Radisson Blu has significantly grown its African presence. 

Currently, the Radisson Blu brand has nearly 40 hotels on the continent, either in 

operation or under development. From Casablanca in the north to Cape Town in 

the south, with almost 8 000 rooms. 

“Africa is critical to the next phase of growth for both Radisson Blu and the 

Radisson Hotel Group as a whole,” Tim says. “We are continuously inspired by the 

innovation and enterprise we see throughout the continent, and we look forward 

to opening more hotels in the near future. 

“Our category win in the World Travel Awards validates everything we have done 

in Africa to date,” Cordon concludes. “It has also strengthened our determination 

to keep delivering the magical moments that Radisson Blu is renowned for to new 

and existing customers alike.” 

Africa is critical to 

the next phase of 

growth for both 

Radisson Blu and 

the Radisson Hotel 

Group as a whole 


Radisson Blu is an upper-upscale hotel brand that delivers positive and 

personalised service in stylish spaces. Radisson Blu hotels are designed to make a 

big difference and inspire unforgettable experiences with every stay. Radisson Blu 

hotels can be found in major cities, key airport gateways and leisure destinations. 

Radisson Blu is part of the Radisson family of brands, which operates under 

one commercial umbrella brand, Radisson Hotels, and can be found around the 

world in more than 120 countries, with currently over 1 700 hotels in operation 

and under development. 

Tim Cordon, Radisson Hotel Group 

COO, Middle East and Africa 

29

BOTSWANA 

The Jwaneng Mine is the richest diamond mine in the world by value. 

Botswana’s waterways attract millions of tourists. 

Capital: Gaborone. 

Other towns/cities: Francistown, Molepolole, Maun. 


GDP: $18.3-billion (2019). 

GDP per capita (PPP): $14 800 (2021). 

Currency: Pula. 

Regional Economic Community: Southern African Development Community 

(SADC), Southern African Customs Union (SACU). 


Resources: Diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver. 

Main economic sectors: Mining, tourism. 

Other sectors: Services, meat processing, textiles. 

New sectors for investment: Sustainable tourism, agri-processing, leather and 

leather products, renewable energy, mineral beneficiation. 

Key projects: National Development Plan 11, focus on business reforms and 

export diversification strategy. The Botswana Investment and Trade Centre 

aims to attract foreign direct investment and there are proposed amendments 

to immigration laws. 

Chief exports: Diamonds, copper, nickel, soda ash, iron and steel products, textiles. 

Top export destinations: Belgium, India, UAE, South Africa, Singapore, Israel. 

Top import sources: South Africa, Canada, Israel. 

Main imports: Machinery, electrical goods, transport equipment, textiles, fuel and 

petroleum products, wood and paper products, metal and metal products, food. 

Infrastructure: 10 airports with paved runways; 31 747km of roads, of which 

9 810km is paved (2017); 888km of railway (2014). 

ICT: Mobile phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 161 (2021). 

ICT Development Index 2017 (ITU) ranking: 105, 5th in Africa. 

Population using Internet: 74% (2021). 

Climate: semi-arid, warm winters and hot summers. Kalahari Desert in the 

southwest and the Okavango Delta in the north is a huge inland river delta. 

Religion: Nearly 80% Christian. Also, Badimo and others. 

Modern history: Botswana has made the most of its natural resources and 

succeeded in turning what was a poor country at the time of its independence 

from Britain in 1966 into the ranks of middle-income countries. The country has 

enjoyed long periods of political stability and runs credible elections. Diamonds 

and tourism are the two big earners for the country. The government is in a 

joint venture with De Beers called Debswana for the mining of diamonds, but 

the government expressed unhappiness about the terms of the agreement in the 

course of 2023. The tourism sector caters to high-end visitors and access to the 

sensitive Okavango Delta is strictly controlled. Despite these positive factors, 

Botswana has a high rate of HIV infection and has a number of challenges 

including rural poverty and shortages of water and power in many areas. The 

Botswana Democratic Party has won every election since independence. In 2018, 

Mokgweetsi Masisi became the fifth president of Botswana. Concerns have been 

expressed that the current administration is not respecting civil and political 

rights to the same extent as its predecessors. 

30

COUNTRY PROFILE 

ZAMBIA 


Sentinel Copper Mine is Zambia’s biggest mine. 

Credit: First Quantum Minerals 

Capital: Lusaka. 

Other towns/cities: Kitwe, Ndola, Kabwe. 


GDP: $25.7-billion (2017). 

GDP per capita: $3 200 (2021). 

Currency: Kwacha. 

Regional Economic Community: Common Market for Eastern and South Africa 

(COMESA), Southern African Development Community (SADC). 


Coastline: Landlocked. 

Resources: Beef, cassava, maize, milk, vegetables, soybeans, beef, tobacco, 

groundnuts, sugar cane, wheat. Copper, coal, cobalt, emeralds, gemstones, lead, 

silver, uranium, zinc. 

Main economic sectors: Copper mining and processing, emerald mining, 

chemicals, textiles, fertilizer. 

Other sectors: Construction, foodstuffs, beverages, horticulture. 

New sectors for investment: Agribusiness, energy, retail and tourism property, 

telecoms. 

Key projects: The International Finance Corporation has initiated the Multilateral 

Investment Guarantee Agency for projects in agribusiness, manufacturing, 

financial and energy sectors. 

Chief exports: Copper, cement, gemstones, gold, tobacco. 

Top export destinations: Switzerland, China, Namibia, Democratic Republic of 

the Congo, Singapore. 

Top import sources: South Africa, China, United Arab Emirates, Democratic 

Republic of the Congo, India. 

Main imports: Copper, fertilizers, medicines, petroleum, trucks. 

Infrastructure: Roads: 67 671km, of which 14 888km paved. 

Port: Mpulungu river port. 

Airports: 88, eight of which are paved. 

Railways: 3 126km, includes Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA). 

ICT: Mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 104. 

Internet percentage of population: 21 (2021). 

ICT Development Index 2017 (ITU) world ranking: 146 (17th in Africa). 

Climate: Tropical climate modified by altitude and proximity to lakes. Lake Kariba 

is the world’s largest reservoir by volume and Lake Tanganyika is among other 

large lakes. The Congo and Zambezi are the major rivers. Rainy season is October 

to April. 

Religion: Mostly Christian, of which 20% Catholic. 

Modern history: Many of the population are poor and subsistence agriculture is 

widespread. Copper has underpinned Zambia’s export economy for many years. 

There has been a recent surge in interest because of copper’s importance to the 

cleaner industrial process that the world needs. Rapid growth has been experienced 

because of good copper prices on the global market but with the country’s 

population expected to triple by 2050, huge social challenges remain. In addition, 

being so dependent on copper can mean that the country’s economy, and its people, 

struggle when prices are depressed. The battle for independence culminated in 

Zambia being founded in 1964. The opening of the Tan-Zam railway line in 1975 

allowed Zambian copper to be exported without relying on then Rhodesia or what 

was then apartheid South Africa. Kenneth Kaunda ruled a one-party state from 

1972 to 1991, having been in power from independence. President Chiluba ruled 

from 1991 to 2001, after which a period of closely contested elections followed. In 

2021, Hakainde Hichilema won 59% of the vote with 70% of the eligible voting 

public registering their choices.

Journal of African Business Issue 6

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