1 The Spiritual World of a Master of Awe: Divine Vitality, Theosis ...
1 The Spiritual World of a Master of Awe: Divine Vitality, Theosis ...
1 The Spiritual World of a Master of Awe: Divine Vitality, Theosis ...
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Second Draft- 1999<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Spiritual</strong> <strong>World</strong> <strong>of</strong> a <strong>Master</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Awe</strong>:<br />
<strong>Divine</strong> <strong>Vitality</strong>, <strong>The</strong>osis, and Healing<br />
in the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim<br />
Alan Brill, Yeshiva University<br />
Graetz characterized Hasidism primarily as a popular revivalist movement, one,<br />
which contained elements <strong>of</strong> superstitious magic and obscurantism. In contrast, twentieth<br />
century scholarship has followed the neo-hasidic views <strong>of</strong> Buber and Dubnow, presenting<br />
Hasidism as a form <strong>of</strong> romanticism reflecting modern experiential and pietistic<br />
sensibilities. 1 Gershom Scholem's kabbalistic conception <strong>of</strong> Hasidism, while consistent<br />
with this romantic trend, emphasized the kabbalistic background <strong>of</strong> this romantic outburst<br />
<strong>of</strong> experiential piety and mysticism. Scholem's dialectic <strong>of</strong> history reconfigures Hasidism,<br />
seeing it as a popularist channeling <strong>of</strong> the myth and symbols <strong>of</strong> Kabbalah and <strong>of</strong> Sabbatian<br />
antinominalism into a devotional movement dedicated to finding God in the physical world. 2<br />
Accordingly, then, contemporary scholarship, with its view <strong>of</strong> Hasidism as a romantic<br />
movement based on popularized Kabbalah, has produced elucidations <strong>of</strong> the quietism and<br />
1 Martin Buber, <strong>The</strong> Origin and Meaning <strong>of</strong> Hasidism (New York: 1960); Simon Dubnow, Toledot HaHasidut 3<br />
(Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1960). On Dubnow's use <strong>of</strong> the romantic image <strong>of</strong> Jesus in his characterization <strong>of</strong> early<br />
Hasidism see R.M. Seltzer, "<strong>The</strong> Secular Appropriation <strong>of</strong> Hasidism by an East European Intellectual:<br />
Dubnow, Renan, and the Besht," Polin 1 (1986). On the origin <strong>of</strong> the romantic view <strong>of</strong> Hasidism see Joseph<br />
Dan, "A Bow to Frumkinian Hasidism" in Modern Judaism 11 (1991). <strong>The</strong> ideology for these approaches was<br />
created by Peretz who affirmed the need to mold ethnographic reports into a positivistic and enlightened<br />
folklore, see Mark W. Kiel, "Vox Populi, Vox Dei: <strong>The</strong> Centrality <strong>of</strong> Peretz in Jewish Folkloristics," Polin 7<br />
(1992) 88-120.<br />
2 Gershom Scholem, "Martin Buber's Interpretation <strong>of</strong> Hasidism" in <strong>The</strong> Messianic Idea in Judaism (New<br />
York: Schocken Books, 1971), 228-250.<br />
1
mysticism <strong>of</strong> the Maggid <strong>of</strong> Miedzyrec, 3 the social ethos <strong>of</strong> the court <strong>of</strong> the Hasidic Zaddik, 4<br />
and the classical Safed piety <strong>of</strong> the Toldot Yaakov Yosef. 5 Recently, there has been a trend<br />
in scholarship to return to the nineteenth century's perception <strong>of</strong> Hasidism as magic, but<br />
now, with a positive evaluation <strong>of</strong> magic.<br />
Most recently, some scholars relate Hasidism in a panoramic way to renaissance<br />
magic and the magic working baalei shem <strong>of</strong> Eastern Europe. 6 In light <strong>of</strong> this trend, this<br />
paper will present the magical elements <strong>of</strong> a single work, the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim,<br />
whose author (henceforth the Degel) is a representative example <strong>of</strong> the wonder-working<br />
Zaddik. <strong>The</strong> Degel has a complete worldview that integrates healing, story telling, the<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong> dreams, and perceptions <strong>of</strong> God in the physical world that seems to have<br />
more in common with other faith healers than with mysticism or the Kabbalah.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel describes different types <strong>of</strong> spiritual experiences; he characterizes his<br />
grandfather the Baal Shem Tov as possessing what may be characterized as strong<br />
3 Joseph Weiss, Studies in Eastern European Jewish Mysticism ed. David Goldstein, (London: Littman<br />
Library-O.U.P., 1985); Rifka Shatz, Hasidism as Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).<br />
4 Rachel Elior, "Between Yesh and Ayin: <strong>The</strong> Doctrine <strong>of</strong> the Zaddik in the Works <strong>of</strong> Jacob Isaac, <strong>The</strong> Seer <strong>of</strong><br />
Lublin" in Jewish History: Essays in Honour <strong>of</strong> Chimen Abramsky (London: 1988), 393-45; David Asaf,<br />
Derekh Ha-Malkhut: R. Israel MiRyzhin and his Place in the History <strong>of</strong> Hasidism (Jerusalem: Zalman<br />
Shazar, 1997) [Hebrew]. Much scholarship is still needed in order to account for the world recorded by Jiri<br />
Langer, Nine Gates to the Chassidic Mysteries (New York: David McKay, 1961).<br />
5 Mordechai Pachter, "Traces <strong>of</strong> the Influence <strong>of</strong> R. Elijah de Vidas's Reshit Hokhmah upon the Writings <strong>of</strong> R.<br />
Jacob Joseph <strong>of</strong> Polonnoye" in Studies in Jewish Mysticism, Philosophy, and Ethical Literature Presented<br />
To Isaiah Tishby eds. J. Dan and J. Hacker, (Jerusalem: 1986), 569-592; Mendel Piekarz, <strong>The</strong> Beginnings <strong>of</strong><br />
Hasidism (Jerusalem: Bialek Press, 1978); idem, Between Ideology and Reality: Humility, Ayin, Self-<br />
Negation and Devekut in Hasidic Thought (Jerusalem: Bialek Press, 1994); Zev Gries, Conduct Literature: Its<br />
History and Place in the Life <strong>of</strong> Beshtian Hasidism (Jerusalem: Bialek Press, 1989).<br />
6 Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic (Albany: Suny Press, 1995); Immanuel Etkes, "<strong>The</strong><br />
Role <strong>of</strong> Magic and Baalei Shem in Ashkenazic Society in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth<br />
Centuries" in Zion 60:1 (1995), 69-104; Moshe Rosman, Founder <strong>of</strong> Hasidism: A Quest for the Historical<br />
Baal Shem Tov (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University <strong>of</strong> California Press, 1996).<br />
2
shamanic characteristics, including communication with the dead, trance states, and the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> clairvoyance. In contrast, the Degel portrays himself as a faith healer using the<br />
energy <strong>of</strong> a universal life force to heal the sick. An analysis <strong>of</strong> the healing techniques,<br />
dreams, and worldview <strong>of</strong> the Degel, shows that he is not shamanic. Rather, he uses<br />
techniques for channeling energy within his rabbinic pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
Furthermore, the Degel requires those seeking to find this universal life force to<br />
maintain an ascetic life, in order to sense the divine vitality in the physical world. Life in the<br />
world is seen as being “lost at sea,” and reaching the divine vitality leads one to a safe<br />
shore. <strong>The</strong> divine becomes embodied as a theosis in which the divine literally indwells in<br />
the zaddik's body.<br />
Degel Mahaneh Ephraim: Author and Context<br />
Rabbi Moses Hayim Ephraim <strong>of</strong> Sudylkow (c. 1740-1800?), son <strong>of</strong> Adel, the<br />
daughter <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov, and brother <strong>of</strong> the enigmatic Baruch b. Jehiel <strong>of</strong><br />
Medzhibozh, 7 was a preacher, a rabbi who rendered legal decisions (posek), and a<br />
zaddik. 8 His work the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim, 9 is an outstanding text <strong>of</strong> early Hasidism<br />
7 One cannot safely use the work <strong>of</strong> his brother because it is difficult to ascertain details about R. Barukh,<br />
based on the current state <strong>of</strong> research. See A. Shisha, "On the Book Bozina di-Nehora" in Alei Sefer,<br />
Volume 8 (1980), 155-157; he claims a late nineteenth century forgery <strong>of</strong> some the sayings <strong>of</strong> R. Baruch in<br />
the Bozina di-Nehora (Lvov: 1880); Raya Haran, "On <strong>The</strong> Copying and Transmission <strong>of</strong> Hasidic Letters," Zion<br />
56 #3 (1991), 299-320, shows the unreliability <strong>of</strong> the letters describing R. Barukh; <strong>The</strong> traditional work about<br />
R. Barukh is Margaliot MiLvov, Sefer Mekor Barukh: Toldot R. Barukh MiMedziebuz, (Zamosch: 1931).<br />
8 Moshe Hallamish, Encyclopedia Judaica Volume 12 col 430; M. Gutman, Geza Kodesh (1951); S.<br />
Dubnow, Toldot Hahasidut (Tel Aviv:Dvir 1930-1932); I. Tishby "<strong>The</strong> Messianic Idea and Messianic Trends in<br />
the Growth <strong>of</strong> Hasidism," Zion 32 (1967), 1-45; J. Weiss, "On the Beginnings <strong>of</strong> Hasidism," in Zion 16<br />
(1951), 46-105; A translation <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> his homilies is found in Jay Rock, "Rabbi Moses Ephraim <strong>of</strong><br />
Sudlikov's Degel Mahaneh Ephraim" (Ph.D. dissertation, University <strong>of</strong> California at Berkeley, 1986); Elliot R.<br />
Wolfson, “Walking as a Sacred Duty: <strong>The</strong>ological Transformation <strong>of</strong> Social reality in Early Hasidism,” Along<br />
the Path (Albany: Suny Press, 1995), 102-4.<br />
3
ecause he wrote it himself, and because it does not come from the school <strong>of</strong> the Maggid<br />
<strong>of</strong> Miedzyrec. 10<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel's identifies with the conservative Polish feudal system that controlled the<br />
Ukrainian countryside and was rejecting the encroachments <strong>of</strong> modernity. Podolia was<br />
resettled and prospered under Polish magnates who rebuilt the area after the Ukrainian<br />
uprising <strong>of</strong> 1768. 11 Limited to the very mild cosmopolitanism <strong>of</strong> a Polish private town-<br />
without the enlightened thinking developing within Vilna, Skhlov, Brody or Warsaw- Hasidic<br />
thought easily espoused a rejection <strong>of</strong> enlightenment education, social theory, leisure<br />
activities, and scientific knowledge. 12 R. Moses Hayim Ephraim <strong>of</strong> Sudylkow signed a<br />
9 n.p., 1808. <strong>The</strong> Hebrew <strong>of</strong> the text is awkward in syntax and non-grammatical at points. <strong>The</strong>re is greater<br />
repetition than usual in homilies. <strong>The</strong> same thought is stated in Genesis as the meaning <strong>of</strong> the Torah used<br />
in creation, is repeated in Exodus as the meaning <strong>of</strong> Revelation, then it is repeated in Leviticus as the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> ritual, and again in Numbers and Deuteronomy as the meaning <strong>of</strong> Moses' Torah. Almost every<br />
idea is repeated with regularity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> exegesis is based on the mystical elements in the commentary <strong>of</strong> R. Hayyim Ben Attar (1696-<br />
1743), Or ha-Hayyim; see 14a, 19a. On Ben Attar's closeness to Hasidism see below, footnote 167. R.<br />
Nathanson writes in his approbation to the Degel "that some <strong>of</strong> the comments are close to the true peshat<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Torah," and R. Nathanson further mentions that he wrote similar things in his youth.<br />
10 Weiss raised the question <strong>of</strong> its authenticity as a representation <strong>of</strong> the teachings <strong>of</strong> the Besht because<br />
the Degel himself used the Zafnat Pa'aneah <strong>of</strong> R. Jacob Joseph a secondary source and paraphrased it by<br />
limiting the teaching to the Zaddik alone. See Joseph Weiss, "<strong>The</strong> Beginnings <strong>of</strong> Hasidism" in Zion 16<br />
(1951); Ada Rapoport-Albert, "God and the Zaddik as the Two Focal Points <strong>of</strong> Hasidic Worship," reprinted in<br />
Essential Papers on Hasidism ed. Gershon David Hundret (New York: New York University Press, 1991),<br />
327, shows that the paraphrase is consistent with the thought <strong>of</strong> R. Jacob Joseph. For my purpose, the<br />
spiritual world <strong>of</strong> the Degel himself, does not have to be in continuity with earlier thinkers.<br />
11 Gershon Hundert, "Early Hasidism in Context" lecture given at Harvard University March 14, 1995;<br />
Rosman, Founder <strong>of</strong> Hasidism chapter 3; Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto: University <strong>of</strong> Toronto<br />
Press, 1988), 189-190, points out that these Polish magnates who returned still held 46% <strong>of</strong> the land and<br />
54% <strong>of</strong> the industry in 1904; See M. N. Litinsky, Korot Podoliah ve-Kadmoniot haYehudim Sham (Odessa:<br />
1895). Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment (Philadelphia: J.P.S., 1985), 10. Economic<br />
wealth was based on God's gift and the work <strong>of</strong> the gentiles, and not on self-sufficiency and initiative. "When<br />
Israel are occupied with Torah then the non-Jews do the work <strong>of</strong> Israel as a slave for a master," Degel 38b,<br />
based on Isaiah (60:22) as interpreted by Berakhot 35b. See Mahler, 262-267 on appealing to wonder<br />
workers for economic concerns.<br />
12 As a case in point, the Degel gave a sermon on the Sabbath before Passover 1782 pointing to the need<br />
to fight the heretical views <strong>of</strong> the unbelievers. On the debate between the traditionalist feudal hasidim and<br />
the hedonistic and materialistic bourgeois life <strong>of</strong> the Maskilim, see Steve Zipperstein, Jews <strong>of</strong> Odessa<br />
4
contract in 1798 with "the chiefs <strong>of</strong> the holders <strong>of</strong> arenda (lessees from the princes) in the<br />
neighboring villages." <strong>The</strong>y would "submit to his authority in all that he might say," and he<br />
would "help them with his teaching and prayer which effectively aids all who cleave to him"<br />
in return for 6 guilden <strong>of</strong> every thousand <strong>of</strong> their income. 13<br />
An important element <strong>of</strong> Hasidism was its anti-modern trends especially its practice<br />
<strong>of</strong> folk healing, in opposition to the modern Western practice <strong>of</strong> medicine. 14 As Arthur<br />
Green notes, the zaddik's role as healer and holy man, particularly in times <strong>of</strong> illness or<br />
childbirth, was part <strong>of</strong> the Eastern European culture. "Here he [the zaddik] was acting as<br />
priestly holy man, in a way that probably would have been quite familiar to the [Eastern]<br />
Orthodox clergy just across the town square." 15 This prototype <strong>of</strong> the elite wonder working<br />
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), chapter 1; Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish<br />
Enlightenment (Philadelphia: J.P.S., 1985); Israel Zinberg, A History <strong>of</strong> Jewish Literature (New York: Ktav,<br />
1976) vol. 12 chapter 8; On the anti-modernity <strong>of</strong> the Hasidim in Beloruss see David Fishman, Russia's First<br />
Modern Jews: <strong>The</strong> Jews <strong>of</strong> Skhlov: (New York: N.Y.U. Press, 1994) chap. 6.<br />
13 Shmuel Ettinger, "<strong>The</strong> Hasidic Movement-Reality and Ideals" 236 reprinted in Essential Papers on<br />
Hasidism ed. Gershon David Hundret (New York: New York University Press, 1991); A. Kahana, Sefer<br />
Hasidim (Warsaw: 1922), 304. It is interesting to note that a rabbinic appointment included the responsibility<br />
for the intercession by prayer before the <strong>Divine</strong> as part <strong>of</strong> one’s duties. From the fourteen signatories, on this<br />
contract alone, he earned at least 84 guilden per thousand. In contrast, the Encyclopedia Judaica writes<br />
that he lived a life <strong>of</strong> poverty and humility due to his failure to become a popular Hasidic leader.<br />
14 <strong>The</strong>re was a period in which some Jews rejected modern medicine, just as various Protestant groups<br />
did. Other contemporaries who rejected medicine include R. Nahman <strong>of</strong> Bratzlav, R. Pinhas <strong>of</strong> Koretz, and<br />
R. Levi <strong>of</strong> Berdichev. Part <strong>of</strong> the social patterns that created the Mitnagdim includes their acceptance (with<br />
some reservations by the Vilna Gaon) <strong>of</strong> modern medicine.<br />
15 A. Green, "Typologies <strong>of</strong> Leadership and the Hasidic Zaddiq," Jewish <strong>Spiritual</strong>ity Volume 2 ed. Arthur<br />
Green (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1987), 141. <strong>The</strong>re are many works in Russian and other Slavic<br />
languages that provide bibliographies on spiritual healing in areas that possibly influenced Podolia. Works in<br />
English include on Poland, Z. Libera, A. Palvich "Ethnomedicine and the Pilca" in Poland at the 12th<br />
Congress <strong>of</strong> Anthropological and Ethnological Science ed. Slawoj Szyniciewicz (Wroclaw: 1988). On<br />
Russia, Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ed. Russian Traditional Culture: Religion, Gender, and Customary Law<br />
(Armonk N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, 1992); On Romania, Mircea Eliade, Zalmoxis: <strong>The</strong> Vanishing God (Chicago:<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Chicago, 1970); On Tartars, Thomas A. Sebock, Frances J. Ingemanns, Studies in<br />
Cherinis:<strong>The</strong> Supernatural (New York: WennerGren Foundation, 1956). On southern Slavs, Richard and Eva<br />
Blum, Health and Healing in Rural Greece (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965); P. Kemp, Healing<br />
Ritual: Studies in the Technique and Tradition <strong>of</strong> the Southern Slavs (London: Faber and Faber, 1936). It<br />
would be instructive to compare books <strong>of</strong> baalei-shem to these works.<br />
5
abbi is important for the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim in his own theoretical presentation <strong>of</strong><br />
Hasidism. 16<br />
Shamanistic Ascents and Faith Healing<br />
Recent studies, which have situated the Baal Shem Tov both historically and<br />
phenomenologically within traditions <strong>of</strong> folk medicine and magic, show that the early<br />
Hasidic leaders were carrying on the tradition in which Rabbinic leadership was involved in<br />
preserving the knowledge contained in folk-medical works, including natural medical<br />
knowledge (refuot), special remedies (segulot), and amulet writing (shemot). 17 Someone<br />
who had pr<strong>of</strong>iciency in using the divine name was called a master <strong>of</strong> the name (baal<br />
shem). 18 <strong>The</strong> books <strong>of</strong> the Baalei Shem, (including the Baal Shem Tov) discuss demons,<br />
natural medical cures, amulets and shemot, or warnings <strong>of</strong> danger before adjuring<br />
angels. 19 In contrast, the Degel does not discuss demons or natural cures. Instead, the<br />
special status <strong>of</strong> the Zaddik is based on his connection to the inner light <strong>of</strong> Torah and his<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> the divine vitality within objects that cures and gives power over nature.<br />
16 218b. On the elitism <strong>of</strong> the Degel see Mendel Piekarz, Between Ideology and Reality:Humility, Ayin,<br />
Self-Negation and Devekut in Hasidic Thought [Hebrew], 203, 209.<br />
17 Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic (Albany: Suny Press, 1995); Immanuel Etkes, "<strong>The</strong><br />
Role <strong>of</strong> Magic and Baalei Shem in Ashkenazic Society in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth<br />
Centuries" in Zion 60:1 (1995) pp. 69-104.<br />
18 On the magical cultural climate in Ashkenaz see Herman Pollack, Jewish Folkways in Germanic Lands<br />
(1648-1806) (Cambridge, M.I.T. Press, 1971) chapter 6. A traditional collection <strong>of</strong> many sources is<br />
contained in Moshe Hillel, Baalei Shem (Jerusalem: 1993).<br />
19 <strong>The</strong>re are no mentions <strong>of</strong> specific diseases either but one can ascribe that difference to his claimed<br />
genre <strong>of</strong> Biblical commentary.<br />
6
Functionally, the Zaddik's own spiritual energy has replaced both natural healing and<br />
kabbalistic shemot. In common with the Baalei Shem literature the Degel discusses dream<br />
interpretation, ascents <strong>of</strong> the soul, and some talismanic astrological magic. While the<br />
Baalei Shem literature claims that the world works by natural or astrological means, the<br />
Degel sees nature as consisting <strong>of</strong> divine vitality, in which every object has this life giving<br />
energy as light or sparks.<br />
P. Kemp made the important observation that spiritual healing in Eastern Europe is<br />
divided by regional and not ethnic differences. 20 Similarly, Moshe Idel notes the similarities<br />
between the ascents <strong>of</strong> the soul practiced by the Baal Shem Tov and those experienced by<br />
the shamans in the Moldavian Carpats. 21 If this comparison between the Baal Shem Tov<br />
and the Eastern European shamanic faith healers is valid, then from the perspective <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phenomenology <strong>of</strong> religion, the shamanic experience <strong>of</strong> an ascent <strong>of</strong> the soul found in<br />
Hasidism is different from kabbalistic mysticism. <strong>The</strong> shamanic elements would be more<br />
important for understanding Hasidic phenomena than the antecedents <strong>of</strong> Hasidic<br />
terminology in Lurianic, Heikhalot, or Abulafian writings. 22<br />
20 P. Kemp, Healing Ritual, 181.<br />
21 M. Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives p. 321 note 137, referring to Mircea Eliade, Zalmoxis: <strong>The</strong><br />
Vanishing God (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago, 1970), pp. 191-194. Idel in note 133 mentions the parallel<br />
between the cosmic column linking the lower paradise to other levels <strong>of</strong> reality in both Hasidism and<br />
shamanism. Yet, Eliade himself in this discussion <strong>of</strong> the healers and sorcerers <strong>of</strong> Romania writes that they<br />
possess ecstatic qualities <strong>of</strong> oracle dreams, trances, and ascents, without most <strong>of</strong> the other characteristics<br />
<strong>of</strong> shamans including: initiatory malady, costumes, ritual death and resurrection, or the ability to turn into an<br />
animal. Furthermore, in reference to Rumanian Orthodox ecstatic healers who invoke God and the saints<br />
Eliade writes that they "lack all <strong>of</strong> the constituent elements <strong>of</strong> shamanism," 202-203.<br />
22 <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Kabbalah in the Degel is limited to a few set sefirotic metaphors and a few elements <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Lurianic prayer book. Only a few works are cited, including a Lurianic prayer book, Toldot Yaakov Yosef, Or<br />
Hayyim and Brit Menuhah in the name <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov. In addition, he seems to have consulted an<br />
Ein Yaakov on the Aggadot in the Talmud and possibly a Zohar or a Shnei Luhot Habrit. Most importantly,<br />
he used one <strong>of</strong> the recensions <strong>of</strong> Shaar ha-Yihudim (Koretz: 1783) on Lurianic kavvanot, see 13b. <strong>The</strong> Degel<br />
contains a popular orientation towards the Lurianic prayer book with many citations <strong>of</strong> Leshem Yihud and<br />
7
<strong>The</strong>re are various definitions <strong>of</strong> shamanism ranging from those who limit it to<br />
Siberian healers alone to those who use it as a cross-cultural phenomenon. Eliade<br />
provides a narrow definition <strong>of</strong> shamanism as a technique <strong>of</strong> ecstasy leading to a journey<br />
or flight <strong>of</strong> the soul based on prior initiatory malady, costumes, ritual death and resurrection,<br />
or the ability to turn into an animal. 23 A broader definition <strong>of</strong> shamanism includes an altered<br />
state <strong>of</strong> consciousness based upon entering the realm <strong>of</strong> the spirits and the dead, which is<br />
used for out <strong>of</strong> body traveling, healing, dreams, possession, future knowledge, and<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the dead. 24 Related to these shamanic traditions are various religious<br />
practices including those <strong>of</strong> medicine men and <strong>of</strong> healing priests who serve communities. 25<br />
<strong>The</strong> shamanic journey to the realm <strong>of</strong> the dead and spirits is undertaken for a<br />
specific purpose after preparatory fasting, intoxication, and sleep deprivation. Mental<br />
concentration is increased and shamans maintain control <strong>of</strong> the experience, keeping their<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> self intact when they encounter the dead and the spirits. <strong>The</strong>y can enter or leave<br />
the experience at will and are partially able to determine the type <strong>of</strong> imagery and<br />
experience they will have.<br />
In contrast, the mystical ascent as found in the Kabbalah and as described by most<br />
hamtakat hadinim;see 274b. He is also acquainted with the Lurianic doctrine <strong>of</strong> gilgulim. On knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
Lurianic kavvanot in early Hasidism, see the dissertation in progress by Menahem Kalush at the Hebrew<br />
University.<br />
23 Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques <strong>of</strong> Ecstasy (Princeton: Princeton U.P., 1976); Roger<br />
Walsh, <strong>The</strong> Spirit <strong>of</strong> Shamanism (Los Angeles: Tarcher, 1990). Jane Monnig Atkinson, "Shamanisms<br />
Today" Annual Review <strong>of</strong> Anthropology 21 (1992) 307-30 is an important essay surveying the state <strong>of</strong> the<br />
field.<br />
24 Holger Kalweit, Dreamtime and Inner Space: <strong>The</strong> <strong>World</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Shaman (Boston: Shambhala, 1988).<br />
Carlo Ginzburg, Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witch's Sabbath (New York: Viking-Penguin, 1992) sees a<br />
universal folk culture in Europe <strong>of</strong> witches and sorcerers fighting spirits <strong>of</strong> the dead.<br />
25 Roger Walsh, <strong>The</strong> Spirit <strong>of</strong> Shamanism, 742.<br />
8
mystics is quite different. In a mystic state, arousal is decreased and the mystic is calm,<br />
maintaining heightened emotional pleasure <strong>of</strong> divine bliss and terror <strong>of</strong> the dark night <strong>of</strong> the<br />
soul. In shamanism, arousal is increased and there is no mystical union or merging with the<br />
divine. Mystics generally do not have out <strong>of</strong> body experiences; instead they lose awareness<br />
<strong>of</strong> their bodies, occurring with various degrees <strong>of</strong> egolessness and loss <strong>of</strong> the self. Idel<br />
notes that the ascent <strong>of</strong> the soul in Heikhalot and Hasidut is different than the types <strong>of</strong><br />
mental ascent <strong>of</strong> Bonaventure in Christian mysticism or that <strong>of</strong> kavvanah in the Kabbalistic<br />
tradition. 26<br />
In light <strong>of</strong> this dichotomy, the experiences <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov and the Degel<br />
Mahaneh Ephraim cannot simultaneously, in the same act, be both mystical and shamanic.<br />
If it is shown that they have controlled their aroused altered states <strong>of</strong> consciousness, those<br />
experiences are not mystical even if they use the mystical language <strong>of</strong> Cordovero and the<br />
Zohar. It is important to state clearly that the Neoplatonic ascent in Kabbalah and the<br />
ascent in Hasidism are possibly worlds apart even if they share a similar textual tradition.<br />
<strong>The</strong> actual relationship is more complex because the Degel combines both mystical and<br />
shamanic elements in his system. 27<br />
In contrast to the literary nature <strong>of</strong> the Kabbalah, shamanism is generally an oral<br />
tradition. In the case <strong>of</strong> the Degel we find an oral tradition with an authoritative reliance on<br />
26 Walsh, <strong>The</strong> Spirit <strong>of</strong> Shamanism.; Idel, Kabbalah p. 317, n. 88.<br />
27 Studies on shamanism are usually limited to oral religious cultures and those on mystics to literate<br />
cultures. Yet some literate mystics, such as Julian <strong>of</strong> Norwich are far from a calm Neoplatonic ascent or<br />
Buddhist samadhi. But this proves the point, Julian <strong>of</strong> Norwich has a different experience than Augustine or<br />
Bonaventure even if she uses some <strong>of</strong> their language. For a four-level model <strong>of</strong> the mind that creates a<br />
congruence between altered states <strong>of</strong> consciousness, including the shamanic and mystic see Stanislov<br />
Gr<strong>of</strong>, <strong>The</strong> Adventure <strong>of</strong> Self Discovery (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988); idem, Realms <strong>of</strong> the Human<br />
Unconscious (New York: Viking Press, 1975).<br />
9
the spoken statements <strong>of</strong> his grandfather, the Baal Shem Tov. <strong>The</strong> Baal Shem Tov is<br />
described as having ascents <strong>of</strong> the soul and communication with spirits that are similar to<br />
shamanic experiences, but without a prior initiatory malady, costumes, or ritual death and<br />
resurrection.<br />
R. Moses Hayim Ephraim relates a story <strong>of</strong> shamanic ascents to higher worlds<br />
experienced by the whole circle <strong>of</strong> early Hasidism, and not just the Baal Shem Tov. <strong>The</strong><br />
Degel identifies R. Yehudah the mokhiah <strong>of</strong> Polnah absorbed in the midst <strong>of</strong> an ascent,<br />
which he immediately recognized because <strong>of</strong> his familiarity with heavenly ascents.<br />
I saw R. Yehudah Leib the mokhiah <strong>of</strong> Polnah, who returned from the higher<br />
world in intensely high and elevated [spirits]. I was in his house, and leaped<br />
up quickly with all my strength and requested that he bless me. I said to him<br />
that I know that he had returned from the higher world. He took his two hands,<br />
and placing them on my head, blessed me. I said to him that I would give him<br />
a message (kvit) for my grandfather in the higher world that he should bless<br />
him there, for the blessing, which he blessed me here. 28<br />
Heavenly ascents give the ascendant the ability to bless and to channel the blessing to<br />
others. In addition, the Degel considered the communications in an ascent an actual<br />
communication with the Besht and assumed, as in most shamanic traditions, that people<br />
are able to converse with the dead during the heavenly ascent. 29<br />
28 283b-284a.<strong>The</strong> shaman has a reduced awareness <strong>of</strong> the environment, though in some cases the<br />
shaman can still communicate with spectators. In this case, however, the communication was after his<br />
return.<br />
29 On heavenly ascents, see Ioan Couliano, Out <strong>of</strong> this <strong>World</strong> (Boston:Shambhala, 1991); within hasidism<br />
see Naftali Lowenthal, Communicating the Infinite: <strong>The</strong> Emergence <strong>of</strong> the Habad School (Chicago: University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chicago Press, 1990). See the instructional formula for an ascent to the Garden <strong>of</strong> Eden (a similar version<br />
was probably known in early Hasidism) in Sefer Mifalot Elokim, (Jerusalem: Bakal, 1972) 14a-b. One is<br />
instructed write on a leaf an oath to the angels to bring one to heaven. <strong>The</strong>n one fasts for three days and<br />
places the leaf under one's pillow. See Heinrich Flesch, "Sympathetische Mittel und Rezepte aus dem<br />
Buche Mifalot Elokim des Rabbi Naftali Kohen und Rabbi Joel Baal Shem" MGJV XLII (1912) 41-48.<br />
Heavenly ascents and the vision <strong>of</strong> the Heikhalot continued to be a source <strong>of</strong> religious experience and<br />
creativity and did not cease with the rise <strong>of</strong> the theosophic and ecstatic Kabbalot. Ascents that bear<br />
similarities to the shamanic ascents found in Hasidism, and Heikhalot are to be found in German Pietist,<br />
Zohar, Tikkune Zohar, Brit Menuhah, Cordovero, Luria, Vilna Gaon, and Magical texts.<br />
10
One finds a similar process at the core <strong>of</strong> daily prayers containing "an ascent<br />
through higher worlds in the morning prayers". 30 In addition, the Besht ascended to heaven<br />
by adjuring, or invoking the angels in oaths in 1746, 1749, and 1757. Related stories in the<br />
Shivhei Habesht record that the shamanic yihudim <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov during prayer<br />
caused thousands <strong>of</strong> dead souls to flock to him and that he fell into ecstatic trances. 31 <strong>The</strong><br />
structure <strong>of</strong> ascent during prayer is similar to a heavenly ascent, and while praying one<br />
would also be able to communicate with the dead, intercede in heaven with the angels, and<br />
fight cosmic battles to ward <strong>of</strong>f evil. <strong>The</strong> Besht's prayers seem closer to a shamanic ascent<br />
than to a mystical ascent based on Safed Kabbalah. 32<br />
clairvoyance.<br />
30 37b.<br />
Another shamanic aspect in the zaddik's role is the ability to gain knowledge by<br />
"And God saw that the light was good" (Genesis 1:4) <strong>The</strong> Midrash teaches<br />
that “’it was good’, means good to store up for the zaddikim who use it in<br />
every generation" [BT Hagigah 12a]. I heard from my grandfather [the Baal<br />
Shem Tov] (may he be remembered for a blessing, his soul in Eden, zllh'h)<br />
asked where the [original divine] light and he said that Hashem, has hidden<br />
it in the Torah. Through it zaddikim in each generation use this light, that is,<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> Torah which has in it that light, they are able to see (lehistakel)<br />
in it from one end <strong>of</strong> the world until the other end, as literally (mamash) my<br />
31 In Praise <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov eds. Dan Ben-Amos & Jerome R. Mintz (New York: Schocken, 1984),<br />
on the ascent <strong>of</strong> 1757, see 54-58; on souls coming during prayer, see 46. On the ascents, see M. Rosman,<br />
Founder <strong>of</strong> Hasidism chapter 6. In addition, there were attempts to control the princes <strong>of</strong> the nations on the<br />
new moon <strong>of</strong> Nisan by the Degel himself. "God showed me on the new moon <strong>of</strong> Nisan 1788, in Medziebuz:<br />
Why is the first <strong>of</strong> Nisan the new year for kings? (Rosh Hashanah 2a.) Because on this month the ten sefirot<br />
are the secret <strong>of</strong> the skull <strong>of</strong> the king which includes all aspects <strong>of</strong> the ten sefirot <strong>of</strong> malkhut, which includes<br />
all kingship (malkhut) and government," 99a. On the Maggid inheriting the ability to fight these battles in<br />
Nisan, see, Shlomo Lutzker, Dibrat Shlomo (Jerusalem: 1955), introduction; also printed as the introduction<br />
to Dov Baer <strong>of</strong> Mezhirech, Maggid Devarav Le-Yaakov, ed. Rivkah Shatz (Jerusalem: 1976).<br />
32 On the relationship <strong>of</strong> the Heikhalot to shamanism, see James R. Davila, "<strong>The</strong> Heikhalot Literature and<br />
Shamanism" SBL 1994 Seminar Papers pp. 767-789.<br />
11
own eyes have seen in numerous incidents. 33<br />
He then relates an incident in which the Besht knew about the activities <strong>of</strong> his brother-in-law<br />
R. Gershon Kutover in the land <strong>of</strong> Israel; he saw that he had temporarily left Israel to attend<br />
a circumcision. 34 Rather than letting his readers think this an isolated incident, he adds:<br />
I can cite many cases similar to this and more. Even <strong>of</strong> how he, in fact, saw<br />
from one end <strong>of</strong> the world until the other end, all <strong>of</strong> which was accomplished<br />
with the hidden light in the Torah. 35<br />
This hidden light is also the Degel's goal in Torah study, even if he has not attained<br />
clairvoyant ability. 36<br />
In contrast to the Degel's presentation <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov, which bears a close<br />
similarity to the broad category <strong>of</strong> the shaman and to the Moldavian Carpat healers, the<br />
Degel does not claim for himself these shamanic powers <strong>of</strong> ascent, clairvoyance, and<br />
communication with the dead. Rather, the Degel's role is that <strong>of</strong> spiritual healer and mystic.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel distinguishes between the heavenly ascents <strong>of</strong> the "Baal Shem Tov and his<br />
generation who were on [so high a] level as not to pray at all for their personal needs, only<br />
for the needs <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah," and the lower level <strong>of</strong> his own generation, cleaving to the<br />
shekhinah for their own healing needs. <strong>The</strong> shekhinah is embodied in<br />
the vitality <strong>of</strong> all the sensations <strong>of</strong> a person from the source <strong>of</strong> vitality <strong>of</strong> all life.<br />
[Because <strong>of</strong> this] I hear and feel (as if it were possible) the pain <strong>of</strong> the holy<br />
33 3a. Based on a dream he writes that all cannot have this ability, only zaddikim, see 143a.<br />
34 3a. An alternate version <strong>of</strong> this story is contained in Shivhey Habesht ed. Ben-Amos #193. On the extra<br />
sensory abilities <strong>of</strong> Hasidic zaddikim see Aharon Zeitlein, Ha-Metziut Ha-Aharet (Tel Aviv: Yavneh, 1967)<br />
168-177. On R. Gershon Kutover see Abraham Joshua Heschel, "Rabbi Gershon Kutover: His Life and<br />
Immigration to the Land <strong>of</strong> Israel" in <strong>The</strong> Circle <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago, 1985),<br />
44-112, this story is discussed on 96.<br />
35 3a.<br />
36 3a, 8b. On Torah study as seeing the hidden light see below on Torah study.<br />
12
shekhinah... filling her physical wants. <strong>The</strong> wise will understand<br />
that physical needs are infused with the shekhinah's vitality and will. 37 This lower level does<br />
not ascend; instead the shekhinah inheres in the purified body.<br />
<strong>The</strong> faith healing approach <strong>of</strong> the Degel is stated in his comments on the verse,<br />
"<strong>The</strong> law <strong>of</strong> the Lord is perfect, restoring the soul" (Psalms 19:8), the Degel assumes that<br />
the restoration <strong>of</strong> the soul by means <strong>of</strong> Torah pertains to healing the sick.<br />
We see that souls are healed by kabbalistic healings, segulot, divine names<br />
and amulets, which are part <strong>of</strong> Torah. If one has enough faith then a mercy<br />
(hesed), 38 or prayer or Torah study alone would be sufficient.<br />
One can be healed without recourse to the ordinary techniques <strong>of</strong> a baal shem. In order to<br />
heal, one needs faith, characterized here by the Degel as belief in the divine vitality within<br />
physical objects. 39<br />
<strong>The</strong> power for healing and control over nature is contained in the Torah itself, and<br />
the study <strong>of</strong> Torah gives these powers to the talmid hakham: 40<br />
37 89a.<br />
Just as the Creator <strong>of</strong> All created the natural [realm] 41 in the world by means<br />
<strong>of</strong> wisdom (hokhmah), so too man can create by means <strong>of</strong> new natural<br />
knowledge (hokhmah). From this one can understand how through the<br />
physical, one can quiet the soul (heshiv nefesh) with Torah. [It is] because<br />
dejection and weakness <strong>of</strong> the soul (bittul ve hulshat ha-nefesh) comes from<br />
a deficiency in one <strong>of</strong> the natural elements... When the elements are rectified<br />
to function with complete balance, the soul is quieted to its original point. We<br />
38 Possibly a reference to any physical act done as a yihud.<br />
39 2a. On the definition <strong>of</strong> faith see 56b; 67a; 283a. <strong>The</strong> name <strong>of</strong> someone with faith works also, 48a on the<br />
Besht. On the use <strong>of</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> the Besht, see Idel, Hasidism 74-78.<br />
40 On the natural healing powers <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov using herbs, blood letting and the spiritual ability to<br />
read pulses see In Praise <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov eds. Dan Ben-Amos & Jerome R. Mintz (New York:<br />
Schocken, 1984) 26, 27, 59, 119, 157, 231, 232, 245.<br />
41 [or nature], he is not exact in his use <strong>of</strong> the definite article.<br />
13
already said "in the beginning" means "with wisdom" 42 which is Torah as it is<br />
written "In wisdom hast Thou made them all" (Psalms 104:24). <strong>The</strong>refore, the<br />
rectification and strengthening <strong>of</strong> nature is also by means <strong>of</strong> Torah, because<br />
there is in the Torah matters <strong>of</strong> healing also. Understand this. 43<br />
Just as physical harmony cures the soul, the converse is also true; physical sickness is<br />
based on a spiritual problem, indicating a lack <strong>of</strong> harmony with the shekhinah. 44 <strong>The</strong> Degel<br />
shows his familiarity with the Lurianic method <strong>of</strong> pulse diagnosis, writing "human blood<br />
flows from the name Eh-yeh;" a clot in the blood is reflective <strong>of</strong> a clot in the flow <strong>of</strong> divine<br />
blessings. 45<br />
This power over the natural realm is the special quality gained by a man <strong>of</strong> faith that<br />
relates to the divine vitality within things. <strong>The</strong> zaddik has mastered the talent <strong>of</strong> relating to<br />
the spiritual dimension within all aspects <strong>of</strong> nature. "From my grandfather [I heard] that each<br />
zaddik has holy sparks which relate to the source <strong>of</strong> his soul which he needs to rectify and<br />
raise even his servants, animals, and utensils." 46 <strong>The</strong> ability to find the divine vitality in<br />
42 In contrast to midrash and Zohar, where reshit and hokhmah are synonymous with <strong>Divine</strong> Wisdom, here<br />
they refer to the letters themselves. Combinations <strong>of</strong> letters (zerufei otiot) have healing powers almost like<br />
recombining an internal DNA pattern see: 180a-181b.<br />
43 2a; also 102a-103b. On nature as theosophy see Antoine Faivre, "Nature: Religious and Philosophic<br />
Speculations" in vol. 10, <strong>The</strong> Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> Religion ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: MacMillan, 1987), 328-<br />
331.<br />
44 102b.<br />
45 243b. On diagnosis by means <strong>of</strong> pulses, see Tikkune Zohar #69 108a; R. Isaac Luria Shaar Ruah<br />
Hakodesh, 3 provides a yihud which distinguishes between ten types <strong>of</strong> pulses, corresponding to the ten<br />
sefirot and the ten vowel points. It is further described in Likkutei Torah, Taamey HaMitzvot, Vayera. <strong>The</strong><br />
Besht also used this method, Praise <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov 245. Dan, Ha-Sippur Ha-Hasidi points out that<br />
the Besht used ordinary means and not miracles to heal, 96-110.<br />
46 15b. Compare Gershom Scholem, "<strong>The</strong> Neutralization <strong>of</strong> Messianism in Early Hasidism" <strong>The</strong> Messianic<br />
Idea in Judaism, 189 where it is cited as giving a concrete and personal tone to the Kabbalistic idea <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Divine</strong> sparks.<br />
14
objects is called the Torah <strong>of</strong> mercy (Torat hesed), and allows one to "change all nature." 47<br />
<strong>The</strong>se abilities or techniques for raising sparks can only be gained through purity<br />
from lust. "Yosef who kept the covenant <strong>of</strong> peace [<strong>of</strong> sexual purity] was able to change<br />
hunger to satiation, understand it." 48 <strong>The</strong> power <strong>of</strong> divine wisdom (hokhmah) gained by<br />
sexual purity allows one to channel or sublimate one's vitality, and thereby, literally apply<br />
mind over matter. Notice that food is not associated with raising sparks nor embracing the<br />
physical. One gains the physical sustenance or healing ability directly from the food's divine<br />
source. This ability is less a miracle or magic than an ascetic mind control technique for<br />
gaining mastery over the physical.<br />
Quoting R. Nahman <strong>of</strong> Horodenka, the Degel shows that he aims to gain this ability.<br />
He defines true worship as identifying with and thereby, controlling nature itself:<br />
To worship Hashem one needs to include himself with all creations, from the<br />
smallest worm to the wild ox. 49<br />
<strong>The</strong> secret (sod) <strong>of</strong> man is in all the worlds and all minerals, plants and<br />
animals. One understands this by an analogy: when a person does not eat for<br />
several days, he may die from hunger, but when he eats an olive size piece<br />
(ke-zayit) <strong>of</strong> bread his soul is stilled. Automatically (memele) we understand<br />
that in this small piece (ke-zayit) is the secret <strong>of</strong> complete man. That is the<br />
spiritual vitality, which contains divine energy within it, which is the secret <strong>of</strong><br />
47 "and sweeten all judgements." 47a-b. See 83a for another good example. A parallel to the thought <strong>of</strong><br />
the Degel is found in R. Menahem Nahum <strong>of</strong> Chernobyl, Meor Eynayim (Jerusalem: 1968). R. Menahem<br />
writes that a <strong>Divine</strong> vitality (hiyyut) is found in all things. Healing can be by means <strong>of</strong> this vitality, and its<br />
channeling by various means including visiting graves <strong>of</strong> zaddikim. <strong>The</strong> Torah gives the Zaddik these powers:<br />
"All seven wisdoms, the wisdom <strong>of</strong> medicine, and other wisdoms... are also Torah, and Torah is their<br />
vitality," 291; 26; “likkutim, Masekhet Shabbat”. One example on the healing powers <strong>of</strong> Zaddikim has been<br />
translated in Upright Practices, <strong>The</strong> Light <strong>of</strong> the Eyes (New York: Paulist Press, 1982) trans. Arthur Green,<br />
148-157.<br />
48 273b.<br />
49 196a. On Nahman see Mendel Piekarz, In the Beginning <strong>of</strong> Hasidism (Jerusalem: Bialek Press, 1978),<br />
23-25; 260-265.<br />
15
man. 50<br />
Zaddikim bind themselves to the divine vitality in all the physical activities that they perform.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y eat only a minimum amount <strong>of</strong> food because that amount is sufficient for them to<br />
reach the divine vitality in that item, while ignoring its physicality. <strong>The</strong>refore, their own<br />
bodies become pure and exist solely as a conduit for the divine.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel considers this minimum amount <strong>of</strong> vitality in objects as the reason for the<br />
legal requirement <strong>of</strong> using an olive size as a minimum measure in the laws <strong>of</strong> leavening<br />
and mazot on Passover, the sacrificial cult, and the laws <strong>of</strong> ritual slaughtering. <strong>The</strong> Degel<br />
further proves that this vitality inheres in all objects; he points to the ability to heal a person<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> crystals and "the transnatural property (segulah) <strong>of</strong> precious stones to sustain<br />
a person, as is known in the case <strong>of</strong> the crystal (yahalom)." 51<br />
He presents a general theory <strong>of</strong> divine energy within physical objects, which is<br />
contained in the following directive:<br />
When one sees a material object, whether human, animal, vegetable, or<br />
mineral, one draws from the mind (moha) to it a praiseworthy thought <strong>of</strong><br />
desire and awe. One draws to them vitality from the higher mind by means <strong>of</strong><br />
the influx that descends into the procession <strong>of</strong> the worlds and comes to the<br />
angel appointed on that object. [He] leads it, masters it and causes it to grow<br />
and generate, until everything is completed. Afterwards, when the object<br />
50 36b. On food and the body as major categories <strong>of</strong> pre-modern thought see Piero Camporesi, Bread <strong>of</strong><br />
Dreams: Food and Fantasy in the Early Middle Ages (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press, 1989); idem,<br />
Incorruptible Flesh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), considers the references to the worms<br />
as a death reference.<br />
51 151a. Yahalom in the Bible is probably a green opal or jasper. <strong>The</strong> Degel probably refers to a clear<br />
stone, possibly quartz. Emil Hirsch, "Gems" Jewish Encyclopedia vol 5, 594. This importance <strong>of</strong> a yahalom<br />
crystal is not found in the recent anthology by Raphael Patai, <strong>The</strong> Jewish Alchemists (Princeton:Princeton<br />
University Press, 1994. On crystals in shamanism see: Michael Ripinsky-Naxon, <strong>The</strong> Nature <strong>of</strong><br />
Shamanism: Substance and Function <strong>of</strong> a Religious Metaphor (Albany: Suny Press, 1993), p. 123, who<br />
describes the shamanic use <strong>of</strong> rock crystals as living or solidified light and compares it to Ezekiel's vision <strong>of</strong><br />
light crystals on the <strong>Divine</strong> throne. <strong>The</strong> Degel’s concept <strong>of</strong> minute amounts as sufficient is also found in<br />
homeopathy, see Samuel Hahnemann, <strong>The</strong> Healing Art <strong>of</strong> Homeopathy presented by Edmond C. Hamlyn,<br />
(New Canaan, Conn.: Keats Publishing Co., 1979).<br />
16
established in the world, the person reciprocates (hozer) and enjoys taking<br />
more vitality from it. This is the secret <strong>of</strong> "the vitality (hiyut) runs to and fro." 52<br />
This passage is similar in part to the concept <strong>of</strong> kavvanah found in the circle in Gerona and<br />
in the writings <strong>of</strong> Cordovero. Yet, the Degel ignores the sefirot and their channels, the<br />
panentheistic indwelling <strong>of</strong> the divine, and the Neoplatonic psychology. What remains is a<br />
system that sees the physical world as infused with energy <strong>of</strong> higher unseen realms, and<br />
mystical practice is required to transfer this energy to the physical world. <strong>The</strong> Degel's<br />
description <strong>of</strong> finding the hidden vitality descending from above into physical objects and <strong>of</strong><br />
channeling the energy is similar to Moshe Idel's panoramic typology <strong>of</strong> magic by ascending<br />
and bringing down the power. Yet, the Degel's tone is focused more on the horizontal<br />
aspects: One ascends and binds objects above. “<strong>The</strong>n when the object comes to be in the<br />
world, the person reciprocates (hozer) and enjoys taking more vitality from it.” 53 <strong>The</strong><br />
emphasis is on causing it to grow and on the horizontal plane, with a transfer <strong>of</strong> the vitality<br />
from the zaddik to the object and back again.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are variations on these ideas <strong>of</strong> immanent energy in Hasidic texts.<br />
Cordovero's Kabbalah has two applicable metaphors for the flow <strong>of</strong> the immanence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine within the world, vessel (keli) and channel (zinnor). <strong>The</strong> divine essence is either<br />
contained in vessels, or streams into the world as a channel. <strong>The</strong>se metaphors are<br />
adapted and used in Hasidism, but the essence is now not Cordovero's emanation <strong>of</strong> an<br />
52 151a.<br />
53 151a. <strong>The</strong> passage associates the animals/angelic beings (hayot) with the vitality (hiyut).<br />
17
infinite divine essence, 54 but a universal life force -as an almost tangible quality- within<br />
everyday objects. This universal life force permeates all things, and all things depend on it<br />
for health and life, similar to the Hindu prana, the Chinese chi, or the Japanese ki. <strong>The</strong> two<br />
metaphors <strong>of</strong> immanence become two different approaches to this life force. A statement<br />
that one is a vessel (keli) for the divine vitality is similar to a Taoist statement that the<br />
immanence is within the human body as chi. While a statement that one is a channel<br />
(zinnor) for the divine is similar to a more shamanic ki <strong>of</strong> Seiki-Jutsu in which one channels<br />
this life force from outside the body. 55<br />
In the Degel, the life force is obtained by desire and awe, which transform the<br />
ordinary physical world into an interactive divine energy field. "One cleaves himself in the<br />
Holy One Blessed be He and raises everything he sees with thought to the Holy One<br />
Blessed be He." This passage describes an extrovert mystical oneness with the vitality that<br />
pulsates through the physical world. 56<br />
54 <strong>The</strong>re are also perfect Cordoverean passages <strong>of</strong> opening channels to bring an influx from above such as<br />
15a, on these see Idel, Hasidism chapter 6.<br />
55 On the internal energy <strong>of</strong> Chi see Da Liu, Tai Chi Chuan and Meditation (New York: Schocken Books,<br />
1986); On the external energy <strong>of</strong> Seiki-Jutsu see Ikuko Osumi and Malcolm Ritchie, <strong>The</strong> Shamanic<br />
Healer:<strong>The</strong> Healing <strong>World</strong> <strong>of</strong> Ikuko Osumi and the Traditional Art <strong>of</strong> Seiki-Jutsu (Rochester, Vermont:<br />
Healing Arts Press, 1988); This energy has been called by a variety <strong>of</strong> names and explained by many<br />
theories, some considered scientifically valid and some not, including pneuma by Galen, telesma by the<br />
Corpus Hermetica, magnetic fluid by Mesmer, prana (and focused on chakras) in Hinduism, and bioenergy<br />
by current Eastern European researchers. <strong>The</strong> relationship <strong>of</strong> pneuma, healing, and the soul in Western<br />
thought is discussed in Ioan Couliano, Eros and Magic in the Renaissance (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago<br />
Press, 1987), 9 and see his extensive bibliographic references.<br />
56 151a. Similar ideas on the relationship <strong>of</strong> healing, faith and power in objects are found in R. Nahman <strong>of</strong><br />
Breslov:<br />
Know that each herb has a unique power to heal a particular illness. But all this is only for<br />
the person who has failed to guard his faith and morality, and has not been careful to avoid<br />
transgressing the prohibition against despising other people (Avot 4:3). But when someone<br />
has perfect faith, guards himself morally and lives by the principle <strong>of</strong> not looking down on<br />
anyone at all, his healing does not depend on the specific herbs that have the power to cure<br />
his illness. He can be healed with any food and any drink, as it is written, "And He will<br />
bless your bread and your water, and I will remove sickness from you (Exodus 23:25). Such<br />
a person does not have to wait until the specific remedy for his illness is available.<br />
18
Another faith healing trope found in many places in the Degel is the positive imagery<br />
<strong>of</strong> snakes as being able to physically heal or wound, similar to the use <strong>of</strong> animal powers in<br />
shamanic traditions.<br />
"Every talmid hakham who does not begrudge and revenge like a<br />
snake..."(Yoma 22b.) <strong>The</strong> explanation is that a snake has two aspects: at first<br />
he bites and afterwards he looks to heal and revive. Similarly, the talmid<br />
hakham must have these two aspects: one to bite and one to guard and<br />
watch. He needs to be able to heal and revive the one that he bites." 57<br />
"A talmid hakham cleaves in God's Torah, the Torah <strong>of</strong> truth which has these<br />
two aspects. <strong>The</strong> sages write, "if you are worthy, it is an elixir <strong>of</strong> life; if you<br />
are not worthy, it is a poison (Yoma 72b.)" When the talmid hakham studies<br />
lishmah, it is an elixir <strong>of</strong> life to those who cleave to him. One who disgraces a<br />
talmid hakham, there is no healing for his wound (Shabbat 119b). 58<br />
A talmid hakham who has the divine power and power <strong>of</strong> the Torah has, in<br />
the words <strong>of</strong> Torah, [the ability] to kill and to revive. Through his hands he<br />
fights God's wars. Whether he needs to kill or revive, all is through his hands,<br />
as a talmid hakham in his cleaving to the Torah <strong>of</strong> God. 59<br />
<strong>The</strong> talmid hakham, by means <strong>of</strong> his Torah, is seen as possessing the powers <strong>of</strong> the<br />
snake to heal and wound. <strong>The</strong> Degel writes that some can heal with the words <strong>of</strong> prayer,<br />
some with the words <strong>of</strong> Torah, and some by means a physical act. "One who is<br />
continuously fortified in faith and trust in the Blessed Name (Hashem yitborakh) does not<br />
require any act <strong>of</strong> healing." 60<br />
Sefer HaMidot with notes <strong>of</strong> R. Zadok (Lublin: 1915) refuah #1, p. 243, translated by Moshe Myk<strong>of</strong>f as <strong>The</strong><br />
Aleph Bet (Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 1986). See also Likkute Moharan II, 1:6-9. On R. Nahman<br />
and healing see the traditional Breslov anthology, Sefer HaRefuah (Jerusalem: 1992); Abraham Greenbaum,<br />
<strong>The</strong> Wings <strong>of</strong> the Sun (Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 1995). Nahman did not personally engage in<br />
healing and the few stories ascribing a cure due to his power were accomplished solely by faith.<br />
57 103a <strong>The</strong> Degel quotes this from the Toldot Yaakov Yosef vol. 1, yitro p. 194; however, the snake image<br />
also occurs in Binyamin <strong>of</strong> Zlotchov, Amtahat Binyamin (Minkovitch: 1796), Kohelet, in the name <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Besht. On the invoking <strong>of</strong> animal powers in shamanism, see Eliade, Shamanism, 98.<br />
58 104a, <strong>The</strong> talmudic quotes are from the original homily <strong>of</strong> the Toldot.<br />
59 105a; also 85a.<br />
60 273b. See 279a on the healing qualities <strong>of</strong> the Sabbath. This statement needs to be compared to the<br />
views <strong>of</strong> the Pentacostals who believe that faith will heal them. Pentacostals also believe in speaking in<br />
19
<strong>The</strong>se healing abilities have generally been relegated, in twentieth century<br />
academic scholarship, to the realm <strong>of</strong> magic and superstition, meaning that they were<br />
false, primitive, or deceptive. A more tolerant and less condescending view <strong>of</strong> these<br />
matters has led to a more balanced view <strong>of</strong> these as literary records <strong>of</strong> folklore and oral<br />
tales. <strong>The</strong>y were and are primarily stories, based on set genres and motifs. 61 <strong>The</strong><br />
anthropological approach to the workings <strong>of</strong> healing <strong>of</strong> E. E. Evans-Pritchard presented<br />
spiritual healing as an ascription by those healed <strong>of</strong> a supernatural causality to a natural<br />
event and the healing itself is accomplished by means <strong>of</strong> the faith in the symbolism <strong>of</strong> the<br />
healer. 62<br />
Currently, scholars are willing to consider the healing as an actual diagnostic and<br />
healing process employing altered states <strong>of</strong> consciousness. 63 This marks a return to the<br />
tongues while in a state <strong>of</strong> enthusiasm similar to that <strong>of</strong> Hasidism see Felicia Goodman, Speaking in<br />
Tongues:A Cross-cultural Study <strong>of</strong> Glossolalia (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago, 1972).<br />
61 See In Praise <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov eds. Dan Ben-Amos and Jerome R. Mintz (New York: Schocken,<br />
1984), with its index to motifs from Thompson's folklore classifications; G. Nigal, Magic, Mysticism, and<br />
Hasidism (Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1994); Joshua Trachtenberg, Jewish Magic and<br />
Superstition 7th ed. (New York: Behrman House, 1984).<br />
62 E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976);<br />
Unlike the Azande, <strong>The</strong> Degel does not seem to have a separate belief in a realm <strong>of</strong> healing; he expected<br />
his healing to work as in the intellectualist approach described by Robin Horton, Patterns <strong>of</strong> Thought in<br />
Africa and the West:Essays on Magic, Religion, and Science (New York: Cambridge University Press,<br />
1993).<br />
63 This began as research into transpersonal psychology; the current state <strong>of</strong> the field can be gauged from<br />
Roger Walsh, and Frances Vaughan, Paths Beyond the Ego: <strong>The</strong> Transpersonal Vision (Los Angeles:<br />
Tarcher, 1994). A popular version <strong>of</strong> this paradigm shift towards the transpersonal occurred with Bill Moyers,<br />
Healing and the Mind (New York: Doubleday, 1993). Most current literature on Shamanism accepts its<br />
healing power based on first-hand fieldwork with shamans see footnotes 23, 24 above. On fieldwork with<br />
contemporary Christian monastic hermits <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia, showing that ASC (altered states <strong>of</strong> consciousness)<br />
can heal wounds, control the autonomic system, and perform "miracles" <strong>of</strong> healing which parallel those in<br />
patristic desert spirituality, Kabbalah, and Hasidic healing, see William C. Buschell, "Psychophysiological<br />
and Comparative Analysis <strong>of</strong> Ascetico-Meditational Discipline: Toward a New <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Asceticism" in<br />
Asceticism eds. Vincent L. Wimbush and Richard Valantasis (Oxford: O.U.P., 1995) 553-575; and<br />
Buschell's unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1993). A popular narrative <strong>of</strong> a<br />
contemporary Greek Cypriot spiritual healer similar to the Degel in several respects is found in Kyriacos C.<br />
20
late nineteenth and early twentieth century American scholarly tradition <strong>of</strong> an acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />
psychic healing. <strong>The</strong> most famous scholar <strong>of</strong> these phenomena is William James, who,<br />
based on his approach <strong>of</strong> a radical empiricism, took seriously the claims <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mesmerists, faith healers, and hypnotists. 64 <strong>The</strong> best typology <strong>of</strong> these healing phenomena<br />
is still that <strong>of</strong> Thomas Jay Hudson, written in 1893, that classifies these cures under six<br />
rubrics. His six categories include: (1) healing as accomplished by faith alone, as at<br />
Lourdes; (2) hypnotism and trances, also studied by Breuer, Freud and Jung, yet, left as<br />
applicable only to hysterics until the recent trend towards "healing and the mind,"; (3)<br />
mental cures based on positive thinking, which was James' explanation <strong>of</strong> faith healing; (4)<br />
Christian Science, in which the world and its illnesses are illusionary and if one realizes it,<br />
one can change it; (5) shamans and spiritual forces (which later anthropologists further<br />
divided between ascents and possessions); (6) Mesmerism, auras, and all other healing<br />
such as Reiki, Taoist Chi, or Hindu prana exercises based on channeled energy. <strong>The</strong><br />
Degel's description <strong>of</strong> healing using the divine vitality seems closest to number six, and<br />
that his general approach <strong>of</strong> cleaving to the divine vitality is closest to numbers two and<br />
three. 65<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel's own explanation <strong>of</strong> healing is based on this universal life force (hiyut)<br />
Markides, Fire in the Heart: Healers Sages and Mystics (New York: Paragon House, 1990). <strong>The</strong> spiritual<br />
healer Daskalos is a master <strong>of</strong> metaphysical knowledge, psychic powers, with abilities to fly out <strong>of</strong> his body,<br />
visit the world <strong>of</strong> descended souls, all in full consciousness.<br />
64 William James, Essays in Psychical Research (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).<br />
65 Thomas Jay Hudson, <strong>The</strong> Law <strong>of</strong> Psychic Phenomena (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1897), 150. It is<br />
interesting to note that Joseph Weiss describes the Maggid <strong>of</strong> Miezrich as close to number four, Christian<br />
Science, by showing how the zaddik returns everything beyond the illusion <strong>of</strong> this world to its primordial<br />
nothingness and can then transmute it. "<strong>The</strong> Great Maggid's <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Contemplative Magic," Hebrew Union<br />
College Annual 31 (1960) 137-148.<br />
21
on which all things depend for health and life. God is immanent in this life force as an active<br />
and unpredictable force in the everyday natural physics <strong>of</strong> the world. 66 <strong>The</strong> energy <strong>of</strong> this<br />
divine vitality is channeled from above into the physical, yet many objects like crystals, food,<br />
and living beings have stores <strong>of</strong> it that can be used. Unfortunately, he never explains the<br />
mechanics <strong>of</strong> channeling the energy, other than by suggesting the use <strong>of</strong> asceticism and<br />
the Torah.<br />
An innovative new work on spiritual healing by Thomas J. Csordas gives an<br />
explanation <strong>of</strong> the process that facilitates an understanding <strong>of</strong> the Degel. 67 Csordas<br />
observed that spiritual healing orients a person back to his real self and grants healing<br />
control through direct divine contact over life. This orientation is accomplished by imagining<br />
embodied waking images <strong>of</strong> the healed spiritual self. <strong>Spiritual</strong> healing employs religious<br />
images that involve the whole psychosomatic person and not just the mind. Memories <strong>of</strong><br />
traumas held in the body are healed by associating them with divine coincidence and<br />
releasing oneself into the hand <strong>of</strong> God. <strong>The</strong> process does not return the patient to a pre-<br />
illness state but reconceptualizes the pain and suffering into a healed state. This process<br />
creates a sense <strong>of</strong> intimacy, presence, and wholeness that overcomes many<br />
psychosomatic diseases and can give one an ability to struggle with disabilities and pain.<br />
When applied to the Degel, Csordas' theory emphasizes that the way to be healed<br />
66 32b. <strong>The</strong> Degel does not show familiarity with the medieval Jewish works presenting a fixed view <strong>of</strong><br />
nature or the need for a doctrine <strong>of</strong> occasionalism. On the topic in general see Benedicta Ward, Miracles<br />
and the Medieval Mind (Philadelphia: University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania Press, 1982).<br />
67 Thomas J. Csordas, <strong>The</strong> Sacred Self: A Cultural Phenomenology <strong>of</strong> Charismatic Healing (Berkeley and<br />
Los Angeles, University <strong>of</strong> California Press, 1994). A work that integrated and applied Csordas's thesis as<br />
formulated in an earlier article is Loring M. Danforth, Firewalking and Religious Healing: <strong>The</strong> Anastenaria <strong>of</strong><br />
Greece and the American Firewalking Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989). Danforth<br />
points out that in some situations, when it is not a sign <strong>of</strong> inclusion to be healed and a sign <strong>of</strong> exclusion if<br />
one is not healed, then even if the healing failed, the reorientation itself is seen as the goal, p. 280.<br />
22
from the trauma <strong>of</strong> this worldly existence is through direct divine contact channeled by the<br />
master <strong>of</strong> awe in his embodied connection with the divine. <strong>The</strong> zaddik uses stories to<br />
create healing images, and teaches a doctrine <strong>of</strong> openness to the divine providence in life.<br />
One is no longer lost in physical existence; instead one is oriented to the light and<br />
blessings <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah. This new healing orientation <strong>of</strong> a body basking in divine light<br />
would integrate the various different elements found in the Degel's spirituality <strong>of</strong><br />
transcending ordinary life through (1) awe <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah, asceticism, and finding the<br />
divine vitality in all things (2) theosis, (3) pneumatic Torah study and (4) story telling.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Charismatic Catholics, whom Csordas studied, found their healing through<br />
direct divine contact, spontaneity, control over one's life, intimacy, and a sense <strong>of</strong> divine<br />
involvement in one's own life. Csordas points out that in contrast, the same effects are<br />
achieved in Scientology when the spontaneity, control, and intimacy are found in divine<br />
timelessness above the individual’s existential concerns. 68 <strong>The</strong> Degel’s resolution <strong>of</strong><br />
problems through connection to the timeless shekhinah and divine vitality is more in line<br />
with the latter approach. This quest for timelessness combined with its asceticism makes<br />
an romantic reading <strong>of</strong> meeting God in the this-worldly moment difficult to sustain. In the<br />
Degel, one does indeed find a sense <strong>of</strong> intimacy, spontaneity, and organic ties to social<br />
group; yet, it is combined with an otherworldly, ascetic, and God fearing piety.<br />
An additional point made by Csordas is that the Charismatics show their modern<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> self by favoring controlled, and consciously willed images attained while awake.<br />
<strong>The</strong> images used pertain to a person's life story incorporating his unique experiences and<br />
68 Csordas, 146-147.<br />
23
traumas. 69 <strong>The</strong> Degel, however, in line with most traditional approaches, favors images<br />
from the universal, timeless world <strong>of</strong> the symbolic found in the dream, the inspired<br />
revelatory image, and the allegorical story.<br />
<strong>Awe</strong>, Asceticism, and <strong>Divine</strong> <strong>Vitality</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> main hasidic directive for the Degel is "to continuously cleave to the inner<br />
awe" 70 <strong>of</strong> an object by renouncing pleasure, allowing one to experience <strong>of</strong> the inner light <strong>of</strong><br />
the shekhinah. <strong>The</strong> well known Hasidic concepts <strong>of</strong> "finding God in all things" (bekhol<br />
derakhekha daehu), and "cleaving to God" (devekut) are both defined by the Degel as the<br />
ability to relate to the hidden divine vitality in all things.<br />
This experience <strong>of</strong> the inner awe is itself neither mystical nor appreciative <strong>of</strong> this<br />
world. While in the world a person should fear the world:<br />
Until his soul cleaves unto the shekhinah (as if it were possible), 71 as it says<br />
in Song <strong>of</strong> Songs: “say to wisdom, ‘you are my sister’". When one binds<br />
oneself strongly to the shekhinah, one will not fear [the corporeality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world] anymore. 72 A parable: when a person wishes to enter a deep pit he<br />
fears that he will not be able to climb up. <strong>The</strong>refore, he takes a ladder with<br />
him into the pit in order that he can ascend. <strong>The</strong> moral (nimshal) is that the<br />
shekhinah is the ladder, and he is the one that the Holy One, blessed be He,<br />
tells not to have fear. <strong>The</strong> saint who fears the evils <strong>of</strong> the pit <strong>of</strong> the physical<br />
world cleaves to an inner awe, and [obtains] the conviction that he is literally<br />
the shekhinah (as if it were possible).<br />
69 Csordas, 93, 146-147.<br />
70 189b.<br />
71 He usually reserves the phrase “as if it were possible” (kiveyakol) for identification with tiferet and not<br />
with the shekhinah, compare 110a.<br />
72 It is important to note that the reference to wisdom in the quote from the Song <strong>of</strong> Songs "say to wisdom,<br />
‘you are my sister’" is taken as a reference to the mental cleaving to the shekhinah and not a reference to<br />
the sefirah <strong>of</strong> hokhmah as in earlier Kabbalah.<br />
24
<strong>The</strong> inner awe and the cleaving to the shekhinah serves as a ladder, which remains<br />
connected to a person as a lifeline, when he enters difficult terrain. 73 Everyone needs to<br />
sense, according to his spiritual level, this inner awe in order to ascend from the world. 74<br />
<strong>The</strong> binding to the shekhinah while engaged in ordinary activities is an inner<br />
transformation <strong>of</strong> the whole person into a state <strong>of</strong> holiness; one then senses the divine<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> reality. <strong>The</strong> Degel requires awe and the rejection <strong>of</strong> physical pleasure in order to<br />
cleave to the shekhinah, which then allows the experience <strong>of</strong> the inner light <strong>of</strong> the Holy One<br />
Blessed, be He (tiferet). 75<br />
For most people the world is not a place infused with the divine, rather it is a snare<br />
<strong>of</strong> corporeality leading away from the divine. <strong>The</strong> doctrine <strong>of</strong> the Degel is puritanical toward<br />
the enjoyment <strong>of</strong> physicality while simultaneously affirming the world as a divine<br />
manifestation. 76<br />
This world is like a sea. When a person finds God (HKBH), whose Glory fills<br />
all the earth, in physical matters then he has performed (as if it were<br />
possible) a unification(yihud). <strong>The</strong> path toward unification...[is to guard<br />
73 52a.This parable is translated by Samuel Dresner, who demonstrates the influence on it <strong>of</strong> R. Menahem<br />
Mendel <strong>of</strong> Bar's view that life in this world is a descent fraught with danger. See Samuel H. Dresner, <strong>The</strong><br />
Zaddik: <strong>The</strong> Doctrine <strong>of</strong> the Zaddik According to the Writings <strong>of</strong> Rabbi Yakov Yosef <strong>of</strong> Polnoy (New York:<br />
Schocken Books, 1960).<br />
74 80a-b, 116b. This acute sense <strong>of</strong> awe, fear and trembling is also characteristic <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov;<br />
see Dan, Ha-Sippur Ha-Hasidi 91-92. <strong>The</strong> stories describe the Besht as frozen in a trance <strong>of</strong> awe. This<br />
tradition was alive in the twentieth century Lelover Rebbe R. Moshe Mordekhai Biderman (died 1987), who<br />
would fall into a spasmatic seizure <strong>of</strong> trembling in prayer. This form <strong>of</strong> mystical ASC (altered state <strong>of</strong><br />
consciousness) is very different than the portrayal <strong>of</strong> hasidism as based on the Maggid's cleaving in thought.<br />
75 Sometimes the Degel formulates the influx <strong>of</strong> divine light <strong>of</strong> tiferet as coming from wisdom (hokhmah)<br />
and defined as charity, providence (hesed), and the sweetening <strong>of</strong> the judgement (hamtakat hadinim). 170a.<br />
Hokhmah, hesed, and gevurah are treated as metaphors for wisdom, mercy, and judgement respectively<br />
and are not given their own independent status in the sefirot. 175a-b;182a.<br />
76 See Louis Jacobs, "Eating as an Act <strong>of</strong> Worship in Hasidic Thought" In Studies in Jewish Religious and<br />
Intellectual History: Festschrift A. Altmann edited Siegfried Stein and Raphael Loewe, (Alabama:University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Alabama, 1979), 157-166.<br />
25
oneself] from immorality. On weekdays it is difficult to reach this level except<br />
for masters <strong>of</strong> the name (anshei shem or people <strong>of</strong> renown) 77 and masters<br />
<strong>of</strong> the soul. However, on the Sabbath it is easy for everyone to reach this<br />
level. <strong>The</strong>refore God commanded to eat, drink and enjoy oneself on the<br />
Shabbat. 78<br />
Life in this world is seen as being lost at sea, while the ascetic fear <strong>of</strong> God becomes the<br />
path that navigates. <strong>The</strong> masters <strong>of</strong> the name can regularly navigate the physical; most<br />
people can attempt it only on the Sabbath. Fundamentally, the Degel senses an existential<br />
disorientation if one is not steered though the world. If one cultivates a life <strong>of</strong> awe and<br />
devotion then one has a rudder to steer oneself even in physical activities. 79<br />
In order to properly fulfill the dictum "in all your ways know him" (bekhol derakhekha<br />
daehu), one renounces physical pleasures:<br />
If a pleasurable matter comes, attend to the source and origin <strong>of</strong> all<br />
pleasures, the cause <strong>of</strong> causes which revives all and gives vitality in all things<br />
and from there comes the pleasure. When one attends to this and believes it<br />
with a total faith, all physical pleasure will be nullified. 80<br />
<strong>The</strong> need to renounce pleasure in order to reach God is presented as a dichotomy<br />
between the soul seeking to cleave to the divine and the physical pleasure <strong>of</strong> the world. 81<br />
<strong>The</strong> dualism <strong>of</strong> divine soul and corporeal body is overcome by sensing the divine vitality<br />
even in the body. This realization can be accomplished by the soul <strong>of</strong> a talmid hakham<br />
77 Later in the passage he calls them princes (nasi) and high priests. See A. Green, "Typologies <strong>of</strong><br />
Leadership and the Hasidic Zaddiq" in Jewish <strong>Spiritual</strong>ity Volume 2, ed. Arthur Green (New York: Crossroad<br />
Publishing, 1987); <strong>The</strong>re are strong feudal and reactionary aspects <strong>of</strong> these models, on the most famous<br />
case see David Assaf, Derekh Ha-Malkhut: R. Israel Mi-Ryzhin.<br />
78 274b-275a.<br />
79 Compare Rav Nahman's outburst that the world is a narrow strait.<br />
80 56b; 67a.<br />
81 168a. See 176a-b on sweetening judgement (hamtakat hadim) as the psychological removal <strong>of</strong> pride,<br />
allowing the natural vitality to be sensed.<br />
26
ecause "God and the Torah (identified with the soul) are one (Kudsha Berikh Hu ve<br />
Oraita Had)." <strong>The</strong>refore, the talmid hakham can use the power inherent in his divine soul<br />
to transform his body into a vessel <strong>of</strong> divine light. 82<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel writes that one who cleaves to God needs to be able to be in that state<br />
so as to sense the inner awe while engaged in ordinary activities. "Every person needs to<br />
go up and go out" into the world. "Even someone committing a sin, God forbid, who<br />
receives pleasure from the sin, does so from the vitality <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah, without it, he<br />
could sin and could not receive pleasure from the sin." 83 This passage shows a faith in an<br />
animistic ontology <strong>of</strong> divine vitality within all things. However, the Degel’s worldview is not a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> quietistic antinomianism; only mizvot and asceticism leads one to cleave to the<br />
inner light.<br />
Louis Jacobs writes, "Hasidism utilizes the concept <strong>of</strong> the holy sparks to a far<br />
greater degree than the Lurianic kabbalists themselves. But although on the surface<br />
nothing has changed, in effect the whole concept has undergone a radical transformation."<br />
Jacobs views the difference as based on contrasting Lurianic asceticism with Hasidic<br />
worship through corporeality.<br />
Some Hasidic masters did engage in severe denial and mortification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
flesh, their ascetic mode <strong>of</strong> life belonged to their background as Lurianic<br />
kabbalists or to individual temperament. It was only incidental to the Hasidic<br />
way <strong>of</strong> life, which stressed the idea <strong>of</strong> avodah be-gashmiyyut, "divine<br />
worship through the use <strong>of</strong> material things." This involved a positive embrace<br />
<strong>of</strong> things <strong>of</strong> this world as means toward the service <strong>of</strong> God. In the essential<br />
Hasidic doctrine, God is worshipped not only by the study <strong>of</strong> the Torah,<br />
82 On this dictum, see Isaiah Tishby "God, Torah and Israel are One-<strong>The</strong> source <strong>of</strong> the Dictum in Ramhal's<br />
Commentary on Idra Rabba." in Kiryat Sefer 50 (1975)480-92, 668-74; Bracha Sack "More on... God, Torah,<br />
and Israel are One." Kiryat Sefer. 57 (1982).<br />
83 53b.<br />
27
prayer, and the observance <strong>of</strong> the precepts but also by engaging in worldly<br />
pursuits with God in mind. Little is made in the Lurianic Kabbalah <strong>of</strong> the holy<br />
sparks residing in food and drink... abstinence and holy living are the way in<br />
which the sparks are rescued. 84<br />
<strong>The</strong> doctrine <strong>of</strong> worship through corporeality is seen as world affirming, non-ascetic, and<br />
involving "a positive embrace <strong>of</strong> things <strong>of</strong> this world as means toward the service <strong>of</strong><br />
God." 85<br />
In contrast to Jacobs' world affirming portrayal <strong>of</strong> Hasidism, the doctrine <strong>of</strong> worship<br />
through corporeality in the Degel is mildly ascetic, available only to someone who can<br />
avoid physical pleasure and thereby see the divine vitality in the world. Rather than a<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the Lurianic ethos, the concept <strong>of</strong> worship through corporeality in the Degel is<br />
based on a single-minded use <strong>of</strong> the ascetic Lurianic intentions <strong>of</strong> eating, which are then<br />
applied to all life. <strong>The</strong> transformation was from the contemplative mystical ascent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
soul and theurgic spirituality <strong>of</strong> Luria into a Hasidic enthusiasm and asceticism. An<br />
example <strong>of</strong> this embodied asceticism is the ubiquitous hasidic fear <strong>of</strong> involuntary seminal<br />
emission (keri) and the corresponding importance attached to regular mikveh immersion.<br />
Heschel cites the severity <strong>of</strong> this sin within most Hasidic texts including the Magid <strong>of</strong><br />
Miezrich and his followers. 86<br />
84 Louis Jacobs, "<strong>The</strong> Uplifting <strong>of</strong> Sparks in Later Jewish Mysticism" in Jewish <strong>Spiritual</strong>ity Volume 2 ed.<br />
Arthur Green (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1987) pp. 99-126, especially p. 115-116. One <strong>of</strong> Jacob's<br />
examples (121) is the Hasidic fondness for smoking. It is interesting to note that during the same time<br />
period Siberian shamans switched from native hallucinogenics to the New <strong>World</strong> plant, tobacco, as the<br />
psychoactive drug <strong>of</strong> choice. See, V.N. Basilov, "Chosen by the Spirits" in Shamanism: Soviet Studies <strong>of</strong><br />
Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia ed. Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, (Armonk, New York: M.E.<br />
Sharpe, 1990), pp. 3-48.<br />
85 Jacobs, "<strong>The</strong> uplifting <strong>of</strong> Sparks" p. 115.<br />
86 See 236a-b. On involuntary keri as a mortal <strong>of</strong>fense, see Abraham Joshua Heschel, <strong>The</strong> Circle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Baal Shem Tov (Chicago: University <strong>of</strong> Chicago, 1985), 190. Asceticism, worry over sexual sins, and<br />
Hasidei Ashkenaz fasting for sins are contained in most Hasidic texts, and not just those <strong>of</strong> R. Nahman <strong>of</strong><br />
28
<strong>The</strong> Hasidic approach <strong>of</strong> the Degel creates a psychophysical theosis that allows an<br />
active life as a channel <strong>of</strong> divine vitality. "Even if a person performs mizvot and actively<br />
pursues mizvot, without the fear <strong>of</strong> heaven it is completely disregarded." 87 <strong>The</strong> mizvot do<br />
not count because they do not fulfill their function <strong>of</strong> bringing the divine light into the person.<br />
<strong>The</strong> act without the corresponding fear <strong>of</strong> heaven does not work on the physical level <strong>of</strong><br />
transforming the person into the divine. <strong>Awe</strong> and physical asceticism comprise the lower<br />
religious consciousness (katnut) while bringing the infinite Divinity into the physical is<br />
called the higher consciousness (gadlut).<br />
Abraham kept only the mizvah <strong>of</strong> circumcision- while equivalent to all the<br />
commandments as a curb <strong>of</strong> lust and physical pleasure- was only able to achieve an<br />
ascetic removal from the world. In contrast, the mizvot <strong>of</strong> the Torah correspond to all 248<br />
limbs and 365 sinews which in turn correspond to the divine name and the divine soul in<br />
man. This embodied manifestation in the physical by means <strong>of</strong> all the limbs is considered a<br />
higher consciousness. 88 <strong>The</strong> negative commandments all fight the "other gods" such as<br />
lust; the positive commands develop the embodied soul. 89<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel quotes the Baal Shem Tov's explanation <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> the angels<br />
ascending and descending the ladder in Jacob's vision as the secret <strong>of</strong> lower (katnut) and<br />
higher (gadlut) religious consciousness, also called the secret <strong>of</strong> running to and fro (ratzo<br />
Bratzlav and R. Elimelech <strong>of</strong> Lyzinck, as stated by I. Tishby, and Y. Dan, in "Hasidut." Encyclopedia HaIvrit<br />
vol. 16, 769-821. <strong>The</strong> penitences <strong>of</strong> Hasidei Ashkenaz and Luria, remain in effect in the Hasidic world, unlike<br />
the Mitnagdim who substituted Torah study. Compare Tanya: Iggeret HaTeshuvah chapter 1 to Nefesh Ha-<br />
Hayyim, gate 1.<br />
87 81a.<br />
88 87a; 216a.<br />
29
veshav), and <strong>of</strong> falling for the sake <strong>of</strong> rising (yeridah lezorekh aliyah), and "you shall seek<br />
God from there." 90 <strong>The</strong>se phrases indicate that from the lower space, into which one<br />
regularly has to fall, one can reach out to God and return to higher consciousness. <strong>The</strong><br />
lower consciousness can be used to ascend to higher consciousness, but it is not an end<br />
in itself. 91<br />
Similarly, when the messiah comes, there will no longer be a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
(daat) and the widespread lower consciousness (katnut). Instead all will be filled with divine<br />
knowledge, and people will live a religious life <strong>of</strong> only higher consciousness (gadlut),<br />
allowing people to gather the sparks by raising them to the higher consciousness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine name. Gathering sparks does not bring the messianic age; rather the opposite is<br />
true. <strong>The</strong> messianic age will be a time <strong>of</strong> corrected consciousness allowing all people to<br />
relate the manifestation directly to the divine in all things. 92 Raising sparks 93 is the<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> living in oneness with the divine vitality in the world, which will continue even<br />
89 157a-158a.<br />
90 See also 206a. This is radically different than the approach <strong>of</strong> Polish Hasidism. It was said in the name<br />
<strong>of</strong> R. Simhah Bunim <strong>of</strong> Przysucha (1765-1827): "And you shall seek God from there" this refers to all the<br />
philosophical and intellectual investigations to grasp God and His unity which are call "from there" that is<br />
another place. But, in reality the truth is that there [referring to philosophy], is the actual place <strong>of</strong> the heart.<br />
When a person properly purifies his ethical traits as presented by Maimonides in his Laws <strong>of</strong> Deot, then he<br />
will find in his heart the Blessed Divinity." Torat Simhah, (Pitrokov: 1910) sec 133. Compare the rejection <strong>of</strong><br />
philosophic questioning in the Degel, 18a.<br />
91 40a-41a.<br />
92 93a. This higher consciousness is a state <strong>of</strong> identity with the <strong>Divine</strong> vitality. It is not an individualized<br />
redemption, as in the thought <strong>of</strong> the Maggid, nor does it undo the "Lurianic breaking <strong>of</strong> the vessels," as in<br />
Scholem and Tishby. <strong>The</strong> sparks are always ontologically scattered in the lower physical world, the<br />
messianic age allows the ideal religious life <strong>of</strong> continuously relating the physical directly to the <strong>Divine</strong>.<br />
93 <strong>The</strong> Degel here uses the idea <strong>of</strong> the raising sparks found in the Lurianic writings, and converts it from a<br />
Kabbalistic concept into one <strong>of</strong> spiritual enthusiasm. It is a metaphor for the fallen world and the access to<br />
divine vitality. <strong>The</strong> ideal enthusiastic life <strong>of</strong> identifying with the shekhinah is seen as undoing this fallen state<br />
but the story <strong>of</strong> the fall itself is not part <strong>of</strong> his theory.<br />
30
during the messianic age. 94<br />
<strong>The</strong>osis <strong>of</strong> the Talmid Hakham<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel states that the body and not just the soul are perfected in the keeping <strong>of</strong><br />
mizvot. This psychosomatic whole is a different experience from the experience <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Neo-Platonic ascent <strong>of</strong> the soul; it is more <strong>of</strong> a theosis than an ascent. 95 In the Degel, one<br />
identifies with the exile <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah in the physical world. Through prayer and piety the<br />
master <strong>of</strong> awe becomes one with her in order to cleave to the infinite divine light. <strong>The</strong><br />
shekhinah receives the influx <strong>of</strong> the infinite divine light from the Holy One, Blessed be He<br />
(tiferet), and gives it to the world. Prayer for the shekhinah means that one senses the<br />
inner vitality and connects it above for a blessing. 96 <strong>The</strong>refore, the joining <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
vitality in the physical to the mental, is a yihud <strong>of</strong> shekhinah and tiferet, a conduit for divine<br />
light. 97 One becomes like the shekhinah, both through a unification (yihud) <strong>of</strong> the physical<br />
94 99b. Messianism is politically neutralized as a longed for embodied redemption, when people can<br />
collectively live in a state <strong>of</strong> higher consciousness. <strong>The</strong> Degel is in line with the letter <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov<br />
in which he spoke to the messiah in an ascent and was told that the Messiah will come when the Besht's<br />
teachings are disseminated. Yet, it remains, in an ironic sense, the ever, unfulfilled desire because it is<br />
neither actively politically pursued nor spiritualized.<br />
95 Idel, Hasidism, 246. It is closer to St. Symeon than to Gregory <strong>of</strong> Nyssa. <strong>The</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> activism<br />
and enthusiasm as found in both, the Hesychast spirituality <strong>of</strong> St. Symeon and some Hasidim was noted by<br />
Rivka Shatz, Hasidism as Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).<br />
96 15a. Compare Louis Jacobs, Hasidic Prayer (New York: Schocken Books, 1978), who explains the<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov that “prayer should be for the sake <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah” as an expression <strong>of</strong><br />
the tension between his mystical prayer and ordinary petitionary prayer. Jacobs' work is based on the<br />
typology between mystical and petitionary prayer <strong>of</strong> F. Heiler used by Rivka Shatz in her Mysticism as<br />
Quietism. M. Idel, Hasidism sees it as a magical drawing down <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Divine</strong> energy.<br />
97 18a; 27a. <strong>The</strong> shekhinah has become the symbol <strong>of</strong> both purity (usually ascribed to yesod) and<br />
knowledge (usually ascribed to hokhmah).<br />
31
and mental, and by cleaving to wisdom in order to receive the reflected light from tiferet. 98<br />
This allows the shekhinah to shine on the person praying and not the sitra ahra. 99<br />
<strong>The</strong> resting <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah on a zaddik and the identification with the divine<br />
effects a theosis <strong>of</strong> the righteous, who becomes an incarnation <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah. <strong>The</strong><br />
Degel writes that in the Zohar "in several places, the shekhinah actually dwells in [the<br />
zaddikim's] bodies, and their countenances literally display the shekhinah." 100 An excellent<br />
example <strong>of</strong> this physical perfection is the change <strong>of</strong> Moses' ascent to God from a vertical<br />
metaphor <strong>of</strong> ascent to the embodied one in which by "purifying his materiality he became<br />
all form as the vitality <strong>of</strong> the divine light." 101 <strong>The</strong> Degel points out that purification involves<br />
the body and not just the mind, yet one can transcend his physicality and have a body <strong>of</strong><br />
divine light. 102<br />
Zaddikim literally radiate the lower aspect <strong>of</strong> divine energies, the shekhinah, but<br />
they are not identified with the higher divine image <strong>of</strong> the king, the Holy One Blessed be He<br />
(Hakadosh Baruch Hu) [tiferet]. <strong>The</strong> tiferet is received as an influx to those in communion<br />
98 57b; In another passage tiferet speaks through the throat during prayer, not the shekhinah 68b.<br />
99 191b. <strong>The</strong>re is a real choice between gaining powers from the shekhinah or from the evil side and<br />
demons. One wonders if this marriage, while similar to the Kabbalistic theme <strong>of</strong> marrying the shekhinah, is<br />
also a parallel to the shamanic marriage to a female demon to gain its powers, as described in Holgar<br />
Kalweit, Dreamtime and Inner Space. <strong>The</strong> Baal Shem literature warns against binding oneself to demons,<br />
yet there are stories <strong>of</strong> it occurring, see Sarah Zfatman, Nissuei Adam Ve-Sheidah (Jerusalem: Akademon,<br />
1988); G. Nigal, Magic, Mysticism, and Hasidism (Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1994) chapter 5.<br />
A twentieth century marriage <strong>of</strong> a rabbi and a she-demon is recounted in Yoram Bilu, Without Bounds: <strong>The</strong><br />
Life and Death <strong>of</strong> Rabbi Yaacov Wazana (Jerusalem: Magnes Press 1993) [Hebrew] 53-60.<br />
100 110a.<br />
101 2b-3a.<br />
102 It might literally be an aura or radiance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Divine</strong> energy.<br />
32
with the shekhinah. "He dwells in their midst, as if it were possible." 103 <strong>The</strong> higher aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Divinity- the infinite divine <strong>of</strong> the Eyn S<strong>of</strong> - are only an influx temporarily dwelling<br />
below. 104 On a practical level this is done by the contemplation <strong>of</strong> various combinations<br />
(zerufim) <strong>of</strong> letters <strong>of</strong> the divine name as found in Brit Menuhah and the Lurianic writings. 105<br />
<strong>The</strong> zaddik resists or elevates the distracting thoughts that come into his mind while<br />
contemplating the divine name, 106 and thereby attains a complete identification with the<br />
shekhinah, the base <strong>of</strong> the sefirotic hierarchy. A similar description is found in the writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> Eastern Orthodox Hesychast thinkers such as Pseudo-Marcarius, St. Symeon, and<br />
Gregory <strong>of</strong> Palamas. George A. Maloney writes that in their thought "an affective spirituality<br />
sought to integrate body, soul, and spirit in prayer to experience God's indwelling presence<br />
in the purified Christian as a transforming light." 107 Similarly, the Kabbalah has been recast<br />
103 110a.<br />
104 One cleaves as a means <strong>of</strong> access to the attribute <strong>of</strong> Jacob, tiferet, called truth (emet) as the source <strong>of</strong><br />
the divine light.42b; 45b;48; as faith 95a.<br />
105 See Shatz Ha-Hasidut Ke-Mistikah 153; Idel, Hasidism 160. On Brit Menuhah and kavvanot, see R.<br />
Moses Cordovero, Pardes Rimonim shaar 27, chap. 1 118; 112, especially on his identification <strong>of</strong> the final<br />
letter heh <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Divine</strong> name. <strong>The</strong> Degel does not downplay the demand to use kavvanot as much as rely<br />
on Cordovero and Luria without the need for study <strong>of</strong> the theosophic tree <strong>of</strong> emanation or to follow all the<br />
details <strong>of</strong> the kavvanot. He does not give explicit directions or discussion <strong>of</strong> the Lurianic yihudim.<br />
106 83a. On resisting sexual thoughts see the passage quoted by Weiss, Studies, 169.<br />
107 Pseudo-Marcarius (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), 4, describes the Neoplatonism <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cappadocians as integrated into the mystic's body as a psycho-somatic wholeness. <strong>The</strong> physical theosis <strong>of</strong><br />
St. Symeon may is considered by some scholars a mental Neoplatonic ascent because <strong>of</strong> his use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
writings <strong>of</strong> Gregory <strong>of</strong> Nyssa and the metaphors <strong>of</strong> the contemplative Neoplatonic tradition, especially his<br />
emphasis on the vision <strong>of</strong> light. On the Neoplatonic reading see B. Fragneau-Julien, Les Sens Spirituels et<br />
la Vision de Dieu selon Symeon Le New <strong>The</strong>olgien (Paris: Beauchesne, 1985). However, other scholars<br />
emphasize that St. Symeon sees the perfected state <strong>of</strong> man as a purified body in which the Neoplatonic<br />
background has been completely recast into a doctrine <strong>of</strong> psycho-somatic wholeness. For the latter<br />
presentation, see Basil Krivocheine, In the Light <strong>of</strong> Christ, St. Symeon the New <strong>The</strong>ologian (Crestwood,<br />
N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1986). G.A. Maloney, <strong>The</strong> Mystic <strong>of</strong> Fire and Light: St. Symeon the<br />
New <strong>The</strong>ologian (Denville, N.J.: Dimension Books, 1975). John Meyendorff, Byzantine <strong>The</strong>ology (New York:<br />
Fordham U.P., 1974).<br />
33
into a doctrine that transforms body and mind into the vitality <strong>of</strong> the divine light. This activist<br />
approach <strong>of</strong> fighting lusts, acquiring awe, and theosis, into the shekhinah is R. Ephraim's<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> the faith healing talmid hakham. <strong>The</strong> Degel's discussions <strong>of</strong> Torah study show<br />
this pneumatic emphasis on awe and theosis.<br />
Torah<br />
Moshe Idel points out that some Jewish mystics held that the text <strong>of</strong> the Torah was to<br />
be interpreted on the basis <strong>of</strong> one's pneumatic inspiration. 108 He quotes R. Moses Hayyim<br />
Ephraim that "a person who is righteous is close to the Torah and that the Torah is in him<br />
and he is Torah." 109 Idel sees this formulation as linking the text <strong>of</strong> the Torah and religious<br />
experience similar to both Abulafia and R. Shneur Zalman <strong>of</strong> Habad Hasidism, both <strong>of</strong><br />
whom use Aristotelian psychology in their intellectual mysticisms.<br />
However, R. Moses Hayyim Ephraim's discussion <strong>of</strong> pneumatic interpretation<br />
provides a very non-intellectual definition <strong>of</strong> Torah. He defines Torah solely as the<br />
pneumatic statement <strong>of</strong> the zaddik based on the indwelling <strong>of</strong> the divine in his soul, and<br />
without a text subject to interpretation. <strong>The</strong> Torah given on Mount Sinai contained directions<br />
for spiritual purity. 110 <strong>The</strong> Torah is not made up <strong>of</strong> stories, but rather it teaches "the path to<br />
walk in and the action to do." 111 <strong>The</strong> Torah is literally in the Zaddik and the Zaddik has<br />
108 M. Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives 234-249.<br />
109 Idel, 245; Degel 284.<br />
110 112a.<br />
111 53b. Citing the famous Zohar passage "How to view the Torah," usually read as showing the theosophic<br />
levels to the text. Daniel Chanan Matt, Zohar: <strong>The</strong> Book <strong>of</strong> Enlightenment (New York: Paulist Press, 1983),<br />
43-45.<br />
34
ound himself to the Torah by purification. 112<br />
A spiritualist reading <strong>of</strong> the Torah as the revelation <strong>of</strong> ineffable secrets on the soul is<br />
shown in the following passage:<br />
<strong>The</strong> innovations in Torah made by the wise <strong>of</strong> the generation come through<br />
God's revealing His secret to His servants. [<strong>The</strong> wise] shine from the light <strong>of</strong><br />
His Torah, its midpoint and innerness. However, [the Torah] is still not<br />
concretized in words, because something taken from the divine wisdom<br />
(hokhmah)... is a non-confinable divine power... it is inconceivable, and an<br />
ineffable nothing (efes veAyin)... When the Zaddik finds clear knowledge,<br />
how can he clothe the matter [in words]? 113<br />
He defines this ineffable Torah knowledge, based on inspiration, as the Torah <strong>of</strong> truth<br />
(Torat emet). <strong>The</strong> application to life, in which the ineffable is clothed in words, content, and<br />
form, is the Torah <strong>of</strong> mercy (Torat hesed). <strong>The</strong> passage continues:<br />
experience.<br />
112 p. 284a.<br />
God gives knowledge to the wise only as an essence and pith <strong>of</strong> the matter<br />
(nekudah vetokhen). Afterwards the zaddik builds on it based on his grasps<br />
<strong>of</strong> it. This manifestation (hitpashtut) <strong>of</strong> the Torah... in language... in expanded<br />
consciousness (gadlut)... is called the Torah <strong>of</strong> mercy. [<strong>The</strong> zaddik] needs to<br />
see and understand the need to do mercy with the Torah according to the<br />
needs <strong>of</strong> the era and generation. <strong>The</strong> enlightened will understand. 114<br />
<strong>The</strong> following passage shows that the reading <strong>of</strong> Torah is itself a pneumatic<br />
I heard in the name <strong>of</strong> my brother the famous holy rabbi, R. Baruch, explain<br />
the [reason] that the end <strong>of</strong> the Torah "to the eyes <strong>of</strong> all Israel" is joined<br />
[during the Torah reading on Simhat Torah] to Genesis. When the eyes <strong>of</strong><br />
Israel are gazing into the Torah, their gaze into the Torah is the renewal <strong>of</strong> the<br />
113 278b. This is close to the position <strong>of</strong> Bernard <strong>of</strong> Clairvaux who in his commentary on Song <strong>of</strong> Songs 3:1<br />
writes that: "today the text we are to study is the book <strong>of</strong> our own experience." See Kilian Walsh, <strong>The</strong><br />
Works <strong>of</strong> Bernard Of Clairvaux Vol. II (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1979) 16. <strong>The</strong> experience <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Degel is a more submissive one, and involves identification with the text itself.<br />
114 278b.<br />
35
work <strong>of</strong> creation, which is renewed on each day. 115<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritualist approach to textual reading-, which is also found in the writings <strong>of</strong> other<br />
Hasidim-, is here linked to the continuous renewal <strong>of</strong> the work <strong>of</strong> creation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel created a single concept in which the Torah is the source <strong>of</strong> wisdom, is<br />
defined as the experiential life <strong>of</strong> awe, and is identified with the shekhinah. One senses the<br />
divine vitality <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah, which flows through all creation in order to provide the<br />
knowledge to heal and to relate to the natural world as divine (gathering sparks, doing acts<br />
<strong>of</strong> tikkun, and yihud). Healing and communion with the divine in nature is the very essence<br />
<strong>of</strong> Torah and the life <strong>of</strong> the zaddik transformed by the divine light and his healing ability is<br />
Torah itself. 116 <strong>The</strong> Torah itself which Moses received on Mt. Sinai regulates the earthly<br />
natural life, and contains "all natural things and events." 117 <strong>The</strong> letters <strong>of</strong> the Psalms have<br />
the power to perform wondrous acts <strong>of</strong> healing. 118<br />
When one learns Torah for its own sake (lishmah), one becomes purified from<br />
one’s physical needs. If one cleaves in thought (davak bemahshavah) to the heavenly<br />
wisdom, the Torah <strong>of</strong> truth (Torat Emet), then everyday statements become Torah (Torat<br />
115 98b.<br />
116 In 43b he quotes the Zohar Hadash in which torah lishmah gives knowledge <strong>of</strong> the language <strong>of</strong> birds,<br />
plants, and angels. On the Baal Shem Tov's use <strong>of</strong> this knowledge see In Praise <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov eds.<br />
Dan Ben-Amos & Jerome R. Mintz (New York: Schocken, 1984) 49, 198.<br />
117 2b.<br />
118 283b. <strong>The</strong> five books <strong>of</strong> Psalms are an earthy application -oral Torah- <strong>of</strong> the five books <strong>of</strong> the written<br />
Torah. "I heard that daily King David would daily record as a Psalm everything that occurred to him. He<br />
would infuse the events into the letters, which have permutations and vitality allowing sweetening...<br />
Similarly, when one prays, i.e. [due to] a sickness, and clothes the matter in letters, sometimes a great<br />
event [occurs]. One needs understanding <strong>of</strong> this far-reaching explanation."<br />
36
hesed). 119 <strong>The</strong> Psalms and their powers are equated with both the Oral law as the Torah<br />
<strong>of</strong> mercy (Torat hesed), the application <strong>of</strong> the Torah <strong>of</strong> truth (Torat Emet) to this world. 120<br />
In common with other hasidic texts, the written Torah is considered a spiritual<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> devekut and not merely intellectual knowledge. <strong>The</strong> letters <strong>of</strong> the Torah<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> divine names and a channelable divine vitality. 121 Even the functional content <strong>of</strong><br />
the Torah is viewed as incarnate in the zaddik: "Mizvot and hukkim are the zaddikim<br />
themselves." 122 This statement has several implications: zaddikim bring the light through<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> the mizvot, mizvot correspond to the limbs <strong>of</strong> the body, and the body<br />
engaged in a divine act is itself a mizvah incarnate.<br />
<strong>The</strong> zaddik has usurped the role <strong>of</strong> rabbinic interpretation; and R. Moshe Hayyim<br />
view involves a breakdown <strong>of</strong> traditional legal authority, based on interpretation, in favor <strong>of</strong><br />
a pneumatic and charismatic form <strong>of</strong> leadership.<br />
119 5a.<br />
It is well known that the written Torah and the oral Torah are all one, not to be<br />
separated from one another at all... In interpreting the Torah and revealing its<br />
secrets, the sages at times uprooted something from the text... All this they<br />
did by the power <strong>of</strong> the Holy Spirit that appeared in their midst, so that the<br />
very wholeness <strong>of</strong> the written Torah depends on the oral tradition... Such is<br />
the case for each generation and its leaders; they complete the Torah. <strong>The</strong><br />
Torah is interpreted in each generation according to that generation's needs,<br />
and according to the soul-root <strong>of</strong> those who live at that time. God enlightens<br />
the sages <strong>of</strong> the generation in His Holy Torah. He who denies this is as one<br />
who denies the Torah itself, God forbid. 123<br />
120 278b; 5a;47a-b;83a.<br />
121 On 105a he explains that this vitality heals and wounds, and gives life and death as din and rahamim.<br />
122 29b. This definition shortens the extension made within Yiddish culture to consider any good deed or<br />
meritorious act as a mizvah, see Moshe Waldoks, "Mizveh" in Contemporary Jewish Religious Thought eds.<br />
A. Cohen and P. Mendes-Flohr (New York: Charles Scriber's Sons, 1987), 587-588.<br />
123 6a; On 12a he gives an alternate formulation in which the eternal Torah is seen to differ with each time<br />
37
While the Degel certainly followed the Shulkhan Aruch in his role as rabbi and legal<br />
decisor, for him, to some extent, the text <strong>of</strong> the Torah was no longer simply subject to legal<br />
analysis and intellectual understanding. Torah is now incarnated as the zaddik himself; the<br />
text serves as a pneumatic source <strong>of</strong> divine light able to perfect the 613 body parts, and to<br />
be applied to real life situations through its healing light. 124<br />
In his response to the anti-hasidic criticism that "learners (lomdim) study while<br />
hasidim do not," the Degel shows that he himself knows that Hasidic learning consists only<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pietistic and homiletical works. As a response he returns a criticism <strong>of</strong> the learners:<br />
Whatever the “learners” study it increases their haughtiness, and they<br />
consider themselves as having learned much about every situation. While<br />
Hasidim, the more that they learn the greater humility. And this is the entire<br />
purpose, that they learn to be humble and modest. 125<br />
This study involves not just learning halakhah for devotional reasons, but learning is rather<br />
defined as the study <strong>of</strong> pietistic literature. He gives a similar response in another place; he<br />
asserts that those who study much practical law and look down on those who study<br />
pietistically are wrong: those that study for the sake <strong>of</strong> devotion have truthfulness in their<br />
and person. I used Green's translation pp. 149-150 however, I omit his insertion <strong>of</strong> the words “[the<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong>]” before "His holy Torah" because I wish to emphasis that, according to the Degel, God<br />
enlightens the zaddik directly.<br />
124 Green "Typologies <strong>of</strong> Leadership," pp. 151-152. On Hasidic halakhah, see Izhak Englard, "Mysticism<br />
and Law: Reflections on Liqutei Halakhot from the School <strong>of</strong> Rabbi Nahman <strong>of</strong> Bratzlav”[Hebrew] Shanaton<br />
ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri vol. VI-VII, (1979-80) 29-44; Samuel Eisenstadt, Zion Bemishpat (Tel Aviv: 1967) 251-259.<br />
On some <strong>of</strong> the extremes <strong>of</strong> Hasidic halakhah, see Yitzhak Zev Kahane (Kahan), Mehkarim be-Sifrut ha-<br />
Teshuvot (Jerusalem: Mosad haRav Kuk, 1973). He cites cases such as riding a horse on the Shabbat to<br />
bring a kvit to a rebbe, allowed as an act <strong>of</strong> saving a life. <strong>The</strong>re has been little research into the role <strong>of</strong> the<br />
traditional folkways within Hasidic piety and their influence on Eastern European Halakhah.<br />
125 149b. This is the opposite <strong>of</strong> the strictures <strong>of</strong> R. Hayyim <strong>of</strong> Volozhin, Nefesh Hahayim,shaar 4. More<br />
complex is the relationship <strong>of</strong> early Hasidim to the kabbalistic klois in Brody which studied Talmudic texts<br />
and not pietistic works. See Elhanan Reiner, "Wealth, Social Position, and the Study <strong>of</strong> Torah: <strong>The</strong> Status<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Kloiz in Eastern European Jewish Society in the Early Modern Period" in Zion vol 58 #3 1993, 287-<br />
328. He sees the early Hasidim as emphasizing charisma over the organized social elite <strong>of</strong> the kloiz while<br />
still holding the kloiz in respect.<br />
38
hearts, and the shekhinah dwells with them. 126<br />
<strong>The</strong> talmid hakham engages in "learning for its own sake" (lishmah), 127 defined as<br />
a selfless form <strong>of</strong> worship, in love and fear, as a yihud, and to reach the divine. 128 Study for<br />
its own sake provides wisdom (hokhmah) for consecrating one's limbs to be holy by<br />
fighting lust. 129 And the very purpose <strong>of</strong> the giving <strong>of</strong> the Torah was to provide wisdom for<br />
removing lust. 130 <strong>The</strong> hasidic zaddik is a walking persona <strong>of</strong> this wisdom; therefore, his<br />
ordinary talk can change nature, give awe, perform yihudim, and channel divine influx. 131<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel sees a social tension between the talmid hakham as a member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
spiritual elite following this path <strong>of</strong> awe and the common Jewish peasant:<br />
<strong>The</strong> masses hate the talmid hakham because the talmid hakham busies<br />
himself in Torah, worship and holiness, and they [the masses] are<br />
undisciplined [or left abandoned (hefkara)]. This is fitting for them because<br />
they also despise the Torah that was given to Moses. 132<br />
126 16b; 43a.<br />
127 Roman A. Foxbrunner, Habad (Tuscaloosa: University <strong>of</strong> Alabama Press, 1992), 143, summarizes<br />
hasidic study well when he writes, "<strong>The</strong> phrase Torah li-shemah became a catchall that was defined almost<br />
every way, but literally. <strong>The</strong> word li-shemah (meaning for its own sake) was turned on its head and was<br />
generally interpreted as referring to everything but Torah itself: for the sake <strong>of</strong> devekut, yihudim, love, fear,<br />
purification, mystical enlightenment, redemption <strong>of</strong> the shekhinah and even for the sake <strong>of</strong> spiritual power."<br />
On the differences between Hasidic and Mitnaged definitions <strong>of</strong> lishmah see Norman Lamm, Torah Lishmah<br />
(N.Y.: Ktav, 1988).<br />
128 16b; 43a. On Torah lishmah in the Degel see Roland Goetschel, "Torah lishmah as a Central Concept<br />
in the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim <strong>of</strong> Moses Hayyim Ephraim <strong>of</strong> Sudylkow" Hasidism Reappraised ed. Ada<br />
Rapoport-Albert (London-Portland, OR: Littman Library <strong>of</strong> Jewish Civilization, 1996), 258-267.<br />
129 3b-4a.<br />
130 94a; 106a.<br />
131 28b.<br />
132 127a. <strong>The</strong> average Ukrainian Jew was not particularly observant or studious, despite his folk piety. On<br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> observance <strong>of</strong> the Sabbath and tefillin, see H.H. Ben Sasson, "Sabbath Observance Laws in<br />
Poland and their Economic and Social Context" Zion 21 (1956), 183-206. <strong>The</strong> Hasidic leader was not a<br />
champion <strong>of</strong> the common man, though they were sometimes lenient in their halakhic stance. See Dubnow,<br />
39
This social distinction is seen as based on the people not striving to avoid physical<br />
pleasure and to observe the commandments.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a distinction between the masses and the zaddikim who cleave to<br />
the secret <strong>of</strong> thought. [Zaddikim] see the origin and source <strong>of</strong> things, and<br />
through this, elevate all levels to their source. But, the masses and the wicked<br />
do pursue nothing but the materiality <strong>of</strong> things. <strong>The</strong>y do not recognize the<br />
secret <strong>of</strong> thought at all, and do not contemplate the source <strong>of</strong> things. 133<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel gives a segulah for a "society <strong>of</strong> Torah" (hevrah be-divrei Torah) to avoid the<br />
clutches <strong>of</strong> the ever threatening physicality by studying Torah right after prayer. 134<br />
A complete zaddik and hakham in the awe-inspiring secrets, and also one<br />
who has a tradition from his teacher, ... can partially relate to the source <strong>of</strong> his<br />
soul and to his [path] <strong>of</strong> worship. Every Jew is required to contemplate, seek,<br />
and pray for God to illuminate his eyes in this matter, even slightly. He shall<br />
find the [shekhinah], our bride according to his soul and to the extent that he<br />
seeks. “More than a calf wants to suck a cow wants to give suck.” <strong>The</strong>refore,<br />
it was engraved on the tablets for every Jew to innovate in Torah, as long as<br />
he intends his heart to heaven. If it is fit (kosher), then it is fitting and he will<br />
enlighten our eyes with Torah." 135<br />
One binds the lower world to its source in the upper world in order to nullify the kelipot. In<br />
general, all Israel must bind itself to Torah or to a talmid hakham in order not to drown in<br />
this world. 136<br />
<strong>The</strong> Biblical verse "Man and beast Thou preserveth O Lord" (Psalms 36:7) is<br />
explained in a rabbinic homily as comparing those who live only a sensory life to naked<br />
beasts (Hullin 5b). Here the Degel presents three spiritual levels in the community: the first<br />
Toldot HaHasidut, 23 on Ukrainian non-observance where he quotes Gorland-Kahane, Le-Korot ha-Gezerot<br />
(Odessa: 1892) p. 87ff.<br />
133 144a.<br />
134 146a.<br />
135 147a.<br />
136 47a; 129a.<br />
40
level includes persons oblivious to anything except the physical, like an animal. <strong>The</strong> second<br />
level includes those fighting their physical lust through Torah. While the third level includes<br />
those on the level <strong>of</strong> the talmid hakham who can come close to the Creator, through<br />
performing the yihud <strong>of</strong> Hakadosh Baruch Hu and the shekhinah. 137<br />
If one makes oneself a chariot for wisdom (hokhmah) and his thought<br />
cleaves in it continuously, as it is written, "And to Him shall thou cleave"(Deut.<br />
10:20), then Hakadosh Baruch Hu sends to him the words that are needed<br />
to rectify the person, to rectify the world, to raise them and to sweeten them.<br />
One should notice the absence <strong>of</strong> the mention <strong>of</strong> specific mizvot and the equation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
talmid hakham with Hasidic piety. <strong>The</strong> talmid hakham is connected to the divine, raised to<br />
a new plane, and sweetened by the integration <strong>of</strong> this divine energy. His successful prayers<br />
lead him to what Csordas called imaginal sacred self, which provides "life, mercy, and<br />
healing." 138<br />
Stories<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual healing element is also found in the Degel's telling <strong>of</strong> hasidic stories.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel quotes the Baal Shem Tov on the utility <strong>of</strong> telling stories in order to raise the<br />
level <strong>of</strong> ordinary people with parables or as theurgic acts designated by the zaddik's<br />
intention (kavanah) able to raise the souls and places mentioned in the stories. 139 In<br />
addition, the Degel endorses the approach <strong>of</strong> the Magid <strong>of</strong> Bar in which stories effect the<br />
world by bringing blessing into the void <strong>of</strong> this world, drawing an influx from above and<br />
137 150a.<br />
138 5a; 168a.<br />
139 14a; 19b mentions secular songs (lieder) <strong>of</strong> love and fear 55b 271a. See Joseph Dan, Ha-Sippur Ha-<br />
Hasidi (Jerusalem: Keter, 1975) 40-52.<br />
41
changing his listeners. 140 <strong>The</strong> Degel considers stories as a performance <strong>of</strong> yihudim,<br />
defined as achieving an influx <strong>of</strong> higher consciousness (mohin). <strong>The</strong> Degel heard from the<br />
Magid <strong>of</strong> Bar <strong>of</strong> a hierarchy <strong>of</strong> yihudim leading from those optimally performed during<br />
prayer, those performed in thought, and those done in stories.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are several types <strong>of</strong> yihudim with which a person is able to unify God<br />
in all the levels. When one cannot speak or pray, one unifies in thought...<br />
[<strong>The</strong>se are performed] all in joy because there is no yihud in consternation;<br />
understand this. Similarly, in activities and stories with other people, there is<br />
a yihud, by means <strong>of</strong> speaking to them he is [able to] draw them close... and<br />
after he draws them close to him, he is able to raise them a level. This is the<br />
secret <strong>of</strong> female waters. 141<br />
<strong>The</strong> Magid <strong>of</strong> Bar states that when the theurgic yihudim <strong>of</strong> prayer cannot be done, one may<br />
still achieve theurgic effects through performing ordinary activities. Even ordinary<br />
conversation and stories can have the ability to raise people to allow an influx <strong>of</strong> blessing<br />
from above. <strong>The</strong> zaddik has this talent to transform ordinary life into theurgy.<br />
It is possible that the intention <strong>of</strong> the verse "see the life with a women you<br />
love” (Ecclesiastics 9:9), concerns the matters <strong>of</strong> this world and the stories <strong>of</strong><br />
events, which are called “woman.” <strong>The</strong> hakham who is called her husband is<br />
bound to make from her female waters to draw minds (mohin), called life;<br />
understand this. This is the meaning <strong>of</strong> "a zaddik shall live by his faith,"<br />
(Habakuk 2:4). This is also the secret <strong>of</strong> the verses <strong>of</strong> the priestly blessing;<br />
understand this. Occasionally there is a yihud in a lower level with the<br />
common people... by means <strong>of</strong> prayer or a sermon… If one intends (titkaven)<br />
this in all stories <strong>of</strong> physical things it fulfills the verse "in all your ways know<br />
him" (Proverbs 3:6) (bekhol derakhekha daehu); it is easy to understand. 142<br />
140 On the Maggid <strong>of</strong> Bar and his doctrine <strong>of</strong> descent into the physical world, see Joseph Weiss, "On the<br />
Beginnings <strong>of</strong> Hasidism" in Zion 16 (1951), 46-105; On his commentary to Psalm 107 see Rivka Shatz, "<strong>The</strong><br />
Commentary <strong>of</strong> the Besht on Psalm 107," Tarbiz 42 (1972), 154-184; Roman A. Foxbrunner, Habad<br />
(Tuscaloosa: University <strong>of</strong> Alabama Press, 1992), 206-207.<br />
141 283a. On female waters (mayyin nukvin) see R. Moses Cordovero, Pardes Rimmonim 8:19; Ronit<br />
Meroz, Redemption in the Lurianic Doctrine (Ph.D. Dissertation, Hebrew University, 1988).<br />
142 283a.<br />
42
<strong>The</strong> zaddik's stories are literally like the priest's blessing, able to open the conduits <strong>of</strong><br />
divine blessing. His consciousness is a simultaneous communion with the hidden vitality <strong>of</strong><br />
the world and the higher sources <strong>of</strong> divine power. <strong>The</strong> theurgic acts <strong>of</strong> stories are a lower<br />
level (katnut), while Torah is a higher level (gadlut). 143 One should view the stories as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a faith healer's creation <strong>of</strong> a new healthy vision, Csordas' model <strong>of</strong> an embodied "sacred<br />
self." 144 This telling <strong>of</strong> stories is a means through which the zaddik can therapeutically raise<br />
the people.<br />
Dreams<br />
Many shamans and mystics cultivate a spiritual dream life. R. Ephraim recorded<br />
seventeen <strong>of</strong> his dreams, which he deemed to be auspicious, in a dream diary appended<br />
to the Degel Mahaneh Ephraim. 145 However, he gives no indication that the dreams were<br />
incubated or shamanic dreams, nor are they predictive <strong>of</strong> the future or involved in healing.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y also do not appear to be visions <strong>of</strong> a maggid or brought about by a special prophetic<br />
technique. 146 In eight <strong>of</strong> them, the Baal Shem Tov appears to him, giving him blessings and<br />
love. <strong>The</strong> rest envision the synagogue, or relate to prayer and blessing. <strong>The</strong>y are ordinary<br />
143 On Hasidic stories in addition to Dan, see the popular work <strong>of</strong> Yitzhak Buxbaum, Storytelling and<br />
<strong>Spiritual</strong>ity in Judaism (Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1994).<br />
144 Csordas, <strong>The</strong> Sacred Self, see footnote 69 above.<br />
145 284-285, and one dream interpretation on 143a. <strong>The</strong> last two dreams are out <strong>of</strong> sequence, indicating<br />
that they may be from a different manuscript.<br />
146 On paranormal dreams, see Rachel Elior, "Nathan Adler and the Frankfort Pietists: Pietist Groups in<br />
Eastern and Central Europe During the Eighteenth Century" Zion LIX 1 (1994) 31- 64, especially 60-61 where<br />
she cites the dreams <strong>of</strong> Karo, Vital, and Luzzatto.<br />
43
dreams in which one sees a deceased relative or one is given a message. 147 All <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dreams are optimistic and encouraging, indicating a positive evaluation <strong>of</strong> his own<br />
growth. 148<br />
In 1780, the Degel dreamt that his head was shaved at a priest's consecration,<br />
which he interpreted in the dream itself "as a sign that he will be raised, God willing, to<br />
prominence." <strong>The</strong> dream then flows into an image <strong>of</strong> his taking a walnut, cracking open the<br />
shell and eating the hatred in its midst. <strong>The</strong> Degel explains it himself as a promise that:<br />
God will break from me all the husks both spiritual and physical, and will give<br />
me all spiritual and physical benefits. He will raise all the holy sparks from the<br />
husks and we will see wonders from the Holy Torah, and other similar things,<br />
Amen. 149<br />
This dream reiterates his ideology <strong>of</strong> needing to break the hated husks <strong>of</strong> this life, <strong>of</strong><br />
raising the sparks from this world, and performing wonders from the Torah's power. <strong>The</strong><br />
dream together with the following dream, both <strong>of</strong> which occurred eight years after the<br />
Magid <strong>of</strong> Miedzyrec's death, shows that the Degel expected to gain leadership status<br />
among Podolia Hasidim. <strong>The</strong> Degel dreamt that his grandfather singled him and his<br />
brother Barukh out for leadership:<br />
I saw my grandfather in a dream. He gave me a hand full <strong>of</strong> money. In it were<br />
several quarter rubles, a half ruble, white coins, old coins, and copper coins<br />
like the old guilden. And to my brother Barukh Leib he gave two or three old<br />
147 It is interesting to note that only one <strong>of</strong> his dreams concerns Torah and he writes that he forgot its<br />
content remembering only its beginning. His dreams are about his identification with the Besht or the<br />
shekhinah, indicating something <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> his mystical experience. When the Baal Shem Tov teaches<br />
him wisdom, it is not Torah but the letters <strong>of</strong> the aleph-bet, 284b. Compare R. Zadok HaKohen <strong>of</strong> Lublin,<br />
whose dreams concern interpretations <strong>of</strong> Torah, "Dream Notebook" printed with Resisei Laylah (Lublin:<br />
1903).<br />
148 Compare the stern superego reproach given by Karo's maggid, R.J. Zwi Werblowsky, Joseph Karo:<br />
Lawyer and Mystic (Philadelphia: J.P.S., 1980) 279-280.<br />
149 284a. He has a repeat the dream <strong>of</strong> eating the insides <strong>of</strong> nuts the following year, 285a.<br />
44
[guilden]. This was during our journey towards Medziebuz. 150<br />
<strong>The</strong> giving <strong>of</strong> the old money shows that they are the inheritors <strong>of</strong> the old path possibly in<br />
contrast to new innovations that came from Miedzyrec, it seems that they are to inherit the<br />
Besht's position in Medziebuz.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following year, 1781, he dreamt that the Baal Shem Tov gave him a baby to<br />
circumcise while the Besht was sitting on Elijah's chair. In another dream in 1781 he saw<br />
the Besht again:<br />
I brought myself close, literally face to face. In a oneness he cleaved and<br />
hugged me with both hands. He said in these words to me: Your nature and<br />
my nature came to the world, I as master <strong>of</strong> the name (baal shem) and your<br />
good name as a servant <strong>of</strong> God (eved Hashem) to learn and to tell Torah to<br />
Israel. A man was standing there, one <strong>of</strong> the regular important visitors<br />
coming to hear from zaddikim. My grandfather nodded to him and shook his<br />
head, meaning, this will certainly be. I stood on the bench and saw his head<br />
shake. 151<br />
In these dreams several important points about the Degel's conception <strong>of</strong> Hasidism shall<br />
be noted. <strong>The</strong> Baal Shem is portrayed as a grandfatherly Elijah figure who functions as a<br />
Baal Shem, in contrast to his grandson the Degel, who has a good name as a servant <strong>of</strong><br />
God (eved Hashem). 152 <strong>The</strong> Degel explains this dream on the manifest level as<br />
acknowledging that he is his grandfather's successor, and that the Hasidim (the important<br />
visitor) know this, as well as himself. Yet, this knowledge is only known through the allusive<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> a head nod; thus the masses <strong>of</strong> the Hasidim would not know it. This is possibly an<br />
150 285a-b. Podolia had been recently transferred from Poland to Russia, therefore, the old coins were<br />
possibly still in use.<br />
151 284b.<br />
152 On servants <strong>of</strong> God see Yaakov Hisdai, <strong>The</strong> Emergence <strong>of</strong> Hasidism and Mitnagdim in the Light <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Homiletic Literature (Dissertation, Hebrew U., 1984).<br />
45
allusion to his lack <strong>of</strong> eminence compared to the Magid <strong>of</strong> Miedzyrec's disciples.<br />
In 1781, he dreamt that the Besht came to him and blessed him, and in another<br />
dream the Besht hugged and kissed him. His identification with and love <strong>of</strong> the Besht<br />
reaches its peak when:<br />
I cleaved my body to his holy body and in the midst <strong>of</strong> his beard <strong>of</strong> his holy<br />
face. Afterwards I heard that the congregation was reciting the thirteen<br />
attributes [<strong>of</strong> mercy]... I also started to recite in my mouth (throat) without<br />
articulation <strong>of</strong> the lips. Because I said 'Is this not literally the thirteen<br />
attributes, that I am in the midst <strong>of</strong> his holy countenance'. 153<br />
This dream deserves special attention for it shows the actual theosis <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov<br />
into the body <strong>of</strong> God. <strong>The</strong> perfection <strong>of</strong> both the Degel and the Besht is seen as an<br />
hypostisized or incarnate body. <strong>The</strong> body imagery is reminiscent <strong>of</strong> St. Symeon's body<br />
mysticism, yet it also clearly draws on the Idrot <strong>of</strong> the Zohar, where God's body, and<br />
specifically his beard, are discussed. 154 In general, the Degel identifies this world with the<br />
feminine, and the Holy One, Blessed be He, and his insemination <strong>of</strong> mercy (hesed) as<br />
masculine. 155 In this dream <strong>of</strong> cleaving to the Besht's body, the Degel is male in his<br />
identification with the Besht, and his personification <strong>of</strong> the divine mercy, while the people<br />
are the female. In respect to the Besht, the Degel's passion for self-perfection are<br />
"feminine waters" in order to merge with the male. 156<br />
153 284b.<br />
<strong>The</strong> dream also shows three levels <strong>of</strong> reality, the divine as personified by the Baal<br />
154 On the thirteen attributes as God's beard see Yehudah Liebes, "How was the Zohar Written" Studies in<br />
the Zohar (Albany: Suny Press, 1993), 85-132.<br />
155 168a and see Idel, Hasidism, 134.<br />
156 On feminine waters see note 142. <strong>The</strong> Degel writes that while living the Besht hugged and kissed him,<br />
282b. One should be careful not to read these passages anachronisticly in light <strong>of</strong> late twentieth century<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> sexuality.<br />
46
Shem Tov, the divine mercy as personified by the Degel, and the earthly people in need <strong>of</strong><br />
the mercy. <strong>The</strong> congregation is clearly below him spiritually; he is their source <strong>of</strong> divine<br />
mercy, and it seems he is no longer in need <strong>of</strong> it himself because he now personifies it,<br />
and now cleaves to the Torah itself.<br />
In the same year 1781, when in his dream the Besht was assuring him <strong>of</strong> his status,<br />
the Degel also dreamt that he ascended twice on a staircase while wearing three sets <strong>of</strong><br />
tefilin. In following years he had two dreams <strong>of</strong> frustration symbolized by a non-climbable<br />
staircase. In the first he writes that<br />
I am climbing a staircase, which had steps very close to one another.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> this I was not able to expand my consciousness (leharhiv daati)<br />
and my walking path. I pressed the first step <strong>of</strong> the stairs with my foot and fell<br />
to the ground, to a place <strong>of</strong> dung and mud. In order to increase my step I went<br />
under with my steps. 157<br />
This dream finds him unable to leave the confines <strong>of</strong> his narrow life. He wants to climb the<br />
stairs as well as, he explains himself, to expand his consciousness. He falls, back to his<br />
unfortunate current state, a place <strong>of</strong> dung and mud. His solution to go under may refer<br />
either to go under the stairs in order to increase his domain laterally, to descend further still,<br />
or possibly to go under on his toes carefully.<br />
His longest dream, in 1785, was one, in which he saw the Baal Shem Tov blowing<br />
sh<strong>of</strong>ar and announcing his own notes (tekiot) before blowing them. He then put the sh<strong>of</strong>ar<br />
next to his mouth while blowing slightly:<br />
Afterwards he grabbed it with both hands held near his body while the sound<br />
157 285a. An alternate version <strong>of</strong> this dream finds him in his late uncle's house R. Zvi Hirsh, in which the<br />
stairs contains lulavim and etrogim. Etrogim are symbolic <strong>of</strong> Torah for the Degel see 176b, so it means that<br />
he cannot reach the proper level <strong>of</strong> Torah. <strong>The</strong> Besht was present in the dream performing the Passover<br />
Seder and Purim festivities. In this dream he was distant from the Besht and did not have direct contact.<br />
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came from the sh<strong>of</strong>ar. I was astounded. What am I do to when the Besht<br />
himself announces the tekiot and blows himself? <strong>The</strong>n the congregation<br />
called out arise (ya'amod) as if they were reading the Torah. I went up and<br />
stood by with the sh<strong>of</strong>ar. I recited a blessing as if I had ascended to an<br />
aliyah, and I [saw myself] standing literally inside the sh<strong>of</strong>ar as the sound<br />
issued from the sh<strong>of</strong>ar. Afterwards I took the sh<strong>of</strong>ar home myself and blew in<br />
it tekiah, shevarim teruah, tekiah myself. 158<br />
Here, the Degel sees the Baal Shem Tov as not relinquishing authority; and performing<br />
each action himself. <strong>The</strong> sh<strong>of</strong>ar is the manifestation <strong>of</strong> God's mercy, occurring at the side<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov's body. <strong>The</strong> Degel goes up and becomes part <strong>of</strong> the conduit <strong>of</strong> this<br />
mercy, which he can then, despite his subsidiary role, reproduce at home. <strong>The</strong> Degel<br />
interprets his own dream:<br />
This is our interpretation: [this dream] is better and greater than other<br />
[dreams]. Certainly, all these things are to sweeten the judgement from me,<br />
and to humble all adversaries, and to illuminate (the whole world and) me<br />
with the great sh<strong>of</strong>ar, which is the holy countenance, higher mother etc. 159<br />
He acknowledges that his interpretation is only an interpretation, not necessarily better than<br />
others are. Thus implying that he discussed the dream with other people or had thought<br />
about other options. 160 This discussion shows that he did not consider his dreams as<br />
healing, nor as containing mystical insights, but as ordinary (possibly precognitive)<br />
dreams. 161 In general, the Degel is emblematic <strong>of</strong> those Hasidic writers not strongly<br />
influenced by the Maggid, who do not require a nullification <strong>of</strong> the ego and therefore show<br />
158 285b.<br />
159 285b.<br />
160 In contrast to the tradition <strong>of</strong> symbolic dream interpretation contained in works such as Solomon<br />
Almoli, Pitron Halomot (Venice: 1623), the Degel interprets dreams on the manifest level.<br />
161 <strong>The</strong> Degel's views on dreams employs the Or Hayyim, who writes that dreams are images and<br />
metaphors that reveal higher and future knowledge, see Genesis 4:1; Numbers 12:6. Shamanic dreams<br />
enter the realm <strong>of</strong> the dead or <strong>of</strong> the spirits and bring back information for the community as in the ascents<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov. See footnotes 21 and 22 above.<br />
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greater introspection and interest in dreams. 162<br />
In the Degel’s theoretical discussion <strong>of</strong> dreams, they are indicative <strong>of</strong> the non-<br />
consciousness <strong>of</strong> sleep. Dreams create a false reality; "dreams are illusionary and not<br />
true." He parallels the falseness <strong>of</strong> dreams to the non-connection to divinity found in this<br />
world exiled from the divine. Torah study while awake is the reconnection <strong>of</strong> the sleeping<br />
mind to the divine, and is the redemption from exile <strong>of</strong> the world. If one is purified and<br />
connected to Torah, then amidst the falseness <strong>of</strong> dreams one may find truth and prophecy.<br />
As a result, "All dreams are true and all seen is true, and all true is seen. One has left exile<br />
and falsehood; instead, all <strong>of</strong> one's actions are true." 163 This is not a shamanic theory <strong>of</strong><br />
dreams to heal, enter other realms, or commune with spirits. It is, again, an ordinary<br />
psychological process to purify the mind, leading to true knowledge.<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> the ordinariness <strong>of</strong> his dreams is his ability to continue them as a<br />
waking dream the next day. One night he sees that he will overcome his political<br />
adversaries and that he will be illuminated by the Shekhinah and Holy One, blessed be He,<br />
allowing him to illuminate the world. <strong>The</strong> next day this theme continues in his thoughts,<br />
creating a waking dream, which confirms the defeat <strong>of</strong> his adversaries and his achieving<br />
prominence. He saw himself walking "in a kittel with embroidered rows <strong>of</strong> silver and gold,<br />
literally a royal garment." That night the theme continued, and he dreamt that he saw the<br />
162 An example is R. Pinhas <strong>of</strong> Koretz, Midrash Pinhas (Bilgorai: 1931), p.10b paragraph 72, "Dreams are<br />
the refuse <strong>of</strong> the mind". Compare the charismatics whom Csordas, Sacred Self studied p. 93; they reject<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> dreams because <strong>of</strong> their lack <strong>of</strong> conscious control and existential spontaneity. <strong>The</strong> Degel is<br />
looking for a connection to the shekhinah and a timeless illumination <strong>of</strong> the everyday.<br />
163 42b; 41a-42b. In contrast, for the school <strong>of</strong> the Maggid, as typified by Zaavat HaRivash 4a, Torah and<br />
sleep are both evaluated as negative, in comparison to the true reality <strong>of</strong> devekut. In the Degel, reality is<br />
Torah and purification, while sleep is the impurity <strong>of</strong> this world.<br />
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Baal Shem Tov rejoicing on Simhat Torah. He interprets this as implying that God will<br />
sweeten the judgement for him and all Israel. 164<br />
Conclusions<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel, whose theoretical writings are about the process by which one becomes<br />
a zaddik, closes the alleged chasm between Hasidic theoretical literature and Hasidic<br />
stories. His theoretical discussions about the wonder working zaddik show that Buber and<br />
Scholem may have created a false dichotomy between the stories and the theoretical<br />
works. Buber was correct in comparing Hasidism to the ecstatic, embodied mystics such<br />
as St. Symeon. Yet, he was phenomenologically wrong in romanticizing it into a this-worldly<br />
meeting <strong>of</strong> the moment. Conversely, Scholem was correct to emphasize the theoretical<br />
literature, yet wrong not to link Hasidism to the wonder working literature giving usable<br />
techniques for inner work and paranormal experiences. <strong>The</strong> Degel represents a world that<br />
reads for guidance Hayyim Vital's Shaar HaYihudim, and Shaarei Kedushah, Shlomel<br />
Dresnitz's, Shivhei Ha-Ari, Yosef Karo's, Magid Mesharim, and the anonymous Brit<br />
Menuhah. 165<br />
<strong>The</strong> parallels <strong>of</strong> wonder working saints bringing a life <strong>of</strong> ascetic holiness to the<br />
physical world also include Talmudic rabbis such as R. Haninah ben Dosa, 166 and the<br />
164 285b, the image <strong>of</strong> the Baal Shem Tov is a positive sign similar to the incubated dream images <strong>of</strong> the<br />
R. Shimon Bar Yohai, see Yorum Bilu, "Dreams and the Wishes <strong>of</strong> the Saint" in H. Goldberg (ed.) Judaism<br />
Viewed from Within and From Without (Albany: Suny, 1987). On waking dreams, see Mary Watkins,<br />
Waking Dreams (Dallas: Spring, 3rd ed. 1984).<br />
165 Similarly, Idel, Hasidism writes that Hasidism is magic and ecstatic mysticism and Piekarz, Between<br />
Ideology and Reality writes that it is a continuity <strong>of</strong> Safed pietistic literature. Both are correct if these<br />
paranormal magical manuals <strong>of</strong> Safad are seen as the model for the Hasidic zaddik.<br />
166 On wonder working rabbis in Rabbinic texts, see Jack N. Lightstone, "Magicians, Holy Men, and Rabbi:<br />
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Sefardic R. Hayyim Ben Attar (1696-1743) and R. Israel Abuhazera (1890-1984). 167<br />
Moshe Rosman writes: "<strong>The</strong> spread <strong>of</strong> mystical-ascetic hasidism from Safed to Europe<br />
from the sixteenth century onward put the Moroccan, Hayyim ben Attar, the Ukrainians,<br />
Gershon <strong>of</strong> Kutow, and the Besht, and the sages <strong>of</strong> Jerusalem in the same universe <strong>of</strong><br />
discourse." 168 This model <strong>of</strong> mystical-ascetic hasidism in various communities<br />
reconceptualizes the nature <strong>of</strong> Ukrainian Hasidism away from a specific uniqueness into<br />
general trends <strong>of</strong> magic, lay prophecy, veneration <strong>of</strong> saints, hagiography, and wonder<br />
working that have yet to be explored. It can also explain women as healers and counselors<br />
outside the Hasidic court. 169<br />
<strong>The</strong> Degel did not see himself as a theoretical Kabbalist. He was a Talmid<br />
Patterns <strong>of</strong> the Sacred in Late Antiquity," in ed. William Green, Approaches to Ancient Judaism, vol. 1<br />
(Missoula, Mont: Brown Judaic Studies, 1985).<br />
167 On the Besht's appreciation for Ben Attar and his aborted attempt to meet him see, G. Nigal, "<strong>The</strong><br />
Praises <strong>of</strong> Rabbi Hayim Ben Attar" in Kav LeKav: Studies in Maghreb Jewry in Memory <strong>of</strong> Shaul Ziv<br />
(Jerusalem: 1983); Dan Manor, "R. Hayyim ben Attar in Hasidic Tradition" Pe'amim 20 (1984), 88-110. On<br />
Morrocan saint veneration including Abuhazera see Isachar Ben-Ami, Saint Veneration Among the Jews in<br />
Morocco (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1984). This is currently a sociological phenomena <strong>of</strong> closeness <strong>of</strong> the saint<br />
reverence among Moroccan and Hasidic Jews in Israel. <strong>The</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> the Ottoman Empire on Hasidism is<br />
a still unresearched topic: Lurianic and other Kabbalistic works traveled North, traders traveled South to<br />
Constantinople, and Podoloia was under the Ottoman Empire at the end <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth century.<br />
168 M. Rosman, Founder <strong>of</strong> Hasidism, 130. Compare Scholem's dichotomy between Hasidism and the<br />
Sefardic Kabbalists <strong>of</strong> Bet-El, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism 328-330.<br />
169 I.M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religions: An Anthropology <strong>of</strong> Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Harmondsworth,<br />
England: Penguin, 1971) wrote that ecstatic religions give a sense <strong>of</strong> empowerment to women. While his<br />
theory has received criticism, it can be applied to Hasidism in a modified form. <strong>The</strong> approach <strong>of</strong> the Degel,<br />
when learned and ascetically practiced, could <strong>of</strong>fer some women the possibility <strong>of</strong> being known as healers,<br />
wonder-workers, and saints. Nevertheless, they were excluded from the religious public realm <strong>of</strong> synagogue<br />
and public lecturing and relegated to the "private" realm <strong>of</strong> healing and counseling. On women in Hasidism,<br />
see Nehemia Polen, "Miriam's Dance: Radical Egalitarianism in Hasidic Thought" Modern Judaism 12<br />
(1992) 1-21; Ada Rapoport-Albert, "On Women in Hasidism: S.A. Horodesky and the Maid <strong>of</strong> Ludmir<br />
Tradition," in Jewish History:Essays in honor <strong>of</strong> Chimen Abramsky, ed. A. Rapoport-Albert, S.J. Zipperstein<br />
(London:1988), 508-525. On the importance <strong>of</strong> not overlooking study done by women in non-formal<br />
institutions, outside the rabbinic high culture, see Shaul Stampfer, "Gender Differentiation and Education <strong>of</strong><br />
Jewish Women in Nineteenth-Century Eastern Europe" Polin 7 (1992) 63-87.<br />
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Hakham who thought that rabbis could heal, reach the inner light <strong>of</strong> the text, pneumatically<br />
interpret the text, and find religion by cultivating awe and practicing yihudim in everyday<br />
embodied life. Only an exceptional religious leader such as the Baal Shem Tov could<br />
shamanicly ascend to heaven, communicate with the dead, and have a theosis to become<br />
identified with the divine. In the Degel's psychic life, he was emotionally wedded to the<br />
shekhinah, the Baal Shem Tov, and the divine vitality. A rabbi was to be ascetic,<br />
devotional, and concerned with connecting this world to the higher divine vitality. <strong>The</strong> true<br />
act <strong>of</strong> faith was to see the sparks <strong>of</strong> divine vitality in this physical world, and to gather the<br />
sparks meant to harness that spiritual energy into mastery over the physical, in order to<br />
heal by creating a physical, emotional, and imaginal sacred self.<br />
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