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CMH Pub 70–81–1<br />
Cover: On the Town, Jeffrey T. Manuszak, 1994
Introduction<br />
The United States <strong>Army</strong> has a long tradition of humanitarian<br />
relief. No such operation has proven as costly or shocking, however, as<br />
that undertaken in Somalia from August 1992 to March 1994. Greeted<br />
i n i t i a l ly by Somalis happy to be saved from starvation, U.S. troops<br />
were slow ly drawn into interclan power struggles and ill-defi n e d<br />
“nation-building” missions. The American people woke up one day in<br />
early October 1993 to news reports of dozens of our soldiers killed or<br />
wounded in fierce fighting in the streets of the capital city, Mogadishu.<br />
These disturbing events of a decade ago have taken on increasing<br />
meaning after the horrific attacks of 11 September 2001.<br />
The <strong>Army</strong> began by assisting in relief operations in Somalia, but<br />
by December 1992 it was deeply engaged on the ground in Operation<br />
RESTORE HOPE in that chaotic African countr y. In the spring of the following<br />
year, the initial crisis of imminent starvation seemed to be over,<br />
and the U.S.-led Unified Task Force (UNITAF) turned over the mission<br />
to the United Nations, leaving only a small logistical, av i a t i o n ,<br />
and quick reaction force behind to assist. The American public seemed<br />
to forget about Somalia. That sense of “mission accomplished” made<br />
the events of 3–4 October 1993 more startling, as Americans reacted<br />
to the spectacle of dead U.S. soldiers being dragged through the streets<br />
by cheering Somali mobs—the ve ry people Americans thought they<br />
had rescued from starvation.<br />
This bro chure, prepared to honor the tenth annive r s a r y of<br />
Operation RESTORE HOPE beginning on 8 December, places the events<br />
of the firefight of 3–4 October 1993 into the wider context of the U.S.<br />
humanitarian, political, and military operation to rescue a people and a<br />
state from anarchy and chaos. The dedication and sacrifices made by<br />
U.S. soldiers, airmen, and marines in that war-torn country provide a<br />
lesson in heroism that remains compelling a decade later.<br />
This brochure was prepared in the U.S. <strong>Army</strong> <strong>Center</strong> of <strong>Military</strong><br />
<strong>History</strong> by Dr. Richard W. Stewart, Chief of the Histories Division and<br />
a veteran of Somalia. We hope that his absorbing account—with its<br />
list of further readings—will stimulate further interest in and study of<br />
this extraordinarily important U.S. operation.<br />
JOHN S. BROWN<br />
Brigadier General, <strong>US</strong>A<br />
Chief of <strong>Military</strong> <strong>History</strong>
The United States <strong>Army</strong> in Somalia<br />
1992–1994<br />
Americans consider themselves to be a compassionate people, and<br />
the United States <strong>Army</strong> has a long tradition of humanitarian relief operations<br />
both within and outside the continental United States. Never has<br />
this humanitarian impulse proven more dangerous to follow than in<br />
1992 when the United States intervened to arrest famine in the midst of<br />
an ongoing civil war in the east African country of Somalia. Ultimately<br />
hundreds of thousands were saved from starvation, but unintended<br />
i nvo l vement in Somali civil strife cost the lives of thirty American soldiers,<br />
four marines, and eight Air Force personnel and created the<br />
impression of chaos and disaster. How could a mission that had accomplished<br />
so much have ended in such unhappy circumstances?<br />
The <strong>Army</strong> ’s humanitarian relief eff o rts have generally been less<br />
complicated and more successful. Soldiers provided vital support to<br />
the stricken city of San Francisco in 1906 as it struggled to recove r<br />
from the great earthquake and subsequent fires. National Guard units<br />
in communities across the nation frequently rush to the scene of communities<br />
hit by hurricanes, tornados, fires, or floods. In 1992, soldiers<br />
from the XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Bragg, North Carolina, deployed<br />
to restore order and bring in supplies in the wa ke of Hur r i c a n e<br />
Andrew, which destroyed large sections of Miami, Florida. U.S. <strong>Army</strong><br />
personnel have also been involved in many overseas disaster relief and<br />
humanitarian operations, generally as part of joint task forces. In<br />
Operation SE A AN G E L in 1991, American soldiers assisted relief<br />
e ff o rts in Bangladesh as it recovered from a disastrous cy c l o n e .<br />
During Operation PROVIDE COMFORT, also in 1991, U.S. <strong>Army</strong> special<br />
operations soldiers rescued almost 400,000 Kurds from imminent starvation<br />
in the mountains of northern Iraq and southeastern Turkey. The<br />
national impulse to intervene—to help—is a powerful one, and the<br />
U.S. military forces are uniquely suited to bringing to bear their skill,<br />
manpower, and logistical power anywhere in the world.<br />
Strategic Setting<br />
American interest in the Horn of Africa region dates back to the<br />
Cold War when both the Soviet Union and the United States competed<br />
to gain allies and influence throughout the world. In the early 1960s<br />
5
the United States established a presence, including communications<br />
listening posts, in the northern part of Ethiopia and backed the traditional<br />
regime of Emperor Haile Selassie. The Soviets, on the other<br />
hand, replaced the weakened Italian influence in neighboring Somalia<br />
and supporte d the author itarian r egi me of Somali strongm an<br />
Mohammed Siad Barre, who took power in 1969. (Map 1)<br />
After Siad Barre precipitated a disastrous war against Ethiopia ove r<br />
the status of the Ogaden region in 1977, the situation in Somalia gr ew<br />
worse. We s t e rn aid dried up, and Barre was forced to gr ow ever more<br />
r e p r e s s ive to maintain his grip on powe r. He began a policy of systematic<br />
kidnapping and murder against rival clan leaders that increased in<br />
ferocity over time. Fi n a l ly, antigove rnment riots led to ove rreaction on<br />
the part of Siad Barr e ’s bodyguards, who killed 65 civilians and serio<br />
u s ly injured over 300 in 1990. His leg i t i m a cy in shambles, the army<br />
and the people turned against him in a prolonged series of riots, political<br />
maneuvers, and violence. Siad Barre was forced to flee the country<br />
in January 1991 with some of his closest supporters. Almost immedia<br />
t e ly, a resurgence of clan violence led to the virtual destruction of any<br />
central gove rnment and to economic chaos.<br />
As Somalia lapsed into sectarian and ethnic warfare, regional warlords<br />
drew upon clan loyalty to establish independent power bases.<br />
This situation led to a struggle over food supplies with each clan raiding<br />
the storehouses and depots of the others. Coupled with a drought,<br />
these actions brought famine to hundreds of thousands of the nation’s<br />
p o o r. Although private and volunteer relief organizations establ i s h e d<br />
refugee camps to try to prevent widespread deaths from starva t i o n ,<br />
t h ey could not handle the massive amounts of aid and the requisite<br />
security structure that were needed. International relief organizations<br />
paid protection money to the warlords as they tried to distribute what<br />
donated food supplies did arrive. More often than not, such supplies<br />
never reached the hands of those who needed them but instead were<br />
confiscated by the warlords who distributed or sold them to enhance<br />
their own power and prestige. The general misery was only compounded<br />
by the brutality of the Somali clans toward their rivals and<br />
the sporadic outbreaks of actual fighting. The most visible elements of<br />
the suffering—pictures of starving, fly - c overed children—appeared<br />
n i g h t ly on American television screens. Fresh from its triumph in<br />
Operation DE S E RT STO R M, the administration of President George H.<br />
W. Bush felt it could not ignore the situation, despite the obvious risks<br />
of intervening in a country still at war with itself.<br />
The United Nations reacted to the worsening plight of Somalia in<br />
early 1992. On 24 April it approved Resolution 751, which authorized<br />
6
K E N Y A<br />
GEDO<br />
Baardheere<br />
(Bardera)<br />
JUBBADA<br />
DHEXE<br />
JUBBADA<br />
HOOSE<br />
DJIBOUTI<br />
Webi Jub ba<br />
DJIBOUTI<br />
�<br />
A WDAL<br />
BAY<br />
Kismaayo<br />
(Chisimayu)<br />
Hargeysa<br />
Oddur<br />
Baidoa<br />
YEMEN<br />
WOQOOYI<br />
GALBEED<br />
E T H I O P I A<br />
BAKOOL<br />
G U L F O F A D E N<br />
Berbera<br />
Burao<br />
PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE LINE<br />
Beledweyne<br />
(Belet Uen)<br />
Jalalaqsi<br />
Balli Doogle<br />
Merca<br />
(Marka)<br />
SHABEELLAHA<br />
HOOSE<br />
TOGDHEER<br />
HIIRAAN<br />
Webi Shabeelle<br />
Dusa Marreb<br />
GALGUDUUD<br />
� BANAADIR<br />
MOGADISHU<br />
SANAAG<br />
SHABEELLAHA<br />
DHEXE<br />
SOOL<br />
MUDUG<br />
Galcaio<br />
(Galkayo)<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Bender Cassim<br />
(Boosaaso)<br />
Balamballe<br />
Garoowe<br />
(Garoe)<br />
NUGAAL<br />
BARI<br />
I N D I A N<br />
O C E A N<br />
SOMALIA<br />
1993<br />
200 Kilometers<br />
200 Miles<br />
MAP 1
humanitarian relief operations in the stricken country and established<br />
the United Nations Operations in Somalia, or UNOSOM. Almost<br />
i m m e d i a t e ly, a small group of peacekeepers deployed to the country<br />
and tried to sort out the confusing array of clans, private armies, and<br />
relief organizations, all competing over the distribution of food relief<br />
supplies. While some progress was made in the major cities, it wa s<br />
apparent that significant amounts of the supplies destined for the interior<br />
were being hijacked by the armies of the clans or by the relief<br />
organizations’ security guards, hired by the UN and the relief agencies<br />
to guard the convoys of food. Since UN and private volunteer organizations<br />
were generally prohibited from hiring armed security forces,<br />
t h ey instead hired local tribesmen as technical assistants—hence the<br />
nickname “technicals.” The technicals were armed bodyguards, often<br />
d r iving pick-up trucks or land cruisers with machines guns or other<br />
heavy weapons mounted.<br />
Operations<br />
U.S. Relief Efforts<br />
In response to the worsening famine, the United States decided to<br />
assist the relief efforts by airlifting food from nearby Kenya to remote<br />
airfields in the interior of Somalia for distribution, thus bypassing congested<br />
ports and reducing the need to send out easily looted convoys.<br />
For this purpose, the United States launched Operation PROV I D E<br />
RELIEF on 15 August 1992. The actual ground distribution continued<br />
to be accomplished by the international relief organizations already<br />
established in the country. PROVIDE RELIEF was thus a limited attempt<br />
to use U.S. expertise in logistics to help the relief effort without engaging<br />
American military forces on the ground.<br />
Problems of distribution within the country continued to hamper<br />
the relief eff o rt. In the countryside, lawless gangs seized relief supplies<br />
and used them to buy local loyalties while letting thousands<br />
starve. In the cities, the warring political factions, supported by their<br />
private armies, amassed food stockpiles as bargaining chips and signs<br />
of their powe r. These rival entities, often barely controlled by their<br />
clan leaders, terrorized the international organizations, stealing food<br />
and killing whoever did not pay protection money.<br />
Because of the increasingly chaotic situation on the ground, as a<br />
security measure U.S. <strong>Army</strong> Special Forces soldiers from the 5th<br />
Special Forces Group (Airborne) from Fo rt Campbell, Ke n t u c ky,<br />
accompanied many of the relief flights. In the process they assessed<br />
the dangers of various regions, conducted a low-key reconnaissance of<br />
8
the airfields, and gathered basic information that would be useful for<br />
any possible future U.S. ground involvement.<br />
That involvement was not long in coming. Unable to explain to the<br />
world why the United States, the “sole remaining superp ower” and<br />
leader of the “new world order,” was not able to stop the starvation,<br />
President Bush ordered U.S. forces to deploy to Somalia. Their mission<br />
was to ensure that relief supplies reached the people who needed<br />
them and thus to “break the cycle” of starvation and save lives.<br />
RESTORE HOPE<br />
The operation, code-named RESTORE HOPE, began on 8 December<br />
1992 under the direction of a Unified Task Force, or UNITAF. The I<br />
Marine Expeditionary Force from Camp Pendleton, California, formed<br />
the bulk of the headquarters, with augmentation from all the services.<br />
Commanded by Marine Lt. Gen. Robert B. Johnston, UNITAF included<br />
U.S. and allied troops working together in one task force, but under<br />
U.S. and not UN direction. And, like all modern humanitarian operations,<br />
it was a joint, combined, and interagency effort. The role of the<br />
U.S. State Department was critical. Once Ambassador Robert B.<br />
O a k l ey was appointed as President Bush’s special envoy to Somalia,<br />
he and General Johnston moved quickly to establish a close working<br />
relationship. Although the United Nations continued to play an important<br />
part in the politics within the country, especially in the delicate<br />
negotiations between rival Somali factions, its role was soon overshadowed<br />
by U.S. military and diplomatic powe r. Security Council<br />
Resolution 794, passed on 3 December, endorsed the U.S.- led operation<br />
and gave it its international flavor and legitimacy, but the UN simply<br />
lacked the logistics, command and control, or intelligence capabilities<br />
to undertake such a complex mission.<br />
Marine Corps and Navy special operations elements moved into<br />
Somalia in the early morning hours of 9 December, with the first 1,300<br />
marines coming in by helicopter directly to Mogadishu airp o rt .<br />
E m e rging from the ocean surf in the predawn hours, the Navy Seals<br />
were immediately hit with the blazing lights of forewa rned media crew s .<br />
L u c k i ly, the diplomatic gr o u n d work had been laid for U.S. troops to<br />
a rr ive with no Somali resistance. Thereafter, Somali warlords quickly<br />
a greed to cooperate with each other (at least for a time) and work with<br />
the U.S. troops to establish a relative ly benign and secure env i r o n m e n t .<br />
The technicals and all Somali heavy weapons began to be moved into<br />
cantonment areas by the end of the month, and by mid-Fe b ru a ry most<br />
h e avy weapons were either in such secure cantonment areas or move d<br />
out of Mogadishu and hidden to avoid confiscation or destru c t i o n .<br />
9
T he U. S. A r my co m p on en t of U NI TA F w as Ta s k Fo r c e<br />
Mountain, initially commanded by Brig. Gen. Lawson Wi l l i a m<br />
M a gruder III, the Assistant Division Commander, Maneuve r, of the<br />
10th Mount ain D ivi sion, based at Fo r t Dr um, N ew York. He<br />
remained in command until 22 December when the division comm<br />
a n d e r, Maj. Gen. Steven L. Arn o l d, replaced him. TF Mountain<br />
was built around the 2d Brigade, 10th Mountain Division, and at its<br />
peak consisted of approx i m a t e ly 10,000 soldiers including two<br />
i n fa n t ry battalions, an aviation brigade, and division art i l l e ry and<br />
s u p p o rt assets. It was a sizable and eff e c t ive military force that ove rawed<br />
the poorly armed Somali militia.<br />
Coalition forces including large components from France, Italy,<br />
Belgium, Morocco, Australia, Pakistan, Malaysia, and Canada soon<br />
joined U.S. forces. During the course of RESTORE HOPE, some 38,000<br />
soldiers from 23 different nations and representatives from 49 different<br />
humanitarian relief operations worked together to put food into the<br />
mouths of the starving people of Somalia.<br />
The main challenge to the smooth flow of relief supplies continued<br />
to be the riva l ry between feuding warlords, part i c u l a r ly betwe e n<br />
the forces of General Muhammed Farah Aideed of the Habr Gidr<br />
s u bc la n an d Al i Ma hd i Mo h am ed o f the Ab g a l su b c l an i n<br />
M ogadishu. Aideed, prev i o u s ly a general in dictator Siad Barr e ’s<br />
a rmy and a former ambassador to India, now headed the Somali<br />
National Alliance (SNA) with pretensions to ruling the entire count<br />
ry. His opponent, Ali Mahdi, was a former businessman and fa rm e r<br />
with little military experience and only an ad hoc militia. Their feud<br />
had led to open conflict from November 1991 to Fe b ru a ry 1992 and<br />
o n ly added to the tragedy of Somalia by killing thousands of innocent<br />
Mogadishu citizens. Backed by ove r whelming U.S. and allied<br />
p owe r, Ambassador Oakley eff e c t ive ly established a cease-f i r e<br />
b e t ween the two forces as a precondition to establishing a military<br />
and relief presence in the interior of the country. Howeve r, it was not<br />
in the UN chart e r, nor in the U.S. mission guidance, to disarm or<br />
attack either faction. Ostensibly, the UNITAF forces were neutral<br />
and there only to ensure that relief supplies flowed. They achieve d<br />
this mission by late December, as the port and the airp o rt reopened<br />
and relief supplies began moving quickly ashore. Over 40,000 tons<br />
of grain were off-loaded by the end of December along with 6,668<br />
vehicles and 96 helicopters for the military forces.<br />
While Mogadishu maintained an uneasy calm, UNITAF forces<br />
began to move into the countryside. To aid in coordination, the southern<br />
part of the country, the area most marked by drought and famine,<br />
10
was divided into nine humanitarian relief sectors (HRS). U.S. Marine<br />
Forces (MARFOR) concentrated on Baardheere (Bardera) 1 and part s<br />
of Mogadishu while the U.S. <strong>Army</strong> Forces (ARFOR) of UNITA F<br />
focused on providing security, often in conjunction with allied forces,<br />
in four sectors: HRS Baidoa, HRS Balli Doogle (Baledogle), HRS<br />
Merca (Marka), and HRS Kismaayo. (Map 2)<br />
M ovement of U.S. units into their sectors occurred in a variety of<br />
ways. Some U.S. <strong>Army</strong> units flew first into Mogadishu and then move d<br />
out to their assigned relief sectors. On 28 December, TF 2–87, an<br />
i n fa n t ry battalion task force, conducted a combined air assault operation<br />
with the 1st Canadian Airborne Battle Group from their base in<br />
M ogadishu into the town of Beledweyne (Belet Uen), some 180 miles<br />
n o rth. Other units, such as TF 3–14, another infa n t ry battalion task<br />
force, flew directly from the United States to the main airp o rt in its sect<br />
o r, in this case Kismaayo, 250 miles southwest of Mogadishu. Rapid<br />
changes in plans and missions caused many delays in deploy m e n t ,<br />
shifts in the airflow, and last minute modifications to aircraft load plans<br />
as units added, deleted, and changed types of equipment and quantities<br />
of supplies. Howeve r, by early January most of UNITAF was in place<br />
and conducting security operations throughout the nine relief sectors.<br />
While conventional forces concentrated on major cities and<br />
r egions, U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) moved quickly to<br />
establish a presence in the rest of the countryside, place liaison cells<br />
with allied forces, and conduct civil affairs (CA) and psycholog i c a l<br />
operations (PSYOP). In early January, Special Operations Command<br />
Central, a major subordinate unit of U.S. Central Command (CENT<br />
COM), deployed a small element to Mogadishu to assume command<br />
and control of all special operations forces in theater. This headquarters,<br />
known as Joint Special Operations Forces–Somalia or JSOFOR,<br />
was responsible for planning and conducting special operations in<br />
Somalia in support of all UNITAF humanitarian relief efforts, not just<br />
those in the U.S. sector. The main operational objectives of SOF in<br />
Somalia were to make initial contact with indigenous factions and<br />
leaders, provide information to UNITAF on potentially hostile forces<br />
to aid in force protection, and provide area assessments to assist with<br />
planning for future relief and security operations.<br />
The JSOFOR was initially task organized with its headquarters in<br />
M ogadishu, five Operational Detachment A (ODA) teams from the<br />
1 Place names in this pamphlet reflect the Board of Geographic Names preferred<br />
spellings. Equivalent British spellings, which were carried on 1:250,000 maps widely<br />
used during the operation, are provided in parentheses at first mention.<br />
11
K E N Y A<br />
0<br />
0<br />
MAP 2<br />
Hossingo<br />
HRS<br />
UNITAF<br />
Area of Operations<br />
February 1993<br />
HRS BARDERA<br />
Baardheere<br />
(Bardera)<br />
HRS KISMAAYO<br />
Afmadow<br />
ARFOR Area<br />
Humanitarian Relief Sectors<br />
Webi Jubba<br />
Jilib<br />
200 Kilometers<br />
E T H I O P I A<br />
Kismaayo<br />
(Chisimayu)<br />
Awdiinle<br />
Webi Shabeelle<br />
Baidoa<br />
Buurhakaba<br />
200 Miles<br />
HRS ODDUR<br />
Oddur<br />
HRS BAIDOA<br />
HRS BALEDOGLE<br />
Qoryooley<br />
HRS MARKA<br />
Baraawe<br />
Balli Doogle<br />
(Baledogle)<br />
Merca<br />
(Marka)<br />
Beledweyne<br />
(Belet Uen)<br />
HRS BELET UEN<br />
� MOGADISHU<br />
I N D I A N<br />
O C E A N<br />
Galcaio<br />
(Galkayo)<br />
PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE LINE<br />
Jalalaqsi<br />
(Gialalassi)<br />
Dusa Marreb<br />
HRS GIALALASSI<br />
HRS MOGADISHU
5th Special Forces Group (Airborne)—each consisting of approx im<br />
a t e ly twe l ve cross-trained Special Forces soldiers—in Beledwey n e<br />
(the Canadian sector), and another detachment in Baardeheere (the<br />
U.S. Marine Forces sector), 200 miles to the west of Mogadishu. By<br />
late Fe b ru a ry three additional detachments were in Kismaayo (the<br />
U.S. <strong>Army</strong> sector) and one in Baidoa (the shared Australian-U. S .<br />
A rmy sector).<br />
<strong>Army</strong> civil affairs and PSYOP forces, other elements of the special<br />
operations team, also provided critical support to U.S. relief operations<br />
during RESTORE HOPE. The 96th CA Battalion (Airborne) deployed a<br />
civil affairs tactical support team and six CA direct support teams that<br />
p r ovided support to both <strong>Army</strong> and Marine forces. They interacted<br />
with numerous international and private aid organizations, staff e d<br />
humanitarian operations centers throughout Somalia, conducted medical<br />
and engineer assessments of local facilities, and coordinated medical<br />
and engineer civic action projects.<br />
P s y c h o l ogical operations were also used ex t e n s ive ly to support<br />
operations in Somalia. UNITAF established a Joint PSYOP Task Force<br />
made up primarily of elements of the 4th Psychological Operations<br />
Group (Airborne) from Fo rt Bragg, North Carolina, to ensure that<br />
i n f o rmation operations were eff e c t ive ly integrated into all plans and<br />
operations in theater. PSYOP troops ran a local newspaper (called<br />
R a j o—the truth) and set up a radio broadcasting system. They also<br />
provided tactical loudspeaker teams to U.S. and international forces. In<br />
addition, the task force designed, printed, and distributed more than 7<br />
million copies of 49 different leaflets, posters, and handbills.<br />
On the whole, the relief mission proceeded well, with few incidents<br />
of violence from February to May 1993. It seemed that life was<br />
assuming some measure of norm a l cy. Markets reopened, trave l<br />
became more common, and there was even some hope of restarting a<br />
Somali national police force with promising initial results. Howeve r,<br />
clan rivalry and U.S. reluctance to engage in long-term “nation-building”<br />
operations soon doomed the effort.<br />
Daily soldier life settled into a routine. Troops conducted mounted<br />
and dismounted patrols throughout the cities in their sectors with<br />
occasional brushes with bandits and unruly crowds. Carefully written<br />
U N I TAF Rules of Engagement (ROE) limited their responses by<br />
reminding the soldiers that this was not a wartime environment, that<br />
all persons were to be treated with dignity and respect, and that only<br />
the minimum force necessary for the mission was authorized. These<br />
ROE did not in any way, howeve r, interfere with the right to defend<br />
oneself or one’s unit. In one instance a noncommissioned officer shot<br />
13
Over 7 million PSYOP leaflets were distributed during RESTORE HOPE.<br />
and killed a young Somali who ran up to his vehicle carrying a small<br />
box that the sergeant believed might be a bomb. Despite the tragic<br />
nature of the event, charges against the soldier were dismissed under<br />
legitimate self-defense grounds. However, in another instance, a<br />
sergeant shot and killed an individual who had stolen his sunglasses.<br />
His claim of self-defense was rejected, and he was convicted at a general<br />
court-martial. On the whole, however, U.S. <strong>Army</strong> soldiers behaved<br />
with care and restraint. By April the situation had stabilized enough<br />
that the U.S. administration determined that it was time to turn the<br />
mission over to the United Nations entirely.<br />
Despite some setbacks and incidents, Operation RESTORE HOPE<br />
succeeded in its goal of bringing an end to mass starvation. The heavily<br />
armed UNITAF units quickly established security in their sectors,<br />
and an uneasy truce kept the peace between the factions. There were<br />
some warning signs on the horizon, however, as UN diplomats began<br />
to press for a more active role of the military in confiscating weapons<br />
and in forcing some kind of political settlement. “Mission creep”<br />
began to enter the vocabulary of those serving in Somalia, and soon<br />
after the United States turned over the mission completely to the<br />
United Nations in May, the situation began to unravel.<br />
14
UNOSOM II: Operation CONTINUE HOPE<br />
While U.S. and allied forces maintained the peace in Somalia, U.S.<br />
leaders were working hard to push the United Nations into establishing<br />
a new mission in Somalia to take over the majority of the responsibilities<br />
for running the relief eff o rt while allowing the United States to<br />
reduce the size of its committed forces and handle only limited aspects<br />
of security and logistics. On 26 March 1993, the United Nations<br />
passed Resolution 814 which considerably broadened its mandate to<br />
i n t e rvene in another country ’s affairs. The UN was now interve n i n g<br />
militarily in a peacemaking role under Chapter VII of its charter. The<br />
more frequently used Chapter VI addressed only the deployment of<br />
peacekeeping troops to reinforce a previously agreed upon settlement<br />
b e t ween wa rring parties. But Chapter VII dealt with peace enforcement<br />
and not merely peacekeeping. The resolution underlined the<br />
charters of the first UNOSOM mission and Operation RESTORE HOPE<br />
and that of the new mission, UNOSOM II.<br />
Turkish Lt. Gen. Cevik Bir was appointed commander of the<br />
UNOS OM I I for ce , wi th U.S. A r my Maj. Ge n. Th omas M.<br />
M o n t g o m e ry as his deputy. General Montgomery also retained his<br />
position as commander of U.S. Forces in Somalia (<strong>US</strong>FORSOM)<br />
under Marine Corps General Joseph P. Hoar, CENTCOM commander<br />
in chief. Thus the U.S. forces retained their own national chain of<br />
command while inserting themselves into the UN structure. Only if<br />
the forces were committed to any combat operation would U.S. units<br />
fall under the tactical control (TACON) of the United Nations. Even in<br />
those circumstances, however, with the deputy commander of the UN<br />
force an American, U.S. national interests would remain protected. By<br />
October 1993 UNOSOM II consisted of over 16,000 peaceke e p e r s<br />
from 21 nations. This number would jump to 29,732 soldiers from 29<br />
nations by mid-November with the arr ival of over 17,000 additional<br />
U.S. personnel as part of a U.S. joint task force.<br />
The slow passage of Security Council Resolution 814 left all parties<br />
with little time to plan for an orderly transition, set for 4 May. It<br />
took time to fill the UN positions for the new force and, by all accounts,<br />
the handover of the mission was poorly done with only 30 percent of<br />
the UN staff in place on the date of transfer. Howeve r, despite the challenges<br />
of transition, General Bir assumed command of forces in<br />
Somalia on 4 May 1993 as UNOSOM II assumed the mission. In supp<br />
o rt of UNOSOM II, the United States provided a substantial log i s t i c s<br />
s t ructure (consisting of about 2,600 troops) and a small special operations<br />
element. The U.S. military also provided a 1,100-soldier gr o u n d <br />
15
ased quick reaction force (QRF) for UNOSOM II, consisting of a<br />
b r i ga d e - l evel headquarters from the 10th Mountain Division from Fo rt<br />
D rum. Jonathan Howe, a retired U.S. admiral, was appointed the new<br />
UN envoy to Somalia with wide-ranging powe r s .<br />
It quickly became apparent that Aideed had little respect for the<br />
n ew organization, the UN, or Admiral Howe. On 5 June 1993, his<br />
Somalia National Alliance forces ambushed and killed 24 Pa k i s t a n i<br />
soldiers assigned to UNOSOM II. Another 44 were wounded. The following<br />
day, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution<br />
837 adopting a more aggr e s s ive military stance toward Aideed and<br />
asking member states for more troops and equipment. In Mogadishu,<br />
Pakistani and Italian forces conducted heavy armored patrols throughout<br />
the city, concentrating on the areas near the ambush site. Also on 6<br />
June, General Hoar asked the Joint Staff to send four Air Fo r c e<br />
AC–130 gunships, special C–130 cargo planes modif ied for direct<br />
ground support, to carry out air strikes against the Somalis. The gunships<br />
deployed on 7 June and remained until 14 July, flying a total of<br />
t h i rt y - t wo interdiction, reconnaissance, and PSYOP missions in supp<br />
o rt of UNOSOM II. Eight of those missions were combat sort i e s<br />
flown over the streets of Mogadishu between 11 and 17 June. As part<br />
of the initia l str ike aga inst A ideed, three gunships flew ove r<br />
Mogadishu on 11–12 June and used their 105-mm. and 40-mm. cannons<br />
to demolish two weapons storage facilities and cripple Radio<br />
M ogadishu, Aideed’s propaganda station, by destroying its transmission<br />
capability. On 13, 14, and 17 June several additional AC – 1 3 0<br />
missions concentrated on destroying weapons storage areas and vehicle<br />
compounds belonging to Aideed and his key supporters. On 17<br />
June Admiral Howe issued a wa rrant for Aideed’s arrest and authorized<br />
a $25,000 reward. This only served to harden the political lines<br />
in Mogadishu. Skirmishing between UN and U.S. elements and<br />
Aideed’s Habr Gidr subclan continued, and on 12 July, in a direct challenge<br />
to Aideed’s leadership, the American QRF attacked a major<br />
Aideed compound with helicopter gunships. After the raid, a hostile<br />
crowd near the compound killed four western journalists covering the<br />
action, displaying their bodies for the world to see.<br />
I m m e d i a t e ly, UNOSOM II Force Command focused its intelligence<br />
and operational capability on locating, capturing, and arresting<br />
Aideed and any of his supporters whom it deemed responsible for the<br />
attacks of June and July. U.S. Task Force 3–25 Aviation was designated<br />
the command and control element and established three teams to<br />
conduct operations to capture Aideed: Team Attack, Team Snatch, and<br />
Team Secure. Composed of attack, scout, and cargo helicopters with<br />
16
On the Alert, Jeffrey Manuszak, 1994<br />
snipers and a scout platoon, they were to conduct continuous intelligence<br />
surveillance of Aideed, leading to an attack on his escort convoy<br />
when he was traveling around the city and most vulnerable. Team<br />
Attack would destroy the lead and trail vehicles, Team Snatch would<br />
then capture Aideed, and Team Secure would provide ground security<br />
by occupying blocking positions to prevent civilians from entering<br />
while keeping targeted individuals in the ambush site. However,<br />
despite several alerts, Aideed began lowering his profile in the city and<br />
was seldom noted moving around.<br />
Aideed did not take this personal threat to him lying down. On 8<br />
August his forces detonated a mine under a passing U.S. <strong>Military</strong><br />
Police (MP) vehicle on Jialle-Siaad Street in Mogadishu killing four<br />
U.S. MPs. As the military situation worsened, the UN Secretary<br />
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali asked the new U.S. administration of<br />
President William J. Clinton to assist him in capturing Aideed.<br />
On 22 August 1993, the new Secretary of Defense, Les Aspin,<br />
directed the deployment of a joint special operations task force<br />
(JSOTF) to Somalia in response to attacks made by Aideed supporters<br />
upon American and UNOSOM forces and installations. The JSOTF,<br />
17
named Task Force Ranger, had the mission of capturing Aideed and<br />
his key lieutenants and turning them over to UNOSOM II forces. The<br />
task would prove extraordinarily difficult, for Aideed had gone underground<br />
after the AC–130 air raids and ground assaults on his strongholds<br />
in June and July.<br />
The command and control structure of TF Ranger evolved during<br />
its time in theater. It eve n t u a l ly was a carefully wo r ked out arr a n g ement<br />
that ensured coordination of American elements on the ground<br />
without compromising its security or U.S. national interests. In accord<br />
with the Goldwa t e r-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act, the unifie d<br />
commander (in this case, General Hoar) had command and control<br />
over all U.S. military resources in theater, including the units supporting<br />
UNOSOM II and TF Ranger. However, TF Ranger did not report<br />
to General Montgomery, the U.S. commander on the ground in<br />
Somalia who was dual-hatted as the UNOSOM II deputy commander.<br />
I n s t e a d, General Hoar had the TF Ranger commander, Maj. Gen.<br />
William F. Garrison, report to him directly. Thus, TF Ranger, as a<br />
s t r a t egic U.S. asset, did not fall under the UNOSOM II commander<br />
but rather remained strictly under American operational command and<br />
control. For his part, after an initial misstep during a poorly coordinated<br />
mission that hit a UN compound, General Garrison wo r ked to<br />
ensure that he coordinated all TF Ranger operations with General<br />
M o n t g o m e ry. He also closely tied in his force to the U.S. QRF by<br />
exchanging liaison officers.<br />
All major elements of TF Ranger were in Somalia by 28 August.<br />
The task force consisted of special operations ground forces, special<br />
operations helicopters, U.S. Air Force special tactics personnel, and<br />
U.S. Navy Seals. During August and September 1993, the task force<br />
conducted six missions into Mogadishu, all of which were tactical successes,<br />
although in one instance the task force members mistake n ly<br />
raided an unlisted UN facility and temporarily restrained some UN<br />
employees. The raids were launched by day and night and used both<br />
helicopters and vehicles to reach their targets. During one of these<br />
operations, a raid near Digfer Hospital on 21 September, Osman Atto,<br />
one of Aideed’s closest advisers and his chief financial aide, was captured.<br />
The operation went smoothly, but for the f irst time the U. S .<br />
Rangers received massed rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) fire from<br />
n e a r by Somali militia. Although Aideed himself remained free, the<br />
c u m u l a t ive result of these eff o rts was to seve r e ly hamper his movements<br />
and eff e c t iveness. Howeve r, his forces were also showing a<br />
greater willingness to engage TF Ranger elements with heavy small<br />
arms and rocket fire.<br />
18
The situation in Mogadishu worsened even as the raids continued.<br />
In one of the most violent and costly incidents, on 8 September U.S.<br />
and Pakistani soldiers were clearing roadblocks near a site known as<br />
the Cigarette Factory when they were attacked by Somali militia using<br />
106-mm. recoilless rifles, RPGs, and small arms. It took ex t e n s ive<br />
fires from ground and aviation units to suppress the enemy fire. Later<br />
that same day, near an abandoned allied checkpoint, the same clearing<br />
element was again attacked by militiamen, this time joined by a mob<br />
of approx i m a t e ly 1,000 Somali civilians. Six UNOSOM II soldiers<br />
were injured. On 16 and 21 September two roadblock-clearing teams<br />
were attacked on 21 October Road. The tea m a ttacke d on 21<br />
September was a Pakistani element, and it lost an armored personnel<br />
c a rrier and suffered nine casualties, including two killed. On 25<br />
September a U.S. Black Hawk helicopter was shot down and three soldiers<br />
killed: one from the 25th Aviation Regiment, Fort Drum, and two<br />
from the 101st Aviation Regiment, Fort Campbell, Kentucky. U.S. and<br />
Pakistani forces secured the area and evacuated the casualties under<br />
fire. Particularly unsettling was the fact that the Somalis shot down the<br />
helicopter using simple RPGs, normally used to attack armored vehicles.<br />
This fact did not bode well for the helicopter raids of TF Ranger.<br />
On 3 October TF Ranger launched its seventh mission, this time<br />
into Aideed’s stronghold in the so-called Black Sea slum district, near<br />
the Bakara Market to capture two of his key lieutenants. Helicopters<br />
c a rrying assault and blocking forces launched around 1530 from the<br />
task force compound at the we s t e rn end of Mogadishu airp o rt, with a<br />
ground convoy moving out three minutes later. By 1542 the gr o u n d<br />
forces had arr ived at the target location, near the Olympic Hotel. ( M a p<br />
3) The blocking force quickly established perimeter positions while the<br />
assault force searched the compound for Aideed’s supporters. Both<br />
came under increasingly heavy enemy fire, more intense than during<br />
p r evious raids. The assault team captured twenty-four Somalis and wa s<br />
about to load them onto the convoy trucks when a circling MH–60<br />
Black Hawk was hit by an RPG and crashed about three blocks from<br />
the target location. Almost immediately, one six-man element of the<br />
blocking force, as well as a small MH–6 assault helicopter and a modified<br />
MH–60 Black Hawk carrying a fif t e e n-man combat search and rescue<br />
(CSAR) team, went to the scene. The MH–6 crew arr ived fi r s t ,<br />
landed in a narr ow alley in the middle of a fir e fight, and evacuated two<br />
wounded soldiers to a military field hospital. Next, the six-man Ranger<br />
blocking element arr ived on foot, followed by the CSAR helicopter. As<br />
the last two members of the search and rescue team were sliding dow n<br />
the fast ropes to the crash site, their helicopter was also hit by an RPG,<br />
19
MAP 3<br />
21 October Road<br />
Armed Forces Street<br />
V ia Lenin<br />
K4 Circle<br />
MOGADISHU<br />
AIRPORT<br />
HQ TASK FORCE RANGER<br />
0<br />
BLACK<br />
SEA<br />
National Street<br />
�<br />
Crash Site #1<br />
AREA Olympic Hotel<br />
V ia A g fo ye<br />
H a w a l Wa d a g S t<br />
V i a M o s c o w<br />
Crash Site #2<br />
Shalalawi St<br />
MOGADISHU<br />
3–4 October 1993<br />
�<br />
Stadium<br />
0 1 Mile<br />
1<br />
Kilometer<br />
Maxud Harbi<br />
NEW PORT FACILITY<br />
PAKISTANI HQ<br />
Via Nigeria
ut somehow the pilot kept the helicopter steady until the two reached<br />
the ground safely and then nursed the helicopter back to the airp o rt .<br />
The situation now worsened. Ground f ire str uck two more<br />
MH–60s, with one going down less than a mile south of the fi r s t<br />
destroyed helicopter while the other limped to safety at the airport. A<br />
Somali mob ove rran this second crash site and, despite a heroic<br />
defense, killed everyone except one of the pilots, whom they took priso<br />
n e r. Two defenders at this location, M. Sgt. Gary Gordon and Sfc.<br />
Randall Shughart, were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor<br />
for their sacrifice.<br />
M e a n while, after loading the detainees on the ground convoy<br />
trucks, the remaining assault and blocking forces moved on foot to the<br />
first crash area, passing through heavy fire that wounded a number of<br />
soldiers, and occupied buildings south and southwest of the dow n e d<br />
h e l i c o p t e r. There they established defensive positions, laying dow n<br />
suppressive fire to hold the Somalis at bay, and treated their wounded<br />
while working to free the pilot’s body from the wreckage. Taking a different<br />
route, the ground convoy force with the detainees loaded in<br />
trucks attempted to reach the first crash site from the north. Unable to<br />
find it among the narrow, winding alleyways, they came under withering<br />
small arms and RPG fire. Finally, after suffering numerous casualties,<br />
losing two 5-ton trucks, and sustaining substantial damage to the<br />
other vehicles, the convoy commander decided to return to the airfield.<br />
On the way, the returning convoy encountered a second convoy<br />
consisting of the task force’s internal quick reaction element. This<br />
pick-up force of Ranger and Special Forces support personnel had<br />
left the airp o rt in hopes of reaching the site of the second crash. This<br />
element loaded some of the casualties of the first convoy onto its<br />
vehicles and both returned to base. About this time, the U.S. QRF for<br />
the UN, a company of the 2d Battalion, 14th Infa n t ry, 10th Mountain<br />
D ivision, also tried to reach the second crash site, but the soldiers<br />
were pinned down by Somali fire. After a tough, dismounted fi r ef<br />
ight near the K–4 traff ic circle, the QRF commander, Lt. Col.<br />
William C. Dav i d, was compelled to move his small and outgunned<br />
force back to the safety of the airp o rt to regroup and work with task<br />
force personnel on a coordinated rescue plan.<br />
While these elements moved back and forth through the suddenly<br />
lethal streets of Mogadishu, the TF Ranger soldiers at the first crash<br />
site were running short of critical supplies. They received a resupply<br />
of water and ammunition from a helicopter that evening, but that<br />
MH–60 was also hit with RPGs and barely managed to power back to<br />
the airport before breaking down completely.<br />
21
Sergeants Gordon and Shughart<br />
The relief column was slowly being formed first at the airport and<br />
then at the New Port area of the city. It took some time to assemble<br />
tanks and armored vehicles from the Pakistani and Malaysian forces<br />
nearby, explain the plan to them, and integrate their forces with the<br />
2–14th Infantry elements. The time spent in coordination was vital,<br />
however, for such a complex, multinational force operation. Armor was<br />
essential as well, given the numerous roadblocks and RPGs flying across<br />
the streets of the city. 2 Finally, after hours of planning and collecting<br />
forces, the sixty-plus vehicle convoy of the 10th Mountain Division and<br />
attached elements moved out of the New Port area north to National<br />
Street, the Pakistani tanks in the lead. Closely followed by circling<br />
AH–1 Cobra gunships, command and control UH–60s, and reconnaissance<br />
OH–58A helicopters, the convoy moved in fits and starts along<br />
National Street toward the crash sites. Accidentally, two of the<br />
Malaysian armored personnel carriers with soldiers from the 2d Platoon,<br />
2 General Montgomery had discussed additional mechanized and armored units<br />
with CINCCENT in August and had formally requested a mechanized infantry team<br />
with a platoon of tanks and an artillery battery in early September. However, CINC<br />
CENT deleted the artillery before forwarding the request to the chairman of the Joint<br />
Chiefs and, despite the chairman’s recommendation for approval, Secretary of<br />
Defense Aspin disapproved the request in late September.<br />
22
C o m p a ny A, 2–14th Infa n t ry, turned south off National and we r e<br />
a m bushed. The soldiers moved quickly into the cover of nearby bu i l dings.<br />
It would be four hours before they were rescued. The rest of the<br />
c o nvoy continued up National and turned north on Shalalawi Street past<br />
the Olympic Hotel toward the f irst crash site. The 10th Mountain<br />
“ L i g h t f ighters” in the Malaysian armored personnel carriers broke<br />
through to the site at 0155 on 4 October. The combined Ranger–Special<br />
Forces–mountain infa n t ry force wo r ked until dawn to free the pilot’s<br />
b o d y, receiving grenade and small arms fire throughout the night. Close<br />
fire support by AH–6 and AH–1 attack helicopters, in some instances<br />
firing 2.75-inch rockets, helped keep the enemy at bay during those long<br />
hours of darkness. Company A, 2–14th Infa n t ry, less its second platoon,<br />
reached the second crash site, but no trace could be found of the lost soldiers<br />
and aviators. As dawn broke, all the casualties from the first site<br />
were loaded onto the armored personnel carriers; the remainder of the<br />
force moved rapidly on foot south along Shalalawi Street to National<br />
Street in what became known as the Mogadishu Mile.<br />
With the armored personnel carriers providing rolling cove r, the<br />
run-and-gun movement began at 0542 on 4 October. Somalis continued<br />
firing at the convoy while U.S. helicopter gunships raked the cross<br />
streets with fire to support the movement. The main force of the convoy<br />
arrived at the so-called Pakistani Stadium in the northeast section<br />
of the city by around 0630. Medical personnel gave emergency treatment<br />
to the wounded, and all personnel were prepared for movement<br />
to the hospital or the airfield. Thus ended one of the bloodiest and<br />
fiercest urban firefights since the Vietnam War.<br />
Casualties were heavy. TF Ranger lost 16 soldiers on 3–4 October<br />
and had another 57 wounded, with 1 other killed and 12 wounded on 6<br />
October by a mortar attack on their hangar complex at the airport. The<br />
2–14th Infa n t ry suffered 2 Americans killed and 22 wounded wh i l e<br />
the Malaysian coalition partners had 2 killed and 7 wounded and the<br />
Pakistanis suffered 2 wounded. Various estimates placed Somali casualties<br />
between 500 and 1,500.<br />
The battles of 3–4 October were a watershed in U.S. involvement<br />
in Somalia. The already complex mission and difficult env i r o n m e n t<br />
took a dramatic turn with those events. The situation required constant<br />
i n n ovation and rapid decisions from all the troops and commanders<br />
involved, under conditions that did not allow the American soldiers to<br />
t a ke advantage of their great technological superiority. Experience,<br />
common sense, group cohesion, and superior tactical training were the<br />
virtues that made survival in the new environment possible as the decision-makers<br />
in Washington grappled with what to do next.<br />
23
The Withdrawal from Somalia<br />
In the aftermath of the 3–4 October battle, U.S. military presence<br />
in Somalia increased signific a n t ly, although temporarily. A company<br />
from the 24th Infa n t ry Division (Mechanized) was immediately dispatched<br />
from Fo rt Stewa rt, Georgia, with Bradley fighting ve h i c l e s<br />
along with an attached platoon of M1 Abrams tanks. They were soon<br />
joined by the 1st Battalion, 64th Armor, with additional support assets.<br />
Another unit of the 10th Mountain Division—the 2d Battalion, 22d<br />
Infantry—arrived in Somalia soon after, along with a Marine expedit<br />
i o n a ry unit (MEU) and additional special operations personnel<br />
including more AC–130 gunships. These forces were organized under<br />
a new Joint Task Force Somalia under the command of Maj. Gen. Carl<br />
F. Ernst who was placed under General Montgomery’s tactical control<br />
but remained under the operational control of the theater commander,<br />
General Hoar.<br />
H oweve r, it soon became clear that the Clinton administration wa s<br />
focused on using those forces to facilitate the withdrawal of U.S. troops<br />
rather than use them to punish Aideed. General Montgomery had clear<br />
guidance: protect the force, protect the UN, and bring the force out<br />
with a minimum of casualties. In a national security policy rev i ew session<br />
held in the White House on 6 October, the president directed the<br />
acting chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral David G.<br />
Jeremiah, to stop all actions by U.S. forces against Aideed except those<br />
required in self-defense. He also reappointed Ambassador Oakley as<br />
special envoy to Somalia in an attempt to broker a peace settlement and<br />
then announced that all U.S. forces would withdraw from Somalia no<br />
later than 31 March 1994. Short ly thereafter Secretary Aspin stepped<br />
d own, taking much of the blame for what was deemed a failed policy.<br />
For all intents and purposes, the United States was now determined to<br />
w i t h d r aw from Somalia as quickly as possible. All additional forces<br />
sent would be used solely for self-defense of U.S. soldiers rather than<br />
for further off e n s ive operations.<br />
Ambassador Oakley arr ived in Mogadishu on 9 October, determined<br />
to obtain the release of U.S. helicopter pilot CW2 Michael<br />
Durant, captured at the second crash site by Somali forces loyal to<br />
Aideed. After intense negotiations, Aideed agreed to release the<br />
wounded Durant and a prev i o u s ly captured Nigerian soldier on 14<br />
October as a “goodwill gesture.” Despite this gesture and a unilateral<br />
cease-fire declared by Aideed, it quickly became apparent that the U.S.<br />
role in Somalia was ending and that the UN would receive no substantive<br />
cooperation from the warlord and his clan.<br />
24
Soldiers of Task Force Ranger take cover and return fire<br />
during the 3–4 October battle.<br />
After several months of comparatively limited activity and few<br />
further instances of violence, U.S. forces began withdrawing. Most of<br />
the American troops were out of Somalia by 25 March 1994, ending<br />
Operation CONTINUE HOPE, the follow-on mission to RESTORE HOPE.<br />
Only a few hundred marines remained offshore to assist with any noncombatant<br />
evacuation mission that might occur in the event violence<br />
broke out that necessitated the removal of the over 1,000 U.S. civilians<br />
and military advisers remaining as part of the U.S. liaison mission. All<br />
UN and U.S. personnel were finally withdrawn almost a year later in<br />
March 1995.<br />
All attempts to reconcile the Somali factions had proven futile,<br />
and the international community gradually lost its patience with the<br />
total lack of political results. Operation UNITED SHIELD, the final UN<br />
withdrawal from Somalia, was completed on 3 March 1995. The<br />
United States, as part of the international community, had made major<br />
contributions to the Somalia humanitarian operations for over two<br />
years. Starvation had been stopped and hundreds of thousands of lives<br />
saved. The U.S. had accomplished much in the initial stages of the<br />
operation, but the political situation had unraveled even as the food<br />
supplies increased, allowing Somalia to slide backwards into disorder<br />
and anarchy.<br />
25
Analysis<br />
The United States entered Somalia in December 1992 to stop the<br />
imminent starvation of hundreds of thousands of people. Although it<br />
succeeded in this mission, the chaotic political situation of that unhappy<br />
land bogged down U.S. and allied forces in what became, in effect,<br />
a poorly organized United Nations nation-building operation. In a<br />
country where the United States, perhaps naively, expected some measure<br />
of gratitude for its help, its forces received increasing hostility as<br />
t h ey became more deeply embroiled into trying to establish a stabl e<br />
g ove rnment. The military and diplomatic eff o rt to bring together all<br />
the clans and political entities was doomed to failure as each subelement<br />
continued to attempt to out-jockey the others for supreme power.<br />
The Somali people were the main victims of their own leaders, bu t<br />
forty-two Americans died and dozens more were wounded before the<br />
United States and the United Nations capitulated to events and withd<br />
r ew. American military power had established the conditions for<br />
peace in the midst of a famine and civil wa r, but, unlike later in<br />
Bosnia, the factions were not exhausted from the fighting and were not<br />
yet willing to stop killing each other and anyone caught in the middle.<br />
There was no peace to keep. The American soldier had, as alway s ,<br />
done his best under difficult circumstances to perform a complex and<br />
often confusing mission. But the best soldiers in the world can only<br />
lay the foundation for peace; they cannot create peace itself.<br />
26
Additional Readings<br />
Allard, Kenneth. Somalia Operations: Lessons Learned. Washington,<br />
D.C.: National Defense University Press, 1995.<br />
B owden, Mark. B l a ck Hawk Down: A Story of Modern Wa r. N ew<br />
York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999.<br />
C a s p e r, Lawrence E. Falcon Briga d e, Combat and Command in<br />
Somalia and Haiti. B o u l d e r, Colo., and London: Lynne Rienner,<br />
2001.<br />
DeLong, Kent, and Tuckey, Steven. Mogadishu! Heroism and Tragedy.<br />
Westport, Conn., and London: Praeger Publishers, 1994.<br />
Hirsch, John L., and Oakley, Robert B. Somalia and Opera t i o n<br />
R e s t o re Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Pe a c e k e e p i n g.<br />
Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995.<br />
R e s o u rce Guide Unified Task Fo rce Somalia, December 1992–May<br />
1993, Operation Restore Hope. Washington, D.C.: U.S. <strong>Army</strong><br />
<strong>Center</strong> of <strong>Military</strong> <strong>History</strong>, 1994.<br />
<strong>US</strong>SOCOM Histor y <strong>Of</strong>f i c e . United States Spec ial O pera t i o n s<br />
Command <strong>History</strong>. Tampa, Fla., 1998.<br />
27
PIN : 080256–000