Materials and products from UK-sourced PVC-rich waste
Materials and products from UK-sourced PVC-rich waste
Materials and products from UK-sourced PVC-rich waste
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Creating markets for recycled resources<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong>-<strong>sourced</strong><br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
Project code: PLA7-013<br />
Start of research: 1 st March 2003<br />
Finish date: 31st March 2004<br />
Authors:<br />
PD Coates, AL Kelly, RM Rose – University of Bradford<br />
S Weston – Costdown Consultancy<br />
R Morton – Axion Recycling<br />
Published by:<br />
The Waste & Resources Action Programme<br />
The Old Academy, 21 Horse Fair, Banbury, Oxon OX16 0AH<br />
Tel: 01295 819900 Fax: 01295 819911 www.wrap.org.uk<br />
WRAP Business Helpline: Freephone: 0808 100 2040<br />
Date 27 th May 2004<br />
ISBN: 1-84405-124-2<br />
R&D Report: Plastics
Abstract<br />
Between 100 <strong>and</strong> 200,000te/yr of collectable post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is produced in the <strong>UK</strong>. Disposal route for the great<br />
majority of this material is to l<strong>and</strong>fill. A further 15,000te/yr of post-industrial scrap <strong>from</strong> the wallpaper industry is known<br />
to be disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill. About 45,000te/yr of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> scrap is already recycled in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
The largest volume <strong>and</strong> most readily collectable post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams are windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring, all<br />
<strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> the construction sector. Up to 170,000te/yr of these materials are expected to be arising in the <strong>UK</strong> by<br />
2010.<br />
Several alternative routes have been identified for collection of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the construction sector.<br />
A review of the alternative recycling options <strong>and</strong> their commercial viability indicates that in the <strong>UK</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill is by far the<br />
lowest cost disposal option <strong>and</strong> will remain so until l<strong>and</strong>fill disposal costs rise significantly. However, of the recycling<br />
solutions:<br />
• Mechanical separation to produce clean 3-8mm chips for extrusion or injection moulding is likely to be the most<br />
environmentally <strong>and</strong> commercially attractive route for high grade recycling of post-use windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
made <strong>from</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
• Mechanical recycling by either mechanical separation followed by melt filtration or the Vinyloop dissolution<br />
process to produce clean material for addition to new coated or calendared floorings is likely to be the most<br />
environmentally <strong>and</strong> commercially attractive route for recycling post-use flooring made <strong>from</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
The wallpaper industry is developing its own innovative solution for recycling of its post-industrial <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
An environmental impact comparison using life cycle analysis demonstrates that l<strong>and</strong>fill is by far the worst disposal<br />
solution for post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> that mechanical recycling techniques have the least impact, primarily because they create<br />
useful recyclate which substitutes new <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
The report makes several recommendations which will help to increase recycling of <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> to higher value<br />
<strong>products</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong>
Executive summary<br />
This is the final report for a project to establish the viability of recycling facilities in the <strong>UK</strong> to produce higher value<br />
<strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams.<br />
Why this project<br />
The project was funded by WRAP to research how to increase the amount of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> that is recycled in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
The project was led by Professor Phil Coates at the Interdisciplinary Research Centre of the Polymer Science <strong>and</strong><br />
Technology Department of the University of Bradford.<br />
Objectives<br />
The aim of the project was to establish the viability of producing higher value materials <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong>-<strong>sourced</strong> contaminated<br />
<strong>and</strong> variable quality post-consumer <strong>and</strong> post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Method<br />
The research work included:<br />
• market research<br />
• practical trials<br />
• laboratory testing of recyclates<br />
• economic evaluations<br />
• environmental impact comparisons<br />
The project involved many industrial collaborators in the practical work <strong>and</strong> was co-ordinated closely with other recycling<br />
projects initiated by groups within the <strong>PVC</strong> industry <strong>and</strong> WRAP.<br />
<strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> Waste streams<br />
Most post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong> is already recycled to high grade applications, apart <strong>from</strong> vinyl wallpaper <strong>waste</strong><br />
(15,000te/yr) which is disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
The principal collectable post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in the <strong>UK</strong> are:<br />
• Windows<br />
• Pipes<br />
• Flooring<br />
Other sources of post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> such as coated textiles, wallpaper, packaging, cable insulation, end of life<br />
vehicles, etc are either too difficult to collect economically or are already exported together with other materials.<br />
The analysis in this report concentrates on windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong>s although other <strong>waste</strong>s were considered<br />
during the research. Detailed results are reported on the website created by the project at www.recyclepvc.com.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Recycling Options<br />
Practical options for recycling <strong>PVC</strong> to make high grade materials include:<br />
• Feedstock recycling<br />
• The Vinyloop solvolysis process <strong>from</strong> Solvay<br />
• Mechanical separation<br />
• Melt filtration<br />
Several compression moulders have been identified in the <strong>UK</strong> who are able to take substantial volumes of lower grade<br />
recyclate to make long-life <strong>products</strong> which substitute concrete <strong>and</strong> other non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials.<br />
Recycling Trials<br />
Practical trials of the alternative solutions in the course of this study demonstrated that acceptable high value recyclates<br />
can be produced:<br />
• <strong>from</strong> post-use windows <strong>and</strong> pipes by the Vinyloop solvolysis process or by mechanical separation<br />
• <strong>from</strong> post-use flooring by the Vinyloop process <strong>and</strong> potentially by melt-filtration, although the latter route is not<br />
fully proven<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> iii
Laboratory testing<br />
Samples of recyclate <strong>from</strong> the practical trials were tested at Bradford for both extrusion processability <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
properties in comparison with equivalent virgin compounds.<br />
These tests demonstrated that in all cases the extrusion performance <strong>and</strong> physical properties of the recyclates compared<br />
well with the equivalent virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compounds <strong>and</strong> complied with the relevant industry or national st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
The recyclates did not perform as well as virgin material in terms of:<br />
• colour (significantly darker, particularly the flooring recyclates)<br />
• surface defects (a particular issue for window recyclates)<br />
• cadmium content (the window recyclates contained levels of this material in excess of 100ppml)<br />
Practical trials with post-use window recyclate have demonstrated that it can be added at up to 40% to produce new<br />
extrusions for use in window applications without significant colour or surface defect problems.<br />
There are certain applications where <strong>PVC</strong> containing more than 100ppm of cadmium is not permitted in the EU. These<br />
include toys, flooring, swing doors <strong>and</strong> a number of other <strong>products</strong> where there may be regular human contact. In these<br />
applications the post-use recyclate would need to be diluted with virgin compound or post-industrial recyclate. There are<br />
many other applications including windows, drainage pipes, structural <strong>products</strong>, etc where there is no restriction on the<br />
cadmium content <strong>from</strong> recyclate.<br />
Commercial potential<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill is currently the lowest cost option for <strong>PVC</strong> disposal in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Mechanical separation for post-use window <strong>and</strong> pipe <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> the either the Solvay Vinyloop process or melt filtration<br />
offer the potential to produce recyclates which are of suitable quality to displace virgin polymer in new <strong>products</strong>.<br />
At present there are very few such high grade recycling projects under way in the <strong>UK</strong> because:<br />
• Collection volumes are too low to justify the risk of setting up a new plant<br />
• Unit collection costs are high because there is a shortage of collection infrastructure<br />
• Prices for recyclates are too low because users are reluctant to use them to substitute virgin material<br />
A group within the <strong>PVC</strong> industry has proposed a solution whereby a clearing house is established to start large scale<br />
collection of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> major users of <strong>PVC</strong> compound commit to buy recyclate for use in their <strong>products</strong>.<br />
Environmental impacts<br />
An environmental impact comparison conducted for this project by PE Europe concluded that l<strong>and</strong>fill has the greatest<br />
environmental impact while mechanical recycling by either mechanical separation or the Vinyloop process have the<br />
lowest, primarily because high grade recyclates produced can substitute virgin material in new <strong>products</strong>.<br />
From the point of view of environmental impact feedstock recycling is a better option than l<strong>and</strong>fill but not as good as<br />
mechanical separation.<br />
Conclusions<br />
At least 45,000te/yr of post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is already recycled to high grade applications in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Up to 170,000te/yr of post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> could be collectable <strong>from</strong> the <strong>UK</strong> construction sector by 2010. This <strong>waste</strong><br />
will comprise mainly windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring.<br />
Trials conducted for this project have demonstrated that high grade recyclates can be produced <strong>from</strong> these post-use<br />
<strong>waste</strong>s using processes which are already available.<br />
At present very little post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is collected because there is limited dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> end-users for recyclate made<br />
<strong>from</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. Prices are therefore low due to competition <strong>from</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>fill disposal route. Plastics collectors<br />
<strong>and</strong> reprocessors are reluctant to invest in the necessary infrastructure <strong>and</strong> equipment to produce high grade recyclate<br />
without assurance of dem<strong>and</strong> at attractive prices for the material that they may produce.<br />
An industry working group has proposed that to encourage growth in collection <strong>and</strong> recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> the major<br />
manufacturers of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> should create dem<strong>and</strong> by agreeing to purchase any high grade recyclate produced at<br />
prices close to virgin compound <strong>and</strong> to use this material in their <strong>products</strong> to substitute virgin material. It is proposed that<br />
the <strong>PVC</strong> industry should also establish a clearing house which contracts the large scale collection <strong>and</strong> reprocessing of<br />
post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> with existing <strong>waste</strong> collection <strong>and</strong> recycling companies in order to ‘kick-start’ the process.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> iv
Contents<br />
Abstract................................................................................................................................................ii<br />
Executive summary............................................................................................................................ iii<br />
Contents ...............................................................................................................................................v<br />
1. Purpose of this report...................................................................................................................6<br />
2. Objectives ....................................................................................................................................6<br />
3. Method .........................................................................................................................................7<br />
4. Background..................................................................................................................................9<br />
5. <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams..............................................................................................................15<br />
6. Waste collection strategies.........................................................................................................23<br />
7. Recycling methods for <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> .....................................................................................32<br />
8. Recycling trials ..........................................................................................................................50<br />
9. Recyclate properties compared to virgin compound .................................................................58<br />
10. Comparison of commercial potential for recycling options ..................................................71<br />
11. Life cycle analysis for the recycling options .........................................................................78<br />
12. Conclusions............................................................................................................................88<br />
13. Recommendations..................................................................................................................88<br />
Appendix 1 - <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling companies.....................................................................................89<br />
Detailed maps.....................................................................................................................................91<br />
Appendix 2 – VEKA <strong>PVC</strong> window reprocessing plant - Germany...................................................95<br />
Appendix 3 - Laboratory measurement techniques used...................................................................97<br />
Appendix 4 – Results of recycling trials at Anglian Windows........................................................105<br />
Appendix 5 - <strong>PVC</strong> Clearing House Proposal...................................................................................113<br />
Appendix 6 – Glossary.....................................................................................................................117<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> v
1. Purpose of this report<br />
This is the final report for the WRAP project, ‘<strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> Products <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong>-Sourced <strong>PVC</strong>-Rich Waste’, researched by<br />
the Interdisciplinary Research Centre (IRC) in the Polymer Science <strong>and</strong> Technology Laboratory of the University of<br />
Bradford with support <strong>from</strong> Costdown Consultancy <strong>and</strong> PE Europe.<br />
The project was funded by WRAP as a result of an open call for R&D proposals.<br />
Why this project?<br />
One of the key <strong>waste</strong> streams targeted by WRAP is plastics.<br />
This project arose <strong>from</strong> an open call by WRAP for research proposals related to plastic recycling. This research proposal<br />
was accepted by WRAP because:<br />
• <strong>PVC</strong> comprises a large proportion of <strong>UK</strong> plastics consumption<br />
• The industry is already actively working on recycling strategies itself – which creates an extra driver for<br />
improvement<br />
• There is potential to deliver substantial increases in tonnage recycled <strong>from</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in the<br />
construction sector<br />
Initial analysis of the industry cost structure by a number of groups identified that the existing outlets for recycled postuse<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong> were relatively low value. This was preventing the development of collection <strong>and</strong> recycling<br />
infrastructure because recyclers could not obtain attractive prices for their <strong>products</strong>.<br />
New, higher value recycled <strong>PVC</strong> materials would need to be developed in order to create the dem<strong>and</strong> that would<br />
stimulate increased collection <strong>and</strong> processing of <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams.<br />
Prior to completion of this project very little was known in the <strong>UK</strong> about the economics <strong>and</strong> environmental impact of the<br />
various potential <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> collection <strong>and</strong> recycling processes or the likely properties of the recyclates that they could<br />
produce <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams.<br />
2. Objectives<br />
The aim of the project was to establish the viability of producing higher value materials <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong>-<strong>sourced</strong> contaminated<br />
<strong>and</strong> variable quality post-consumer <strong>and</strong> post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
This report covers the findings of the research objectives set out below.<br />
• Identify <strong>and</strong> quantify the main <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams<br />
• Review the available recycling techniques<br />
• Test the recycling techniques with best potential for the <strong>UK</strong><br />
• Develop <strong>waste</strong> collection strategies for the most attractive streams<br />
• Measure the key properties of the recycled materials <strong>and</strong> compare them to equivalent virgin compounds<br />
• Conduct industrial processing trials for selected recycled compounds<br />
• Compare the commercial potential <strong>and</strong> ecological impact of the alternative recycling options<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 6
3. Method<br />
3.1. Work content<br />
The project comprised:<br />
• desk studies of the market <strong>and</strong> the potential recycling options to identify the most promising <strong>waste</strong> streams <strong>and</strong><br />
recycling options<br />
• industrial trials on higher grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclates<br />
• laboratory testing of the recyclates<br />
• evaluation of the commercial potential of the possible collection <strong>and</strong> recycling options<br />
• evaluation of the environmental impact of the most likely recycling scenarios<br />
3.2. Industry Participation<br />
The work programme was supported by a broad group of industrial partners, many of whom provided samples for the<br />
project <strong>and</strong> hosted trials at their own production facilities.<br />
The project also coordinated with several other industry recycling initiatives that were carried out in parallel with this<br />
work. These included:<br />
• <strong>PVC</strong> window collection <strong>and</strong> processing trials carried out with industrial partners <strong>and</strong> funded by the British<br />
Plastics Federation (BPF) <strong>and</strong> the European Plastic Profiles Association (EPPA)<br />
• <strong>PVC</strong> flooring collection <strong>and</strong> processing trials carried out by industrial partners <strong>and</strong> funded by the BPF <strong>and</strong> the<br />
European <strong>PVC</strong> Flooring Association (EPFloor)<br />
• <strong>PVC</strong> recycling business planning exercise <strong>and</strong> practical recycling trials for the <strong>UK</strong> carried out by Axion Recycling<br />
Ltd for a consortium coordinated by the BPF <strong>and</strong> funded by Vinyl 2010<br />
In addition, the industrial partners provided access to results <strong>and</strong> samples <strong>from</strong> many earlier market research <strong>and</strong><br />
recycling trials – several of which were not previously circulated outside the industry. Where appropriate these results<br />
are referenced in this document.<br />
The project was directed by regular steering <strong>and</strong> technical meetings attended by people <strong>from</strong> all sectors of the <strong>PVC</strong><br />
industry, WRAP <strong>and</strong> an expert representative <strong>from</strong> the National Society for Clean Air, Mr Tim Brown.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 7
3.3. Acknowledgements<br />
Many people within or connected to the <strong>PVC</strong> recycling, raw materials <strong>and</strong> processing industry participated in the<br />
numerous technical meetings, materials supplies, experimental trials, product assessments, factory visits, questionnaires<br />
<strong>and</strong> telephone interviews involved in this project. These included:<br />
Martin Baitz, PE Consultants<br />
Bob Bittlestone, Ecoplas<br />
Rolf Buehl, EVC, ECVM/ Vinyl 2010<br />
Maribel Cansell, Techniplasper<br />
Simon Clarke, IHDG/ Consultant<br />
David Cockhead, Altro<br />
Andrew Coulson, Hydro Polymers<br />
Patrick Crucifix, Solvay<br />
Julian Cubitt, Anglian Windows<br />
Andrew Cutmore, Hydro Polymers<br />
Dave Dykes VITApruf<br />
Mike Erskin Coated Applications Group<br />
Keith Freegard, Axion Recycling<br />
Dr Mercia Gick, BPF<br />
Daniel Gloessner, Solvay<br />
Constantin Herrman, PE Consultants<br />
Alan Hunter, EVC<br />
Paul Jervis, BPF Windows Group<br />
Dr Siem Kroon, EPFloor<br />
Susan Lea, Raydex/CDT<br />
Ross Law, Hydro Polymers<br />
Dr Jason Leadbitter, Hydro Polymers<br />
David Lightbody, Lomond Recycling Ltd.<br />
Mike Minett, Polyfloor<br />
Tony Moore, Epwin Group<br />
Roger Morton, Axion Recycling<br />
Roger Mottram, EVC<br />
P. Nolan, Lothian Coatings Plc<br />
Andrew Simmons, Recoup<br />
Arjen Svenster, Vinyl2010<br />
Pete Thomas, Marley Floors / <strong>UK</strong>RFA<br />
Ian Tippet, Ecoplas<br />
Jean Pol Verlaine, Solvay<br />
N. Wharton, IHDG/CWV<br />
David Wrigley, Epwin<br />
Jean- Marie Yernaux, Solvay<br />
A range of organisations have also provided information <strong>and</strong> technical comments. These include:<br />
The British Plastics Federation (BPF)<br />
The European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM)<br />
The European Flooring trade association (EPFLOOR)<br />
The European Plastic Profiles Association (EPPA)<br />
The Made Up Textiles Association (MUTA), Recoup<br />
The <strong>UK</strong> Resilient Flooring Association (<strong>UK</strong>RFA)<br />
Vinyl 2010<br />
The Wallpaper Manufacturers Association (WMA).<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 8
4. Background<br />
4.1. What is <strong>PVC</strong>?<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is manufactured <strong>from</strong> ethylene <strong>and</strong> chlorine. Ethylene is obtained by cracking crude oil.<br />
Chlorine is made by electrolysis of salt solution (sodium chloride).<br />
Ethylene <strong>and</strong> chlorine are combined in a reaction vessel to form ethylene dichloride which, in turn, is transformed into a<br />
gas called vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). A final polymerization step converts the monomer into <strong>PVC</strong>, a fine-grained,<br />
white powder or resin.<br />
As a result of its high chlorine content (57%) <strong>PVC</strong> is one of the lowest cost polymers available. It is substantially cheaper<br />
than PET <strong>and</strong> Polystyrene <strong>and</strong> is usually less expensive than polyethylene <strong>and</strong> polypropylene, although prices of all bulk<br />
polymer types are volatile <strong>and</strong> they do not always follow the same price cycle.<br />
Pure <strong>PVC</strong> is a rigid material, which is mechanically tough, resistant to water <strong>and</strong> most chemicals, electrically insulating,<br />
but relatively unstable to heat <strong>and</strong> light. It is an inherently flame retardant material with a self-extinguishing fire rating.<br />
Heat <strong>and</strong> ultraviolet light lead to a loss of chlorine in the form of hydrogen chloride (HCl). This can be avoided through<br />
the addition of stabilisers. Stabilisers are salts of metals like lead, barium, calcium, cadmium, or organotin compounds.<br />
Stabilised <strong>PVC</strong> has excellent weather resistance. This has led to rapid growth in the use of <strong>PVC</strong> in the construction<br />
sector. In 2001 90% of the replacement windows installed in the <strong>UK</strong> had <strong>PVC</strong> frames. 1<br />
In recent years the use of cadmium <strong>and</strong> organotin stabilisers has been phased out in response to concerns over long<br />
term toxicity. The <strong>PVC</strong> industry plans to phase out the use of lead stabilizers in all <strong>PVC</strong> compounds by 2015 2 .<br />
The mechanical properties of <strong>PVC</strong> can be modified through the addition of low molecular weight compounds that mix<br />
with the polymer matrix. Addition of these ‘plasticisers’ allows the use of <strong>PVC</strong> in applications where flexibility is required<br />
such as vinyl flooring, packaging films, cable sheathing, hoses <strong>and</strong> coated fabrics. Most of the plasticisers used with<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> are esters of organic acids, mainly phthalates <strong>and</strong> adipates.<br />
The excellent mechanical properties of <strong>PVC</strong>, its low cost <strong>and</strong> the fact that its performance can be readily tailored with<br />
different additive packages means that <strong>PVC</strong> is a popular material for a wide range of applications.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> consumption in the <strong>UK</strong> is about 750,000te/yr. This accounts for about 16% of total <strong>UK</strong> plastics consumption:<br />
UP Resin, 2%<br />
PET/PBT, 6%<br />
ABS/SAN, 2%<br />
PS/EPS, 6%<br />
Others, 22%<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>, 16%<br />
L/LLDPE, 19%<br />
PP, 16%<br />
HDPE, 11%<br />
Figure 4.1a Split of Plastic consumption by weight in <strong>UK</strong> by Polymer type (2000) 3<br />
1 ‘Research into <strong>waste</strong> glass window <strong>and</strong> door frames <strong>from</strong> the demolition <strong>and</strong> replacement window industries’, WRAP<br />
Research report GLA2-022, James Hurley, BRE, June 2003<br />
2 Vinyl 2010, Voluntary Commitment of the <strong>PVC</strong> Industry, October 2001, www.vinyl2010.org<br />
3 BPF/ Valuplast survey, 2003, BPF www.bpf.co.uk/bpfindustry/An_Introduction_to_Plastics.cfm<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 9
Across Europe unplasticised or rigid <strong>PVC</strong> (u<strong>PVC</strong> or <strong>PVC</strong>-u) accounts for about two thirds of total use <strong>and</strong> plasticised or<br />
flexible <strong>PVC</strong> accounts for the balance:<br />
Other flexible, 5%<br />
Hoses <strong>and</strong> flexible<br />
profiles, 4%<br />
Flexible film, 7%<br />
Coatings, 5%<br />
Pipes, 22%<br />
Plastisols, 5%<br />
Rigid film, 7% Other rigid, 5%<br />
Profiles, 19%<br />
Figure 4.1b Split of <strong>PVC</strong> applications in Europe by product type (2000) 4<br />
The <strong>UK</strong> construction sector uses about 470,000te/yr of <strong>PVC</strong>, far more than any other sector:<br />
Automotive, 2%<br />
Electrical, 9%<br />
Others, 18%<br />
Packaging, 11%<br />
Figure 4.1c Split of <strong>PVC</strong> applications in <strong>UK</strong> by application sector (2000) 5<br />
Products used in the construction sector also tend to have the longest life times:<br />
Usage sector Average life (years) 6<br />
Construction 10 to 50<br />
Packaging 1<br />
Electrical 21<br />
Automotive 12<br />
Others 2-10<br />
Cables/wires, 11%<br />
Flooring, 10%<br />
Construction, 60%<br />
Further information on <strong>PVC</strong> compounds, properties <strong>and</strong> examples of applications is available <strong>from</strong> the websites of the<br />
BPF 7 <strong>and</strong> the Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe (APME) 8 .<br />
4<br />
European Plastics Converters Association (EuPC) brochure, 2003<br />
5<br />
‘Plastics in the <strong>UK</strong> Economy, a Guide to Polymer Use <strong>and</strong> the Opportunities for Recycling’, Wastewatch, 2004, p57,<br />
www.plasticsintheuk.org.uk<br />
6<br />
Mechanical Recycling of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>s, Study for DG XI, Prognos, January 2000<br />
7<br />
www.bpf.co.uk/bpfindustry/plastics_materials_Polyvinyl_Chloride_<strong>PVC</strong>.cfm<br />
8 www.apme.org/<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 10
4.2. Current levels of <strong>PVC</strong> recycling<br />
Substantial quantities of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> scrap are already recycled in the <strong>UK</strong>:<br />
Waste source ‘000te/yr Estimate by Notes<br />
Post-industrial scrap<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> windows<br />
manufacture<br />
post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong><br />
pipe scrap<br />
Post-industrial vinyl<br />
flooring scrap<br />
Total 45<br />
30 The BPF Windows<br />
Group 9<br />
8 BPF Pipes Group 10<br />
7 National Centre for<br />
Business<br />
Sustainability<br />
(NCBS) 11<br />
comprises mainly offcuts of the extruded<br />
profiles used to make windows, together with a<br />
relatively small quantity of off-spec or mismeasured<br />
windows<br />
Comprises mostly production <strong>and</strong> installation<br />
off-cuts<br />
Mostly production edge <strong>and</strong> end trimmings <strong>from</strong><br />
the major <strong>UK</strong> manufacturers<br />
The rigid material <strong>from</strong> windows <strong>and</strong> pipes is recycled by several small specialist companies which have invested<br />
substantial amounts in the capital equipment required to h<strong>and</strong>le scrap <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Much of the material is returned for closed-loop recycling by the window <strong>and</strong> pipe makers while some is made into other<br />
<strong>products</strong> such as cable trunking.<br />
Most of the post-industrial flooring scrap is supplied to compression moulders within the <strong>UK</strong> to make new <strong>products</strong> such<br />
as traffic calming ramps (‘sleeping policemen’), safety barrier bases <strong>and</strong> traffic cones.<br />
There are further tonnages of post-industrial production scrap <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> other sectors such as packaging <strong>and</strong> coated<br />
textiles which are already been recycled by generalist plastic recyclers but have not been quantified for this project. In<br />
particular there are several companies which recycle skeletal <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the sheet <strong>PVC</strong> used to make blister packs <strong>and</strong><br />
vacuum formed s<strong>and</strong>wich packs, disposable food bowls, etc.<br />
The existing network of small companies which already recycle substantial tonnages of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> scrap back to<br />
high grade applications in the <strong>UK</strong> provides a ‘reservoir’ of expertise which may be tapped to exp<strong>and</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling in<br />
future.<br />
At present these companies are recycling very little post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> because it is more difficult to collect <strong>and</strong><br />
process <strong>and</strong> current <strong>UK</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill disposal costs are too low to justify the extra effort.<br />
The majority of the post-use <strong>PVC</strong> material that is currently recovered in the <strong>UK</strong> is cable <strong>waste</strong>. This is flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
insulation which is removed by cable recyclers in the process of recovering copper <strong>from</strong> scrap cable.<br />
Most of this material is relatively low grade due to the high level of contamination with fine copper wire fragments. This<br />
material is mostly sold to the same compression moulders who process post-industrial flooring <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
9<br />
Private communication, Paul Jervis, BPF Windows Group, 2003<br />
10<br />
‘Survey of Plastics Pipes <strong>and</strong> Ducting Waste Arisings’, Confidential report for BPF Pipes Group by AMA Research,<br />
July 2002<br />
11<br />
‘An assessment of current sources <strong>and</strong> disposal costs of mixed <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>’, NCBS, December 2002<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 11
4.3. Definitions<br />
Before proceeding further a few definitions are required for terms which will be used frequently in this report:<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> types:<br />
• Post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is defined in this report as material that is generated in the course of an industrial<br />
manufacturing process. This includes edge trimmings <strong>from</strong> coating processes, off-specification extruded<br />
profiles, saw dust <strong>and</strong> off-cuts <strong>from</strong> window fabrication processes <strong>and</strong> similar <strong>waste</strong>s.<br />
• Post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is material that has been manufactured, then sold <strong>and</strong> has reached the end of its useful<br />
life. This includes <strong>products</strong> such as windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring that are replaced after many years use but also<br />
relatively short life items such as packaging materials <strong>and</strong> materials that are <strong>waste</strong>d in the installation process<br />
such as flooring <strong>and</strong> piping off-cuts.<br />
Recyclate types:<br />
A distinction is made in this report between high grade <strong>and</strong> low grade recyclates:<br />
• High grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclates are materials produced <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> which are so close in specification to new<br />
materials that they can be used to substitute virgin polymer in certain parts of a new product.<br />
• Low grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclates are materials produced <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> which are used to make <strong>products</strong> that do<br />
not require a high purity specification. They do not normally substitute virgin polymer but instead replace<br />
different materials such as concrete. Frequently the <strong>products</strong> in which they are used have superior performance<br />
to <strong>products</strong> made <strong>from</strong> the material substituted by <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate.<br />
In this report collected <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is the quantity of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> which is actually collected <strong>and</strong> processed separately<br />
<strong>from</strong> other <strong>waste</strong> materials.<br />
Collectable <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is the quantity of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> which could potentially be collected by reasonably economical<br />
collection processes. The judgement of ‘reasonable economical’ collection cost is subjective but in this research we<br />
define it to include <strong>waste</strong> which could potentially be collected <strong>and</strong> reprocessed economically to make high grade<br />
recyclate if suitable collection <strong>and</strong> processing infrastructure was in place.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> arisings are the quantities of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> that are created <strong>and</strong> disposed by all routes. They may not be<br />
separately collected at present. Estimates of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> arisings are generally significantly higher than estimates of<br />
collectable <strong>waste</strong> or actual <strong>waste</strong> collected because it is not economically viable to collect much of the <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> stream<br />
separately.<br />
A glossary of other terms used in this report is provided in appendix 6.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 12
4.4. Political background<br />
Since the mid 1970s <strong>PVC</strong> has been the focus of pressure <strong>from</strong> campaigning environmental NGO’s such as Greenpeace.<br />
It appears that these campaigns originated <strong>from</strong> Rachel Carson’s book, ‘Silent Spring’, published in 1962 12 which raised<br />
concerns about organochlorines generally <strong>and</strong> led to the ban on DDT.<br />
In the 1970’s campaigns were launched to ban production of Chlorine altogether. These were not widely accepted so the<br />
campaigning groups switched their attention to <strong>PVC</strong>, at the other end of the production chain 13 . <strong>PVC</strong> consumes about<br />
35% of World chlorine production.<br />
More recently Greenpeace has moved its attention to the by-<strong>products</strong> of <strong>PVC</strong> manufacture <strong>and</strong> increasingly to the<br />
additives used in <strong>PVC</strong> such as phthalate plasticisers used in some flexible <strong>PVC</strong> applications <strong>and</strong> heavy metal-containing<br />
stabilisers which are used in some <strong>PVC</strong> compounds because of concerns about their long term human toxicity 14 .<br />
As a result of NGO campaigning <strong>and</strong> consumer pressure some <strong>UK</strong> high street retailers, including Marks <strong>and</strong> Spencer <strong>and</strong><br />
H&M have publicly pledged to phase out <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> throughout their product ranges.<br />
Other campaigning environmental NGOs, such as Friends of the Earth <strong>and</strong> the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) do not single<br />
out <strong>PVC</strong> itself for special attention but instead campaign for improvements in the sustainability of the use of chemicals<br />
generally. They focus particularly on substances that they believe may be hormone disruptors or which may accumulate<br />
in the body. They cite research which mentions, among many other compounds, phthalate plasticizers 15 .<br />
A summary of the position of Friends of the Earth, the WWF <strong>and</strong> the European Environmental Bureau (an umbrella<br />
environmental lobbying organization) is contained in their response to the new EU Chemicals legislation 16 dated July<br />
2002. This document welcomes the EU Registration, Evaluation <strong>and</strong> Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation. The<br />
REACH legislation puts new responsibility on chemicals producers to ensure that their <strong>products</strong> are safe, restricts or<br />
prevents the use of chemicals which are of high concern <strong>and</strong> motivates producers to innovate in order to improve the<br />
safety <strong>and</strong> sustainability of their <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> processes.<br />
The emphasis of the campaigns by Friends of the Earth <strong>and</strong> WWF is on innovation to replace chemicals with high toxicity<br />
or biological persistence with more benign alternatives.<br />
Some of the additives used in <strong>PVC</strong> in the past or which are currently being phased out by the <strong>PVC</strong> industry in Europe<br />
also fall within the categories of substances that are targeted by Friends of the Earth <strong>and</strong> WWF. These include cadmium<br />
stabilizers (already eliminated <strong>from</strong> new <strong>products</strong>) <strong>and</strong> lead stabilizers (to be phased out by 2015). Neither Friends of the<br />
Earth or WWF have produced a written position on their attitude to recycling of <strong>PVC</strong> materials containing additives, such<br />
as cadmium stabilizer, which are now no longer used. This is a difficult issue for environmental campaigners <strong>and</strong> indeed<br />
the industry. Once a material has been created it may be better to recycle it <strong>and</strong> lock it up in new <strong>products</strong> than to<br />
dispose of it to l<strong>and</strong>fill, even if it means that ‘legacy’ additives which are no longer used in new <strong>products</strong> are reintroduced<br />
into use.<br />
The Natural Step is an apolitical, non-campaigning environmental NGO which helps commercial organisations to improve<br />
the sustainability of their operations by building sustainability values into their core strategies <strong>and</strong> procedures. It is<br />
working with the major <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> producers <strong>and</strong> in 2000 published a sustainability evaluation of <strong>PVC</strong> 17 . This study pointed<br />
to challenges that the <strong>PVC</strong> industry would need to meet if it is to achieve long term environmental sustainability in the<br />
terms defined by The Natural Step Framework.<br />
There are some differences in approach in the <strong>PVC</strong> industry between those who support the cross-industry Vinyl 2010<br />
commitment (see Section 4.5), which includes dates to achieve targets for elimination of certain <strong>PVC</strong> additives, <strong>and</strong><br />
those who also support the longer term <strong>and</strong> broader commitments proposed by The Natural Step <strong>and</strong> adopted by some<br />
individual companies.<br />
12 ‘Silent Spring’, Rachel Carson, 1962<br />
13 Pete Roche, Greenpeace <strong>UK</strong>, Chemical Week, February 26 1997<br />
14 ‘What’s wrong with <strong>PVC</strong>’, Greenpeace, October 1997,<br />
www.greenpeace.org.uk/contentlookup.cfm?CFID=733695&CFTOKEN=92134451&ucidparam=20030303124703&M<br />
enuPoint=G-B<br />
15 www.foe.co.uk<br />
16 ‘’New EU Chemicals Policy, the View of Environmental NGOs’ July 2002,<br />
www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/eu_chemicals_legislation.pdf<br />
17 ‘Sustainability evaluation of <strong>PVC</strong> using The Natural Step Framework’, The Natural Step, 2000, www.naturalstep.org<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 13
The Natural Step challenges are viewed by some within the <strong>PVC</strong> industry as a distraction <strong>from</strong> the environmental<br />
campaigner’s major concerns of additive toxicity because they propose additional commitments to carbon neutrality <strong>and</strong><br />
zero emissions <strong>and</strong> do not set fixed target dates for compliance.<br />
Both of the major <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> producers, European Vinyls Corporation 18 <strong>and</strong> Hydro Polymers 1920 , have published<br />
sustainability commitments.<br />
The European Commission’s <strong>PVC</strong> Green Paper, published in 2000 21 , identified key ecological sustainability issues for the<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> industry to address – these related to additives (especially Cadmium <strong>and</strong> Lead containing stabilizers <strong>and</strong> phthalate<br />
plasticisers) <strong>and</strong> <strong>waste</strong> management issues regarding <strong>products</strong> at end of life.<br />
The key issues identified in the Green Paper are addressed by the <strong>PVC</strong> industry within its Vinyl 2010 sustainable<br />
development initiative.<br />
There is a spectrum of opinion among politicians <strong>and</strong> the NGO community regarding <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> its additives, <strong>from</strong> outright<br />
hostility through passive concern to constructive engagement with the <strong>PVC</strong> industry. The outcome, however, has been<br />
that the <strong>PVC</strong> industry worldwide has come under greater pressure to demonstrate improvements in the sustainability of<br />
its operations <strong>and</strong> the recyclability of its <strong>products</strong> compared to other polymer producers.<br />
The National Society for Clean Air 22 , another apolitical environmental NGO, was represented on the steering group for<br />
this research project. Its representative, Tim Brown, provided substantial input to the life cycle analysis section of the<br />
report <strong>and</strong> provided advice on other aspects of the project.<br />
4.5. Industry Vinyl 2010 commitment<br />
In response to the potential threat of bans on the use of <strong>PVC</strong> in certain applications or the imposition of a tax on<br />
<strong>products</strong> made <strong>from</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> the main representative bodies of the <strong>PVC</strong> industry across Europe met in 2001 <strong>and</strong> agreed a<br />
joint voluntary commitment to improve the sustainability of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> 23 .<br />
Key commitments made by the industry were:<br />
• To increase recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> across Europe by200,000te/yr above the level of recycling in 2001. This<br />
commitment is on top of any increases in recycling required by current or future European legislation such as<br />
the Packaging Waste, End of Life Vehicle (ELV) <strong>and</strong> Waste Electrical <strong>and</strong> Electronic Equipment (WEEE)<br />
Directives.<br />
• Immediate cessation of the use of cadmium-based stabilizers in 2001<br />
• To reduce use of lead-based stabilizers to 50% of 2001 levels by 2010 <strong>and</strong> to eliminate them altogether by<br />
2015<br />
• Compliance audits <strong>and</strong> risk assessments on various parts of the <strong>PVC</strong> production <strong>and</strong> use process – to be<br />
completed by end 2004<br />
The Vinyl 2010 secretariat has recently published a report on its progress towards achievement of the 2010<br />
commitment 24 . The target of eliminating cadmium stabilisers was achieved <strong>and</strong> the industry is on track to complete the<br />
compliance audits <strong>and</strong> risk assessments on schedule. Progress is being made on substitution of lead stabilizers but the<br />
intermediate 2005 target of 15% reduction may be difficult to achieve because several additional lead stabilizer users<br />
have joined the Vinyl 2010 organisation since the commitment was first made. Their usage is now counted as part of the<br />
measured industry consumption while the commitment targets have not changed.<br />
The intermediate 2005 recycling target is expected to be met as a result of initiatives across Europe but the final 2010<br />
recycling target of 200,000te/yr of extra post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recycling looks challenging.<br />
18<br />
www.evc.com<br />
19<br />
www.hydropolymers.com/en/global_commitment/index.html<br />
20<br />
‘<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> Sustainability’ J Leadbitter, Hydro Polymers, Journal of Progress in Polymer Science, 27 (2002) 2197-226,<br />
Elsevier. www.hydropolymers.com/library/attachments/en/media_room/publications/pvc_sustainability_en.pdf<br />
21<br />
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/<strong>waste</strong>/pvc/green_paper_pvc.htm<br />
22<br />
www.nsca.org.uk/pages/index.cfm<br />
23<br />
‘The Voluntary Commitment of the <strong>PVC</strong> Industry’, Vinyl 2010, October 2001, www.vinyl2010.org<br />
24<br />
‘Progress Report 2004’, Vinyl 2010, April 2004, www.vinyl2010.org<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 14
5. <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams<br />
5.1. Method<br />
The project reviewed previous estimates of total <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> arisings <strong>and</strong> of collectable <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> materials in<br />
the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> carried out further research by discussion with its industry collaborators in order to identify, characterise <strong>and</strong><br />
quantify the main <strong>waste</strong> streams arising in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
The available <strong>waste</strong> streams were prioritised in terms of their volume, collectability <strong>and</strong> recyclability in order to focus the<br />
remainder of the project on analysis of recycling options for the most attractive <strong>waste</strong> streams.<br />
This section of the report reviews the <strong>waste</strong> streams <strong>and</strong> explains why windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring were selected as the<br />
most promising post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams for large scale recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams considered in this section are:<br />
• Windows<br />
• Pipes<br />
• Flooring<br />
• Made-up textiles<br />
• Wallpaper<br />
• Packaging<br />
• Cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
• End of life vehicles<br />
5.2. Windows<br />
Around 470,000te/yr of <strong>PVC</strong> 25 is used in the construction sector in the <strong>UK</strong>. Of this around 250,000te/yr is estimated by<br />
the BPF Windows Group to be used in windows, doors <strong>and</strong> conservatories 26 .<br />
The quantity of post-industrial scrap <strong>PVC</strong> arising <strong>from</strong> the manufacture of new <strong>PVC</strong> windows, doors <strong>and</strong> conservatories is<br />
estimated to be around 30,000te/yr (see<br />
section 4.2). As almost all of this material<br />
is already recycled into high grade<br />
applications it will not be considered<br />
further in this report. The remainder of the<br />
report will concentrate on recycling<br />
solutions for post-use windows.<br />
A recent study by the BRE for WRAP of the<br />
potential for materials recovery <strong>from</strong> the<br />
replacement window <strong>and</strong> door industry<br />
estimated that about 7% of the windows<br />
replaced in 2003 had <strong>PVC</strong> frames but 90%<br />
of the windows installed were <strong>PVC</strong>. This<br />
means that the quantity of <strong>PVC</strong> window<br />
<strong>waste</strong> arising will grow rapidly in future<br />
years 27 . The same report estimates that<br />
current post-use <strong>PVC</strong> window <strong>waste</strong><br />
arisings <strong>from</strong> the replacement sector are<br />
about 6,000te/yr but that this will grow<br />
within 10 years to around 89,000te/yr.<br />
Fig 5.2 Most used <strong>PVC</strong> windows are currently disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill 28<br />
25 ‘Plastics in the <strong>UK</strong> Economy, a Guide to Polymer Use <strong>and</strong> the Opportunities for Recycling’, Wastewatch, 2004<br />
26 Private communication, Dr Mercia Gick, BPF, 2004<br />
27 ‘Research into <strong>waste</strong> glass window <strong>and</strong> door frames <strong>from</strong> the demolition <strong>and</strong> replacement window industries’, WRAP<br />
Research report GLA2-022, James Hurley, BRE, June 2003<br />
28 WRAP photo library<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 15
This estimate excludes further post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> that already arises <strong>from</strong> the demolition sector. This volume is<br />
unquantified at present but the volumes are likely to grow in future at a similar rate to the volume <strong>from</strong> the replacement<br />
sector because the majority of new-build window installations are also <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
A further WRAP-funded study of window <strong>waste</strong> arisings has recently started. This project is to investigate the economics<br />
<strong>and</strong> practicalities of collection of post-use domestic window glass <strong>and</strong> framing materials (not just <strong>PVC</strong>). The project is<br />
running a number of practical trials to investigate collection logistics <strong>and</strong> to collect quantified information on <strong>waste</strong><br />
arisings <strong>and</strong> collectable <strong>waste</strong> quantities. It is expected to report later in 2004.<br />
5.3. Pipes<br />
Total usage of plastics pipes <strong>and</strong> ducting in the <strong>UK</strong> is estimated<br />
to be of the order of 300,000te/yr. Many of these are installed<br />
underground <strong>and</strong> remain in use for very long periods indeed.<br />
At the end of their life they are often left underground <strong>and</strong> do<br />
not enter a visible <strong>waste</strong> stream.<br />
A survey of the potential for recovery of <strong>waste</strong> pipes <strong>and</strong><br />
ducting carried out for the BPF pipes group by AMA Research<br />
in 2002 estimated that total post-use collectable <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong><br />
pipes is currently in the range 12-16,000te/yr 29 . About 75% of<br />
this material is estimated to be <strong>PVC</strong> (8-12,000te/yr) with the<br />
balance being mostly polyethylene.<br />
Pipes <strong>waste</strong> arises mostly in the form of offcuts created during<br />
installation <strong>and</strong> old pipes removed as a result of renovation<br />
programmes.<br />
About 55% of the pipes <strong>and</strong> ducting installed (approx<br />
170,000te/yr) are estimated to be made <strong>from</strong> <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Fig 5.3a Underground drainage pipes are often made <strong>from</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> 30<br />
The larger utilities companies such as Transco <strong>and</strong> BT have made significant efforts in recent years to improve recycling<br />
of the pipes <strong>and</strong> ducting that they use. Theses companies mostly use HDPE pipes so their efforts, although welcome<br />
overall have had limited impact on recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
There is estimated to be a greater percentage of <strong>PVC</strong> in the<br />
collectable pipe <strong>waste</strong> than in new installations because end-of life<br />
rainwater goods (which are almost entirely <strong>PVC</strong>) are thought to<br />
account for almost half of the potential <strong>waste</strong> arisings.<br />
As most <strong>waste</strong> pipes will arise in the construction sector the<br />
potential collection routes for pipes <strong>waste</strong> are very similar to those<br />
for windows. Both windows <strong>and</strong> pipes are made <strong>from</strong> rigid,<br />
unplasticised <strong>PVC</strong>. There are some differences; windows tend to<br />
contain impact modifiers, while pipes generally do not <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
tend to be coloured while windows tend to be white. Despite<br />
It is likely in future that as <strong>PVC</strong> collection systems develop they will<br />
collect pipes <strong>and</strong> windows together because the <strong>waste</strong>s arise in<br />
similar locations <strong>and</strong> the polymers are of similar types with similar<br />
recycling requirements. In the remainder of this report windows<br />
<strong>and</strong> pipes are considered as a single stream.<br />
Fig 5.3b <strong>PVC</strong> rainwater goods may be a large part of collectable pipe <strong>waste</strong> 31<br />
29 ‘Survey of Plastics Pipes <strong>and</strong> Ducting Waste Arisings’, Confidential report for BPF Pipes Group by AMA Research,<br />
July 2002<br />
30 Photo courtesy of Marley<br />
31 Photo courtesy of Marley<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 16
5.4. Flooring<br />
For the purpose of this research <strong>PVC</strong> flooring has been categorised into 3 main types:<br />
• Plastisol flooring<br />
• Calendared flooring<br />
• Safety flooring<br />
Flexible plastisol flooring is used largely in domestic applications.<br />
It is produced in two main forms; plain sheet vinyl <strong>and</strong> blown ‘cushion’ vinyl.<br />
Most plain sheet plastisol floorings have a s<strong>and</strong>wich construction with a fine<br />
glass fibre mat in the middle layer to give strength.<br />
Blown vinyl has a similar construction but is made with a foaming agent which<br />
releases tiny bubbles within the flooring when it is heated in the flooring<br />
machine. This creates a cushion effect.<br />
Calendared flooring is used mainly in commercial <strong>and</strong><br />
institutional applications such as hospitals, shops <strong>and</strong> offices.<br />
It is usually thicker than the plastisol flooring used in<br />
domestic applications <strong>and</strong> may be supplied in roll form or as<br />
tiles.<br />
Calendared flooring is made by melting a mixture of polymer<br />
<strong>and</strong> additives <strong>and</strong> then squeezing it through sets of rollers to<br />
produce a uniform sheet.<br />
It generally has higher plasticizer content <strong>and</strong> lower filler<br />
content than plastisol flooring. The filler is usually calcium<br />
carbonate.<br />
Figure 5.4a <strong>PVC</strong> plastisol flooring 32<br />
Figure 5.4b Calendared <strong>PVC</strong> Flooring 33<br />
Safety flooring. This is used in commercial applications such as restaurant kitchens <strong>and</strong> on stairways where non-slip<br />
properties are required. It is usually a plastisol type construction. The non-slip properties are conferred by embedding a<br />
fine abrasive grit such as aluminium trioxide, silica or carborundum in the surface of the flooring.<br />
Safety flooring is thought to account for about 20% of the <strong>UK</strong> market for commercial applications (significantly higher<br />
than in other European countries).<br />
Safety flooring can be problematic for recyclers because the abrasives it contains can cause serious damage to<br />
reprocessing equipment.<br />
In terms of square metres installed the domestic sector accounts for about 60% of the total <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> flooring market.<br />
Recyclers are generally more interested in tonnage rather than area installed. Total sales of <strong>PVC</strong> flooring in the <strong>UK</strong> are<br />
estimated to be of the order of 220,000te/yr. About 55% of this tonnage is installed in commercial <strong>and</strong> institutional<br />
applications (known in the trade as the ‘contract’ sector) <strong>and</strong> 45% in the domestic sector 34 .<br />
The contract sector tonnage is higher than the domestic sector because contract applications generally require <strong>products</strong><br />
with higher weight per square metre (average 1.6Kg/sq m for domestic applications <strong>and</strong> 3.2Kg/sq m for commercial).<br />
32 Photo courtesy of Marley Floors<br />
33 Photo courtesy of Marley Floors<br />
34 Private communication, Peter Thomas, Marley Floors, 2004.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 17
Based on discussions with flooring installers it is probably fair to assume that in about 50% of applications the new <strong>PVC</strong><br />
flooring that is laid replaces an existing <strong>PVC</strong> floor. Installers also estimate an average of about 10% offcuts for each new<br />
installation (less for tiled floors, more for sheet floors). With these assumptions the total flooring <strong>waste</strong> arising in the <strong>UK</strong><br />
<strong>from</strong> new installations rather than demolition will be approximately 130,000te/yr.<br />
It is likely to be easier to collect flooring <strong>from</strong> contract installers than <strong>from</strong> domestic installations because many domestic<br />
installations are done by very small firms or by householders themselves. Contract installations tend to be larger jobs<br />
<strong>and</strong> are generally done by larger, specialist firms who will be easier to contact. For this reason the collectable <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
flooring volume is likely to be about 50% of the total, approximately 65,000te/yr.<br />
5.5. Made up textiles<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> coated made up textiles consist of a fabric (usually woven polyester) coated with <strong>PVC</strong> either in plastisol form or by<br />
calendar extrusion. Polyester fibre content is typically around 30%. This makes separation <strong>and</strong> recycling difficult.<br />
Sales of <strong>PVC</strong> Textile composites are growing faster than European GDP with an extremely wide range of applications.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-coated made up textile <strong>products</strong> include marquees, advertising hoardings, awnings, truck tarpaulins <strong>and</strong> side<br />
curtains, suspended textile roofs <strong>and</strong> inflatable buildings. Some <strong>products</strong> have short lives, for example temporary<br />
advertising signs. Some, such as awnings, have very long lives.<br />
<strong>UK</strong> production of <strong>PVC</strong> coated textiles is estimated to be around 8,000te/yr 35 . Imports are thought to greatly exceed <strong>UK</strong><br />
production so total <strong>UK</strong> consumption is likely to be of the order of 25,000te/yr. It is difficult to make more accurate<br />
estimates due to the fragmented nature of the sector.<br />
The principal post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams <strong>from</strong> manufacture of <strong>PVC</strong>-coated made up textiles are 36 :<br />
• Fabric coaters<br />
o <strong>PVC</strong> coated fabric trimmings <strong>and</strong> production off-cuts<br />
o liquid <strong>and</strong> solid plastisol <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Product manufacturers <strong>and</strong> installers (inflatables, roofs, truck sides, etc)<br />
o <strong>PVC</strong> coated fabric off-cuts<br />
The bulk of this post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> is currently l<strong>and</strong>filled in the <strong>UK</strong> due to:<br />
• the fragmented nature of the industry<br />
• the high cost of segregating <strong>and</strong> transporting bulky textile <strong>waste</strong><br />
• the difficulty of separating <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> Polyester fibres<br />
Up to 2,500te/yr of collectable post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> was identified in a 2002 survey by the National Centre for<br />
Business Sustainability (NCBS) although at present very little is collected 37 . The total <strong>waste</strong> arisings are likely to be very<br />
much higher – close to the <strong>UK</strong> consumption estimate of around 25,000te/yr because coated fabrics tend to have finite<br />
lives.<br />
The collectable <strong>waste</strong> volume is much lower than the total <strong>waste</strong> arisings because coated fabrics are used in an<br />
extremely wide range of low volume applications <strong>and</strong> enter the <strong>waste</strong> stream in many different ways <strong>and</strong> in many<br />
different places. It is therefore difficult to envisage how to develop a co-ordinated system for separate collection of<br />
coated fabrics that would deliver larger volumes.<br />
Some post-use made up textile <strong>waste</strong> is re-used in agricultural coverings but most is currently disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
Made up textiles are not considered further in this report because the collectable volumes are too small to justify<br />
development of dedicated high grade recycling facilities in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill is likely to remain the disposal route for the bulk of this <strong>waste</strong> for the foreseeable future.<br />
35 Private communication, David Dykes, Vitapruf 2004<br />
36 Private communication, David Dykes, Vitapruf 2003<br />
37 ‘An assessment of current sources <strong>and</strong> disposal costs of mixed <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>’, NCBS, December 2002<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 18
5.6. Wallpaper<br />
The <strong>UK</strong> wallpaper industry is centred in the north west of Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> is dominated by a small number of relatively large<br />
companies. These companies consider recycling issues collectively under the umbrella of the Wallpaper Manufacturers<br />
Association (WMA).<br />
Vinyl wallpaper comprises a flexible plastisol <strong>PVC</strong> coating spread on a paper carrier layer using similar processes to those<br />
used for manufacture of plastisol flooring. Composition of the material is typically 50% <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> 50% paper. Some<br />
wallpaper formulations include a blowing agent which creates a cushion effect.<br />
Where possible, liquid plastisol is recycled internally by the manufacturers. White, blowing <strong>and</strong> coloured plastisols are<br />
segregated after use <strong>and</strong> reworked into similar formulations where possible. Some otherwise uncontaminated coloured<br />
plastisols may be reused internally as a dark grey base for use with strong gravure colours.<br />
After in-house reprocessing the <strong>UK</strong> industry produces around 15,000te/yr of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. This <strong>waste</strong><br />
comprises:<br />
• 8-14,000te/yr of production trimmings <strong>and</strong> roll-ends<br />
• about 1,500te/yr of liquid plastisol <strong>waste</strong> created when colour batches are changed<br />
Virtually all of this material is currently disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
Total <strong>waste</strong> arisings are unlikely to increase significantly because overall wallpaper consumption in the <strong>UK</strong> is decreasing<br />
in response to fashion trends away <strong>from</strong> paper wall coverings. However increasing product variation to give greater<br />
consumer choice <strong>and</strong> decreasing run lengths as wallpaper markets fall will tend to increase the amount <strong>waste</strong> generated<br />
as a proportion of total output.<br />
Post-use <strong>waste</strong> wallpaper is very hard to recover. No separate collection is known in the <strong>UK</strong>. The majority of post-use<br />
wallpaper is disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill with mixed construction or domestic <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Wallpaper <strong>waste</strong> is not considered further in this report because post-use vinyl wallpaper is not a collectable <strong>waste</strong><br />
stream at present <strong>and</strong> the wallpaper industry is developing an in-house solution for its post-industrial scrap as described<br />
in section 8.5.<br />
5.7. Packaging<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> is used for some types of bottles, in blister packs for pharmaceuticals, in the collation trays used as temporary<br />
carriers for yoghurt pots <strong>and</strong> similar <strong>products</strong> in supermarkets <strong>and</strong> in a diverse range of other niche packaging<br />
applications.<br />
EVC, the major <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> polymer producer established a dedicated <strong>PVC</strong> bottle recycling business called Reprise near St<br />
Helens in the mid 1990s.<br />
However the proportion of <strong>PVC</strong> bottles in the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>waste</strong> stream has dropped rapidly in recent years as PET <strong>and</strong> HDPE<br />
have become more popular for this application. The Reprise business eventually failed due to the declining <strong>PVC</strong> bottle<br />
volumes. It moved into PET <strong>and</strong> HDPE bottle recycling under new ownership (JFC Delleve Ltd) <strong>and</strong> is now exp<strong>and</strong>ing.<br />
The largest potentially collectable <strong>PVC</strong> packaging stream comprises the collation trays which are used to hold yoghurts<br />
<strong>and</strong> other similar <strong>products</strong> in place on the shelves in supermarkets. This material is currently collected at back of store in<br />
a mixture with polyolefin films. It is mostly exported to China <strong>and</strong> India by the large store chains. The stores are paid<br />
prices in the region of £70/te by the exporters for the mixed film material <strong>and</strong> they also earn a credit for the export<br />
Packaging Recycling Note value.<br />
The estimated volume of <strong>PVC</strong> collation trays used in the <strong>UK</strong> is about 8,000te/yr 38 .<br />
Trials by the supermarkets have demonstrated that it is very difficult to segregate plastics reliably at back of store 39 .<br />
There is usually little space available <strong>and</strong> many different staff are involved in h<strong>and</strong>ling the material, which makes it very<br />
difficult to ensure consistent st<strong>and</strong>ards of segregation.<br />
38 ‘An assessment of current sources <strong>and</strong> disposal costs of mixed <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>’, NCBS, December 2002<br />
39 ‘Recycling of <strong>PVC</strong> Packaging into Extruded Cellular Products’, NL Thomas <strong>and</strong> JP Quirk, Cellular Polymers, Vol 16<br />
No 5, 1997<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 19
From the point of view of the supermarkets, segregation of collation trays is not economically viable given the high price<br />
achievable for export. However the export prices currently available may not be sustainable in the long term as China<br />
becomes more prosperous <strong>and</strong> places tighter restrictions on import of <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
The tonnage of mixed film exported by the supermarkets <strong>and</strong> other large retailers is thought to be of the order of<br />
80,000te/yr 40 so <strong>PVC</strong> collation trays comprise only about 10% of the mixture exported.<br />
The ultimate destination or use of the <strong>PVC</strong> collation trays within China was not established for this project.<br />
Markets are also developing among recyclers in the <strong>UK</strong> for mixed back-of-store films. Several companies now<br />
manufacture <strong>products</strong> such as plastic pallets <strong>and</strong> livestock partitions <strong>from</strong> these materials. The moulding methods used<br />
can tolerate low levels of <strong>PVC</strong> content in the feed so there is no great incentive for separation of <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> packaging <strong>waste</strong> is not considered further in this report because separate collection of <strong>PVC</strong> at back of store is<br />
not currently a commercially option <strong>and</strong> most collation tray <strong>waste</strong> is already recycled in a mix with polyolefin films –<br />
either by export or by <strong>UK</strong> recyclers who can accept mixed feeds.<br />
5.8. Cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
Cable <strong>waste</strong> is potentially a substantial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> stream in the <strong>UK</strong>. Until about 5 years ago Manchester Plastics, a<br />
company in the north west of Engl<strong>and</strong> processed nearly 35,000te/yr of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> separated <strong>from</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> by cable<br />
strippers across the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> northern Europe. This material was graded <strong>and</strong> treated by tribo-electric <strong>and</strong> electrostatic<br />
separation to remove non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> small metal particles <strong>and</strong> then sold for a variety of applications including<br />
compression moulding to make <strong>products</strong> such as traffic cone <strong>and</strong> safety barrier bases.<br />
The supply of this material dwindled rapidly when an export route opened up to China for unstripped <strong>waste</strong> cable. The<br />
bulk of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>waste</strong> cable is now shipped to recyclers in China where it is stripped <strong>and</strong> sorted. The trade is assisted by the<br />
very low cost of back-load containers to the Far East <strong>from</strong> Northern Europe <strong>and</strong> by a preferential tariff regime in China<br />
which favours the import of copper to China in the form of scrap cable.<br />
Usage of <strong>PVC</strong> as a cable insulator is also declining in Europe as manufacturers increasingly switch to polypropylene<br />
insulation. However this will not have much impact on post-use cable <strong>waste</strong> arisings in the medium term as cable tends<br />
to be a long life product. The trend to increased polypropylene insulation will only become significant in the post-use<br />
<strong>waste</strong> stream in the longer term.<br />
The total amount of collectable <strong>PVC</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> available in the <strong>UK</strong> was estimated by the NCBS in 2003 to be 5-<br />
8,000te/yr 41 . However this may now be an over-estimate given the high level of exports to China <strong>and</strong> the trend towards<br />
polypropylene.<br />
Cable <strong>waste</strong> is not considered further in this report as a potential collectable <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> stream due to the<br />
competing export route to China. However, this material could quickly become available again if the regulatory<br />
environment in China changes. If it does then the recycling techniques discussed in the remainder of this report for<br />
flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring are also suitable for cable <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Solvay’s demonstration Vinyloop <strong>PVC</strong> recycling plant at Ferrara in Italy was originally set up to process <strong>PVC</strong> cable scrap<br />
so its technology is well developed for this application. There are also several companies in Europe with expertise in<br />
mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration of <strong>PVC</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
40 R Morton, private communication, Axion Recycling May 2004<br />
41 ‘An assessment of current sources <strong>and</strong> disposal costs of mixed <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>’, NCBS, December 2002<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 20
5.9. End of life vehicles<br />
Shredder residue is the material left after vehicles <strong>and</strong> other metallic <strong>and</strong> electrical equipment <strong>waste</strong>s are shredded <strong>and</strong><br />
the metal fraction is removed by the shredding companies such as EMR <strong>and</strong> SIMS. Plastics comprise about 20% of<br />
Shredder Residue (SR) 42 .<br />
Shredder residue production is currently about 400-500,000te/yr in <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> is likely to increase in future as the<br />
proportion of plastic in cars increases <strong>and</strong> these vehicles enter the <strong>waste</strong> stream.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> currently accounts for 5-10% of End of Life Vehicle (ELV) Plastic. Post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> arising <strong>from</strong> the automotive<br />
<strong>and</strong> related sectors is therefore in the range 5-10,000te/yr.<br />
The End of Life Vehicles Directive passed into European law in October 2000. It is due to be fully adopted by the <strong>UK</strong><br />
during 2004, once the results of an industry consultation procedure have been considered. The Directive sets<br />
increasingly challenging recycling targets for the recycling <strong>and</strong> recovery of materials <strong>from</strong> vehicles. These targets are:-<br />
Target Date Recovery Recycling & Re-Use<br />
Jan 2006 85% 80%<br />
Jan 2015 95% 85%<br />
The present recycling rate achieved for ELVs through the shredder process ranges <strong>from</strong> 65 – 75% depending upon the<br />
efficiency of the individual site <strong>and</strong> the mix of infeed material.<br />
At present very little plastic is separated <strong>from</strong> shredder residue in the <strong>UK</strong>. However recovery of polymers <strong>from</strong> shredder<br />
residue will be essential to achieve future ELV targets.<br />
Shredder residue therefore represents a potential future source of <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. Any plastic recovery technique for<br />
shredder residue will have to separate out <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Extraction of <strong>PVC</strong> alone <strong>from</strong> shredder residue will be very expensive so a separate initiative for this <strong>waste</strong> stream is<br />
unlikely. Future initiatives will target the full spectrum of automotive plastics, particularly polyolefins <strong>and</strong> foam. <strong>PVC</strong> will<br />
be a by-product.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> automotive shredding is not considered further in this report because it is unlikely that large scale<br />
recovery of plastic <strong>from</strong> shredder residue will start in the <strong>UK</strong> for some years. Once recovery of plastic <strong>from</strong> shredder<br />
residue does start, the <strong>PVC</strong> stream extracted will have similar characteristics to cable <strong>waste</strong> as most vehicle <strong>PVC</strong> is<br />
associated with wiring.<br />
In addition to extraction of plastics <strong>from</strong> shredder residue it is likely that increasing quantities of plastic will be removed<br />
<strong>from</strong> end of life vehicles at the depollution <strong>and</strong> dismantling stage prior to shredding. Items likely to be removed will<br />
include cable looms (which include <strong>PVC</strong>) <strong>and</strong> bumpers. As the pre-shredder dismantlers are only now starting to develop<br />
their operations it is difficult to predict how much material will arise by this route.<br />
42 ‘Towards Processing Polymers <strong>from</strong> ASR’Waste <strong>and</strong> Energy Research Group, University of Brighton, , Funded by<br />
Viridor Waste Management Ltd, via the LTCS, <strong>and</strong> CARE (Consortium for Automotive Recycling)<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 21
5.10. Summary<br />
The <strong>UK</strong> consumption <strong>and</strong> <strong>waste</strong> creation estimates for the sectors targeted by this report are summarised below:<br />
Waste<br />
source<br />
New <strong>PVC</strong><br />
product<br />
usage in <strong>UK</strong><br />
‘000te/yr<br />
Post<br />
industrial<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
recycled<br />
‘000te/yr<br />
Current disposal route<br />
for post-industrial<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
Windows 250 30 Mechanical separation<br />
<strong>and</strong> recycling as chip<br />
in high grade <strong>products</strong><br />
Pipes 170 8 Mechanical separation<br />
<strong>and</strong> recycling as chip<br />
in high grade <strong>products</strong><br />
Flooring 220 7 Some in-house re-use.<br />
Remainder sold as low<br />
grade for compression<br />
moulded <strong>products</strong><br />
Made up<br />
textiles<br />
25<br />
Wallpaper 100<br />
(~30%<br />
polyester<br />
fibre)<br />
(~50%<br />
paper)<br />
Collectable<br />
post-use<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
‘000te/yr<br />
14 (up to<br />
90 by<br />
2010)<br />
Current disposal<br />
route for postuse<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
8-12 L<strong>and</strong>fill with<br />
some<br />
mechanical<br />
recycling for<br />
pipe by major<br />
utility companies<br />
65 L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
0 L<strong>and</strong>fill 2.5 L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
0<br />
(potential<br />
15)<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill (potential for<br />
manufacture of<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>/paper extruded<br />
<strong>products</strong>)<br />
Packaging 83 unknown Some l<strong>and</strong>filled, some<br />
mechanically<br />
separated <strong>and</strong> recycled<br />
Cable<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
End of life<br />
vehicles<br />
0 L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
8 Export to China<br />
or L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
67 unknown Export to China 8 Export to China<br />
15 unknown Some l<strong>and</strong>filled, some<br />
treated as for cable<br />
<strong>waste</strong><br />
Total 930 110-195<br />
5-10 L<strong>and</strong>fill with<br />
shredder residue<br />
Note that the total new <strong>PVC</strong> polymer usage estimated above exceeds the <strong>UK</strong> production figure of 750,000te/yr quoted in<br />
Section 4.1 for two reasons:<br />
• The tonnage figures quoted in this section are for <strong>PVC</strong> compounds, which may contain a high level of fillers <strong>and</strong><br />
other additives.<br />
• There is a high level of import penetration in some sectors, particularly flooring, cable <strong>and</strong> made up textiles.<br />
5.11. Conclusions<br />
There are large volumes of collectable post-industrial <strong>and</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> available in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
The majority of the available post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> is already recycled back to high grade applications with the exception<br />
of the composite coated <strong>PVC</strong> materials (plastisol flooring, coated fabrics, <strong>and</strong> vinyl wallpaper) which are particularly<br />
difficult to recycle.<br />
At present virtually all of the post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams with the exception of cable <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> packaging <strong>waste</strong>,<br />
are disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill due to the simplicity <strong>and</strong> low cost of this route.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 22
<strong>PVC</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> packaging are currently exported to China mixed with other materials (scrap copper <strong>and</strong> backof-store<br />
polyolefin film respectively).<br />
Post-use windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring are the three largest uncollected <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in the <strong>UK</strong>. They all arise<br />
<strong>from</strong> the construction sector <strong>and</strong> may therefore be able to share some aspects of any future collection infrastructure.<br />
They should be targeted for industry <strong>PVC</strong> recycling initiatives.<br />
The remainder of this report focuses on the two broad post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams of:<br />
• windows <strong>and</strong> pipes made <strong>from</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
• flooring made <strong>from</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
6. Waste collection strategies<br />
6.1. Method<br />
Having identified post-use windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring as the primary target <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams for recycling in the <strong>UK</strong><br />
this section of the report identifies <strong>and</strong> assesses the potential collection routes for these materials.<br />
It was not thought worthwhile to investigate collection routes for other <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in detail because it is<br />
likely that the costs <strong>and</strong> complications of collecting these <strong>waste</strong> streams <strong>and</strong> the relatively low collectable tonnages will<br />
make them too expensive to recycle. However the conclusions drawn for windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring will be of some<br />
relevance to most other <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams arising in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
6.2. Collection options<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> windows, pipe <strong>and</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong>s all arise as a result of construction-related activities. Similar collection<br />
methods are therefore likely to be appropriate. This offers the potential for reducing costs through co-ordination of<br />
collections.<br />
Potential collection routes are:<br />
• Supplier take-back<br />
• Civic amenity bring sites <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>waste</strong> collection sites<br />
• Construction <strong>waste</strong> MRFs<br />
• Contracted special collections<br />
Each is considered in more detail below.<br />
6.2.1. Supplier take-back<br />
Practical trials conducted in the <strong>UK</strong> by Anglian Windows <strong>and</strong> by a<br />
windows recycling project funded by the European Plastic Profiles<br />
Association (EPPA) <strong>and</strong> the British Plastics Federation (BPF) indicate<br />
that the lowest cost collection solution in most cases <strong>and</strong> the route<br />
which generally provides the cleanest material is likely to be to use<br />
reverse logistics 43 . These are take back systems where companies that<br />
supply or install new windows, pipes or flooring undertake to transport<br />
installation offcuts <strong>and</strong> any end of life <strong>PVC</strong> material that they remove<br />
back to skips located at their depots.<br />
By doing so they provide a <strong>waste</strong> disposal service to their clients <strong>and</strong> at<br />
the same time support the <strong>PVC</strong> industry Vinyl 2010 commitment. The<br />
cost of transport is minimal as most installers run their own delivery<br />
vans which generally return empty to their depots.<br />
43 Private communication, Steve Weston 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 23
Discussions held by participants in this project with many window <strong>and</strong> flooring installers indicate that they generally do<br />
not feel great ‘ownership’ of the industry’s Vinyl 2010 commitment. They also find it easy to locate trade <strong>waste</strong> sites<br />
close to where they work in which to deposit their <strong>waste</strong>. Incentives are therefore required to induce them to take the<br />
trouble to return their <strong>waste</strong> to dedicated <strong>PVC</strong> skips.<br />
Anglian Windows already operates a scheme where its installers are provided with small bonuses for the used windows<br />
that they return in their delivery vans to Anglian’s manufacturing site near Norwich.<br />
Fig 6.2.1 Supplier take-back of post-use window frames 44<br />
Anglian can do this relatively easily because it employs its own network of delivery <strong>and</strong> installation staff. The Anglian<br />
scheme operates well <strong>and</strong> the quality <strong>and</strong> cleanliness of the frames recovered is high.<br />
Most other window manufacturers in the <strong>UK</strong> supply independent installers so they do not exert the same degree of<br />
control that Anglian does. However a similar approach could be extended to the independent installers, given suitable<br />
education initiatives <strong>and</strong> financial incentives for collection<br />
Discussions with replacement window <strong>and</strong> contract flooring installers indicate that many could be persuaded to collect<br />
<strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> their installation sites if they were given a modest financial incentive. In most cases this could simply be<br />
avoidance of the normal trade <strong>waste</strong> charge, i.e. provision of a free of charge skip for <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> at or close to their<br />
depot.<br />
6.2.2. Civic amenity <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>waste</strong> sites<br />
Both domestic <strong>and</strong> commercial consumers are becoming<br />
increasingly used to segregating their <strong>waste</strong> streams <strong>and</strong> most<br />
civic amenity <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>waste</strong> collection sites now consist of a<br />
multiplicity of different skips <strong>and</strong> bins for different <strong>waste</strong><br />
streams. The site operators are accustomed to exerting<br />
discipline on users of their facilities to ensure that proper<br />
segregation is maintained.<br />
Provision of dedicated <strong>PVC</strong> skips at trade <strong>waste</strong> facilities may<br />
collect significant quantities of windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring but<br />
the possible yields of these materials have not yet been tested.<br />
Trade <strong>waste</strong> users are likely to require a financial incentive to<br />
segregate their <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the form a reduced or zero<br />
tipping fee.<br />
Fig 6.2.2 Post-use windows could be collected at trade <strong>waste</strong> sites 45<br />
As much domestic vinyl flooring is removed on a DIY basis it is also possible that some <strong>PVC</strong> flooring may be collected by<br />
dedicated skips located at civic amenity sites operated by local authorities. Again the likely yields must still be tested.<br />
Fewer domestic consumers remove windows themselves so civic amenity sites are unlikely to yield much rigid <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Cleanaway, the <strong>waste</strong> management company, is currently conducting a flooring collection trial in collaboration with the<br />
<strong>UK</strong> Resilient Flooring Association (<strong>UK</strong>RFA) <strong>and</strong> Epfloor. 5 dedicated <strong>PVC</strong> flooring collection skips have been placed at a<br />
variety of locations in South East London in order to establish likely collection rates. The sites chosen include a civic<br />
amenity site <strong>and</strong> a trade <strong>waste</strong> site. Results <strong>from</strong> this collection trial should be available by mid 2004.<br />
6.2.3. Construction <strong>waste</strong> MRFs<br />
Increasing l<strong>and</strong>fill charges <strong>and</strong> the introduction of a tax on<br />
new aggregates has stimulated rapid growth in construction<br />
<strong>waste</strong> MRFs in recent years.<br />
At present these plants are mostly operated by smaller<br />
independent companies with backgrounds in aggregates,<br />
construction or road haulage. In time as the sector develops<br />
44 Photo courtesy of Anglian Windows Ltd<br />
45 Photo courtesy of Steve Weston, Costdown<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling<br />
for higher value <strong>products</strong><br />
24
they are likely to consolidate <strong>and</strong> increasingly come under the control of national <strong>waste</strong> management companies.<br />
The basic business model of these facilities is to collect mixed construction <strong>and</strong> demolition <strong>waste</strong> in return for a<br />
collection fee of £30-50/te.<br />
Fig 6.2.3 Waste <strong>PVC</strong> may be separated <strong>from</strong> mixed construction <strong>waste</strong> 46<br />
They then use a series of simple separation processes to minimise the proportion of material that has to be disposed at<br />
full cost to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
Most of these MRFs will accept zero or even slightly negative value for any <strong>waste</strong> stream provided the separation cost is<br />
not excessive as any additional tonnage diverted <strong>from</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill allows them to capture more of their primary collection<br />
fee.<br />
At present they generally segregate:<br />
• Aggregate <strong>and</strong> concrete for crushing <strong>and</strong> screening<br />
• Fines for l<strong>and</strong>fill top-cover or soil substitute<br />
• Wood<br />
• Metals<br />
Introducing a <strong>PVC</strong> separation stage would be relatively straightforward for many of these companies as they usually<br />
employ some sort of manual picking belt. Provided the quantities are sufficient it may be possible to source <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
by this route at close to zero value.<br />
At this stage likely collection volumes are unknown.<br />
6.2.4. Contracted special collections<br />
Large scale local authority or commercial property renovation <strong>and</strong> demolition projects can be targeted for dedicated <strong>PVC</strong><br />
collections, particularly for windows.<br />
These projects can often provide the economies of<br />
scale required to justify provision of dedicated<br />
collection skips <strong>and</strong> the specialist deglazing <strong>and</strong><br />
frame breaking training <strong>and</strong> equipment required for<br />
windows.<br />
A major trial is currently under way at Weaver Vale<br />
Housing Trust near Winsford in Cheshire to collect<br />
post-use windows <strong>from</strong> a large housing<br />
refurbishment project. In the course of this project<br />
50,000 single glazed <strong>PVC</strong> windows will be replaced<br />
over a 5 year period. The collection trial is being<br />
supported by Viridor Richardson, the glass recycler<br />
together with the BPF, EPPA <strong>and</strong> WRAP.<br />
The Weaver Vale site is being used by both the<br />
BPF/EPPA <strong>and</strong> the WRAP/BRE windows recycling<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> several different glass <strong>and</strong> <strong>PVC</strong><br />
recycling companies to test methods for collection<br />
<strong>and</strong> recycling of post-use windows.<br />
46 WRAP photo library<br />
47 WRAP photo library<br />
Fig 6.2.4 Major refurbishment projects may be source of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> 47<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 25
6.3. Feed preparation<br />
Whichever collection method is used, both windows <strong>and</strong> flooring require preparation of the <strong>waste</strong> stream before it can<br />
be passed to any of the potential added-value recycling processes.<br />
Windows must be deglazed <strong>and</strong> broken up. Deglazing is required because none of the available recycling processes can<br />
accept large quantities of glass <strong>and</strong> they must be broken up to reduce h<strong>and</strong>ling costs.<br />
Flooring must be sorted to remove non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> for most recycling options the safety flooring component must<br />
be removed.<br />
This section reviews the experience <strong>from</strong> practical trials of the best way to prepare these <strong>waste</strong> streams for recycling.<br />
6.3.1. Deglazing windows<br />
BPF <strong>and</strong> EPPA are funding practical trials of two alternative deglazing <strong>and</strong> size reduction options:<br />
A) Deglazing <strong>and</strong> breaking manually on site into bar lengths<br />
B) Moving whole windows to a specialist depot <strong>and</strong> breaking in a fridge fragmentiser with metal removal<br />
The BPF/EPPA project is not yet complete but preliminary findings <strong>from</strong> the Weaver Vale project <strong>and</strong> other trial sites in<br />
the North West of Engl<strong>and</strong> indicate that deglazing on site is a relatively straightforward manual operation for most <strong>PVC</strong><br />
windows <strong>and</strong> is probably safer than multiple h<strong>and</strong>ling of whole windows. It has the added benefit that the <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> glass<br />
fractions can be loaded on site into skips for different destinations.<br />
Whole windows have a low bulk density when loaded r<strong>and</strong>omly. Trials funded by EPPA in the <strong>UK</strong> indicate that it is<br />
possible to load 200-250 deglazed whole windows into a st<strong>and</strong>ard 40 cubic yard skip 48 . At an average of 15Kg/window<br />
this equates to 2-3te of whole windows per skip.<br />
Significant transport cost reductions can be achieved by breaking the window frames into bar lengths on site.<br />
Trials at Weaver Vale have demonstrated that simple mechanical breaking equipment can be very effective for size<br />
reduction on site. The pile of frames in the pictures below was reduced to bar lengths in 10 minutes using the manual<br />
frame breaker shown. This device was developed specially for the task by one of the <strong>UK</strong> windows companies.<br />
Figure 6.3.1a Frame breaking trials at Weaver Vale 49<br />
48 Private communication, Steve Weston, Costdown Consultancy<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 26
The frame breaking trials at Weaver Vale have also concluded that substantial further value can be added for<br />
downstream recyclers if the rubber glazing seals (black strips in the right h<strong>and</strong> photo in Fig 6.3.1a) are removed at the<br />
time the frames are broken so that as much rubber as possible is removed prior to shredding. Removal of rubber after<br />
shredding is much more difficult.<br />
Small rubber particles cause particular surface defect problems for extruders because they compress in the extruder <strong>and</strong><br />
then exp<strong>and</strong> again after they emerge <strong>from</strong> the extrusion die.<br />
In order to remove <strong>PVC</strong> windows it is necessary to remove part of the glass in order to facilitate access to the fixings<br />
unless these are accessible to cutting without removing the sealing ‘bead’. Because of the hazards of removing glass this<br />
is an additional constraint which must be understood <strong>and</strong> dealt with appropriately.<br />
Windows which have been partially deglazed are likely to require further glass removal to make them suitable for frame<br />
breaking <strong>and</strong> further treatment.<br />
Complete deglazing <strong>and</strong> frame breaking on site is only really practical for windows which are collected at large<br />
refurbishment projects or at construction <strong>waste</strong> MRFs. At these locations there is potential to ensure suitable controls on<br />
safe working practices <strong>and</strong> the window volumes are likely to justify provision of special equipment <strong>and</strong> suitable training<br />
for operatives.<br />
It is likely that a special NVQ training package will have to be developed for dismantlers to ensure that windows which<br />
are manually deglazed <strong>and</strong> broken are h<strong>and</strong>led safely<br />
Windows collected <strong>from</strong> CA sites <strong>and</strong> through supplier take back routes will have to be collected whole <strong>and</strong><br />
deglazed/broken at bulking up points.<br />
Anglian Windows at Norwich has operated a manual<br />
deglazing <strong>and</strong> frame breaking facility for some time.<br />
This operation h<strong>and</strong>les both post-industrial <strong>and</strong> post-use<br />
windows recovered through Anglian’s network of installers.<br />
Anglian has refined its dismantling techniques over several<br />
years <strong>and</strong> has developed powered cutting equipment to<br />
assist the frame deconstruction process.<br />
It currently reprocesses virtually all of its post-industrial<br />
frames <strong>and</strong> an increasing quantity of post-use windows.<br />
The post-use frames are collected through a small number<br />
of pilot take schemes within its network of installers.<br />
After deglazing <strong>and</strong> manual dismantling the recovered bar<br />
lengths are sent to an independent specialist <strong>PVC</strong> recycler<br />
for final clean-up.<br />
The cleaned post-industrial <strong>and</strong> post-use chip is then reused<br />
by Anglian. The post-use chip is blended with postindustrial<br />
chip <strong>and</strong> re-extruded into cavity closure profiles.<br />
These profiles would have formerly used only postindustrial<br />
material.<br />
Fig 6.3.1b Anglian Windows post-use dismantling facility 50<br />
Fragmentation of fully glazed windows followed by mechanical separation is done by VEKA in Germany (see Appendix 2).<br />
49 Photo courtesy of Steve Weston, Costdown Consultancy<br />
50 Photo courtesy of Anglian Windows<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 27
The fridge processors in the <strong>UK</strong> who have participated in trials for the BPF/EPPA window recycling project have objected<br />
to h<strong>and</strong>ling fully glazed windows. The equipment they use is not designed to h<strong>and</strong>le large quantities of glass.<br />
The conclusion of the trials conducted in the <strong>UK</strong> to date on post-use window recycling is that manual deglazing <strong>and</strong><br />
frame breaking close to the point of collection <strong>and</strong> prior to size reduction gives the highest quality recyclate.<br />
6.3.2. Sorting flooring<br />
Post-use flooring can contain a wide variety of non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials, including rubber, linoleum <strong>and</strong> asbestos-based<br />
<strong>products</strong>.<br />
If contractors removing end of life asbestos-based flooring follow <strong>UK</strong> regulations properly they should treat it as a<br />
hazardous material <strong>and</strong> take special precautions for removal <strong>and</strong> disposal. However sometimes they do not realise that<br />
this is what they are h<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>and</strong> treat it as normal <strong>waste</strong>. If post-use flooring is recycled in future procedures will have<br />
to be established which ensure that asbestos-containing material is removed safely at the sorting location <strong>and</strong> disposed<br />
separately.<br />
Recent practical trials in Spain by Epfloor have demonstrated that higher value <strong>products</strong> can be obtained if the flooring is<br />
sorted further to separate plastisol flooring <strong>from</strong> calendared flooring <strong>and</strong> to separate highly coloured materials.<br />
Post-use vinyl flooring <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong> is also likely to contain up to 20% safety flooring. The abrasives contained in this<br />
material can damage recycling equipment. A small scale trial at Swintex Ltd in Bury 51 has demonstrated that satisfactory<br />
<strong>products</strong> can be manufactured <strong>from</strong> safety flooring <strong>and</strong> that the wear rates should not be intolerable if the material is<br />
added at reasonably high dilution. However the moulders will expect to pay reduced prices due to the increased wear on<br />
their machinery.<br />
If low grade flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers in the <strong>UK</strong> cannot be persuaded to accept a percentage of safety flooring then this<br />
material will have to be eliminated as far as possible at the point of collection <strong>and</strong> any residual quantities removed by<br />
h<strong>and</strong> for feedstock recycling or disposal to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
The likely separation solution will be a simple h<strong>and</strong> sorting belt manned by operators who pick the different flooring<br />
types off the belt <strong>and</strong> drop them into different containers. The sorting will be most efficient of done on material which is<br />
not size reduced. Trials by flooring recyclers in Germany <strong>and</strong> Spain indicate that it is easier to separate flooring by h<strong>and</strong><br />
in the form of rolls, tiles <strong>and</strong> large pieces than by automatic methods once the material is shredded.<br />
51 Private communication, Steve Mitchell-Yorke, Swintex Ltd, Bury<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 28
6.4. Centralised or distributed processing<br />
When developing a collection <strong>and</strong> recycling network for <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> there are two processing options. Material may be:<br />
• Collected <strong>and</strong> transported to a central point for sorting, size reduction <strong>and</strong> processing<br />
• Collected <strong>and</strong> processed locally by a network of distributed processors.<br />
The optimum solution will be dictated by the economies of scale of the processing facilities <strong>and</strong> the cost <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental impact of transport for the <strong>waste</strong> materials.<br />
Most mechanised <strong>PVC</strong> recycling processes require throughput of the order of thous<strong>and</strong>s of tonnes/yr in order to achieve<br />
reasonable economies of scale. This favours centralised final processing.<br />
When initially collected window <strong>and</strong> pipe <strong>waste</strong> has low bulk density. There are also safety issues involved in multiple<br />
h<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>and</strong> transport of broken window glass. These factors favour on-site or regional deglazing, primary size<br />
reduction <strong>and</strong> metal removal for windows <strong>and</strong> pipes prior to transport to central recycling plants.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong> compacts naturally when loaded so it is likely that full 18.5te loads of<br />
unshredded material can be transported in st<strong>and</strong>ard 40 cubic metre skips. This means that it is more likely to be cost<br />
effective to transport this material over longer distances prior to sorting than for windows.<br />
However, depending on the relative costs of h<strong>and</strong>-sorting <strong>and</strong> transport it may still be more cost–effective to h<strong>and</strong> sort<br />
regionally in order to avoid moving large quantities of non-<strong>PVC</strong> material <strong>and</strong> because the different sorted fractions may<br />
need to be transported in different directions. This trade-off will have to be explored as collection volumes increase.<br />
At present insufficient work has been done on large scale collection of these <strong>waste</strong>s for a clear conclusion to be drawn<br />
on where deglazing, sorting <strong>and</strong> primary size reduction should be done centrally or locally.<br />
What is clear is that once the material is reduced to a shredded, sorted feed the cost of transport is not excessive <strong>and</strong><br />
the economies of scale favour centralized further processing.<br />
6.5. Post-industrial vs Post-use recyclate<br />
Post industrial <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> is produced during the manufacture of new <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong>. It therefore of the same age as the<br />
virgin material used to make those <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> contains the same additives. Recyclate made <strong>from</strong> post-industrial <strong>waste</strong><br />
can therefore be used in new <strong>products</strong> with no concerns about additive compatibility or the possible presence of<br />
unwelcome ‘legacy’ additives that are no longer used. This in turn means that further post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> created<br />
during the manufacture of new <strong>products</strong> that contain a proportion of post-industrial recyclate will also create no worries<br />
about additive content or compatibility.<br />
See section 4.3 for definitions of post-use <strong>and</strong> post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
One of the important effects of using <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate made <strong>from</strong> post-use <strong>waste</strong> material in new <strong>products</strong> is that this has<br />
the potential to introduce ‘legacy’ additives such as cadmium into the new <strong>products</strong>. This immediately means that any<br />
recyclate made <strong>from</strong> post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> created during the manufacture of those <strong>products</strong> could also contain these<br />
legacy additives.<br />
Post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate is already used in large quantities in both the windows <strong>and</strong> piping sectors <strong>and</strong> is used to<br />
some extent in the flooring sector. It is an efficient way for the industry to conserve resources.<br />
It will create substantial problems for the existing post-industrial recyclate market if ‘legacy’ additives enter the postindustrial<br />
recyclate stream.<br />
The solution is probably to earmark certain <strong>products</strong> where inclusion of legacy additives will not present problems for<br />
use of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate <strong>and</strong> to ensure that post-industrial recyclate <strong>from</strong> those product lines is segregated <strong>from</strong><br />
other post-industrial recyclate that does not contain post-use material.<br />
In the windows sector cavity closures <strong>and</strong> certain other specialist profiles have been proposed as outlets for post-use<br />
recyclate. It has been estimated that applications of this type have the potential to use the majority of high grade postuse<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> window recyclate that is likely to be produced in the <strong>UK</strong> for the foreseeable future.<br />
At present in the <strong>UK</strong> items such as cavity closures are largely made <strong>from</strong> post-industrial recyclate. This means that in<br />
future, if post-use recyclate is to be used in these applications instead, then post-industrial recyclate must be moved up<br />
the value chain by further upgrading to allow its use in applications such as co-extruded window profiles.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 29
6.6. <strong>PVC</strong> Map<br />
In the course of this project a database was constructed of the companies which are involved with <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> recycling<br />
in the <strong>UK</strong>. This has been developed into a ‘<strong>PVC</strong>-map’ for the <strong>UK</strong>. Company details <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ed versions of this map<br />
are shown in Appendix 1.<br />
VR<br />
VR<br />
MRF rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
MRF flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
MRF rigid & flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Pla stic Trading Ltd<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Sita<br />
Sita AJ Pellit Ecoplas<br />
Dell Sita<br />
EMR<br />
Polyfloor Ve ka<br />
Melba Dodsworth<br />
VR<br />
Swinte x EMR<br />
Swinte x Newton<br />
VR<br />
JFB Cores<br />
CF Booth<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Group<br />
Sm ith<br />
Amco<br />
Rube roid<br />
Long fie ld s Newton Synsea l<br />
HW Plastics<br />
Euroce H<strong>and</strong>link ll<br />
Bowa te rs<br />
Duflex<br />
Polypro<br />
Hunt Bros<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Pla sc ore<br />
Polyone<br />
WHS Ha lo<br />
EMR<br />
EMR<br />
Dekura<br />
Armstrong<br />
EMR<br />
K2 Polym ers Cleanaway<br />
Trip e nta<br />
EB Wa ste Philip Tyle r<br />
VR<br />
Rubber &<br />
Avon<br />
Pla stics<br />
Reclamation<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Penfold<br />
EMR<br />
Pla stic s<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Moore<br />
Bros<br />
Sita<br />
Sita<br />
EMR<br />
Armstrong<br />
EMR Recycle Plastics<br />
Frogmore<br />
JSP<br />
Oxford Plastics<br />
Mole Plastics<br />
PPR<br />
Premier<br />
u<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Marley<br />
Ra inbow<br />
Reprocessor rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Reprocessor, flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Reprocessor vinyl wallpaper<br />
100 km<br />
VR<br />
0 100 miles<br />
Anglian<br />
Pro c e sso r rig id <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Processor, flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Figure 6.5 Distribution of companies involved in <strong>PVC</strong> recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>, March 2004.<br />
Points to note <strong>from</strong> the map are the limited number of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> re-processors in the <strong>UK</strong> (shown as blue points) <strong>and</strong><br />
their concentration in the North West of Engl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 30
6.7. Summary<br />
Windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring are the best target <strong>waste</strong> streams for increasing post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>. This is<br />
because they arise in the largest volumes <strong>and</strong> have potential to be recycled to high value <strong>products</strong>. The <strong>waste</strong> streams<br />
all arise principally in the construction sector so there is potential to use common collection routes for all three streams.<br />
Potential collection routes are:<br />
• Supplier take-back<br />
• Civic amenity <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>waste</strong> sites<br />
• Construction <strong>waste</strong> MRFs<br />
• Contracted special collections<br />
Trials are in progress or planned to test all four collection routes.<br />
Preliminary results <strong>from</strong> these trials indicate that for windows, deglazing <strong>and</strong> frame breaking should be done as close to<br />
the point of collection as possible. This will reduce transport costs <strong>and</strong> minimize contamination of the <strong>PVC</strong> fraction with<br />
glass <strong>and</strong> rubber seal strips prior to further size reduction <strong>and</strong> metal removal.<br />
Pipes require only limited feed preparation but transport costs can be reduced by primary size reduction close to the<br />
point of collection.<br />
Flooring should be sorted prior to size reduction in order to separate safety flooring <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>PVC</strong> material such as<br />
rubber <strong>and</strong> asbestos-containing tiles. Further sorting of the <strong>PVC</strong> material into plastisol <strong>and</strong> calendared fractions will add<br />
significant value to the high grade recyclate.<br />
It is likely that the optimium processing strategy will involve distributed collection, manual pre-processing <strong>and</strong> size<br />
reduction with centralized processing to higher grade recyclates.<br />
6.8. Conclusions<br />
During the course of this project practical collection routes have been identified for the three most promising <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> streams in the <strong>UK</strong>: Windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring. Most of these routes have been tested on a preliminary basis by<br />
the project’s industry collaborators.<br />
Material will have to be collected <strong>from</strong> all over the <strong>UK</strong> for centralised processing. Development of nationwide primary<br />
collection <strong>and</strong> sorting infrastructure for <strong>PVC</strong> will present a significant challenge requiring new commercial arrangements<br />
to fund <strong>and</strong> co-ordinate the collections.<br />
The fact that the existing <strong>PVC</strong> reprocessors are largely concentrated in the North West of Engl<strong>and</strong> is unlikely to present a<br />
barrier to further development of recycling. Once <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> material is reduced in size it can be transported substantial<br />
distances without excessive cost.<br />
Collection methods will be similar for all three streams so a common approach to this task may be appropriate.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 31
7. Recycling methods for <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
7.1. Method<br />
The ‘Waste Not Want Not’ <strong>waste</strong> strategy published by the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit in 2003 proposes that disposal<br />
solutions for <strong>waste</strong> materials should be considered in terms of a hierarchy of options 52 :<br />
Extend life<br />
Re-use<br />
Mechanical recycling<br />
Feedstock recycling<br />
Incineration with energy recovery<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
Options near the top of the hierarchy are generally accepted to have the lowest environmental impact. However some<br />
observers argue that incineration with energy recovery to produce power has similar environmental impact to mechanical<br />
recycling because it can substitute usage of new fossil fuels.<br />
Some commentators make a distinction between closed-loop mechanical recycling where <strong>waste</strong> material is re-processed<br />
to a purity where it can be used to make more of the <strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> which it arose <strong>and</strong> open loop mechanical recycling<br />
where <strong>waste</strong> is processed to make new, often lower-value <strong>products</strong>. This is referred to by some as ‘downcycling’.<br />
The companies making these <strong>products</strong> would resist this term strongly. They make highly specified <strong>products</strong> with useful<br />
lives which are frequently longer than the <strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> which they originated.<br />
In this report the term downcycling is not used but a distinction is made between low grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate <strong>and</strong> high<br />
grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate. Low grade recyclate is material that may contain substantial levels of non-<strong>PVC</strong> impurities but is still<br />
suitable for manufacture of good quality, long life <strong>products</strong>.<br />
High grade recyclate is material that has been subjected to further processing in order to remove the great majority of<br />
non-<strong>PVC</strong> impurities so that it can be used for high-specification applications, which may include closed loop recycling or<br />
manufacture of other <strong>products</strong>. For example high grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> windows may be used to make top quality<br />
ducting or high grade flexible recyclate <strong>from</strong> flooring may be used to make cable insulation.<br />
The following sections review <strong>and</strong> compare the alternative recycling or disposal options for the two broad <strong>waste</strong> streams<br />
targeted by this study:<br />
• Rigid <strong>PVC</strong> windows & pipes<br />
• Flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring.<br />
The conclusions drawn will be relevant to most of the other <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams arising in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
52 ‚Waste not want not – A strategy for tackling the <strong>waste</strong> problem in Engl<strong>and</strong>’ Prime Ministers Strategy Unit, 2003<br />
http://www.number-10.gov.uk/su/<strong>waste</strong>/report/05.html<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 32
7.2. L<strong>and</strong> fill<br />
Virtually all post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong><br />
is currently l<strong>and</strong>filled, apart <strong>from</strong> 5-10,000te/yr<br />
of post-use flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
which is used to make road cones <strong>and</strong> similar<br />
<strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> about 8,000te/yr of <strong>PVC</strong> collation<br />
trays <strong>from</strong> supermarkets which is currently<br />
exported for h<strong>and</strong> sorting <strong>and</strong> recycling in<br />
China mixed with polyolefin films.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill is not a sustainable long-term option<br />
for <strong>PVC</strong> disposal. L<strong>and</strong>fill space is running out<br />
<strong>and</strong> the supply of raw materials for <strong>PVC</strong> is also<br />
finite.<br />
Although <strong>PVC</strong> buried in a l<strong>and</strong>fill is extremely<br />
stable <strong>and</strong> is likely to remain unchanged for<br />
hundreds of years there is still potential for<br />
leaching of stabilisers <strong>and</strong> heavy metal<br />
additives, although l<strong>and</strong>fill operators would<br />
contend that properly operated l<strong>and</strong>fills do not<br />
release leachate.<br />
Fig 7.2 L<strong>and</strong>fill is the current disposal route for most <strong>UK</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong> 53<br />
The cost of l<strong>and</strong>fill in most parts of the <strong>UK</strong> is around £26/te, comprising Government l<strong>and</strong>fill tax of £16/te plus the<br />
disposal fee charged by the l<strong>and</strong>fill operator of about £10/te.<br />
The cost of disposal to l<strong>and</strong>fill sets the base price for alternative <strong>PVC</strong> recycling options.<br />
The EU L<strong>and</strong>fill Directive is increasing disposal costs somewhat by increasing the regulatory compliance burden on<br />
l<strong>and</strong>fill operators. However there is still plenty of l<strong>and</strong>fill capacity available in the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> the industry is very competitive<br />
so disposal costs are not expected to rise greatly in the near future.<br />
The main driver for change is increasing l<strong>and</strong>fill tax. The Government aims to increase the tax by £3/te each year up to<br />
the current target of £35/te tax. The longer term benchmark disposal cost against which other recycling options must be<br />
compared is therefore about £45/te.<br />
7.3. Incineration with energy recovery<br />
In other European countries serious consideration is being given to co-incineration of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> with other materials.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> has a reasonably high calorific value <strong>and</strong> can substitute fossil fuels for power generation. The practical advantages<br />
of this approach are that minimal sorting is required <strong>and</strong> the technology is well established.<br />
However, burning large quantities of <strong>PVC</strong> does add complications. Although most energy <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong> incinerators already<br />
include lime scrubbers <strong>and</strong> comprehensive dioxin control systems in order to control Sox, NOx <strong>and</strong> chlorides arising <strong>from</strong><br />
other components of mixed <strong>waste</strong>, the additional HCl scrubbing load required adds to the cost of the facility <strong>and</strong> the<br />
potential for dioxin formation is increased. Heavy metal additives used in the <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> will become part of the ash<br />
residue <strong>from</strong> the incinerator <strong>and</strong> have to be disposed.<br />
In the <strong>UK</strong> attitudes to air quality are more stringent than in some other parts of Europe. This is reflected in the <strong>UK</strong>’s<br />
strict implementation of the EU Waste Incineration Directive <strong>and</strong> the hostile attitude of planners <strong>and</strong> local communities<br />
to new <strong>waste</strong> incineration proposals. This has tended to make incineration an expensive option.<br />
In addition, the Ofgem rules for renewable power generation make it clear that power generated as a result of<br />
incineration of <strong>waste</strong> containing fossil-fuel derived materials such as plastic does not qualify as renewable. It therefore<br />
does not qualify for issue of tradeable Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs). ROCs allow power generators to obtain<br />
a very substantial premium (currently about 400%) over the base price for non-renewable power in the <strong>UK</strong>. The result of<br />
these rules is that any form of power generation <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong> plastic is not commercially attractive in the <strong>UK</strong> at present.<br />
These factors combine to make incineration a high cost <strong>and</strong> impractical option for <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>s collected in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
53 Photo courtesy of WRAP<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 33
7.4. Feedstock recycling<br />
The original aim of feedstock recycling process development was closed loop recycling to polymer by recovering HCL or<br />
Chlorine <strong>and</strong> hydrocarbon oil.<br />
A further benefit of feedstock recycling which has come to the fore in recent years as pressure on some of the additives<br />
used in <strong>PVC</strong> has increased is that it either destroys or separates out the ‘legacy’ additives, thereby preventing them <strong>from</strong><br />
re-entering the product stream.<br />
Six alternative processes were tested across Europe between 1995 <strong>and</strong> 2003 with support <strong>from</strong> the European Council of<br />
Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM) <strong>and</strong> major chemical <strong>and</strong> <strong>waste</strong> management companies 5455 . Several of these trials failed to<br />
deliver satisfactory results.<br />
The ECVM investigations concluded that possible options for feedstock recycling in Europe include:<br />
• The Dow/BSL Rotary kiln process at Schkopau, Germany – which recovers HCl <strong>and</strong> a crude oil for process<br />
heating<br />
• The RGS90 hydrolysis process at Stigsnaes, Denmark – which recovers salt <strong>and</strong> a crude oil<br />
More recently several Japanese feedstock recycling processes have been announced. One of these, developed by<br />
Sumitomo Metals, appears to show particular promise. However gate fees for <strong>waste</strong> polymers in Japan tend to be<br />
considerably higher than in Europe which may help its viability there. The economics of the Sumitomo process have not<br />
yet been evaluated in detail by ECVM for the European context <strong>and</strong> it is not considered further in this report.<br />
54 ‘Options for Poly Vinyl Chloride Feedstock Recycling’, Plast Rubb Comp, Vol 28, No 3, 1999<br />
55 Private communications, R Buhl, ECVM task Force <strong>and</strong> Alan Hunter, EVC, 2003<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 34
7.4.1. Dow/BSL Schopau feedstock recycling process<br />
Dow has been operating a commercial feedstock recycling plant at its Schopau site near Leipzig, Germany, since 1999.<br />
The facility is capable of treating high chlorine-containing <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
DOW/BSL Process (Schematic)<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Waste<br />
Rotary Kiln<br />
Afterburning Chamber Chamber<br />
Steam Generation<br />
Flue Gas Cleaning<br />
Other (chlorinated)<br />
Waste Waste<br />
HCl Absorption <strong>and</strong> Purification Stack<br />
Slag Recovered Recovered Energy: Energy:<br />
Steam Steam<br />
Cl 2/VCM/<strong>PVC</strong><br />
/VCM/<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Production Production<br />
Emissions<br />
Figure 7.4.1 Schematic of the Dow BSL Recovery process, <strong>and</strong> view of the plant 56<br />
Initial trials demonstrated that the technology is robust <strong>and</strong> suitable to treat large quantities of most kinds of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
<strong>products</strong>, including cables, flooring, roofing membranes, coated fabrics <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
A field trial was launched in 2002 using the German <strong>waste</strong> management company Ascon as "clearing house" for the<br />
<strong>waste</strong> suppliers, with Dow as the plant operator <strong>and</strong> Vinyl 2010 as the main source of funding. The facility processed<br />
1020 tonnes of mixed <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> by the end of March 2003, with the recovered chlorine used on-site for new VCM/<strong>PVC</strong><br />
production.<br />
The Dow gate fee is set at 250 Euro/ton excluding pre-treatment <strong>and</strong> logistics. The available <strong>PVC</strong> recycling capacity is a<br />
maximum of 15 k tonnes per annum. At present only limited amounts of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> are being processed by the facility.<br />
56 Photo courtesy of Dow BSL<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 35
7.4.2. RGS90 Stigsnaes feedstock recycling process<br />
Of the processes currently available, the RGS90 Stigsnaes process appears to be the most practical option for <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong>.<br />
The process converts <strong>PVC</strong> to salt solution for electrolysis <strong>and</strong> a crude oil for refining. The outputs are relatively low value<br />
<strong>products</strong> but it is a clean process which avoids the risk of dioxin formation.<br />
It concentrates heavy metal additives as a paste which can then be disposed safely in specialist l<strong>and</strong>fills, recovered back<br />
to metals or (as at Stigsnaes) incorporated in stable glass-like s<strong>and</strong> blasting media<br />
Stigsnaes Process (Schematic)<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Waste Caustic Soda NaOH<br />
Thermal Hydrolysis<br />
250°C<br />
Gradual Pyrolysis<br />
600°C<br />
C nH n<br />
Fractions<br />
Gasification<br />
(Recovery)<br />
Aqueous Solution<br />
NaCl<br />
Purification<br />
Inorganic Fraction<br />
incl. Heavy Metals<br />
<br />
Recycling<br />
Extracted Heavy<br />
Metals for Disposal<br />
Industrial Use<br />
(Recycling)<br />
Fig 7.4.2a Process schematic for the RGS90 Stigsnaes <strong>PVC</strong> feedstock recycling process<br />
RGS90, a privately-owned Danish <strong>waste</strong> management company has converted a commercial large scale hydrolysis plant<br />
for feedstock recycling of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> With support <strong>from</strong> the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, the Danish plastics<br />
industry <strong>and</strong> Vinyl 2010.<br />
Phase 1 of the trial programme to identify modifications required in the existing hydrolysis unit was successfully<br />
completed in 2001. The trials demonstrated that de-chlorination to well below 0.1% weight of chlorine can be achieved<br />
<strong>and</strong> that heavy metals <strong>and</strong> other additives can be successfully removed.<br />
Phase 2 of the trial programme during 2002 tested the performance of a new pyrolysis unit to post-heat <strong>and</strong> separate<br />
the dechlorinated hydrocarbon fraction that is produced by the hydrolysis, again with positive results.<br />
The research led Stigsnaes <strong>and</strong> parent company RGS90 to upgrade the plant to commercial scale. The investment is<br />
supported by a grant <strong>from</strong> the EU’s LIFE programme, <strong>and</strong> by Vinyl 2010, who are to support the new plant with a 4<br />
million euro grant.<br />
Plant modification has started, with 30 k tonnes contracted to Vinyl 2010. The expected plant start-up is in quarter 4 of<br />
2004. The expected gate fee is €190/te, including pre-treatment, but excluding transport costs.<br />
Capital cost for a plant in the <strong>UK</strong> has not been estimated by RGS90 because the first plant is a conversion of another<br />
process. However it is likely that the capital cost will be substantially higher on a new site so the net processing charge<br />
will also be higher than for the Danish plant.<br />
The plant will have a capacity of about 40,000te/yr of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> per year. This is more than is required for Sc<strong>and</strong>inavia<br />
at present, which means that <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the <strong>UK</strong> could in principle be exported to Denmark for recycling there.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 36
Fig 7.4.2b RGS90 Stigsnaes feedstock recycling plant, Denmark 57<br />
7.4.3. Markets for feedstock recyclate<br />
In Denmark the Stigsnaes process will be integrated with RGS90’s Carbogrit process. The Carbogrit plant was<br />
commissioned in 2003 <strong>and</strong> makes grit blasting media <strong>and</strong> feedstock for mineral wool <strong>from</strong> sewage sludge <strong>and</strong> mineral<br />
<strong>waste</strong> <strong>products</strong>.<br />
Fig 7.4b RGS90 will integrate its Stignaes feedstock recycling <strong>and</strong> Carbogrit sludge recycling processes 58<br />
The alternative Dow Schopau <strong>PVC</strong> feedstock recycling process produces hydrochloric acid solution <strong>and</strong> combustion fuel.<br />
57 Photo courtesy of RGS90<br />
58 Diagram courtesy of RGS90<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 37
7.4.4. Conclusions<br />
Feedstock recycling offers several practical advantages.<br />
• Minimum sorting is required.<br />
• The process either destroys legacy additives or removes them as concentrated salts in form of a filter cake<br />
(RGS90) or a slag (Dow/BSL)<br />
• The output materials are used in-house by the process operators so there is no need to develop new markets<br />
for the <strong>products</strong>.<br />
However final <strong>products</strong> are low value so gate fees have to be high <strong>and</strong> capital cost of the plant is also high.<br />
The RGS90 process can accept pure <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams, including safety flooring 59 , while the Dow/BSL process requires<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> to be diluted with other <strong>waste</strong> materials.<br />
The RGS90 process isolates heavy metal additives <strong>from</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> as a filter cake while the Dow process incorporates them in<br />
a slag along with other non-combustible materials.<br />
Of the available solutions the RGS90 hydrolysis process has the lowest proposed gate fee, is closest to the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> uses<br />
a process route which is intrinsically cleaner than the Dow/BSL option. It is therefore likely to be the optimum solution<br />
for the <strong>UK</strong> if the feedstock recycling route is chosen.<br />
59 Private communication, Mr Jan Procida, RGS90, May 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 38
7.5. Vinyloop solvolysis process<br />
Although it involves the use of chemical process<br />
plant, solvolysis is technically a mechanical<br />
recycling method because the <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> does not<br />
change its chemical composition as a result of the<br />
recycling process.<br />
Vinyloop ® is the only commercially available<br />
solvolysis or dissolution process for <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Vinyloop was developed by the <strong>PVC</strong> manufacturer,<br />
Solvay S.A., starting in 1998 with the aim of<br />
producing high grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> dirty <strong>PVC</strong><br />
streams as an alternative to mechanical separation<br />
or feedstock recycling.<br />
The Vinyloop process can h<strong>and</strong>le both rigid <strong>and</strong><br />
flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. Different plant configurations<br />
are required for the alternative feedstocks but the<br />
essential features of the process <strong>and</strong> its economics<br />
are similar.<br />
Fig 7.5 Solvay 11,000te/yr Vinyloop ® plant, Ferrara, Italy 60<br />
Solvay has one full scale plant operating at Ferrara in Italy with a capacity of up to 10,000 tonnes a year, mostly for<br />
cable <strong>waste</strong>, <strong>and</strong> several further projects awaiting investment decision in France, Japan <strong>and</strong> other countries.<br />
The company also has two pilot plants at its research facility in Brussels. The smaller pilot unit has an output capacity of<br />
300g/batch, the larger one, about 15Kg. These plants are available for trials on any <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams which may be<br />
commercially viable for treatment by the Vinyloop route.<br />
7.5.1. Process description<br />
The Vinyloop process has five main steps:<br />
• Dissolve in solvent that is selective for <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
• Filter to remove contaminants.<br />
• Re-precipitate <strong>PVC</strong> compound as 200-350 micron powder<br />
• Dry <strong>and</strong> bag<br />
• Solvent regeneration<br />
It qualifies as a type of mechanical recycling process because the <strong>PVC</strong> compound does not change chemical form.<br />
As with other mechanical recycling techniques the process recycles <strong>PVC</strong> compound. Stabilisers, plasticizers <strong>and</strong><br />
pigments plus any contaminants below about 80 micron are re-precipitated as part of the final product.<br />
Trials on the Ferarra demonstration plant or at Solvay’s pilot facility in Brussels have demonstrated that the process can<br />
h<strong>and</strong>le a wide range of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> feed materials at up to 20% contamination levels. <strong>Materials</strong> successfully processed<br />
include:<br />
• Cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Post-use windows<br />
• Post-use flooring<br />
• Blister packaging<br />
• Automotive door seals<br />
The solvent mixture used in the process does not dissolve polyolefins, rubbers, silicones or PET but will dissolve<br />
Polystyrene <strong>and</strong> certain other styrenics. This is not a problem for most <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams, which generally contain<br />
a low level of styrenic polymers.<br />
60 Photo courtesy Solvay S.A.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 39
Preparation of the raw<br />
materials<br />
Dissolving<br />
Recuperation of secondary<br />
materials to be valorized<br />
Vinyloop® - Copyright Solvay S.A.<br />
Introduction of the solvent<br />
Filtering<br />
Regeneration of the solvent<br />
Precipitation<br />
Filtering <strong>and</strong> drying<br />
Treatment of the<br />
aqueous slurry<br />
Introduction of the steam<br />
Packaging of the<br />
precipitated <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Fig 7.5.1 The Solvay Vinyloop process for regeneration of <strong>PVC</strong> 61<br />
At the precipitation stage, additives can be incorporated. This allows the properties of the output to be adjusted. For<br />
example, at the Vinyloop Ferrara plant a plasticizer is added to regenerated <strong>PVC</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> in order to adjust the Shore<br />
hardness.<br />
A variant of the process (Texyloop –) has been developed for <strong>PVC</strong> coated fabrics. It uses a different separation system<br />
to separate polyester fibres <strong>from</strong> the <strong>PVC</strong> solution. Solvay has carried out processing trials at pilot scale <strong>and</strong> is awaiting<br />
final investment decision for a full scale plant at Ferrari, France with a partner <strong>from</strong> the coated fabric industry.<br />
7.5.2. Markets for Vinyloop recyclate<br />
The Vinyloop process makes a uniform <strong>PVC</strong><br />
compound in powder form with all non <strong>PVC</strong><br />
contamination above about 80 microns in size<br />
removed. Average particle size is normally around 300<br />
microns.<br />
Solvay has developed the process recently to produce<br />
two fractions with about 50% by weight of particles<br />
below 200 microns <strong>and</strong> 50% in the range 200-350<br />
microns.<br />
Outlets for recyclate are higher value applications<br />
where Vinyloop material can substitute virgin<br />
compound.<br />
61 Diagram courtesy of Solvay S.A.<br />
62 Photo courtesy Solvay S.A.<br />
Fig 7.5b Micrograph of Vinyloop regenerated <strong>PVC</strong> granules 62<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 40
Potential higher value markets for rigid <strong>PVC</strong> compound recovered by Vinyloop include:<br />
• co-extruded cores for new window profiles<br />
• window cavity closures<br />
• cable ducting<br />
• underground pipes<br />
In these applications the recyclate can potentially substitute virgin <strong>PVC</strong> costing around £490/te (varies substantially<br />
depending on the price of <strong>PVC</strong> polymer) or post-industrial recyclate that currently costs around £350/te<br />
Potential higher value markets for flexible <strong>PVC</strong> compound recovered by Vinyloop include<br />
• plastisol flooring base layer (where small colour variations are not too critical)<br />
• calendared flooring (particularly ‘streaked’ or ‘variegated’ designs where small colour variations can be<br />
absorbed better<br />
• cable bedding compound (conductivity is an issue so recyclate made <strong>from</strong> flooring is likely to be more suitable<br />
than recyclate made <strong>from</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> as cable <strong>waste</strong> contains substantial amounts of fine metal <strong>and</strong> foil<br />
particles)<br />
Flexible recyclate can potentially substitute virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
costing £460/te (calendared flooring) to £520/te (Plastisol<br />
flooring) – with the same proviso about cyclical variations around<br />
these averages due to <strong>PVC</strong> polymer price variation.<br />
Plastisol flooring uses a polymer powder with an average particle<br />
size of about 200 micron. This is combined with additives to<br />
produce a viscous liquid which is spread in layers onto a carrier<br />
fabric. These layers may be as thin as 250 micron for some<br />
product formulations. As the flooring passes down the production<br />
machine each layer is cured by heat <strong>and</strong> more layers of material<br />
are added.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard Vinyloop powder with particle size in the range 250-350<br />
micron may be too large to be incorporated in these formulations<br />
at the plastisol stage. However Solvay’s engineers are working on<br />
ways to reduce the average particle size of their recyclate to get<br />
it down to the average 200 micron size of conventional virgin<br />
plastisols. So far they have managed to achieve a yield of about<br />
50% 200 micron particles. This requires an additional sieving<br />
step to separate the finer material <strong>and</strong> a market has to be found<br />
elsewhere for the coarser fraction.<br />
Fig 7.5c Plastisol flooring line 63<br />
In practice this size reduction may not be necessary as the plastisol flooring companies consulted in the <strong>UK</strong> have<br />
indicated that they could add st<strong>and</strong>ard Vinyloop material to their product by sprinkling it at 5-10% addition rate to the<br />
base layer after it has been spread. Most plastisol flooring machines have a facility to add material in this way.<br />
63 Photo courtesy of Marley Floors<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 41
7.6. Mechanical separation – windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
This section reviews the mechanical separation options for post-use <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> window <strong>and</strong> pipe <strong>waste</strong>s.<br />
The market for mechanically separated recyclate splits into two segments, each requiring a different specification:<br />
• low grade, suitable for long life concrete replacement <strong>products</strong> where surface finish is not of paramount<br />
importance<br />
• High grade, suitable for closed loop recycling to windows <strong>and</strong> pipes or similar high spec <strong>products</strong> like ducting,<br />
conduit or rainwater goods<br />
Both require deglazing <strong>and</strong> primary size reduction of the <strong>waste</strong> feed (Section 6.3)<br />
7.6.1. Low grade mechanical separation – windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
Production of recyclate <strong>from</strong> windows or pipes for low<br />
grade applications requires h<strong>and</strong> or automated<br />
deglazing <strong>and</strong> fragmentation plus metal removal using<br />
magnets <strong>and</strong> eddy current separators.<br />
Most fridge recyclers in the <strong>UK</strong> have facilities capable<br />
of carrying out the fragmentation <strong>and</strong> metal removal<br />
parts of the process.<br />
The low grade recyclate produced will still contain<br />
substantial dirt, rubber <strong>and</strong> metal contamination.<br />
Markets for low grade window/pipe recyclate<br />
Fig 7.6.1 Low grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> post-use windows<br />
Fragmented <strong>and</strong> metal removed by a fridge recycler 64<br />
Low grade window <strong>and</strong> pipe recyclate has been used by Swintex Ltd in Bury to produce long-life concrete-substitute<br />
<strong>products</strong> with significant performance advantages over concrete (light weight, long life, better resilience). The<br />
manufacturing technique used is compression moulding.<br />
Other companies in <strong>UK</strong> can use the same feed material to make other long-life <strong>products</strong> such as fence posts <strong>and</strong> plastic<br />
wood substitute.<br />
Potential sales volume for these <strong>products</strong> once they are established in the market place is over 50,000te/yr <strong>and</strong> possibly<br />
much higher.<br />
This market therefore presents an exciting new outlet for rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate. It is particularly interesting for the <strong>PVC</strong><br />
industry because it substitutes a non-<strong>PVC</strong> product in a very long life application.<br />
Low grade rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate competes with agglomerated polyolefin <strong>waste</strong>, which can often be used in the same<br />
applications.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> density is higher (~1.6 te/m 3 vs ~0.95 te/m 3 for polyolefin) but performance is better in terms of impact resistance,<br />
colour <strong>and</strong> temperature resistance.<br />
64 Photo courtesy of Steve Weston, Costdown<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 42
Prices are set by the market price of agglomerated polyolefin <strong>waste</strong>. This is mostly imported <strong>from</strong> Europe at present at<br />
prices in the range £70-140/te (<strong>UK</strong> plastic collections are mostly exported to China without agglomeration). However in<br />
future it is anticipated that more polyolefin <strong>waste</strong> will become available within the <strong>UK</strong> as more councils start dry<br />
recyclable collections <strong>and</strong> the Chinese government restricts imports of European <strong>waste</strong> plastic. This will reduce prices for<br />
polyolefin <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Long run prices for low grade <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in concrete substitute <strong>and</strong> similar applications are therefore likely to be in the<br />
range £40-70/te 65 .<br />
7.6.2. High grade mechanical separation – windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
There are already several small to medium scale recyclers<br />
operating in the <strong>UK</strong> windows sector, all processing post-industrial<br />
scrap.<br />
None of the <strong>UK</strong> processors currently routinely process post-use<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> although most have expressed interest in doing so <strong>and</strong> have<br />
conducted small scale trials of their own.<br />
Their processes are all different <strong>and</strong> have not been disclosed to<br />
this project but are believed to involve different combinations of<br />
h<strong>and</strong> sorting, sink/float separation, drying, size reduction, air<br />
separation, optical picking, tribo electric separation, electrostatic<br />
separation, eddy current <strong>and</strong> magnetic metal separation.<br />
The major separation problems that have to be tackled are<br />
removal of fine metal particles, coloured <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> the silicone<br />
mastic used for sealing during <strong>and</strong> after installation.<br />
Metal particles cause specs of colour. Silicone mastic does not<br />
melt in the extruder <strong>and</strong> tends to exp<strong>and</strong> as it comes out of the<br />
die, creating surface imperfections.<br />
Recent trials in the <strong>UK</strong> on post-use window <strong>waste</strong> have<br />
demonstrated that with limited further process development<br />
enhanced mechanical separation processes of the type already<br />
operated by several <strong>UK</strong> post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers should be<br />
sufficient to produce clean <strong>PVC</strong> chip of a st<strong>and</strong>ard suitable for<br />
use in high grade extrusion applications. A report on these trials<br />
is attached at Appendix 4<br />
Fig 7.6.2a Cavity closure section made with 40% post-use window recyclate 66<br />
Other trials by Epwin Group during 2003 led to the production of a high quality whole new window <strong>from</strong> 100% recycled<br />
post-use windows.<br />
No details of the processing techniques used or production yields achieved have been disclosed by Epwin but the quality<br />
of the recyclate produced was high <strong>and</strong> Epwin group are convinced that, given a degree of subsidy, they can process<br />
large volumes of post-consumer windows to high grade applications using relatively straightforward development of their<br />
existing mechanical separation processes.<br />
In Germany the windows recycling sector is further advanced than in the <strong>UK</strong>. There are at least three large window<br />
recycling plants in Germany, all of which tackle some post-consumer material alongside post-industrial windows. The<br />
VEKA plant h<strong>and</strong>les about 8,000te/yr of post-use windows. It is understood that the Tonsmeier plant processes similar or<br />
larger quantities of post-use material. A description of the VEKA plant is attached at Appendix 2.<br />
65 Axion Recycling Ltd, Private Communication, April 2004<br />
66 Photo courtesy of Anglian Windows<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 43
Markets for high grade window/pipe recyclate<br />
High grade window <strong>and</strong> pipe recyclate has potential to replace virgin polymer in applications where surface finish or the<br />
presence of legacy additives such as cadmium stabiliser is not critical. These include:<br />
• Window cavity closures<br />
• Underground drainage pipes<br />
• Ducting<br />
Cavity closures are extruded profiles which form a part of the window assembly. They are not exposed to view once the<br />
window is installed. At present they are normally manufactured <strong>from</strong> either virgin polymer or post-industrial recyclate.<br />
Fig 7.6.2b Section drawing showing position of cavity closure in relation to a double glazed <strong>PVC</strong> window unit 67<br />
7.6.3. Melt filtration<br />
A processing step which offers the potential to produce a high grade product with very low levels of contamination is<br />
melt filtration. It uses st<strong>and</strong>ard extrusion technology that is available widely in the polymer compounding sector.<br />
Melt filtration involves melting pre-cleaned <strong>and</strong> size-reduced chips in an extruder <strong>and</strong> forcing the melt through a screen<br />
with apertures in the range 60-90 micron. An automatic screen changer removes the screen as it becomes blocked <strong>and</strong><br />
replaces it with a new one while the first is cleaned.<br />
Melt filtration of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> is common. However melt filtration of rigid <strong>PVC</strong> is more difficult because of the higher<br />
pressures <strong>and</strong> temperatures required to process unplasticised material. Hydro Polymers at Newton Aycliffe has recently<br />
announced that it plans to produce recycled rigid <strong>PVC</strong> by melt filtration. Results of its initial trials are expected later in<br />
2004.<br />
Melt filtration of rigid <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> has potential to produce very clean recyclates. However, potential drawbacks are:<br />
• Higher processing cost – extrusion processes generally add £80-100/te of extra processing cost<br />
• Silicone mastic particles that are larger than the screen aperture can potentially squeeze through the screen<br />
under the high temperature <strong>and</strong> pressure conditions used. A silicone removal process may therefore be<br />
required upstream of the extruder – adding further cost<br />
7.6.4. Mechanical separation of rigid <strong>PVC</strong> - conclusions<br />
• There are several potential outlets for low grade rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate in the <strong>UK</strong> among processors making<br />
concrete substitute <strong>products</strong>. Prices are low <strong>and</strong> limited by competition <strong>from</strong> polyolefin <strong>waste</strong>s but only minimal<br />
sorting, metal removal <strong>and</strong> size reduction of the recyclate is required<br />
• It is possible to produce high grade <strong>PVC</strong> chips <strong>from</strong> post-use windows by improving the mechanical separation<br />
techniques used already. The chips produced are suitable for direct use in closed loop recycling, substituting<br />
virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound in blends or co-extruded sections to make windows <strong>and</strong> similar <strong>products</strong>.<br />
• Hydro Polymers are likely to prove shortly that melt filtration of rigid <strong>PVC</strong> is possible, producing a high value<br />
recyclate. However there will be a cost penalty for the additional extrusion cost<br />
67 Diagram courtesy Anglian Windows<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 44
7.7. Mechanical separation – flooring<br />
As for windows, flooring recycling options spilt into two main segments with different recyclate purity requirements:<br />
• low grade – used by makers of traffic cones <strong>and</strong> long life concrete replacement <strong>products</strong> such as safety barrier<br />
bases<br />
• High grade - used for closed loop manufacture of new flooring, cable compound, etc<br />
7.7.1. Low grade flooring recyclate<br />
Production of low grade recyclate requires:<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting to separate:<br />
o safety flooring<br />
o non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials<br />
o <strong>PVC</strong> tiles that may contain asbestos<br />
• Shredding to approx 10mm pieces<br />
• Removal of any residual metals<br />
No further processing is expected to be required for most low grade applications<br />
Section 6.3.2 discusses the issues surrounding h<strong>and</strong> sorting in more detail.<br />
Markets for low grade flooring recyclate<br />
There are several flexible <strong>PVC</strong> processors in the <strong>UK</strong> with capacity to h<strong>and</strong>le substantial tonnages of low grade post-use<br />
flooring recyclate. These include Swintex, Melba <strong>and</strong> Oxford Plastics. Between them they are thought to process in<br />
excess of 20,000te/yr of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. Much of this is post-industrial scrap but they do already consume some post<br />
use <strong>PVC</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
They mostly use compression moulding techniques to produce <strong>products</strong> such as road cone bases, traffic calming ramps<br />
(‘sleeping policemen’) <strong>and</strong> safety barrier bases where the flexibility, durability <strong>and</strong> high density of <strong>PVC</strong> are an advantage.<br />
These processors currently process a mixture of inputs which include <strong>PVC</strong> cable scrap <strong>and</strong> a variety of post-industrial<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>s.<br />
They can h<strong>and</strong>le a high degree of contamination <strong>and</strong> some may be able to h<strong>and</strong>le a percentage of safety flooring.<br />
However the supply price must be right to compensate for wear on their moulds.<br />
Prices for low grade flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate are limited to between £0-50/te by oversupply <strong>from</strong> other post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> sources. The potential for growth in the product lines currently made by these processors is relatively modest.<br />
Product innovation will be required to stimulate dem<strong>and</strong>. There are signs that the moulders are responding to this<br />
challenge as they see new low cost supplies of feed material developing.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 45
7.7.2. High grade mechanical separation - flooring<br />
Two potential mechanical separation routes have been developed for production of high grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> flooring in<br />
Europe:<br />
• The AGPR recycling plant at Cologne was developed as a collaborative venture by the German <strong>PVC</strong> flooring<br />
industry to demonstrate the potential for closed loop recycling of <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
• More recently, Techniplasper, a privately-owned specialist recycler of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> based near Barcelona in<br />
Spain has developed a process for production of high grade flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate using melt filtration as the<br />
final separation step.<br />
AGPR flooring process, Cologne<br />
The AGPR facility in Cologne is a long-established demonstration plant that was developed by the German flooring<br />
industry for recycling <strong>PVC</strong> flooring to produce a fine powder suitable for use in plastisol flooring. It was established near<br />
Cologne in 1994 following a series of pilot trials.<br />
The process involves:<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting to remove safety flooring <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>PVC</strong> material<br />
• Hammer mill to knock off most glue, cement <strong>and</strong> dirt<br />
• Air separation<br />
• Cryogenic milling with liquid nitrogen cooling to reduce particles to the size required for plastisol flooring (less<br />
than 200 micron) <strong>and</strong> to homogenize any contaminants<br />
Capacity of the AGPR plant is up to 5,000te/yr but in practice throughputs have always been much lower <strong>and</strong> are<br />
currently only about 500te/year.<br />
The organization has found it difficult to collect substantial tonnages of post-use flooring <strong>and</strong> its backers have not<br />
encouraged development of the collection system in recent years because the operation requires substantial subsidies.<br />
Direct operating cost of the process is said to be around €250/te of input material (excluding all staff costs), split roughly<br />
as follows:<br />
€/te<br />
Liquid nitrogen 60<br />
Power 40<br />
Packaging <strong>and</strong> shipping product 30<br />
Repairs <strong>and</strong> maintenance 30<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill for 15% of feed which cannot be recovered 15<br />
Security, insurance, admin, etc 75<br />
Total 250<br />
Cost of collection is around €125/te. At present AGPR does not charge a collection fee to originators of <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
The recyclate currently sells for €75-120/te (£50-80/te). The selling price is low because:<br />
• The single hammer-milling step which does the bulk of the material cleanup is insufficient to produce a really<br />
clean recyclate<br />
• The cryogenic milling circuit used is unable to produce a tight particle size distribution. This means that the final<br />
product is prone to dusting – which makes it difficult to use.<br />
These factors restrict the number of end-users who are prepared to take the recyclate.<br />
The useful lessons which may be learned <strong>from</strong> the AGPR plant are that hammer milling is an effective <strong>and</strong> relatively low<br />
cost method for primary cleaning of post-use flooring <strong>and</strong> that cryogenic milling of flooring is surprisingly inexpensive<br />
(costing about €100/te for power <strong>and</strong> nitrogen).<br />
Introduction of modern plastic separation techniques as used for windows, such as optical sorting, sophisticated air<br />
separation, tribo-electric/electrostatic separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration should offer the potential to produce top quality<br />
granular recyclates at reasonable costs. If these recyclates are required in powder form then modern cryogenic milling<br />
techniques should allow the production of materials with tighter size distribution than is achieved at AGPR. AGPR<br />
currently lacks the resources to pursue such process improvements.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 46
Techniplasper flooring process, Barcelona<br />
Techniplasper in Spain has extensive experience of recycling post industrial flexible <strong>PVC</strong> using melt-filtration <strong>and</strong> has<br />
become involved in recycling post-use flooring more recently.<br />
Techniplasper has not disclosed the details of its separation process<br />
but it is known to include initial h<strong>and</strong> sorting <strong>and</strong> finishes with melt<br />
filtration to produce colour-st<strong>and</strong>ardised 1mm or 3mm granules.<br />
The h<strong>and</strong>-sorting step eliminates non-<strong>PVC</strong> material <strong>and</strong> safety<br />
flooring <strong>and</strong> then divides the material into two streams. One mostly<br />
calendared flooring <strong>and</strong> one mostly plastisol flooring. The yields<br />
achieved by Techniplasper’s trial have not been disclosed.<br />
Techniplasper is confident that it can adjust colour in its extruders to<br />
achieve a consistent colour specification. The colour specified will<br />
have to be somewhere in the range light grey-brown to black but<br />
once a specification is set the company says that it will be able to use<br />
its normal compounding procedures to maintain the target colour<br />
within a variation limit of 1.5∆E. This is within the limits normally set<br />
by <strong>UK</strong> flooring makers.<br />
Fig 7.7.2 Micrograph of 1mm melt-filtered <strong>PVC</strong> granules <strong>from</strong> Techniplasper 68<br />
As part of the Epfloor trials (see section 8.3) a sample of melt filtered post-use flooring product <strong>from</strong> Techniplasper will<br />
be sent to Air Products in the USA for cryogenic milling. This trial will confirm the likely liquid nitrogen <strong>and</strong> power<br />
consumption for a modern milling circuit <strong>and</strong> demonstrate whether a satisfactory particle size distribution can be<br />
achieved. When the Techniplasper trial material is delivered during June 2004 it will be tested at pilot <strong>and</strong> production<br />
scale by three <strong>UK</strong> flooring manufacturers alongside Vinyloop recyclate <strong>from</strong> the same German/Austrian starting material.<br />
Markets for high grade mechanically separated flooring recyclate<br />
Applications for high grade flexible recyclate include calendared <strong>and</strong> plastisol flooring, cable bedding <strong>and</strong> hoses.<br />
Techniplasper aims to produce 3mm granules for use in calendared flooring <strong>and</strong> extrusion applications such as cable<br />
making <strong>and</strong> 1mm microgranules for use by plastisol flooring makers. Discussions with flooring makers in the <strong>UK</strong> indicate<br />
that the 3mm granules should be usable as direct blends with virgin granules in proportions <strong>from</strong> 5-10%.<br />
Techniplasper’s 1mm microgranules are too large to be incorporated in the plastisol by most flooring makers but, as for<br />
Vinyloop recyclate, the flooring companies consulted in the <strong>UK</strong> have indicated that they could add the material by<br />
sprinkling it at 5-10% addition rate onto the base layer after it has been spread.<br />
If the market dem<strong>and</strong>s it may be possible to cryogenically mill melt filtered granules to produce a 100 micron powder<br />
that could potentially be used to substitute virgin polymer directly in plastisols.<br />
7.7.3. Mechanical separation of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> flooring - conclusions<br />
• There are several potential outlets for low grade flexible <strong>PVC</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>. Compression moulders can use it to<br />
make <strong>products</strong> such as safety barrier bases <strong>and</strong> traffic cones. Prices are low <strong>and</strong> limited by an over-supply of<br />
flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate but only minimal sorting <strong>and</strong> size reduction of the recyclate is required<br />
• Based on initial results <strong>from</strong> trials at Techniplasper in Spain it appears to be possible to produce high grade <strong>PVC</strong><br />
recyclate <strong>from</strong> post-use flooring by using established sorting techniques followed by melt filtration.<br />
• Large scale trials are under way but it is not yet certain whether mechanical separation followed by melt<br />
filtration or the Vinyloop solvolysis process provides the best technical solution for producing high grade<br />
recyclate <strong>from</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong> flooring.<br />
68 Photo courtesy Peter Thomas, Marley Floors<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 47
The issue of legacy additives<br />
It is possible to check the origin of post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> streams to establish that they do not contain legacy additives<br />
since traceability for this material is easy to achieve. However it is not possible to do the same for post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> windows have been installed in large numbers in the <strong>UK</strong> since the mid 1980s. Post-use <strong>PVC</strong> windows may therefore<br />
be up to 25 years old, though many will be much newer. Many of the older windows will contain additives which have<br />
since been phased out.<br />
Post-use flooring may be up to 50 or 60 years old, although most of the <strong>waste</strong> stream will be much younger <strong>and</strong> some<br />
will comprise short life off-cuts.<br />
A substantial proportion of the <strong>waste</strong> stream collected will therefore contain varying levels of ‘legacy’ additives such as<br />
cadmium stabiliser which are no longer used in new <strong>PVC</strong> compounds because of concerns over leaching or human<br />
toxicity.<br />
No reliable sorting techniques are currently available to identify most legacy additives in post-use <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
None of the potential mechanical recycling options separate legacy additives. However many observers argue that<br />
inclusion of recyclates containing legacy additives, particularly heavy metals, in new long life <strong>products</strong> presents an<br />
effective method of ‘locking them up’, thereby preventing them <strong>from</strong> entering the environment through l<strong>and</strong>fill or<br />
incineration.<br />
The current EU Cadmium Directive, implemented in <strong>UK</strong> law by Statutory Instrument No 1643, prevents the addition of<br />
cadmium stabilizer to new <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> limits the cadmium stabiliser content <strong>from</strong> recyclate to 100mg/Kg 69 in a<br />
specified range of applications as follows:<br />
• packaging materials<br />
• office or school supplies<br />
• furniture<br />
• clothing<br />
• floor <strong>and</strong> wall coverings CN code number<br />
• coated textiles<br />
• pipes <strong>and</strong> their fittings<br />
• swing doors,<br />
• vehicles<br />
• coated steel sheet<br />
• wiring insulation<br />
There is no restriction on use of cadmium stabiliser in other <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> such as windows <strong>and</strong> rainwater goods.<br />
A derogation is currently under discussion with the EU which would prevent the use of new cadmium stabilizer in all new<br />
<strong>products</strong> but would allow the use of recyclates containing higher levels of cadmium in certain long-life applications<br />
including windows, rainwater goods <strong>and</strong> underground pipes.<br />
Initial assessments of the likely level of cadmium stabiliser in new <strong>products</strong> after dilution indicate that cadmium levels<br />
will on average be below the EU limit of 100 mg/Kg for most applications however manufacturers or recyclate suppliers<br />
will need to prove this <strong>and</strong> occupational hygiene assessments will need to be carried out to demonstrate that processing<br />
of <strong>products</strong> containing legacy additives is safe.<br />
Mechanical recycling does not necessarily address the concern of those organisations such as Friends of the Earth that<br />
object to the use of phthalate plasticizers in flexible <strong>PVC</strong>. Their concern about these additives is that they may be<br />
hormone disruptors <strong>and</strong> may accumulate in the human body. If these additives return to use as recyclates they could<br />
still be bioavailable. An assessment must then be made between the relative exposure risks <strong>from</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>fill or<br />
incineration disposal routes compared to inclusion in new long-life <strong>products</strong>.<br />
A further issue to be considered is that as soon as post-use recyclate is introduced into new <strong>products</strong> the post-industrial<br />
scrap that is generated in the process of manufacturing those <strong>products</strong> will also contain small amounts of legacy<br />
additives <strong>and</strong> will need to be assessed in the same way as post-use scrap.<br />
69 Statutory Instrument 1993 No. 1643 The Environmental Protection (Controls on Injurious Substances) (No. 2)<br />
Regulations 1993 www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1993/Uksi_19931643_en_1.htm<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 48
7.8. Conclusions<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill <strong>and</strong> incineration with energy recovery are unlikely to be politically or environmentally viable options for <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong><strong>rich</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> in the long term.<br />
The remaining recycling options are summarized below:<br />
Mechanical Recycling Feedstock Recycling<br />
Preference for pre-sorted<br />
<strong>products</strong><br />
Conventional Dissolution<br />
e.g. “Vinyloop”<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
Suitable for unsorted plastic<br />
mixtures <strong>and</strong> composites<br />
Processes with<br />
Cl-Limitation<br />
Target product :<br />
Hydrocarbons (H-C)<br />
Processes without<br />
Cl-Limitation<br />
Target product :<br />
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)<br />
Hydrocarbons (H-C)<br />
Feedstock recycling separates legacy additives for recycling or safe disposal <strong>and</strong> requires only limited sorting of the<br />
input stream. However it produces very low value <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> is therefore an expensive option overall. It is unlikely to<br />
be a viable recycling option for the <strong>UK</strong> unless inclusion of legacy additives in new <strong>products</strong> must be avoided in future.<br />
Mechanical recycling using either mechanical separation techniques or the Solvay Vinyloop solvolysis process is likely<br />
to be the best solution for both rigid <strong>and</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Substantial markets already exist in the <strong>UK</strong> for low grade rigid <strong>and</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. Users of this material make long<br />
life <strong>products</strong> such as concrete substitute items by compression moulding or extrusion.<br />
Technical solutions have been identified for production of high grade recyclate suitable for substitution of virgin polymer<br />
in high value rigid <strong>and</strong> flexible <strong>products</strong> at 5-20% addition rate.<br />
The most practical high grade recycling option for post-use window <strong>and</strong> pipe <strong>waste</strong> streams is likely to be<br />
mechanical separation to produce cleaned chip for direct extrusion in combination with virgin material to make new<br />
window profiles, pipes <strong>and</strong> similar <strong>products</strong>.<br />
The most practical option for post-use flooring <strong>waste</strong> is likely to be either participation by the <strong>UK</strong> industry in a shared<br />
European Vinyloop project or development of mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt-filtration as offered in Spain by<br />
Techniplasper. Material <strong>from</strong> these processes may be used for closed-loop recycling in new flooring or other flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
<strong>products</strong>.<br />
The EU Cadmium Directive restricts the level of cadmium <strong>from</strong> recyclate in certain <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> to below 100mg/Kg but<br />
not in windows, rainwater goods <strong>and</strong> many other items.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 49
8. Recycling trials<br />
8.1. Method<br />
This project helped to co-ordinate several separate practical <strong>PVC</strong> recycling trials that have taken place in the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
elsewhere over the past year. This section reviews <strong>and</strong> summarises the results of the trials that are most relevant to<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Incineration with energy recovery was discounted as a practical option for the <strong>UK</strong> by this study.<br />
Outputs <strong>and</strong> operating costs of feedstock recycling processes have been well-documented by other studies (Section 7.4).<br />
Their <strong>products</strong> are relatively low value commodity-type <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> the process operators generally charge a net<br />
processing fee which takes account of any credit they may get for sale of the recycled <strong>products</strong>.<br />
For the above reasons only mechanical recycling trials were reviewed in detail for this project.<br />
The main aim of the trials coordinated with this project was to identify recycling processes for the target <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
streams which allow the production of added-value recyclates.<br />
Substantial trials have been undertaken or are in progress of:<br />
• The Vinyloop solvolysis process for cable <strong>waste</strong>, window <strong>waste</strong>, made up textile <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration for flooring <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Mechanical separation for window <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Extrusion processing of wallpaper <strong>waste</strong><br />
Most of these trials are on-going so intermediate results are presented where appropriate <strong>and</strong> pointers are provided to<br />
where further information can be obtained as the trials progress.<br />
Where possible, samples of final <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate were taken to the University of Bradford Polymer IRC for testing. Results<br />
of the laboratory testing are reported in Section 9.<br />
8.2. Vinyloop Solvolysis trials<br />
Substantial trials have been carried out by Solvay using the Ferrara demonstration plant in Italy <strong>and</strong> the pilot plant in<br />
Brussels. <strong>Materials</strong> tested include:<br />
• Post-use window <strong>waste</strong> collected by the German window recycler, Dekura<br />
• Flooring <strong>waste</strong> collected in Germany <strong>and</strong> Austria by the AGPR flooring recycling organisation for Epfloor<br />
• Cable <strong>waste</strong> collected by Solvay <strong>and</strong> its partner <strong>from</strong> the Italian cable stripping sector<br />
• Made up textiles collected in France for the planned Texyloop project at Ferrari<br />
• Blister packaging collected by Solvay<br />
• Automobile door seals collected by Solvay<br />
Good quality recyclate was produced in each case. Detailed data on the yield of usable recyclate was not made available<br />
by Solvay.<br />
Extrusion processability <strong>and</strong> physical properties of samples of all these recyclates have been tested in the polymer IRC at<br />
Bradford University for this project. Full test results are available on the website established for this project 70 . Results of<br />
the window <strong>and</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong> trials only are reported in this document (Section 9).<br />
Only flooring recyclate <strong>from</strong> the Vinyloop process is being tested at pilot <strong>and</strong> full production scale for use in closed loop<br />
recycling by <strong>UK</strong> companies because this stream is believed to have the greatest potential for recycling by this route in<br />
the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Epfloor has recently funded a trial at the Ferrara Vinyloop plant to produce a 30 tonne batch of mixed post-use <strong>PVC</strong><br />
flooring collected in Germany <strong>and</strong> Austria by the German <strong>PVC</strong> flooring recycling organisation, AGPR.<br />
70 www.recyclepvc.com<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 50
1 tonne samples of flooring recyclate <strong>from</strong> this trial have been shipped to the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> flooring makers, Marley, Polyflor<br />
<strong>and</strong> Altro <strong>and</strong> will be tested by these companies during May <strong>and</strong> June 2004 in parallel with samples <strong>from</strong> a similar trial of<br />
the Techniplasper melt filtration process for flooring.<br />
The results of these trials <strong>and</strong> similar trials on the same material elsewhere in Europe will be reported by Epfloor later in<br />
2004.<br />
8.3. Mechanical separation trials – windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
Several trials have been carried out during the course of this project in the <strong>UK</strong> to demonstrate mechanical separation of<br />
rigid <strong>PVC</strong> for both low grade <strong>and</strong> high grade applications<br />
8.3.1. Low grade windows/pipes – compression moulding<br />
Swintex Ltd in Bury has produced good quality concrete replacement <strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong>. Their plant has capacity to<br />
produce limited volumes at present but the company plans to invest shortly in new equipment which will increase output<br />
to 10,000te/yr initially, with potential to grow further.<br />
Swintex is market-testing these <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> has gained approval <strong>from</strong> key users in the target market. Swintex is now<br />
seeking funding support for its expansion programme.<br />
8.3.2. High grade windows/pipes – mechanical separation<br />
During late 2003 a series of practical processing trials were conducted in collaboration between Anglian Windows,<br />
Ecoplas, Axion Recycling <strong>and</strong> Costdown to examine two issues:<br />
• Whether it is possible to reprocess a percentage of recycled post-use window <strong>waste</strong> into cavity closure<br />
extrusions using a loss in weight gravimetric dosing system.<br />
• The effectiveness of different processes for the removal of contamination <strong>from</strong> post-use window feedstock.<br />
The trials were funded by Vinyl 2010, the BPF <strong>and</strong> EPPA. A report is attached at Appendix 4.<br />
The results indicate that 5-10% of normal Anglian post-use recyclate with residual contamination can be reliably dosed<br />
into cavity closures.<br />
With an additional recyclate cleaning stage of either tribo-electric separation or air-blown vibratory sieving, this<br />
percentage can be increased to at least 40%.<br />
The resulting cavity closures met the current in-house st<strong>and</strong>ards of dimensional consistency.<br />
The extrusion process remained stable over the 10 hour period of the extrusion trial <strong>and</strong> ran in total for 72 hours with<br />
dosed post-use window recyclate.<br />
Surface contamination analysis conducted during the trial indicated that contaminants were divided into three types, fine<br />
specks less than 0.5 mm in size, larger particles roughly 0.5 to 2.0 mm in size which were often silicone mastic <strong>and</strong><br />
lumps of larger contaminant > 2.0mm in size. No metal or glass appeared to be present.<br />
As a result of the Anglian trials it is clear that dosing a percentage of post-use window recyclate into cavity closure<br />
profiles is a technically viable route for the disposal of the post-use <strong>waste</strong> collected by Anglian Windows.<br />
Since this initial trial, Anglian Windows has extruded a further 6 tonnes of post-use <strong>waste</strong> in cavity closures. This<br />
material was collected through its own network of installers <strong>and</strong> processed by the same method.<br />
The processing trials at Anglian Windows <strong>and</strong> similar work by Epwin Group (unpublished) indicate that large scale<br />
production of high grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> windows <strong>and</strong> pipes should be technically feasible in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Further trials are now under way, funded by WRAP 71 , to assess the practicalities <strong>and</strong> economics of large scale collection,<br />
deglazing <strong>and</strong> size reduction of post-use windows collected by routes other than supplier take-back. These trials will<br />
71 WRAP Replacement window recycling project led by Building Research Establishment – due to report late 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 51
compare the effectiveness of manual frame breaking <strong>and</strong> rubber seal removal followed by shredding with fully<br />
automated size reduction <strong>and</strong> metal removal at fridge recycling plants.<br />
Assuming that these trials are successful investment will be needed in collection infrastructure <strong>and</strong> training for the staff<br />
who will perform the deglazing <strong>and</strong> primary size reduction operations. Some additional investment will also be required<br />
to enhance the processing operations of the existing post-industrial <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers.<br />
8.4. Mechanical separation trials - flooring<br />
8.4.1. Low grade flooring – compression moulding<br />
Several <strong>UK</strong> compression moulders already process large quantities of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong> flooring scrap. They can<br />
tolerate substantial impurity levels.<br />
They have indicated that they could move to processing post-use flooring without difficulty, provided it is delivered<br />
already size-reduced to below 25mm, is available at a lower price than their existing feed streams <strong>and</strong> excludes safety<br />
flooring.<br />
No specific processing trials were therefore required for this project. The market is already proven, subject to price.<br />
8.4.2. Safety flooring<br />
The issue that has deterred existing flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers <strong>from</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling safety flooring is the potential for abrasion<br />
damage to their shredders <strong>and</strong> moulding equipment.<br />
With adequate supplies of other less aggressive <strong>PVC</strong> materials available the recyclers have not attempted to find<br />
processing solutions.<br />
This research at Bradford highlighted the importance of being able to process safety flooring in the <strong>UK</strong> because it will<br />
comprise a substantial proportion of the collected <strong>PVC</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong> stream. The option of incurring cost to separate<br />
safety flooring <strong>from</strong> the <strong>waste</strong> stream in order to protect downstream processing equipment <strong>and</strong> then incur further cost<br />
to dispose it to l<strong>and</strong>fill is not attractive. It would save l<strong>and</strong>fill costs of around £10/te of collected <strong>waste</strong> flooring <strong>and</strong><br />
improve the recycling percentage if safety flooring could be left in the low grade recyclate stream.<br />
Axion Recycling therefore identified a shredder company (Mastermagnets Ltd, Birmingham 72 ) which supplies a shredder<br />
designed for abrasive materials. A 500Kg sample of safety flooring was supplied by Altro to Mastermagnets <strong>and</strong> size<br />
reduced to 10-25mm without difficulty. This material was sent to Swintex, who processed it successfully to make safety<br />
barrier bases.<br />
Wear on the shredder was reported as acceptable. Swintex is still assessing the likely wear costs for long term<br />
processing of safety flooring in their compression moulding equipment. Further practical trials are likely to be required to<br />
resolve this question.<br />
8.4.3. High grade – melt filtration<br />
Epfloor has funded a trial by Techniplasper on 30 tonnes of flooring material collected by AGPR in Germany. This trial is<br />
proceeding in parallel with a similar trial of the Vinyloop process (Section 8.2). The same three <strong>UK</strong> flooring<br />
manufacturers will test the melt-filtered material <strong>and</strong> compare its performance with the Vinyloop product.<br />
Epfloor expects to report the results later in 2004<br />
72 www.mastermagnets.co.uk<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 52
8.5. Wall paper processing trials<br />
The wallpaper sector in the <strong>UK</strong> generates 15,000te/yr of production <strong>waste</strong>. All of this material is currently l<strong>and</strong>filled<br />
A wallpaper industry consortium comprising the Wallpaper Manufacturers Association (WMA), Zen Wallcoverings, the<br />
Fine Decor Company <strong>and</strong> European Vinyls Corporation is concerned about the current low level of post-industrial<br />
wallpaper recycling in the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>and</strong> has initiated two related recycling development projects:<br />
Pulping equipment has been developed by Dassett Ltd to separate <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> paper fractions <strong>from</strong> post-industrial scrap<br />
paper in collaboration with Frogmore Paper Mill, a museum which also develops paper <strong>products</strong>. This project has<br />
processed vinyl wallpaper samples using the pulper to produce two fractions. A paper-<strong>rich</strong> fraction <strong>and</strong> a <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong><br />
fraction.<br />
8.5.1.1. Frogmore pulping trials<br />
During 2003 <strong>and</strong> early 2004 An industry group funded experiments at Frogmore Paper Mill, a paper-making museum in<br />
collaboration with Dassett Ltd using an old type of paper pulper which has potential to provide a low cost method for<br />
separating wallpaper <strong>waste</strong> into <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>and</strong> paper-<strong>rich</strong> fractions.<br />
The paper-<strong>rich</strong> fraction has been shown to be suitable for re-use in conventional recycled paper making.<br />
Frogmore produced a reel of paper using a 4:1 blend of recycled <strong>waste</strong> paper with the paper-<strong>rich</strong> fraction. This material<br />
may have potential as an inter-layer for packaging sacks with improved wet strength.<br />
8.5.1.2. Brunel extrusion trials<br />
The wall paper industry consortium contracted the Wolfson<br />
Centre of Brunel University to produce a compounded<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>/paper mixture <strong>from</strong> the <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> fraction produced at<br />
Frogmore.<br />
First trials of this technique using a small extruder at Brunel<br />
have produced samples with excellent surface finish <strong>and</strong><br />
physical properties which should make the recyclate suitable<br />
for added-value fibre-reinforced <strong>PVC</strong> extruded <strong>products</strong> for<br />
applications such as cores for paper reels <strong>and</strong> architectural<br />
coving.<br />
Further work is now planned to try combining whole <strong>PVC</strong><br />
wallpaper with liquid plasticizer <strong>waste</strong> that is also generated by<br />
the wallpaper companies in order to produce a fibre-reinforced<br />
product directly – eliminating the need for the Frogmore<br />
pulping step. This will improve the economic viability of the<br />
process.<br />
73 Courtesy Wolfson Centre, Brunel University<br />
Fig 8.5.1.2 Sample of extruded product <strong>from</strong> vinyl wallpaper 73<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 53
8.6. Made up textile<br />
Volumes of collectable made-up textile in the <strong>UK</strong> are low. However trials were conducted with coated textile recyclates in<br />
the course of this study <strong>and</strong> are reported here.<br />
8.6.1. Texyloop<br />
Solvay has carried out extensive development of a variant of the Vinyloop process called Texyloop 74 . The use of this<br />
process to recycled <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> polyester <strong>from</strong> made up textiles in Europe has been licensed by Solvay to a joint venture<br />
company with a French partner.<br />
This process produces similar high quality <strong>PVC</strong> compound to the conventional Vinyloop process but also separates long<br />
staple length polyester fibres for re-use in non-woven fabrics <strong>and</strong> similar materials.<br />
So far trials have been conducted at pilot scale in preparation for construction of a larger scale plant at Ferrari in France.<br />
These trials produced clean polyester fibres suitable for re-use in a range of non-woven <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> a good quality <strong>PVC</strong><br />
recyclate. Details of laboratory tests on this <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate are available on the website created for this project 75 .<br />
It will be difficult to justify a st<strong>and</strong>-alone Texyloop plant in the <strong>UK</strong> given the likely modest collection volumes.<br />
Based on the economic evaluations for the Vinyloop process reported in this study (section 10.4) a <strong>UK</strong> Texyloop plant<br />
processing <strong>waste</strong> made up textiles is likely to need to h<strong>and</strong>le 3-4 times the expected maximum collectable volume of<br />
around 2,500te/yr (section 5.5) in order to be commercially viable. However when the Ferrari plant is commissioned it<br />
may provide a useful processing route for <strong>UK</strong> material.<br />
8.6.2. <strong>UK</strong> mechanical separation trials<br />
As part of this WRAP-funded project pilot tests were conducted by Steve Weston of Costdown to establish the potential<br />
feasibility of recycling coated textile <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Smith Contractors Ltd attempted to separate a 2 te sample of post-industrial made up textile <strong>waste</strong> generated by<br />
Vitapruf Ltd. Shredding, granulation <strong>and</strong> air classification were used to separate the PET fibre <strong>from</strong> the <strong>PVC</strong> matrix.<br />
The separation was not completely successful, resulting in a contaminated <strong>PVC</strong> fraction. However the fibre fraction was<br />
used by Ruberoid Ltd to produce single ply roofing <strong>products</strong>. The cost of processing by this route (~£150/tonne)<br />
exceeded the market value of the output (~£50/te) so the trials were not continued further.<br />
Green Peacock Recycling Ltd <strong>and</strong> Herbold Ltd carried out trials on shredding post-industrial MUT <strong>waste</strong>. Feeding<br />
problems, including wrapping around the shredder shaft, <strong>and</strong> fluffing were reported by both companies. A special<br />
shredder design would be required for large scale processing.<br />
74 www.texyloop.com<br />
75 www.recyclepvc.com<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 54
8.7. Summary<br />
Feedstock recycling<br />
Feedstock recycling was not tested in the course of this study because the processes available in Europe make generic,<br />
low value <strong>products</strong> (low grade oil <strong>and</strong> salt solution or HCl gas) <strong>and</strong> their feasibility is well-documented in the progress<br />
reports of the Vinyl2010 organisation 76 .<br />
Solvolysis<br />
Large scale <strong>PVC</strong> recycling trials have been carried out using Solvay’s Vinyloop solvolysis process on:<br />
• Cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Flooring<br />
• Windows<br />
• Made up textile<br />
In each case the feed material was <strong>sourced</strong> outside the <strong>UK</strong> but is likely to be representative of material that could be<br />
collected in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Good quality recyclate was produced in each case.<br />
Material <strong>from</strong> all of the above trials was tested at the Bradford University Polymer IRC for this project.<br />
Mechanical separation of windows <strong>and</strong> flooring for low grade applications<br />
Basic mechanical separation techniques have been tested for both windows <strong>and</strong> flooring in the course of this project.<br />
In both cases a low grade product with a value in the range £0-70/te can be produced by shredding <strong>and</strong> metal removal.<br />
Flooring<br />
For flooring it is necessary to sort the feed first to remove the bulk of the non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials (rubber, asbestoscontaining<br />
tiles, linoleum, etc) <strong>and</strong> for most end-users, to remove the safety flooring.<br />
Shredding flooring is relatively straightforward. A type of shredder has been identified <strong>and</strong> tested in the course of this<br />
trial which can also shred safety flooring without difficulty if required. This trial was conducted by Axion Recycling for the<br />
BPF <strong>and</strong> Vinyl2010.<br />
The low grade flexible recyclate produced by this route is suitable for immediate use in the manufacture of traffic<br />
calming ramps, safety barrier bases <strong>and</strong> similar <strong>products</strong>.<br />
Windows<br />
For windows a practical separation technique for production of low grade recyclate is likely to involve deglazing by h<strong>and</strong><br />
on site or at a specialist facility followed by shredding or fragmentising <strong>and</strong> magnet + eddy current metal removal to<br />
reduce the material to metal-free pieces in the size range 25-50mm.<br />
Tests carried out for the BPF <strong>and</strong> EPPA in the course of this study have demonstrated that the network of commercial<br />
fragmentisers which has developed across the <strong>UK</strong> to process <strong>waste</strong> refrigerators <strong>and</strong> other large WEEE items appears to<br />
be suitable for this task.<br />
The low grade rigid recyclate produced is suitable for immediate use in the manufacture of concrete replacement<br />
<strong>products</strong>.<br />
Mechanical separation of windows for high grade applications<br />
There are already several competing recyclers of post-industrial rigid <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong>. These companies produce<br />
high-quality rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate <strong>and</strong> in most cases also manufacture new items <strong>from</strong> recycled <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
76 Vinyl 2010 website, publications section, http://www.vinyl2010.org/index3.html<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 55
Trials carried out in the course of this study <strong>and</strong> experience of the VEKA <strong>and</strong> Tonsmeier companies in Germany<br />
demonstrate that with additional capital investment <strong>and</strong> further trials to build experience the existing <strong>UK</strong> post-industrial<br />
recyclers should be able to produce high grade recyclates <strong>from</strong> <strong>UK</strong> post-use rigid <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> in the form of 3-8mm chips<br />
without the need for high temperature extrusion processing or compounding.<br />
The separation processes which would need to be introduced or enhanced by the existing <strong>UK</strong> recyclers are likely to<br />
include:<br />
• Multi-stage size reduction<br />
• Air classifiers<br />
• Optical sorting<br />
• Electrostatic separation of light metal fragments<br />
• Tribo-electric separation for rubbers <strong>and</strong> silicone<br />
• Washing <strong>and</strong> sink/float separation for dirt removal <strong>and</strong> extraction of polyolefins<br />
Trials carried out in collaboration with Anglian Windows indicate that the chips produced should be suitable for addition<br />
at 10-50% with virgin polymer to extruded cavity closure profiles <strong>and</strong> for co-extrusion as the core of exterior window<br />
profiles (with a virgin polymer outer layer).<br />
Melt filtration trials at Hydro Polymers in the <strong>UK</strong> will shortly test the efficacy of this technique for rigid <strong>PVC</strong>. There may<br />
be high-value applications where the extra cost of extrusion is justified by the higher value of the finished product.<br />
Mechanical separation of flooring for high grade applications<br />
Techniplasper, a privately-owned specialist recycler of flexible <strong>PVC</strong> based near Barcelona in Spain has developed a<br />
process for production of high grade flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate using melt filtration as the final separation step. Three <strong>UK</strong><br />
flooring manufacturers are testing materials <strong>from</strong> this process<br />
Wallpaper recycling<br />
Although the wallpaper sector produces virtually no collectable post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> it does produce substantial tonnages<br />
of post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong>, most of which is currently l<strong>and</strong>filled. In the course of this study practical trials were<br />
initiated by the Wallpaper industry <strong>and</strong> European Vinyls Corporation to find a way to recycle this material.<br />
Preliminary results of pulping trials at Frogmore Paper Mill <strong>and</strong> extrusion trials at Brunel University indicate that good<br />
results will be achieved by shredding <strong>and</strong> direct extrusion of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> wallpaper with the addition of <strong>waste</strong> liquid<br />
plasticizer to produce a semi-rigid fibre-reinforced extruded profile. This profile is likely to have interesting applications<br />
for manufacture of a range of added-value building <strong>and</strong> packaging <strong>products</strong>.<br />
Made up textiles<br />
Several potential recycling routes for made-up textile <strong>waste</strong> were tested during the course of this project.<br />
Of these the two that appear to provide the best potential are:<br />
• Shredding to below about 10mm for inclusion in low grade compression-moulded <strong>products</strong><br />
• The Texyloop solvolysis process (variant of the Vinyloop process) which produces clean polyester fibres <strong>and</strong> a<br />
powdered <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
The low grade shredding option will produce a very low value recyclate but has low processing cost.<br />
The Texyloop process produces higher-value recyclates. The fibre fraction could be used direct in non-woven fabrics or<br />
recompounded to make new polyester <strong>products</strong>. The <strong>PVC</strong> compound could be used in similar ways to Vinyloop flooring<br />
recyclate. However the Texyloop process would be very expensive to build in the <strong>UK</strong> for the relatively low collectable<br />
<strong>waste</strong> volume. The Texyloop plant that is planned for Ferrari in France provides a potential future outlet for <strong>UK</strong> made up<br />
textile <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 56
8.8. Conclusions<br />
Practical recycling trials coordinated in collaboration with this study have demonstrated that good quality recyclates can<br />
be made:<br />
• For low grade rigid applications by shredding or fragmentising <strong>and</strong> metal removal in existing fridge processing<br />
facilities in the <strong>UK</strong><br />
• For low grade flexible applications by h<strong>and</strong>-sorting to remove non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> (if necessary safety<br />
flooring) followed by simple shredding<br />
• For high grade rigid applications by producing clean 3-8mm chip for direct addition alongside virgin polymers.<br />
The existing post-industrial rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers in the <strong>UK</strong> are likely to be able to develop this capability with<br />
additions to or enhancement of their existing separation facilities. Melt filtration trials for rigid <strong>PVC</strong> are under<br />
way at Hydro Polymers but results are not yet available<br />
• For high grade flexible applications by the Vinyloop process or by a combination of h<strong>and</strong> sorting, mechanical<br />
separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration. Samples of post-use flooring recyclate have been produced by both methods <strong>and</strong><br />
will be tested shortly in closed loop recylaing by 3 <strong>UK</strong> flooring manufacturers. These results will be reported by<br />
Epfloor<br />
Trials funded by a wall paper industry consortium at Brunel University have demonstrated that an interesting fibrereinforced<br />
extruded product can be made <strong>from</strong> post-industrial <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> wallpaper <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Trials during this project of methods for recycling made up textiles have demonstrated that a practical low grade<br />
recycling route is likely to be shredding for inclusion in compression moulded <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> that the Texyloop process to<br />
be built in France provides a solution for high grade recycling of made-up textile<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 57
9. Recyclate properties compared to<br />
virgin compound<br />
9.1. Method<br />
One of the principal aims of this project was to measure the key properties of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recyclates made by a range<br />
of possible recycling routes <strong>and</strong> to compare them to the equivalent virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compounds that would be used in the<br />
same applications.<br />
Much of the work carried out during this project involved laboratory testing to compare samples of recyclate obtained by<br />
different recycling processes against equivalent virgin compounds. The results of these tests are summarised <strong>and</strong><br />
assessed in this section.<br />
Two main sets of tests were performed on the high grade recyclate samples supplied by the project’s industrial<br />
collaborators:<br />
• Extrusion tests to establish the likely processability of the materials in comparison with virgin compounds<br />
• Physical property tests to establish the likely performance of the recyclates in use<br />
The Bradford team carried out much more detailed testing than is reported in this section. In particular, tests were<br />
carried out on recyclates made <strong>from</strong> other starting materials, not just windows <strong>and</strong> flooring. These results are not<br />
included in this report because it was concluded that the study should focus on the two largest collectable <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
streams in the <strong>UK</strong>: rigid windows & pipes <strong>and</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring.<br />
The full set of detailed results are available <strong>from</strong> the website established for this project by Bradford University 77 . They<br />
include results for tests on recyclates made <strong>from</strong>:<br />
• Window <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Flooring <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Pipes <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Cable <strong>waste</strong><br />
• Blister packaging<br />
• Wallpaper<br />
• Made up textiles<br />
• Automotive door strips<br />
No tests were carried out on recyclate or virgin compound <strong>from</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong> pipe or <strong>PVC</strong> supermarket collation trays<br />
because no suitable samples were submitted to Bradford University for test.<br />
Details of the measurement techniques used for the laboratory tests are provided in Appendix 3.<br />
77 www.recyclepvc.com<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 58
9.2. Rigid <strong>PVC</strong> windows<br />
This section summarises the results of tests on virgin <strong>PVC</strong> window profile compound compared with rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate<br />
made by:<br />
• Solvolysis by the Vinyloop plant at Ferrara, Italy post-use windows collected by the German window recycler,<br />
Dekura. The resin K value for this compound was stated by Solvay to be K66<br />
• Pre-use post-industrial window scrap collected <strong>and</strong> processed to 5mm chip by Anglian Windows. Resin K value<br />
for this compound is a mixture of K64 <strong>and</strong> K68<br />
• Mechanical separation of post-use windows collected <strong>from</strong> installers <strong>and</strong> processed to 5mm chips at an in-house<br />
separation facility by Anglian Windows. Resin K value for this compound is uncertain but thought to be primarily<br />
a mixture of K64 <strong>and</strong> K68.<br />
• Mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration of post-use windows collected at the Weaver Vale council housing<br />
refurbishment project in Cheshire by Dekura Ltd (a <strong>UK</strong> post-industrial window recycler). Resin K value unknown<br />
• Virgin <strong>PVC</strong> dry-blend compound as used in window extrusions, supplied by Anglian Windows. Resin K value K68<br />
9.2.1. Extrusion processing<br />
Samples were processed in laboratory scale extruders to compare their processability. The trials were repeated in both<br />
single <strong>and</strong> twin screw extruders.<br />
The windows industry typically uses twin-screw extruders but processors of recyclate for other end-use applications may<br />
use single screw machines. Single screw machines may be more sensitive to product variation so both types were<br />
tested.<br />
In practice there was no significant difference in the conclusions for the single <strong>and</strong> twin screw machines so the single<br />
screw results are presented here as they will be of interest to a greater range of potential users.<br />
The full set of results is available on the website hosted by Bradford University for this project at www.recyclepvc.com .<br />
Log Shear Viscosity<br />
4.00<br />
3.90<br />
3.80<br />
3.70<br />
3.60<br />
3.50<br />
3.40<br />
Comparison of Shear Viscosity vs Apparent Wall Shear Rate for Virgin Window<br />
Frame <strong>and</strong> Recycled <strong>Materials</strong> Processed in a Single Screw Extruder at a Die<br />
Temperature of 200C<br />
3.30<br />
1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90<br />
Log Apparent Wall Shear Rate<br />
Anglian Virgin WF Dryblend<br />
Anglian Pre-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Anglian Post-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Vinyloop WF Waste XX121 Powder<br />
Weaver Vale WF Waste Pellet<br />
Fig 9.2.1a Comparison of shear viscosity for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
The Weaver Vale melt-filtered recyclate <strong>and</strong> the Anglian Pre <strong>and</strong> Post-Use chipped recyclate materials have very similar<br />
shear viscosity behaviour to virgin Anglian dryblend.<br />
The Vinyloop material shear viscosities are somewhat lower, although still within the range of shear viscosities measured<br />
for other virgin window compounds that were measured during the trials. It may be that the German post-use window<br />
material which was used as a feed for the Vinyloop trial had a different formulation.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 59
The melt-filtered Weaver Vale material produced a good quality strip showing that much of the contamination had been<br />
removed during melt filtration.<br />
The Anglian post-Use recyclate contained occasional small pieces of silicon mastic <strong>and</strong> in one case a short section<br />
foamed, signifying the presence of a foamed <strong>PVC</strong> product with the recycled window frames.<br />
The highest quality strips were obtained <strong>from</strong> Anglian Pre-Use recyclate.<br />
Energy Input (J/kg)<br />
2.5E+06<br />
2.0E+06<br />
1.5E+06<br />
1.0E+06<br />
Comparison of Energy Input vs Mass Flow Rate for Virgin <strong>and</strong> Recycled Window<br />
Frame <strong>Materials</strong> Processed in a Single Screw Extruderat a Die Temperature of<br />
200C<br />
5.0E+05<br />
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00<br />
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)<br />
Anglian Virgin WF Dryblend<br />
Anglian Pre-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Anglian Post-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Vinyloop WF Waste XX121 Powder<br />
Weaver Vale WF Waste Pellet<br />
Fig 9.2.1b Comparison of energy input for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Over the mass flow rate range investigated both virgin <strong>and</strong> recycled window frame materials show similar behaviour,<br />
with Anglian virgin dry blend <strong>and</strong> Vinyloop recyclate XX121 being a little lower than the others. This may be because the<br />
powder form of the Vinyloop <strong>and</strong> dry blend materials requires less energy input.<br />
Divergence of the curves at higher mass flow rates is observed but trials at higher throughputs would be required to<br />
investigate further.<br />
P4 Pressure CV (%)<br />
2.50<br />
2.00<br />
1.50<br />
1.00<br />
0.50<br />
Comparison of P4 Pressure Coefficient of Variation vs Mass Flow Rate for Virgin<br />
<strong>and</strong> Recycled Window Frame <strong>Materials</strong> Processed in a Single Screw Extruder at<br />
a Die Temperature of 200C<br />
0.00<br />
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00<br />
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)<br />
Anglian Virgin WF Dryblend<br />
Anglian Pre-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Anglian Post-Use WF Waste Chipped<br />
Vinyloop WF Waste XX121 Powder<br />
Weaver Vale WF Waste Pellet<br />
Fig 9.2.1.c Comparison of melt pressure variation for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Melt pressure variation reduces at higher material mass flow rates.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 60
The Anglian post-use material has a significantly higher variation than the rest. This is to be expected considering that it<br />
contains a mixture of chipped post-use window frame materials <strong>from</strong> different manufacturers.<br />
The Vinyloop batch recovery process, by its nature, would be expected to homogenise window frame materials <strong>from</strong><br />
different manufactures <strong>and</strong> this would be expected to reduce variability in the resulting material.<br />
The Weaver Vale material has come <strong>from</strong> one big site but the original windows were <strong>from</strong> different suppliers. However<br />
Dekura Ltd (providers of the Weaver Vale material to this project) blended their Weaver Vale materials to homogenise<br />
them <strong>and</strong> reduce process variability.<br />
The Anglian pre-use recyclate is <strong>from</strong> a single source <strong>and</strong> shows low variation.<br />
9.2.2. Mechanical properties<br />
Tensile Strength (MPa)<br />
49.0<br />
48.5<br />
48.0<br />
47.5<br />
47.0<br />
46.5<br />
46.0<br />
45.5<br />
45.0<br />
44.5<br />
44.0<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.2.2a Comparison of tensile strength at yield for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Tensile strength of recyclates compared well with virgin grades indicating that melt filtration <strong>and</strong> the dissolution process<br />
produced no adverse effects on mechanical strength.<br />
The presence of contaminants in the Anglian post-use material did not appear to cause a reduction in tensile strength.<br />
All recycled materials had a tensile strength of above 45MPa, conforming to the minimum tensile strength requirement<br />
(38MPa) stated in British St<strong>and</strong>ard BS7413:2002 for window profile grades of u<strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
In all cases, yield was reached at a strain of approximately 0.1%<br />
Flexural Strength (MPa)<br />
3050<br />
3000<br />
2950<br />
2900<br />
2850<br />
2800<br />
2750<br />
2700<br />
2650<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 61
Fig 9.2.2b Comparison of flexural strength for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Flexural modulus of the recyclates compared reasonably well with virgin grades. The Anglian Windows dry blend<br />
compound had the highest flexural modulus. This is indicative of the <strong>PVC</strong> formulation being of higher K-value (molecular<br />
weight) than most commercial <strong>PVC</strong> formulations.<br />
All recycled materials had a flexural strength above that specified in BS7413:2002 (2200MPa). <strong>Materials</strong> recovered using<br />
the dissolution process had lowest flexural modulus; this may be a result of the recovery process or the <strong>waste</strong> being<br />
recovered in Germany compared to <strong>UK</strong> refurbishment sites.<br />
Melt filtration <strong>and</strong> compounding appeared to have negligible effect on the flexural strength of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the Weaver<br />
Vale refurbishment site.<br />
Impact Strength (kJ/m2)<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.2.2c Comparison of impact strength for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Significant variation was observed between impact strength measurements <strong>from</strong> the recyclates. Anglian <strong>waste</strong> had<br />
highest impact strength <strong>and</strong> dissolution recovered grades the lowest.<br />
All materials conformed to the minimum strength (12KJ/m 2 ) stated in BS7413:2002.<br />
Vicat Softening Point (°C)<br />
84<br />
83<br />
82<br />
81<br />
80<br />
79<br />
78<br />
77<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.2.2d Comparison of Vicat softening point for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Vicat softening point temperatures for all recycled grades compared well with those <strong>from</strong> virgin materials. All recyclates<br />
conformed to the stated minimum temperature of 75°C in BS7413:2002.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 62
Softening point temperatures for the Vinyloop material were significantly lower than those for mechanically separated<br />
recyclates. This may be due to the different source of <strong>waste</strong> window profile material (Dekura, Germany) rather than <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Solid Density (kg/m3)<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
1250<br />
1200<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.2.2e Comparison of solid density for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Solid densities of recycled grades were found to be very similar (around 1450 kg/m 3 ). The compounding <strong>and</strong> melt<br />
filtration process carried out on Weaver Vale post-use recyclate caused a reduction in density of 10%, probably due to<br />
additives introduced during compounding.<br />
Density tests carried out on this material using a helium pycnometer took much longer to complete than all other<br />
materials suggesting that one of the ingredients added during compounding was absorbing helium over time. <strong>Materials</strong><br />
with waxy or soapy consistencies (e.g. some processing aids) are known to cause this effect.<br />
Weld Factor (%)<br />
100.0<br />
90.0<br />
80.0<br />
70.0<br />
60.0<br />
50.0<br />
40.0<br />
30.0<br />
20.0<br />
10.0<br />
0.0<br />
Anglian Pre-use Anglian Post-use Vinyloop XX121 Weaver Vale Pellet Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.2.2f Comparison of weld factor for window recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Tests on tensile bars machined <strong>from</strong> welded sections of strip showed that tensile strength was above 75% of unwelded<br />
recyclate strength for all samples, conforming to industry st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 63
9.2.3. Colour<br />
Colour variation was not measured for these trials however all of the window recyclates tested were slightly browner<br />
than normal virgin material. This will affect their suitability for use in applications requiring a pure white finish.<br />
Colour would be less likely to be an issue for these recyclates if they are used as the core for co-extruded sections or in<br />
hidden applications such as cavity closures or underground pipes.<br />
9.2.4. Surface defects<br />
Surface defects are a major issue for high grade recycling of post-use window <strong>and</strong> pipe material. Many of the <strong>products</strong> in<br />
which high grade material might be used such as cavity closures, ducting <strong>and</strong> pipes are white <strong>and</strong> therefore surface<br />
defects are highlighted.<br />
Results of commercial scale manual surface defect measurements on post-use window recyclate at Anglian Windows <strong>and</strong><br />
comparative automated measurements at lab scale using a camera system are described in Appendix 5.<br />
It is unlikely that the window recyclates tested for this project could be used back in external parts of white windows due<br />
to the colour degradation <strong>and</strong> surface defects. However they could be used in coloured <strong>products</strong>, in sections which are<br />
hidden <strong>from</strong> view <strong>and</strong> in co-extruded profiles with a virgin polymer outer layer.<br />
9.2.5. Additives<br />
Thermal stability <strong>and</strong> heavy metal content of the window recyclates were tested by industrial collaborators in the project<br />
as described below:<br />
9.2.5.1. Thermal Stability<br />
Thermal stability tests on window recyclates were conducted for this project in the laboratories of Hydro Polymers at<br />
Newton Aycliffe.<br />
In static tests all recycled grades studied were found to have thermal stabilities comparable to virgin compounds,<br />
showing no significant degradation over a period of 2 hours.<br />
Fig 9.2.5.1 Results of static thermal stability tests on window recyclates 78<br />
78 Tests by Hydro Polymers laboratory, Newton Aycliffe<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 64
9.2.5.2. Heavy metals<br />
Samples of each recyclate were tested by X-Ray fluorescence <strong>and</strong> Inductively-Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy (ICPS) at<br />
the laboratories of Solvay in Brussels.<br />
% w/w P Cl Cd Ba Pb<br />
Anglian pre-use 0.1 47
9.3. Flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring<br />
This section summarises the results of tests on virgin <strong>PVC</strong> flooring compound compared with flexible <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate.<br />
The samples used were as follows:<br />
• Shredded pre-use calendared flooring <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> Polyflor in Manchester in the form of 5mm chip. Resin K value<br />
unknown<br />
• Shredded pre-use blown plastisol flooring <strong>waste</strong> collected in Germany <strong>and</strong> shredded to 5mm chip which was<br />
then extruded <strong>and</strong> re-granulated to 5mm chip at Bradford University in order to remove the blowing agent.<br />
Resin K value unknown<br />
• Virgin <strong>PVC</strong> flexible <strong>PVC</strong> flooring compound in powder form as used in spread-coated plastisol flooring, supplied<br />
by Marley Floors. Resin K value K70<br />
• Vinyloop recyclate made at the Solvay pilot plant in Brussels <strong>from</strong> post-use <strong>PVC</strong> flooring collected in Germany<br />
<strong>and</strong> Austria by AGPR. Resin K value stated by Solvay to be K70.<br />
9.3.1. Extrusion processing<br />
Flooring is made by plastisol spread coating or calendaring, not extrusion. However extrusion processing will give a good<br />
indication of likely processability by calendaring <strong>and</strong> also many non-flooring applications for high grade flexible recyclate<br />
will involve injection moulding or extrusion.<br />
Log Shear Viscosity<br />
4.2<br />
4<br />
3.8<br />
3.6<br />
3.4<br />
3.2<br />
3<br />
2.8<br />
Comparison of Shear Viscosity vs Apparent Wall Shear Rate for Virgin Flexible<br />
<strong>and</strong> Flooring <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recycled Flooring <strong>Materials</strong> Processed at a Die<br />
Temperature of 170C<br />
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8<br />
Log Apparent Wall Shear Rate<br />
Pre-Use Flooring Waste (Polyflor) Granulated<br />
Pre-Use Blown Flooring BA Removed (Germany) Gran.<br />
Virgin Flooring (Marley) Powder<br />
Vinyloop Flooring Waste Batch 4 Powder<br />
Fig 9.3.1a Comparison of shear viscosity for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
The recycled flooring materials show somewhat different viscosities <strong>and</strong> all have lower viscosity than the Marley virgin<br />
material. The pre-use blown flooring that has had its blowing agent removed shows the lowest viscosity of those tested.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 66
Energy Input (J/kg)<br />
8.0E+06<br />
7.0E+06<br />
6.0E+06<br />
5.0E+06<br />
4.0E+06<br />
3.0E+06<br />
2.0E+06<br />
1.0E+06<br />
Comparison of Energy Input vs Mass Flow Rate for Virgin Flexible <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Recycled Flooring Material Processed at a Die Temperature of 170C<br />
Pre-Use Flooring Waste (Polyflor) Gran.<br />
Pre-Use Blown Flooring Waste BA Removed Total Energy<br />
Virgin Flooring (Marley) Powder<br />
Vinyloop Flooring Waste Batch 4 Powder<br />
0.0E+00<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18<br />
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)<br />
Fig 9.3.1b Comparison of energy input for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
At low flow rates the post-use flooring <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> Marley requires less energy <strong>and</strong> the pre-use blown flooring <strong>waste</strong> with<br />
blowing agent removed seems to require the largest amount of energy across the full range of flow rates.<br />
P4 Coeff. of Variation (%)<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Comparison of P4 Pressure Coefficient of Variation vs Mass Flow Rate for Virgin<br />
Flexible <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recycled Flooring <strong>Materials</strong> Processed at a Die<br />
Temperature of 170C<br />
0<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18<br />
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)<br />
Pre-Use Flooring Waste (Polyflor) Gran.<br />
Pre-Use Blown Flooring Waste BA Removed<br />
Virgin Flooring (Marley) Powder<br />
Vinyloop Flooring Waste Batch 4 Powder<br />
Fig 9.3.1c Comparison of coefficient of variation for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
The absolute values of coefficient of variation for all four samples are significantly higher than for the rigid materials<br />
examined earlier.<br />
As seen in the rigid materials results the coefficient of variation tends to reduce as mass flow rate increases.<br />
Virgin <strong>and</strong> recycled flooring materials have similar behaviour at higher mass flow rates except for the Polyflor pre-use<br />
flooring <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 67
9.3.2. Mechanical properties<br />
Tensile Strength (MPa)<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Vinyloop batch 4 Pre-use Polyflor Pre-use blown vinyl Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.3.2a Comparison of tensile strength for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Tensile test data for flooring grades exhibited a wide range of tensile deformation behaviour. Data <strong>from</strong> the 5 tests<br />
carried out on each material were closely grouped suggesting that properties were consistent along the extruded strip<br />
used to provide tensile samples <strong>and</strong> providing confidence in the statistical variation of the measurement technique.<br />
Elongation at Break (%)<br />
400<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Vinyloop batch 4 Pre-use Polyflor Pre-use blown vinyl Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.3.2b Comparison of elongation at break for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 68
Solid Density (kg/m3)<br />
1800<br />
1600<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Vinyloop batch 4 Pre-use Polyflor Pre-use blown vinyl Virgin dry blend<br />
Fig 9.3.2c Comparison of solid density for flooring recyclates with virgin compound<br />
Pre-use flooring recyclates exhibited lower tensile strength <strong>and</strong> higher densities in general than Vinyloop recovered<br />
grades, suggesting a higher filler content in these formulations. The German blown flooring grade which had been<br />
extruded at high temperature (185°C) to remove the gas had highest elongation at break of all flooring recyclates. All<br />
recycled grades exhibited a higher tensile strength than the virgin dry blend flooring grade examined. High density<br />
appeared to correlate with low tensile strength for the flooring materials investigated.<br />
9.3.3. Colour<br />
Colour is an important issue for high grade flooring recyclate. Colour measurements were not made in the course of the<br />
tests at Bradford University however it was observed that all of the recyclates were brown or grey-brown in colour <strong>and</strong><br />
significantly darker than equivalent virgin materials.<br />
This means that recyclates will have to be used in highly coloured applications or as base or intermediate layers in<br />
coated <strong>products</strong> where darker colours can be introduced without affecting the aesthetic appeal of the product.<br />
9.3.4. Surface defects<br />
No surface defect measurements were made on the flooring recyclates tested.<br />
9.3.5. Additives<br />
No additive measurements were made on the flooring recyclates tested<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 69
9.4. Summary<br />
Tests of extrusion processability <strong>and</strong> physical properties were conducted on a wide range of <strong>PVC</strong> recyclates by the<br />
University of Bradford Polymer IRC <strong>and</strong> its industry collaborators.<br />
Only results of the tests on selected window <strong>and</strong> flooring recyclates are reported here. The full set of test results is<br />
available <strong>from</strong> the website created for this project 79 .<br />
For windows, the following recyclates were compared to a typical virgin compound:<br />
• Post-industrial chip prepared by mechanical separation<br />
• Post-use chip prepared by mechanical separation<br />
• Post-use Powder prepared by the Vinyloop solvolysis process<br />
• Post-use granules prepared by melt filtration<br />
For flooring, the following recyclates were compared to a typical virgin compound:<br />
• Post-use powder prepared by the Vinyloop solvolysis process<br />
• Pre-use chip <strong>from</strong> calendared flooring supplied by Polyflor<br />
• Pre-use blown vinyl flooring <strong>from</strong> Germany in chip form after pre-extrusion <strong>and</strong> chipping to remove blowing<br />
agent<br />
The results for windows <strong>and</strong> flooring demonstrate that the extrusion processing characteristics <strong>and</strong> key physical<br />
properties of the recyclates compared well with equivalent virgin compounds <strong>and</strong> in all cases exceeded the minimum<br />
performance required by the relevant industry st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
Static thermal stability of the window recyclates was good.<br />
All of the post-use window recyclates contained significant levels of lead <strong>and</strong> cadmium. Two exceeded the 100mg/Kg<br />
maximum limit set by the EU Cadmium Directive <strong>and</strong> would have to be diluted with other material for some applications.<br />
Heavy metal content was not measured for the flooring recyclates<br />
There was an observable degradation in colour for all of the recyclates. This was more significant for the flooring<br />
recyclates.<br />
Surface defects are a significant issue for both windows <strong>and</strong> flooring.<br />
Large scale trials at Anglian Windows that were carried out during this project indicate that with suitable mechanical<br />
separation techniques it should be possible to reduce surface defects to acceptable levels for use in cavity closures <strong>and</strong><br />
co-extruded sections.<br />
9.5. Conclusions<br />
The results of the laboratory tests carried out for this project indicate that both the Vinyloop solvolysis process <strong>and</strong><br />
advanced mechanical separation methods have the potential to produce acceptable quality high grade recyclates <strong>from</strong><br />
post-use window <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
The tests also indicate that the Vinyloop process has the potential to produce acceptable quality high grade recyclate<br />
<strong>from</strong> post-use flooring although this flooring will be significantly coloured.<br />
The heavy metal content of post-use window <strong>waste</strong> will have to be monitored to ensure that it does not exceed EU<br />
regulatory limits in certain applications. The heavy metal content of flooring recyclate was not checked but should be<br />
tested in future.<br />
79 www.recyclepvc.com<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 70
10. Comparison of commercial<br />
potential for recycling options<br />
This section of the report compares the costs <strong>and</strong> likely revenues for the alternative recycling options for post-use<br />
windows <strong>and</strong> flooring.<br />
10.1. Method<br />
Financial business models for processes operating at a throughput of just over 10,000te/yr were constructed by Axion<br />
Recycling Ltd for the BPF/ Vinyl 2010 business planning project that proceeded in parallel with this project.<br />
The models for the Vinyloop process were validated in detail by Solvay <strong>and</strong> also used capital cost information prepared<br />
for the BPF/ Vinyl 2010 project by Jacobs Engineering Ltd.<br />
Similar assumptions to those used for the Vinyloop process were used in the comparative models for the feedstock<br />
recycling, mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration process options. The results of Axion’s work were released to this<br />
project by the BPF, Vinyl 2010 <strong>and</strong> Solvay <strong>and</strong> are reviewed <strong>and</strong> assessed here.<br />
10.2. Collection <strong>and</strong> sorting<br />
It is assumed that material is collected in skips placed at the depots of larger flooring, window <strong>and</strong> pipe installers, trade<br />
<strong>waste</strong> sites, construction <strong>waste</strong> MRFs <strong>and</strong> larger refurbishment sites as described in Section 6.<br />
For this analysis it is assumed that commercial <strong>waste</strong> management companies will be contracted to collect <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the various sources identified in Section 6 <strong>and</strong> that they would also be contracted to do the initial sorting of<br />
the feed material.<br />
In each of the scenarios considered below it is assumed that to persuade the originators of the <strong>waste</strong> to segregate their<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> it will not be possible to charge a collection fee for the skips in which the <strong>PVC</strong> is collected.<br />
Provision <strong>and</strong> collection of general <strong>waste</strong> skips costs around £30-50/te in most parts of the <strong>UK</strong> so this is the effective<br />
disposal cost discount that is assumed to be required in order to persuade people to take the trouble to segregate <strong>PVC</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 71
10.3. Feedstock recycling<br />
The most practical available feedstock recycling option for <strong>UK</strong> industry is expected to be the Stigsnaes plant being<br />
developed by RGS90 in Denmark. See section 7.4.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> the <strong>UK</strong> could in principle be exported to Denmark for recycling there until collection volumes grow<br />
to the point where a plant in the <strong>UK</strong> could be justified.<br />
The net gate fee required by RGS90 in Denmark is £140/te (€180/te), to which must be added collection <strong>and</strong> transport<br />
costs as estimated below:<br />
Disposal fee paid by <strong>waste</strong> originator 0<br />
£/te<br />
Initial skip hire <strong>and</strong> collection cost 45<br />
Bulking up <strong>and</strong> shredding cost 30<br />
Bulk transport to Denmark 40<br />
RGS90 gate fee 140<br />
TOTAL 255<br />
The collection <strong>and</strong> transport costs shown above are at the low end of the possible range <strong>and</strong> assume that large volumes<br />
of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> (10,000te/yr+) are processed at Stigsnaes by this route<br />
Every tonne of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recycled by this route would therefore cost the <strong>UK</strong> industry at least £255/te. This equates<br />
to a continuing subsidy of £5.1 million/year to process the industry target of 20,000te/yr by 2010. This is not competitive<br />
with the projected <strong>UK</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill cost of £45/te for construction <strong>waste</strong>, particularly when the l<strong>and</strong>fill disposal cost is not<br />
borne by the <strong>PVC</strong> industry but by the originators of the <strong>waste</strong>. It is unlikely that the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> industry would be prepared<br />
to pay an on-going subsidy of as much as £255/te.<br />
The other feedstock recycling option available in Europe, the Dow Schopau process, will be more expensive because it<br />
requires a higher gate fee of €250/te, equivalent to £170/te, to which must be added collection <strong>and</strong> logistics costs as for<br />
Stigsnaes.<br />
However if the <strong>PVC</strong> industry wishes to recycle <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> by this route in order to fulfil the Vinyl 2010 commitment it<br />
provides a simple solution with no requirement for complex sorting <strong>and</strong> which avoids the return of legacy additives to<br />
the recycle stream.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 72
10.4. Vinyloop Solvolysis<br />
Vinyloop operating costs <strong>and</strong> yields are similar for windows, pipes, flooring <strong>and</strong> cable <strong>waste</strong> so this analysis compares a<br />
generic Vinyloop plant of 12,000te/yr output capacity (13,000te/yr input) with the alternative recycling options.<br />
12,000te/yr capacity was chosen because this is the output of a st<strong>and</strong>ard Vinyloop production line <strong>and</strong> roughly matches<br />
the potential collectable volume of either windows or flooring. Solvay prefers to design the process with separate lines to<br />
process different <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> types because there are small but important differences in the way in which different <strong>waste</strong><br />
streams are processed. However capital <strong>and</strong> operating costs for the solvolysis plant will be similar in each case.<br />
Detailed financial projections <strong>and</strong> a capital cost estimate were prepared for a Vinyloop plant with 12,000te/yr output by<br />
Axion Recycling, working with Solvay as part of the <strong>PVC</strong> recycling business planning project funded by Vinyl2010 through<br />
the BPF during 2003.<br />
Key assumptions used as the basis for these projections were:<br />
• The plant would be built on an existing chemical processing site in the North West of the <strong>UK</strong>. This would reduce<br />
capital costs as existing infrastructure could be used. Three potential host sites were identified <strong>and</strong> compared.<br />
The rental <strong>and</strong> utility costs for the least expensive site were used as a basis for the projections<br />
• Average recyclate selling price was assumed to be £490/te. This is similar to the cost of <strong>PVC</strong> virgin compound<br />
for the applications in which the recyclate would be used.<br />
• The plant would build up to full capacity over a period of 1 year <strong>from</strong> start-up. This assumes that collection<br />
infrastructure could be built up in preparation for plant start-up with the collected <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> going to other<br />
lower grade applications until the plant was commissioned.<br />
• Collection system yield of 90%. This implies that 10% of the collected feed material would be removed at the<br />
sorting stage (removing non-<strong>PVC</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> safety flooring). The model therefore assumes that 15,000te of<br />
collected material would yield 13,500te of feed material for the Vinyloop plant.<br />
• Vinyloop process yield of 90%. The 13,500te of feed to the Vinyloop plant yield 12,000te of final high grade<br />
recyclate. This implies an overall yield of 80% (total collection volume of 15,000te/yr to produce 12,000te/yr of<br />
final product).<br />
• Capital cost on the serviced site of £12.7million (estimated by Solvay)<br />
With these assumptions the business would have the following approximate cost structure at full output. Note that costs<br />
are estimated per tonne collected, not per tonne of final recyclate:<br />
£/te<br />
feed<br />
Disposal fee paid by <strong>waste</strong> originator 0<br />
Initial skip hire <strong>and</strong> collection 45<br />
Sorting to remove safety flooring <strong>and</strong> bulking up 60<br />
Bulk transport to Vinyloop plant 15<br />
Processing costs including overheads <strong>and</strong> royalties but excluding<br />
depreciation (adjusted for 80% overall yield)<br />
Product delivery to end-users 12<br />
Total production cost 291<br />
10% depreciation on capital investment of £12.7million 85<br />
Interest charges assuming 30% debt funding 15<br />
Offset by product revenue (£490/te adjusted for 80% overall yield) 392<br />
Approx net loss -1<br />
In order to generate a project IRR of 5% after subsidies the business would require a 35% capital subsidy <strong>and</strong> an<br />
ongoing collection <strong>and</strong> sorting cost subsidy of £100/te of feed. The IRR is negative without a collection subsidy. It is<br />
unlikely that a 35% investment subsidy (£4.5m) or an ongoing collection subsidy of £100/te would be available in the <strong>UK</strong><br />
for a project of this type.<br />
Commercial potential of the process is influenced by scale. Capital <strong>and</strong> overhead cost for chemical process plant does<br />
not increase in direct proportion to throughput so a larger plant could spread its overheads over more tonnes of output.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 73<br />
159
However the total collectable volume of the target <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams is limited <strong>and</strong> Vinyloop is a batch process, limited<br />
by the maximum vessel size for some of the intermediate operations. This means that economies of scale are not as<br />
great as for a fully continuous process.<br />
Total processing cost for a recycling system for post-use windows using Vinyloop would be about £50/te higher than for<br />
flooring due to the higher costs of collecting <strong>and</strong> preparing windows. See analysis in next section for a breakdown of the<br />
costs for collecting <strong>and</strong> pre-processing windows.<br />
10.5. Mechanical separation<br />
Two alternative high grade mechanical separation scenarios are considered for this study:<br />
• Mechanical separation for windows<br />
• Melt filtration for flooring<br />
Other options such as melt filtration for windows <strong>and</strong> mechanical separation alone for flooring were not considered as<br />
separate scenarios because the practical trials <strong>and</strong> laboratory testing recorded earlier in this report concluded that<br />
adequate results can be achieved for windows without the extra expense of melt filtration but that melt filtration would<br />
be required for flooring in order to achieve reasonable quality recyclates.<br />
High grade mechanical separation for windows<br />
Projections for a new mechanical separation plant on an existing site with the same capacity as the Vinyloop option<br />
assessed above indicate a capital cost of maximum £5m (this estimate is not based on a comprehensive cost<br />
breakdown) <strong>and</strong> an operating cost excluding depreciation of £101/te of output (£81/te feed). The overall costs would<br />
build up as follows:<br />
£/te feed<br />
Disposal fee paid by <strong>waste</strong> originator 0<br />
Initial skip hire <strong>and</strong> collection 45<br />
Deglazing <strong>and</strong> frame breaking 55<br />
Bulk transport to separation plant 15<br />
Fragmentation <strong>and</strong> metal removal 54<br />
Processing costs including overheads <strong>and</strong> royalties but excluding depreciation 81<br />
Delivery to end-users 12<br />
Total production cost 262<br />
10% depreciation on capital investment of £5 million 33<br />
Interest charges assuming 30% debt funding 6<br />
Offset by product revenue (£490/te adjusted for 80% overall yield) 392<br />
Approx net profit before tax 91<br />
Windows require a deglazing <strong>and</strong> frame-breaking step in place of the sorting process required for flooring <strong>and</strong> they also<br />
require fragmentation <strong>and</strong> metal removal prior to further processing.<br />
Assuming the same selling price <strong>and</strong> production buildup as the Vinyloop option this analysis indicates that a mechanical<br />
separation business for post-use windows should require no capital subsidy <strong>and</strong> no ongoing collection subsidy. It is<br />
projected to generate a 17% project IRR, provided it can sell high grade recyclate at £490/te <strong>and</strong> achieve good process<br />
yields .<br />
High grade melt filtration for flooring<br />
Projections for a new melt filtration plant on an existing site with the same capacity as the Vinyloop option assessed<br />
above indicate a capital cost of maximum £7m (note that this is not a comprehensive capital cost estimate) <strong>and</strong> an<br />
operating cost excluding depreciation of £118/te of output (£95/te of feed). The costs build up as follows:<br />
£/te feed<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 74
Disposal fee paid by <strong>waste</strong> originator 0<br />
Initial skip hire <strong>and</strong> collection 45<br />
Sorting to remove safety flooring <strong>and</strong> bulking up 60<br />
Bulk transport to processing plant 15<br />
Processing costs including overheads but excluding depreciation 95<br />
Delivery to end-users 13<br />
Total production cost 228<br />
10% depreciation on capital investment of £7million 52<br />
Interest charges assuming 30% debt funding 7<br />
Offset by product revenue (£490/te adjusted for 80% overall yield) 392<br />
Approx net profit before tax 105<br />
Assuming the same selling price <strong>and</strong> production buildup as the Vinyloop option the business would require no capital<br />
subsidy <strong>and</strong> no ongoing subsidy after collection <strong>and</strong> sorting costs to provide a project IRR of 19%.<br />
The economics appear to be slightly better for melt filtration of flooring than for mechanical separation of windows<br />
despite the fact that melt filtration uses an expensive extrusion step because it is assumed in this analysis that the costs<br />
of collection <strong>and</strong> pre-processing are significantly higher for windows than for flooring <strong>and</strong> that the overall yield of both<br />
windows <strong>and</strong> flooring will be about 80%.<br />
This is a theoretical estimate only. There are a number of reasons why post-use flooring may be less commercially<br />
attractive to process by mechanical separation techniques than post-use windows:<br />
• Process yield for flooring at both the sorting stage <strong>and</strong> the processing stage may be significantly worse than for<br />
windows.<br />
• The suitability of melt filtered recyclate <strong>from</strong> post-use flooring for high grade use is not yet proven<br />
Techniplasper, the company that is conducting a melt filtration trial for Epfloor, has suggested a considerably higher<br />
processing cost/te than the estimate provided by Axion Recycling Ltd. This may be because Techniplasper assumes<br />
lower levels of throughput as a basis for their quoted costs or because Axion has not identified all of the true costs.<br />
10.6. Summary<br />
Process<br />
option<br />
(capacity<br />
11,000te/yr<br />
recyclate)<br />
Feedstock<br />
Recycling<br />
Vinyloop<br />
solvolysis<br />
for flooring<br />
Vinyloop<br />
solvolysis<br />
for windows<br />
High grade<br />
mechanical<br />
separation<br />
for windows<br />
Capital<br />
cost<br />
£m<br />
Plant<br />
operatin<br />
g cost<br />
excludin<br />
g<br />
collectio<br />
n<br />
£/te<br />
feed<br />
Operating<br />
cost<br />
including<br />
collection<br />
£/te feed<br />
Product<br />
revenue<br />
£/te<br />
feed<br />
Capital<br />
subsidy<br />
require<br />
d<br />
£m<br />
Ongoing<br />
collection<br />
fee<br />
subsidy<br />
required<br />
£/te feed<br />
- 140 255 - - 255 -<br />
13 159 291 392 4.5 100 5%<br />
13 159 341 392 4.5 150 5%<br />
Project<br />
IRR<br />
5 81 262 392 - - 17%<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 75<br />
%
High grade<br />
melt<br />
filtration for<br />
flooring<br />
7 95 228 392 - - 19%<br />
Note that the high grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate selling prices assumed in this analysis are not currently achievable in the <strong>UK</strong>. It is<br />
assumed that once a <strong>UK</strong>-wide <strong>PVC</strong> recycling system is established then <strong>PVC</strong> end-users will be prepared to pay prices for<br />
high grade recyclate that are close to the price of virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound in order to satisfy their <strong>PVC</strong> recycling targets.<br />
10.7. Possible <strong>PVC</strong> recycling business plan for the <strong>UK</strong><br />
A working group <strong>from</strong> the <strong>PVC</strong> industry co-ordinated by the BPF <strong>and</strong> funded by Vinyl 2010 has been working in parallel<br />
with this project to develop a <strong>PVC</strong> recycling business plan for the <strong>UK</strong>. The business planning work has been conducted<br />
by Axion Recycling Ltd.<br />
The proposal developed by the group is for an industry-led clearing house company which will contract collections of<br />
post-use <strong>PVC</strong> flooring, windows <strong>and</strong> pipes <strong>and</strong> then arrange for this material to be recycled by existing processors to a<br />
mixture of high grade <strong>and</strong> low grade recyclates for use in long life applications.<br />
Under this proposal dem<strong>and</strong> for the high grade recyclates would be created by the major window, pipe <strong>and</strong> flooring<br />
companies operating in the <strong>UK</strong>. They would commit to purchase high grade recyclate <strong>from</strong> the clearing house at prices<br />
close to virgin compound for use in their own <strong>products</strong>. The margin earned by the clearing house on these high grade<br />
sales would fund the collection <strong>and</strong> reprocessing operations.<br />
A summary of this proposal is attached at Appendix 5. It should be emphasised that this is only a proposal <strong>and</strong> has not<br />
been adopted by the industry. Consultations are under way with key industry groups.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 76
10.8. Conclusions<br />
Feedstock recycling is not an economically attractive option for recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong> unless the use of<br />
mechanical recyclates containing ‘legacy’ additives is deemed unacceptable in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
There are several compression moulders <strong>and</strong> extrusion companies in the <strong>UK</strong> with the capacity take substantial tonnages<br />
of both rigid <strong>and</strong> flexible low grade recyclate. They are expected to be prepared to pay prices in the range £0-70/te for<br />
the recyclate.<br />
Mechanical separation to produce clean 5mm chip for re-extrusion is likely to be the best economic option for high grade<br />
window <strong>and</strong> pipe recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>. If it can be cleaned to a high enough level of purity to substitute virgin polymer in<br />
new <strong>products</strong> then this material should be at least as valuable as post-industrial recyclate at about £350/te.<br />
If the <strong>PVC</strong> industry commits itself fully to the Vinyl 2010 recycling targets then end users like the window <strong>and</strong> pipe<br />
companies may be able to justify paying up to the full price of virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound (approx £500/te) in order to satisfy<br />
their recycling commitment, provided the high grade recyclate can be used to replace virgin polymer.<br />
There are already several <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers in the <strong>UK</strong> with the capability to develop their operations to process rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
<strong>from</strong> post-use windows <strong>and</strong> pipes given suitable commercial incentives.<br />
Either the Solvay Vinyloop solvolysis process or mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt filtration as proposed by Techniplasper<br />
in Spain is likely to be the best economic option for high grade flooring recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
As for windows, <strong>PVC</strong> end users such as the flooring companies may be able to justify paying up to £500/te for these<br />
high grade recyclates if they can be used to substitute virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound in new <strong>products</strong>.<br />
At this stage it is unlikely that construction of a new st<strong>and</strong>-alone Vinyloop or melt filtration plant for high grade recycling<br />
of flooring will be commercially viable in the <strong>UK</strong> because collection volumes are currently too low <strong>and</strong> the competing<br />
disposal route of l<strong>and</strong>fill is so cheap. However it may be viable for the <strong>UK</strong> to send material for contract processing at any<br />
facility which is developed elsewhere in Europe.<br />
It may also be possible for existing extruders <strong>and</strong> compounders in the <strong>UK</strong> to collaborate with rigid <strong>PVC</strong> recyclers on<br />
mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> add melt filtration capacity to their own operations at much lower cost than building a new<br />
plant.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill is by far the cheapest <strong>and</strong> simplest option for disposal of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> in the <strong>UK</strong> at present. Special economic<br />
incentives will have to be put in place if recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> is to grow in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
An industry group, co-ordinated by the BPF has developed an outline business plan for a <strong>PVC</strong> Clearing House system.<br />
The aim of this proposal would be to initiate greater recycling of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> through a market-based mechanism. This<br />
would require end-users to commit to purchase high grade recyclates at prices close to the cost of virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
in order to cover the costs of collection, sorting <strong>and</strong> reprocessing of the post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> stream.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 77
11. Life cycle analysis for the recycling<br />
options<br />
11.1. Objective<br />
Section 10 of this report compares the commercial potential of the alternative recycling options. However it is also<br />
important to compare the environmental impact of the alternative disposal solutions for <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Commercial evaluations can be distorted by political or short term economic factors such as taxation arrangements<br />
which favour particular disposal routes. Environmental impact assessments often provide a more effective long term<br />
indication for policy makers of the relative attractiveness of alternative recycling options.<br />
For this project it was decided to compare the environmental impact of the alternative recycling options by means of life<br />
cycle analysis.<br />
This method of analysis compares the environmental impacts of each of the alternative recycling or disposal options for<br />
a set of 5 environmental impact categories <strong>and</strong> then compares these to the environmental impacts avoided by using the<br />
recyclate produced to substitute other materials.<br />
For this study the substituted materials were assumed to be crude oil in the case of feedstock recycling, virgin <strong>PVC</strong><br />
compound in the case of high grade recyclate <strong>and</strong> concrete in the case of low grade recyclate (with the further<br />
assumption that 1Kg of low grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate substitutes 3Kg of concrete in similar end-uses due to the density<br />
difference between the two materials).<br />
11.2. Method<br />
PE Europe, a specialist consultancy based at Stuttgart was engaged by Bradford University Polymer IRC to conduct this<br />
work.<br />
The impact assessment is based on methods <strong>and</strong> data compiled by the Centre of Environmental Science of Leiden<br />
University (CML), Netherl<strong>and</strong>s. The analysis procedures used followed the ISO 14040 st<strong>and</strong>ard.<br />
The study compared the environmental impact of four scenarios for disposal or recycling of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>rich</strong> <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong><br />
windows <strong>and</strong> flooring<br />
The four scenarios considered were:<br />
• L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
• Mechanical separation<br />
• The Vinyloop solvolysis process<br />
• Feedstock recycling using the RGS90 Stigsnaes process<br />
The following categories of environmental impact were assessed for each scenario:<br />
• Primary energy consumption (non renewable sources)<br />
measures the depletion of non renewable, energy providing resources, such as coal, crude oil, natural gas or<br />
uranium in Megajoules of energy<br />
• Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 years)<br />
measures the global effect of CO2 <strong>and</strong> CH 4 emissions in Kg CO2 equivalent<br />
• Acidification Potential (AP)<br />
measures the local effect of acid rain in Kg SO2 equivalent.<br />
• Eutrophication Potential (EP)<br />
is measured in Kg phosphate equivalent; EP is mainly caused by phosphate emissions.<br />
• Photochemical oxidant creation potential (POCP)<br />
measures the local effect of summer smog in Kg ethane emissions; POCP is mainly caused by hydrocarbon (HC)<br />
emissions.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 78
Toxicity potentials <strong>and</strong> ozone depletion potential were not analysed in this study<br />
Ozone Depletion Potential was not assessed because it was assumed by PE Europe that it would not play a significant<br />
role in this context since the quantities are all trace emissions <strong>and</strong> are wholly related to background processes of energy<br />
conversion. Therefore these emissions cannot be influenced by the stakeholders of the main process chain under study.<br />
Toxicity potential was not assessed because the toxicity models which are used in LCAs are still under development. The<br />
toxicity factors are extremely sensitive to the chosen toxicity model. Toxicity potential is not therefore recommended by<br />
PE Europe as a measure for reliable decision support.<br />
To ensure consistency between the commercial <strong>and</strong> economic evaluations, the Life Cycle analysis used similar recycling<br />
mass balance <strong>and</strong> transport assumptions to those used as the basis for the evaluation of the <strong>UK</strong> recycling business plan<br />
described in Section 10.6.<br />
11.3. Assumptions<br />
System boundaries were defined to include the collection <strong>and</strong> recycling processes but excluded the process of creating<br />
the <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
It was assumed that creation of the <strong>waste</strong> is inevitable (i.e that re-use or extension of life is not an option) <strong>and</strong> that the<br />
environmental impacts of final product manufacture using virgin compound or recyclate were equal.<br />
For window <strong>waste</strong> it was assumed that the potential disposal options include:<br />
• L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting, then size reduction, metal removal <strong>and</strong> mechanical separation to produce a mixture of high <strong>and</strong><br />
low grade recyclates<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting, then size reduction, metal removal <strong>and</strong> the Vinyloop solvolysis process to produce a mixture of<br />
high <strong>and</strong> low grade recyclates<br />
Feedstock recycling was not considered as an option for windows because it was considered that the alternative disposal<br />
options are likely to be so competitive that feedstock recycling would not be necessary in the <strong>UK</strong>.<br />
Two mass balance scenarios were also considered for both the mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> Vinyloop options:<br />
• Product output of 50% high grade recyclate, 50% low grade recyclate<br />
• Product output of 90% high grade recyclate, 10% low grade recyclate<br />
The aim of these scenarios was to test the relative environmental impacts of recycling to low <strong>and</strong> high grade <strong>products</strong>.<br />
The processes for making low grade recyclates create less environmental impact than high grade processes but they<br />
substitute virgin <strong>products</strong> such as concrete which may also have less environmental impact. For reference, the<br />
comparisons of commercial potential for the alternative process options are made with the assumption that the output of<br />
the recycling system will be 80% high grade recyclate,10% low grade recyclate <strong>and</strong> 10% <strong>waste</strong> to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
Location of demolition<br />
Mechanical Recycling Vinyloop<br />
Low grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
High grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Windows <strong>waste</strong><br />
Collection Points<br />
High grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Background processes<br />
Production of<br />
utilities<br />
Production of<br />
external energy<br />
Transports<br />
System boundary<br />
Figure 11.3a: System overview of the End of Life options for <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> window <strong>waste</strong><br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 79
A st<strong>and</strong>ard composition was assumed for the window <strong>waste</strong> supplied to the system boundary based on discussions with<br />
the project’s industry collaborators:<br />
other metals<br />
3,6%<br />
steel<br />
4,5%<br />
Material Composition of Windows <strong>PVC</strong> Composition of Windows<br />
other plastics rubber<br />
3,5% 3,0%<br />
mineral materials<br />
0,4%<br />
glass<br />
43,3%<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
compound<br />
41,7%<br />
S-<strong>PVC</strong><br />
33,8%<br />
Paraffins<br />
0,4%<br />
Figure 11.3b: Assumed window <strong>waste</strong> composition<br />
For flooring <strong>waste</strong> it was assumed that the potential disposal options include:<br />
Impact resistant<br />
modifier (MMA)<br />
2,5%<br />
Stabiliser (PbP(OH)3<br />
1,3%<br />
Fillers (chalk)<br />
2,3%<br />
Pigments (TiO2)<br />
1,5%<br />
• L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting, then size reduction, metal removal <strong>and</strong> mechanical separation to produce a mixture of high <strong>and</strong><br />
low grade recyclates<br />
• H<strong>and</strong> sorting, then size reduction, metal removal <strong>and</strong> the Vinyloop solvolysis process to produce a mixture of<br />
high <strong>and</strong> low grade recyclates<br />
• The RGS90 feedstock recycling process<br />
Feedstock recycling was considered as an option in this case because the economic analysis indicated that the<br />
alternative disposal options may not be so competitive.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
Location of demolition<br />
Mechanical Recycling Vinyloop<br />
Low grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
High grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Flooring <strong>waste</strong><br />
Collection Points<br />
High grade<br />
secondary<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Production of<br />
utilities<br />
Background processes<br />
Transports<br />
Production of<br />
external energy<br />
RGS 90 Plant<br />
Oil product, s<strong>and</strong><br />
blast product, salt<br />
product<br />
System boundary<br />
Figure 11.3c: System overview of the End of Life options for <strong>PVC</strong>-<strong>rich</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong><br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 80
The graphs shown in sections 11.4 <strong>and</strong> 11.5 below compare the environmental impact of the four disposal scenarios<br />
considered for post-use windows in terms of the five impact categories chosen for the analysis. These categories are:<br />
• Primary energy consumption (PE)<br />
• Global warming potential (GWP)<br />
• Acicification potential (AP)<br />
• Eutrophication potential (EP)<br />
• Photochemical oxidation potential (POCP)<br />
The columns on the left in the graph for each impact category show the environmental burdens imposed by the recycling<br />
process options as positive values. The columns on the right show the potential environmental credit to be gained by<br />
using the recyclate to substitute virgin polymer (with high grade recyclate) or concrete (with low grade recyclate) as<br />
negative values.<br />
11.4. Results – windows<br />
5000<br />
0<br />
-5000<br />
-10000<br />
-15000<br />
-20000<br />
Comparison of scenarios for PE (MJ)<br />
MJ 181 1703 1962 4159 6378<br />
10000<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
0 -10816 -18931 -11116 -19410<br />
Comparison of scenarios for GWP<br />
kg CO2-equiv 13 95 110 239 368<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
-200<br />
-400<br />
-600<br />
-800<br />
-1000<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
0 -492 -790 -505 -809<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
burdens<br />
PE (MJ)<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
PE (MJ)<br />
burdens<br />
GWP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
GWP<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 81
Comparison of scenarios for AP<br />
kg SO2-equiv 0.099 1.15 1.32 1.63 2.20<br />
2.5<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
1<br />
0.5<br />
0<br />
-0.5<br />
-1<br />
-1.5<br />
-2<br />
-2.5<br />
-3<br />
0.15<br />
0.1<br />
0.05<br />
0<br />
-0.05<br />
-0.1<br />
-0.15<br />
-0.2<br />
-0.25<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
0 -1.37 -2.26 -1.41 -2.31<br />
Comparison of scenarios for EP<br />
kg phosphate-equiv<br />
0.015 0.060 0.069 0.11 0.16<br />
0.2<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
0 -0.12 -0.19 -0.13 -0.20<br />
Comparison of scenarios for POCP<br />
kg ethene-equiv<br />
0.027 0.036 0.042 0.058 0.081<br />
0.2<br />
0.1<br />
0<br />
-0.1<br />
-0.2<br />
-0.3<br />
-0.4<br />
-0.5<br />
-0.6<br />
-0.7<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
0 -0.36 -0.63 -0.37 -0.65<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
burdens<br />
AP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
AP<br />
burdens<br />
EP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
EP<br />
burdens<br />
POCP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
POCP<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 82
The results shown above demonstrate that in terms of all the potential environmental impact categories L<strong>and</strong>fill is by far<br />
the worst disposal solution for post-use <strong>PVC</strong> windows.<br />
Feedstock recycling has net positive environmental impact but not as great as mechanical separation or the Vinyloop<br />
process<br />
The conclusion is also consistent across all impact categories that mechanical separation with melt fltration is the lowest<br />
impact option provided that it can achieve a similar ratio of high grade to low grade material as the Vinyloop process<br />
(which is the second lowest impact option across all categories).<br />
A further interesting conclusion of the analysis is that there is little net additional environmental impact if only 50% of<br />
the material is converted to high grade recyclate while 50% is converted to low grade recyclate, substituting concrete.<br />
This is because the environmental impact of the process for making low grade recyclate is much lower than either high<br />
grade mechanical separation or Vinyloop. This compensates for the smaller environmental benefit <strong>from</strong> substituting<br />
concrete.<br />
Breakdown of environmental impacts – primary energy category – 50:50 mass balance<br />
The two graphs below compare the breakdown of the environmental impacts for mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> the Vinyloop<br />
process for windows in terms of the Primary energy impact category only. The mass balance scenario in this case is the<br />
one where 50% of the material is used to make low grade recyclate (with 1/3 substituting concrete at 1:1 weight ratio<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2/3 substituting concrete at 1:3 weight ratio) <strong>and</strong> 50% of the material is used to make high grade recyclate.<br />
MJ 1703<br />
6000<br />
4000<br />
2000<br />
0<br />
-2000<br />
-4000<br />
-6000<br />
-8000<br />
-10000<br />
-12000<br />
MJ 4159<br />
6000<br />
4000<br />
2000<br />
0<br />
-2000<br />
-4000<br />
-6000<br />
-8000<br />
-10000<br />
-12000<br />
Windows mech. recycling: PE (MJ)<br />
PE (MJ) PE (MJ)<br />
-10816<br />
PE (MJ) PE (MJ)<br />
Windows Vinyloop: PE (MJ)<br />
-11116<br />
Potential credits for concrete (3:1)<br />
Potential credits for concrete (1:1)<br />
Potential credits for <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
High grade <strong>PVC</strong> recycling plant<br />
Transport to <strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> recycling plant<br />
Low grade <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Collection point<br />
Transport demolition to collection<br />
Potential credits for concrete (3:1)<br />
Potential credits for concrete (1:1)<br />
Potential credits for <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
Vinyloop plant<br />
Transport to <strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> recycling plant<br />
Low grade <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Collection point<br />
Transport demolition to collection<br />
This analysis demonstrates that the Vinyloop process has considerably more primary energy impact than mechanical<br />
separation for windows. Transport of the recyclate has little environmental impact compared to the other steps of the<br />
process but the process of collecting, breaking <strong>and</strong> shredding the windows has substantial primary energy environmental<br />
impact. By far the greatest proportion of the environmental benefit comes <strong>from</strong> substituting virgin <strong>PVC</strong> compound with<br />
high grade recyclate. The environmental benefit of substituting concrete with low grade recyclate is relatively small.<br />
The conclusions for the 90:10 mass balance scenario are very similar.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 83
11.5. Results – flooring<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
0<br />
-5000<br />
-10000<br />
-15000<br />
-20000<br />
-25000<br />
Comparison of scenarios for PE (MJ)<br />
MJ 165 2227 2937 6317 10301 2776<br />
15000<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
-200<br />
-400<br />
-600<br />
-800<br />
-1000<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
RGS90<br />
0 -12047 -20732 -12611 -21747 -6997<br />
Comparison of scenarios for GWP<br />
kg CO2-equiv 303 211 256 446 677 386<br />
800<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
0 -571 -852 -593 -893 -72<br />
Comparison of scenarios for AP<br />
kg SO2-equiv 0.092 1.5 1.98 2.18 3.21 1.24<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
-1<br />
-2<br />
-3<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
0 -1.39 -2.13 -1.45 -2.23 -0.74<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
RGS90<br />
RGS90<br />
burdens<br />
GWP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
GWP<br />
burdens<br />
PE (MJ)<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
PE (MJ)<br />
burdens<br />
AP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
AP<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 84
Comparison of scenarios for EP<br />
kg phosphate-equiv<br />
0.013 0.083 0.11 0.16 0.25 0.12<br />
0.3<br />
0.2<br />
0.1<br />
0<br />
-0.1<br />
-0.2<br />
-0.3<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
0 -0.14 -0.20 -0.15 -0.21 -0.07<br />
Comparison of scenarios for POCP<br />
kg ethene-equiv<br />
0.10 0.075 0.087 0.11 0.15 0.14<br />
0.2<br />
0<br />
-0.2<br />
-0.4<br />
-0.6<br />
-0.8<br />
-1<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
mech. recycling worst<br />
(50:50)<br />
mech. recycling best<br />
(10:90)<br />
Vinyloop worst (50:50)<br />
0 -0.42 -0.73 -0.44 -0.76 -0.58<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
Vinyloop best (10:90)<br />
RGS90<br />
RGS90<br />
burdens<br />
EP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
EP<br />
burdens<br />
POCP<br />
potential<br />
credits<br />
POCP<br />
As for windows, these results demonstrate that in terms of all the potential environmental impact categories L<strong>and</strong>fill is<br />
by far the worst disposal solution for post-use <strong>PVC</strong> flooring.<br />
The conclusion is also consistent across all impact categories that mechanical separation with melt filtration is the lowest<br />
impact option provided that it can achieve a similar ratio of high grade to low grade material as the Vinyloop process<br />
(which is the second lowest impact option across all categories).<br />
This is not yet proven by large scale practical trials. If further trials demonstrate that mechanical separation <strong>and</strong> melt<br />
filtration achieves a lower yield of high grade recyclate then Vinyloop may provide the lowest impact option.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 85
Breakdown of environmental impacts – primary energy category – 50:50 mass balance<br />
As in the previous section the two graphs below compare the breakdown of the environmental impacts for mechanical<br />
separation <strong>and</strong> the Vinyloop process for flooring in terms of the Primary energy impact category only. The mass balance<br />
scenario in this case is the one where 50% of the material is used to make low grade recyclate (with 1/3 substituting<br />
concrete at 1:1 weight ratio <strong>and</strong> 2/3 substituting concrete at 1:3 weight ratio) <strong>and</strong> 50% of the material is used to make<br />
high grade recyclate.<br />
MJ 2227<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
0<br />
-5000<br />
-10000<br />
-15000<br />
MJ 6317<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
0<br />
-5000<br />
-10000<br />
-15000<br />
Floors mech. recycling: PE (MJ)<br />
PE (MJ) PE (MJ)<br />
-12047<br />
PE (MJ) PE (MJ)<br />
Floors Vinyloop: PE (MJ)<br />
-12611<br />
Potential credits for concrete (3:1)<br />
Potential credits for concrete (1:1)<br />
Potential credits for <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
High grade <strong>PVC</strong> recycling plant<br />
Transport to <strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> recycling plant<br />
Low grade <strong>PVC</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill safety floors<br />
Collection point<br />
Transport demolition to collection<br />
Potential credits for concrete (3:1)<br />
Potential credits for concrete (1:1)<br />
Potential credits for <strong>PVC</strong> compound<br />
Vinyloop plant<br />
Transport to <strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> Vinyloop plant<br />
Low grade <strong>PVC</strong><br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill safety floors<br />
Collection point<br />
Transport demolition to collection<br />
This analysis demonstrates that the Vinyloop process has considerably more primary energy impact than mechanical<br />
separation for flooring. In the case of mechanical separation with melt filtration (the process modeled for flooring) the<br />
primary energy impact is higher than for the windows option because the mechanical separation process modelled for<br />
windows did not include melt filtration.<br />
As for windows, transport of the recyclate has little environmental impact compared to the other steps of the process.<br />
The conclusions for the 90:10 mass balance scenario are very similar.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 86
11.6. Discussion<br />
Results of the environmental impact assessment for both windows <strong>and</strong> flooring are consistent. They demonstrate that<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill is by far the worst disposal option across all impact categories <strong>and</strong> that either Vinyloop or mechanical recycling<br />
provides the best recycling option <strong>from</strong> an environmental point of view across all impact categories, depending on the<br />
ratio of low grade to high grade recyclate achieved by the two reprocessing routes.<br />
The environmental impact assessment is not consistent with the economic assessment in that L<strong>and</strong>fill provides the<br />
lowest cost commercial option for disposal of post-use <strong>PVC</strong>. The current low level of taxation <strong>and</strong> light regulatory<br />
restriction on l<strong>and</strong>filling in the <strong>UK</strong> does not truly reflect the long term environmental impact of this disposal route.<br />
Financial support for alternative recycling solutions <strong>from</strong> Government or the <strong>PVC</strong> industry or a voluntary or legislative<br />
restriction on disposal to l<strong>and</strong>fill will be required in order to shift <strong>PVC</strong> disposal routes towards more sustainable solutions.<br />
The debate concerning the environmental impact of <strong>PVC</strong> as a construction material compared to alternative construction<br />
materials such as wood was not part of the scope of this project. However this is an active debate among specifiers.<br />
Recently the European Commission sponsored a consortium of leading life cycle assessment authorities <strong>from</strong> Germany,<br />
Denmark <strong>and</strong> Spain, including PE Europe, to provide an assessment of all the available Life Cycle Assessment studies<br />
(LCAs) on <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> its alternatives for a variety of applications, including <strong>PVC</strong>-U windows 80 .<br />
They looked at 230 LCAs <strong>and</strong> used the 35 most relevant ones to assess the differences between competing materials.<br />
The report states :<br />
For windows, one of the most important <strong>PVC</strong> applications, the available studies conclude that there is no “winner” in<br />
terms of a preferable material since most of the studies conclude that none of the materials has an overall advantage for<br />
the st<strong>and</strong>ard impact categories.<br />
It appears that the most promising potential for lowering environmental impacts of windows is expected to be through<br />
the optimisation of the design <strong>and</strong> specific construction processes, which means increasing the quality of the windows<br />
with respect to their main function of saving heating energy in the use phase.<br />
80 ‘Life cycle assessment of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> of competing materials’ PE Europe for DG Enterprise <strong>and</strong> DG<br />
Environment http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/chemicals/sustdev/pvc.htm<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 87
12. Conclusions<br />
Overall conclusions of this project are:<br />
• The <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> industry is varied, producing a wide range of different <strong>products</strong>. Recycling solutions are likely to be<br />
<strong>waste</strong> stream or product-specific.<br />
• Currently, limited amounts of <strong>PVC</strong> are being recycled in the <strong>UK</strong> with the exception of some clean post-industrial<br />
<strong>waste</strong>. Some pilot schemes for recycling post-use <strong>waste</strong> are in operation.<br />
• One of the main constraints to increasing recycling of post-use <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> is the current limited quantity,<br />
consistency of supply <strong>and</strong> poor quality of collected post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong>. The viability of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recycling<br />
will depend as much on the security of supply of <strong>waste</strong> as on the availability of end-markets for the recyclate.<br />
• Post-use <strong>PVC</strong> window, pipe <strong>and</strong> flooring <strong>waste</strong> streams arise in sufficient quantities in the <strong>UK</strong> to justify<br />
development of separate collection infrastructure<br />
• Mechanical recycling methods already exist which are capable of producing high grade recyclates <strong>from</strong> these<br />
<strong>waste</strong> streams with only modest further development<br />
• Feedstock recycling is not necessary in the <strong>UK</strong> unless the use of legacy additives in new <strong>products</strong> is deemed<br />
unacceptable in future<br />
• Both the Vinyloop solvolysis process <strong>and</strong> mechanical separation (with the addition of melt filtration in the case<br />
of post-use flooring) provide potential commercial-scale high grade processing solutions for the <strong>UK</strong>. Mechanical<br />
separation to produce clean chip is likely to be the most commercially viable solution for windows.<br />
• Laboratory testing at Bradford has demonstrated that extrusion processability <strong>and</strong> physical properties of<br />
recyclates provided by these routes meet current <strong>UK</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> are comparable with equivalent virgin<br />
compounds.<br />
• Product surface finish <strong>and</strong> colour are potential limitations on the use of post-use <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate in <strong>products</strong><br />
where appearance is important.<br />
• Extrusion process variation was found to be higher for recycled material. Mixing of batches of recycled material<br />
is recommended to improve homogeneity<br />
• Life Cycle Analysis of the alternative processing options indicates that either mechanical separation or the<br />
Vinyloop solvolysis process is likely to be a substantially better environmental option for both windows <strong>and</strong><br />
flooring than l<strong>and</strong>fill. However the current cost of l<strong>and</strong>fill disposal in the <strong>UK</strong> is substantially is less than the likely<br />
cost of the possible recycling processes <strong>and</strong> does not reflect the true environmental burden of this disposal<br />
route.<br />
13. Recommendations<br />
The following specific recommendations are made as a result of the conclusions of this report:<br />
• The <strong>PVC</strong> map concept developed by this project to assist parties in the <strong>UK</strong> trying to locate recyclers for <strong>waste</strong><br />
<strong>PVC</strong> should be integrated into existing web-based tools <strong>and</strong> directories used by the plastics industry.<br />
• Larger scale collection <strong>and</strong> processing trials to prove the collectable volumes <strong>and</strong> build up improved data on<br />
collection costs<br />
• Local Authority post-use <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> collection schemes should be championed by the <strong>PVC</strong> industry.<br />
• An Occupational Hygiene hazard assessment of the use of recyclate containing legacy additives in new <strong>products</strong><br />
• Tests of compatibility between virgin <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> recyclate containing different stabiliser types<br />
• Encourage development of new long-life concrete substitute <strong>products</strong> <strong>from</strong> low grade <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate<br />
• Encourage public sector specifiers to allow use of R<strong>PVC</strong> in construction <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> to insist on separate<br />
collection of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> on refurbishment <strong>and</strong> demolition project<br />
• Support the <strong>PVC</strong> industry’s proposed clearing house concept to initiate recycling<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 88
Appendix 1 - <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling companies<br />
Name Location Tel: No Waste type(s) taken Output<br />
AJ Pellitt Baildon, West 01274 598099<br />
Yorkshire<br />
Rigid <strong>PVC</strong>-u Granulated <strong>PVC</strong>-u<br />
ASDAC Ashton under 01457 834444<br />
Lyne<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Associated<br />
Polymer<br />
Resource<br />
Eastleigh 02380 852929 <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Avon Reclaim Bridgewater 01278 427371 <strong>PVC</strong>-u<br />
CF Booth Ltd Rotherham 01709 559198 Cable <strong>waste</strong> (post Flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
industrial)<br />
strippings<br />
Chempound Middlesborou<br />
gh<br />
01642 564909 <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Cornwall Paper<br />
Co<br />
Redruth 01209 212294 <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Dell Plastics Rochdale 01706 648566 Flexible <strong>PVC</strong> cable Floor mats; hose<br />
footwear<br />
Dodsworth Barnsley 01226 386573 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong>-u frames <strong>and</strong> off Granulated <strong>PVC</strong>-u<br />
cuts post industrial only<br />
Ecoplas Selby 01757 282828 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong>-u cut offs Granulated <strong>PVC</strong>-u<br />
H<strong>and</strong>link Bunny 0115 984 6647 Flexible rigid <strong>waste</strong> Regranulated flex<br />
<strong>and</strong> chip<br />
Hunt Brothers Hinckly, 01455 220323 Flexible <strong>and</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong> Baled <strong>and</strong><br />
Leicester<br />
<strong>waste</strong> post industrial mainly granulated<br />
Hydro Polymers Newton 01325 300555 <strong>PVC</strong> Re-compounded<br />
Aycliffe<br />
pellets<br />
JJ Plastics Manchester 0161 202 6097 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulated;<br />
compound street<br />
furniture; decking<br />
John Hannay Broxburn 01506 854724 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulate<br />
JSP Oxford 01993 824000 Flooring <strong>and</strong> cable stripping Road Cone; speed<br />
ramps<br />
K2 Polymers Narborough 0116 275 3407 Flexible post industrial Granulated <strong>PVC</strong> for<br />
hosepipe<br />
Longfield Frodsham 01928 739977 <strong>PVC</strong>-u off cuts Granulate<br />
Melba Bury 01706 625167 Flooring <strong>and</strong> cable stripping Flooring <strong>and</strong> cable<br />
stripping<br />
Mole Plastics Cirencester 01285 770821 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulate <strong>and</strong><br />
compounded<br />
Moore Brothers Frome, 01373 462814 Flexible <strong>and</strong> rigid <strong>waste</strong> Baled <strong>and</strong><br />
Somerset<br />
credit card scrap<br />
granulated<br />
Newton Coated Hyde, 0161 367 873 Flexible medical <strong>waste</strong> Coated fabric (MUT)<br />
Fabrics Cheshire<br />
Oxford Plastics Enstone 02708 678888 Flexible <strong>PVC</strong> Re-compounded<br />
pellets<br />
Penfold Weston- 01934 832711 <strong>PVC</strong>-u window profile scrap Granulate <strong>and</strong><br />
Super-Mere<br />
powder<br />
Philip Tyler Cirencester, 01285 885330 Rigid bottle <strong>and</strong> skeletal Granulated rigid<br />
Gloustershire<br />
laminated<br />
<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Plastic Trading<br />
Ltd<br />
Dumfries 01387 255916 <strong>PVC</strong>-u Granulate<br />
Polymer Epsom 0208 397 4833 <strong>PVC</strong>? Re-compounded<br />
Industries<br />
pellets<br />
Polypro Telford 01952 201631 <strong>PVC</strong>-u window grade Safety barriers;<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 89
PPR Wypag Ashford 01233 646455 <strong>PVC</strong>-u<br />
extrusions<br />
Re-compounded<br />
pellets<br />
Premier u<strong>PVC</strong> Bristol 01454 617063 Window u<strong>PVC</strong> off cuts Garden fencing<br />
Plastic<br />
pulverised<br />
sheds<br />
Procter Plastics Chesterfield 01246 451533 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulate; recompounded<br />
pellets<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Group Chinley, 01663 750221 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong>-U Window Traffic barriers;<br />
Cheshire<br />
telephone duction<br />
granulate <strong>and</strong> pulver<br />
Rainbow<br />
Gardens<br />
Eastbourne<br />
Recycled Chelmsford, 01247 426666 Thermoformed clear plastic Clear<br />
Plastics Essex<br />
post industrial only granules/pulverised<br />
Recycled<br />
Plastics Div<br />
Chelmsford 01245 324687 <strong>PVC</strong> skeletal <strong>waste</strong> Granulate<br />
RM Easdale Glasgow 0141 221 2708 <strong>PVC</strong> inc cable <strong>waste</strong> Granulate<br />
SCS Vinyls Hereford 01432 880125 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong>-u Granulate; recompounded<br />
pellets<br />
Swintex Bury 0161 761 4933 Flooring <strong>and</strong> cable stripping Flooring <strong>and</strong> cable<br />
stripping<br />
Tenne Plastics Worksop 01909 501490 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulate<br />
TF ltd Burton on 01509 881223 <strong>PVC</strong> Granulate; re-<br />
Woods<br />
compounded pellets<br />
Tripenta Near 01386 858398 <strong>PVC</strong>-u Granulate; re-<br />
Broadway<br />
compounded pellets<br />
Vinyl (<strong>UK</strong>) Ltd Macclesfield 01625 500912 Flexible <strong>and</strong> rigid Granulated <strong>and</strong><br />
other<br />
Great Bridge 0121 5321600 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong> & <strong>PVC</strong> Bottles Golf Balls & Grippers<br />
A T Recycling<br />
Crosby Reclaimed Liverpool<br />
Plastics Ltd<br />
0151 5465559 <strong>PVC</strong> U No Info.<br />
Dekura Ltd Peterlee 0191 5862379 Rigid <strong>PVC</strong> Window scrap Ganulate, Pulverised<br />
Powder & compounded<br />
pellets<br />
I & F Enterprises Glenfield 0116 2312765 All polymers No Info.<br />
James W Corry & Campsie 028 71860113 Rigid & Flexible <strong>PVC</strong> Compounded Pellet<br />
Sons<br />
N. Irel<strong>and</strong><br />
Luxus Ltd Louth 01507 604941 All thermoplastics No Info.<br />
Philip Tyler<br />
Polymers Ltd<br />
Cirencester 01285 885330 PI Rigid <strong>PVC</strong> & <strong>PVC</strong> Bottles No Info.<br />
The Empress<br />
Green Trading<br />
Company Ltd<br />
Oldham 0161 6243734 All thermoplastics No Info.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 90
Detailed maps<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 91
VR<br />
VR<br />
EMR<br />
Longfields<br />
VR<br />
Penfold<br />
Plastics<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Sita<br />
VR<br />
Figure 1 Distribution of <strong>Materials</strong> Recycling Facilities involved in <strong>PVC</strong> recycling in the <strong>UK</strong>, March 2004<br />
Sita<br />
Rubber &<br />
Avon<br />
Plastics<br />
Reclamation Cleanaway EMR<br />
EMR<br />
PPR<br />
Moore<br />
Bros<br />
Smith<br />
0<br />
Sita<br />
VR<br />
H<strong>and</strong>link<br />
Hunt Bros<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Plascore<br />
EB Waste Philip Tyler<br />
Sita<br />
EMR<br />
EMR<br />
Dodsworth EMR<br />
MRF rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
MRF flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
MRF rigid & flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
EMR<br />
Cleanaway<br />
Sita<br />
100 km<br />
VR<br />
EMR Recycle Plastics<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 92
Pla stic Tra ding Ltd<br />
JFB Cores<br />
Swinte x<br />
Polypro<br />
Newton<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> Group<br />
Newton<br />
Polyone<br />
AJ Pellit<br />
Mole Plastics<br />
Trip e nta<br />
Dekura<br />
Ec opla s<br />
K2 Polym ers<br />
Frogm ore<br />
Reprocessor rigid <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Re p ro c e ssor, fle xib le <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Reprocessor vinyl wallpaper<br />
Oxford Plastics<br />
100 km<br />
Ra inbow<br />
0 100 miles<br />
Figure 2 Distribution of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> re-processors in the <strong>UK</strong>, March 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 93
Dell<br />
Polyfloor Ve ka<br />
Melba Swinte x<br />
Premier<br />
u<strong>PVC</strong><br />
Armstrong<br />
CF Booth<br />
Amco<br />
Rube roid<br />
Synse a l<br />
HW Plastics<br />
Euroce ll<br />
Bowa te rs<br />
WHS Ha lo<br />
Armstrong<br />
Duflex<br />
JSP<br />
Pro c e sso r rig id <strong>PVC</strong><br />
Processor, flexible <strong>PVC</strong><br />
100 km<br />
Marley<br />
Anglia n<br />
0 100 miles<br />
Figure 3 Distribution of virgin <strong>PVC</strong> processors in the <strong>UK</strong>, March 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 94
Appendix 2 – VEKA <strong>PVC</strong> window<br />
reprocessing plant - Germany<br />
A useful example of a fully operational large scale window recycling operation of the type that could be developed in the<br />
<strong>UK</strong> is the mechanical separation plant operated by VEKA in Behringen, Germany:<br />
VEKA is a large international company, with a strong presence in the windows market. Opened in 1993 it was built at<br />
an initial cost of 20 million euros, <strong>and</strong> an extra 10 million euros has been spent on the plant since then 81 .<br />
The plant processes <strong>PVC</strong> windows, roller blinds, sheets <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>PVC</strong> profile <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
It has a ~7000 m 2 processing hall, <strong>and</strong> has a maximum<br />
capacity of 40,000 tonnes p.a.<br />
In 1994 it had a throughput of 7300 tonnes; in 1998 13,500<br />
tonnes, <strong>and</strong> expected throughput in 2003 was ~20,000<br />
tonnes (i.e. around 50% of its full capacity).<br />
The VEKA plant input materials are:<br />
• ~70% post industrial scrap, such as off cuts;<br />
• ~10% short life mis-measures;<br />
• ~20% old post-use windows.<br />
Transport for the initial <strong>waste</strong> <strong>products</strong> is provided by VEKA<br />
partners who have containers on their sites. Other window<br />
manufacturers also participate.<br />
Fig 1 VEKA plant view<br />
Disassembly <strong>and</strong> separation of <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>products</strong> is claimed to be automatic. The 6metre lengths of clean post-industrial are<br />
segregated as follows:<br />
• The highest grade infeed material is segregated <strong>from</strong> the bulk shredding process.<br />
• Six metre lengths of clean post-industrial profiles that can be manually stripped of seals, are fed into a<br />
guillotine <strong>and</strong> then granulated to produce clean <strong>PVC</strong> chips – this ‘side-process’ accounts for approx 2,000<br />
tonnes per annum.<br />
• The finished chips are stored in a mixing silo to maintain homogeneous physical properties.<br />
The remaining 18,000 tonnes is dealt with in a ‘fully automated’ way<br />
as follows:<br />
Complete windows are delivered, with rubber seals, mortar residues,<br />
etc. An excavator with grapplers removes items <strong>from</strong> their delivery<br />
container <strong>and</strong> throws them into the feed chute of a large lateral<br />
press; this presses parts to a specific width. A shredder (similar in<br />
design to a whole-car shredder) works with a hammering machine to<br />
break up parts – larger pieces are returned to the shredder, others<br />
fall through a grate to a conveyor. The hammer mill operating<br />
principle makes it difficult to reduce the <strong>PVC</strong> down to the required<br />
size range in hot weather conditions (over ~25 C).<br />
81 Site visit report for BPF/Vinyl 2010, K Freegard, Axion Recycling, December 2003<br />
Fig 2 Metal removal<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 95
Ferrous metals are separated <strong>from</strong> the coarse mixture of <strong>PVC</strong>, metal, glass, rubber <strong>and</strong> other materials by a rotating<br />
magnetic drum. A sieve drum is then used to separate particles into four size classes: undersize is disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill,<br />
oversize is returned to the shredder.<br />
A non-ferrous metal separator (to remove aluminium separators, <strong>and</strong> fittings <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>les) uses eddy currents induced in<br />
the materials, causing metal parts to be ejected by repulsion (different materials separated by flight paths), leaving<br />
mainly <strong>PVC</strong>, glass <strong>and</strong> rubber. A rubber separator takes out part of the rubber strips; the remaining material is then<br />
returned to the shredder for regrinding. Grinding of this material (consisting of <strong>PVC</strong>, glass, mortar, wood) is fed to a<br />
sieve drum, for separation into two b<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Pneumatic tables separate wood fragments downwards on a cushion of air; heavier <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>and</strong> glass are left; the glass is<br />
then removed in a similar manner on pneumatic tables where the lighter <strong>PVC</strong> is transported downwards on a cushion of<br />
air. Finally, <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>from</strong> all four size class processing lines is brought together <strong>and</strong> final metal particles are identified by a<br />
metal detection coil. Only completely metal-free <strong>PVC</strong> is recycled.<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> particles are ground down further by blade mills <strong>and</strong> are simultaneously washed by water. A second wash is<br />
followed by two stages of hot air drying. Granulated <strong>PVC</strong> is separated into 4 grain sizes, 3,4,5 <strong>and</strong> 6mm. Small<br />
amounts of grains >6mm are fed back to the wet mill. Another rubber separation process is carried out for each size<br />
grade. Fine rubber particles are separated on vibration tables.<br />
Colour separation is used to separate white <strong>from</strong> non-white<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> grains; all non-white grains are stored together<br />
irrespective of grain size. Several individual colour separation<br />
machines have been configured to give a range of separations<br />
<strong>from</strong> ‘coarse’ split / high volume to ‘very fine picking’ / low<br />
throughput.<br />
Extrusion & melt-filtration allows final clean up of any ‘rogue’<br />
particles that have escaped earlier processes. At this stage<br />
colour master-batches can be added, thereby achieving topgrade<br />
colour quality for a larger percentage of tonnage. Dried<br />
granulated <strong>PVC</strong> is stored in six outdoor silos.<br />
Regular product samples are taken for quality control purposes<br />
in the on-site plastics laboratory. This facility has an array of<br />
all the usual physical property test machines (tensile strength,<br />
impact, colour etc). A small-scale extruder is used for<br />
production of extruded strip samples as a practical means of<br />
quality assessment.<br />
Environmental issues during this mechanical process include the following: Dust, paper <strong>and</strong> foil extraction <strong>from</strong> the air<br />
around the shredder is microfiltered. Dust is also extracted at the pneumatic separation tables. The shredder <strong>and</strong> sieve<br />
drum are encapsulated with noise absorbing elements. Water is recirculated – none goes to public sewage. Old<br />
<strong>products</strong> (windows) are only processed purely mechanically – it is therefore claimed that no toxic materials are released<br />
during this process.<br />
The quality of the output is maintained by a combination of mixing approx 4:1 post-industrial (pre-use) scrap with postuse<br />
material.<br />
Overall, VEKA estimates that 80% of the output is being re-used in windows production. The remainder is sold at a<br />
significant discount for use in piping <strong>and</strong> other lower specification applications. In the <strong>UK</strong> it is indicated that this would<br />
be expected to sell for £50-£120/tonne depending on residual contamination82.<br />
The process economics vary depending upon throughput. The weather influences this, because in hot conditions the<br />
recyclate needs to be cooled for hammer milling, which is essentially a fracture process. As might be expected for a<br />
multi-input, large-scale process that has been operating for a decade, there is a wide range of output <strong>PVC</strong> grades <strong>and</strong><br />
formats. Product can be made as granulate chips, extruded pellet or micronised powder. Each is available as white,<br />
off-white, or coloured. The output colour split is 75% white / 25% coloured.<br />
The VEKA operation relies on on-going industrial subsidy, but is viewed by the industry as an important practical<br />
demonstration of its commitment to large scale recycling of <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
82 Private communication, D Wrigley, Epwin, January 2004<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 96
Appendix 3 - Laboratory measurement<br />
techniques used<br />
1.1. Extrusion Processability Measurement<br />
1.1.1. Equipment<br />
Extrusion processability characterisations were carried out on a single screw extruder with rheological slit die. A Davis<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard Betol BK38 single screw extruder (figure 4.2.1a) was used with a screw diameter of 38mm <strong>and</strong> a screw to<br />
diameter ratio of 24:1. Extuder screw geometry was selected depending on the plasticiser content of the material being<br />
extruded; a 2:1 compression ratio screw for rigid <strong>PVC</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a 3.5:1 compression ratio screw for flexible <strong>PVC</strong>s. The<br />
extruder was fitted with a rheological die designed in-house (figure 4.2.1b) equipped with three pressure (Dynsico<br />
PT422A) <strong>and</strong> two temperature (insulated J-type) sensors flush mounted along its length. The dimensions of the slit<br />
section were 120 x 40 x 3 mm. An additional pressure transducer was located in the entry region prior to the entrance of<br />
the slit.<br />
Figure 1.1.1a Single screw extruder with Figure 1.1.1b Rheological extruder slit die<br />
brass calibrator block <strong>and</strong> water bath<br />
A brass calibrator block, of 40 x 3mm cross section was used to produced a strip for product measurement. A Betol hauloff<br />
unit was used to take-off cooled strip through a water bath, using an air-knife to remove surface water. A Hioki 3phase<br />
unbalanced loads energy meter was used to measure energy consumption during processing. Data acquisition<br />
was achieved using modular data acquisition hardware (National Instruments 6036E DAQcard <strong>and</strong> National Instruments<br />
SCC signal conditioning modules). Monitoring software was written in-house using National Instruments Labview<br />
programming environment. For twin screw experiments a Gottfert Twin Screw Extrusiometer (Serial Number 44956)<br />
situated in Hydro Polymers Process Development Laboratory. This was used with a four sensor die measuring melt<br />
pressure drop <strong>and</strong> melt temperatures in a 10 x 3 mm flow channel. The pressure transducers <strong>and</strong> thermocouples were<br />
monitored using the same data acquisition equipment <strong>and</strong> software as the single screw extruder.<br />
1.1.2. Procedure<br />
For single screw <strong>and</strong> twin screw experiments a highly stabilised <strong>PVC</strong> purge compound (Hydro Hy-vin VR404) was used to<br />
purge the extruder between experimental runs <strong>and</strong> when the extruder was switched off to cool down. The extruder was<br />
initially heated to a temperature of 150°C <strong>and</strong> then increased to operating temperatures prior to extrusion. Typical set<br />
barrel <strong>and</strong> die temperatures for flexible <strong>and</strong> rigid <strong>PVC</strong>s are shown in Table 4.2.1a.<br />
Extruder zone Barrel 1 Barrel 2 Barrel 3 Barrel 4 Die 1 Die 2<br />
Set temperature: flexible <strong>PVC</strong> 140 150 160 165 170 170<br />
Set temperature: rigid WF <strong>PVC</strong> 175 185 190 195 200 200<br />
Set temperature: rigid GPP <strong>PVC</strong> 175 175 180 185 190 190<br />
Set extruder temperatures for processability experiments<br />
After heating, the extruder was run at a screw speed of 20 rpm until stable conditions were achieved; when all<br />
remaining purge compound had been removed <strong>and</strong> process temperatures <strong>and</strong> pressures were steady. The extruder was<br />
run at 4 screw speeds for each material, typically 20, 30, 40 <strong>and</strong> 50 rpm (or 10, 20, 30, 40 rpm if material supplies were<br />
limited). Twin screw extrusion experiments were at screw speeds of 5, 10, 15 <strong>and</strong> 20 rpm. For each screw speed the<br />
extruder was run for 20 minutes, 0-10 minutes allowing for the process to stabilise, <strong>and</strong> 10-20 minutes being used for<br />
rheological calculations. Pressure, temperature, screw speed, motor current, total power <strong>and</strong> power factor were<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 97
monitored at a frequency of 1Hz. At each screw speed a mass throughput measurement was made by weight averaging<br />
three samples of extrudate taken over a measured period of time.<br />
A sample of calibrated strip was produced using the calibrator <strong>and</strong> haul-off device. Set extruder screw speed <strong>and</strong> hauloff<br />
take-up speed were adjusted until the strip filled the calibrator block, producing a strip with 40 x 3mm cross section.<br />
When material quantities allowed an extruded sample of approximately 10m was collected for mechanical analysis <strong>and</strong><br />
surface finish analysis.<br />
c) Rheometry Calculations<br />
At each extruder screw speed, shear viscosity was calculated <strong>from</strong> the pressure drop along the slit die, throughput <strong>and</strong><br />
density of the polymer, using the following calculations:<br />
Shear stress at the die wall,<br />
Apparent shear rate at the die wall,<br />
τ wall =<br />
γ •<br />
app<br />
H∆P 2 L<br />
6Q = 2<br />
WH<br />
τ<br />
Apparent shear viscosity,<br />
Where H = slit height, W = slit width, L = slit length, ∆P=slit pressure drop <strong>and</strong> Q=volumetric throughput.<br />
η<br />
wall<br />
app = •<br />
An indication of extensional viscosity was provided by pressure measured prior to the entrance of the slit die, although<br />
due to the complex geometry of the circular to slit convergent cross section, viscometric flow could not be achieved <strong>and</strong><br />
a value of extensional viscosity could not be calculated.<br />
Process variation was quantified by the coefficient of variation measured in die melt pressures during process monitoring<br />
(st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation/mean*100). A value of coefficient of variation was calculated for each set screw speed.<br />
1.2. Capillary Rheometry<br />
1.2.1. Equipment<br />
Off-line analysis of rheology was carried out using a twin-bore RH7-2 capillary rheometer shown in figures 4.2.2a <strong>and</strong><br />
4.2.2.b. This comprised of two heated barrels (diameter 15mm) into which pistons were driven down via a common<br />
crosshead. Two capillary dies of dimensions 16 x 1 <strong>and</strong> 0.2 x 1mm were mounted at the barrel exits <strong>and</strong> Dynisco<br />
PT422A pressure transducers measure pressure drop as molten polymer flows through the dies a range of set apparent<br />
wall shear rates. Data acquisition <strong>and</strong> analysis was out carried using dedicated hardware <strong>and</strong> software<br />
Figure 1.2.1a Ros<strong>and</strong> RH7-2 twin-bore<br />
capillary rheometer<br />
γ<br />
app<br />
Figure 1.2.1b Schematic representation of<br />
Ros<strong>and</strong> RH7-2<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 98
1.2.2. Procedure<br />
The equipment was pre-heated to the desired test temperatures. Set temperatures were selected to represent extrusion<br />
die temperatures for each <strong>PVC</strong> grade. Typical set temperatures were 200°C for rigid window profile compounds <strong>and</strong><br />
170°C for flexible flooring compounds. The left h<strong>and</strong> barrel of the capillary rheometer was fitted with a long capillary die<br />
(dimensions 16 x 1mm diameter), <strong>and</strong> the right h<strong>and</strong> barrel was fitted with a corresponding orifice die (0.2 x 1mm<br />
diameter). Both barrels were charged with polymer, in pellet, granular or powdered form. The polymer was then<br />
compressed by the two pistons until a significant pressure (>1MPa) had been achieved in both barrels. The test was<br />
then initiated, comprising of two pre-heating <strong>and</strong> compression stages totalling 6 minutes. On completion of the pre-test<br />
stages, the pistons were lowered at a range of speeds to provide a range of apparent wall shear rates. These were set<br />
to represent typical extrusion die wall shear rates. Typical set values were 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000 <strong>and</strong> 1500 s-<br />
1. Pressure drop at each shear rate was monitored through both capillary dies <strong>and</strong> on completion of the test, rheological<br />
flow characteristics (shear stress, shear viscosity <strong>and</strong> extensional viscosity) were calculated by the test software.<br />
1.3. Macklow-Smith Flow Tests<br />
1.3.1. Equipment<br />
Macklow-Smith type tests were carried out on a Ros<strong>and</strong> RH7-2 twin bore capillary rheometer (see section 2) using a 10 x<br />
1mm slot orifice die (i.e. die length
Figure 1.4.1a Instron 5564 Tensometer Figure 1.4.1b Tensile test specimen <strong>and</strong><br />
tensometer grips<br />
1.4.2. Procedure<br />
Tests were carried out a room temperature according to BS2782 Method 320C. The load cell was calibrated <strong>and</strong> zeroed<br />
prior to testing. Each specimen was placed in the tensometer using mechanical grips, as shown in figure 4.2.4b. Prior to<br />
starting each tests the grip separation distance was zeroed. Upon start-up of a test, the grips separated to give tensile<br />
deformation at a rate of 50mm/min for rigid <strong>PVC</strong> compounds <strong>and</strong> 500mm/min for flexible <strong>PVC</strong> compounds. Tests were<br />
terminated when the specimen broke apart. Load versus extension was recorded by the machine software.<br />
1.4.3. Tensile Strength Calculation<br />
Tensile strength at yield was calculated in MPa <strong>from</strong> the maximum force measured during the test <strong>and</strong> the original cross<br />
sectional area of the test specimen:<br />
Maximum tensile strength at yield = Force/cross-sectional area<br />
Elongation distance at break was recorded as a percentage of original span (50mm).<br />
1.5. Flexural Strength Measurement<br />
1.5.1. Equipment<br />
Measurement of flexural strength was made using an Instron 5568 tensometer in bending test mode. A 1KN load cell<br />
was used to measure force during 3-point bending of <strong>PVC</strong> strip. Test specimens were 150mm lengths of strip cut <strong>from</strong><br />
extruded rigid <strong>PVC</strong> of nominally 40 x 3mm cross section. Sample width <strong>and</strong> thickness was measured prior to each test.<br />
Span between the outer two bend points was 120mm, with a flexural load being applied at the centre as shown in figure<br />
4.2.5a. Force <strong>and</strong> deflection were measured at a frequency of 10Hz during the test by dedicated Instron Series IX<br />
software.<br />
Figure 1.5.2 Flexural modulus testing by 3-point bending<br />
1.5.2. Procedure<br />
Tests were carried out a room temperature according to BS EN178. The load cell was calibrated <strong>and</strong> zeroed prior to<br />
testing. Samples were placed centrally on the two supports <strong>and</strong> the crosshead lowered until a load of 0.2N was<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 100
measured. The test was then initiated at a rate of 5mm/min <strong>and</strong> terminated when a deflection of 8mm had been<br />
achieved. Force <strong>and</strong> deflection measurements were recorded.<br />
1.5.3. Calculation of Flexural Modulus<br />
Flexural modulus was calculated <strong>from</strong> the gradient of the linear region at the start of the force vs. deflection graph.<br />
Note 1. A rigid plastic is defined as that having a modulus of elasticity in flexure greater than 700 MPa under conditions<br />
stated in ISO 472.<br />
Note 2. The flexural modulus is only an approximate value of Young's modulus of elasticity, since it involves a<br />
measurement which subjects the sample to both tension <strong>and</strong> compression; polymers are well known to have different<br />
elastic moduli in tension <strong>and</strong> compression.<br />
1.6. Weld Factor Tests<br />
1.6.1. Equipment<br />
The samples were welded using a Kombimatic ESK423SE industry st<strong>and</strong>ard butt-welder. Tensile strength was measured<br />
using an Instron 5564 Tensometer described in section 4.2.4.<br />
1.6.2. Procedure<br />
Samples of extruded strip were sectioned <strong>and</strong> butt-welded at the join. Weld conditions were set according to BPF<br />
guidelines for welding u<strong>PVC</strong> profiles for windows <strong>and</strong> doors (2003) <strong>and</strong> are shown in Table 4.2.6a<br />
Weld plate temperature 245°C<br />
Preheating time 25 secs<br />
Preheating pressure 3 bar<br />
Fusion pressure 6 bar<br />
Fusion time 30 secs<br />
Test Weld conditions<br />
Welded strip sections (figure 4.2.6a) were then machined into tensile bar specimens (figure 4.2.6b) conforming to British<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ards BS2782 Method 320C, leaving the weld burr intact. Tensile tests were then performed in accordance with<br />
section 4.2 <strong>and</strong> the tensile strength at yield for five samples compared to un-welded samples prepared at the same<br />
conditions.<br />
Figure 1.6.2a Welded specimen of extruded strip Figure 1.6.2b Tensile bar specimen machined<br />
<strong>from</strong> a welded extruded strip<br />
1.7. Density Measurement<br />
1.7.1. Equipment<br />
Density measurements were carried out using a Micrometrics AccuPyc 1330 helium pyncometer (figure 4.2.7a) at room<br />
temperature according to BS 2782 method 620A. The instrument operates by measuring the volume of helium displaced<br />
by a sample of polymer in two measurement chambers of known volume. By measuring the mass of polymer, solid<br />
density can be calculated.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 101
Figure 1.7.1a Micrometrics AccuPyc 1330 helium<br />
pyncometer<br />
Figure 1.7.1b Sample holder filled with<br />
recycled <strong>PVC</strong> tarpaulin sample<br />
1.7.2. Procedure<br />
A small amount (typically less than 6g) of recyclate sample under test was selected. The mass of polymer under test was<br />
measured using a Mettler BB244 balance (resolution 0.001g). The sample was placed in a steel holder (figure 4.2.7b)<br />
<strong>and</strong> placed inside the pycnometer measurement chamber. On start-up of the test, the test sample was purged 5 times<br />
with helium before the first measurement was taken. A total of 5 densities were measured during each test. Typicially 3<br />
samples of material were tested <strong>from</strong> each batch of recyclate <strong>and</strong> an average density calculated.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 102
1.8. Surface Finish Measurement<br />
1.8.1. Equipment<br />
Analysis of surface finish of extruded strip was carried out using a system developed at the University of Bradford by Dr.<br />
Rob Spares. Image capture was achieved by the use of a high quality linescan camera (Atmel AVIIVA monochrome<br />
camera comprising of 4096 pixels). Data was transferred to the PC via an i2s Horizon Link interface board at line rates<br />
up to 10kHz. The software drivers provided for the interface board combine the line data into blocks, typically 256 lines,<br />
for transfer to the analysis program. Analysis of the data was carried out by software programmed in-house (R. Spares).<br />
A Betol haul-off unit was used to feed extrudate through guides past the camera at controlled speed.<br />
Figure 1.8.1a Surface finish measurement using a line-scan camera <strong>and</strong> haul-off equipment<br />
Figure 1.8.1b Recycled <strong>PVC</strong> extrudate;colour<br />
indicates defect size (brown = large to blue<br />
= small)<br />
Figure 1.8.1c Large gel particle as identified<br />
by image analysis software<br />
1.8.2. Procedure<br />
Lengths of cleaned extruded strip were measured out, typically between 5-10 metres in length. Marks were made at the<br />
beginning <strong>and</strong> end of each measured section. The strip was then fed through the haul-off device passing underneath the<br />
line-scan camera. Scans of a line 1 pixel wide were made a frequency of 1000Hz <strong>and</strong> images stored on computer. The<br />
image analysis software then processed the data <strong>and</strong> identified any defects detected by a change light intensity. Defect<br />
count per metre of strip was calculated <strong>and</strong> an analysis of defect size performed. Defects were quantified by size <strong>and</strong><br />
catagorised as large (>1mm), medium (0.3-1mm) or small (
1.9. Impact Strength Measurement<br />
1.9.1. Equipment <strong>and</strong> Procedure<br />
Charpy impact tests were carried out at Solvay, Belgium in accordance with st<strong>and</strong>ard ISO 179 1eA.<br />
Softening Point Temperature Determination<br />
1.9.2. Equipment <strong>and</strong> Procedure<br />
Vicat softening point measurements were conducted at Solvay, Belgium in accordance with st<strong>and</strong>ard ISO 306B.<br />
1.10. Thermal Stability Measurement<br />
1.10.1. Equipment<br />
The Mill Stick test was developed at Hydro Polymers <strong>and</strong> uses a two-roll mill with oil heated rolls of 150mm radius. The<br />
front roll is heated to a temperature of 185°C <strong>and</strong> the back roll to a temperature of 175°C.<br />
1.10.2. Procedure<br />
The mill rolls were run at a speed of 33 r.p.m. with the nip gap set between 3.5 <strong>and</strong> 4mm. 150g of material (usually<br />
powder) was placed into the nip until a gel was formed at which point the material formed a sheet around the front roll.<br />
A timer was then started <strong>and</strong> every 5 minutes a 12mm square sample was cut out using a brass cutter for a period of 1<br />
hour. Change in colour of samples was noted either visually or by using a photo spectrometer. It has been found (Hydro<br />
Polymers) that the first 6 samples taken (i.e. 0-30 minutes) are indicative of how a <strong>PVC</strong> compound performs in<br />
extrusion.<br />
1.11. Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy<br />
1.11.1. Equipment <strong>and</strong> Procedure<br />
X-ray fluorescence analysis was carried out at Solvay, Belgium. 100 mg of sample was digested with 2 ml of<br />
concentrated nitric acid using a micro-wave assisted apparatus (Anton Paar Multiwave - closed vessel system:1000 Watt;<br />
ramping in 5 min ; plateau during 20 min).<br />
After addition of Sc<strong>and</strong>ium as an internal st<strong>and</strong>ard, solutions were measured by:<br />
• ICP-OES (Horiba Jobyn Yvon Ultima) against matrix match (HNO3 + Sc) st<strong>and</strong>ard solutions prepared <strong>from</strong><br />
commercial certified Lead <strong>and</strong> Cadmium solutions<br />
• (Merck CertiPur St<strong>and</strong>ards).<br />
1.12. X-ray Analysis<br />
1.12.1. Equipment <strong>and</strong> Procedure<br />
X-ray fluorescence analysis was carried out at Solvay Belgium.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 104
Appendix 4 – Results of recycling trials at<br />
Anglian Windows<br />
An Industrial Solution for an Industry Problem ?<br />
One Approach to the Recycling of Post Consumer Window<br />
(PCW) Waste into Long Life Building Products<br />
Abstract<br />
J.F. Cubitt: Anglian Windows / K.M. Freegard: Axion Recycling<br />
A series of trials was conducted to examine two issues:<br />
1) Firstly, whether it was possible to reprocess a percentage of recycled PCW <strong>waste</strong> into<br />
cavity closure extrusions using a loss in weight gravimetric dosing system.<br />
2) Secondly to examine the effectiveness of different processes for the removal of<br />
contamination <strong>from</strong> PCW feedstock.<br />
The results of the trials indicate that a percentage (5-10%) of Anglian PCW recyclate with residual<br />
contamination can be reliably dosed into cavity closures. With an additional recyclate cleaning<br />
stage of either tribo-electric separation or air-blown vibratory sieving, this percentage can be<br />
increased to at least 40%. The resulting cavity closures met the current in-house st<strong>and</strong>ards of<br />
dimensional consistency <strong>and</strong> the extrusion process remained stable over the period of the trial, 10<br />
hours, <strong>and</strong> ran in total for 72 hours with dosed PCW recyclate.<br />
Surface contamination analysis conducted during the trial indicated that contaminants were divided<br />
into three types, fine specks less than 0.5 mm in size, larger particles roughly 0.5 to 2.0 mm in size<br />
which were often silicone mastic <strong>and</strong> lumps of larger contaminant > 2.0mm in size. No metal or<br />
glass appeared to be present.<br />
As a result of these trials it is clear that dosing a percentage of PCW recyclate into cavity closure<br />
profiles is now a technically viable route for the disposal of the PCW <strong>waste</strong> arising at Anglian<br />
Windows.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 105
Introduction<br />
Trialling was conducted on a Battenfeld parallel twin-screw extruder, size 90mm x 22D with<br />
conventional powder screws. Feeding was provided by two continuous loss-in-weight gravimetric<br />
feeders supplied by Plast-Control GmbH one of which was funded by Vinyl 2010. The feeders have<br />
a facility to dose a fixed percentage of one material into a second material. Extruded profile was<br />
produced using Anglian cavity closure tooling, output was approximately 130 kg/hr at a line speed<br />
of 2.5 m/min.<br />
At Anglian, cavity closures are usually produced using clean high quality window recyclate in<br />
chip form at a loading of 100%. This recyclate is usually generated <strong>from</strong> short life windows <strong>and</strong> is<br />
usually referred to as “grade 2” (G2) at Anglian. By utilising a second doser feeding post consumer<br />
window <strong>waste</strong> into PI chip a series of experiments at different dosage levels was conducted to<br />
examine the resulting contamination levels in the cavity closure section evident by visual surface<br />
inspection.<br />
The post consumer window material used to produce the PCW recyclate in the trials was collected<br />
by Anglian <strong>from</strong> its branch depots. This material is classified as post consumer (PC) if it has been<br />
installed or is too dirty for processing into higher-grade recyclates <strong>and</strong> it consists of short life <strong>and</strong><br />
long life windows. The long life <strong>products</strong>, which are generally not Anglian, are being collected<br />
<strong>from</strong> a small number of depots on an ongoing basis as part of an investigation into the viability of<br />
PCW recycling. The short life windows are predominantly Anglian. No data is available regarding<br />
the split but it is estimated that the balance is around 30% non-Anglian to 70% Anglian. A<br />
percentage of these windows will be regarded as too heavily contaminated or too difficult to<br />
manually disassemble. This fraction is estimated at 10% <strong>and</strong> is disposed to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
The collected PC windows are manually deglazed, stripped, excess window sealant removed,<br />
broken up <strong>and</strong> any reinforcement extracted. The recovered <strong>PVC</strong>U is then sent to an external<br />
recycler for granulation <strong>and</strong> cleaning using conventional post-industrial equipment. This will<br />
typically include metal detection, granulation, metal removal, fines removal <strong>and</strong> colour sorting. The<br />
resulting material is an irregular chip which is given an internal “grade 6” (G6) reference <strong>and</strong> will<br />
contain a residual level of contaminants. These have been recognised as silicone <strong>and</strong> dirt particles<br />
during previous extrusion trials.<br />
In the trials being reported on here, three 1 te bags of this “G6” material were identified <strong>and</strong> a<br />
number of samples were taken <strong>from</strong> each of the bags at different levels. The sample size was<br />
approximately 50 kg. The remainder of each bag was then sent to three different secondary cleaning<br />
processes. These were:<br />
• A tribo-electric plastic/plastic separator (Hamos, Germany);<br />
• An air-blown, vibratory sieve (TGS Seeds, Bury St Edmonds); <strong>and</strong><br />
• A complete sink/float + wet shaking-table process ('Plastep', RGS90, Denmark).<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 106
Keith Freegard witnessed each individual <strong>PVC</strong> recyclate cleaning process <strong>and</strong> has reported on items<br />
1 <strong>and</strong> 3 in separate documents (available on request).<br />
In order to observe measurable differences in contamination between different samples it was<br />
necessary to find a dosage level of PCW recyclate that generated a significantly high level of<br />
surface defects. Accordingly a series of initial trials was conducted at different dosage levels <strong>and</strong> it<br />
was found that at a 40% addition level significant contamination was observed. In order to measure<br />
contamination levels it was decided to make visual observations on the 4 external sides of the<br />
extruded profile <strong>and</strong> classify defects into three categories, < 0.3mm, 0.3 -1.0 mm <strong>and</strong> >1.0mm.<br />
Each length of extruded profile was placed on an illuminated bench <strong>and</strong> one half of the length (3m),<br />
was inspected at a distance of approximately 500mm by each of the authors <strong>and</strong> the number of<br />
defects marked, graded <strong>and</strong> recorded. The count for the entire face side of the length was then made<br />
<strong>and</strong> the number of defects by grade was recorded.<br />
In order to ensure a clean break between each sample run during the trial <strong>and</strong> to minimise cross<br />
contamination between samples care was taken to minimise the possibility of mixing in the feed<br />
hopper. In addition a time delay of 20-30 minutes was introduced between material change over <strong>and</strong><br />
extrusion profile sampling.<br />
(Inspection of the test data seems to suggest that this was adequate given the discontinuous nature<br />
of defect curves with respect to time/samples.)<br />
Observations<br />
Rheology<br />
Sample 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18<br />
RPM 12.5 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �<br />
Torque 75 74 75 72 73 72 73 72 74 72 72 76 75 75 77<br />
Melt Pressure 335 331 329 341 340 341 342 341 342 343 343 333 333<br />
General Processing<br />
Processing was straightforward, the only unusual observation was that fine particles of what<br />
appeared to be silicone mastic built up on the die face <strong>and</strong> in the first calibrator. The die deposits<br />
were small <strong>and</strong> did not appear to affect the process (see photo); however the build up in the<br />
calibration system did slightly accelerate the normal effect of reducing vacuum availability with run<br />
length which is usually associated with calibrator plateout. Cleaning of this build-up was<br />
straightforward <strong>and</strong> the frequency of cleaning did not change <strong>from</strong> that which would normally be<br />
expected. The trial with 40% loading ran for 10 hours <strong>and</strong> at the end of the trial the line was left<br />
running at 10% loading. In total the line ran for a period of 72 hours without significant issues.<br />
Witnessed Contamination<br />
Contaminants were roughly divided into three types, fine specks less than 0.5 mm in size, larger<br />
particles roughly 0.5 to 2.0 mm in size which were often silicone mastic or cavities where mastic<br />
had been present <strong>and</strong> lumps of larger contaminant > 2.0mm in size. No metal or glass appeared to<br />
be present.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 107
Contamination which was greater than 0.5 mm in size was generally easy to identify however the<br />
smaller particles, particularly those which were white in nature were more difficult to resolve<br />
repeatably so care should be exercised in interpreting the data for the category 0 to 0.3mm.<br />
Reported inspection has so far concentrated on the external faces of the profile. Inspection of the<br />
interior is more problematic, this may be better explored using impact testing techniques.<br />
The Plastep samples<br />
Due to an error in recording samples during the trial the Plastep L sample may not have been<br />
reliably distinguished <strong>from</strong> the other trials consequently until the trial is repeated we will not be<br />
able to verify the cleaning potential of this process. There is some evidence to suggest that the<br />
washing generated by this operation has reduced the fine particle count which might be expected<br />
given the generally dirty nature of PCW windows.<br />
Results<br />
The graph below shows the defect counts per 6 metre length recorded during the trial together with<br />
weighted averages. The weighted averages were calculated on the arbitrary assumption that small<br />
defects less than 0.3 - 0.5 mm were weighted at 1, defects between 0.3 -1.0 mm were weighted at 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> defects greater than 1.0mm in size were rated at 3. The perimeter of the profile extruded was<br />
340 mm so the area of each profile length inspected was 2.04 m 2 .<br />
Number<br />
Discussion<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Surface Defect Analysis 3/3/04<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
Ang 60% G2 / 40% PC<br />
60G2/40PC + TGS<br />
60G2/40PC + TGS<br />
Time of Sample<br />
60G2/40PC + TGS<br />
60G2/40PC + TGS<br />
60G2/40PC + HAMOS<br />
60G2/40PC + HAMOS<br />
60G2/40PC + HAMOS<br />
No of Defects > 1.0 mm in 6m Bar Length<br />
No of Defects 0.3 - 1.0 mm in 6m Bar Length<br />
No of Defects
Clearly the defect levels identified suggest that the Anglian material reprocessed by existing post<br />
industrial techniques leaves significant contaminant residues in the recyclate which severely<br />
constrains high value end use.<br />
Equally clearly both the tribo-electric <strong>and</strong> air blown sieve processes offer potential to improve the<br />
situation significantly <strong>and</strong> increase PCW usage.<br />
For the non-optimised conditions used during the clean-up of recyclate in these 'one-off' trials, the<br />
Hamos tribo-electric equipment gave a higher yield of useable clean-<strong>PVC</strong> fraction at 89%<br />
compared with the TGS air-blown sieve that yielded 77% useable material with a 33% 2 nd -pass<br />
required.<br />
Estimates vary as to the cost <strong>and</strong> efficiency of these processes some commercial costs can be as<br />
high as 80£/te recovered whereas it has also been estimated that a fully utilised Hamos tribo-electric<br />
system could h<strong>and</strong>le circa 5,000 tpa at a cost of less than £10 /te. This increase in total system cost<br />
will be offset by the additional upgrade in recyclate value enabled by the 'clean-up' of residual,<br />
trace-level contaminants.<br />
Furthermore, utilising recyclate as a granulated chip allows lower overall recyclate processing costs<br />
than for competing materials in a pulverised powder or melt-filtered pellet format.<br />
During the trial the process conditions associated with all the materials extruded remained<br />
reasonably constant even at 40% loading. This is probably due to the high proportion of Anglian<br />
material present. With an equivalent loading of a differently formulated recipe it is likely that<br />
rheological stability may be affected more substantially. Nonetheless previous trials at Anglian with<br />
non Anglian recyclates have indicated that these can be run into cavity closure tooling successfully<br />
at loadings of 100% so it is likely that these issues are not likely to be barriers especially when<br />
dosage levels can be regulated.<br />
The selection of cavity closure profiles as the basis <strong>from</strong> which to extrude PCW material into was<br />
based upon a number of factors, however the two most critical were.<br />
1) The lower visual st<strong>and</strong>ards required of cavity closures compared to window frame profiles<br />
as most closure profiles are not seen once installed.<br />
2) The fact that any <strong>waste</strong> generated during the extrusion process or during the fabrication of<br />
cavity closures at Anglian can be controlled <strong>and</strong> fed back into cavity closures more easily<br />
than if used as a co-extrudate in nominally virgin <strong>products</strong>. I.e. it is far easier to prevent<br />
PCW material entering higher grade recyclate loops if it is the form of a cavity closure.<br />
Provided process efficiencies are reasonably high there should be no reason why mixed recyclate<br />
(G2 <strong>and</strong> G6) cannot itself be regarded as G2 material in its next pass as a cavity closure provided<br />
adequate thermal stability <strong>and</strong> lubrication are maintained. I.e. the material can be up-cycled. (It is<br />
not normally required to modify or boost the recyclate prior to re-extrusion.)<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 109
Recommendations<br />
Repeat trials should be carried out with alternative source materials, i.e. those originating <strong>from</strong><br />
more automated size reduction <strong>and</strong> cleaning processes, e.g. shredded <strong>waste</strong>. These may have a<br />
higher contaminant load <strong>and</strong> consequently the effectiveness of the different cleaning strategies may<br />
change.<br />
Larger tonnage trials should be organised to evaluate the long-run performance of the two processes<br />
identified as successfully upgrading PCW material to acceptable quality st<strong>and</strong>ards. These long run<br />
trials should be utilised to evaluate the actual increases in processing costs versus the quantifiable<br />
benefits to the production unit.<br />
Trials with non Anglian PCW material should be conducted to more fully investigate rheological<br />
effects.<br />
Future Potential<br />
The approach of using two gravimetric dosers working together opens up several possibilities which<br />
may be worthy of further study. These are as follows:-<br />
1) Using an online contaminant detector to feedback a signal to the PCW doser to maximise<br />
the dosage of PCW recyclate. Precedents for this exist in the flour milling industry where<br />
online cameras monitoring dark speck levels feedback information to a dirty flour stream in<br />
order to maximise the use of the lower value dirty flour. This of course assumes that the<br />
PCW recyclate is commercially attractive to use.<br />
2) Using an extruder torque feedback signal to regulate the PCW doser to ensure rheological<br />
disturbances associated with PCW material are minimised.<br />
3) There is some ad-hoc evidence to suggest that the use of more than one doser to dose chip<br />
material may be advantageous <strong>from</strong> an stability point of view compared to feeding <strong>from</strong> a<br />
single doser due to the r<strong>and</strong>om nature of recyclate properties, particularly PC materials. This<br />
of course may have relevance in other recyclate applications or already have been<br />
contemplated previously by others.<br />
Finally one interesting issue to arise <strong>from</strong> the debate regarding the use of post consumer recyclate is<br />
whether one formulation viscosity type is more suited as a base recipe <strong>and</strong> another more suited as<br />
the dosed smaller fraction. This might be explored using the doser arrangement operated in this trial<br />
using recycled or virgin materials.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This report would not have been possible without the funding provided by the Vinyl 2010 Research<br />
Fund. In particular the authors would like to thank Mercia Gick of the British Plastics Federation<br />
(BPF), John Ogilvie : Veka, Steve Weston : Costdown, <strong>and</strong> Roger Mottram : EVC for supporting<br />
this initiative. Finally the trials would not have been possible without the assistance of Roy Coghiel<br />
Extrusion Plant Manager at Anglian <strong>and</strong> Bob Bittlestone at Ecoplas.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 110
University of Bradford Surface Defect Measurement Trials<br />
Complementary trials were carried out at the University IRC laboratories to assess the level of surface defects in<br />
extruded strip produced <strong>from</strong> samples of the same batches used in the study reported in 4.4.1. The extrusion line <strong>and</strong><br />
image analysis system described in section 4.2 was used to monitor the number of defects per m of extruded strip.<br />
Initial results are shown below for batches KMF1-KMF10.<br />
Number of Defects<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Large defects (>1.0mm)<br />
Medium defects (0.3-1.0mm)<br />
KMF01 KMF02 KMF03 KMF04 KMF05 KMF06 KMF07 KMF08 KMF09 KMF10<br />
Figure 1 Surface defect measurements made on extruded strip <strong>from</strong> Anglian post-use window recyclate<br />
Medium Size Defects/m<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Bradford IRC strip<br />
Anglian cavity closure<br />
KMF01 KMF02 KMF03 KMF04 KMF05 KMF06 KMF07 KMF08 KMF09 KMF10<br />
Figure 2 Comparison of surface defect measurements made at Anglian Windows <strong>and</strong> Bradford University;<br />
medium sized defects<br />
Results obtained <strong>from</strong> extruded strip indicated that batches KMF2 <strong>and</strong> KMF3 had the highest level of contaminants. This<br />
did not correlate to analysis of cavity closures produced at Anglian. Further examination of these batches showed that<br />
the surface was rougher than all other batches due a small but continuous instability. The image analysis system<br />
detected this roughness as surface defects causing these measurements to swamp defects caused by contaminants.<br />
Taking batches 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 as outliers, there does appear to be some level of correlation between the two sets of<br />
measurements.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 111
It should also be noted that the extrudate strip measurements at Bradford were made on 10m lengths of strip (~2kg of<br />
<strong>PVC</strong>) compared to 6m lengths of cavity closure (~8kg) at Anglian. Therefore statistically it is uncertain whether samples<br />
taken <strong>from</strong> the same 50kg batch will have identical levels of contamination.<br />
Number of Defects<br />
180<br />
160<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Large defects (>1.0mm)<br />
Medium defects (0.3-1.0mm)<br />
KMF11 KMF12 KMF13 KMF14 KMF15 KMF16 KMF17 KMF18<br />
Figure 3 Surface defect measurements made on extruded strip <strong>from</strong> Anglian post-use window recyclate<br />
Batches KMF11-KMF18<br />
Surface defect measurements <strong>from</strong> batches KMF11-18 are shown above. These represent post-use <strong>waste</strong> which had<br />
been treated at Hamos, TGS <strong>and</strong> Plastep as reported in section 4.4.1. Some of these batches examined here were not<br />
used for profile extrusion in the trials at Anglian due to insufficient material availability. These are described below:<br />
Batch KMF15 – contaminated fraction, TGS<br />
Batch KMF16 – contaminated fraction, Hamos<br />
Batch KMF18 – Hamos process, belt fraction<br />
The results show that batches KMF11 <strong>and</strong> KMF12 had the least amount of surface defects, lower than all of the<br />
untreated batches (KMF1-10). These had undergone air-blown sieve <strong>and</strong> tribo-electric contaminant removal processes<br />
respectively. The corresponding contaminated fraction <strong>from</strong> these two processes (batches KFM15 <strong>and</strong> KMF16) were of<br />
very poor surface quality with a large number of large defects present. Other batches representing <strong>waste</strong> cleaned by the<br />
sink float/wet shake process <strong>and</strong> Hamos belt process produced surface defect levels comparable with untreated post-use<br />
<strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 112
Appendix 5 - <strong>PVC</strong> Clearing House Proposal<br />
This is a copy of the recycling business plan proposal developed by a BPF working group supported by Axion Recycling<br />
Ltd.<br />
Proposal - <strong>PVC</strong> Recycling Clearing House<br />
It is proposed that the <strong>UK</strong> should contribute to the Vinyl 2010 <strong>PVC</strong> Recycling commitment<br />
by creating an independent clearing house business with shareholding held by key<br />
industry stakeholders in proportions to be agreed.<br />
This business will recycle 20,000te/yr of post-consumer <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> by 2010.<br />
Background<br />
Many <strong>PVC</strong> recycling initiatives have been proposed, investigated <strong>and</strong> trialled all over<br />
Europe over the past few years with few of them going on to process really significant<br />
quantities of post-consumer <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> on an economically viable basis.<br />
Many of these processes produce good quality recyclate but have failed to gain<br />
momentum because:<br />
• they are unable to attract the large volumes of feed material required at reasonable<br />
cost<br />
• their input quality requirements are too critical so much of the potential feed material<br />
is rejected to l<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
• they cannot guarantee sufficiently high value markets for their output<br />
In most cases the economics of the process are greatly favoured by increasing scale.<br />
Analysis of the economics of collection <strong>and</strong> recycling for the two major <strong>UK</strong> post-consumer<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> streams (windows & pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring) by the <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> Recycling consortium<br />
indicates that the lowest overall cost will be achieved by a high volume multi-process<br />
approach which maximises overall diversion <strong>from</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
Waste streams should be collected in bulk on a national basis by a suitably motivated<br />
national contractor to ensure economies of scale<br />
Each <strong>waste</strong> stream should then be sorted into several grades of material <strong>and</strong> diverted to<br />
different end-uses, depending on quality, with different levels of reprocessing in each case.<br />
Practical experience has demonstrated that the individual players in this chain (<strong>waste</strong><br />
originators, collectors, reprocessors <strong>and</strong> end-users) lack sufficient motivation or economic<br />
power individually to coordinate <strong>and</strong> grow the supply chain effectively.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 113
Proposed Clearing House Structure<br />
The objective of the clearing house will be to create the critical mass of supply <strong>and</strong><br />
dem<strong>and</strong> for recycled <strong>PVC</strong> which will enable existing companies in the <strong>UK</strong> to exp<strong>and</strong> their<br />
collection <strong>and</strong> reprocessing operations for <strong>PVC</strong>.<br />
Without this national cross-industry initiative it is likely that no significant increase in postconsumer<br />
<strong>PVC</strong> recycling will happen.<br />
The Clearing House business will establish a contractual framework under which:<br />
• National <strong>waste</strong> management companies are contracted to collect <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong><br />
windows, pipes <strong>and</strong> flooring,<br />
• A network of reprocessors are contracted to sort <strong>and</strong> upgrade the <strong>waste</strong> <strong>PVC</strong><br />
streams<br />
• The lower grade fractions are sold on long term supply contracts direct to moulders<br />
of lower value long-life <strong>products</strong><br />
• In order to create dem<strong>and</strong> for the highest grade recyclate the window & flooring<br />
manufacturers will commit to take this material <strong>from</strong> the clearing house in<br />
proportions to be agreed in advance. Alternatively they will pay a volume penalty<br />
fee to the clearing house<br />
• The price paid by the windows <strong>and</strong> flooring companies for high-grade recyclate will<br />
be set at a level which makes the clearing house commercially viable. At current<br />
gate fees this will be close to the price of virgin compound.<br />
• The volume penalty fee will be equivalent to the difference between the agreed<br />
high-grade recyclate price <strong>and</strong> the actual low-grade recyclate price achieved by the<br />
clearing house.<br />
• The clearing house will require grant funding initially but will become self-sustaining<br />
by 2010. Grants are required to support capacity-building loans made to collectors<br />
<strong>and</strong> reprocessors by the clearing house business during the early years <strong>and</strong> to<br />
cover part of the operating expenses of the clearing house company until it can<br />
cover its own costs.<br />
• Loans will be repaid in proportion to tonnage collected or reprocessed although<br />
those given loans will still be liable to pay interest on outst<strong>and</strong>ing balances <strong>and</strong> will<br />
have to repay in full in event of default of contract.<br />
The spread of risk for all participants will be as follows:<br />
• The clearing house (backed by grants) takes the collection risk<br />
• The recyclers take the product quality <strong>and</strong> liability risk<br />
• The windows <strong>and</strong> flooring companies create market dem<strong>and</strong> to make it all happen<br />
by committing to take high grade recyclate or pay penalties<br />
Window <strong>and</strong> flooring companies may also agree deals with the clearing house where they<br />
satisfy their agreed offtake commitment by carrying out some or all of the collection <strong>and</strong><br />
recycling process themselves with no input <strong>from</strong> the clearing house. These companies<br />
may also decide to bid to provide subcontract collection or processing services to the<br />
clearing house for extra volume beyond their agreed minimum commitment.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 114
Planned recycling routes<br />
The clearing house company will organise recycling of the targeted bulk <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong><br />
streams as follows:-<br />
Windows <strong>and</strong> pipes<br />
� Contracting collection of window frames <strong>and</strong> pipes recovered at demolition <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> disposal sites <strong>from</strong> a national <strong>waste</strong> management company <strong>and</strong> <strong>from</strong> window<br />
installers (making best use of spare capacity within the existing <strong>PVC</strong> window<br />
distribution network)<br />
� Contracting sorting, fragmentation <strong>and</strong> metal removal at fridge recycling plants of<br />
collected windows <strong>and</strong> pipes on a competitive tender basis<br />
� Sale of low grade material at market prices to makers of long life construction<br />
<strong>products</strong> (kerbs, fence posts, pipes, plastic wood,etc))<br />
� Allocation of high grade material to existing or new reprocessors for toll processing<br />
by competitive tender<br />
� Sale of high grade recyclate at prices close to virgin to window system <strong>and</strong> pipe<br />
producers for closed loop recycling in proportions to be agreed or collect volume<br />
penalty <strong>and</strong> redirect material to low grade applications if they do not want to take it<br />
Flooring<br />
� Collection <strong>and</strong> initial sorting of flooring <strong>from</strong> CA sites, installers <strong>and</strong> major contracts<br />
by one or more contracted <strong>waste</strong> management companies. Material will be sorted<br />
into:<br />
o non <strong>PVC</strong> <strong>waste</strong> for l<strong>and</strong>fill or other recycling routes<br />
o safety flooring<br />
o Mixed low grade flooring<br />
o High grade calendared flooring<br />
o High grade plastisol flooring<br />
� Sale of safety flooring <strong>and</strong> mixed low grade flooring at market prices to makers of<br />
long life <strong>products</strong> such as traffic calming ramps <strong>and</strong> hoses<br />
� Allocation of high grade flooring tonnage to existing or new toll reprocessors by<br />
competitive tender for cleaning <strong>and</strong> melt filtration or dissolution processing<br />
(Vinyloop). It is likely that initially these toll processors will be located outside the<br />
<strong>UK</strong>.<br />
� Sale of high grade recyclate to flooring producers for closed loop recycling in<br />
proportions to be agreed or collect volume penalty <strong>and</strong> redirect material to low grade<br />
applications if they do not want to take it.<br />
� Note that window <strong>and</strong> flooring system companies may also bid to reprocess high<br />
grade material for their own use <strong>and</strong> satisfy their commitment that way.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 115
Other activities of the Clearing House company<br />
� Run national-level PR campaigns to raise awareness<br />
� Monitor offtake against volume commitments<br />
� Make loans to build capacity among collectors <strong>and</strong> recyclers. This will be by a<br />
process of competitive activity between the reprocessors <strong>and</strong> involve quality,<br />
capacity & operating cost evaluation. Loans repaid in proportion to tonnage recycled<br />
� Record <strong>and</strong> report tonnage by market<br />
Axion Recycling<br />
15 April 2004<br />
www.axionrecycling.com<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 116
Appendix 6 – Glossary<br />
Abatement of pollution<br />
The reduction in l<strong>and</strong>fill pollution by source reduction <strong>and</strong> <strong>waste</strong> recycling<br />
Additives<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> that are blended with polymers to make them easy to process <strong>and</strong> give the physical properties required in the<br />
end-application. Before <strong>PVC</strong> can be made into <strong>products</strong>, it has to be combined with a range of special additives. The<br />
essential additives for all <strong>PVC</strong> materials are heat stabilisers <strong>and</strong> lubricants; in the case of flexible <strong>PVC</strong>, plasticisers are<br />
also incorporated. Other additives that may be used include fillers, processing aids, impact modifiers <strong>and</strong> pigments.<br />
Alternative fuel<br />
Most energy generation processes, for example power stations that produce electricity, are designed to run on a specific<br />
fossil fuel such as coal. An alternative fuel is one that can be used to substitute part of the design fuel. Waste streams<br />
that have an acceptably high heat value, such as those containing plastics, can be used to advantage as alternative<br />
fuels.<br />
APME<br />
The Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe, APME represents the plastics industry at European level <strong>and</strong><br />
promotes the benefits of plastics in every aspect of life. It co-operates with other industry sectors to provide effective<br />
solutions to plastics-related issues through scientific fact <strong>and</strong> environmental <strong>and</strong> economic data.<br />
Bale<br />
A compacted <strong>and</strong> bound cube of recycled material.<br />
Baler<br />
Equipment that compacts <strong>and</strong> binds recyclable materials to reduce volume <strong>and</strong> transportation costs. (Baling).<br />
Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)<br />
The BPEO procedure establishes the <strong>waste</strong> management option, or mix of options, that provides the most benefits or the<br />
least damage to the environment as a whole, at acceptable cost, in the long-term as well as in the short-term<br />
Bring (drop-off) Recycling<br />
Recycling schemes where the public bring material for recycling to centralised collection points (e.g. bottle <strong>and</strong> can<br />
banks) at civic amenity sites, supermarket car parks <strong>and</strong> similar locations.<br />
CARE<br />
Consortium for Automotive Recycling. CARE is a collaborative project involving the main <strong>UK</strong> motor vehicle<br />
manufacturers/importers <strong>and</strong> vehicle dismantlers. Its objective is to research <strong>and</strong> technically prove processes for<br />
materials re-use <strong>and</strong> recycling with a view to reducing the amount of <strong>waste</strong> <strong>from</strong> ELVs going to l<strong>and</strong>fill.<br />
Chemical Recycling<br />
This is a recycling process in which the molecular links of the materials are modified in order to revert to the raw<br />
material.<br />
Civic Amenity Waste (CA Waste)<br />
A sub-group of household <strong>and</strong> municipal solid <strong>waste</strong>, normally delivered by the public direct to sites (civic amenity sites)<br />
provided by the local authority. It consists generally of bulky items such as beds, cookers <strong>and</strong> garden <strong>waste</strong> as well as<br />
recyclables <strong>and</strong> ordinary dustbin <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Co-combustion<br />
Combustion of different types of fuel in the same combustion process. A typical example is the additon of a plastics-<strong>rich</strong><br />
<strong>waste</strong> stream to the combustion of municipal solid <strong>waste</strong> in order to achieve more stable combustion conditions. Another<br />
is the addition of such a stream to an energy generation process that uses a fossil fuel such as coal.<br />
Commingled<br />
Mixed recyclables that are collected or processed together.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 117
Comminution<br />
Mechanical shredding or pulverizing of <strong>waste</strong>; used in solid <strong>and</strong> water <strong>waste</strong> treatment.<br />
Compactor<br />
Equipment that densifies recyclable material <strong>and</strong> contains it under pressure, not allowing it to exp<strong>and</strong> until it is unloaded.<br />
Compound<br />
This is a mixture of resin <strong>and</strong> additives (plasticizers, impact modifiers, stabilizers, pigments etc.) presented in the form of<br />
pellets.<br />
Construction <strong>and</strong> Demolition Waste<br />
Waste arising <strong>from</strong> the construction, repair, maintenance <strong>and</strong> demolition of buildings <strong>and</strong> structures, including roads. It<br />
consists mostly of brick, concrete, hardcore, subsoil <strong>and</strong> topsoil, but it can also contain quantities of timber, metal,<br />
plastics <strong>and</strong> (occasionally) special (hazardous) <strong>waste</strong> materials<br />
Crusher<br />
A mechanical device used to break secondary materials into smaller pieces.<br />
Cryogenic Size Reduction<br />
Process in which flexible substances are made brittle by cooling to low temperatures, using liquid nitrogen<br />
DfE<br />
Design for Environment. Procedures <strong>and</strong> guidelines to design <strong>products</strong> to minimise their environmental burden over their<br />
entire life cycle.<br />
DfR<br />
Design for Recycling. Procedures <strong>and</strong> guidelines to design <strong>products</strong> that are suitable for recycling<br />
Dioxins/Furans<br />
Dioxins are a family of toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds known chemically as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins<br />
or PCDDs. They are based on two benzene rings joined together by two oxygen atoms. The number of chlorine atoms<br />
that can be present ranges <strong>from</strong> one to eight, with four creating the most toxic of the dioxins. The word dioxins is<br />
sometimes used to also include furans, a related chemical family, also toxic. Dioxins <strong>and</strong> furans can be created as a<br />
result of incorrect combustion of <strong>waste</strong>. However, modern combustors <strong>and</strong> incinerators are designed to eliminate this<br />
possiblity, <strong>and</strong> in these the presence of high heat value fractions such as plastics can assist the combustion process in<br />
order to ensure this.<br />
Eco-efficiency<br />
Concept of combining economical aspects <strong>and</strong> assessment of environmental impact, the latter often in the form of a<br />
LCA.<br />
Eddy current separation<br />
A process used to separate non-ferrous metals <strong>from</strong> the material that comes <strong>from</strong> the shredder. Non-ferrous metals are<br />
of course not magnetic. However, by means of magnets, electrical currents are induced inside the non-ferrous particles<br />
which in turn create a secondary magnetic field around them. This allows magnetic techniques to separate them <strong>from</strong><br />
the stream.<br />
End-of-life<br />
The final stage in a material or product lifecycle. <strong>Materials</strong> or <strong>products</strong> at the end of their life can no longer be re-used<br />
<strong>and</strong> must be sent either for energy recovery, recycling or disposal. (Vinyl 2010)<br />
Energy Recovery<br />
Energy recovery means the use of combustible <strong>waste</strong> as a means to generate energy through direct incineration with or<br />
without other <strong>waste</strong> but with recovery of the heat.<br />
Feedstock recycling<br />
Feedstock recycling is a form of material recycling, particularly well suited to mixed plastics <strong>waste</strong>. The technology<br />
breaks plastics down into their chemical constituents. These can be used as building blocks for a wide range of new<br />
industrial intermediate <strong>and</strong> consumer <strong>products</strong>. In effect, the plastics are reprocessed at the place of origin, the<br />
petrochemical complex.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 118
Fraction<br />
When a combination of materials, such as the stream of fragments emerging <strong>from</strong> an automotive shredder, is separated<br />
into different groups of materials, each of these groups is referred to as a fraction. In this example, ferrous <strong>and</strong> nonferrous<br />
metal fractions are usually extracted, the material remaining being shredder residue. Further processing can<br />
separate this residue into light <strong>and</strong> heavy fractions.<br />
Gasification<br />
Gasification is a method of producing synthesis gas <strong>from</strong> low or negative-value carbon-based feedstocks such as coal,<br />
petroleum coke, high sulphur fuel oil or materials that would otherwise be disposed as <strong>waste</strong>. The gas can be used in<br />
place of natural gas to generate electricity, or as a basic raw material to produce chemicals <strong>and</strong> liquid fuels.<br />
Gate fee<br />
When used in connection with the management of <strong>waste</strong>, a gate fee is a charge which must be paid by the person<br />
wishing to dipose of <strong>waste</strong> to an organisation that processes it or uses it in some way. L<strong>and</strong>fill charges are also referred<br />
to as gate fees. Although some <strong>waste</strong> streams have an inherent value, for example as a source of energy, the gate fee<br />
can be an important part of the overall economics of a process that treats or makes use of <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Granulator<br />
Any device used for grinding plastics into small pieces. Granulation is used as a step to upgrade recycled plastics.<br />
During granulation the material is melted <strong>and</strong> undergoes quality enhancement procedures. In this process impurity<br />
material is filtered out (whether ferrous or non-ferrous).<br />
Greenhouse gas<br />
A gas that contributes to global warming. Some of the energy <strong>from</strong> the sun which strikes the earth is trapped by the<br />
atmosphere <strong>and</strong> prevented <strong>from</strong> radiating back into space, a process essential to maintain a gloabl temperature<br />
equilibrium. It is thought that increases in the levels of certain gases, in particular carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous<br />
oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons <strong>and</strong> sulphur hexafluoride, can cause more heat to be retained in this way,<br />
resulting in global warming. The effect of the gas can be either direct, or indirect in that the gas brings about other<br />
atmospheric changes that lead to warming. Gases which have this effect, wehether direclty or indireclty, are referred to<br />
as geenhouse gases (GHGs). They differ in terms of the magnitude of their imopact on global warming, for example<br />
nitrous oxide has 270 times the effect of the equivalent molecular quantity of carbon dioxide.<br />
Grinder<br />
Any device used for tearing into pieces or fragmenting <strong>products</strong> or parts of <strong>products</strong> into a homogenous material or<br />
mixed material parts. Grinders are often used for polymeric materials in comparison to shredding of metals. The grinding<br />
step is used as a precursor to separation of mixed material parts or to reduce size for more efficient transport.<br />
Heat value<br />
The amount of energy released when burning a fuel or a material. Units of measurement for fossil fuels are typically<br />
GigaJoules per tonne. Plastics <strong>waste</strong> has a higher heat value than the same weight of coal, <strong>and</strong> for the same amount of<br />
energy generation releases less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.<br />
Identification<br />
In order to recycle <strong>and</strong> recover materials it is very essential that each material be identified. This can be made through a<br />
number of methods using various properties of the materials in case.<br />
Incineration<br />
The controlled burning of <strong>waste</strong>, either to reduce its volume, or its toxicity. Energy recovery <strong>from</strong> incineration can be<br />
made by utilising the calorific value of paper, plastic, etc to produce heat or power. Current flue-gas emission st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
are very high. Ash residues still tend to be disposed of to l<strong>and</strong>fill (in general)<br />
K-value<br />
This is a characteristic of the <strong>PVC</strong> resin which describes the length of the polymer molecules.<br />
Kerbside Recycling<br />
Collection of recyclable or compostable <strong>waste</strong>s usually <strong>from</strong> the pavement (hence the name) outside premises, including<br />
collections <strong>from</strong> commercial or industrial premises a well as <strong>from</strong> households.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
L<strong>and</strong>fills are carefully engineered <strong>waste</strong> disposal sites. Their aim is to provide a safe <strong>and</strong> controlled environment into<br />
which <strong>waste</strong> can be deposited <strong>and</strong> where it is subjected to biological breakdown. Engineering solutions are employed to<br />
ensure that l<strong>and</strong>fills do not cause pollution in the form of emissions to water <strong>and</strong> air, or have a negative visual impact on<br />
the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Viability of <strong>UK</strong> <strong>PVC</strong> recycling for higher value <strong>products</strong> 119
L<strong>and</strong>fill Sites<br />
Licensed facilities where <strong>waste</strong> is permanently deposited in a safe <strong>and</strong> controlled environment <strong>and</strong> subjected to biological<br />
breakdown. Engineering solutions are employed to ensure that l<strong>and</strong>fills do not cause pollution in the form of emissions<br />
to water <strong>and</strong> air or have a negative visual impact on the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
Licensed site<br />
A <strong>waste</strong> disposal or treatment facility which is licensed under the Environmental Protection Act for that function<br />
Life cycle analysis<br />
An assessment of the environmental impacts associated with the whole life-cycle of a product. Beginning with the<br />
extraction of raw materials <strong>from</strong> the earth, inputs <strong>and</strong> emissions are measured for each stage, including manufacture of<br />
the product, its entire lifetime of use <strong>and</strong> the processes used at end of life, whether they be disposal or recovery.<br />
Analysis of this type enables the true ecological contribution of a material to be assessed. For example, plastics used in<br />
automotive applications can reduce weight <strong>and</strong> therefore fuel consumption, which over the lifetime of a car generates<br />
major environmental benefits. And at end-of-life, energy recovery can make a further contribution by substituting coal<br />
<strong>and</strong> reducing greenhouse gas emissions. (see also Life Cycle Assessment)<br />
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)<br />
The systematic identification <strong>and</strong> evaluation of all the environmental benefits <strong>and</strong> disbenefits that result, both directly<br />
<strong>and</strong> indirectly, <strong>from</strong> a product or function throughout its entire life <strong>from</strong> extraction of raw materials to its eventual<br />
disposal <strong>and</strong> assimilation into the environment. LCA helps to place the assessment of the environmental costs <strong>and</strong><br />
benefits of these various options, <strong>and</strong> the development of appropriate <strong>and</strong> practical <strong>waste</strong> management policies, on a<br />
sound <strong>and</strong> objective basis. Can also provide a basis for making strategic decisions on the ways in which particular <strong>waste</strong>s<br />
in a given set of circumstances can be most effectively managed, in line with the principles of Best Practicable<br />
Environmental Option, the <strong>waste</strong> hierarchy <strong>and</strong> the proximity principle.<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> Recovery Facility (MRF)<br />
A recycling facility that sorts <strong>and</strong> processes collected mixed recyclables into individual streams for market.<br />
Margin<br />
The difference between the selling price of a product <strong>and</strong> the total cost to produce it.<br />
Mechanical Recycling<br />
The process by which an end-of-life product is reprocessed, without changing the chemical structure of the material, into<br />
the same or alternative second-life applications.<br />
Mechanical recycling makes ecological <strong>and</strong> economic sense whenever sufficient quantities of homogeneous, separated<br />
<strong>and</strong> sorted <strong>waste</strong> streams can be made available. Products collected for recycling this way include bottles, flooring,<br />
pipes, roof coverings <strong>and</strong> window profiles.<br />
Micropellet<br />
Compact beads of 300 to 400 µm, in which the <strong>PVC</strong> resin <strong>and</strong> its additives are distributed.<br />
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)<br />
Household <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> other <strong>waste</strong>s collected by a <strong>waste</strong> collection authority or its contractors, such as municipal parks<br />
<strong>and</strong> gardens <strong>waste</strong>, beach cleansing <strong>waste</strong> <strong>and</strong> any commercial <strong>and</strong> industrial <strong>waste</strong> for which the collection authority<br />
takes responsibility.<br />
Plasticizer<br />
These are organic compounds, sometimes mixed with polymers to make a more flexible plastic. The commonest<br />
plasticisers are the phthalates, adipates <strong>and</strong> citrates. By product type, some 35 per cent of <strong>PVC</strong> is used for plasticised<br />
applications.<br />
Precipitated <strong>PVC</strong><br />
This is a <strong>PVC</strong> obtained by precipitation after a dissolution step. This is a key featue of the Vinyloop dissolution process.<br />
Pyrolysis<br />
A process of producing fuels <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong> by heating it in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere.<br />
Recyclable<br />
A material or product that is capable of being recovered via mechanical or feedstock recycling is said to be recyclable.<br />
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Recycling<br />
The conversion of materials <strong>from</strong> end-of-life <strong>products</strong> into second life applications. This second life may be a repeat of<br />
the first or something entirely different. Involves the reprocessing of <strong>waste</strong>s, either into the same material (closed-loop)<br />
or a different material (open-loop recycling). Commonly applied to non-hazardous <strong>waste</strong>s such as paper, glass,<br />
cardboard, plastics <strong>and</strong> metals. However, hazardous <strong>waste</strong>s (e.g. solvents) can also be recycled by specialist companies,<br />
or by in-house equipment.<br />
Regenerated <strong>PVC</strong><br />
This is the useful <strong>and</strong> marketable <strong>PVC</strong> compound extracted <strong>from</strong> <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Reprocessing<br />
Operation of reforming reclaimed materials into new <strong>products</strong>.<br />
Shredder/Hammer Mill<br />
A shredder is a device used for tearing into pieces or fragmenting <strong>products</strong>. The purpose of shredding is to obtain clean<br />
<strong>and</strong> directly reusable scrap.<br />
Solid Waste Management<br />
The h<strong>and</strong>ling of activities which provide for the collection, separation, storage, transport, transfer, processing, recycling,<br />
incineration, treatment <strong>and</strong> disposal of solid <strong>waste</strong>.<br />
Sorting/Separation<br />
Fractions of mixed materials must often be sorted before sensible recycling can take place. There are numerous methods<br />
of sorting materials using various physical properties of the materials. Hydro cyclone separation is a means of separating<br />
materials using specific gravity differences. This separation method is a very reliable means of metal <strong>and</strong> contaminant<br />
removal, <strong>and</strong> is a faster <strong>and</strong> more reliable method than sink-float technology which also makes use of specific gravity<br />
differences. Optical separation can be used to separate out a fragment as small as a pellet, flake or regrind by using a<br />
camera that recognizes an impurity because of its colour difference, <strong>and</strong> removes it <strong>from</strong> the feed stream.<br />
Source Reduction<br />
Reducing the quantity of <strong>waste</strong> which in turn lessens the amount of material that enters the <strong>waste</strong> stream. Reduction<br />
can be accomplished within a manufacturing process involving the review of production processes to optimise utilisation<br />
of raw (<strong>and</strong> secondary) materials <strong>and</strong> recirculation processes. It can be cost effective, both in terms of lower disposal<br />
costs, reduced dem<strong>and</strong> for raw materials <strong>and</strong> energy costs. It can be carried out by householders through actions such<br />
as home composting, re-using <strong>products</strong> <strong>and</strong> buying goods with reduced packaging<br />
Source Separation<br />
The sorting of specific <strong>waste</strong> materials prior to their collection or deposition into a collection container.<br />
Special Wastes<br />
Any <strong>waste</strong> requiring special h<strong>and</strong>ling - Defined by the Environmental Protection (Special Waste) Regulations 1996 (as<br />
amended) <strong>and</strong> is broadly any <strong>waste</strong> on the European Hazardous Waste List that has one or more of fourteen hazardous<br />
properties.<br />
Stabilizer<br />
A stabiliser is a complex mixture designed to have a preventative <strong>and</strong> curative action in <strong>PVC</strong>, during processing <strong>and</strong> to<br />
protect the product during its life, including photodegredation. <strong>PVC</strong> degrades by dehydrochlorination, autooxidation <strong>and</strong><br />
mechanochemical chain scission <strong>and</strong> the stabiliser has to prevent these different mechanisms. It also has to remove<br />
polyene sequences that give rise to colour development. Heat stabilizer : this is an additive that prevents the<br />
decomposition of the <strong>PVC</strong> resin during the processing. The type <strong>and</strong> dosage depend of the kind of process. The main<br />
stabilisers contain barium, calcium, lead, tin, organics or zinc salts. The <strong>PVC</strong> Industry made a voluntary commitment to<br />
phase out lead in new <strong>products</strong> by 2015. Usage of Cadmium in new <strong>products</strong> ceased in 2001.<br />
Stripper<br />
Device where the solvent is removed <strong>from</strong> the secondary material by injection of steam in the Vinyloop dissolution<br />
process.<br />
Stripping<br />
Stripping/dismantling operations mean selective removal <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling of components <strong>from</strong> end-of-life <strong>products</strong>,<br />
particularly those suitable for re-use or material recycling.<br />
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Sustainable Development<br />
The Brundtl<strong>and</strong> Commission described the challenge of sustainable development as "meeting the needs of the present<br />
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This encompasses a combination of<br />
environmental, social <strong>and</strong> economic criteria.<br />
Sustainable Waste Management<br />
Using material resources efficiently, to cut down on the amount of <strong>waste</strong> we produce. And where <strong>waste</strong> is generated,<br />
dealing with it in a way that actively contributes to the economic, social <strong>and</strong> environmental goals of sustainable<br />
development<br />
Volume Reduction<br />
Processing <strong>waste</strong> materials to decrease the amount of space the materials occupy. It is accomplished by mechanical,<br />
thermal or biological means.<br />
Waste<br />
A wide ranging term encompassing most unwanted materials <strong>and</strong> is defined by the Environmental Protection Act 1990.<br />
Waste includes any scrap material, effluent or unwanted surplus substance or article which requires to be disposed of<br />
because it is broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled. Explosives <strong>and</strong> radioactive <strong>waste</strong>s are excluded<br />
Waste Arisings<br />
The amount of <strong>waste</strong> generated in a given locality over a given period of time<br />
Waste Management Licensing<br />
Licences are required by anyone who proposes to deposit, recover or dispose of <strong>waste</strong>. The licensing system is separate<br />
<strong>from</strong>, but complementary to, the l<strong>and</strong> use planning system. The purpose of a licence <strong>and</strong> the conditions attached to it is<br />
to ensure that the <strong>waste</strong> operation which it authorises is carried out in a way which protects the environment <strong>and</strong><br />
human health<br />
Waste-to-Energy<br />
Waste combustors <strong>and</strong> incinerators that are able to recover the heat generated during combustion are described as<br />
<strong>waste</strong>-to-energy units. The heat can be used to raise steam which in turn can generate electrical energy. Modern<br />
municipal solid <strong>waste</strong> combustors (MSWCs) are usually designed this way. The combustion process can be managed<br />
more effectively when high energy value <strong>waste</strong> such as plastics are incorporated.<br />
Waste Transfer Station<br />
A site to which <strong>waste</strong> is delivered for sorting prior to transfer to another place for recycling, treatment or disposal<br />
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