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2 nd European Summer School on Renewable Motor Fuels<br />
Warsaw, Poland, 29 – 31 August 2007<br />
The status of <strong>the</strong> FZK concept<br />
of <strong>biomass</strong> <strong>gasification</strong><br />
E. Henrich<br />
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH<br />
Wednesday, 29 August 2007, 13:45 – 14:30<br />
Paper
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
THE KARLSRUHE "BIOLIQ" PROCESS FOR BIOMASS GASIFICATION<br />
E. Henrich, N. Dahmen, K. Raffelt, R. Stahl, F. Weirich<br />
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, ITC – CPV, POB 3640, D-76021 Karlsruhe<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Biomass is <strong>the</strong> only renewable carbon resource and expected to substitute gradually<br />
a part of <strong>the</strong> fossil fuels. A high <strong>biomass</strong> share in our future energy mix must<br />
comprise <strong>the</strong> agricultural by-products, mainly straw, in addition to wood. Straw and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r fast growing herbaceous <strong>biomass</strong> contains more ash, K and Cl than wood and<br />
suitable <strong>gasification</strong> technologies are not well developed. At <strong>the</strong> Karlsruhe research<br />
centre a two-stage <strong>process</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>biomass</strong> conversion into synfuel is being developed,<br />
acronym "Bioliq". The <strong>process</strong> pays special attention to <strong>the</strong> properties of straw and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r dry, non-woody <strong>biomass</strong> feedstock. Small or thin dry <strong>biomass</strong> particles are first<br />
liquefied by fast pyrolysis in a number of regional plants. The pulverised pyrolysis<br />
char is suspended in <strong>the</strong> pyrolysis condensates to generate stable pastes, sludge's<br />
or slurries <strong>for</strong> storage and economic transport by rail to a large central plant <strong>for</strong> syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
gas generation. Syngas cleaning followed by a selective, catalysed syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
of organic chemicals or synfuels e.g. to hydrogen, methane, methanol or Fischer-<br />
Tropsch diesel are well known technologies from large - scale commercial coal and<br />
natural gas <strong>gasification</strong> plants. The Karlsruhe biosynfuel <strong>process</strong> allows an operation<br />
of very large and <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e more economic biosynfuel production plants with high capacities<br />
of 1 Mt/a or more. The economy of many small-scale biosynfuel facilities is<br />
less favourable.<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
The combustion of finite fossil fuels supplies almost 80% of <strong>the</strong> world primary energy,<br />
ca. 11 Gtoe (billion tonnes of oil equivalent) in year 2006; fig. 1 shows <strong>the</strong> percentage<br />
share. Substitution of fossil fuels by renewable energy and carbon sources<br />
is among <strong>the</strong> key challenges of this century. The capacity of biocarbon based energy<br />
sources is not sufficient to replace all present fossil fuel applications – also in view of<br />
<strong>the</strong> fact that applications as carbon raw material are first priority not energy; bioenergy<br />
is a misleading aim.<br />
Development and worldwide exploitation of renewable, environmentally compatible,<br />
sufficient and af<strong>for</strong>dable energy sources requires much time, money and innovative<br />
ideas. Global warming and adverse climate changes as well as common sense advocate<br />
<strong>for</strong> a substitution of fossil fuels even be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> proven and economically recoverable<br />
fossil reserves are exhausted. In <strong>the</strong> Kyoto protocol, <strong>the</strong> international<br />
community has agreed to limit greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2 from <strong>the</strong><br />
combustion of fossil fuels. With <strong>the</strong> increasing world population and corresponding<br />
fossil energy consumption and business as usual, <strong>the</strong> proven and economically recoverable<br />
conventional oil reserves and unconventional tar sands of ~ 170 Gtoe [FIS<br />
04] will be exhausted in <strong>the</strong> course of this century. For <strong>the</strong> comparable reserves of<br />
natural gas including recoverable unconvential methane hydrates, <strong>the</strong> same situation<br />
can be expected only few decades later.
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
fossil fuels ~ 78 %<br />
reserves ~ 170 Gtoe<br />
consumption 3,4 Gtoe/a<br />
reserves ~ 170 Gtoe<br />
consumption 2,2 Gtoe/a<br />
reserves ~ 800 Gtoe<br />
consumption 2,4 Gtoe/a<br />
21 % gas<br />
34 % oil<br />
23 % coal<br />
6<br />
6<br />
10<br />
nuclear power<br />
hydropower<br />
<strong>biomass</strong><br />
Doubling from ~ 10 to ~ 20 Gtoe/a in ca. 50 - 100 a from now<br />
1 toe (tonne oil equivalent) = 42 GJ, 1 kW(th) = 0.375 kW(el)<br />
Fig. 1: World primary energy mix 2000, total consumption 10 Gtoe<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Source:BGR<br />
in billion<br />
world population<br />
oil consumption<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500<br />
years<br />
Fig. 2: The oil age in a timeframe of millennia<br />
2<br />
6,6 in 2007<br />
?
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Exhaustion of <strong>the</strong> large but less convenient coal reserves of at least 600 Gtoe will<br />
probably follow in <strong>the</strong> course of next century. Fur<strong>the</strong>r improvements of mining and<br />
exploration techniques are not expected to double <strong>the</strong> presently known fossil reserves.<br />
The potential correlation between <strong>the</strong> present fossil fuel consumption bacchanal<br />
and <strong>the</strong> world population in a time frame of millennia is illustrated in fig. 2.<br />
To maintain our present traffic system without expensive changes of <strong>the</strong> available<br />
infrastructure, <strong>the</strong> oil-derived hydrocarbon fuels have to be gradually substituted - at<br />
least partly - by syn<strong>the</strong>tic fuels from <strong>the</strong> more abundant coal or – finally - renewable<br />
<strong>biomass</strong>.<br />
Biomass is <strong>the</strong> only renewable carbon resource. The present worldwide motor<br />
and jet fuel consumption amounts to almost 2 Gt per year and is still increasing. Fossil<br />
motor fuel substitution by biosynfuels via <strong>biomass</strong> <strong>gasification</strong> and Fischer-<br />
Tropsch syn<strong>the</strong>sis has an energy conversion efficiency of about 50% optimistically<br />
and would require a huge amount of at least ca. 4 Gtoe ligno-cellulosic biofeedstock<br />
per year; this is equivalent to our present crude oil consumption or to an almost 10<br />
billion tonne harvest of dry lignocellulosics like wood or straw. Today <strong>biomass</strong> contributes<br />
about 10+% or ca. 1 Gtoe/y to our global primary energy consumption of ca.<br />
11 Gtoe in 2007. The creation of such a huge biosynfuel industry with 3 to 4 times<br />
<strong>the</strong> present biofeedstock consumption <strong>for</strong> energy is a hint to <strong>the</strong> potential supply limitations<br />
<strong>for</strong> a sustainable biosynfuel production, also in view of o<strong>the</strong>r competitive or<br />
inevitable applications of <strong>biomass</strong> as a renewable carbon source.<br />
The technology <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> conversion of syngas into synfuel and chemicals is well<br />
known. Today, <strong>the</strong> worldwide methanol production from syngas, amounts to about 35<br />
Mt/a - mainly from natural gas [WUR 07]. In 1944, toward <strong>the</strong> end of World War 2,<br />
Germany produced already 0.6 Mt/a of Fischer-Tropsch synfuel via <strong>gasification</strong> of<br />
coal – plus ca. 3 Mt/a by catalytic high pressure coal hydration. Today SASOL (South<br />
African Syn<strong>the</strong>tic Oil)-company produces 6 Mt/a of improved FT-products in Secunda<br />
and Sasolburg, SA, from cheap hard coal, acronym CTL (coal to liquid). The photo's<br />
of SASOL's synfuel facilities in fig. 3 give an impression of <strong>the</strong> technical maturity.<br />
At mid 2007 crude oil prices of about 50 €/bbl, synfuel production via syngas from<br />
very cheap natural gas, stranded gas or top gases can be already competitive with<br />
crude oil derived motor fuels. Since 1993 two such commercial GTL (natural gas to<br />
liquid) plants are in operation: <strong>the</strong> Shell 22,5 kbbl per day SMDS-facility in Bintulu,<br />
Malaysia, and <strong>the</strong> 12,5 kbbl per day Mossgas-facility in South Africa. In 2007 <strong>the</strong><br />
34 kbbl per day Oryx I plant of Sasol/Quatar petroleum in Ras Laffan has been put<br />
into operation [ZEN 07]. Conversion of <strong>biomass</strong> to liquid synfuel via <strong>gasification</strong> and<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis, acronym BTL, is not much different from <strong>the</strong> already practised CTL- and<br />
GTL-technology. Only <strong>the</strong> first steps <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of a clean syngas differ<br />
somewhat because of <strong>the</strong> special adaptations required <strong>for</strong> different bio-feedstocks;<br />
<strong>the</strong> tail end steps <strong>for</strong> catalytic syngas conversion are <strong>the</strong> same. Use of <strong>biomass</strong> as<br />
<strong>the</strong> only renewable carbon source is <strong>the</strong> unique advantage of BTL.<br />
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS<br />
The large arisings of agricultural by-products e.g. in <strong>for</strong>m of ca. 1+ Gt/a of surplus<br />
cereal straw correspond to ~ 5% of <strong>the</strong> world primary energy consumption. This is ca.<br />
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Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Fig. 3: SASOL's 6 Mt/y synfuel production facilities from coal (CTL) in Secunda SA<br />
Different <strong>biomass</strong> and carbon feedstock<br />
fossil<br />
fuel:<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>biomass</strong>:<br />
coal ... starch, oil ...<br />
special<br />
chemicals<br />
pulverised coal<br />
coal/water slurry<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis products:<br />
synfuel, chemicals, H 2<br />
lignocellulosic <strong>biomass</strong>:<br />
wood, straw, hay ....<br />
<strong>biomass</strong> preparation<br />
fast pyrolysis<br />
bio-oil/char -slurry<br />
rail transport from many pyrolysis plants<br />
to large, central plant <strong>for</strong> syngas generation and use<br />
entrained flow <strong>gasification</strong><br />
~ 1200 °C, ≥ 60 bar, τ 2 - 3 s<br />
gas cleaning<br />
with heat recovery<br />
liquid fuel syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
single pass operation<br />
electricity generation<br />
CC turbine, engine, FC<br />
electricity<br />
organic waste:<br />
paper, plastics, dung ...<br />
low T<br />
heat<br />
co-generation of a marketable product mix<br />
Fig. 4: Simplified block flow diagram of <strong>the</strong> two-step bioslurry <strong>process</strong> "Bioliq" <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
production of synfuel, chemicals and high p steam plus electricity from <strong>biomass</strong>:<br />
1. Local <strong>biomass</strong> liquefaction by pyrolysis, 2. Bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong> and syngas conversion<br />
in a large central plant.<br />
4<br />
O 2<br />
CO 2
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
a billion tons of dry straw worldwide mainly from wheat, rice, maize and barley with a<br />
share of only half of <strong>the</strong> total straw harvest of ca. 2+ Gt/a. Surplus cereal straw can<br />
make a significant potential energy contribution of ca. 0,5 Gtoe/y and this justifies<br />
even <strong>the</strong> development of a special gasifier suited <strong>for</strong> agricultural residues. Herbaceous<br />
by-products from agriculture, mainly cereal straw and straw-like residues, are<br />
among <strong>the</strong> cheapest renewables. Contrary to wood, all fast growing plants contain<br />
more ash and heteroatoms, especially much nitrogen, potassium and chloride. These<br />
inorganic elements are inevitable constituents of bio - catalytic systems, which are<br />
needed <strong>for</strong> a faster metabolism and growth. Slowly growing wood contains usually<br />
< 1% ash (without bark). Straw or hay contains 5 to 10% ash, rice straw even up to<br />
15 - 20%; K- and Cl-contents in <strong>the</strong> 1% range are typical <strong>for</strong> non-woody feedstock.<br />
Wood is a relatively clean fuel and traditional technologies <strong>for</strong> wood combustion as<br />
well as <strong>gasification</strong> in fixed or fluidised beds are well developed. Technologies <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
use of herbaceous <strong>biomass</strong> are more complex and not well developed:<br />
• Depending on feedstock composition and combustion or <strong>gasification</strong> temperatures,<br />
<strong>the</strong> bio - ashes may become sticky or melt during <strong>the</strong>rmal conversion. A<br />
sticky ash can cause reactor slagging and agglomeration followed by breakdown<br />
of fluidised beds. Especially a high K-content can lower <strong>the</strong> ash softening temperature<br />
down to < 700°C; this is below a suitable combustion or <strong>gasification</strong><br />
temperature.<br />
• Chlorine in <strong>the</strong> biofeedstock is liberated mainly as HCl and causes corrosion, poisoning<br />
of catalysts and can promote <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mation of toxic polychlorinated “dioxins”<br />
and “furans” at unsuitable combustion conditions.<br />
• K-salts like KCl, KOH etc. become volatile at > 600°C and deposition especially of<br />
liquid eutectics in downstream gas ducts can cause serious corrosion and plugging<br />
problems.<br />
• Biomass residues from <strong>for</strong>estry or agriculture are distributed over large areas and<br />
<strong>the</strong> low bulk energy density causes high direct transport costs. Large distance<br />
transport of bulky <strong>biomass</strong> like straw becomes too expensive and has to be<br />
avoided.<br />
3. THE KARLSRUHE BTL - CONCEPT "BIOLIQ"<br />
Our <strong>process</strong> concept concentrates on low-quality ligno-cellulose like residual straw<br />
or residual wood, because ligno-cellulosics are with ~ 90% <strong>the</strong> most abundant <strong>biomass</strong><br />
type. There is also little competition with human and animal food production, if<br />
only agricultural residues like straw or <strong>for</strong>est residues from <strong>the</strong> stem wood harvest<br />
are used. Especially in densely populated regions in south-east Asia, energy plantations<br />
compete <strong>for</strong> agricultural areas needed <strong>for</strong> food and feed production, thus impairing<br />
food supply at <strong>the</strong> expense of a potentially more lucrative bioenergy export.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> following, <strong>the</strong> term "straw" is used as a synonym <strong>for</strong> all thin-walled and fast<br />
growing, non-woody <strong>biomass</strong> residues, which contain much ash and heteroatoms<br />
(N). The technical concept is outlined in fig. 4 [HEN 03, HEN 04]. Biomass is first liquefied<br />
by fast pyrolysis (FP) in many local plants. In rural European areas, about half<br />
of <strong>the</strong> cereal straw harvest amounts to ca. 50 t/km 2 on <strong>the</strong> average and is not needed<br />
to maintain soil fertility but available as an unused surplus. A large delivery radius of<br />
5
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
sand loop<br />
biofuel<br />
from char<br />
combustor<br />
TYPE 2 : DIRECT CONTACT HEATING WITHOUT HEAT CARRIER<br />
see also<br />
vortex reactor<br />
TYPE 1: HEAT CARRIER LOOP WITH EXTERNAL HEATER<br />
Gas fluisised beds with mixed flow<br />
bubbling fluid bed circulating fluid bed<br />
biofuel<br />
sand<br />
bed<br />
ablative pyrolysis vacuum pyrolysis<br />
cold<br />
biofuel<br />
biofuel<br />
vapour<br />
hot disc<br />
hot<br />
cyclone<br />
char<br />
recycle gas<br />
•oil<br />
•excess<br />
gas<br />
rotating hot<br />
disc, cylinder, blade<br />
biofuel<br />
molten<br />
salt<br />
sand<br />
loop<br />
vacuum tank<br />
char<br />
hot<br />
cyclone<br />
char<br />
twin char<br />
combustor<br />
recycle gas<br />
Mechanically mixed and transported shallow beds<br />
rotating cone twin screw (LR-) mixer<br />
•hot cyclone<br />
•condenser<br />
oil, gas<br />
sand loop<br />
char combustion<br />
gas heater in sand loop<br />
condenser<br />
hot cyclone<br />
Fig. 5: Survey of various reactor types used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> fast pyrolysis of <strong>biomass</strong><br />
from straw chopper<br />
0.5 m 3<br />
chops<br />
bigbag<br />
sand-transport<br />
∼ 500°C<br />
sand reheater<br />
∼ 550°C<br />
chops sand<br />
flow control<br />
fast pyrolysis<br />
reaktor<br />
500°C, 1 bar<br />
sand / char<br />
separator<br />
biofuel<br />
char<br />
gas, vapour<br />
char<br />
cyclone<br />
•oil<br />
•excess<br />
gas<br />
char<br />
oil<br />
gas<br />
oil<br />
sand heating or flare<br />
Gas burner<br />
⊗<br />
gas<br />
quench<br />
condensor<br />
biooil<br />
tank<br />
char<br />
silo<br />
oil<br />
slurry<br />
production<br />
Fig. 6: Simplified flowsheet of <strong>the</strong> fast pyrolysis <strong>process</strong> development (PDU), grey boxes and<br />
arrows represent <strong>the</strong> 500°C hot heat carrier (sand, SiC or steel balls) loop.<br />
6
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
> 200 km or more would be necessary to supply an economic, large central biosynfuel<br />
plant with e.g. ≥ 6 Mt/y ligno-cellulosics <strong>for</strong> ≥ 1 Mt/y biosynfuel output.<br />
For square straw bales with ~ 150 kg/m 3 bulk density, a maximum delivery distance<br />
of 20 to 30 km is at <strong>the</strong> limits of practicability <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> local farmers. Regional fast pyrolysis<br />
facilities with ~ 30 km delivery radius are a reasonable size in central EU. About<br />
45% of <strong>the</strong> typical straw harvest plus some <strong>for</strong>est residues from 3,14 · 30 2 ≈<br />
3000 km 2 area correspond to a throughput of ca. 200 000 t/a of air-dry straw and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r straw-like <strong>biomass</strong> plus some woody <strong>for</strong>est residues. With a dry ligno-cellulose<br />
feed, <strong>the</strong> output is about 134 000 t/a = 17 t/a · 8000 h/a of a pyrolysis oil/char paste,<br />
sludge or slurry with a density of ~ 1300 kg/m 3 and a HHV of 6±1 kWh/kg. The mass<br />
density of <strong>the</strong>se pastes, sludge's or slurries is ~ 8 times higher compared to <strong>the</strong> bulk<br />
density of square straw bales. The energy density per litre can be up to 12 times<br />
higher and <strong>the</strong> slurry can contain up to 90% of <strong>the</strong> initial bio-energy and is easily<br />
stored in tanks or silos. Silos <strong>for</strong> storage or transport have <strong>the</strong> big advantage of a<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r quick discharge <strong>for</strong> pastes or even solid crumbs from storage or transport vessels<br />
into a vessel below without using a pump. Slurries from 30 – 50 or more of such<br />
regional pyrolysis plants are transported by rail up to 300 – 500 km to a central facility<br />
<strong>for</strong> syngas generation and use. Such a huge central BTL or biosynfuel plant is<br />
similar to <strong>the</strong> existing GTL- and CTL-facilities and can profit from corresponding experience<br />
with design details, if <strong>the</strong> capacities are comparable.<br />
Central part <strong>the</strong>re is a large pressurised entrained flow gasifier operated slightly<br />
above <strong>the</strong> downstream syn<strong>the</strong>sis pressure (30-100 bar) and at temperatures above<br />
<strong>the</strong> ash melting point; thus being able to handle feedstocks with a high ash content.<br />
After syngas cleaning and adjustment of <strong>the</strong> H2/CO ratio to ca. 2 with <strong>the</strong> water gas<br />
shift reaction plus CO2 removal, <strong>the</strong> pure syngas can be converted with catalysts into<br />
various products like Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesel, methanol, dimethyle<strong>the</strong>r, methane,<br />
hydrogen or o<strong>the</strong>r chemicals. The variants of <strong>the</strong> FT-syn<strong>the</strong>sis are conducted at typical<br />
pressures of 10 to 40 bars, those of <strong>the</strong> methanol syn<strong>the</strong>sis at 50 bars or more<br />
respectively, DME at 70 – 80 bar. The energy consuming, intermediate syngas compression<br />
steps, with high investment and operating costs, which are necessary <strong>for</strong><br />
atmospheric <strong>gasification</strong> <strong>process</strong>es, are avoided <strong>for</strong> pressurised <strong>gasification</strong>.<br />
4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK<br />
The following sections present a brief overview of <strong>the</strong> actual development work.<br />
Present work focuses on <strong>the</strong> head-end steps <strong>for</strong> syngas generation, because <strong>the</strong> tail<br />
end steps <strong>for</strong> syngas conversion to synfuel via Fischer-Tropsch syn<strong>the</strong>sis are well<br />
known.<br />
4.1 Fast Pyrolysis (FP) of ligno-cellulosics<br />
Pyrolysis is <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal decomposition occurring in <strong>the</strong> absence of air and generates<br />
gases, liquids and char. The product yields depend on <strong>the</strong> operating mode. Fast<br />
pyrolysis [PYNE] at moderate temperature of about 500°C and short vapour residence<br />
time in <strong>the</strong> 1 second range are <strong>the</strong> optimum <strong>for</strong> producing high liquid yields<br />
> 50 wt% from ligno-cellulose which are necessary <strong>for</strong> slurry preparation. Fig. 5<br />
shows <strong>the</strong> various reactor types which are being investigated <strong>for</strong> <strong>biomass</strong> fast pyrolysis.<br />
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Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
cross-current cross-current removal removal of of gas, gas, vapours vapours and and char char powder<br />
powder<br />
hot hot sand<br />
sand<br />
straw straw chops<br />
chops<br />
mass ratio < 10<br />
sand recycle<br />
little<br />
char recycle<br />
flat fluidised bed at ~ 500 °C, residence time few s<br />
fast horizontal transport with poor axial and good radial mixing<br />
twin screws<br />
Fig. 7: LR (Lurgi-Ruhrgas) – mixer reactor with twin screws rotating in <strong>the</strong> same<br />
sense; length 1,5 m, diameter 0,04 m, rotation frequency few Hz.<br />
gas<br />
100<br />
80<br />
pyrolysis water<br />
condensates<br />
60<br />
pyrolysis tar 40<br />
20<br />
char<br />
ash 0<br />
wood flour<br />
spruce beech winter wheat<br />
straw<br />
ash<br />
rice<br />
ash wt % 1.0 0.8 7.4 15.7<br />
water wt % 8.9 6.5 7.7 8.0<br />
HHV MJ/kg 16.2 16.2 14.6 12.0<br />
E. Henrich, E. Dinjus, R. Stahl, F. Weirich (FZK, ITC-CPV);H. Weiss, U. Zentner (Lurgi); D. Meier (BFH-Hamburg), to be published<br />
gas<br />
aqu.<br />
tar<br />
char<br />
Fig. 8: Percentage yields of solid liquid and gaseous pyrolysis products from wood<br />
and straw, produced in a twin screw mixer reactor.<br />
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Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Most pilot facilities use bubbling or circulating fluidised beds of sand and recycle<br />
some cooled pyrolysis gas <strong>for</strong> bed fluidisation. Gas recycle causes additional energy<br />
loss during <strong>the</strong> typical quench condensation <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> recovery of pyrolysis liquids.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e we prefer mechanically fluidised beds without a fluidising gas. We have<br />
chosen <strong>the</strong> twin screw or LR-(Lurgi-Ruhrgas) mixer reactor, because of <strong>the</strong> available<br />
technical experience, which can simplify and accelerate <strong>the</strong> scale-up to a commercial<br />
20 ± 10 t/h plant scale. The LR-mixer reactor has been applied since ~ 50 years first<br />
as “flash coker” <strong>for</strong> town gas production, than as “sand cracker” <strong>for</strong> olefin production<br />
from naphtha or later <strong>for</strong> FP of tar sands of vacuum residues [WEI 00].<br />
A <strong>process</strong> development unit (PDU) with a LR-mixer reactor <strong>for</strong> 20 kg/h maximum<br />
throughput of straw chops, sawdust, paper, cardboard pieces etc. has been built in<br />
Karlsruhe. Central part is a hot heat carrier loop with a bucket elevator, operated at<br />
~ 500°C. The simplified flow sheet in fig. 6 shows <strong>the</strong> hot heat carrier loop in grey<br />
arrows. Heat carrier particles circulate in a closed loop and are indirectly reheated in<br />
a special heater by hot flue gas from pyrolysis gas combustion. Then, <strong>the</strong>y are mixed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> dry bio-feed particles in <strong>the</strong> LR-mixer; <strong>biomass</strong> residence time is several<br />
seconds. A fast stream of gaseous, vapourised and solid pyrolysis products leaves<br />
<strong>the</strong> reactor. The pyrolysis char particles are removed first in a hot cyclone. Then <strong>the</strong><br />
vapours are condensed in one or two steps: first a tar fraction at ~ 100°C with little<br />
water and than an aqueous condensate with ca. 30±10 wt% acetic acid and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
oxygenates at room temperature. Cyclone char is a fine (~ 10 – 200 µm) and brittle<br />
powder with a high porosity. It is suspended in <strong>the</strong> tar and also in <strong>the</strong> aqueous condensate.<br />
Various suspension types' e.g. a stable paste or pumpable sludge or slurry<br />
can be produced in this way.<br />
The photo in fig. 7 shows <strong>the</strong> 1.5 m long twin screw reactor in <strong>the</strong> FP-PDU; <strong>the</strong><br />
screws have 4 cm diameter and rotate with 1 to 4 rps. Tests have been per<strong>for</strong>med<br />
with 1 mm quartz sand or SiC as heat carrier and also with 1.5 – 2 mm steel balls.<br />
Some attritted fine sand or SiC is carried out into <strong>the</strong> pyrolysis products and can<br />
cause abrasion problems in downstream equipment. Such problems are avoided with<br />
steel balls and in addition <strong>the</strong> reliability of loop and reactor operation improves significantly.<br />
Maximum LR-reactor throughput is 10 kg/h <strong>biomass</strong> toge<strong>the</strong>r with ca.<br />
300 kg/h sand or up to 20 kg/h with 1 t/h steel ball circulation. Experience with short<br />
time reactor operation showed <strong>the</strong> suitability of <strong>the</strong> twin screw reactor type <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
fast pyrolysis of <strong>biomass</strong>.<br />
Greasy deposits of tar/char particles have been observed in cooler pipe parts of <strong>the</strong><br />
condensation section; this requires special attention. For <strong>the</strong> production of pumpable<br />
slurries usually twice as much liquid than char powder is needed. Fig. 8 shows typical<br />
product yields (dry basis) <strong>for</strong> selected <strong>biomass</strong> materials: For wood, FP liquid yields<br />
are high (60 – 70 wt%) and char yields sufficiently low (15 – 20 wt%). This becomes<br />
more difficult <strong>for</strong> straw due to <strong>the</strong> higher ash content, which can also catalyse vapour<br />
decomposition to undesired pyrolysis char and gas. A typical straw pyrolysis yield<br />
range is 50 to 60 % total condensates and 20 to 30 wt% char which contain <strong>the</strong> ash;<br />
condensate/char-ratio's < 2 is close to <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>for</strong> slurry production.<br />
The measured pyrolysis gas composition is given in fig. 9. For wood, <strong>the</strong> pyrolysis<br />
gas mainly consists of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, small amounts of methane<br />
and traces of small C2 - C5 alkane and alkene hydrocarbons. For straw <strong>the</strong><br />
amount of gas is a little bit higher when compared to wood, because more carbon<br />
9
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
mol/kg<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
CH 4<br />
CO 2<br />
CO<br />
C 2 –C 5<br />
H 2<br />
wood straw<br />
spruce beech winter wheat rice<br />
ash 1.0 0.8 7.4 15.7 wt. %<br />
water 8.9 6.5 7.7 8.0 wt. %<br />
yields: gas 14.7 16.0 22.0 22.9 wt. %<br />
CO 2 6.7 8.4 14.6 15.3 wt. %<br />
m3 m /kg 3 /kg<br />
Fig. 9: Amount and composition of pyrolysis gases from various feedstocks in <strong>the</strong><br />
twin screw mixer reactor at ~ 500°C.<br />
Fig. 10: Fast pyrolysis pilot plant <strong>for</strong> 0,5 t/h <strong>biomass</strong> throughput, part of <strong>the</strong> "Bioliq"<br />
facilities at Karlsruhe research centre.<br />
10<br />
0,15<br />
0,10<br />
0,05<br />
0
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
dioxide is <strong>for</strong>med. The energy content of <strong>the</strong>se pyrolysis gases corresponds to about<br />
10% of <strong>the</strong> initial bioenergy. At unsuitable condensation conditions, e.g. higher temperatures,<br />
several mass% of volatile, low molecular weight oxygenates like <strong>for</strong>maldehyde,<br />
acetaldehyde, glyoxal etc. can also escape with <strong>the</strong> gas fraction. If not considered<br />
in <strong>the</strong> gas analysis, a corresponding mass and energy balance deficit of several<br />
percent is observed.<br />
FP pilot plant: Operating experiences are a basis <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> design of a larger FP pilot<br />
facility with 0.5 t/h <strong>biomass</strong> throughput. With <strong>the</strong>ir experience from previous technical<br />
applications of <strong>the</strong> twin screw mixer reactor, Lurgi AG company, Frankfurt, has<br />
planned and built a fast pyrolysis pilot plant at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe in 2006<br />
and 2007. The plant is now almost ready <strong>for</strong> start-up; fig. 10 shows a photo of <strong>the</strong><br />
status mid 2007.<br />
4.2 Bioslurry preparation and properties<br />
For storage, transport and <strong>gasification</strong>, pyrolysis char and tar or aqueous condensates<br />
are mixed to <strong>for</strong>m ei<strong>the</strong>r a stiff suspension paste or a free flowing slurry, that<br />
have a much higher volumetric energy density of 18 - 26 MJ per litre than <strong>the</strong> bulky<br />
straw bales with ca. ~ 2 MJ/l. With non-porous solid particles of regular shape,<br />
pumpable and free flowing slurries can be obtained up to ~ 50% solids by volume.<br />
Pyrolysis chars pose special problems due to <strong>the</strong>ir very high porosity of up to 80%.<br />
The chars first soak much liquid until sufficient lubricant between <strong>the</strong> particles remains.<br />
Production of pumpable slurries with > 30 wt% char powder <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e requires<br />
special ef<strong>for</strong>ts.<br />
A very appropriate mixing tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> pyrolysis char powders and condensates is a<br />
colloid mixer designed by "MAT" in Germany [MAT], a robust tool well-known <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
preparation of very homogeneous and concentrated but pumpable cement grouts.<br />
Because of high shearing rates in <strong>the</strong> mixer, solid char agglomerations are completely<br />
destroyed. During our <strong>gasification</strong> experiments > 20 t of slurry was prepared<br />
in such a colloid mixer. The photo in fig. 11 shows <strong>the</strong> set-up with a colloid mixer <strong>for</strong><br />
continuous slurry preparation of ca. 1 t/h. At a high char content in <strong>the</strong> range around<br />
30 wt% <strong>the</strong> slurries are stable without additives and <strong>the</strong> viscosity is like stiff honey<br />
(several Pas). The photo in fig. 12 gives an impression of <strong>the</strong> flow characteristics of a<br />
viscous slurry "sirup".<br />
A stepwise preparation of <strong>the</strong> final, preheated feed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> pressurised entrained<br />
flow gasifier has advantages. With stiff pastes of pyrolysis products, simpler preparation<br />
procedures at <strong>the</strong> pyrolysis plant and safer storage and transport with reduced<br />
spill risks can be achieved; silo vessels allow quick unloading into a lower vessel.<br />
The more complex final preparation of a suitable and pumpable gasifier feed slurry in<br />
a colloid mixer and preheating with waste heat from <strong>the</strong> synfuel <strong>process</strong> is required<br />
only once immediately prior to <strong>gasification</strong>.<br />
4.3 Bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong> campaigns<br />
Our <strong>gasification</strong> experiments were carried out at FUTURE ENERGY company,<br />
Freiberg, Saxony, (now Siemens fuel <strong>gasification</strong> technology) [SCI 02, SCI 04] in a<br />
3 – 5 MW entrained flow pilot gasifier, at 26 bar. The pilot gasifier was part of <strong>the</strong> pilot<br />
facilities <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> Noell conversion <strong>process</strong> [CAR 94], and was put into operation in<br />
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Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Fig. 11: Continuous preparation of max. 1 t/h bioslurry with a 15 kW colloid mixer.<br />
Control of <strong>the</strong> char and bio-oil flow rates with <strong>the</strong> bioslurry density.<br />
Fig. 12: Flow characteristics of pyrolysis<br />
oil/char slurries<br />
12<br />
pilot flame<br />
fuel oxygen<br />
SS pressure shell<br />
water cooled<br />
radiation screen<br />
~ 1300 °C ~ 50 bar<br />
raw syngas<br />
molten slag<br />
Fig. 13: Design of <strong>the</strong> GSP – type<br />
slagging entrained flow gasifier <strong>for</strong> operation<br />
at high temperature and pressure.<br />
The characteristic radiation<br />
screen with SiC liner is cooled with<br />
pressurised water and keeps <strong>the</strong> pressure<br />
resistant steel shell at low temperature.
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
1996 on <strong>the</strong> site of <strong>the</strong> previous "Deutsches Brennstoff Institut" (DBI) in Freiberg,<br />
Saxony. The design of this GSP-type (Gaskombinat Schwarze Pumpe) gasifier has<br />
been developed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>gasification</strong> of NaCl salt-containing brown coal in central<br />
Germany. Straw is similar as it contains comparable amounts of KCl alkali chlorides.<br />
A 130 MW GSP-gasifier is being successfully operated since 20 years at "Schwarze<br />
Pumpe", Saxony, in combination with CH3OH syn<strong>the</strong>sis and combined cycle (CC)<br />
electricity generation [SEI 00]. Fig. 13 outlines <strong>the</strong> design of <strong>the</strong> gasifier. Main characteristic<br />
is a pressurised water cooled internal reaction chamber with SiC liner, covered<br />
with a layer of down-flowing slag of honey-like viscosity which protects <strong>the</strong> wall<br />
from corrosion and erosion. The cooled outer mild steel shell can be designed <strong>for</strong><br />
high-pressure up to 100 bar or even more.<br />
Slurries are atomised pneumatically with pure O2 in a special burner at <strong>the</strong> gasifier<br />
top and <strong>gasification</strong> proceeds in a downward flame reaction in about 1 second. The<br />
GSP-gasifier type is specially suited <strong>for</strong> feedstocks with much ash and corrosive slag<br />
and tolerates rapid changes of ash melting behaviour by adjusting <strong>the</strong> temperature<br />
with <strong>the</strong> controlled O2-flow. Sudden shut down and fast start-up procedures are possible<br />
without damaging <strong>the</strong> reactor. The GSP-gasifier type is a multipurpose "guzzler":<br />
any feed with can be pumped and atomised pneumatically and has a heating<br />
value above 10 MJ/kg can be digested safely. Fig. 14 and 15 show <strong>the</strong> top and bottom<br />
part of <strong>the</strong> pilot gasifier during our tests in Freiberg, Saxony.<br />
For our <strong>gasification</strong> campaigns we have prepared more than 40 t of different slurries<br />
from <strong>the</strong> products of commercial beech wood pyrolysis <strong>for</strong> commercial charcoal<br />
production, special pulverised anthracite/water slurries <strong>for</strong> kinetic studies, bio-oils<br />
from fast pyrolysis of wood supplied by Dynamotive company, and char and bio-oil<br />
from straw pyrolysis [HOR 05]. Purchased pyrolysis oil from Chemviron company e.g.<br />
had a density of 1184 kg/m 3 , a room temperature viscosity of 0,16 Pas and a lower<br />
heating value (LHV) of 19 MJ/kg. Charcoal dust had a LHV of 31 - 32 MJ/kg and has<br />
been fur<strong>the</strong>r pulverised in a ball mill prior to slurry preparation. To simulate a slag<br />
layer in <strong>the</strong> gasifier which is characteristic <strong>for</strong> agricultural <strong>biomass</strong> residues, 2-3 wt%<br />
straw ash from <strong>the</strong> 3 MW district heating plant at Schkölen, Thuringia, plus 0,3 wt%<br />
KCl were added to raise <strong>the</strong> amount of ash.<br />
The char slurries described in <strong>the</strong> previous 4.2 section are first pumped into a 1,2<br />
m 3 feed storage vessel equipped with an anchor agitator and a bottom-to-top recirculation.<br />
A constant feed stream was transferred at 26 bars with a screw pump via a<br />
90°C heater into <strong>the</strong> gasifier burner. The feed rate was ei<strong>the</strong>r 0.35 t/h slurry (2<br />
MW(th)) plus 50 m 3 (STP)/h of CH4 in a pilot burner or 0,5 – 0,6 t/h slurry (3 MW(th))<br />
without CH4 – pilot burner. Pure evaporated O2 from a LO2 - tank has been stored in<br />
an intermediate pressurised cylinder battery at several bars above <strong>the</strong> <strong>gasification</strong><br />
pressure. The slurry stream was atomised with a very fast O2-jet in a special burner<br />
nozzle at <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> <strong>gasification</strong> chamber. To ensure proper <strong>gasification</strong> conditions,<br />
<strong>the</strong> O2-flow was carefully controlled. Typically, O2-consumption corresponds to<br />
about half of <strong>the</strong> slurry weight. Hot raw syngas and liquid slag flow through <strong>the</strong> concentric<br />
exit hole at <strong>the</strong> bottom of <strong>the</strong> <strong>gasification</strong> chamber into a quench space,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> hot raw syngas has been cooled to ~ 160°C by liquid water injection.<br />
Gasification temperatures of 1200 - 1600°C have been generated with an O2stoichiometry<br />
of λ = 0,4 - 0,5. In <strong>the</strong> small pilot gasifier, <strong>the</strong> heat loss via <strong>the</strong> ca. 3 m 2<br />
13
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Fig. 14: Top section of <strong>the</strong> 3-5 MW(th) 26 bar entrained flow pilot gasifier of <strong>the</strong> GSP<br />
type in <strong>the</strong> facilities of Siemens Fuel Gasification Technology, Freiberg (previously<br />
FUTURE ENERGY)<br />
Fig. 15: Slag removal at <strong>the</strong> PEF pilot gasifier bottom<br />
14
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
surface area of <strong>the</strong> radiation screen amounts to about 20% of <strong>the</strong> initial slurry energy.<br />
In a much larger technical gasifier <strong>the</strong> loss will be reduced to a negligibility level < 1%<br />
of <strong>the</strong> bioenergy. Because of <strong>the</strong> smaller surface-to-volume ratio, this results in an<br />
O2-stoichiometry <strong>for</strong> auto<strong>the</strong>rmal <strong>gasification</strong> of λ between 0,3 and 0,4, λ ~ 1/3 is a<br />
reasonable expectation value. After a change of <strong>the</strong> operating conditions, stationary<br />
temperatures and operating data could be approached in only 1 h; stable operation<br />
has been maintained at least <strong>for</strong> additional two hours - except ash composition due<br />
to its long residence time.<br />
No problems with slag removal have been observed with straw ash. Downward slag<br />
flow at <strong>the</strong> inner cooling screen wall creates only a ≤ cm-thick layer with honey like<br />
viscosity. Solidified slag granules have been collected in a water bath at <strong>the</strong> gasifier<br />
bottom. Every 3 hours a wet slag batch has been removed from a pressure lock <strong>for</strong><br />
balance measurements. About half of <strong>the</strong> slag was SiO2; constituents like CaO, K2O<br />
and iron oxides are in <strong>the</strong> 10 - 20% range. The melting behaviour of <strong>the</strong> straw ash<br />
under reducing conditions is characterised by powder sintering at ~ 800°C; free flow<br />
is obtained at ~ 1100°C.<br />
The carbon conversion was determined from <strong>the</strong> sum of carbon removed with <strong>the</strong><br />
slag and <strong>the</strong> quench water. All carbon to syngas conversion percentages were found<br />
definitely > 99% at all feed temperatures and all raw tar slurries with a char particle<br />
size ≤ 100 µm after proper atomisation. Increasing particle size (17 < x90 (µm) < 94)<br />
and char contents increasing from 20 to 35% show little influence upon <strong>the</strong> carbon<br />
conversion. Gasification efficiency increases significantly to about 70% with lower<br />
<strong>gasification</strong> temperatures of 1200°C; in a large gasifier with negligible loss to <strong>the</strong><br />
cooled radiation screen 80+% are possible. About 870 Nm 3 /h raw syngas have been<br />
<strong>for</strong>med including ~ 17% of an inert purge gas <strong>for</strong> experimental reasons (O2 2%, N2<br />
88%, CO2 15%). The composition of <strong>the</strong> quenched, dry product syngas and a brief<br />
summary of <strong>the</strong> bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong> results are given in fig. 16. The high amount of<br />
purge gas in <strong>the</strong> pilot gasifier can be expected to be negligible in a large technical<br />
gasifier.<br />
Table 1 shows <strong>the</strong> inorganic trace gases determined to be in a very low concentration<br />
range after full water quench. Especially <strong>the</strong> amount of chlorine as HCl is not<br />
very high as <strong>the</strong> most part is found in <strong>the</strong> <strong>process</strong> quench water. Various syngas<br />
cleaning steps are available, which ensure <strong>the</strong> environmentally compatible gas release<br />
via a torch. At <strong>the</strong> usual operating temperatures of 1200 – 1600°C, <strong>the</strong> very hot<br />
syngas has a low CH4 content, usually below 0,1 vol%. The hot raw syngas is practically<br />
tar-free because of <strong>the</strong> high <strong>gasification</strong> temperature. The measured raw syngas<br />
composition indicates an approximate equilibration <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> homogeneous shift<br />
reaction CO + H2O � CO2 + H2, <strong>for</strong> all operating conditions tested. This allows a<br />
simple prediction of <strong>the</strong> raw syngas composition.<br />
Table 1: Trace gases found in <strong>the</strong> dry raw syngas after a full quench with water<br />
HCl 1,7 mg/m 3 (STP); HCN 3,4 mg/m 3 (STP)<br />
SO2 0,2 vol%; NH3 0,4 mg/m 3 (STP)<br />
5 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF BIOSYNFUEL PRODUCTION<br />
A crude estimate of <strong>the</strong> material and energy balances <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> total <strong>process</strong> train is<br />
possible from a coherent set of stoichiometric chemical equations <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> successive<br />
15
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Syngas-Composition:<br />
<strong>for</strong> pyrolysis tar - char - slurries<br />
H 2<br />
CO<br />
CO 2<br />
N 2<br />
(inerts)<br />
Feed:<br />
solids: 0 – 39 wt. %<br />
ash: 3 % straw ash<br />
HHV: 10 – 25 MJ/kg<br />
density: 1250+ kg/m 3<br />
Operating conditions:<br />
throughput: 0.35 - 0.5 t/h<br />
<strong>gasification</strong> pressure: 26 bar<br />
gasfic. - temp.: 1600 – 1200 °C<br />
feed-temperature: 40, 80 °C<br />
no tar, < 0.1 vol % methane<br />
equilibration:<br />
carbon conversion ≥ 99 %<br />
smooth operation without surprise<br />
(CO2 • H 2) / (CO • H2O) = K(T)<br />
straw ash m.p. < 1200 °C<br />
Fig. 16: Summary of bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong> results<br />
<strong>the</strong>rmal loss<br />
sum ~ 3%<br />
~ 1,5 %<br />
~ 0,5 %<br />
~ 0,5 %<br />
~ 0,5 %<br />
lignocellulose 100 %<br />
Schnellpyrolyse<br />
fast pyrolysis<br />
slightly exo<strong>the</strong>rmal<br />
Kondensat/Koks condensate/char – slurry Slurry<br />
~ 90 89 %<br />
Flugstrom entrained -<br />
Druckvergasung<br />
flow <strong>gasification</strong><br />
Syn<strong>the</strong>se-Rohgas<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis-raw gas<br />
Syn<strong>the</strong>se-Reingas<br />
clean syngas<br />
~ 76 75 %<br />
FT - Syn<strong>the</strong>se syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
~ 3 %<br />
heat Reaktionswärme<br />
of reaction<br />
~ 13 %<br />
FTS heat - Reaktionswärme<br />
of reaction<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis Syn<strong>the</strong>seprodukte products<br />
~ 18 %<br />
~ 56 51 %<br />
nicht unconverted umgesetztes syngas Syngas<br />
~ 4 %<br />
Trennung separation<br />
~ 4%<br />
pyrolysis gas<br />
~ 6 %<br />
C C5- 5 -P -products<br />
rodukte<br />
~ 5 %<br />
~ 42 %: FTS synfuel<br />
by- product<br />
C 5+ products recycle ~ 5%<br />
Fig. 17: Energy flow in <strong>the</strong> bioslurry <strong>process</strong> "Bioliq"<br />
16<br />
energy <strong>for</strong><br />
pyrolysis<br />
~ 40 %: electricity<br />
high- p steam
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
<strong>process</strong> steps. The stoichiometric reaction equations in table 2 (next side) summarise<br />
<strong>the</strong> experimental and <strong>the</strong>oretical knowledge of <strong>the</strong> sequential <strong>process</strong> chain <strong>for</strong> cereal<br />
straw in a condensed <strong>for</strong>m. For o<strong>the</strong>r feedstocks like wood or o<strong>the</strong>r pyrolysis or<br />
<strong>gasification</strong> conditions, ano<strong>the</strong>r adjusted set of equations is required. All reaction<br />
equations are coherent and relate to a <strong>for</strong>mal C6H9O4 – ligno-cellulose "molecule"<br />
(mass units 145) at start representing <strong>the</strong> empirical elemental composition of a moisture-,<br />
ash- and heteroatom-free ligno-cellulose. These stoichiometry equations allow<br />
a quick estimate of mass yields, in table 2 indicated as m%. The energy balance can<br />
be derived from <strong>the</strong> higher heating value (HHV) of each reactant, which can be reliably<br />
estimated from <strong>the</strong> elementary composition given in <strong>the</strong> lumped empirical reactant<br />
<strong>for</strong>mula using <strong>the</strong> Channiwala equation [CHA 02]; energy yields in table 2 estimated<br />
in this way are indicated as e%.<br />
An estimate of <strong>the</strong> energy flow in <strong>the</strong> total BTL <strong>process</strong> train including a final syngas<br />
use via Fischer-Tropsch (FT)-syn<strong>the</strong>sis in fig. 17 shows, that only about half of <strong>the</strong><br />
initial <strong>biomass</strong> energy can be converted into FT raw products. About 80% of <strong>the</strong> FT<br />
raw product energy may be converted into super-clean diesel and gasoline. A synfuel<br />
energy yield of 42% as shown in fig. 17 is an optimistic but also realistic upper value,<br />
requiring some more development ef<strong>for</strong>ts. Available present-day technology is more<br />
near 30% [SCA 04]. Syn<strong>the</strong>sis pathways via o<strong>the</strong>r products<br />
e.g. like methanol can be<br />
more efficient [LIE 04].<br />
High<br />
long distance transport costs <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> bulky <strong>biomass</strong> are prohibitive <strong>for</strong> direct<br />
transport to a large central plant. Biomass conversion into pastes, sludges or slurries<br />
with higher energy density solves <strong>the</strong>se problems. Straw and paste/slurry transport<br />
costs by truck and rail up to 500 km distance are compared in a simplified linearised<br />
<strong>for</strong>m in fig. 18 [LEI 07]. Costs are in € per final tonne of biosynfuel based on <strong>the</strong> following<br />
mass yields: 7 t storable airdry straw (4 kWh/kg) → 6 t dry straw → 4,7 slurry<br />
→ 1+ t biosynfuel (12 kWh/kg). Zero distance cost contributions are mainly <strong>for</strong> loading<br />
and unloading; rail transport is calculated ei<strong>the</strong>r with or without 30 km truck or<br />
tractor pre - transport to <strong>the</strong> railway station. At delivery distances above 65 km, direct<br />
transport of airdry straw becomes more expensive than a local supply of many regional<br />
FP-plants by tractor followed by rail transport of <strong>the</strong> dense pastes or slurries in<br />
silo wagons. A 65 km delivery radius corresponds to a small and less economic biosynfuel<br />
production of only 0,2 Mt/a, equivalent to only 2% of <strong>the</strong> capacity of a modern<br />
10 Mt/a crude oil refinery.<br />
Not all farmers will agree with contracts <strong>for</strong> on-time delivery of <strong>the</strong>ir residual straw,<br />
wood etcetera. The distribution of FP plants will <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e not cover completely all<br />
neighbouring sites as shown at <strong>the</strong> left hand side in fig. 19, but could be more spot<br />
like with gaps as shown on <strong>the</strong> right. This does not matter much, since slurry transport<br />
costs by rail do not depend much on distance. Yet industrially developed "brown"<br />
field sites with rail access are important <strong>for</strong> cost savings.<br />
Manufacturing costs <strong>for</strong> slurries and synfuel depend on <strong>the</strong> plant size as depicted in<br />
fig. 20 and fig. 21. The costs <strong>for</strong> straw, residual wood etc., <strong>biomass</strong> transport and<br />
technical O2 <strong>for</strong> <strong>gasification</strong> are almost independent of plant size. This is equivalent<br />
to a cost degression exponent of about 1. But <strong>the</strong> fixed and variable costs <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
plant and <strong>the</strong> operating personnel depend on plant capacity. Economies of scale are<br />
represented by cost degression exponents of ~ 0.7 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> plant investment costs and<br />
~ 0.25 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> required number of operating personnel respectively.<br />
This means that<br />
17
Summer<br />
School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Table<br />
2: Stoichiometric reaction equations <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> stepwise conversion of straw into biosynfuel<br />
feedstock airdry straw:<br />
HHV 2923 MJ/mu=186<br />
kg<br />
Channiwala equation: HHV<br />
MJ/mu = 349.1 C + 1178.3 H - 103.4 O – 15. 1 N + 100.5 S – 21.1 ash, CHONS mass%<br />
fast pyrolysis:<br />
(straw)<br />
(C 6H9O4 + 12 g ash + 1 g het)<br />
6H9O4 + 12 g ash + 1 g het)<br />
dry ligno-cellulose<br />
m=85, e=100%<br />
C 6 H 9 O 4 (ligno-cellulose) + 12 g ash<br />
m=78%, e=100% m=6.5%<br />
+ 1 g heteroatoms +<br />
m=0.5%<br />
28 g water<br />
m=15%<br />
r ∆H = -138 MJ/mu; e=5%<br />
500 °C<br />
. . (C2.25H2.2O0.35 + 12 g ash) + C2.75H3.2O0.75 + 1 g het. + 1.55 (H2O) l + C1H0.5O1.35 char + ash organic liquids<br />
reaction<br />
water gas (sum)<br />
m=25%, e=39% m=26% , e=48%<br />
m=0.5% m=15%,<br />
e=0% m=18%, e=8%<br />
slurry <strong>gasification</strong>:<br />
(400 → 1500<br />
K)<br />
r∆H<br />
= -453 MJ/mu; e=15.5%<br />
(C5H5.4O1.1 + 12 g ash + 1 g het + 1.55 H2O) + 2.1 (O2 + 0.05 N2 )<br />
4.3 CO<br />
+ 3.1 H2 + 0.7 CO2 + 1.15 (H2O)<br />
g + 0.14 N 1500 °C<br />
2 + slag<br />
straw slurry<br />
m=66.6%, e=87.5%<br />
CO-shift and<br />
syngas cleanin<br />
technical oxygen<br />
m=38%, λ=0.36<br />
(4.3 CO + 3.1 H2 + 0.7 CO2 + 0.14 N2 ) + (1.15 + 1.68) H2O g:<br />
ca. 700 °C<br />
catalyst<br />
straw slurry<br />
9.4 mole<br />
raw syngas, 7.4 mole CO<br />
+ H2 m=98%, e=72%<br />
wet raw syngas<br />
dry raw syngas,<br />
1.68 mole H2O<br />
recycled from FTS clean condition<br />
ed syngas, high boilers +<br />
m=44.6%,<br />
e=72% m=59.8%<br />
FT-syn<strong>the</strong><br />
r<br />
(m.p.
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
a capacity increase by an order of magnitude reduces <strong>the</strong> specific plant investment<br />
costs by a factor of about two.<br />
Present 2007 crude oil prices of ~ 50 €/bbl result in a price of 0,5 € per kg<br />
or of<br />
0,4 € per litre of untaxed motor fuel at <strong>the</strong> crude oil refinery gate. Synfuel production<br />
via syngas from very cheap natural gas (GTL-<strong>process</strong>) is competitive with oil-derived<br />
motor fuels. Biosynfuel is about two times more expensive compared to untaxed<br />
crude-oil-derived motor fuel. The main reasons <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher bio-synfuel costs compared<br />
to a large crude oil refinery with a throughput of ~ 10 Mt/a are related to: (1) ca.<br />
6 times higher specific mass input, 7 t airdry straw versus 1,2 t crude oil are needed<br />
<strong>for</strong> 1 t of motor fuel, (2) handling of solid feedstocks is more difficult technically; (3)<br />
<strong>the</strong> more complex multi-step technology with several exo<strong>the</strong>rmal chemical reaction in<br />
succession has an about two times lower energy conversion efficiency and (4) poor<br />
economy of scale with a much smaller plant size.<br />
In developing countries<br />
with lower <strong>biomass</strong> and labour costs, <strong>the</strong>re is still much in-<br />
centive <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r technical<br />
simplifications. Compared with <strong>the</strong> expensive oil imports<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se countries,<br />
synfuel production from domestic <strong>biomass</strong> will be already com-<br />
petitive at a much lower crude oil price than<br />
in <strong>the</strong> industrialised countries. Taking <strong>the</strong><br />
results of Hoogzaad [HOO 94] who analysed <strong>the</strong> situation in <strong>the</strong> Ukraine, it seems to<br />
be possible <strong>the</strong>re to produce synfuel <strong>for</strong> ~ 35 c€ per litre [RAF 04].<br />
6. OUTLOOK<br />
The feasibility of <strong>the</strong> Karlsruhe<br />
BTL concept "Bioliq" has been successfully tested<br />
and proved by experiments. Process development<br />
is continuing in view to aspects<br />
like scale-up, technical simplifications, reliability<br />
and economy improvements coming<br />
into <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>efront.<br />
The present focus is still on <strong>the</strong> steps <strong>for</strong> syngas generation. Our<br />
next step is <strong>the</strong> operation of a fast pyrolysis<br />
pilot facility on a scale of about 500 kg/h<br />
air-dry fast growing <strong>biomass</strong><br />
with a twin screw mixer reactor. This pilot facility has<br />
been designed<br />
and built by Lurgi AG company, Frankfurt, in <strong>the</strong> Karlsruhe research<br />
centre. The plant is now ready <strong>for</strong> start-up. If a reliable operation can be obtained, <strong>the</strong><br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r steps <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> demonstration<br />
of our "Bioliq" <strong>process</strong> are straight-<strong>for</strong>ward. Raw<br />
syngas generation, cleaning and syn<strong>the</strong>sis are well known technologies and will be<br />
covered in future collaborations with experienced industry partners.<br />
We appreciate financial support from <strong>the</strong> ministry <strong>for</strong> “Ernährung und Ländlichen<br />
European Union <strong>for</strong> IP RENEW in <strong>the</strong> 6 th<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Raum“ (MELR), Baden-Württemberg; <strong>the</strong><br />
framework program, and <strong>the</strong> Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe (FNR) of <strong>the</strong><br />
German ministry<br />
of agriculture.
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Rail Rail Rail Rail<br />
Straw<br />
Truck Truck Truck Truck<br />
unit unit unit unit train train train train<br />
30 30 30 30 km km km km truck, truck, truck, truck, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>n rail rail rail rail truck<br />
direct direct direct direct rail rail rail rail<br />
Straw<br />
+ Slurry<br />
truck<br />
Slurry<br />
0 100 200 300 400 500<br />
Distance Distance / / km<br />
km<br />
100<br />
50<br />
€/t<br />
Transport costs<br />
Fig. 18: Straw and slurry transport costs by rail and truck<br />
integrated plant with<br />
0.5 GW input<br />
truck-transport 65 km<br />
5 GW<br />
rail<br />
250 km<br />
mean slurry/paste transport dis tance:<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
plants<br />
truck<br />
0<br />
5 GW<br />
x km distance<br />
y €/t dry <strong>biomass</strong><br />
dry straw by truck:<br />
y = 19 + 0,15 x<br />
dry straw by rail:<br />
with 30 km truck<br />
transfer to station:<br />
y = 46 + 0,14 x<br />
slurry by truck:<br />
y = 6 + 0,133 x<br />
slurry by rail:<br />
y = 6,5 + 0,033 x<br />
with 30 km tractor<br />
transfer to station:<br />
y = 13 + 0,033 x<br />
close pyrolysis plants scattered pyrolysis plants<br />
transport to central syngas plant : straw by tractor, slurry by rail<br />
rail<br />
500 km<br />
rail<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
plants<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
pl ants<br />
Fig. 19: Close and scattered FP plant configurations compared to a small integrated<br />
plant with 0,5 GW <strong>biomass</strong> input.<br />
20
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
Fig.<br />
20: Cost contributions from fast pyrolysis. At crude oil prices of ca. 50 €/bbl <strong>the</strong><br />
bioslurry costs are comparable at <strong>the</strong> same heating value<br />
● industrial site:<br />
no grass root plant<br />
● slurry input:<br />
4.7 Mt/a, 588 t/h<br />
● synfuel output:<br />
1 Mt/a, 1500 MW<br />
8000 h · 125 t/h<br />
● total capital investment:<br />
500 M€, 10 a depreciation<br />
625 M€, 20 a depreciation<br />
comparison with GTL<br />
● ! no energy export :<br />
and side-products<br />
● straw bale delivery:<br />
3000 h/a = 2500 t/h<br />
ca. 200 trucks per h<br />
with 100 m 3 load ??<br />
Extreme traffic density!<br />
airdry straw input Mt/a<br />
1000<br />
100<br />
€ / t synfuel<br />
10<br />
MW (th) input <strong>for</strong> 8000 h/a<br />
reference<br />
capacity<br />
0.02 0.2 1.25 2 7 20<br />
slurry<br />
slurry <strong>gasification</strong><br />
O 2 without kWh(el)<br />
40 % of 8 c€/m 3<br />
slurry transport<br />
personnel<br />
sum<br />
965<br />
669<br />
125<br />
4 100 1000 10000<br />
Production costs <strong>for</strong> 1 tonne biosynfuel: €/t<br />
- 250 km slurry transport by rail 4,7 t · 21 €/t = 99 (69)<br />
- oxygen 360 m 3 · 4.7 t slurry · 0.08 €/m3 = 54<br />
(oxygen cost is without electricity)<br />
- <strong>gasification</strong> and FT-synfuel production = 125<br />
- personnel: 300 persons à 60 k€/a = 18<br />
sum = 296(266)<br />
Fig.<br />
21: Cost contributions from bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong> and biosynfuel production<br />
99<br />
54<br />
18
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
3<br />
Varia<br />
18<br />
32<br />
Surplus straw<br />
residual wood<br />
Varia1 1 €/kg<br />
per per kg<br />
kg<br />
Fast Fast pyrolysis pyrolysis<br />
personnel<br />
5 2<br />
22<br />
Straw Straw transport transport<br />
12<br />
Slurry Slurry transport transport 10<br />
O2 O2 without without power power<br />
Gasification +<br />
FT- syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
Fig. 22: Percentage cost breakdown <strong>for</strong> biosynfuel production with <strong>the</strong> bioslurry <strong>gasification</strong><br />
<strong>process</strong> "Bioliq". Plant configuration: 0,1 GW fast pyrolysis plants supply a<br />
large plant with 1 Mt/a biosynfuel output.<br />
13<br />
5
Summer School, University of Warsaw, 29.-31. August 2007<br />
REFERENCES<br />
[CHA 02] S.A. Channiwala, P.P. Parikh; Fuel 81 (2002) 1051<br />
[CAR 94] J. Carl, P. Fritz (eds.); “Noell Konversionverfahren zur Verwertung und<br />
Entsorgung von Abfällen”, EF-Verlag; Berlin 1994<br />
[FIS 04] "Der Fischer Weltalmanach" 2004, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt<br />
2003<br />
[HEN 03] E. Henrich, E. Dinjus; Pyrolysis and Gasification of Biomass and Waste,<br />
Proc. of an expert meeting Strasbourg 2002, CPL-press 2003 (ed. A.V.<br />
Bridgwater) p. 511-526<br />
[HEN 04] E.Henrich, E.Dinjus, A.Koegel, K.Raffelt, R.Stahl, F.Weirich; A two<br />
stage <strong>process</strong> <strong>for</strong> synfuel from <strong>biomass</strong>; Proc of <strong>the</strong> 2 nd world <strong>biomass</strong><br />
conf. 2004,Rome, Italy, Vol I, 729-733, ETA-Florence.<br />
[HOO 04] J Hoogzaad, Bioenergy systems in Ukraine, doctoral <strong>the</strong>sis, University<br />
Utrecht (2004), in press.<br />
[HOR 05] A. Hornung et. al.; "Thermochemical conversion of straw", 14 th EU <strong>biomass</strong><br />
Conf. Proc. p. 913-916<br />
[LEI 07] L. Leible et. al.; Wissenschaftliche Berichte, FZKA 7170 (2007)<br />
[LIE 04] W. Liebner, M. Wagner; Mt-Synfuels, <strong>the</strong> Efficient and Economical Alternative<br />
to Fischer-Tropsch Fuels, Erdöl Erdgas Kohle 120. Jg. 2004,<br />
Heft 10, S. 323 – 326<br />
[MAT] MAT-Mischanlagentechnik, Illerstraße 6, 87509 Immenstadt, Germany<br />
(www.mat-oa.de).<br />
[PYNE] http://www.pyne.co.uk<br />
[RAF 04] K. Raffelt, E. Henrich, A. Koegel, R. Stahl, J. Steinhardt, F. Weirich;<br />
The BTL2 <strong>process</strong> of <strong>biomass</strong> utilisation entrained flow <strong>gasification</strong> of<br />
pyrolysed <strong>biomass</strong> slurries. 2 nd Internat. Ukrainian Conf. on Biomass <strong>for</strong><br />
Energy, Kiev, Ukraine, September 20 - 22, 2004<br />
[SCI 02] M. Schingnitz; Chemie-Ingenieur Technik (74) p. 776, 7/2002<br />
[SCI 04] M. Schingnitz, D. Volkmann; DGMK-Tagungsbericht 2004-1, p. 29<br />
[SCA 04] G. Schaub, D. Unruh, M. Rhode; Synfuels from Biomass via Fischer-<br />
Tropsch-Syn<strong>the</strong>sis - Basic Process Principles and Perspectives, Erdöl<br />
Erdgas Kohle 120. Jg. 2004, Heft 10, S. 327 – 331<br />
[SEI 00] W. Seifert, B. Buttker; DGMK-Tagungsbericht 2000-1, p. 169<br />
[WEI 00] H. Weis, V. F. Pagel; 16 th World Petroleum Congress, Calgary (CA),<br />
2000<br />
[WUR 07] T. Wurzel; Erdöl, Erdgas, Kohle, 123. Jahrgang, Heft 6, 2007. p. 92-96<br />
[ZEN 07] R. Zennaro; Erdöl, Erdgas, Kohle, 123. Jahrgang, Heft 6, 2007. p. 88-91<br />
23