Black Shales Studies in Kentucky, Final Report. - National Energy ...

FINAL REPORT 

BLACK SHALE STUDIES 

UNIV€RSI7Y OF KENTUCKY 

R€SFAUCH GmU? 

IN 

KENTUCKY 

D€.ARTM€NT OF GEOLOGY 

KENTUCKY GEOLOGICAL SURV€Y 

E(40-1) 5202

BL4CK SHALE STUDIES IN KENTUCKY 

FINAL REPORT 

UN IVERS ITY OF KENTUCKY 

RESEARCH GROUP 

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY 

KENTUCKY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

AUGUST, 1980

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...........................~..........i 

SECTION I: STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES 

Executive Summary .............................. ~ ~ ~ 1 

Appendix I~A. ..................................... 1 ~ 7 

Appendix I~B...........................* .......... 1 ~ 8 

Appendix I ~ ............................. C 

...e.oo.oI~9 

Appendix I~D................. ....... . . . . . ~ . ~ ~ . D . 

SECTION 11: GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES 

Local Chemical Variability..... ................... I I ~ l 

Areal and Stratigraphic Geochemistry ............. ~ 11~16 

Kerogen Discrimination ............................ 11~27 

Xdray Fluorescence Spectrometry .............. 0 000011~52 

Statistical Analysis......... ..................... 11~67

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The principal investigators express their appreciation 

to Patricia Bryant, M. B. Smith, and R. K. Vance for 

their contributions to the preparation of this report.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This contract for Black7Shale Study in Kentucky was 

awarded to the University of Kentucky Research Foundation as 

agent for the University of Kentucky Geological Group in 

October,1977. The Group has carried on four separate 

projects under the contract and was internally organized as 

follows: 

U.K. RESEARCH FOUNDATION 7 Contracting Agent 

U.K. GEOLOGICAL GROUP 7 W. H. Dennen, Coordinator 

KENTUCKY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Core Archive Project 7 W. W. Hagan1D.C. HaneY, 

Principal Investigator 

Stratigraphic Characterization 7 E. N. Wilson, 


DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY 

Geochemical Characterization 7 W. H. Blackburn 

and W. H. Dennen, Principal Investigators 

Stratigraphic Interpretation 7 F. R. Ettensohn, 


Initial planning for the research program was based on a 

USDOE.;.METC estimate of a fivetyear contract period. 

However, this phase of the larger METC program was 

discontinued after a little less than three years of 

operation (31 May 80) with consequent curtailment or 

elimination of a number of aspects of the planned research. 

During its somewhat abbreviated history, the various 

projects have generated the following deliverables: 

Resource Inventory Deliverables 

A computer data base consisting of all pertinent geologic 

and geophysical data for about 4500 representative wells 

which penetrated the Devonian shale sequence in eastern 

Kentucky was planned. Actual deliveries to the EGSP data 

bank included 1384 modifications of sets in the base, 1245 

new data sets, and the incorporation of approximately 800 

wells from the Columbia Gas System. 

i

Data maps showing the location of about 2500 key wells 

representative of the Devonian shale sequence in eastern 

Kentucky. 

Data maps, showing gas and oil production or shows in 

stratigraphic units immediately above, below or laterally 

equivalent to the Devonian Shale sequence. 

Two detailed interlocking stratigraphic cross sections of 

the Devonian shale sequence and associated lithologies 

located immediately above, below and laterally equivalent to 

the shale interval were completed. Two others were finished 

except for texts, but not readied for publication. 

Radioactive isopach maps showing the thickness of 

intensely radioactive shales within certain stratigraphic 

interval. 

Structureccontour on the base of specified blacksshale 

units. 

Detailed paleontologic and paleoecologic study of 

Devonian blackshale lithofacies. 

Isopach map of the total Devonian shale interval in 

eastern Kentucky. 

Isopach maps showiog thickness of specific major 

lithologic units within the shale sequence. 

Petrographic characterzation of the black7shales in 

eastern Kentucky base on available core samples. 

A detailed study of the surficial blackyshale 

stratigraphy in the outcrop belts of eastern Kentucky. 

A detailed depositional model for the Middle Devonian c 

Mississippian blackyshale sequence of eastern Kentucky. 

A summary report relating the occurrence of oil and gas 

to the regional stratigraphic framework and depositional 

model. The report w i l l indicate the attributes of those 

.areas within eastern Kentucky which have the greatest 

potential for commercial development of shale gas reserves. 

ii 

Shale Characterization Deliverables 

Map showing uranium variation in the black shale of 


Manuscript on XRF techniques.

Report on relationship between redioactivity and gas-: 

productivity. 

iii 

Results of investigation of chemical variance of kerogen. 

Report on the statistical validity and manipulation of 

available geochemical data as it applies to its usefulness 

as a stratigraphic correlation tool. 

Geochemical logs of the 12 measured stratigraphic 

sections. 

-- 

Data Bank Deliverables 

Geologic Base Maps, 7 sheets. 

Data Base Status Overlays, 3 sheets. 

Data Base Quality Overlays, 3 sheets. 

Drill hole locations plotted on 7 1/2 minute topographic 

quadrangles. 

Data sets prepared for keypunching (source documents 

anotated, formats encoded, or WHCS data sets 

corrected/augmented). 

Student Participation 

Eighteen students have served as research assistants on 

black shale projects and eight have completed or nearly 

completed theses. 

Markowitz, G., 1979. A Geochemical Study of the Upper 

DevonianTLower Mississippian Black Shales in Eastern 


Huang, S., 1978. The Influence of the Dispersion Method on 

Peak Intensity of Kaolinite, Montmorillonite and Illite 

Clay Standards. 

Miller, M. L., 1978. A Petrogaphic Study of the Upper 

DevonianTLower Mississippian Black Shales in Eastern 


Swager, D. R., 1978. Stratigraphy of the Upper Devonian 

Lower Mississippian Shale Sequence in the Eastern 

Kentucky Outcrop Belts. 

Dillman, S. C., in progress. Subsurface Geology of the 

Upper DevonianyLower Mississippian Black Shale Sequence

in Eastern Kentucky. 

Barron, L. S., in progress. Paleoecology of the Devonian 

Mississippian Black Shale Sequence of Eastern Kentucky. 

Nunez del Arco, E., in progress. Local Geochemical 

Variation in the Devonian Black Shales of Eastern 


Johnson, D., in progress. Abundance of Environmentally 

Hazardous Elements in Kentucky Black Shale. 

In addition to faculty and research assistants, at least 

twenty students have been employed in temporary positions 

for field, laboratory or drafting support over the life of 

the contract. 

Publications 

A number of publications and presentations have been made 

based on studies conducted under the contract. They are: 

Barron L. S. and Ettensohn F. R., 1980. A Bibliography of 

the Paleontology and Paleoecology of the Devonian.; 

Mississippian BlacktShale Sequence in North America. (in 

Print 1. 

Barron, L. S. and Ettensohn, F. R. 1980. Paleontology and 

Paleoecology of a Prominent GreentShale Horizon in the 

Upper Devonian Black Shale of EasttCentral Kentucky: Geol. 

SOC. America, Abs. with programs, V. 12(5), p. 218. 

Blackburn, W. H. and Markowitz, G., 1980. Geochemistry of 

the Devonian Gas Shales in Kentucky, U.S.A. International 

Geological Congress, Paris, France. 

Dennen, W. H., Blackburn, W. H. and Davis, P. A., 1978. 

Abundance and Distribution of some chemical elements in the 

Chattanooga, Ohio and New Albany Shales in Kentucky. 

Proceedings of the First Eastern Gas Shales Symposium. 

U.S. Dept. of Energy MERC/STt77/5, 49767. 

Ettensohn, F. R., Fulton, L. P., and Kepferle, R. C., 1977. 

Use of the scintillometerand gammatray logs for COrrelatiOn 

from the subsurface to the surface in black shale in Schott 

and others, Proceedings, First Eastern Gas Shales 

Symposium, D.O.E., Morgantown, W. VA.; MERC/SP77/5, p. 

6787690. 

Ettensohn, F. R., Fulton, L. P., and Kepferle, R. C., 1977. 

Correlation from the subsurface to the surface in black 

iv

shale using a scintillometer and gammatray logs; Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, V. 9(7).' p. 970. 

Ettensohn, F. R., Fulton, L. P., and Kepferle, R. C. 1979. 

Use of scintillometer and gammatray logs for correlation and 

stratigraphy in homogeneous black shales; Geol. SOC. 

America Bulletin. V. 90, p. 8287849. 

Ettensohn, F. R., and Dever, G. R., Jr., eds. 1979. 

Carboniferous geology from the Appalachian Basin to the 

Illinois Basin through eastern Ohio and Kentucky; Guidebook 

for field Trip No. 4, IX International Congress of 

Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Geology, Lexington, Kentucky, 

293 p. (includes 11 articles authored or coauthored by 

Ettensohn). 

Ettensohn, F. R., 1979. Depositional framework of the Lower 

Mississippian Subaqueous delta sediments in northeastern 

Kentucky, in Ettensohn, F. R. and Dever, F. R., Jr. (eds), 

Carboniferous geology from the Appalachian Basin to the 

Illinois Basin through eastern Ohio and Kentucky: 

International Congress of Carboniferous Stratigraphy and 

Geology, gth, Guidebook for Field Trip No. 4, p. 1337136. 

Ettensohn, F. R., 1979, Radioactive stratigraphy at the 

DevonianMississippian Boundary, in Ettensohn, F. R. and 

Dever F. R. Jr. (eds) Carboniferous geology from the 

Appalachian Basin to the Illinois Basin through eastern Ohio 

and Kentucky: International Congress of Carboniferous 

Stratigraphy and Geology, gth, Guidebook for Field Trip No. 

4, p. 1667170. 

Kepferle, Roy C., Wilson, Edward N., and Ettensohn, Frank 

R., 1978, Preliminary Stratigraphic Cross Section Showing 

Radioactive Zones in the Devonian Black Shales in the 

Southern Part of the Appalachian Basin: U. S. Geological 

Survey Oil and Gas Investigations Chart OC785. 

Miller, M. L., and Ettensohn, F. R., 1978. A Preliminary 

Microscopic examination of Devonian and Lower Mississippian 

Black Shales in east central Kentucky: Geol. SOC. America 

Abs. with Programs, V. 10 (41, p. 176. 

Potter, Paul E., Wilson, Edward N., and Zafar, Jaffrey S., 

1980 (in press) Structure and thickness of the Devonian? 

Mississippian shales sequence in and near the Middlesboro 

Syncline in parts of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. 

Kentucky Geological Survey (in cooperation with METC). 

Wison, Edward N.and Zafar, Jaffrey S., 7978, Wireline Logs 

and Sample Studies in Stratigraphy and Gas occurrence of the 

Devonian Shales along the Southern Tie Section in Eastern 

Kentucky and Vicinity: in Proceedings First Eastern Gas 

Shales Symposium, Oct. 17719, 1977, Morgantown, West 

Virginia, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Morgantown Energy Research 

V

Center, MERC/SP777/5, March 1978, pp. 1457165. 

vi 

Wilson, Edward Norman, and Zafar, Jaffrey S., 1978, Computer 

processing for the Eastern Gas Shales Project in and near 

Letcher County in southeastern Kentucky: (Abstract) - idem p. 

415. 

Wilson, Edward N., Zafar, Jaffrey S., and Ettensohn, Frank 

R., 1979 (in press), Stratigraphy and Structure of the 

DevonianyMississippian Shale Sequence and itssubstrates 

along(the Rome Trough Section in Tennessee, Kentucky, and 

West Virginia: U.S. Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy 

Technology Center, Morgantown, W. VA., EGSP Ser. No. 500, 

Chart with text. 

Wilson, Zafar, and Ettensohn, 1980 (in Press), Stratigraphy 

(and Stucture) of the DevonianyMississippian Shale Sequence 

along the Eastern Longitudinal Sections A: Axis of the 

Middlesboro Syncline, B: Axis Northwest of the Pine 

Mountain Fault in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia and West 

Virginia: US DOE, METC, Mogantown, W. Va., EGSP Ser. No. 

502, Charts with text. 

Zafar, Jaffrey S. and Wilson, Edward Norman, 1978, The 

effects of Pine Mountain Overthrust and other regional 

faults on the stratigraphy and gas occurrence of Devonian 

Shales south and east of Big Sandy field in Kentucky and 

Virginia : in Preprints for Second Eastern Gas Shales 

Symposium Vol. I, U.S. Department of Energy, Morgantown 

Energy Technology Center, METC/SP778/6 Vol. I pp. 404-414. \ 

Zafar, Jaffrey S., and Wilson, Edward Norman, 1979, Nature 

and position of the DevonianyMississippian Boundary in 

Eastern Kentucky and Contiguous Areas: (Abstract) Abstract 

of Papers, Ninth International Congress of Carboniferous 

Stratigraphy and Geology, University of Illinois, Urbana, 

Illinois, pp. 2417242. (Entire paper submitted to Compte 

Rendu.)

SECTION I 

STRATIGRAPHIC STUD IES 

F, R, ETTENSOHN 

PR I NC I PAL I NVEST I GATOR

SECTION I 

BLACK-SHALE STRATIGRAPHY GROUP 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Listed below are the goals or contract objectives and a 

general summary of the results made while pursuing these 

objectives. These are the results not only of the principal 

investigator, but also of the four graduate research 

assistants who have worked on the project Since its 

inception. Only a brief summary of the results is presented 

here. More detailed accounts of the results can be found in 

past annual reports, students theses (housed at U.K. Geology 

Library; copies were also included in annual reports to 

M.E.T.C.) or in papers, maps, and sections already 

published, in press, or in preparation. 

Petrogaphic Studies 

Objective: Characterize available black-shale cores 

petrographically. 

Study: When this study was undertaken in 1976, three 

cores (Martin County, Perry County, and Pine Mountain) were 

available. The cores were described in detail 

megascopically, sampled, and examined in thin section. The 

study was completed in 1978 by Mike Miller. 

Results: 

1. Seven Major stratification types (even-parallel, 

discontinous even-parallel, wavy-parallel, wavy- 

nonparallel, discontinous wavy-parallel, discontinuous 

wavy-parallel, and structureless) and numerous 

microscopic sedimentary structures were identified. 

2. Three major lithologies were identified, organic-rich 

claystones, organic-deficient claystones, and organic- 

deficient claystones interlaminated with organic-rich 

claystones. 

3. Five microfacies were defined by variations in the 

abundance of mineral and organic constituents and by 

variations in the nature of lamination. These include: 

1 ami nat ed organic-deficient interlaminated with 

organic-rich, and organic-rich carbonate. 

4. Vertical variations in the relative abundance of mineral 

and organic constituents, microfacies, and microfossils 

enable definition of a generalized microstratigraphy 

which is correlative between cores. 

1-1

Stratigraphic Studies 

1-2 

Objective 1: Distinguish any possible internal 

stratigraphy within the seemingly homogenous black-shales in 

the eastern Kentucky outcrop belts. 

Study: The results of this study are contained in a 

thesis by Dennis Swager completed in 1978. 

Results: 

1. It was found that the black-shale sequence could be 

divided into lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and 

radioactive units. 

2. Six lithostratigraphic units and two biostratigraphic 

units were reported in the black shales of eastern Kentucky. 

3. More importantly, six of the radioactive units which 

Provo had defined in the subsurface were found in 

outcrop and correlated along the length of the Outcrop 

belts. Of the seven radioactive units recognized by 

Provo, five were recognized consistently in the Outcrop 

belt The lower two units (6 & 7) pinch out to the 

east before reaching the outcrop belt. 

4. Each of the units successively overlap each other as the 

Cincinnati Arch is approached. Moreover, each of these 

units progressively thins to the southwest as they 

onlap the Cincinnati Arch. On the highest part of the 

arch, only the three upper units are present. 

5. The onlapping relationships of the radioactive units 

show that the Black-Shale Sea was transgressive and 

that the Cincinnati Arch was positive at this time. 

6. In parts of eastern Kentucky, the Devonian-Misissippian 

boundary occurs in the Bedford Shale. However, in 

areas where the Bedford Shale is absent and 

Mississippian and Devonian black shales are 

superimposed, Mississippian black shales can be 

distinguished from Devonian black shales in outcrop 

with a scintillometer because the Mississippian shales 

are far more radioactive.

1-3 

Objective 2: Construct suitably placed stratigraphic cross- 

sections though the Appalachian Basin using well logs, 

sample studies, and outcrop data where pertinent. 

Results: 

1. Three cross sections were constructed in conjunction 

with Roy C. Kepferle, Edward N. Wilson, J. Zafar. 

These sections include a section through the southern 

part of the Appalachian Basin, the Rome Trough section, 

and the Eastern Longitudinal section. The first 

section is published; the latter two are in press. 

Objective 3: Characterize the subsurface stratigraphy of the 

blackshale sequence through a series of isopach and 

radioactive isopach maps of certain black-shale units and 

through a series of structure contour maps drawn on the base 

of each major black-shale unit. 

Study: The results of this study are included in a thesis 

and in a series of maps completed by Scott Dillman in 1980. 

A copy of the thesis in enclosed as Appendix A, and the 

eight isopach and eight structure maps w i l l be published by 

M.E.T.C. 

Results: 

1. Four radioactive isopach maps, eight isopach 

maps, and eight structure contour maps were 

generated during the course of the study. 

2. The total shale thickness ranges from 7.3 m 

(24 ft) on the crest of the Cincinnati Arch to 

556.2 m (1825 ft) in eastern Pike County. 

3- A greater clastic content close to West 

Virginia clastic sources dilutes radioactivity 

within the black shale sequence, which is 

reflected on gamma-ray logs as a weaker positive 

signature. 

4. A hinge line which runs nearly north-south 

from western Lewis County to eastern Bell County 

separates a broad area of relatively thin black 

shale from an area of rapidly thickening black 

shale to the east. 

5. Distinct thickening and thinning trends are 

apparent on isopach maps and often represent local 

synclinal and anticlinal structures, which can be 

identified on county structure maps in Kentucky. 

6. Structures like the Rockcastle River Uplift 

and Rome Trough were apparently active both during

1-4 

and after black-shale deposition. Others like the 

Paint Creek Uplift, were only active after black- 

shale deposition. 

7. Structure contour maps indicate that the 

Devonian axis of the Cincinnati Arh was 10 to 12 

km east of the Ordovician axis of Jillson (1931) 

in Lincoln, Casey, and northern Russell Counties. 

8, The greatest thickness of highly radioative 

shale occurs in northern Floyd, Johnson, and 

northern Martin Counties. Although black-shale 

thicknesses increase even more to the east, the 

amount of highly radioative black shale dereases 

in an eastward direction due to clastic dilution.

1-5 

Paleoenvironmental-Paleontological Studies 

Objective 1: Determine a depositional model for 

the black-shale sequences in eastern Kentucky. 

Results: 

1. A relatively new depositional model for the 

entire blackshale sequence has been developed 

which relates blacksshale deposition to the 

interaction of tectonic and climatic factors. A 

copy of the model, is included as Appendix B. The 

most important aspects of the model are: 

a. Black shales were deposited during a time of 

cratonic subidence and transgression. 

b. The black-shales do not represent all deep or 

all shallow conditions. Rather, the black shales 

reflects progressively deepening seas. 

c. The black shales were deposited in a nearly 

enclosed, equatorial, epicontinental sea. 

d. Because of the warm, equatorial nature of the 

sea and the likelihood of brackish surficial 

waters, a stratified water column or PyCnOCline 

developed which prevented vertical circulation and 

oxygenation of deep bottom waters. 

e. Anaerobic coditions developed below the 

pycnocline in which the abundant organic matter 

was preserved from Oxidation. 

f. Cratonic portions of the Black-Shale Sea 

essentially developed in the rainshadow of the 

Acadian Mountains, which prevented large-scale 

clastic influx into the sea. 

g* A subsiding peripheral basin (Appalachian 

Basin) just west of the Acadian Mountain acted as 

a barrier of the transportation of coarser 

clastics into western cratonic parts of the Black- 

Shale Sea. Hence, most of those coarser clastics 

which prograde westward from the Acadian Mountains 

were confined to the subsiding Appalachian 

peripheral basin. 

Objective 2: Compile a detailed study of black- 

shale paleontology and paleoecology. 

Study: This is the subject of a thesis by Lance 

S. Barron completed in 1980. A preliminary copy 

of the study is included as Appendix C.

1-6 

Results: 1. An extensive bibliography of black- 

shale paleontology and paleoecology, containing 

over 1200 entries has been compiled and is being 

revised for final publication by M.E.T.C. A copy 

of this is included as Appendix D. 

2. A study of black-shale paleontology and 

paleoeology along with an atlas of common black- 

shale fossils has been completed and is inluded as 

Appendix C. 

3. These studies support the presence of a 

stratified water column and progressively 

deepening conditions.

APPENDIX I-A 

I- 7

SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE UPPER DEVONIAN-LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN 

BLACK-SHALE SEQUENCE IN EASTERN KENTUCKY 

THESIS 

- 

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the 

requirements for the degree of Master of Science 

at The University of Kentucky 

BY 

SCOTT BRIAN DILLMAN 

Lexington, Kentucky 

Director: Dr. Frank R. Ettensohn, Assist. Professor of Geology 

Lexington, Kentucky 

1980

ABSTRACT OF THESIS 

SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE UPPER DEVONIAN-LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN 


The Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence is an 

important source of natural gas in eastern Kentucky and with technolog- 

ical advances may be an important source of synthetic oil and uranium 

on the flanks of the Cincinnati arch. To enhance the understanding and 

development of these resources in the black-shale sequence, eight iso- 

pach maps, eight structure-contour maps and nine isopach maps of highly 

radioactive black shale were constructed. 

Structural features including the Rome trough, Rockcastle River 

uplift, Pine Mountain thrust fault, Kentucky River and Paint Creek 

fault zones and unnamed basinal areas in Greenup, Pike, and Knott 

counties were identified on the maps. Faults bounding the Rome trough 

and other structures were active intermittently throughout Late Devonian 

time. 

Other st3ltlctures show only post-Devonian activity, whereas some 

show both Devonian and post-Devonian activity. Comparison of structurecontour 

and isopach maps allow the differentiation of syn- and postsedimentary 

structural activity relative to the black-shale sequence. 

A north-south trending hinge line separates a broad platform area from 

an area of rapid eastward thickening into the Appalachian basin. 

Units 

7 through 1 progressively onlap the Cincinnati arch; units 4 through 1 

cover the arch. 

Author's Name

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author is indebted to the many people who in different 

capacities made this study possible. I wish to thank Dr. F. R. 

Ettensohn for his suggestions and careful review of the maps and 

manuscript as thesis director, and Dr. William C. MacQuown and Dr. 

Thomas G. Roberts for reviewing the manuscript. 

is owed to Danna L. Antoine for the great job of drafting the maps 

and figures, to John P. Farrell for drafting the radioactive isopach 

maps, and to Patricia L. Bryant, Jane T. Wells, and Barbara L. Col- 

lins for typing ofmanuscripts. 

Caroline Pennington, Scott Yankey, John Goble, Margaret Rogers and 

Ann Larsen for help in collecting and processing data, and to Dr. 

F. R. Ettensohn, Lance Barron, and Donald Chesnut for help in 

plotting and contouring the radioactive isopach maps using the 

Borden Shale baseline. 

mation provided by Edward N. Wilson and Gabriel M. Hartl. A special 

thanks is extended to the author's wife, Margaret, for her help 

throughout the project and for her endless patience, understanding 

and encouragement. 

A debt of gratitude 

Tanks also go to Donald Chesnut, 

The author is also appreciative of the infor- 

This study was funded by the United States Department of Energy 

in conjunction with the Morgantown Energy Research Center, Morgan- 

town, West Virginia under contract number DE-AC21-76ET12040. A 

two-year research assistantship awarded to the author by the Univer- 

sity of Kentucky, Department of Geology provided financial support 

for this research. 

iii


Page 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . ......................... iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS . ........................ iv 

LIST OF FIGURES . ......................... viii 

INTRODUCTION . .......................... 1 

PURPOSE . .............................. 3 

LOCATION . ............................ 4 

TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES . .................... 6 

STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE .................... 8 

Introduction . ......................... 8 

Previous Studies ........................ 8 

Map and Cross Section Review . ................. 10 

STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS . ....................... 12 

Introduction . ......................... 12 

Radioactive Java Formation and West Falls Formation . ..... 14 

Radioactive Stratigraphic Unit 7 . ............... 14 







CORRELATION ............................ 18 

Introduction ........................... 18 

Java Formation. Pipe Creek Member of the Java Formation and the 

West Falls Formation ...................... 19 

Radioactive Unit 7 ....................... 22 


Radioactive Unit 5 ........................ 22 





Radioactiveunit B ....................... 24 

Radioactive Unit S ....................... 25 

ISOPACH MAP DISTRIBUTIONS ..................... 27 

Introduction .......................... 27 

Rhinestreet Shale - Unit 7 . .................. 29 

Upper Olentangy Shale - Unit 6 . ................ 29 

Lower Huron Shale Member - Unit 5 . .............. 30 

Middle Huron Shale Member - Unit 4 . .............. 30 

Upper Huron Shale Member - Unit 3 . .............. 30 

ThreeLickBed-Unit 2 .................... 31 

Cleveland Shale - Unit 1 .................... 31 

ISOPACH ANOMALIES ......................... 32 

Introduction .......................... 32 

Cincinnati Arch ........................ 32 

iv

V 

Page 

ISOPACH ANOMALIES Continued . ................... 

Unnamed Thickened Lobe . .................... 34 

Unnamed Thickening Trend . ................... 35 

RomeTrough . ......................... 39 

Rockcastle River Uplift ..................... 40 

Pine Mountain Thrust . ..................... 41 

Another Unnamed Thickening Trend . ............... 41 

Minor Synclines and Anticlines . ................. 41 

STRUCTURAL RELATIONS . ...................... 43 

Introduction . ......................... 43 

Cincinnati Arch . ....................... 43 

Rome Trough . ......................... 44 

Rockcastle River Uplift .................... 44 

Paint Creek Uplift ....................... 46 

Middlesboro Syncline . Pine Mountain Thrust . ......... 47 

Minor Structures . ....................... 47 

RADIOACTIVE ISOPACH MAPS . .................... 49 

Introduction . ......................... 49 

Procedure . .......................... 50 

Three Lick Bed Baseline Versus Borden Shale Baseline . ..... 52 

RADIOACTIVE ISOPACH ANOMALIES COMPARED TO REGULAR ISOPACH AND 

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAPS ...................... 54 

West Falls Formation . Rhinestreet Shale Member . ....... 54 

Java Formation . Olentangy Shale . ............... 55 

Unit 2. Unit 3. Unit 4. & Unit 5 . ............... 56 

Unit 1 . ............................ 57 

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL AND PRODUCTION FROM THE UPPER DEVONIAN- 

LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN BLACK-SHALE SEQUENCE . ............ 59 

Introduction .......................... 59 

Big Sandy Gas Field ...................... 60 

Ashland . Boyd County Gas Field . ............... 60 

Gas Fields Associated With Faults . .............. 62 

Gas Fields On the Flanks of Uplifts . ............. 62 

Devonian Shale Gas in the Pine Mountain Thrust Block . ..... 63 

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS ...................... 64 

APPENDIX 1 ..................... .(in back pocket) 

Map 1: Isopach Map of the Devonian Black-Shale Sequence 

(New Albany . Chattanooga - Ohio Shale) in Eastern 

Kentucky . ................ .(in back pocket) 

Map 2: Isopach Map of the Rhinestreet Shale (Unit 7) in 

Eastern Kentucky . ............ .(in back pocket) 

Map 3: Isopach Map of the Upper Olentangy Shale (Unit 6) 

In Eastern Kentucky . ........... .(in back pocket) 

Map 4: Isopach Map of the Lower Huron Shale Member (Unit 5) 

of the Ohio Shale in Eastern Kentucky . .. .(in back pocket) 

Map 5: Isopach Map of the Middle Huron Shale Member (Unit 4) 

of the Ohio Shale in Eastern Kentucky . .. .(in back pocket)

APPENDIX 1 Continued 

Map 6: Isopach Map of the Upper Huron Shale Member (Unit 3) 

vi 

Page 

of the Ohio Shale in Eastern Kentucky. . . .(in back pocket) 

Map 7: Isopach Map of the Three Lick Bed (Unit 2) of 

the Ohio Shale in Eastern Kentucky .... .(in back pocket) 

Map 8: Isopach Map of the Cleveland Shale Member (Unit 1). 

of the Ohio Shale in Eastern Kentucky. . . .(in back pocket) 

APPENDIX 2 ..................... .(in back pocket) 

Map 1: Structure Contour Map of the Base of the Ohio 

Shale in Eastern Kentucky. . ....... .(in back pocket) 

Map 2: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the West 

Falls Formation (Rhinestreet Shale, Unit 7) in 

Eastern Kentucky . ............ .(in back pocket) 

Map 3: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Java 

Formation/Olentangy Shale (Unit 6) in Eastern 

Kentucky . .............. .(in back pocket) 

Map 4: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Lower 

Huron Shale Member (Unit 5) of the Ohio Shale 

in Eastern Kentucky. ........... .(in back pocket) 

Map 5: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Middle 


in Eastern Kentucky. . .......... .(in back pocket) 

Map 6: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Upper 


in Eastern Kentucky. . .......... .(in back pocket) 

Map 7: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Three 

Lick Bed (Unit 2) of the Ohio Shale in Eastern 


Map 8: Structure Contour Map on the Base of the Cleveland 

Shale Member (Unit 1) of the Ohio Shale in Eastern 


Appendix 3 (Maps using Three Lick Bed baseline). .. .(in back pocket) 

Map 1: Isopach Map of Radioactively Intense Black Shale 

in the West Falls Formation of- the -Ohio Shale 

(Unit W) ................. .(in back pocket) 


in the Java Formation of the Ohio Shale 

(Unit J) ................. .(in back pocket) 


in the Three Lick Bed and W o n Shale Member of 

the Ohio Shale (Units 2, 3, 4 & 5) .... .(in back pocket) 


in the Cleveland Shale Member of the Ohio Shale 

(Unit 1) .................. (in back pocket) 

Appendix 4 (Maps using Borden Shale baseline). .... (in back pocket) 

Map 1: Isopach Map of Highly Radioactive Black Shales 

in the Chattanooga Shale of South-Central 

Kentucky . ................. (in back pocket) 


in Rhinestreet Shale Member of the West Falls

APPENDIX 4 Continued ....................... 

vii 

Page 

Formation (Unit 7) ............ .(in back pocket) 


in the Olentangy Shale (Unit 6). ..... .(in back pocket) 

Map 4: Isopach Map of Highly Radioactive Black Shale 

in the Three Lick Bed and Huron Shale Member of 

the Ohio Shale (Units 2, 3, 4 & 5) ..... .(in back pocket) 

Map 5: Isopach Map of Highly Radioactive Black Shale 

in the Cleveland Shale Member of the Ohio Shale 

(Unit 1) ................. .(in back pocket) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . .......................... 67 

VITA . .............................. 72

INTRODUCTION 

The Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence is 

currently a major source of natural gas in eastern Kentucky (Avila, 

1976; Thomas, 1951; Hunter and Young, 1953; and others). Vost of the 

shale is characterized by a high concentration of organic and radio- 

active material. With growing energy needs, advances in technology, 

and changing world political situations, the Upper Devonian-Lower 

Mississippian black-shale sequence may become an important source of 

synthetic oil and uranium. 

Surprisingly little stratigraphic study has been done on the 

seemingly homogeneous Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale 

sequence in eastern Kentucky; most major studies were done in adjoin- 

ing states. Provo (1977) pioneered the stratigraphic study of the 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence using the 

radioactive characteristics of the shale. She was able to identify 

a readily workable internal stratigraphy of seven uni'-;s in the sub- 

surface based on gamma-ray log signatures. 

identify and correlate the same subsurface stratigraphic units along 

the east-central Kentucky outcrop belt using a scintillometer tech- 

nique described by Ettensohn and others (1979). 

Swager (1978) was able to 

A series of eight isopach maps, eight structure contour maps, 

and two series of isopach maps of highly radioactive shale, which are 

in Appendices 1, 2, 3, and 4 located in a large pocket in the back 

of this volume, were generated based largely on subsurface data from 

wire1 ine 

(1978). 

study to 

logs, drillers' logs and outcrop descriptions by Swager 

The radioactive stratigraphy of Provo (1977) was used in this 

divide the shale sequence. The resulting maps in Appendices 

1

1, 2, 3, and 4 will be referred to throughout this report and are in 

the open file of the U.S. Department of Energy in Morgantown, West 

Virginia. 

by, and available from, the U.S. Department of Energy in Morgantown, 

West Virginia. 

The isopach and structure contour maps will be published 

The text which follows further describes the data employed in the 

compilation of the maps and presents possible interpretations of the 

various features present on them. It is hoped the maps and informa- 

tion presented here will be a valuable contribution to the understand- 

ing of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence in 


2

PURPOSE 

Changing world political and economic conditions and dwindling 

supplies of oil and gas have made the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississip- 

pain black-shale sequence a more desirable target for investigation of 

hydrocarbons potential. 

concerning the black shale. 

Recently there has been a flurry of activity 

Various companies have been buying the 

mineral rights around the central Kentucky black-shale outcrop belt. 

The state government is presently working on legislation concerning 

the black shale. It remains to be seen whether the black shale can 

be economically exploited for hydrocarbons and uranium. 

A better knowledge of the internal stratigraphy will help in the 

evaluation and delineationofpossible economic units and zones. 

paper is intended to add information which, it is hoped, will aid in 

increasing the recovery of hydrocarbons and uranium. 

3 

This

LOCATION 

The Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence oc- 

curs widely throughout east-central North America; the shale sequence 

can be traced from Canada to Alabama (Provo, 1977). This report ex- 

amines the Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence in the Appala- 

chian basin area of eastern Kentucky. 

the Ohio state line to the north, the West Virginia and Virginia state 

lines to the east, the Tennessee border to the south, and on the west 

by the trace of the black-shale outcrop belt along the eastern flank 

of the Cincinnati arch. 

The study area is bounded by 

The shale sequence varies in thickness from more than 61 m 

(200 ft) in Lewis County in northern Kentucky to less than 9.2 m 

(30.0 ft) in Cumberland County in south-central Kentucky. A thickness 

in excess of 392 m (1300 ft) is present near the eastern limit of the 

study area in Pike County. 

the surface along the black-shale outcrop belts along the eastern 

flank of the Cincinnati arch (see Figure 1). 

into the subsurface. 

shale is 765 m (2509 ft) below sea level or 1116 m (3660 ft) below 

ground level in Pike County. 

The black-shale sequence is visible at 

It dips gently eastward 

An approximate maximum depth to the top of the 

Well locations used in this study, as well as the outcrop sec- 

tions of Swager (1978), are plotted on structure-contour maps in 

Appendix 2; isopach maps in Appendix 1; and radioactive isopach maps 

in Appendices 3 and 4. 

4

Figure 1. Eastern Kentucky study area (shaded). 

5

TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES 

Data for this study were obtained from the well records of the 

Kentucky Geological Survey, housed on the campus of the University 

of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky. Literally thousands of well re- 

cords were examined for information on the Upper Devonian-Lower Mis- 

sissippian black-shale sequence. Subsurface log information was re- 

corded from approximately 1100 gamma-ray logs and 8300 drillers' logs 

which penetrated the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale 

sequence in the 43-county study area. Data from 11 outcropswerealso 

used (Swager, 1978). 

Approximately 600 of the 1100 gamma-ray logs were actually used 

in the construction of the maps on which this study is based. 

Many 

of the gamma-ray logs did not fully penetrate the Devonian-Mississip- 

pian black-shale sequence. The drastic decrease in data control can 

be seen by comparing the maps of the Cleveland Shale Member with those 

of the Rhinestreet Shale. Many logs barely penetrated the top of the 

shale, so were not used at all. In areas with poor gamma-ray log 

control, data from high quality drillers' logs were used. Some gamma- 

ray logs were off-scale for the'entire thickness of the black-shale 

sequence, so that only the top and bottom of the shale sequence could 

be identified. In some areas, the well control was so good that many 

points were not used to avoid overcrowding. These areas offer enough 

data points to allow detailed local study, but study of.this nature 

is beyond the scope of this report. 

Data for each well were recorded in large ledger books and in- 

cluded: owner, operator, permit number, elevation, well depth, type 

of log, depth to the base of the black-shale sequence as well as 

I 

6

depths to the top of the Sunbury Shale, the Bedford-Berea sequence, 

and each of Provo's seven units. 

in the Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence and of units both 

overlying and underlying the black-shale sequence were also recorded. 

Thicknesses of Provo's seven units (Cleveland Shale; Three Lick Bed; 

Upper, Middle, and Lower Huron Shale, Olentangy Shale and Rhinestreet 

Shale) and the thickness of the Java and West Falls formations were 

compiled using the data recorded in the ledger books. Isopach maps 

of the various units were constructed from the compiled data for the 

various intervals (Appendix 1). 

units were subtracted from the surface elevation of the well, yield- 

ing elevations of the units relative to sea level instead of ground 

level. This data was then used in constructing structure contour 

maps on the base of the various units (Appendix 2). 

maps were generated in which only the more radioactively intense 

portions of Provo's seven units and the Java and West Falls forma- 

tions were isopached (Appendices 3, 4). The methods and criteria 

used in the construction of these maps will be explained in the 

section entitled "Radioactive Isopach Maps". 

The drillers'-log names of the units 

The depths to each of the various 

A third set of 

Closed circles on the isopach and structure-contour maps 

(Appendices 1, 2) and radioactive isopach maps (Appendices 3, 4) re- 

present data points where information from gamma-ray logs were used. 

Open circles represent data points where drillers' logs were used. 

Open squares represent outcrop data obtained from Swager (1978). 

The grids on the maps are in the Carter Coordinate System, and all 

data points were plotted using that grid system. 

7

STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE 

Introduction 

Although much has been written on various aspects of the.black- 

shale sequence, only the high points will be covered in this report. 

Most of the authors cited in this section have included detailed 

literature reviews in their papers. The reader is referred to those 

papers for reviews of earlier studies 

Previous Studies 

Most studies have been limited in geographic extent and unfortu- 

nately most end at or near state lines; few of those studies are re- 

gional in nature. The first major stratigraphic study of the Upper 

Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence was undertaken by 

Guy Campbell in 1946. He divided the New Albany Group of southern 

Indiana into formations and correlated them with formations in central 


He also divided the Chattanooga Shale of southern Kentucky 

and Tennessee into members. In 1951, Louise B. Freeman studied the 

regional stratigraphy of the black shales in Kentucky, and using sub- 

surface information, constructed an isopach and structure-contour map 

of the undivided shale sequence. Hass (1956) presented a detailed 

study of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence 

in Tennessee. His correlations and subdivisions were based on cono- 

dont zonation. 

An extensive literature review on the age and correla- 

tion of the black-shale sequence was included in his work. 

Hoover (1960) presented a review of previous correlations in 

Ohio and northeastern Kentucky and discussed his interpretations of 

the stratigraphy based on lithologic character; he also reviewed the 

8

"Black Shale Problem". A detailed study of the Chattanooga Shale and 

overlying Mississippian shales in Tennessee and southern Kentucky was 

based on Hass' work of 1956. Lineback (1968) recommended changes in 

Campbell's (1946) stratigraphic nomenclature for southern Indiana and 

western Kentucky,as some of Campbell's units were not readily identi- 

fiable and mappable. Lineback (1968) also discussed environments of 

deposition for the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale se- 

quence. 

In 1977, Linda Provo recoginzed seven internal radioactive units 

which she was able to correlate both at the surface and in the sub- 

surface over much of the Appalachian basin with the help of a gamma- 

ray logs; she also discussed the stratigraphy of the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black shale sequence in the central Appalachian 

basin, the occurrence of other Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black-shale sequence throughout the world, and the sedimentary history 

of the shale. Patchen (1977) divided the Upper Devonian-Lower Mis- 

sissippian black-shale sequence in western West Virginia into four 

subdivisions based entirely on sample descriptions, and made prelimi- 

nary correlations between western West Virginia and eastern Kentucky 

using the seven units of Provo (1977); a review of gas production from 

the black-shale sequence was included. A study of the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian outcrop belt in east-central Kentucky and Pine 

Mountain outcrop belts by Swager (1978) found the upper six internal 

radioactive units of Provo (1977). He correlated the outcrop units, 

which were identified using sample description and hand-held scintillo- 

meter profiles, with the subsurface units of Provo (1977). 

9

Map and Cross Section Review 

The Upper Devonian shale sequence of eastern Kentucky is very 

distinctive and forms an important marker unit. Surprisingly, 

very little subsurface mapping in this black-shale interval has been 

done to date. In 1931, Jillson constructed a structural geologic map 

of Kentucky with structure contours on top of the Upper Devonian black 

shale. Wood and Walker (1954) constructed a preliminary oil and gas 

map of Kentucky which included structure contours adapted from Jill- 

son (1931). Although Freeman (1959) studied some aspects of the 

black-shale sequence and drew subsurface maps based on sample descrip- 

tion which included the black shale, she did not try to subdivide the 

shale. breover, most of her study was concentrated in western Ken- 

tucky. Dever (1965) constructed a structure contour map on the base 

of the Ohio Shale in Rowan County, Kentucky. deWitt and others (1975) 

included eastern Kentucky in a series of isopach maps of Upper Devon- 

ian and Silurian rocks in the’Appalachian basin. 

Areas of hydrocarbon 

production from the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black shales 

were also outlined. In 1977, Provo subdivided the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence into seven radioactive units 

and constructed isopach maps of the seven units, a total isopach map 

and a structure contour map on top of the Upper Devonian-Lower Missis- 

sippian black shale in eastern Kentucky. Potter (1978) constructed 

a structure contour map on the top of the Upper Devonian-Lower Missis- 

sippian black shale and an isopach map of the black shale in central 

Kentucky in the Cincinnati arch area. Wallace and others (1977) and 

Roen and others (1978) constructed preliminary stratigraphic cross 

sections of the Upper Devonian Shales from Tennessee to New York which 

10

included Kentucky's Upper Devonian shale. KepCerle and others (1978) 

constructed a preliminary stratigraphic cross section from south-cen- 

tral Ohio through eastern Kentucky and into southwesternmost Virginia. 

11

STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS 

Introduction 

Through careful study and comparison of outcrop lithology and 

outcrop scintillation profiles to nearby wells with available gamma- 

ray logs, sample chips and cores, Provo (1977) was able to define 

seven subdivisions in the subsurface in eastern Kentucky. She was the 

first to successfully divide the Upper Devonian black-shale sequence 

into easily correlatable units in the subsurface. 

readily traceable throughout eastern Kentucky and hence were used in 

this subsurface study. To date, no other subdivision of the Upper 

Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence has been devised 

that can be traced between the subsurface and outcrop with such ease, 

speed, and consistency. She cited an outcrop along Interstate 64 

near Morehead, Rowan County, Kentucky as a well-exposed reference 

section which contained good examples of units 1 through 5. 

Gas Company well number 533, Coalton Tract Fee, located 1030 feet FNL 

x 1310 feet FWL in section 11-V-81 of Boyd County was designate$ as 

a comparable reference well in her study. The well had very good do- 

cumentation including gamma-ray logs, compensated density logs, and a 

complete set of well-sample chips. Moreover, all seven radioactive 

units were recognized in this well (Figure 2). 

These units are 

Inland 

'The Gamma Ray Log is a measurement of the natural radioactivity 

of the formations. 

The log is therefore useful in detecting and 

evaluating deposits of radioactive minerals such as potash or uranium 

ore." (Schlmberger, 1972). In sedimentary formations the gamma-ray 

radioactive elementstendtobeconcentratedwithfineorganicmaterial in 

clays and shales. Higher-than-normal radioactivity in black organic- 

12

ich shales comes from the close association of uranium and thorium 

with the abundant organic material (Swanson, 1969a, b). 

Swager (1978) was able to produce synthetic gamma-ray logs on 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian outcrops using a hand-held scintil- 

lometer technique described by Ettensohn and others (1977, 1979). 

Swager found the same distinctive pattern in the outcrop as Provo 

found in the subsurface. Figure 3 shows a comparison of Provo's radio- 

active units in the subsurface and outcrop (Ettensohn and others, 1977, 

1979). 

Radioactive Java Formation and West Falls Formation 

The West Falls and Java formations are included as parts of units 

6 and 7 (Figures 2, 5) and have been traced southwestward from New 

York into eastern Kentucky by Roen and others (1978) and Wallace and 

others (1978). 

The Java Formation includes upper parts of Unit 6, 

whereas the West Falls Formation includes the lower part of Unit 6 and 

all of Unit 7. These units are best identified on the bulk density 

log, for the Java Formation is characterized by a thin black shale at 

its base which gives a strong negative deviation on the bulk density 

log (Figure 2). 

Falls formations. 

This strong negative peak separates the Java and West 

Radioactive Stratigraphic Unit 7 

Unit 7 is a black, carbonaceous shale with interbedded greenish- 

gray shale layers. 

of Unit 5, but Unit 7 can be differentiated from Unit 5 by its thinner 

black-shale layers, lower total thickness and smaller positive re- 

sponse on g--ray logs. 

It exhibits a gamma-ray response similar to that 

14 

It is the lowermost unit of the black-shale

'I Morehead Section" Penmoil Inland Gas 

Radioactivity Profile No. 1 Jones No. 533Fee ( Coalton 1 

5-T-72 4-T - 75 I I-v-81 

Vertical ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 8 

API units 

d 

c ..- 

I" " I 

0 200 400 

AP1 unih 

Figure 3. Comparison of Provols gamma-ray units in the subsurface 

and outcrop (Etttnsohn and others, 1978, 1979). 

15

sequence in eastern Kentucky. 

Radioactive Stratigraphic Unit 

Unit 6 is a greenish-gray, organic-poor shale and mudstone, which 

may be calcareous (Provo, 1977). Unit6consistentlygivesa negative 

gamma-ray response throughout its thickness. 


Unit 5 is a carbonaceous, brownish-black shale containing thin 

zones of greenish-gray, organic-poor shales. 

ray curve of Unit 5 is erratic due to alternation ofhigtilyradioactive 

brownish-black shales with organic-poor green shales. 

shales typically exhibit evidance,o'fmuch burrowing. 

Unit 5 has a much more positive gamma-ray response than does Units 

4 or 6. 


6 

The distinctive gamma- 

The green 

On the average, 

Unit 4 is lithologically similar to Unit 3 but can be differen- 

tiated by the presence of the pelagic alga Foerstia (Schop€ and 

Schwietering, 1970; Fig. 2, p. 6-7). The contact between the black 

shales of Units 3 and 4 can only be determined through radioactive 

means (scintillometer or gamma-ray profile). Subtle lithologic 

changes may be responsible for the decrease gamma-ray respone of Unit 

4 (Provo, 1977). 


Unit 3 is another highly radioactive, carbonaceous, brownish- 

black shale which is recognized by its strong positive gamma-ray 

signature and stratigraphic position below Unit 2. Unit 3.is 

16

laminated, homogeneous, and may contain bedded pyrite, and discontinu- 

ous cone-in-cone limestones. 


Unit 2 consists of two black carbonaceous shales interbedded with 

three.greenish-gray, organic-poor shales and may contain discontinuous 

cone-in-cone limestones. This bed has a distinctive alternation of 

three low and two high kicks on the gamma-ray logs (Figure 2). 

and others (1978) reported the importance of Unit 2 as a widespread 

marker bed which is easily distinguished in the outcrop and on wire- 

line logs. 

but is very persistent and can be recognized throughout the study 

area. 

Unit 2 is relatively thin compared to the other units, 


Provo 

Unit 1 is a black, carbonaceous shale which is characterized by 

abundant phosphate nodules and also contains Lingula and pyrite 

nodules. 

Relatively high concentrations of uranium and thorium in 

association with high organic content is responsible for the high 

gamma-ray log plateau which characterizes Unit 1 (Swager, 1978). 

See Figure 2 for a gamma-ray log with units identified. 

17

CORRELATION 

Introduction 

The Upper Devonian-Lower ?/Iiss iss ippian bl ac k-shal e sequence lack- 

ed any workable stratigraphy that couldbeused overabroad geographic 

area. Internal stratigraphic units developed using outcrop exposures 

typically did not lend themselves to subsurface identification and 

correlation. 

Criteria developed by various authors were not univer- 

sally used and were not universally applicable in correlating. 

fossils can be extremely valuable in making such correlations, but, 

unfortunately, hicropaleontologic methods do not lend themselves to 

easy, relatively quick determinations. 

Micro- 

Provo (1977) was able to recognize an internal stratigraphy which 

could be successfully correlated over broad geographic areas both in 

the subsurface and in outcrops with speed and accuracy using methods 

developed by Ettensohn and others (1977, 1979). Swager (1978) used 

these methods to identify and correlate Provots radioactive strati- 

graphic units along the east-central Kentucky outcrop belt and in the 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian outcrop belt along the Pine 

Mountain thrust block. 

The ability to subdivide a seemingly homogeneous shale sequence 

has enabled correlation with equivalent units in other areas. 

understanding of depositional histories and age relationships has been 

greatly enhanced by a workable internal stratigraphy. 

thickening, thinning and structural activity during deposition of 

different internal units can now be identified. The time-span of 

- activities can now be identified with much more accuracy. Relation- 

The 

Episodes of 

ships between the radioactive internal stratigraphy of Provo (1977) 

18

employed in this study arid internal stratigraphies used by other 

authors are discussed and correlated in the succeeding sections. 

Java Formation, Pipe Creek Member of the 

Java Formation and the West Falls Formation 

A thin, black shale called the Pipe Creek Shale Member of the 

Java Formation has been identified and traced from New York into 

extreme eastern Kentucky. 

Java Formation and is easily distinguished on good gamma-ray and 

density logs (Figure 2). 

This shale member marks the base of the 

Recognition of the Pipe Creek Shale (Figure 5) is critical in 

identifying the Java and West Falls formations. 

Where the Pipe Creek 

pinches out or becomes too thin to be recognized on wireline logs, 

the Hanover and Angola shales are treated as a single green-shale unit 

called Unit 6 (Figure 4) or the Upper Olentangy Shale. In these 

cases, Unit 7 or the Rhinestreet Shale is split as a separate unit. 

No older Devonian black shales are known from eastern Kentucky. 

The Java Formation is equivalent to upper Upper Olentangy Shale 

and upper radioactive Unit 6 and the Pipe Creek Member of the Java 

Formation is equivalent to the middle Upper Olentangy Shale. 

Angola Shale Member of the West Falls Formation is equivalent to the 

lower Upper Olentangy Shale. 

correlatable whether the Pipe Creek Shale Member is present or not. 

Where the Pipe Creek Shale Member is absent or indistinguishable, 

the similar Java Formation and Angola Shale Member are indivisible 

on geophysical wireline logs. 

Upper Olentangy Shale. 

The 

The Rhinestreet is identifiable and 

They are then correlative with the 

19

-@! 

Black 

shale 

LWM 

Intorboddad 

Shde 

Foerrtlq 

Zone 

Unlt 8 

Unlt I 

Unlt 2 

Unlt 3 

unlt4 

Unlt 6 

Unlt 6 

Unlt 7 

Three Lkk Bed 

KMWa\M& 

Upper Huron 

Shale Member 

Mlddle Huron 

Shale Member 

Lower Huron 

shale Member 

Olentangy 

Shale 

Marcellus (7) 

Shale 

Uppw Gosrawoy 

Member 

Mlddk Gassoway 

Member 

Lowar Gorsowoy 

Member 

upperDowmom, 

Member 

mw Dowelltown 

Member 

wper 

Devonian 

herHuron 

Shale Member 

"Upper" 

Nontangy Shale 

Rhbwrlrool Shab 

kmbw of Wort Fdh 

wma+bnofNowYork 

Figure 4. Correlation chart for the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-sh 

(modified from Swager, 1978). 

Bro 

bf No 

V 

Low 

sha 

y 

lenta 

Rhln 

Ircnb 

nmal

I 

slnbw 1 .. .. a 

shak- 

Br#-Bodford I h ._ 

I 

unit s 

.* n 

S m m c m I unn D 

Middlr Huron 

Shak Manbor 

Unit 4 

Unit 5 

Middlo Huron 

Shah Membu 

Figure 5. Correlation chart showing further subdivisions of the 

Java and West Falls Formations and their radioactive 

equivalents. 

21

Radioactive Unit 7 

Radioactive Unit 7 was tentatively correlated with the Marcellus 

Shale by Provo (1977). Kepferle and others (1978) and Roen and others 

(1978), however, have correlated Unit 7 with the Rhinestreet Shale 

Member of the West Falls Formation of New York. Unit 7 is not present 

in Tennessee (Hass, 1956) or in the batucky outcrop belt (Swager, 

1978). 


Radioactive Unit 6 was correlated with the Olentangy Shale (Provo, 

977). More recent correlations by Kepferle and others (1978) and 

Roen and others (1978) have correlated Unit 6 with only the Upper 

Olentangy Shale. 

There is.no Unit 6 equivalent in the Chattanooga 

Shale of Tennessee (Hass, 1956) or in the Kentucky outcrop belt except 

possibly in northernmost Kentucky (Swager, 1978). 


Radioactive Unit 5 is correlative with the Lower Huron Member of 

the Ohio Shale and with the Lower Dowelltown Member of the Chattanooga 

Shale (Hass, 1956). The Lower W o n Member (Unit 5) can be traced 

into western Virginia (Kepferle and others, 1978), into western West 

Virginia (Roen and others, 1978), and into western New York and Penn- 

sylvania where it is equivalent to the Dunkirk Shale (Roen and others, 

1978). The lower half of Unit 5 comprises the entire lower interbedd- 

ed shale lithostratigraphic unit of Swager (1978) and contains lower 

parts of the Foerstia biostratigraphic zone (Figure 4). 


Radioactive Unit 4 is correlative with the Middle Huron Member 

22

of the Ohio Shale (Provo, 1977) and the Upper Dowelltown Member of the 

Chattanooga Shale (Hass, 1956). Unit 4 pinches out in southern and 

easterly directions into the lowermost parts of the Brallier Shale of 

north-central Virginia (Kepferle and others, 1978) and into lower 

parts of an undivided sequence of Upper Devonian silty brown shales in 

western West Virginia (Roen and others, 1978). Unit 4 is included in 

Swager's (1978) lower black shale lithostratigraphic unit, and lower 

parts of the unit are placed in the Foerstia biostratigraphic zone. 


Radioactive Unit. 3 is correlative with the Upper Huron Member of 

the Ohio Shale (Provo, 1977). It also correlates with the Lower Gas- 

saway Member of the Chattanooga Shale (kss, 1956) and pinches out in 

a southern and easterly direction into the middle Brallier Shale of 

north-central Virginia (Kepferle and others, 1978) and into an undi- 

vided sequence of Upper Devonian silty brown shales in western West 

Virginia (Roen and others, 1978). Unit 3 is included in upper parts 

of Swager's (1978) lower black shale lithostratigraphic unit. 


Radioactive Unit 2 is correlative with the Three Lick Bed and 

represents a thin southern tongue of the Chagrin Shale of Ohio (Provo, 

1977 and Provo and others, 1978). To the south and east, it pinches 

out into upper parts of the Brallier Shale (Kepferle and others, 1978) 

and into an undivided sequence of Upper Devonian silty brown shales 

(Roen and others, 1978). The Three Lick Bed is correlative with the 

Middle Gassaway Member of the Chattanooga Shale (Hass, 1956) and the 

Upper Interbedded Shale lithostratigraphic unit of Swager (1978). It 

23

is also included as part of Swager's (1978) lower Lingula biostrati- 

graphic zone. 


Radioactive Unit 1 is correlative with the Cleveland Shale Member 

of the Ohio Shale (Provo, 1977), the Upper Gassaway Member of the Chat- 

tanooga Shale (Hass, 1956), and the upper black shale of Swager's 

(1978) lithostratigraphic sequence. Unit 1 is equivalent with the 

Upper Brallier Shale of north-central Virginia (Kepferle and others, 

1978), and the uppermost undivided Upper Devonian of western West 

Virginia (Roen and.others, 1978), and the upper part of the lower 

Lingula biostratigraphic zone of Swager (1978). 

Bedford-Berea Shale Sequence - Radioactive Unit B 

The Bedford-Berea sequence, Unit B, lies directly below the Sun- 

bury Shale in northern and extreme eastern parts of the Kentucky study 

area. 

of Unit 1. 

It separates the black shales of the Sunbury Shale from those 

The Bedford-Berea sequence represents a series of deltaic 

facies in Ohio (Hoover, 1960). Although both parts of Unit B are 

present in parts of Kentucky, only the Berea Sandstone facies is 

present in western West Virginia (Roen and others, 1978). Neither the 

Bedford Shale nor Berea Sandstone is present in Tennessee or south- 

central Kentucky (Hass, 1956), and the Bedford-Berea sequence is pro- 

bably equivalent to the uppermost parts of the Brallier Shale in 

north-central Virginia (Kepferle and others, 1978). The Bedford-Berea 

sequence is also equivalent to Swager's (1978) lithostratigraphic 

green shale and light siltstone. 

24

Sunbury Shale - Radioactive Unit S 

The Sunbury Shale, Unit S of this study, is recognized in the 

northern and eastern positions of the study area (Figure 6). It is 

separated from Unit 1 by the Bedford-Berea sequence called Unit B in 

this study. 

Where Unit B is absent in the southern part of the study 

area, Unit S lies directly on Unit 1 and cannot be separated from it 

lithologically. The two units can, however, be distinguished by 

conodont assemblages (Hass, 1956) and differences in radioactivity. 

The Sunbury Shale and its thinner equivalents to the south are much 

more radioactive than underlying Devonian shales and are characterized 

by a distinctive positive deviation on gamma-ray logsandradioactivity 

profiles, even where Unit B is not present (Ettensohn and others, 

1979; Ettensohn, 1979). 

The Sunbury Shale is traced from western Vfrginia into Ohio on 

correlation chart OC-85 (Kepferle and others, 1978). In western 

Virginia, the Sunbury Shale is correlated with the Big Stone Gap 

Shale as used by Bartlett and Webb (1971). Roen and others (1978) 

traced the Sunbury Shale into western West Virginia. 

equivalent exists in the Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee and south- 

central Kentucky (Hass, 1956). 

A Sunbury 

25

South -Central 

Kentucky 

r 

Chattanooga 

Shale 

I 

,--- 

East- Central 

Kentucky 

A 

ad.n 

0 hio 

Shale 

.---- 

Northeastern 

Kent uc k y 

A 

M n ' 

'ormat i on 

Sunbury Shale 

Ohio 

Shale 

Figure'6. Chart showing the relationships of the Sunbury, Bedford, 

Berea, Ohio and New Albany Formation in eastern Kentucky 

' (from Swager, 1978; and Ettensohn, 1979). 

26

ISOPACH MAP DISTRIBUTIONS 

Introduction 

The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence is present 

throughout all of the eastern Kentucky study area (Appendices 1, 2, 

3, 4, and Figure 7), and ranges in thickness from a minimum of ap- 

proximately 7.3 m (24 ft) in southwest Clinton County in south-central 

Kentucky to a maximum of approximately 556.2 m (1825 ft) in the south- 

eastern tip of Pike County in southeastern Kentucky; it reaches a 

thickness of 762 m (2500 ft) in West Virginia (Provo, 1977). Along 

the outcrop belt, the sequence attains thicknesses ranging from 7.3 m 

(24 ft) in Clinton County to 68.6 m (225 ft) in Lewis County in north- 

central Kentucky. 

Identification of internal radioactive units in areas where the 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian shale sequence is thin is hindered 

by the quality of gamma-ray logs. 

Many gamma-ray logs do not have 

adequate resolution to allow the individual units to be identified. 

Moreover, this shale sequence is so much higher in radioactivity than 

units above and below that the gamma-ray log often goes off scale, 

making identification of units difficult if not impossible. 

formation in such an interval is lost. 

Dilution of the black, organic, highly radioactive shale by 

All in- 

clastic influx from the east decreases the intensity of the black- 

shale gamma-ray response, thereby hampering the identification of 

internal units in the eastern part of the study area nearer to the 

clastic source. 

In western West Virginia the upper four ?1ackf1-shale 

units are undifferentiable because of the indistinct gamma-ray log 

response due to the dilution (e.g., Roen and others, 1978). 

- 

27

Figure 7. Worm's-eye map of the base of the Devonian black-shale 

sequence in eastern Kentucky. 

28

a 

Thickness distributions were not contoured south of the Pine 

Mountain Thrust Fault on the thrust block, which runs through Whitley, 

Bell, Harlan, Letcher, and Pike counties. Thicknesses in this area 

are commonly repeated due to the faulting (Weaver and others, 1978). 

A worm's-eye view map is included which shows the progressive onlap 

of Units 7 through 4 onto the positive Cincinnat arch (Figure 7). 

Rhinestreet Shale - Unit 7 

The Rhinestreet Shale has the most restricted distribution of 

the seven units in eastern Kentucky. 

It is found only in the deepest 

part of the basin and is not present in any outcrops in the study area 

The zero line for the Rhinestreet Shale runs through Greenup, Carter, 

Elliott, Lawrence, Morgan, Johnson, Magoffin, Breathitt, Perry, 

Leslie, and Harlan counties (Figure 7). The Rhinestreet Shale reaches 

a thickness of more than 45.7 m (150 ft) in eastern Martin and Pike 

counties in eastern Kentucky. 

Upper Olentangy Shale - Unit 6 

The Upper Olentangy Shale is questionably present in only one 

outcrop in Lewis County (Swager, 1978). In this outcrop, Swager 

(1978) found approximately 6 m (20 ft) of interbedded black and green- 

ish-gray shale which he tentatively called Unit 6. 

A gamma-ray log 

from a well south and east of the outcrop has 0.6 m (2 ft) of Unit 6. 

South and east of the outcrop belt, Unit 6 thickens tomore than 99 m 

(325 ft) in Pike County in southeastern Kentucky. The Upper Olentangy 

Shale is present only in the deeper parts of the basin but onlaps a 

little further westward than Unit 7. The zero line for this unit m ns 

through Lewis, Carter, Rowan, Morgan, Wolfe, Breathitt, Owsley, 

29

Jackson, Laurel, and Knox counties (Figure 7). 

Lower Huron Shale Member - Unit 5 

The Lower Huron Member has a more restricted distribution than 

any of the younger members, Units 1 through 4 (Figure 7), and does not 

onlap the Cincinnati arch as far west as Unit4 (Figure 7), (Appendix 

1). The zero line for Unit 5 runs through southern McCreary County, 

northeastern Wayne and Russell counties, and southwestern Casey County 

in south-central Kentucky, and the unit thickens eastward to a maximum 

thickness greater than 76.5 m (251 ft) in southeastern Pike County in 

easternmost Kentucky. 

Lower Huron Member did not fully penetrate the entire unit. 

Huron Member ranges from complete absence in south-central Kentucky 

outcrop belt to 16.5 m (54 ft) in the north-central Kentucky outcrop 

belt. 

The well having the greatest thickness of the 

Middle Huron Shale Member - Unit 4 

30 

The Lower 

The Middle Huron Member is present throughout the entire study 

area, and it is the stratigraphically lowest unit that completely 

crosses the Cincinnati arch (Figure 7) which was a positive feature 

during its deposition. 

The Middle Huron Member ranges from 0.6 m 

(1.9 ft) in southwestern Cumberland and Clinton counties in south- 

central Kentucky to approximately 144.8 m (465 ft) in southeastern 

Pike County in easternmost Kentucky. In the central Kentucky outcrop 

belt, it ranges from 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in Cumberland County to 19.8 m 

(65 ft) in Lewis County in north-central Kentucky. 

Upper Huron Shale Member - Unit 3 

This Upper Huron Member is also present throughout the entire

study area. It ranges from approximately 2.7 m (9 ft) in southwest 

Clinton Countyinsouth-central Kentuckyto40.8 m (134 ft) in south-cen- 

tral Pike Countyineastern Kentucky. Inthe central Kentucky outcrop 

belt, this member ranges fromaminimumof approximately 3.Om (10 ft) in 

southeastern Russell County in south-central Kentucky to amaximum of 

approximately9.1m (30 ft) in Lewis Countyinnorth-central Kentucky. 

Three Lick Bed - Unit2 

The Three Lick Bed of the Ohio Shale is also present throughout 

the entire study area. TheThree Lick Bed isrelatively thin but very 

persistent. It reaches amaximum of approximately 41.5m (136 ft) in 

southwestern Martin Countyineastern Kentucky and aminimum of approxi- 

mately 0.9 m (3 ft) in Cumberland County in south-central Kentucky. 

In the central Kentucky outcrop belt, it ranges from 0.9 m (3 ft) in 

Cumberland County to 4.9 m (16 ft) in Lewis County in north-central 


Cleveland Shale - Unit 1 

The Cleveland Shale Member of the Ohio Shale is present through- 

out the entire eastern Kentucky study area. It has been traced from 

the Ohio-Kentucky border south tothe Kentucky-Tennessee border along 

the central Kentucky outcrop belt by Swager (1978), and can be traced 

fromthecentral Kentucky outcrop belt eastward into Virginia and West 

Virginia. The Cleveland Shale ranges from approximately 12..2 m (40ft) 

in Lewis Countyinnorth-central Kentuckyto approximately 3 m (10 ft) in 

Cumberland County in south-central Kentucky. The Cleveland Shale 

thickens eastward from approximately 3 m (10 ft) in Cumberland County 

to approximately 52.7 m (173 ft) in southeastern Lawrence County. 

31

ISOPACH ANOMALIES 

Introduction 

During the construction of a series of eight isopach maps for the 

seven previously mentioned black-shale units in the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence (Appendix l), many major and 

minor anomalies became apparent (Figure 8). A description of each 

anomaly, its development through time, as shown on successive isopach 

maps, and an explanation of possible mechanisms for the anomaly follow. 

Two major provinces have been identified: 

plateau area and a basin area. 

a broad, relatively flat 

A hinge line running north-south from 

western Lewis County to eastern Bell County (Figure 8, no. 45) sepa- 

rates the western plateau area from the eastern basin area and may 

mark the eastern extent of the Cincinnati arch. Ammerman and Keller 

(1979) noted that the deeper part of the Rome trough is found east of 

the Owsley County uplift (Rockcastle River uplift of this study). 

This coincides with thehkgeline described in this study (Figure 8, 

no. 13, 45). 

Cincinnati Arch 

The Cincinnati arch is the most influential positive feature in 

the study area (Figure 8, no. 1). Mapping the distribution of units 

(Figure 7) and construction of sections suggests that the arch was a 

positive feature throughoutthetimeofdepositionofUnit 7 through 1 

(Provo, 1977; Provo and others, 1978; Swager, 1978; Roen and others, 

1978; Ettensohn and others, 1979; and Hoover, 1960). Freeman (1959) 

suggested the Cincinnati arch was emergent during Middle Devonian 

time prior to the beginning of Upper Devonian deposition. The 

32

worm's-eye map (Figure 7), cross section in Figure 10, and cross sec- 

tions by Roen and others (1978), by Provo and others (1978), and by 

Provo (1977) show the progressive onlapping relationship of Upper 

Devonian-Lower Mississippian black shales onto the Cincinnati arch. 

Units 4, 3, 2, and 1 can be traced over the crest of the Cincinnati 

arch onto the western flank of the arch. During deposition of Unit 

4, onlap of the Cincinnati arch was completed, as Unit 4 was first to 

blanket the crest of the arch. Units 3, 2, and 1 were also deposited 

over the arch (Provo, 1978; Conant and Swanson, 1961; and Lineback, 

1970). The Cincinnati arch was still a positive feature during the 

deposition of Units 3, 2, and 1 as evidenced by the great thinning of 

those units onto the arch (Appendix 1 and Figure 10). 

Unnamed Thickened Lobe 

The major thickening trend (Figure 8, no. 47) was noted in Green- 

up, eastern Lewis, and northern Carter counties. The linear trend 

suggests a thickened lobe which, to my knowledge, has not been named. 

The same thickened lobe was also noted by Provo (1977), who suggested 

that it might be related to variations in sediment supply. 

pared-this thickened lobe of sediment to similar lobes described by 

Lewis and Schwietering (1971). Each of their thickened lobes are 

separated by thinner areas trending east-west. 

in Greenup, Lewis, and Carter counties progressively expanded westward 

from the time of deposition of Unit 7 through Unit 2. 

zone of thinning, which flanks the thickened lobe to the south, became 

more prominent during the deposition of Unit I and restricted the 

scope of lobe deposition. 

She com- 

"he thickened lobe 

A higher area, 

The southern uplifted area may coincide 

with the uplifted northern side of the Kentucky River fault zone, as 

34

defined by the 

lobe also lies 

Mavity monocline (Figure 8, no. 34). The thickened 

above a broad, gentle, gravity high (Ammerman and Kel- 

ler, 1979), (Figure 9), and occurred just east of Lower Ordovician 

Waverly arch of Woodward (1961) (Figure 11) by the time Unit 7 was 

deposited. 

cian axis. Woodward (1961) showed that the axis of the Waverly bch 

migrated westward through time; Ettensohn (1975, 1977, 1980) showed 

a more westward position of the arch during the Mississippian which 

corroborates this idea. 

cian and Mississippian axes of the Waverly arch. 

ment of the Waverly arch apparently allowed the thickened lobe to ex- 

pand westward behind it. 

Unit 7 and 6 onlap the Waverly arch and cover its Ordovi- 

Figure 11 shows the locations of the Ordovi- 

The westward move- 

The moving axis might have resulted in a 

broader, lower arch instead of a higher, stationary one. Such an 

arch would have been onlapped and covered more readily, and perhaps 

this can account for its lack of expression in these rocks. Of 

course,another factortaaccountforthelackof expression of the Waverly 

arch, may be the scant well coverage in the area. 

Unnamed Thickening Trend , 

A thickening trend is present in Knott and southern Floyd counties 

(Figure 8, no. 49). This trend coincides with the Floyd County channel 

of Ammerman and Keller (1979), (Figure 9). This channel was initially 

identified on a Bouguer gravity map by Ammerman and Keller; who sugi 

gested that the Floyd County channel might be a narrow arm of the Rome 

trough (Figure 9). 

graphic extent throughout the deposition of Units 7 through 1. 

dence in the channel apparently kept up with the rate of deposition 

through the Upper Devonian. 

The channel seems to be fairly constant in geo- 

35 

Subsi-

Figure 9. Simple bouguer gravity map of eastern Kentucky 

from Ammennan and Keller (1979). 

36

\ -It 

I 

1 

Figure 10. Stratigraphic cross section of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black- 

I 


-f

Rome Trough 

The Rome trough is a major basement structure which was formed 

and was most active during Middle Cambrian time, as evidenced by great 

thicknesses of the Rome Formation in the trough (Webb, 1969; Silber- 

man, 1972). 

The Rome trough is graben-shaped and may represent a 

continental rift zone formed by extensional tectonics (Ammerman and 

Keller, 1979) or it may represent an aulacogen (Rankin, 1976). 

The northern boundary of the trough (Figure 8, no. 44) corresponds 

approximately with the Kentucky River Fault zone (Figure 8, nos. 32, 

34, 35). Individual structures in the fault zone include the Little 

Sandy fault (Figure 8, no. 32), Mavity monocline (Figure 8, no. 34), 

and the Ross Chapel monocline (Figure 8, no. 35). 

ary of the Rome trough (Figure 8, no. 43) is marked by the Warfield 

fault (Figure 8, no. 4). 

and Pike county gravity highs (Ammerman and Keller, 1979), (Figure 9), 

which are best seen in the radioactive isoach maps (Appendices 3, 4). 

39 

The southern bound- 

It is also marked on the south by the Perry 

Webb (1975) suggested continued movement on the Rome trough 

boundary-faults through Pennsylvanian time due to tectonism associated 

with Appalachian orogenic activity; this suggestion seems to be true, 

at least for the Upper Devonian, as indicated by the isopach and 

structure-contour maps generated in this study. Thickening was noted 

on the'down-dropped sides of all border faults of the Rome trough due 

to growth faulting, which was active during deposition of all the 

black-shale units. 

The area of increasing thickness apparently ex- 

panded westward as the aerial extent of each successive unit also 

expanded westward. 

The Rome trough is not a simple graben. The down-dropped central 

.

portion is borken by many faults and is actually a series of many 

down-dropped blocks. The Paint Creek fault zone, Johnson Creek fault, 

Blaine fault system, and probably the Little Sandy fault (Figure 8, 

nos. 28, 29, 36, 32) divide the graben into various blocks. During 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian time, the Rome trough exhibited 

characteristics of a mature aulacogen as described by Hoffman and 

others (1974). Growth faulting has been identified on the Paint Creek 

fault zone, Johnson Creek fault, and the Blaine fault system; activity 

on the Little Sandy fault is not as well documented. Thickness varia- 

tion associated with the Little Sandy fault during the deposition of 

Units 6 through 1 exhibit a possible thinning on the down-dropped 

south side of the fault which would indicate the fault had reversed 

the direction of displacement prior to Upper Devonian-Lower Mississip- 

pian black-shale deposition. Silberman (1972) noted possible reversal 

of movement along the Little Sandy fault based on work by Avila (per- 

sonal communication). 

conclusions. 

Data control in the area precludes any definite 

Rockcastle River Uplift 

The Rockcastle River uplift was identified on a structure con- 

tour map of Clay County (Theis and others, 1927) and was the subject 

of a structure contour map by Jillson and Hudnall (1923). The Rock- 

castle River uplift was a positive feature throughout the deposition 

of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence. 

6 through 1 thin over the crest of the uplift (Appendices 1, 2); Unit 

7 was not deposited that far west (Figure 7). 

lift 

The crest of the up- 

prevent sediment from being deposited on the crest; no onlapping 

40 

Units 

was not sufficiently high during deposition of any one unit to

elationships have been identified. 

If the Rockcastle River uplift 

had been stationary during the time of Upper Devonian-Lower Mississip- 

pian deposition, the amount of thinning over the crest would be ex- 

pected to decrease as successive units accumulated around the.uplift. 

Eventual burial, and no expression in younger rock units would be 

expected; however, this is not borne out by the maps generated in this 

study. Structure-contour maps (Appendix 2) reflect syndepositional 

or postdepositional activity by the Rockcastle River uplift; some 

thickness variation may be accounted for by dropping and differential 

compaction. - 

Pine Mountain Thrust 

Erratic shale thicknesses and poor well control did not allow 

isopach contouring on the Pine Mountain thrust block. Thrusting 

passes through the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale 

sequence and causes stacking and repetition of internal units in some 

areas and loss of internal units in other areas (Swager, 1978). 

Another Unnamed Thickening Trend 

A distinct thickening trend is present in south-central Pike 

County (Figure 8, no. 48). This trend is best developed in Units 1, 

2, and 3 and is coincident with a Bourguer gravity low south of the 

Pike County uplift (Ammerman and Keller, 1979), (Figure 9). The 

thickening trend in souther Pike County contains the greatest thick- 

ness of Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black shale in the eastern 

Kentucky study area (Appendix 1). 

Minor Synclines and Anticlines 

A number of smaller synclines and anticlines are apparent on the 

41

maps of the study area. Many of these fall in or near theRometrough. 

The trough boundaries, shown on the inset maps and on Figures 8and 12, 

represent the basement boundaries of the trough as shown on the 

Bouguer gravity map of eastern Kentucky by Ammerman and Keller (1979). 

Hoffman and others (1974) suggest that the area affected by subsidence 

of the graben may become broader with time. 

The broadened area is 

downwarped with the ancestral graben area and ultimately also became 

broken by faults. An example is the Mavity monocline (fault) (Figure 

8, no. 34). By Late Devonian-Early Mississippian time, the area in- 

fluenced by the Rome trough subsidence may have been much greater 

than the area originally affected. 

local faulting associated with trough subsidence may be responsible 

for the majority of minor structures present. 

structures seen on these maps are shown in Figure 8. 

can be identified by reference to structure maps of the county in 

which they occur (e.g., "Reconnaissance Structural Geology Map of 

Clay County", Theis and Iiudnall, 1927). Structures 23, 25, 25, and 

27 (Figure 8) may be associated with activity of the Perry County 

uplift. 

- 

Differential pressures and minor 

The most important 

42 

Other structures

STRUCTURAL RELATIONS 

Introduction 

Structure contour maps were constructed on the base of each of 

Provo's (1977) seven units, on the base of the Java Formation and on 

the base of the entire Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale 

sequence. The base of the Java Formation was contoured wherever the 

Pipe Creek Member could be identified. 

was not present, or too thin to be recognized, the base of the 

Olentangy Shale was contoured (Appendix 2). 

ous horizons contoured in this study. The individual structure con- 

tour maps can be found in Appendix 2 in volume 2. 

Cincinnati Arch 

Where the Pipe Creek Shale 

Figure 2 shows the vari- 

Structure contours on the base of the Upper Devonian black-shale 

sequence and on the base of the internal radioactive units show a 

definite parallelism with the trace of the Cincinnati arch (Figure 

7). 

These units generally dip to the southeast at approximately 8.2 

m/km (42 ft/mi). 

This trend suggests that uplift of the Cincinnati 

arch and/or subsidence of the Appalachian basin were the major 

sources of regional structural movement both during and after deposi- 

tion of the black shale. Structure contours terminate at the zero 

isopach lines of the various units [Appendix 2). 

The axis of the Cincinnati arch shown on the maps was taken from 

Jillson (1931) who determined the trace of the axis from Ordovician 

rocks. Structure contour maps generated in this study indicate the 

axis of the Cincinnati arch for Devonian age rocks was 10 to 20 km 

(6 to 12 mi) east of the "Ordovician axis" in Lincoln, Casey and 

43

norther Russell counties (Figure 11). 

Rome Trough 

Structural activity in the Rome trough began in Middle Cambrian 

time and continued through Pennsylvanian time (Webb in Ammerman and 

Keller, 1979; Black, 1970). Faults associated with the Rome trough 

exhibit post-Upper Devonian activity (see structure contour maps, 

Appendix 2). 

Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian units exhibit dis- 

placement below the Mavity monocline and Ross Chapel monocline which 

indicates they are faults at depth (Appendix 2). 

fault, Blaine fault, Paint Creek fault, Johnson Creek’fault and the 

Warfield fault were active during and after Upper Devonian black- 

shale deposition (Appendixes 1, 2) (Webb in Ammerman and Keller,1979). 

Activity on the faults is probably attributable to further subsidence 

in the Rome trough (Webb in Ammerman and Keller, 1979). 

Rockcastle River Uplift 

The Little Sandy 

The Rockcastle River uplift is a prominent feature on the struc- 

ture contour maps on the bases of Units 6 through 1 (Figure 12, no. 

15). 

Unit 7 and the Pipe Creek Shale Member of the Java Formation 

were not deposited that far west. 

44 

The Rockcastle River uplift appears 

to be a doubly plunging anticline whose long axis trends northeast- 

southwest. 

A Bouguer gravity high coincides with parts of the uplift 

in Breathitt and Owsley Eounties (Figures 9, 12). The Owsley County 

uplift (Ammerman and Keller, 1979) seems to be the same structure 

which I call the Rockcastle River uplift in this study. The uplift 

is centered over north-western Casey County and extends into south- 

eastern Laurel and central Owsley counties (Figures 9, 12), where it

I UWNNATl ARCH I? ST' FORK ANTlCUNE 

2 8OOsE CKEK eRA8eW AH0 I8 WEST Ll8ERTY DOME 

FAULTS I9 JOHNSON CREEK FAULT 

3 TRACE FORK PAUU 20 TAUtBltESYNCfJNE 

4 MINt0NVlLl.E DOME 21 OWWS BRANCH DOME 

5 SUNIWBROOK ANTICLINE 22 LITTLE SANOY FAULT 

6 SWPVlLLE MONOCUNE 

7 WY SULFUR FAULT 

b Mt. VERWN FAULT 

s r r n r v o mcwe 

10 PLAT Uo< ANTICUNE 

I I WHITE MTN. AND DORTON BRANCH 

PUILT ZONES 

I2 pmf YOUNTAW THRUST FAULT 

13 ROCKY PAcf FAULT 

I+ FdOR YlLf DOME 

13 ROClCASTLE RIVER UPLIFT0 

I6 PAINT CREW FAULT ZONE 

P ROCK SPRlNQS ANTICUNL 

24 M " Y MONOCLINE 

23 ROSS CHAPEL MONOCUNE 

ZU BLAINE FAULT SYSTEM 

27 LAURELCREEK DOME 

a PAW' C m UPLIFTf;> 

WARFIELD FAULT 

30 TURKEY CREEK BASIN 

31 APPffoXIMATE NORTHERN 

B6uAc)IvIToFR6MEn#x16H- 

32 APPROXIMATE SOUTHERN 

BOUWOISRT Of ROME muoH --- 

Figure 12. Structures trends referred from the eight structure 

contour maps (Appendix 2). 

45

forms a pronounced high extending a short distance into the Rome 

trough near its southwestern boundary. The Rockcastle River uplift 

also occurs just west of the hinge line determined from the isopach 

maps in this study and may be part of that broad hinge line. 

uplift was active prior to and during Upper Devonian deposition as 

discussed in the section on isopach maps. 

continued after Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian deposition as 

indicated on the structure contour maps (Appendix 2) made during this 

study and on the structure contour maps of younger units (e.g., - "Map 

of the Rockcastle River uplift in Laurel and Clay counties, Kentucky, 

Jillson and Hudnall, 1923). 

Paint Creek Uplift 

The 

Activity on the structure 

The Paint Creek uplift is a broad area of uplift which appears 

as a doubly plunging anticline. 

The long axis of the uplift trends 

northwest-southeast (Figure 12, no. 28). This structure covers most 

of Johnson, Magoffin, and Floyd counties (Appehdix 2) and is present 

in parts of southeastern Elliott, southwestern Lawrence, eastern 

Morgan, eastern Breathitt, and northern Knott counties, but does not 

coincide with any Bouguer gravity highs (Figure 9). The Paint Creek 

uplift had no apparent effect on Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black-shale thicknesses as evidenced on the isopach maps (Appendix 1) 

indicating that the Paint Creek uplift was a post Devonian structure. 

EarlierupI'ifG, if any, was erased by pre-Late Devonian erosion. The 

uplift was quiescent during Late Devonian-Early Mississippian black- 

shale deposition and because it has no basement expression, some 

other mechanism must account for the uplift. 

For example, the area 

may have become more resistant to subsidence or thin-skinned tectonic 

46

activity associated with presures from late activity by the Acadian 

orogeny or the later Appalachian orogeny might have caused the Paint 

Creek uplift. 

Middlesboro Syncline - Pine Mountain Thrust 

The Middlesboro syncline lies on the Pine Mountain thrust sheet. 

Unfortunately subsurface data on the thrust sheet areverylimited. 

Due to those limitations only form-lines were drawn with a contour 

interval of 152.4 m (500 ft). The Middlesboro syncline appears to 

be a direct result of thrusting on the Pine Mountain fault (Weaver 

and others, 1978) (Figure 4). Most of the thrusting appears to have 

occurred in the lower Huron member as evidenced by repetition of 

portions of that member. 

Swager (1978) noted fault gauge and miss- 

ing units in outcrops along the Pine. Mountain thrust fault. 

major activity on the Pine Mountain thrust fault is dated as late 

Paleozoic (Shumaker; 1976). Unit 6 through 1 have been identified 

on gamma-ray logs in the Middlesboro syncline; Unit 7 has not been 

identified in that area. 

Minor Structures 

Many smaller structures are present in the study area. Some of 

the structures are pre- or Late Devonian in age whereas others are 

definitely Late Devonian in age. Some structures were present and 

active during and after Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black- 

shale deposition. 

The 

A comparison of these structures on Figures 8 and 

12 will show which structures are pre-, syn-, and post-Upper Devonian. 

The Sunnybrook anticline and the Flat Lick anticline, (Figure 12, nos. 

5 and 10) for example, are post-Late Devonian; they show no influence 

47

on the isopach maps, (Appendix 1, in volume 2). On the other had, 

the Turkey Creek basin (Figure 12, no. 30) was active during Late 

Devonian-Early Mississippian deposition as evidenced by thickening 

in the basin and deflection of structure contours. 

The origin of structures may vary with their age. Late Devoni- 

an-Early Mississippian and earlier structureswereprobably associated 

with forces generated by readjustment of the Rome trough. 

Devonian-Early Mississippian structures might also be caused by re- 

adjustment in the Rome trough. 

to Paleozoic orogenic activity to the east. 

Post-Late 

All of these adjustments are related 

48

RADIOACTIVE ISOPACH MAPS 

Introduction 

The Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence has 

a much higher concentrationofuranium and thorium than other marine 

shales (Swanson, 1960a, b; Provo, 1977). Radioactivity varies be- 

tween the internal units and geographically (Conant and Swanson, 

1961; Provo, 1977). This variation probably reflects the amount of 

organic material with which the radioactive material is closely associ- 

ated (Swanson, 1960b). Radioactive concentration is fairly consis- 

tent in areas where the thickness of the shale unit being considered 

remains constant. 

Shale in Tennessee and decreases northward into Kentucky due to dilu- 

tion of organic matter by clastic material (Conant and Swanson, 1961; 

Provo, 1977). Nonetheless, the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black shale in northern Kentucky is still high in radioactivity com- 

pared to other shales. Radioactivity also decreases eastward as the 

clastic content increases and dilutes the amount of organic matter 

and its associated radioactivity. 

material is diluted so much that it is no higher in radioactivity 

than other normal marine shales. 

The radioactivity is highest in the Chattanooga 

In West Virginia the radioactive 

Because the gamma-ray log is a measure of the natural radio- 

activity of the formations, and the radioactivity in turn is an 

approximate measure of the amount of organic matter in a shale, 

the gamma-ray logs give some measure of the amount of organic matter 

in the shales. 

The amount of organic matter is important because 

this can indicate potential sources of gas and oil. 

Inorderto 

determine concentrations of organic matter and possible sources for 

49

oil and gas, two series of isopach maps of highly radioactive shale 

were generated based on Provo's seven stratigraphic units and radia- 

tion intensities recorded from gamma-ray logs, using one API base 

line for four maps (Appendix 3) and another for five maps (Appendix 

4) f 

In the subsurface, high radioactive anomalies may indicate an 

area of higher organic content in the shale. 

reservior conditions, and that the organic matter has adequate ther- 

mal maturity, the area would be expected to yield a larger volume 

of hydrocarbons than an area with lower radioactivity. 

Procedure 

Assuming adequate 

The procedure used in constructing the radioactive isopach maps 

(Appendices 3, in volume 2) is presented in a step-by-step list be- 

low. Figure 13 shows a worked example. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Radioactive stratigraphic units of Provo (1977) were used 

to divide the Upper Deeonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale 

sequence vertically. 

A baseline was drawn down the length of the black-shale 

sequence parallel to the API scale on gamma-ray logs. 

This line can be located as high or low on the M I scale 

as desired depending on the intensity of radiation being 

measured. 

The baseline was then shifted 20 API units higher so that 

only the most highly radioactive parts of the seven units 

remained above the baseline. 

Count the number of feet of shale which lie above the base- 

line. 

50

m 

Figure 13. Examples of two radioactive-shale baselines; Borden Shale 

baselineonleft, ThreeLick Bed baseline on right. 

51

5. Plot the thickness total at the location of the well on a 

=P - 

6. 

Repeat steps 1 through 5 until all wells in the study area 

have been evaluated and plotted or until adequate control 

has been obtained, whichever comes first. 

7. Contour data points to make a map showing the thickness 

variation of the radioactively intense shale. 

Three Lick Bed Baseline Versus Borden Shale Baseline 

The radioactive isopach maps described in this section were 

generated as partial fulfillment of contractual requirements of the 

U.S. Department of Energy. The first series of maps presented here 

were constructed on a baseline different than that required by the 

D.O.E.. 

The baseline-used was 20 API units above a gray-green Borden 

Shale which is stratigraphically above the Upper Devonian-Lower Mis- 

sissippian black-shale sequence. 

The second series of maps were con- 

structed using a specified baseline 20 API units higher than the 

Three Lick Bed. 

The first series of maps is included because they were developed 

based on what appears to be a m re reliable baseline. 

The Three Lick 

Bed was an unfortunate choice for the shale baseline because it is 

within the sequence being studied and is influenced by changes within 

the sequence. 

less prone to error. 

A datum outside the studied sequence would have been 

of shale containing the most radioactivity. 

The maps were intended to measure the thickness 

and Provo (1977) have shown that the black-shales in the central 

Kentucky outcrop belt are the most highly radioactive in the study 

area, yet due to fluctuations in radioactivity Unit 2 is almost as 

52 

Conant and Swanson (1961)

highly radioactive as the other units in the sequence in that area. 

When the baseline was drawn 20 API units above Unit 2, little Thick- 

ness of shale was left above the baseline in the area where the most 

highly radioactive shale is present according to Conant and Swanson 

(1961) and Provo (1977). The Borden Shale baseline would not have 

been affected by fluctuations in radioactivity, as Unit 2 was, so 

would have been a better choice. 

The Borden Shale baseline represents a lower radioactivity 

level on the API scale than the Unit 2 baseline. An alternative to 

using the higher radioactive baseline of Unit 2, would have been 

to shift the Borden Shale baseline 40 or 60 API units upward, instead 

of 20 APT units. 

shale zones to be included on the isopach maps of highly radioactive 

shale as did the Unit 2 baseline and there would have been no bias 

caused by variations in radioactivity within Unit 2. Another alter- 

native would be to designate some absolute datum, perhaps the 200 ~ 

API line or the 300 API line. This would eliminate all interpreta- 

tional variation and error due to fluctuations in the radioactivity 

in the datum unit. 

This would allow only the most highly radioactive 

53

RADIOACTIVE ISOPACH ANOMALIES 

COMPARED TO REGULAR ISOPACH MAPS AND STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAPS 

Introduction 

Radioactive isopach maps based on the Borden Shale baseline were 

contoured using the following intervals; Unit 1, Unit 2 through5in- 

clusive, Unit 5, and Unit 7. Units 3 through 5 were combined because 

they represent the internal radioactive units of the Huron Shale Mem- 

ber of the Ohio Shale. 

the Huron Shale and the relative thinness of Unit 2, it was included 

with the Huron Shale radioactive units. 

based on the Three Lick Bed baseline were contoured using the follow- 

ing intervals: 

tion and West Falls Formation. 

Due to the close relationship of Unit 2 with 

Radioactive isopach maps 

Unit 1, Unit 2 thorugh Unit 5 inclusive, Java Forma- 

Direct comparisons can be made between the two maps of highly 

radioactive shale for Unit 1 and the two maps of highly radioactive 

shale for Unit 2 through Unit 5. Though the isopach maps of highly 

radioactive shale for Unit 6, Unit 7, the Java Formation and the 

West Falls Formation can not be directly compared since different 

intervals were contoured (Figure 2), some comments and comparisons 

of trends and relationships may be made. 

West Falls Formation - Rhinestreet Shale Member 

The West Falls Formation was contoured using the Three Lick Bed 

radioactivity intensity baseline and the Rhinestreet Shale Member of 

the West Falls Formation was contoured using the Borden Shale base- 

line (Appendix 4 and Fiugre 13). 

The West Falls Formation is a 

thicker interval than the Rhinestreet Shale Member but was contoured 

54

using the higher Three Lick Bed baseline. The isopach map of highly 

radioactive shale in the West Falls Formation showed a greater thick- 

ness of highly radioactive shale even with the higher baseline. Due 

to limited data, the two maps are very general. The thickening trend 

in southernmost Pike County is the most prominent feature on these 

maps. 

Prominent thickening is also present on the down-dropped side 

of the Ross Chapel monocline (fault). 

Java Formation - Olentangy Shale 

The isopach map of highly radioactive shale for the Olentangy 

Shale was based on the Borden Shale baseline. The highly radioactive 

shale in this unit thickens into the Rome trough, the Floyd County 

channel, the unnamed thickened lobe in Greenup and eastern Lewis 

counties, and the unnamed syncline in southernmost Pike County. The 

Borden Shale baseline was not very sensitive in separating moderately 

radioactive shale from highly radioactive shale so was probably not 

as good a choice as the Three Lick Bed baseline for this set of maps. 

The radioactive isopach trends are generally similar to the regular 

isopach trends except in central Lawrence County where there is a 

decrease in this thickness of highly radioactive shale. 

This de- 

crease may be associated with a clastic influx, or a decrease in 

organic matter with which the radioactive material is associated. 

The isopach map of highly radioactive shale of the Java Forma- 

tion shows the Java Formation has very little highly radioactive 

shale in it. 

eastern Lawrence and Martin counties, in eastern Kentucky, associated 

with the Rome trough and another area in southernmost Pike County in 

southeastern Kentucky. 

There is a small area of highly radioactive shale in 

No highly radioactive shale occurs in this 

55

unit within the syncline in Greenup and eastern Lewis counties in 

northern Kentucky. There is no anomaly associated with the Floyd 

County channel. 

The differences associated with the Java Formation and the 

Olentangy Shale isopach maps of highly radioactive black shale can be 

explained by the differences in baselines and differences in the 

intervals contoured. 

Unit 2, Unit 3, Unit 4, & Unit 5 

The isopach map of highly radioactive black shale based on the 

Three Lick Bed baseline (Appendix 3) is markedly different than the 

isopach map of highly radioactive black shale based on the Borden 

Shale baseline (Appendix 4). 

line did not differ in trend from the regular isopach maps (Appendix 

1). The Borden Shale baseline did not fall high enough on the API 

scale to discriminate the highly radioactive shale from the moder- 

ately radioactive shale, so consequently, both were included on the 

map. 

was able to separate the highly radioactive shale from the modcirate 

and low radioactive shale. 

The map based on the Borden Shale base- 

The Three Lick Bed baseline was higher on the API scale and 

Thickening trends on the isopach map of highly radioactive black 

shale for units 2 through 5 inclusive, using the Three Lick Bed base- 

line, con-esponded closely with the thickening trends noted for the 

isopach maps of highly black shale for Unit 1. 

In Units 2 through 5 

inclusive, the shale thickened into the Rome trough, the Floyd County 

channel, the unnamed thickened lobe in Greenup and eastern Lewis 

counties, and the unnamed syncline in southernmost Pike County; The 

thickest section of highly radioactive shale is in Lawrence County. 

56

The thick area is associated with the Rome trough and extends west- 

ward into West Virginia. The thickness of highly radioactive black 

shale does not decrease as rapidly eastward, in the interval includ- 

ing Units 2 through 5 inclusive as it does in Unit 1. This indicates 

there was less dilution due to clastic influx. The eastern source 

area (Conant and Swanson, 1961; Harris and others, 1978) was not 

supplying as much sediment, or the source was farther away, during 

deposition of Units 2 through 5 inclusive. 

Unit 1 

As mentioned previously, the radioactive isopach map based on 

the Borden Shale baseline includes greater thicknesses of shale than 

the radioactive isopach maps based on the Three Lick Bed baseline 

(Appendix 3). 

Both maps show similar thickening and thinning trends. . 

The major trend readily apparent on both isopach maps of highly 

radioactive shale is the thickening of Unit 1 into the Rome trough 

and the Floyd County channel (Appendices 3, 4). 

Three Lick Bed baseline shows that the greatest thickness intensity 

contours are centered over the northern half of Floyd County, Johnson 

County, and the northern half of Martin County. Thickness intensity 

contours decrease eastward into West Virginia which indicates that 

eastern Kentucky contains the greatest thickness of radioactively 

intense black shale. The thick trend continues into West Virginia 

on the maps using the Borden Shale baseline. 

of thickening is present in south-central Pike County. It is separ- 

ated from the Floyd County channel anomaly by the southern extension 

of the Pike County uplift (Figure 9). 

57 

The map based on the 

Another small area 

This same area showed a syn- 

clinal trend on the regular isopach maps and irregularities on the

structure contour maps. 

The shale thickens eastward into West Vir- 

ginia on the regular isopach map, yet the highly. radioactive black 

shale rapidly thins eastward. This may be accounted for by dilution 

of organic matter by clastic material coming from an eastern deltic 

source (Conant and Swanson, 1961; Harris and others, 1978). The 

thickening trend noted in the section on the regular isopach maps 

in Greenup and Lewis counties and the thinning trend in Carter, Rowan, 

and Elliott counties are also prominent on both of the isopach maps 

of highly radioactive shale of Unit 1 (Appendices 3, 4). 

ness 

in a 

box and eastern Whitley counties have a slightly greater thick- 

of radioactive black shale than surrounding areas. The area is 

low between the East Continent gravity high on the west (Ammer- 

man and Keller, 1979), the Rockcastle River uplift to the north 

(Jillson and Hudnall, 1923), and the Peny County high on the east 

(Ammerman and Keller, 1979). 

58

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL AND PRODUCTION FROM THE 

UPPER DEVONIAN-LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN BLACK-SHALE SEQUENCE 

Introduction 

Much has been written about the economic aspects of the Upper 

Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence (Examples include: 

Hunter and Munyan, 1932; Hunter and others, 1937; Hunter and Young, 

1953; Hunter 1935, 1955, 1964; Walker 1955, 1956; 1957; Thomas, 1951; 

and Patchen, 1977). The most important factors which influence the 

presence and extractability of gas from the Upper Devonian-Lower Mis- 

sissippian black shale ape the thermal maturity, thickness of shale, 

and presence of fracture systems for gas transport (Claypool and 

others, 1978; Harris and others, 1978; Hunter and Young, 1953; 

Patchen, 1977; Wilson and Zaffar, 1977; Zafar and Wilson, 1978). 

Patchen (1977) described three phases of shale-gas production: 

an initial high yield of free gas within fractures, followed by gas 

adsorbed on fracture surfaces, and finally gas adsorbed within the 

shale matrix. Production quickly drops from initial open flows of 

100-300 Mcfpd to appmximatley 50 Mcfpd. 

sistent producers and may produce near the 50 Mcfpd rate for up to 

twenty-five years and more. 

The wells are very per- 

The majority of wells have very low 

initial open flows but up to 90 percent of the wells can be 

stimulated into economic producers using fracturing techinques. 

Shale composition is also an important factor in the pmducibility 

of gas from the Upper Devonain-Lower Mississippian black shales. 

The black-shale sequence grades eastward into deltaic clastics sedi- 

ments (Conant and Swanson, 1961; Provo, 1977). In the transition 

zones, dispersed clastic grains and thin layers of clastic material 

59

may provide avenues for migration of gas from the shale to the frac- 

ture systems and eventually to the well-bore hole. Secondary poros- 

ity and permeability may be formed by pyrite growth on planes 

throughout the shale. 

Big Sandy Gas Field 

The most important gas production from the Upper Devonian-Lower 

Mississippian black-shale sequence comes from eastemmost Kentucky. 

The best known and most important gas producing area in eastern 

Kentucky is the Big Sandy gas field which covers most of Martin, 

Pike, Floyd, Perry, and Knott counties and part of Johson and Letcher 

counties (Figure 14, no. 18) and also extends into southwestern West 

Virginia (Patchen, 1977). Factors which influence gas production 

in the Big Sandy gas field include the great thickness of black shale, 

its proximity to the West Virginia clastic source, and structural 

activity in the Rome trough, Floyd County channel, and on the Pike 

and-Perry county uplifts. Weaver and others (1978) report that the 

Devonian shale is the primary producing horizon in the two-trillion 

cubic foot Big Sandy field. 

Ashland-Boyd County Gas Field 

A thickening trend within the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black-shale sequence is also present in the Ashland-Boyd County gas 

field which covers the northeastern fifth of Boyd County, a small 

part of eastern Greenup County and adjacent parts of southern Ohio 

and western West Virginia (Figure 13, no. 1). Post-depositional 

subsidence in the basin area and movement along faults associated 

with the Rome trough may have increased production potential in this 

60

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

0. 

9. 

ASHLAHD-BOYD COUNTY GAS POOL 

HITc8ENs GAS POOL 

MhQITx GAS POOL 

BEETLE SOtrra GAS POOL 

FAtLsBURG CAS WOL 

cBlo00 SCBOOL AND CORDELL GAS 

GRASSY CREEX GAS POOL 

INDEX CAS POOL 

REDBUSH GAS POOL 

POOLS 

10. SALYERsPruE GAS POOL 

11. BlLRNETTs CREEK Gas OOOL 

12. SWAblp BzzlwCH GAS POOL 

13. BURNING SPRINGS GAS POOL 

14. AVAWAM GAS POOL 

15. WPY EOLLOW GAS POOL 

16. LITTLE GOOSE GAS POOL 

17. STONEY FORK GAS POOL 

10. BIG SANDY GAS FIELD 

19. CANADA mUNTAIN GAS POOL 

Figure 14. Gas pools and fields which produce from the Upper 

Denronian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence 

(from Wilson and Sutton, 1976). 

61

area by forming a well developed fracture system. 

Over 90 percent 

of the gas production in the Ashland-Boyd County gas field has come 

from the Devonian black-shale sequence, unfortunately over 90 percent 

of the extractible gas reserves w,ere exploited by 1955 (Hunter, 1955). 

Gas Fields Associated With Faults 

A number of gas fields with production from the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence are located in areas of 

greater shale thicknesses along the down-dropped sides of faults 

associated with the Rome trough. 

and proximity to active faults increases the likelihood of signifi- 

cant gas production.' 

"he greater black-shale thicknesses 

Some of the gas fields which fit in this cate- 

gory are the Barnetts Creek gas field in Johnson County, the Beetle 

South gas field in Carter County, the Cando School gas field, the 

Crodell gas field, and the Fallsburg gas field in Lawrence Counby, 

Mavity gas field in Boyd County, the 

Johnson County, and the Salyersville 

(Figure 14, nos. 11, 4, 6, 6, 3, 12, 

Swamp Branch gas field in 

gas field in Magoffin County 

10). Faulting and fracturing 

at depth on the Mavity monocline (fault) are probably responsible 

for gas production from the Hitchins gas field in Carter County 

(Figure 14, no. 2). 

Gas fields on the Flanks of Uplifts 

?he other important setting for gas fields is on the flanks of 

uplifted, and anticlinal? areas. The majority of uplift in these 

areas must be post Late Devonian in age t o allow adequate thicknesses 

of black shale to accumulate and tomaxmizefracture porosity and 

permeability formation within the black-shale section. Gas fields on 

62

’ 

the flanks of uplifts and anticlines include the Avawam gas field on 

the Perry County gravity high in Perry and Leslie counties, the Burn- 

ing Springs gas field on the north nose of the plunging Rockcastle 

River uplift in Clay County, the Little Goose gas field on the 

flank of the Rockcastle River uplift in Clay County, the Happy Hol- 

low gas field on the south nose of the Rockcastle River uplift in 

Laurel County, the Index gas field on the flank of the West Liberty 

dome in Morgan County, the Redbush gas field on the Laurel Creek 

dome and Paint Creek uplift in Johnson and Lawrence counties, and 

the Grassy Creek gas field on the Stacy Fork anticline in Morgan 

County (Figure 13, nos. 14, 13, 16, 15, 8, 9, 7). 

Devonian Shale Gas in the Pine Mountain Thrust 

Weaver and others (1978) reported widespread Devonian shale gas 

production in the Canada Mountain gas field (Figure 12, no. 19) associ- 

ated with repetition of black shales due to faults which splay off 

the Pine Mountain sole fault. Adequate thicknesses of a potential 

gas source, the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black shale, and 

the intensive fracturing caused by thrust faulting make this area an 

interesting prospect for the future. Other anticlinal structures 

formed by stacking of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black- 

shale wedges by the Pine Mountain thrust, may yet remain to be 

identified and exploited. 

63

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 

Twenty-five maps and one cross section of the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence in eastern Kentucky in 

addition to a study of the pertinent literature were used to draw 

the following conclusions: 

d 

1. Radioactive stratigraphic units identified by Provo (1977) 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

allowed correlation of internal units in the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence throughout eastern 


The Cincinnati arch was a positive feature during Upper 

Devonian black-shale deposition as demonstrated by the 

restricted distribution of radioactive stratigraphic 

Units 7, 6, and S and their marked westward thinning. 

The total shale thickness ranges from 7.3 m (24 ft) on the . 

the crest of the Cincinnati arch to 556.2 m (1825 ft) in 

eastern Pike County. 

Progressive onlap of the Cincinnatiarchby units beginning 

with Unit7 continued until Unit4 covered theCincinnati arch. 

Units 3, 2, and 1 were subsequently deposited across the 

Cincinnati arch. 

Greater clastic content closer to the West Virginia clastic 

source dilutes radioactivity within theblack-shale sequence 

which shows up on the gamma-ray log as a much weaker posi- 

tive signature. 

A hinge line which m ns approximately north-south from 

western Lewis County to eastern Bell County separates a 

broad area of relatively thin black shale from an area 

64

6. 

7. 

of rapidly thickening black shale to the east. 

Distinct thickening trends were identified on isopach maps 

generated in this study, for example, thickening into the 

Rome trough, an unnamed thickening trend in Knott and 

southern Flaydcounties, an unnamed thickened lobe in 

Greenup, eastern Lewis, and northern Carter counties, and 

in another unnamed thickening trend in south-central Pike 

County. Many smaller thickening trends were also noted. 

Distinct thinning trends were also identified on isopach 

maps generated in this study. Some of these include: The 

Cincinnati arch and the Rockcastle River uplift. 

8. Structure contour maps generated in this study indicate the 

9. 

10. 

axis of the Cincinnati arch for Devonian age rocks was 10 

to 20 km (6 to 12 mi) east of the "Ordovician axis" of 

Jillson (1931) in Lincoln, Casey, and northern Russell 

counties. 

The Rome trough was structurally active throughout the time 

of depositon of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black-shale sequence. 

The Rockcastle River uplift was a positive feature through- 

out Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale deposi- 

tion, but also underwent extensive post-Devonian uplift. 

11. The Paint Creek uplift is a post-Upper Devonian-Lower Mis- 

12. 

sissippian feature as shown by isopach and structure contour 

map relationships. 

Isopach maps of highly radioactive shale show the greatest 

thickness of highly radioactive shale are in northern 

d 

65

Floyd, Johnson, and northern Martin counties. Although 

black-shale thicknesses increase even more to the east 

of this area, the amount of highly radioactive black shale 

decreases in an eastward direction due to clastic dilution 

from an eastern source area. 

66

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Survey, series VI. 

Jillson, W. R., 1931, Structural Geologic Map of Kentucky, Kentucky 

Geol. Survey, series VI, Scale 1:500,000. 

Kepferle, R. C., E. N. Wilson and F. R. Ettensohn, 1978, Preliminary 

Stratigraphic cross section showing radioactive zones in the 

Devonian black shales in the southern part of the Appalachian 

Basin, U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Chart OC-85, 1 sheet. 

Lewis, T. L. andJ. F.Schwietering,1971,The distributionofthe Cleve- 

land ShaleinOhio, Geol. SOC. America Bull., v. 82, p. 3477-3482. 

Lineback, J. A., 1968, Subdivisions and depositional environments of 

New Albany shale (Devonian and Mississippian) in Indiana, Am. 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 52, p. 1291-1303. 

Patchen, D. G. and R. E. Larese, 1976, Stratigraphy and petrology of 

the Devonian "brown" shale in West Virginia: in 

Production and Potential, Shumaker, R. C. (ed.>t 

Patchen, D. G., 1976, Subsurface stratigrpahy and gas 

the Devonian shales in West Virginia, U.S. ERDA, 

Energy Research Center MERC/CR-77/5, 35 p. 

Devonian Shale 

MERC/SP-76/2. 

production of 

Mor gantown 

Potter, P. E., 1978, Structure and isopach map of the New Albany-Chattanooga-Ohio 

Shale (Devonian and kississippian) in Kentucky, 

Kentucky Geol. Survey, series X, Central Sheet, Scale1:250,000. 

Provo, L. J,., 1977, Stratigraphy and sedimentology of radioactive 

Devonian-Mississippian shales of the central Appalachian Basin, 

University of Cincinnati, Ph.D. dissertation (unpub.), 177 p. 

Provo, L. J., R. C. Kepferle, and P. E. Potter, 1978, Division of 

black Ohio shale in eastern Kentucky, Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 62, p. 1703-1714. 

Rankin, D. W., 1976, Appalachian salients and recesses; late Precam- 

brian continental breakup and the opening of the Iapetus ocean, 

Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 81, p. 5605-5619. 

69

Roen, J. B., L. G. Wallace and Wallace deWitt Jr., 1978, Preliminary 

stratigraphic cross section showing radioactive zones on the 

Devonian black shales in the central part of the Appalachian 

Basin, U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Chart OC-87, 2 sheets. 

Schlumberger Limited, 1972, Schlumberger log interpretation prin- 

ciples, New York, v. 1, 113 p. 

Schopf, J. M. and J. F. Schwietering, 1970, The Foerstia Zone of 

the Ohio and Chattanooga shale, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1294H. 

- 

Shumaker, R. C., 1976, A diagest of Appalachian structural geology: 

in Devonian Shale Production and Potential, editor Shumaker, 

MERC/SP-76/2. 

Silberman, J. D., 1972, Cambro-Ordovician stnrctural and strati- 

graphic relationships of a portion of the Rome trough, Kentucky 

Geol. Survey Spec. pub. no. 21, series X, p. 35-45. 

Smith, J. W. and K. E. Stanfield, 1964, Oil yields of Devonian New 

Albany shales, Kentucky, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 

V. 48, p. 712-714. 

Swager, D. R., 1978, Stratigraphy oE the Upper Devonian-Lower Missis- 

sippian shale sequence in eastern Kentucky outcrop belts, Univ- 

ersity of Kentucky, M.S. thesis (unpub.), 116 p. 

Swanson, V. E., 1960a, Oil yield and uranium content of black shales, 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 356-A, p. 1-44. 

Swanson, V. E., I96Ob,Geology and geochemistry of uranium in marine 

black shales, a review, U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 356-C, 

p. 67-112. 

Theis, C. V., and J. S. Hudnall, D. .B. Chisholm, R. Miller and S; 

Winters, 1927, reprinted 1949, Reconnaissance, structural geologic 

map of Clay County, Kentucky, Kentucky Geol. Survey, series VI 

(1927); reprint series IX 91949), Scale 1 inch = 1 mile. . 

Thomas, R. N., 1951, Devonian shale gas productin .in central Appala- 

chian area, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologist Bull., v. 35, p. 2249-2256 

Walker, F. H., 1955, Exploration extensive in east Kentucky, Kentucky 

Geol. Survey, series IX, reprint no. 11 from the Petroleum 1 

Engineer, v. 27, no. 9, p. B34-B40. 

Walker, F. H., 1956, Oil and gas developments in Kentucky in 1955, 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 40, p. 1108-1117. 

Walker, F. H., D. J. Jones and E. 0. Ray, 1957, Oil and gas develop- 

ments in Kentucky in 1956, Am.,Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 

V. 41, p. 1037-1045. 

70

Wallace, L. G., J. B. Roen and Wallace deWitt Jr., 1977, Preliminary 

stratigraphic cross section showing radioactive zones in the 

Devonian black shales in the western part of the Appalachian 

Basin, U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Chart OC-80. 

Weaver, 0. D., W. H. McGuire and James Smitherman, 111, 1978, Over- 

thrust belt in southeast Kentucky yields prolific discovery, 

Oil and Gas Journal, v. 76, p. 92-95. 

Webb, E. J., 1969, Geologic history of the Cambrian system in the 

Appalachian Basin, Kentucky Geol. Survey Spec. Pub. no. 18, 

series X, p. 7-15. 

Wilson, E. N. and D. G. Sutton, 1973, Oil and gas map of Kentucky, 

Sheet 3, East-central part, Kentucky Geol. Survey., series X, 

Scale 1:250,000. 

Wilson, E. N. and D. G. Sutton, 1976, Oil and gas map of Kentucky, 

Sheet 4, Eastern part, Kentucky Geol. Survey, series X, Scale 

1:250,000. 

Wilson, E. N. and J. S. Zafar, 1977, Wireline logs and sample studies 

in stratigraphy and gas occurrence of the Devonian shales along 

the southern tie section in eastern Kentucky and vicinity, Pro- 

ceedings .First Eastern Gas Shales Symposium, MERC/SP-77/5. 

Wood, E. B. and F. H. Walker, 1954, Preliminary oil and gas map of 

Kentucky, Kentucky Geol. Survey, series IX, Scale 1:500,000. 

Woodward, H. P., 1961, Preliminary subsurface study of southeastern 

Appalachian interior plateau, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., V. 45, p. 1634-1655. 

Zafar, J. S. and E. N. Wilson, The effects of the Pine Mountain over- 

thrust and other regional faults on the stratigraphy and gas 

occurrence of Devonian Shales south and east of Big Sandy Gas 

Field in Kentucky and Virginia, Second Eastern Gas Shales 

Symposium, heprints sponsored by Morgantown Energy Research 

Center, ERDA, Morgantown, W.Va., METC/SP-78/6, v. 1, p. 404-414. 

71

VITA 

Scott Brian Dillman was born in Orange County, New Jersey on 

November 21, 1955. Following graduation from Sweet Home Central High 

School, Williamsville, New York in June, 1974, the author entered 

the State University of New York at Buffalo. 

1978, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geology. 

the author enrolled in The Graduate School of the University of 


1978 through May, 1978 and a position as research assistant was held 

‘from May, 1978 through June, 1980. The author was awarded a New York 

State Regents Scholarship in 1974. He was also a member of the Sigma 

Gamma Epsilon homor fraternity, and a student and junior member of 

the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 

in this report will be published by the United States Department of 

Energy. 

Cities Service Company in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 

He graduated-inFebruary, 

In January, 1978, 

A position as teaching assistant was held from January, 

Maps generated 

After graduation the author expects to begin work with 

Signature 

72

APPENDIX I-B 

1-8


Page 

ABSTRACT . .............................. 1 

INTRODUCTION . ............................ 3 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . .......................... 6 

Sedimentary. Paleontologic. Stratigraphic Farmework . ........ 7 

Tectonic Setting . .......................... 16 

Paleogeography and Paleoclimatology . ................ 21 

DEPOSITIONAL MODEL . ...................... ... 28 

Origin of Black Muds . .................... 

Sources of Organic Matter . ................ 

... 29 

... 29 

Preservation of Organic Matter . ............. ... 31 

Clastic Sources . ..................... ... 32 

Barriers of Clastic Sedimentation in the Black-Shale Sea . .. .... 35 

Middle and Late Devonian Transgression (and Regression) . . ... 38 

Development of Anaerobic Conditions in the lvBlack-Shale Sea" . ... 44 

Formation of a Stratified Water Column . ......... ... 44 

Conditions in the "Black-Shale Seaf1 ............ ... 51 

Depths . ......................... ... 55 

Sequential History of Black-Shale Deposition . ........ ... 56 

CONCLUSIONS . ............................ 66 

REFERENCES CITED . .......................... 70 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure 

1 Generalized. composite black-shale sequence from east-central 

Kentucky . .......................... 8 

2 Radioactive stratigraphy and stratigraphic nomenclature from 

eastern Kentucky . ...................... 

3 Schematic cross section showing the distribution of black 

shales and related facies from New York to Idaho . ...... 

4 Generalized Late Devonian paleogeogrpahy and lithofacies for 

North America . ........................ 

5 A model for the cyclicity of alternating black shales and 

coarser clastics in the Catskill delta . ........... 

6 Schematic diagram showing characteristics of a stratified water 

column and the sediments accumulatingwithineachwaterlayer . . 

7 A.)Development of quasi-esturine circulation and upwelling 

in an epicontinental sea; B.) Disruption of upwelling through 

progradation sediment influx . ................ 

8 A series of schematic sections from New York to the Ouachita 

area showing the inferred sequential development of blackshale 

depositional environments from the Middle Devonian 

through the Early Mississippian . ............... 

12 

14 

18 

36 

47 

50 

57

DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN 

BLACK-SHALE SEQUENCE OF NORTH AMERICA: 

A TECTONO-CLIMATIC APPROACH 

June, 1980 

FRANK R. ETTENSOHN AND LANCE S. BARRON 

Of 

Department of Geology, University of Kentucky 

Kentucky Research Group 

Lexington, Kentucky 40506 

Prepared for 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY 

EASTERN GAS SHALES PROJECT 

MORGANTOWN ENERGY TECHNOLOGY CENTER 

MORGANTOWN, WEST VIRGINIA 

UNDER 

CONTRACT NO. DE-AC21-76ET12040

DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN 

BLACK-SHALE SEQUENCE OF NORTH AMERICA: 

A TECTONO-CLIMATIC APPROACH 

Frank R. Ettensohnl and Lance S. Barron2 

ABSTRACT 

The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence of North America is 

a distinctive stratigraphic interval that reflects a low rate of clasticsediment 

influx, high organic productivity, and development of anaerobic 

conditions in a stratified water column within an inland, equatorial, 

epicontinental sea. 

The origin of these conditions apparently is related 

to the interaction of tectonism and climatic conditions unique to North 

America at this time. 

Black-shale deposition was coincident with and related to the contin- 

ent-continent collision that caused the Acadian Mountains. This rising 

mountain belt developed across the equator just east of the llBlack-Shale 

Sea", and effectively completed enclosure of the sea and became the major 

source of clastic sediments. Collision and resulting uplift, however, 

were apparently episodic. During periods of uplift, the mountains acted 

as a barrier to the moisture-laden trade winds converging on the equator; 

this caused rainshadow conditions west of the mountains and reduced 

clastic influx into the "Black-Shale Sea." In the absence of clastics, 

organic-rich muds were deposited throughout the sea. 

Concurrent with and related to the periods of uplift and subduction, 

were episodes of widespread cratonic subsidence and transgression, which 

were especially effective in the linear peripheral or foreland (Appalachian) 

basin west of the mountains. During these periods of subsidence 

and transgression, the sediment-starved "Black-Shale Sea" migrated eastward 

over parts of the Catskill Delta and westward over exposed parts of 

the craton. During intervening periods of tectonic quiesence, subsidence 

abated and the mountains were lowered by erosion to the point that trade 

winds crossed unimpeded and delivered precipitation to westernparts of 

the mountains near the equator. This resulted in a vast influx of 

clastics and rapid westward deltaic progradation into the "Black-Shale 

Sea." Seven such major cycles of alternating of black shale and coarse 

clastics are present in the Catskill Delta complex. 

Few of the deltaic progradations migrated westward beyond the periph- 

eral basin because of its confining effects, so that even during rainy 

periods, sediment-starved conditions persisted in cratonic portions of the 

1Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Kentucky 

2Research Assistant , University of Kentucky 

1

sea. Progressive deepening in cratonic portions of the sea combined with 

the equatorial nature of the sea caused a stratified water column (pycnocline) 

to develop which prevented oxygenation of the deeper bottom waters. 

The organic-rich muds deposited in the sea were preserved in the anaerobic, 

azoic conditions that resulted. 

Eventually the sea deepened to the point 

that upwelling oceanic waters entered from the continental margin in the 

Ouachita area. 

The "Black-Shale Seat1 and its organic-rich mudswereessentially the 

result of subsidence and sediment-starved conditions created by the col- 

lisional event which formed the Acadian Mountains. The interaction of 

these mountains with the atmospheric circulation patterns of the time 

is an important aspect of black-shale deposition which apparently has 

never been examined before. 

This study was supported under contract number DE-AC21-76ET12040 from 

the Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center. 

KEY WORDS: Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence, North America, 

sediment-starved, high organic productivity, anaerobic, stratified 

water column, "Black-Shale Sea", rainshadow, upwelling, Acadian Mountains. 

2

INTRODUCTION 

Although black shales are not uncommon in the geologic record, the 

Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence of North America is unusual in 

its widespread distribution and homogeneity. This black-shale sequence, 

though known by many stratigraphic names, forms a significant and easily 

recognized stratigraphic marker horizon that is continuous throughout m ch 

of midcontinental United States with extensions into the Southwest and into 

west-central Canada. These shales are thickest in the area of the Appala- 

chian Basin where they may compose as much as one-fourth of the Devonian 

sedimentary sequence. 

These shales are also unusual because of their high 

organic-matter content, high radioactivity, and paucity of fossils, especially 

benthic forms. In addition, they are important sources of natural gas (Avila, 

1976) and may in time be economically viable sources for some radioactive 

elements (Glover, 1959; Conant and Swanson, 1961; Breger and Brown, 1962) 

and some forms of synthetic fuel. Yet, despite the long-standing interest 

in these shales and m ch intensive study, the origin of these shales is still 

uncertain. Basically, there are two schools of thought regarding the origin 

of these shales: one suggesting a shallow-water origin (Linney, 1882, 1884; 

Grabau, 1917; Branson, 1924; Hard, 1931; Twenhofel, 1939; Stock- 

dale, 1939; Campbell, 1946; Wells, 1947; Conant, 1955; Conant and Swanson, 

1961; Hallam, 1967; Lewis and Schwietering, 1971; Schwietering, 1978) and 

another suggesting a deep-water origin (Newberry, 1873; Shaler, 1877; Clarke, 

1903; Schuchert, 1910; Reudemann, 1934, 1935; Woodward, 1943; 

Rich, 1951; Byers, 1977, 1979). Some workers, (Hard, 1931; Provo, 19771, 

however, suggestedthatwaterdepth is not necessarily a controlling factor in 

the deposition of these shales. 

They emphasize instead the necessity of a 

model which can account for the production and preservation of abundant 

3

organic matter in a marine environment, 

toward the production and preservation of abundant organic matter have been 

discussed recently by Heckel (1977) and Byers (1977), but more fundamental 

yet, are the regional controls that permit such conditions to develop. 

controls will also be examined. 

The marine conditions conducive 

Since these interpretations were originally published, much additional 

4 

These 

information on the sedimentological , paleontological, stratigraphic, tectonic, 

and paleoclimatic framework of these shales has accumulated. 

information has accumulated as a result of the Eastern Gas Shales Project 

under Department of Energy sponsorship. 

has also made us more aware of problems which must be explained before the 

origin of these shales can be fully understood. 

are : 

Much of this 

However, this additional information 

Foremost among these problems 

1.) A means of producing and preserving the vast amounts of 

2.) 

3.) 

4.) 

5.) 

6.) 

organic debris present in the shale. 

The widespread, homogeneous nature of the shale. 

The unusual concentrations of various heavy metals in the 

shale . 

The unusual nature of the fauna and flora found in the shales. 

The presence of prominent and widespread green-shale horizons 

in the black-shale sequence. 

The relationship between the black shales and contiguous 

units. 

This study integrates both new and old evidence to provide new lines 

of evidence, explain the above problems, and develop a depositional model 

which can explain the origin of the shale in terms of the known sedimento- 

logic, paleontologic, stratigraphic, tectonic, paleoclimatic, and paleogeographic

framework. 

The presently available evidence in each of these areas will 

be examined briefly in following sections. 

The model is developed with 

particular reference to eastern Kentucky where much of the new evidence was 

collected. 

S


We wish to give special thanks to Dennis R. Swager, Michael L. Miller, 

Scott B. Dillman, and Gerald Markowitz, former research assistants in the 

black-shale program at the University of Kentucky, whose theses proeded 

valuable new data for our model. We also wish to thank Roy C. Kepferle, 

Edward N. Wilson, and Philip H. Heckel for their trips into the field with 

us and valuable discussion. 

who typed and proofed the manuscript and to Danna L. Antoine, who drafted 

the figures. 

Our special gratitude goes to Jane T. Wells 

Funding for this study was provided under contract number DE-AC21-76ET- 

12040 fromthe Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technical Center. 

6

Sedimentary, Paleontologic, Stratigraphic Framework 

The Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence is one of 

the most distinctive and well-known stratigraphic intervals in east-central 

and midwestern United States. The sedimentology and stratigraphy (Campbell, 

1946; Ellison, 1950; Hoover, 1960; Conant and Swanson, 1961; Oliver and others, 

1967), and petrology (Patchen and Larese, 1976; Miller, 1978; Harvey and 

others, 1978; Samartojo and Waldstein, 1978; Potter and others, 1980) of 

these shales are fairly well-known and suggest some of the characteristics 

below as being most distinctive. 

The black-shale sequence is nearly everywhere unconformable with under- 

lying units, which range in age from Middle Ordovician to Middle Devonian. 

Moreover, the unconformity surface is relatively flat and smooth, and over 

some areas the black shales exhibit uniformity in thickness and composition, 

suggesting a pre-depositional peneplain (Conant and Swanson, 1961). In some 

areas, this surface may have been karstic (Carmen and Shillhan, 1930). 

Basal parts of the black-shale sequence that overlie this surface typically 

exhibit a basal lag, sandstone or '%one bed" varying in thickness from a few 

millimeters to a few meters (Fig. 1). Locally, this part of the sequence may 

be thick enough that it has a member or formational status (e.g., - Misener, 

Sylamore, Hillsboro (?), Hardin, Duffin/Harg/Ravenna facies). These basal 

beds vary in composition from a silty clay to a distinct sandstone contain- 

ing fine to very coarse sand-size quartz grains, phosphatic pellets and 

nodules, glauconite rock fragments, plant spores, small pyritized gastropods, 

fish bones and teeth, conodonts, and wood fragments. The cement may be cal- 

careous, siliceous, siliceous-pyritic, or phosphatic. Not only do lag hori- 

zons occur at the bases of the black-shale sequences, but we have noted their 

presence wherever major black-shale units sharply overlie green-*ale units 

7

RELATIVE 

LITHOLOGY ABUNDANCE 

---. -. - > - 

...... . Basal Lag 

- Block Shale 

-- I-- 

-- 

-- 

,/----*- -- 

Increasing 

Greenshale 

Figure 1. Generalized, composite black-shale sequence from east-central 

Kentucky showing the distribution of lithologies and the rela- 

tive vertical abundances of radioactivity, substances, phosphor- 

OUS, and.heavy metals (data from Swager, 1978, and Markowitz, 

1979). c 

8

within the black-shale sequence itself. Conkin and Conkin (1975) suggest 

that these lag horizons mark paracontinuities or diastems representing periods 

of little sedimentation followed by rapid transgression. 

Conkin suggest that paracontinuities reflect very shallow, near-shore coudi- 

tions, we suggest that in parts of the black-shale sequence they may also 

represent deeper, subaequeous sedimentational diastems. 

9 

Although Conkin and 

The black-shale sequence is generally characterized by two dominant lithol- 

ogies, an organic-rich, brownish-black to black, fissile shale and an organic- 

deficient, gray to green clayey shale. The brownish-black to black shales are 

highly carbonaceous and owe their dark coloration to the dominance of organic 

matter over clay. 

high concentrations of trace elements. By volume, organic matter comprises 

approximately a third of the rock, which is consistent with the 15 to 20 per- 

cent organic matter by weight and by petrographic analysis (Conant and Swanson, 

1961, p. 43-44; Potter and others, 1980, Table 4). The organic matter con- 

sists primarily of organic films on clay-particleaggregates, spores, algae, 

woody material, and opaque macerals (Miller, 1978). This organic material 

always occurs in close association with angular, silt-size and clay-size 

quartz grains. 

matter or as paper-thin laminae, which give the black shale a pronounced fis- 

sility upon weathering. 

5.0 mm. 

The shales are also notable for their high radioactivity and 

The quartz occurs either randomly dispersed within the. organic 

Individual laminae range in thicknesses from .01 to 

Unweathered shale seen in cores is typically massive and uncleavable, 

exhibiting little of the fissility seen in outcrops. 

appears t o be concentrated in the black organic-rich shales; 

Most of the quartz 

quartz comprises 

20 to 25 percent of these shales (Conant and Swanson, 1961). Although clays 

may compose up to 50 percent of some black shales [Potter and others, 1980), 

claysare generally much less abundant, usually around 10% (Conant and Swanson,

1961; Miller, 1978). 

Finely disseminated, microscopic phosphate occurs throughout most of the 

black shale (Conant and Swanson, 1961), but in upper parts of the black-shale 

sequence, the phosphate also occurs as concretionary bodies which vary in 

shape from small spheroidal concretions and ellipsoidal nodules a few centi- 

meters in diameter to large, irregular amoebaform bodies with long dimensions 

approaching a meter (Fig. 1). A phosphate-rich zone of phosphatic nodules, 

pellets, fossils and cements also typically occurs at the base of a sequence 

associated with the basal lag (Fig. 1). The basal contacts of black-shale 

units are almost always sharply defined, whereas vertical and lateral con- 

tacts are typically gradational into gray or green shales. 

Much has been written about the paleontology of this shale sequence, and 

this is the topic of an extensive bibliography by Barron and Ettensohn (In 

press). Marine body fossils are relatively rare in the black shales, but those 

that are found usually indicate a nektic, planktic, epiplanktic, or necro- 

planktic life mode. Benthic forms are especially rare throughout most of 

the black shales. When benthic forms do occur, however, they always occur 

near the base of the sequence (Savage, 1930, 1931; Campbell, 1946; Lineback, 

1968; Fig. 1) or in the eastern, shoreward intertonguings with the Catskill 

Delta complex (Sutton and others, 1970; Byers, 1977). These low-diversity 

communities are typically composed of eurytopic brachiopods, gastropods and 

pelecypods. 

associated with the black shales were probably epiplanktic on logs (Rudwick, 

1965). 

Lingula and other inarticulate brachiopods which are commonly, 

The basal parts of cratonic black-shale sequences may also exhibit 

interbedded, fossiliferous carbonates and coarser clastics (basal lag?) 

10

exhibiting ripple marks and flaser beds. The Duffin/Harg/Ravenna facies 

of eastern Kentucky is an example of this (Foerste, 1906; Campbell, 1946). 

Interbedded with the black shales in many areas are irregular bedded 

green to gray, organic-deficient mudstones and shales (Fig. 1). In the 

green to gray shales, laminae are absent or poorly developed. 

to the black shales, the organic content in these shales decreases to approx- 

imately five percent, whereas the percentage of clays increases to nearly 

80 percent. Except for local siltstone lenses and beds, the percentage of 

quartz is drastically reduced, generally averaging 5 to 10 percent (Miller, 

1978). These shales are also relatively nonradioactive (Fig. 2). Compared 

to the black shales, the diversity.of life in these shales is markedly in- 

creased. Although, similar nektic, planktic, epiplanktic, and necroplanktic 

forms still occur, they are not as abundant as in adjacent black shales. 

Unlike the black shales, however, benthic fossils do occur, and include in 

. - situ Lingula and a variety of trace fossils, as well as a micromorph fauna 

11 

In contrast 

consisting of ostracods, cephalopods, pelecypods, gastropods, and Foramini- 

fera (Barron and Ettensohn, 1980). 

Stratigraphically, even the most homogeneous black-shale sequence can 

be divided into distinctive units based on radioactivity (Ettensohn and 

others, 1979). 

Seven of these units were initially designated in the Ohio- 

New Albany-Chattanooga shale sequence (F.ig. 2) from the subsurface of Ohio 

and eastern Kentucky by Provo (1977). 

These units were subsequently cor- 

related with named surficial units and traced into the black-shale outcrop 

belts of Kentucky and Ohio (Swager, 1978; Provo and others, 1978), as well 

as eastward into the subsurface of Virginia, West Virginia, eastern Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, and New York where they pinch out into coarser basinal and 

slope-edge clastics (Chagrin, Brallier, and "Portage Facies"),which in 

-

Figure 2. Radioactive stratigraphy and stratigraphic nomenclature from 

eastern Kentucky showing correlations with the New York section. 

Units 2 (Three Lick-Chagrin) and 6 (Upper Olentary - Angola 

ShaleDanover Shale) and the Bedford-Berea sequence contain 

significant amounts of less radioacitve green shale and are 

represented by prominent negative deviations. 

12

turn grade eastward into even coarser marginal-marine and terrestrial shelf- 

edge clastics (Yhemung and Catskill" facies) (Piotrowski and Krajewski, 1977; 

Wallace and others, 1978; Kepferle and others, 1978; Roen and others, 1978a,b; 

Potter and others, 1980). Of course, this sequence of transitions represents 

major time-transgressive facies changes that occurred during deposition of 

the Catskill Delta in the Middle and Late Devonian and in the Early Missis- 

sippian and this has been well documented in many earlier studies (e.g., 

Barrell, 1913, 1914; Caster, 1934; Broughton and others, 1962; Rickard, 1975). 

Because the Catskill deIta experienced periods of progradation, punc- 

tuated by periods of transgression, a distinct sequence of cyclic lithologies 

developed (Fig. 3). 

differences in the amount of clastic input during different phases of deltaic 

13 

Because of varying distances from the source area and 

progradation, the vertical sequences are not everywhere similar throughout 

the distribution of the black shale,as might be expected. Figure 3 demon- 

strates some of the regional variations in the black-shale sequence.. 

Near the eastern source area, the sequence consists of cyclic alterna- 

tions of unfossiliferous, black, fissile shale with intervals of green to 

gray shale, siltstone and sandstone, which may be very fossiliferous; locally, 

fossiliferous limestones may be interbedded with the green to gray shale. 

In an eastward direction, the black shales eventually tongue out into the 

coarser clastics, whereas the coarser, clastic intervals pinch out westwardly 

into the black shales. In general, there is an eastward change to coarser 

and coarser clastics and a gradation from black shales in the west to redbeds 

in the east. 

Because few of the coarser clastic intervals prograded beyond the 

Appalachian Basin, the black-shale sequence in eastern and east-central 

parts of the adjacent craton are largely unfossiliferous fissile black

~~ ~ ~~~ 

North Odrota Iowa Illinois Central Kentucky Western Oh 

Figure 3. Schematic cross section showing the distribution of black shales and related facies f 

to Idaho. The thin Pipe Creek black shale separates the Angola and Hanover Shale (7) 

thin to show on the section. Not drawn to scale (adapted from Gutschick and Moreman 

Potter and others, 1980

shales with two or three, thin unfossiliferous,but bioturbated,green-shale 

intervals. In central and western parts of the craton, where the green 

shales and coarser clastics from eastern sources have pinched out (Fig. 3), 

the sequence may be composed entirely of black, fissile shale. Some of these 

black-shale sequences on western parts of the adjacent craton may contain 

thin green-shale intervals derived from sources other than the Catskill 

Delta. 

In the Catskill Delta and adjacent parts of western Pennsylvania and 

Ohio, seven major black-shale units (Marcellus, Geneseo, Middlesex, Rhine- 

street, Huron-Dunkirlc, Cleveland, and Sunbury) and intervening clastic units 

occur. Each successive black-shale unit overlaps underlying black-shale 

units on the western margin of the Appalachian Basin as they were progres- 

sively displaced westwardly by prograding wedges of green shale and coarser 

clastics (Fig. 3). Only the last three black-shale units (Huron-Dunkirk, 

Cleveland, and Sunbury) and the last three coarser clastic wedges (Upper 

Olentangy-Mover-Angola, Chagrin-Three Lick, and Bedford-Berea) effectively 

migrated beyond the Appalachian Basin onto parts of the Cincinnati Arch and 

beyond. 

The earlier black-shale units and intervening coarser clastic 

intervals are essentially restricted to the Appalachian Basin (Fig. 3). 

15

Tectonic Setting 

It is difficult to discuss a depositional model for the Upper Devonian- 

Lower Mississippian black shales of the east-central United States without 

some reference to the regional tectonic framework, for much of the black-shale 

deposition occurred during and at the end of a major continent-continent col- 

lisional event known as the Acadian Orogeny. 

This collisional event not 

only created the Acadian highlands in what is now New England and the Mari- 

time provinces of Canada, from which most of the Upper Devonian clastics in 

this area were derived, but also probably caused reactivation of certain 

basement structures and periods of broad epeirogenic uplift and subsidence 

which influenced black-shale deposition. 

Devonian-Mississippian black-shale deposition occurred during a period 

of global transgression or submergence which accompanied the Acadian and 

other coeval tectonic events characterized by convergence at craton margins. 

The correspondence of global transgression with periods of plate convergence 

probably is not coincidental. 

related periods of global transgression to periods of plate convergence during 

which spreading rates were accelerated. The relationship is twofold. During 

periods of accelerated spreading, spreading centers and adjacent ocean bot- 

toms are typically elevated causing upward displacement of ocean waters and 

hence transgression (Johnson, 1971). 

Both Johnson (1971) and Sloss and Speed (1974) 

At the same time, subduction beneath 

the involved continents caused differential subsidence of the craton and 

transgression (Sloss and Speed, 1974). 

Although the Acadian event has been ascribed to a number of different 

plate-tectonic models, some involving different plates, we have chosen a 

model developed by McKerrow and Ziegler (1972) and later expanded on by 

Dewey and Kidd (1974) as best fitting the present evidence. Their tectonic 

16

scenario began with the Caledonian Orogeny in the Upper Silurian and lower- 

most Devonian. At this time, the Baltic Shield (Baltica) collided with North 

America-Greenland (Laurentia) thereby partially closing the Proto-Atlantic 

or Iapetus Ocean from northern Scandanavia to Ireland. 

formation of the Caledonides and a larger continental mass known as Laurussia 

(see Ziegler and others, 1979, for reconstructions; Fig. 4). According to 

McKerrow and Ziegler (1972) and Dewey and Kidd (1974), however, the southern 

portion of the Proto-Atlantic did not close completely during the Caledonian 

Orogeny, which left the southern part of the former Baltica extending south- 

westward as a long peninsula. 

chusetts Peninsula (McKerrow and Ziegler, 1972) or as the Avalon Prong (Dewey 

and Kidd, 1974) and consisted of present-day eastern Newfoundland, eastern 

Nova Scotia, and eastern Massachusetts (Fig. 4). During the Middle Devonian, 

this peninsula was impacted against North America by collision with north- 

western South America from Peru to Venezuela (Gondwanaland) resulting in the 

Acadian Orogeny (McKerrow and Ziegler, 1972; Dewey and Kidd,1974;Fig.4). Most 

major deformation was confined to the northern Appalachians from eastern New- 

foundland to Pennsylvania (Rodgers, 1967) where the continent-continent col- 

lision had occurred. Collision occurred first to the northeast and with time 

extended to the southwest. According to Donohoe and Pajarie (1973) the 

orogenic event in the northeast may have begun as early as the late Early 

Devonian, but the main collisional event occurred during the late Middle and 

early LateDevonian. Nonetheless, the eventapparentlycontinued episodically into 

the Early Mississippian farther to the southwest (Rodgers, 1967). With the 

Acadian Orogeny, Baltica was completely welded to Laurentia and the last 

phase in the formation of the Old Red Sandstone Continent (Fig. 4) was com- 

pleted. 

17 

This resulted in the 

This peninsula is known as the Avalon-Massa-

Figure 4. Generalized Late Devonian palemgeography and lithofacies for 

North America. Palmgeography summarized from McKerrow and 

Ziegler (1972), Seyfert and Serken (1973), Badham and Halls 

(1975), and Heckel and Witzke (1980); lithofacies largely from 

heckel and Witzke (1980). 

18

* 

In the southern Appalachians, there is also evidence of an Acadian 

orogenic event but the intensity of the event was less and the style of 

tectonism differed from that to the north. The Avalon Zone has been traced 

into the southern Appalachians (Williams, 1978) and evidence of deformation 

(e.g., Hatcher, 1978), volcanism (Dennison and Textoris, 1970, 1978) and 

granitic intrustion (e.g., - Plavlides, 1976) is present. Nonetheless, defor- 

mation and accompanying relief were not as great in the southern Appalachians 

as to the north, for very little post-orogenic sediment was produced. Most 

of the Upper Devonian sediments in the foreland basin of the southern Appa- 

lachians are either black shales or clastics derived from the northeast 

(Rodgers, 1967). It is unlikely that Acadian orogenic activity in the southern 

Appalachians resulted from continent-continent collision as in the north. 

A more likely cause is westward subduction beneath an island-arc system, micro- 

continents (rifted continental fragments), or a peninsular continental frag- 

ment (Hatcher, 1978). 

In the northern Appalachians where continent-continent collision occurred, 

the sites of most intense deformation and tight suturing corresponded with 

projections or promontories in the irregular North American continental mar- 

gin; in adjacent structural re-entrants, deformation was less intense and sub- 

sidence may have predominated (Dewey and Kidd, 1974; Thomas, 1977). Such 

promontories collided first and more intensely creating areas of great tectonic 

relief (Dewey and Burke, 1974; Dewey and Kidd, 1974). In this context, it is 

interesting to note that the position of the Catskill Delta, which apparently 

provided much of the fine-grained detritus found in the black shales, cor- 

responds to the New York promontory (see Williams, 1978). 

post-orogenic clastics derived from the tectonic highlands associated with 

this promontory accumulated in parts of the foreland or peripheral basin 

19 

Thick sequences of

associated with adjacent structural re-entrants (Dewey and Kidd, 1974; Thomas, 

1977). This accounts for the great thickness of Middle and Upper Devonian 

clastics found in the Catskill delta of Pennsylvania and southeastern New 

York (see Meckel, 1970; Thomas, 1977). 

According to McKerrow and Ziegler (1972) and Dewey and Kidd (1974), the 

collisional event producing the Acadian Orogeny was followed by rifting, 

separation and south westward rotation of South America during the Late Devon- 

ian and Early Carboniferous. 

movement of Africa toward the southern European microcontinents (Fig. 4) 

20 

At the same time, however, the northwestward 

caused these microcontinents to collide with east-central portions of Laurus- 

sia (Badham and Halls, 1975) and thereby maintained the compressional regime 

in the Acadian area. As a result, pulses of clastic progradation, some with 

a more northerly source area, continued to be debouched into adjacent parts 

. of the foreland or peripheral basin. Not until the Late Carboniferous-Early 

Permian did extensive continental collision occur again, when northern Africa 

- (Gondwanaland) collided with European and North American parts of Laurussia in 

the Hercynian and Alleghenian orogenies.

Paleogeography and Paleoclimatology 

In the Middle Devonian, collision of Laurentia and Baltica resulted in 

a reassembled equatorial landmass called Laurussia (Ziegler and others, 1979; 

Bambach and others, 1980). Terrestrial or continental portions of this landmass 

have been called the Old Red Sandstone (ORS) Continent (e.g., - Goldring 

and Langenstrassen, 1979; Fig. 4). Southeastern portions of the ORS Conti- 

nent (present-dayCanadianblaritimeprovinces andNew England; Fig. 4)werebounded 

by the Acadian Mountains which apparently formed the southwestern part of a 

peninsula which extended partially down what is today the New England and 

mid-Atlantic coastline of the United States. Farther northward, the Acadian 

Mountains joined the Caledonide Mountains in what are parts of present-day 

Ireland, Scotland, Greenland,and Norway. 

This belt of mountains continued 

westward around northern Greenland into parts of the Canadian Arctic Archi- 

pelago. On the western margin of the continental landmass, the Antler orogenic 

highlands began to rise during the Late Devonian,as older Devonian and under- 

lying oceanic rocks were deformed and subsequently obducted eastward on-to the 

western margin of the craton (Poole, 1974). 

Lying between the Antler orogenic belt to the northwest and the Acadian 

orogenic belt to the southwest was a large expanse of low-lying craton partially 

covered by epicontinental seas during the Late Devonian. Immediately craton- 

ward of each belt, subsiding foreland, peripheral, or exogeosynclinal basins 

developed in which great thicknesses of flyschlike mudstone, siltstone, and 

sandstone with minor amounts of impure limestone accumulated. 

parts of the craton were generally low-lying with essentially little or no 

relief. 

Middle-Late Devonian transition resulted in brief periods of emergence and 

erosional planation causing the low relief (Ham and Wilson, 1967). 

The intervening 

Epeirogenic uplift during the late Early Devonian and again near the 

21 

Although

local domes and arches like the Cincinnati Arch were probably periodically 

emergent during the Late Devonian, none of these structures was apparently 

high enough or of sufficient duration to affect circulation in the cratonic 

seas for long. 

the Transcontinental Arch which extended southwestward from the Canadian 

Shield to New Mexico as a large peninsula or series of large islands (Fig. 4). 

This arch stood high enough during the Late Devonian that it acted as an 

emergent barrier or shoal area that prevented large-scale exchange of sedi- 

ments and waters so that different sedimentary regimes developed on each 

side of the arch. 

The only major structure which had this bind of effect was 

On the northwestern side of the arch, carbonate deposition 

dominated, whereas the southeastern side was dominated by the deposition of 

black, euxinic muds. 

The euxinic epicontinental sea southeast of the Trans- 

continental Arch, hereafter called the "Black-Shale Sea", opened to the south- 

west into deeper oceanic waters, but in the northward direction, the sea 

progressively tapered to a narrow arm projecting into the area presently 

known as Hudson Bay (Fig. 4). The "Black-Shale Sea" was not only enclosed 

on the western side by the Transcontinental Arch, but also on the north by 

the Old Red Sandstone Continent, on the east by the Acadian Mountains, and 

on the southeast and south (Conant and Swanson, 1961; breger and Brown, 1962; 

Cook and Bally, 1975) by a low-lying peninsula, which at times may have been 

joined to the emergent Ozark Uplift (Fig. 4). Most of these bordering lands 

were probably vegetated at one time or another (Beck, 1964). Hence, except 

for a southwestern outlet to the open ocean and a shallow-water connection 

across the Transcontinental Arch, the "Black-Shale Sea" was a nearly enclosed 

epicontinental sea. 

Most workers agree that Laurussia was an equatorial landmass, but there 

is some difference regarding placement of the Devonian'paleoequator. Smith 

22

and others (1973) interpreted the paleoequator to have run north of Green- 

land and northwest of Alaska, whereas many other workers (McElhinny, 1973; 

Woodrow and others, 1973; Seyfert and Sirkin, 1973; Dott and Batten, 1971; 

Lowe, 1975; Zonenshap and Gorodnitskiy, 1977; Habicht, 1979) indicated that 

the paleoequator passed through southern Greenland, Hudson Bay and the Pacific 

Coast. Others, however, suggested that the paleoequator essentially paral- 

led the eastern Atlantic coastline of the United States (Bain, 1963) or ran 

through northern Greenland and north-central Canada (Greiner, 1978). More 

recently, two new interpretations for paleoequator placement have been devel- 

oped by Heckel and Witzke (1970) and Ziegler and others (19791, Scotese and 

others (1979), and Bambach and others (1980). Heckel and Witzke (1979) placed 

the Late Devonian paleoequator east of Alaska and ran it through British 

Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California; their interpretation is based 

largely on climatic and sedimentological criteria. Heckel and Witzke (1979) 

not only provided new and intriguinginterpretations about the placement of the 

- 

Devonian paleoequator and climatic belts, but also discussedthe inconsistencies 

of earlier paleoequator reconstructions. Heckel and Witzke did not consider, 

however, the newer reconstruction of Ziegler and others (1979), Scotese 

and others (1979) and Bambach and others (1980) which indicates that the 

Devonian paleoequator continued from the Canadian Maritime provinces through 

the central United States and Baja California (Fig. 4). This reconstruction 

is based on the integration of paleomagnetic, faunal, tectonic, and climatic 

evidence and appears to be more consistent with currently available evidence 

than does the reconstruction by Heckel and Witzke (1979). 

The patterns and dynamics of atmospheric circulation have remained much 

the same since the beginning of the Phanerozoic (Drewry and others, 1974). 

Because atmospheric circulation and its modification by continental 

23

physiography ultimately exert a major control over the distribution of marine 

carbonates, evaporites, clastics, and certain organo-sedimentary structures 

such as reefs, the distribution of these sediments and structures can provide 

valuable paleogeographic and paleoclimatic implications for the Late Devonian 

(Heckel and Witzke,,1979). Heckel and Witzke have summarized the most impor- 

tant sedimentological patterns and have developed a set of reasonable paleo- 

geographic inferences from them for the Late Devonian. 

believe that these inferences can adequately explain Late Devonian black-shale 

deposition, which must have some basis in paleogeography and paleoclimatology. 

Using the same data as Heckel and Witzke (1979) and the paleoequator of Ziegler, 

Scotese, Bambach and their co-workers, an alternate set of paleogeographic and 

paleoclimatic inferences for the Late Devonian can be made which are consistent 

with modern patterns of oceanographic and atmospheric circulation and aid 

considerably in understanding black-shale deposition. We will now examine 

the distribution of carbonates, evaporites, reefs and other features. 

24 

However, we do not 

Upper Devonian shallow-water carbonates in our interpretation are restricted 

to a waxqtropical-subtropical belt which is free of major clastic influx and 

located within 30 degrees of the equator (Fig. 4). Upper Devonian reefs are 

restricted to a similar belt. Precipitation of carbonate by both biological 

and physical means is greatly enhanced in this belt due to increased temperature 

and salinity (Lees, 1975.; Heckel and Witzke, 1979; Habicht, 1979). 

Evaporites typically form in restricted environments characterized by 

excessive evaporation. According to Lisitzin (1972) and Heckel and Witzke 

(1979) such arid conditions characterize the dry, tropical trade-wind belts 

occurring on either side of the equator within the carbonate belt (approximately 

10 to 30 degrees North and South); evaporites are absent in the humid, equa- 

torial belt (doldrums) because of dilution by excess precipitation. In our

econstrktion, thick, Upper Devonian evaporites are restricted to latitudes 

10 to 20 degrees north of the paleoequator in the dry, trade-wind belt in 

the rain-shadow of Caledonide mountains. 

Clastics are most abundant in the rainy, humid zones where vast amounts 

of detrital sediments are supplied by weathering and erosion of adjacent land 

masses. These rainy zones include the humid, equatorial belt (doldrums) within 

5 to 10 degrees of and on either side of the equator, the temperate storm belts 

ranging from approximately 35 to 60 degrees north and south of the equator, and 

windward sides of mountain ranges in the trade-wind belt (Strahler and Strahler, 

1973; Heckel and Witzke, 1979). 

means that the tropical carbonate belt may be split along the equator by an 

equatorial clastic belt and bounded poleward by temperate clastic belts (Hec- 

kel and Witzke, 1979). 

25 

This arrangement of humid, clastic-rich belts 

Heckel and Witzke (1979, Fig. 3c) suggested that the Late Devonian equa- 

torial and temporate clastic belts nearly coincided with the Antler and Acad- 

ian mountain belts respectively. 

quences associated with these belts required great amounts of rain which neces- 

sitate presence in one of the two humid, clastic belts. 

the necessity of rain nor the immensity of the clastic deposits associated 

with the Antler mountain belt, but we do question the paleoclimatic and 

paleogeographic origins of that rain and the relative immensity of the Cats- . 

kill delta clastics in comparison. 

They argued that the immense detrital se- 

We do not question 

In our interpretation (Fig. 4), the clastics associated with the Antler 

Mountains were deposited on the windward side of the mountains in a trade- 

wind belt. 

The dry trade winds would have picked up sufficient moisture while 

over the epicontinental seas east of the mountains. As the trade winds were 

forced to rise when crossing the Antler Mountains, a great deal of orographic 

precipitation would have resulted on the eastern flank, carrying much detrital

material into adjacent parts of the epicontinental sea. Clastics in the 

extreme northwestern parts of Canada and south of the Arctic Archipelago 

Mountains occurred in the temperate, humid belt. Moreover, as the prevail- 

ing westerly winds impinged on the Arctic Archipelago Mountains,,they would 

have been forced to rise, resulting in a great deal of orographic precipi- 

tation. This precipitation and the resulting alluvial and deltaic sedimen- 

tation, combined with the humid, subtropical climate, explains the presence 

of Late Devonian coal in the Arctic Archipelago islands. 

The Catskill delta, on the other hand, was apparently located in the 

humid equatorial belt near the southern belt of easterly trade winds. 

dominance of easterly winds in this area is indicated by the distribution and 

thickness patterns of the Tioga Bentonite (Dennison and Textoris, 1970, 1971, 

1978). The delta, we believe, was very definitely located in the rainshadow 

of the Acadian Mountains and hence did not receive the maximum precipitation nor 

mally associated with the humid, equatorial belt. 

sediment-starved nature of the adjacent, epicontinental (black-shale) seas 

and by indicators of restricted rainfall such as dipnoan trace fossils, 

carbonate paleosols, and redbeds in the Catskill-Old Red Sandstone facies 

(Woodrow and others, 1973; Allen, 1979). We will return to these arguments 

again in a later section. 

26 

The 

This is reflected in the 

Further westward, the humid equatorial belt coincided with parts of the 

Transcontinental Arch. However, because the arch had no significant relief 

and was developed on older carbonates, it did not supply sufficient detrital 

sediments to form the thick, coarse clastic sequences that often characterize 

the humid equatorial belt. 

Because of this, thin green-shales and shaly 

carbonates predominated in this part of the Late Devonian equatorial belt. 

South America (western Gondwanaland, Fig. 4) at this time was largely

situated between 5 and 30 degrees south latitude, an area where abundant 

carbonates might 

be expected, but 

few Devonian rocks are present in reality. 

Although doubt exists about whether many Upper Devonian rocks are 

in the northern and western seaway, those rocks present are largely clastic. 

Conditions for carbonate deposition apparently were not favorable, for north- 

ern parts of the sea were on the windward side of a mountain range (Columbia 

and Venezuela) where clastic influx would have diluted any carbonates, and 

western sides of the seaway were probably subject to upwellings of cold, 

less saline waters from the subtropical gyre on the eastern side of the 

ocean (see Lees, 1975; Heckel and Witzke, 1979). 

27 

present

DEPOSITIONAL MODEL 

Although the specific purpose of this study is to explain the deposi- 

tion of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence in 

eastern Kentucky, this task cannot adequately be completed without examin- 

ing the black shale throughout its entire distribution in North America, as 

well as the units contiguous with it. 

of these black shales have already been proposed, and significant points 

regarding the origin of these shales have been brought out in many of them. 

Most of the models represent some variation on llshallow-waterll or "deep- 

water" themes the most important of which are listed in the introductory 

section. 

A number of models for the deposition 

We believe that neither of these basic models can adequately ex- 

plain the entire black-shale sequence; whatever model is finally defined 

must be able to explain both shallow- and deep-water shales in the same 

sequence, for there is ample evidence of both types of shale. 

The model we have developed emphasizes regional tectonic, climatic, 

and sedimentary patterns rather than the specifics of black-shale deposition. 

The specific conditions under which black shaLes accumulate are already 

fairly well known. 

What is not so well known, however, are the regional 

controls which permitted these conditions to form and operate. 

regional controls that will be emphasized in this model. 

parts of the model are really totally new. 

our evidence has been discussed by earlier workers. 

useful the recent work of Heckel (1977) and Heckel and Witzke (1979), al- 

though we disagree with their placement of the paleoequators. 

It is these 

Nonetheless, few 

At some time or other, most of 

We found particularly 

What is new 

about this model is our singular contention that these black shales owe their 

origin to an interplay of tectonic and paleoclimatic factors unique to the 

Laurussian continental mass (North America and northwestern Europe, Fig. 4) 

28

29 

from the Middle Devonian through the earliest Mississippian. In many earlier 

studies, the influence of tectonic and climatic factors on the origin of these 

black shales was too often overlooked. 

Sources of Organic Matter 

Origin of Black Muds 

Two problems are inherent in the origin of black muds: a source of 

abundant organic matter and a means of preserving that organic matter from 

the normal physical processes of oxidation that destroy it and biological 

processes that consume it. 

in the plankton that inhabit the surface waters of seas and oceans almost 

everywhere. Trask (1939) estimated an annual production rate for organic 

matter in the ocean on the order of 1000 grams per square meter (approximately 

3000 tons per square mile). 

A source of organic matter is readily available 

This productivity may be further enhanced in 

smaller, largely enclosed seas where surface runoff from nearby land can 

continually replenish nutrients; or in seas along the eastern margins of 

oceans where nutrient-rich waters from oceanic depths upwell and mix with 

shallow waters resulting in great plankton blooms(Schopf, 1980, p. 102; 

Bougis, 1976). Paleogeographic reconstructions of North America during the 

Late Devonian indicate that the "Black-Shale Sea" was a largely enclosed sea 

or embayment (Fig. 4). Because this sea opened to the southwest and some of 

the shales deposited in it are highly phosphatic, it is also likely that 

deep, nutrient-rich, oceanic waters upwelled and mixed with the shallower 

waters of the "Black-Shale Sea." 

We will return to the role of oceanic up- 

welling in the deposition of the black shale in a later section. 

Another important source of organic matter is that of terrestrial 

origin. Gripenberg (1934) estimated that up to 2 million metric tons of

terrestrial organic material per year was being carried by rivers into the 

Baltic Sea, where black anoxic muds are currently accumulating locally, and 

the Baltic Sea is about half the size of the "Black-Shale Sea." Unless this 

material is destroyed by physical oxidation or consumed by organisms or trans- 

ported beyond the depositional basin, it must be deposited with the other 

sediments. 

In the Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence of North America 

evidence of terrestrial organic matter is nearly everywhere abundant. 

literature abounds with accounts of stems, logs, lepidostrobi, and other 

parts of terrestrial plants (e.g., - Hoover, 1960; Conant and Swanson, 1961; 

Breger and Brown, 1962, 1963). Callixylon logs are perhaps the best known ter- 

restrial constituents of the black shale. Most of this terrestrial organic 

material is assumed to have originated in the east, especially around 

the Catskill Delta area where coals are known to occur (Woodrow and others, 

1973; Heckel and Witzke, 1979) and the in-place stumps of entire Callixylon 

forests have been exhumed (Goldring, 1924). The Ozark uplift and Cincinnati 

Arch may have also been sources of terrestrial plant debris. 

(1962, 1963) suggested that the black shales are composed primarily of ter- 

restrial (humic) organic debris, whereas more recent studies of the organic 

matter using carbon isotopes, suggest that the contribution of terrestrial 

organic matter increases in an easterly direction toward the major source areas 

Potter and others, 1980). 

30 

The 

Breger and Brown 

The principal point of the preceeding discussion is the fact that organic 

matter was relatively abundant in the large embayment that comprised the 

"Black-Shale Sea." Although the amount of organic matter in the form of 

plankton and other larger organisms living in upper parts of the water column 

is usually rather large, conditions in and near the "Black-Shale Seal' - 

basin configuration and size, nearby terrestrial sources of nutrients and

organic debris, and the presence of upwellings during at least parts of 

black-shale deposition - would have served to enhance the production and 

accumulation of organic matter. 

Preservation of Organic Matter 

The effects of such a vast amount of organic matter can easily be 

reduced by physical oxidation, biologic consumption, or sediment dilution. 

When unusually large amounts of organic debris are sedimented, the oxygen 

demand of the physical system overrides that of the biological system, and 

free oxygen is depleted (Thiel, 1978). In a stratified water column where 

vertical replenishment of oxygen to the bottom can not take place, anoxic, 

reducing conditions develop, and more and more organic matter is preserved. 

The lack of free oxygen prevents metazoan life and only anaerobic and facul- 

tative anaerobic life can exist. A mechanism similar to this has been sug- 

gested by Byers (1977, 1979) and Heckel and Witzke (1979). 

It is also possible, however, for organic matter to be preserved under 

oxidizing conditions. 

in such abundance and so fast that organisms and oxidizing processes simply 

can not decompose all the mass. 

This can occur wherever organic matter accumulates 

accumulate organic matter in an oxidizing realm. 

tions would rapidly set in below the sediment-water interface, environmental 

conditions on and above the substrate could be normal and support prolific 

benthic communities. The principal difference between this and the previous 

anaerobic situation is the fact that the abundant organic matter accumulates 

in water shallow enough to allow vertical mixing and replenishment of oxygen 

as it is destroyed by oxidation and biological processes. 

these are probably represented by the upper Cretaceous Mancos Shales in 

31 

In these circumstances, it is possible to 

Although reducing condi- 

Conditions like

Colorado, the lower Pennsylvanian Belden Shale of Colorado, the Upper Mis- 

sissippian, lower Pennington shales of eastern Kentucky and other fissile 

black shales which exhibit prolific benthic faunas. Similar conditions 

probably persisted locally during the early stages of Devonian-Mississippian 

black-shale deposition, for in many areas possible in-place benthic faunas 

occur on black-shale substrates in lower parts of the section (Linney, 1884; 

Foerste, 1906, Savage, 1930, 1931; Campbell, 1946; Hoover, 1960; Lineback, 

1968). 

Although evidence supports the presence of both reducing and oxidizing 

environmental conditions during the deposition of the black muds themselves, 

we believe, as have most previous workers, that the former predominated. The 

relative lateral and vertical distributions of these two environmental con- 

ditions are particularly instructive to the depositional model and will be 

discussed later. 

Clastic Sources 

Although production and preservation of organic matter are important 

aspects in understanding the formation of these black shales, we do not 

believe that they fully explain the abundance or predominance of organic 

matter in the black-shale sequence. 

of these shales may be composed of organic matter. 

lack of clay and coarser clastics in these shales, especially in view of the 

fact that the Acadian orogenic event was occurring to the east. 

expect a situation similar to the earlier Taconic orogenic event, where the 

vast amounts of clastic debris debouched into adjacent seas and was trans- 

ported as far west as Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. If vast amounts of 

clastic debris and the pulses of oxidizing waters that accompanied them had 

32 

As previously mentioned up to one-third 

There is a surprising 

One might

een debouched into the nearly enclosed "Black-Shale Sea?' to the west, it 

is doubtful that the present black-shale sequence would have been formed. 

Clastic dilution, combined with oxidation and biologic consumption, would have 

reduced the relative abundance of organic debris, and its influence on the 

development of reducing conditions. Though not a new idea, we suggest that 

development of the present black-shale sequence is in large part related to 

the slow rate of clastic sedimentation, indicated by the relative paucity 

of clay in much of the sequence. 

has been frequently applied to black-shale depositional conditions, is 

rather appropriate. 

some care, because even though slow sedimentation characterized large por- 

tions of the basin, thick sequences of deltaic and turbiditic sediments 

were accumulating in the Catskill Delta region of New York and Pennsylvania. 

The questions then arise, why was clastic sedimentation so slow, and why 

was the influence of the Catskill Delta so comparatively small in the enclosed, 

inland basin occupied by the "Black-Shale Sea"? 

Hence, the term "starved basin", which 

The term Itstarved basin", however, must be used with 

lies in the relationship between regional tectonic and climatic factors. 

33 

We suggest that the answer 

That the Catskill Delta was the major source of clastic sediment in what 

is now eastern United States during the Middle and Late Devonian is Unques- 

tioned. Provenance studies (Towe, 1963; Potter and others, 1980), paleocur- 

rent studies (Potter and others, 1979, 1980) and the large, regional facies 

relationships (e.g., - Rich, 1951; Dunbar, 1960; Broughton and others, 1962) 

clearly indicate an eastern source. 

Even though this inland sea was bordered 

on nearly all sides by land, these land areas except for the Acadian Mountains, 

were relatively low-lying (Conant and Swanson, 1961) and probably covered by 

forests and other vegetative cover (Beck, 1964). This land, an extension 

of the flat surface over which black-shale seas transgressed (Conant and Swanson,

1961), had apparently been nearly peneplaned during the largely, emergent, 

erosive episode separating Middle and Upper Devonian rocks throughout most 

of the central United States. 

This event is marked by a prominent uncon- 

formity which Ham and Wilson (1967) suggested was probably the greatest 

unconformity of Devonian time. This surface which formed much of the land 

bordering the "Black-Shale Sea" was low in relief and largely developed on 

a carbonate terrain. Therefore, although bordering lands may have provided 

waters rich in dissolved substances, they apparently provided little in the 

way of substantial clastic input. 

far removed from the influence of the Catskill Delta (Conant and Swanson, 

34 

Localized sandy facies within black shales 

1961, p. 53) no doubt represent small streams debouching into the sea from 

adjacent borderlands, but their input was probably inconsequential compared 

to that of the Catskill Delta. 

The Catskill Delta complex is an exogeosynclinal wedge of clastic sedi- 

ment that spread cratonward through fluvial, deltaic, and turbiditic processes 

from an uplifted suture belt represented by the Acadian Mountains. These thick 

clastic wedges accumulated in the subsiding peripheral or foreland basin (also 

called an exogeosynclinal or pericratonic basin) just westward of the area of 

most intense deformation, the New York promontory previously mentioned. Al- 

though vast amounts of fine- and coarse-grained clastics from the delta accum- 

ulated in the subsiding peripheral basin, comparatively little of this material 

was transported farther westward to cratonic portions of the 'IBlack-Shale Sea". 

Only fine-grained clastics in suspension and fine-grained clastics from the 

distalmost portions of the delta ever reached the ttBlack-Shale Sea".

Barriers to Clastic Sedimentation in the Black-Shale Sea 

Paleomagnetic data (e.g., - Ziegler and others, 1979) and lithostrati- 

graphic data used to compile the reconstruction of Late Devonian paleogeo- 

graphy in Figure 4 indicate that the Late Devonian paleoequator crossed 

parts of the "Black-Shale Sea" and crossed the Acadian Mountains obliquely 

in the Maritime provinces of Canada. 

The equatorial belt is typically a 

rather humid, rainy belt, because as the easterly, moisture-laden trade 

winds, particularly those blowing across the ocean, converge at the equator, 

they undergo convection, rise, and drop their moisture as rain due to cooling 

and condensation (Strahler and Strahler, 1973). However, because the Acadian 

Mountains, at least periodically, formed a high orographic barrier which 

crossed the equator at an angle (Fig. 4), the easterly trade winds could 

not everywhere (e.g., - west of the Acadian Mountains) converge at the equator 

and undergo normal convection. Instead, when the trade winds met the 

Acadian Mountains, they were forced to rise before reaching the equator. 

The cooling and condensation that resulted caused most of the precipitation 

to fall on the eastern side of the mountains. Most of the heavy precipitation 

was dropped on the east side of the mountains. 

mountains, the then dry air descended and was heated, causing net evaporation 

rather than precipitation. 

After passing over the 

To summarize, the Acadian Mountains periodically 

formed a high orographic barrier which would have caused heavy orographic 

precipitation (Strahler and Strahler, 1.973) on the east side of the range, 

and a dry rainshadow on the western side of the range (Fig. 5). 

Unfortunately, 

the thick clastic sequences which would have formed on the east side of the 

mountains have been so altered or destroyed by episodes of orogenic activity 

in this area, that their former presence is difficult to prove. Periods of 

35

I I I 

----- i 

'I a 

z 

Y 

vr 

c, 

(d 

U

ainshadow conditions on the western side, however, would have resulted in 

low fluvial input and slow sedimentation throughout most parts of the ad- 

jacent "Black-Shale Sea." 

permitted the abundant organic matter to become a major constituent of any 

sediment that accumulated in this sea. 

lar to this was presented by Grabau in 1913. 

The small amount of clastic input would have 

37 

Interestingly, a model somewhat simi- 

Besides the Acadian Mountains, no other major source of clastics for 

the inland "Black-Shale Seaf1 existed, and when that mountain range was 

fully elevated, precipitation necessary for eroding and transporting sedi- 

ment into that sea was probably not available due to the rainshadow effect. 

Potential 

moisture-bearing trade winds coming from the northeast across 

the Old Red Sandstone Continent would have been equally dry after crossing 

the Caledonides (Fig. 4), and any convectional precipitation which did occur 

along the equator in this region would have fallen on the sea itself or on 

low-lying lands incapable of supplying much clastic debris. The situation 

would have been much the same for trade winds approaching from-the south and 

southeast. Therefore, we suggest that the prominent black-shale units which 

intertongue with the thick clastics of the Catskill Delta, represent among 

other things, periods when the Acadian Mountains formed an effective rain- 

shadow barrier (Fig. 5) to the moisture-laden trade winds converging at the 

equator. 

On the other hand, when the mountainous barrier was lowered so that 

precipitation reached western parts of the mountains and provided the runoff 

and flwial discharge necessary for eroding and transporting the vast amounts 

of clastic debris westward to the Catskill Delta, much of this material never 

reached western cratonic portions of the "Black-Shale Sea." 

So the nearly 

continuous black-shale sequences farther westward on the craton not only

eflect periods of rainshadow development, but the general ineffectiveness 

of clastic-sediment transport mechanisms transverse to the mountain range 

and peripheral basin. 

We suggest in the following section that this is related to the con- 

fining nature of the subsiding peripheral basin. 

Middle and Late Devonian Transgression (and Regression) 

The Middle Devonian-through-Lower Mississippian black-shale sequence 

in North America represents a period of dominant transgression (e.g., 

Conant and Swanson, 1961; Sloss, 1963; Gutschick and Moreman, 1967; Sutton 

and others, 1970; Byers, 1977, 1979) even though local areas like the Cat- 

skill Delta experienced dominant regression due to deltaic progradation. 

If the black-shale sequence is viewed as a single unit, it can be traced 

laterally from the Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale of central New York 

across the continent to the Lower Mississippian Exshaw Shale of western 

Canada. Viewed in this way, the transgression occurred during a period of 

time linking the Middle Devonian through Early Mississippian, resulting in 

widespread deposition of the diachronous black-shale sequence (Conybeare, 

1979). The black-shale sequence is part of the larger Kaskaskia sedimentary 

sequence, encompassing the Middle Devonian through Early Carboniferous; it 

represents a time of maximum cratonic subsidence and transgression (Sloss, 

1963; Sloss and. Speed, 1974). More importantly, however, Johnson (1971) 

and Sloss and Speed (1974) have related this and other dominantly trans- 

gressive periods to episodes of increased sea-floor spreading, characterized 

by plate convergence at craton margins through obduction, subduction or 

collision. 

Moreover, this convergent mode seems to have dominated through- 

out the Middle and Late Devonian, and is evident in the subduction and 

38

collision forming the Acadian Mountains (e.g., - McKerrow and Ziegler, 1972), 

the obduction forming the Antler Mountains in the Cordilleran region (Poole, 

1974),and in the various degrees of subduction and/or collision forming the 

ancestral Frankin Mountains in northern Canada, the Taimyr Mountains in 

eastern ancestral Siberia,and the Tabberabberan Mountains along the southern 

and eastern margins of Gondwanaland (Mintz, 1977, p. 363). Continental sub- 

mergence and resulting transgression are not only related to eustatic changes 

brought on by the elevation of spreading centers and the accompanying dis- 

placement of ocean water, but also by progressive cratonic depression, par- 

ticularly in craton-interior basins with a "primordial predilection" for 

subsi!ence (Sloss and Speed, 1974). Moreover,, if subduction proceeds to 

the stage of imminent or ongoing continent-continent collision,as occurred 

in the Acadian Mountains during the Middle and Late Devonian, the edge of 

the consumed continental block would have been further depressed by partial 

subduction into a linear peripheral or foreland basin on the cratonic side 

of the suture zone (see Dickinson, 1974). The progressive subsidence char- 

acterizing such a basin, would have a definite confining effect on any 

clastics dumped into it, and may explain why coarser clastics were not trans- 

ported beyond the peripheral basin into the cratonic "Black-Shale Sea", 

although longitudinal transport along the basin was effective as far south as 

Tennessee. 

Nonetheless, coarse-clastic sedimentation in the Catskill Delta occurred 

as regressive, progradational pulses of light-colored shale, siltstone and 

sandstone separated by transgressive pulses of black, clastic-deficient, 

organic-rich shales (Fig. 3). We suggest that the cyclicity of black shale 

and coarser clastics in the Catskill Delta was related to a pulsatory spread- 

ing rate and a resultant pulsatory rate of subduction, and/or collision in the 

39

Acadian Mountains (Fig. 5). 

the occurrence of increased or decreased spreading and subduction rates, the 

cyclicity of the thick clastic wedges in the Catskill Delta certainly repre- 

sents the alternation of times of high source areas and those of low source 

40 

Although it is difficult to prove specifically 

areas. In a collisional suture zone such as the Acadian Mountains, times of 

high, mountainous clastic sources would seem to best reflect times of increased 

subduction and/or collision. 

increased spreading (and the resulting highlands) and climatic factors already 

discussed that apparently caused the cyclicity of black shales and clastics 

seen in the Catskill Delta. 

and illustrated with a sample stratigraphic interval from the Catskill Delta 

in Figure 5. 

It is the interrelationship between times of 

These interrelationships are shown schematically 

An episode in our model begins with a period of increased spreading, 

causing intensified subduction and/or collision in the Acadian Mountains (Fig. 

5, Phase 1); the result was twofold. First, the Acadian Mountains were up- 

lifted to form a high, orographic barrier. 

Secondly, the resulting eustatic 

sea-level rise and cratonic subsidence combined to cause rapid transgression. 

The high orographic barrier created by the uplifted mountains blocked moisture- 

laden, easterly trade winds, so that most of their precipitation fell on the 

eastern side of the mountains. This created a rainshadow on the western side 

of the mountains, and even though the mountains were high and could supply 

vast amounts of clastic debris, little or no precipitation was available here 

to erode and transport the debris to the adjacent seas. 

of redbeds, calcareous crusts, and associated features in parts of the Catskill 

Delta suggest that areas west of the mountains may have been arid and dry (see 

Woodrow and others, 1973). 

In fact, the presence 

The resulting low clastic input from these moun- 

tains, the only major clastic source in southeastern Larussia, produced

"starved-basin" conditions in the adjacent 81Black-Shale Sea. It The sediments 

deposited in the sea at this time largely reflect sedimentation of the abun- 

dant organic debris produced in upper layers of the lvBlack-Shale Sea." 

At the same time clastic sedimentation was effectively reduced, waters 

from the adjacent llBlack-Shale Sea" rapidly transgressed over former basin 

and slope clastics and low-lying alluvial and delta plains (Sutton and others, 

1970) to the east, as well as over older black muds and/or a relatively smooth 

erosion surface to the west. Such episodes of uplift and transgression appar- 

ently occurred rapidly, for the basal contact of the black shales with under- 

lying clastics is usually sharp and any shallow-water deposits are usually 

condensed into the basal lag deposits already described, rarely is there any 

inter. tonguing. 

Periodically, the spreading rate slowed and became episodic so that 

periods of active tectonism (subduction and collision) alternated with periods 

of tectonic cpiesence (Fig. 5, Phase 2). As a result, short periods of uplift, 

accompanied by small and brief, but rapid, transgressions of sediment-starved 

seas, alternated with short periods of tectonic quiesence and regression, 

during which the rainshadow effect was reduced and sediment transport into the 

Black-Shale Sea resumed. The lithologic expression of this phase in the model 

is a series of black-shale intertongues that terminate most of the black-shale 

units in an eastward direction (Figs. 3, 5). In some thinner black-shale units 

like the Pipe Creek, this intertonguing is essentially absent or reflected as 

a stillstand stage between Phase 1 and Phase 3. 

In Phase 3 of our model, spreading, and hence subduction, slowed to such 

a point that weathering and erosion gained ascendancy over uplift in the Acad- 

ian Mountains. As the mountains were slowly lowered, the orographic barrier 

to the moisture-laden trade winds disappeared, permitting the winds to cross 

41

the lower mountains relatively unimpeded and deliver precipitation to the west 

side because of convection near the equator (Figs. 4, 5). The runoff and dis- 

charge would have been sufficient to erode vast quantities of debris from the 

mountains and transport it westwardly to the llBlack-Shale Sea" where one of 

the large Catskill Delta complexes would have formed. 

so formed would have introduced so much clastic material and accompanying pulses 

of oxidizing water that any organic matter would have been effectively diluted 

or destroyed in the area of clastic influx. At the same time,because of dras- 

tically reduced spreading, the amount of subsidence apparently declined and 

eustatic sea-level was lowered (see Sloss and Speed, 1974). This, combined 

with the actively prograding Catskill Delta, would have resulted in rapid 

regression in the area of the delta. This depositional scenario (Fig. 5) was 

repeated at least eight times resulting in the cyclic alternation of black 

shales and clastic wedges seen in the Catskill Delta (Fig. 3). Because some 

of the clastic wedges never prograded beyond the edge of the peripheral 

to the craton, and none ever prograded throughout all parts of the cratonic 

"Black-Shale Sea", large parts of the cratonic black-shale sequence contain 

nothing but -homogeneous biack shales. 

42 

The prograding delta 

basin 

Each of the thick prograding clastic wedges comprising the Catskill Delta 

complex emptied into parts of the peripheral 

episodes of subsidence. 

1978; Kepferle and others, 1978; Roen and others, 1978; Potter and others, 1978) 

and isopach maps in preparation, the western hinge line of this basin ran 

approximately through eastern Ohio, western West Virginia and west-central 

Virginia. 

basin created by successive 

Based on regional cross sections (Wallace and others, 

Apparently the cumulative effects of subsidence in the peripheral basin 

far exceeded the ability of the first three successive delta complexes in

the Hamilton, Genesee, and Sonyea groups to fill it. 

43 

And the intervening 

black-shale units (Marcellus, Geneseo-Burket, and Middlesex), at the most 

a few hundred meters thick each, contributed little to the infilling because 

of the sediment-starved conditions they represent and their great compacti- 

bility. 

During the last three episodes of deltaic progradation on the Catskill 

Delta (Upper Olentangy-Angola-Hanover; Chagrin-Three Lick; Bedford-Berea) 

and during later lower Mississippian progradation (Borden-Grainger-Price- 

Maccrady-Pocono), subsidence in eastern parts of the peripheral basin appar- 

ently declined, and as the basin filled from the east, these progradations 

migrated westward onto the craton. This also pushed the eastern limit of 

each successive, intervening, black-shale transgression farther westward 

(Fig. 3). 

parts of the peripheral basin and adjacent parts of the craton, cratonic por- 

tions of the "Black-Shale Sea" appear to have deepened. The Huron, Cleveland 

and Sunbury black shales are thicker in this area than elsewhere, and contain 

paleontological and sedimentological evidence of deepening discussed in the 

following section. 

As the locus of subsidence and sedimentation shifted to western 

of clastic sedimentation, may have been related to the development of addi- 

tional source areas to the north and northwest of the Catskill Delta as 

Africa and the southern European microcontinents began to collide with east- 

central parts of Laurussia during the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian 

(Badham and Halls, 1975). 

The successive westward shift of subsidence and the locus 

Nonetheless, sediments from no one of these progradational events were 

effectively deposited throughout the entire "Black-Shale Sea." 

As these wedges 

thinned and pinched out westwardly with increasing distance from the source 

area, the black muds, that were deposited during successive, intervening

transgressive events (manifest largely as progressive deepening on the 

craton), were progressively superposed on each other, forming the nearly 

homogeneous black-shale sequences seen in central and western parts of the 

craton. 

Hence, the failure of these major clastic influxes to reach most 

parts of the cratonic "Black-Shale Sea" had the same effect as the imposi- 

tion of a "perpetual" Late Devonian rainshadown. 

Development of Anaerobic Conditions in the "Black-Shale Sea" 

Formation of a Stratified Water Column 

Development of stagnant, anaerobic conditions is typically related to 

restrictions in mixing of surficial and deeper waters; in most moder instances 

this is related to a density stratification of the water column. 

stratification may be related to differences in temperature and/or salinity 

between warmer and/or less salinesurface waters and colder, more saline 

bottoms waters (see Heckel, 1977; Byers, 1977). Because oxygen will not 

rapidly diffuse downward through the water column to the bottom, active oxygen- 

44 

Density 

ation only occurs in a shallow surface zone, where oxygen can be mixed in 

from the atmosphere by local wind-driven circulation cells (see Heckell, 1977; 

Byers, 1977). 

Oxygen is also provided through photosynthesis by the abundant 

phytoplankton that live in this well-lighted portion of the water column. 

Oxygenation of deeper waters is typically dependent on strong vertical currents 

to carry oxygenated surface waters downward (Byers, 1977). Although dense, 

sediment-laden gravity-flow (turbidity) currents and storms can accomplish 

this on a local scale (Slsemann and Emery, 1961), the most significant, large- 

scale vertical circulation is accomplished by thermal currents, generated where 

Colled surface water sinks to the bottom (Byers, 1977). 

Such currents are 

usually initiated in polar regions and are best developed during times of

glaciation (Berry and Wilde, 1978). 

suggested for the Black-Shale Sea (Fig. 4), the water rarely cools enough to 

sink to deeper levels and displace colder bottom waters, so that a layer of 

warmer, lighter oxygenated water is formed near the surface (Byers, 1977). 

The zone between surficial and bottom layers where this temperature change 

occurs is called the thermocline. 

45 

In warm, temperate climates like that 

Even though the surficial layer of water 

may be oxygenated from the surface, if no large-scale vertical circulation 

exists, mixing will not occur, and the bottom waters will be relatively de- 

pleted of oxygen below the thermocline. 

due to the absence of mixing, but also due to the decay of organic matter that 

settles below the level of net-oxygen replenishment by photosynthesis and sur- 

ficial circulation. 

Moreover, depletion not only occurs 

The top of the oxygen-minimum zone generally coincides 

with the thermocline and may occur at depths no greater than 50 meters (Sver- 

drup and others, 1942; Brongersma-Sanders, 1971; Heckel, 1977). 

Vertical stratification of the type necessary to prevent mixing may also 

result from or be enhanced by the creation of a salinity gradient. 

seas with a large fresh-water influx, the lighter, fresh or brackish water 

floats above the heavier, saltier, normal sea water. 

prevent normal vertical circulation and lead to the loss of bottom oxygenation 

and the accumulation of black, organic-rich muds. 

served at present in the Baltic Sea and Black Sea where black,organic-rich 

muds are accumulating in the deeper parts (Segerstrale, 1957; Caspers, 1957). 

This density stratification leads to the formation of a halocline, or a zone 

of abrupt transition between fresh to brackish, surface waters and more salty, 

deeper waters. 

meters thick and begins at about 85 to 100 meters below the surface (Tully and 

Barber, 1961). 

In enclosed 

This situation can also 

Similar conditions are ob- 

In the eastern Pacific, the halocline is approximately 100 

Not surprisingly, the depths and thicknesses of modern-day

thermoclines and haloclines approximately correspond to each other, and 

Byers (1977) refers to this zone of rapid change of salinity and density as 

a pycnocline. 

In the pycnocline, no vertical mixing occurs and the amount 

of oxygen decreases from normal surface values to nearly zero (Byers, 1977). 

Using present-day depths and oxygen values from the Black Sea (Caspers, 1957), 

Byers (1977) established a idealized pattern of vertical water stratification 

for enclosed basins, which in at least a general way can serve as a comparative 

model for examples from the geologic record. 

stratification with the biofacies of Rhoads and Morse (1971) that result where 

the different water layers intersect the bottom (Fig. 6). 

46 

Byers also compared this depth 

The surface zone is characterized by well-oxygenated, warmer, and often 

less-dense water; it is nearly uniform in salinity and density and extends to 

a depth of at least 50 meters. 

terized by a diverse calcified epifauna. 

in depth, is also uniform in salinity and density, and characterized by colder, 

saltier waters. More importantly, because of no vertical circulation and rapid 

use of available oxygen by organisms and decay, the zone has almost no oxygen 

and supports an anerobic biofacies. 

and any major circulation, this biofacies is characterized by fine, organic- 

rich muds which are nearly azoic except for certain bacteria, protozoans and 

small metazoans especially adapted to oxygen-deficient, reducing conditions. 

All normal, benthic fauna and bioturbation are absent in this zone, therefore 

all stratification (usually laminae) are undisturbed. 

This zone supports an aerobic biofacies charac- 

A deep zone, greater than 150 meters 

Because of the near absence of oxygen 

Between the surface and the deep, bottom zones is a zone approximately 

100 meters thick (between 50 and 150 meters, Fig. 6) wherein salinity and 

density change rapidly; this is the pycnocline. 

Because vertical mixing does 

not occur and oxygen values decline rapidly, the fauna is reduced to a few

Figure 6. Schematic diagram showing characteristics of a stratified water 

. 

column and the sediments accumulating within each water layer. 

Depths and oxygen content are general estimates based on the 

Black Sea (adapted from Rhoads and Morse, 1971, and Byers, 

1977). 

47

specialized infauna adapted to lower levels of oxygen. 

include various soft-bodied worms, phosphatic brachiopods and weakly cal- 

cified crustaceans, pelecypods and articulate brachiopods. 

dominantly infaunal nature of the fauna, the facies is typically biotur- 

bated. 

These typically 

is usually present and the sediments exhibit green to gray colors. 

48 

Because of the 

Because some oxygen is always present in this zone, a limited infauna 

Finally, it should be noted that the depths and thickness of these three 

layers are variable depending on various seasonal and oceanographic parameters 

(Tully and Barber, 1961; Heckel, 1977; Byers, 1977). 

Development of such a stratified water column requires in most cases, 

that there be no lateral exchange between deep waters in the enclosed sea 

and open ocean waters. Although horizontal mixing of some degree will always 

occur in the upper aerobic zone, horizontal mixing at depth would introduce 

oxygen to deep bottom waters and halt stagnation. Preventing lateral exchange 

or horizontal mixing at depth usually requires a sill or bar near the entrance 

to the sea, as in the Black Sea (Caspers, 1957), or the sea may be divided 

into a series of deeper basins separated by broad, higher rises or thresholds 

as in the Baltic Sea (Segerstrale, 1957). In the latter case, even though 

waters of the upper zone, and perhaps some from the pycnocline, are widely 

distributed throughout upper parts of the sea,anaerobicbottom waters of the 

deep zone are restricted to the individual basins if the basins are not con- 

nected. This can give rise to "different" anaerobic, bottom facies in each 

basin. 

Heckel (1977), however, has suggested that a sill or other barrier to 

lateral bottom exchange is not necessary when the only water available to 

circulate at depth is already depleted in oxygen. 

He indicated that if depth 

in an enclosed epicontinental sea became great enough, anaerobic conditions

would be established normally in the bottom waters below the pycnocline. 

Moreover, in this deep setting, any lateral bottom circulation from the open 

ocean would supply oceanic water from below the pycnocline already depleted 

in oxygen (Fig. 7). In a further ramification of this model, he suggested 

that the oxygen-minimum level and pycnocline might be elevated in the water 

column on the eastern sides of tropical oceans due to quasi-estuarine circu- 

lation and the resulting upwelling. In these circumstances, the persistent 

easterly trade winds drive enough of the lighter, oxygenated surface water 

offshore to allow the colder, poorly oxygenated bottom waters to rise and 

take their place on the east side of the ocean basin by upwelling (Brongersma- 

Sanders, 1971; Heckel, 1977, 1980). Not only is the deeper, upwelling water 

depleted in oxygen, but it is rich in phosphate, which is released at depth 

by oxidation of settling organic matter during sulphate reduction (Heckel, 

1977; Burnett, 1977). The upwelling of waters rich in phosphate furnishes 

this critical nutrient in great abundance to the oxygenated surfical waters 

causing plankton blooms. The upwelling waters may also be rich in dissolved 

silica so that the tests of silica-secreting phytoplankton like radiolarians 

may accumulate on the bottoms in such abundance in the area of upwelling 

that extensive chert deposits can develope (Diester-Haass, 1978) . The plank- 

ton concentrate the phosphate and other substances, notably certain heavy 

metals (Orren, 1973; Heckel, 1977), are transported by wind-driven currents 

throughout the sea where they settle below the pycnocline, decay, and further 

deplete the oxygen. 

The result is not only a tremendous rain of organic debris, 

which accumulates as an organic-rich mud on anaerobic bottoms below the pycno- 

cline, but also the release of the concentrated phosphate and heavy metals for 

precipitation or recycling through the upwelling (Brongersma-Sanders, 1971; 

Heckel, 1977). New phosphate is also continually added to the system from deep, 

49

CIR 

OPEN 

. OCEAN 

W 

PHOSPHATE-RICH, 

OXYGEN-POOR 

/ 

- - 

CR ATON I C 

SEA 

A. 

LOWER DELTA 

PLAIN 

MODERATE PLUVIAL, 

f--- c--- PREVAILING WIND C - - - C - - - FRESH-WATER INPUT 

B. 

E 

50 

INCREASED FLUVIAL INPUT 

AND 

PROBRAOATIONAL SEDIMENT 

WIND C--- C--- INFLUX 

Figure 7. A.) Development of.quasi-esturine circulation and upwelling 

in an epicontinental sea; 

B.) 

Disruption of upwelling through progradation sediment 

influx. -

upwelling oceanic waters. 

in the interstitial waters of bottom sediments, it will precipitate or replace 

available carbonate material. 

ply of organic matter, a low rate of detrital sedimentation (which prevents 

dilution), a decrease in pressure, and an increase in temperature and pH 

(Manheim and others, 1975; Heckel, 1977); all are conditions that could have 

been fulfilled if an upwelling entered an enclosed, sediment-starved epi- 

continental sea like that proposed already for the lfBlack-Shale Sea" (Fig. 4). 

Conditions in the "Black-Shale Sea" 

51 

If the phosphate becomes sufficiently concentrated 

This process is facilitated by a constant sup- 

The llBlack-Shale Sea" was an island, equatorial , epicontinental sea enclosed 

on nearly all sides by land or shallow, submerged barriers (possibly, at 

times, the Transcontinental Arch, Fig. 4). The only major contact with the 

open ocean was along the continental margin to the south between the Marathon 

region of Texas and the Ouachita region of Oklahoma and Arkansas, and the 

presence of thicker deposits of radiolarian chert interbedded with phosphatic 

black shales in these areas throughout the Devonian and Early Mississippian 

(Park and Croneis, 1969; Morris, 1974; Lowe, 1975) suggests a divergence of 

oceanic currents marked by an upwelling (see Heckel and Witzke, 1979; Schopf, 

1980). 

Shallow connections across the Transcontinental Arch with epiconti- 

nental seas to the west existed in Kansas and Colorado and possibly at times 

in Iowa and South Dakota (Fig. 4), but deeper oceanic waters would not have 

passed through these connections. 

Because the Middle and Late Devonian were not times of glaciation, large- 

scale turbulent mixing of the oceans and epicontinental seas was probably 

absent (Berry and Wilde, 1978). 

Vertical mixing on a smaller scale was also probably restricted in the

"Black-Shale Sea." Because the sea was equatorial, at least periodically, 

the large amounts of rain and runoff would have formed a lighter, fresh or 

brackish water layer throughout the sea leading to the formation of a halo- 

cline. 

Tasmanites (Brooks, 1971) and Foerstia (Schopf and Schwietering, 1970; Schopf, 

1978) in abundance throughout all or parts of the black shale support this 

idea. 

The presence of supposed brackish to marine, pelagic algae such as 

In addition, the warm, tropical nature of the equatorial area, would 

have permitted very little cooling of surface waters to occur. This in turn 

would have resulted in a temperature stratification or thermocline, which is 

also effective in preventing vertical circulation. 

52 

In equatorial areas, more- 

over, thethermoclineislikelytobepermanent (Degens andstoffers, 1976). Finally, tl 

enclosed nature of the sea, the uniformity of the equatorial climate, the 

position of the sea in a rainshadow for long periods of time, and the low- 

lying nearly peneplained surface over which the sea developed are all factors 

which would have mitigated or prevented vertical circulation. 

factors, combined with inferences from the presence of the shale itself, strongly 

indicate that a salinity and density stratification, or pycnocline, existed 

in the "Black-Shale Sea." 

culation and oxygenation of the bottom and created suitable conditions for the 

accumulation of abundant organic material in an anaerobic, reducing environ- 

ment. 

All of the above 

The pycnocline would have prevented vertical cir- 

It is also likely that an upwelling current moved into the llBlack-Shale 

Sea" sometime during the late stages of black-shale deposition. 

Phosphate, 

both in finely disseminated and large concretional fom, is largely concentrated 

in upper parts of the black-shale sequence. In Kentucky, phosphate concentration 

shows a marked increase from the level of the upper Huron Shale upward (Marko- 

witz, 1978; Fig. 1). Moreover, the llBlack-Shale Sea" was on the eastern side

of a tropical ocean in the trade wind belt (Fig. 4j and an area of oceanic 

current divergence and upwelling had been established on the southern conti- 

nental margins since at least the beginning of the Devonian (Morris, 1974; 

Lowe, 1975). These conditions are all favorable for the development of an 

upwelling current, but water depth in the "Black-Shale Sea" must have in- 

creased to the point where deep, cold, oxygen-poor, and phosphate-rich oceanic 

waters could have flowed unimpeded into the enclosed sea. Although the "Black- 

Shale Sea" probably was not initially deep enough to permit this, as we. have 

discussed previously, four lines of evidence suggest that the sea progressively 

deepened with time to the point where this exchange could have occurred: 

1.) The Late Devonian was a time of world-wide transgression which continued 

into the Early Mississippian due to increased spreading rates (Sloss, 1963; 

Sloss and Speed, 1974); subsidence and eustatic sea-level rise can be cor- 

related with the active collision and subduction occurring along the margins 

of Laurussia; 

Appalachian Basin onto the Cincinnati Arch (Fig. 3) suggests net transgression 

and deepening; 

2.) 

the progressive onlapping of black-shale units from the 

3. ) the predominance of Palmatolepis and other wide-platform 

conodonts which are considered to be indicators of deeper water {Seddon and 

Sweet, 1971; h ce, 1973; Griffith, 1977) in the Late Devonian black shales; 

and 4.) the upward succession of trace-fossil communities from green-shale 

intervals within the black-shale sequence of Ohio and Kentucky also suggest 

increasing depth with time (Potter and others, 1980; Jordan, 1980). 

Finally, in order for the deeper ocean waters to upwell in the "Black- 

Shale Sea", surficial waters nust have been displaced westward by surface 

currents. 

Surface currents generated by the tradewinds and deflected to the 

right by the Coriolis effect (see Anikouchine and Sternberg, 1973) would have 

transported surface waters westward and enabled upwelling to occur almost 

53

anywhere in central parts of the "Black-Shale Sea." 

abundant phosphate in the upper black shales as well as evidence for deepen- 

ing and the presence of appropriate climatic and oceanographic conditions 

suggest that upwelling occurred at least periodically in central portions of 

the "Black-Shale Sea. It 

54 

Hence, the presence of 

One further line of evidence supporting the presence of an upwelling is 

the increased concentration of certain heavy metals in black shales from upper 

parts of the section. 

ern Kentucky by Markowitz (1979) indicate increased concentrations of heavy 

metals like barium, copper, zinc, molybdenum, strontium, vanadium, thorium 

and uranium (Fig. 1) in upper parts of the sequence. Although uranium is 

relatively concentrated throughout the entire black-shale sequence because 

it is adsorbed by certain organic materials (Breger, 1955; Swanson, 1961; 

Breger and Brown, 1962), its increased concentration, as well as that of the 

other metals, suggests abundant organic enrichment like that accompanying an 

upwelling (Diester-Haass, 1978). In an area of oceanic upwelling, the high 

nutrient contents introduced into the shallow waters result in high biologic 

productivity. 

Geochemical analysis of black-shale sequences in east- 

Many of these organisms will selectively concentrate heavy 

metals both in life and after death (Siebold, 1970; Bostrom and others, 1974), 

so that the resulting sediments are enriched in these metals. 

In areas of 

upwelling, where the production of organic matter is very high, the enrich- 

ment of these metals in the resulting sediment can be significant (Brongersma- 

Sanders, 1965). Therefore, the increased concentration of such metals in 

upper parts of the black shale provides additional evidence of upwelling. 

To summarize, we suggest that conditions in the "Black-Shale Sea" were 

appropriate for the development of a stratified water column and pycnocline. 

Once these conditions were established, the abundant organk debris produced

and deposited in the sediment-starved sea could accumulate undisturbed in 

anaerobic conditions below the pycnocline. It is likely that this stage 

of black-shale formation was confined to the deeper, subsiding cratonic 

basins and that intervening cratonic highs like the Cincinnati Arch acted 

as barriers or thresholds to deep circulation and intersected the pycnocline, 

similar to the present situation in the Baltic Sea. As transgression and 

deepening continued throughout the Late Devonian, it is likely that water 

in the cratonic sea deepened sufficiently that a pycnocline was established 

throughout the sea and black, organic-rich muds accumulated even on the 

cratonic highs. With further deepening in the latest Devonian, oxygen-poor, 

phosphate-rich, deep oceanic waters upwelled into the "Black-Shale Sea" from 

the continental margin to the south, enhancing organic production and 

promoting deposition of phosphate in the black shales. 

Depth 

The depth of the "Black-Shale Sea" has been the subject of continued 

controversy. Certainly, the regional facies relationships suggest that the 

black shales represent a basinal or distal facies of the westwardly prograding 

Catskill Delta. 

sidence of the craton which must have accompanied ongoing subduction and 

collision in both the Antler and Acadian mountains at this time. Using the 

method of Klein (1974) to calculate the depth of the "Black-Shale Sea" dur- 

ing Sunbury time in eastern Kentucky, a minimum depth of 230 meters (700 ft) 

is obtained. 

Potter and others (1980). 

This interpretation is consistent with the progressive sub- 

This is consistent with depths obtained by Rich (1951) and 

considerably greater in parts of the Appalachian peripheral basin where sub- 

sidence apparently was much greater. 

However, we believe that depths may have been 

55

It is also important to realize that during the initial phases of trans- 

gression onto the craton, the "Black-Shale Sea" was relatively shallow. 

shallow water deposits, however, are usually poorly developed or condensed 

into a basal lag zone due to the rapidity of transgression and the low-lying 

nature of the surface over which transgression occurred. Generally, the 

cratonic black-shale sequence represents deposition in a progressively deepen- 

ing inland sea. 

Sequential History of Black-Shale Deposition 

56 

These 

The history of Devonian-Mississippian black-shale must begin in the Mid- 

dle Devonian with the deposition of the Onondaga Limestone and equivalent car- 

bonate units as a rather broad blanket of shallow-water, platform deposits 

extending through east-central and midwestern United States (see Heckel and 

Witzke, 1979, Fig. 3B; Fig. 8A). Although probably submergent, the Cincinnati 

Arch was present because limestones equivalent to the Onondaga thin on its 

flanks. 

The Ozark Uplift was uplifted and emergent, and to the south and 

southwest in the Ouachita and Marathon region, divergence of oceanic currents, 

upwelling andhighorganicproductivityisindicatedbythepresenceof radiolarian 

chert, that intertongues with cherty limestones to the north. 

The first indication of an uplifted clastic source in the east and the 

beginning of the Acadian Orogeny occurs at this time. In parts of Virginia, 

West Virginia, Maryland and southern Pennsylvania, the Onondaga grades east- 

ward into the dark, calcareous Needmore Shale. 

This shale marks the first 

appearance of the Catskill Delta facies and is interpreted to represent 

basinal, prodeltaic deposition (Dennison, 1971). The Needmore grades west- 

ward into the Huntersville Chert and Onondaga Limestone and contains fissile, 

phosphatic black shale, as well as dark, fossiliferous, calcareous shales

sw 

~~~ 

C. MIDDLE DEVONIAN/LATE DEVONIAN - REGIONAL UNCONFORMITY 

Continental 

Margin 

6. MIDDLE DEVONIAN - MARCELLUS SH. 

- 

Marcdlw Shale 

A. MIDDLE DEVONIAN - ONONDAGA LS. NE 

Omrk 

UDlift 

Cincinnati 

Arch 

Acadian 

Highkndr 

Figure 8. A series of schematic sections from New York to the Ouachita 

area showing the inferred sequential development of blackshale 

depositional environments from the Middle Devonian 

through the Early Mississippian. Even though the Ozark 

Uplift appears to have been a barrier to circulation in these 

sections, currents could have moved around the uplift (see 

Fig. 4). Not drawn to scale.

.-- 

F. EARLY MISSISSIPPIAN - BORDEN FM. 

E. LATE DEVONIAN - CLEVELAND SH. 

D. LATE DEVONIAN - RHINESTREET SH.

interbedded with limestone (Inners, 1979). Although containing anaerobic, 

dysaerobic, and aerobic facies (Newton, 1979), the Needmore appears to largely 

represent deposition near the base of the aerobic zone or top of the pycnocline. 

The presence of phosphate and chert may represent the short-liued incursion of 

an upwelling current into southwestern parts of the Appalachian peripheral 

basin (Inners, 1979) before the bordering Acadian landmass to the east and 

south (Fig, 4) developed in the late Middle Devonian and Late Devonian. The 

importance of the Needmore Shale lies in the fact that it reflects the begin- 

ning of the Acadian Orogeny and the resulting development of a peripheral basin 

deep enough to restrict vertical circulation and permit at least local develop- 

ment of a pycnocline. 

By the late Middle Devonian, collision between the Avalon Prong and the 

east-central margin of Laurussia (New England Maritime region) was imminent 

or in progress. Collision resulted in the formation of a high Acadian mountain 

front crass the equator, and perhaps more importantly, subsidence and warping 

of the craton. Although subsidence was apparently greatest in the peripheral 

basin, just west of the mountains, other cratonic basins (Illinois and Michigan 

basins) also subsided. This subsidence, combined with the eustatic rise in 

sea level accompanying periods of increased spreading and subduction, resulted 

in transgression and deepening of the cratonic sea. Moreover, formation of the 

Acadian highlands to the south and east effectively enclosed the cratonic ,sea 

except for oceanic connections in the Arkansas and Oklahoma region (Fig. 4). 

The net effect of the subsidence, transgression, and the uplifted Acadian front 

was to create isolated, subsiding basins (Fig. 8B) in the rainshadow of the 

Acadian Mountains. 

Even though subsidence occurred in all of the major cratonic basins as 

indicated by the thickened carbonate sequence in the Illinois and Michigan 

58

asins, only in the Appalachian peripheral basin did subsidence exceed 

sedimentation. This is indicated by the presence of the black Marcellus 

Shale, which we suggest developed in the rainshadow of the Acadian Moun- 

tains (Fig. 8B). The dominantly organic input to the sediment in this 

starved basin during a time of net transgression was apparently not suf- 

ficient to keep pace with increased subsidence in the peripheral basin. 

The fact that so much of the organic matter was preserved as black shale 

indicates that as the basin deepened, a stratified water column developed 

which prevented vertical mixing; this is the most likely origin for black, 

organic-rich muds in nearly-enclosedseas. In the cratonic basins more 

distant from the rising Acadian Mountains, subsidence apparently was 

slower or the carbonate sedimentation was better able to keep pace with 

sedimentation, for the presence of thick fossiliferous carbonates in these 

basins indicates that these basin bottoms never subsided below the surficial, 

oxygenated layer (Fig. 8B). 

Deepening in the Appalachian peripheral basin at this time was appar- 

ently progressive and somewhat slower than that occurring during the Late 

Devonian, for this is one of the few instances where the basal contact of 

a black-shale unit with the underlying unit is one of intertonguing. The 

Marcellus intertongues with parts of the Onondaga and laterally equivalent 

carbonate units in western parts of the peripheral basin (east flank of the 

Cincinnati Arch; see Dennison, 1971). With transgression and deepening, 

. the Marcellus black shales progressively displaced carbonate facies on the 

flank of the Cincinnati Arch in an onlapping facies relationship (see 

Schwietering, 1979). Certainly, with this kind of relationship, between 

carbonates and black shales, the initial Marcellus black shales probably did 

not represent extremely deep-water deposits. In fact, the presence of locally 

59

abundant, low-diversity benthic faunas, the absence of a uniform black, 

coloration, and the presence of local fossiliferous carbonate units wholly 

within the Marcellus, indicates that some of the Marcellus deposition occurred 

within or slightly above the dysaerobic layer (Fig. 8B); at other times the 

organic-rich sediments accumulated in the bottom anaerobic layer. 

Seemingly, Marcellus deposition is related to the fact that subsidence 

in the Appalachian peripheral basin exceeded the ability of carbonate sedi- 

mentation to keep pace with it. As subsidence and transgression continued, 

in the absence of clastic input (rainshadow effect], the sea bottom progres- 

sively subsided into or below the pycnocline, where only black, organic-rich 

muds accumulated. 

Near the end of the Middle Devonian, these conditions changed drastically 

as erosional lowering of the Acadian Mountains allowed the trade winds to 

cross the mountains and deliver their precipitation to the western side of 

the range near the equator. 

debouched into the adjacent sea resulting in the first major progradation of 

the Catskill Delta, which is represented by the Ludlowville and Moscow for- 

mations in New York and the Mahantango Formation elsewhere. 

are represented primarily by grayish-green fossiliferous shales and siltstones 

which were products of prodeltaic and delta-front depositon. 

these units, however, are represented by very dark brown to nearly black 

shales, suggesting deposition in deeper, possibly dysaerobic prodelta or 

basinal conditions. Prominent limestones occur in the two New York formations 

and apparently reflect periods of decreased clastic input on the delta plat- 

forms. Even though distal parts of this clastic progradation overlapped the 

underlying Marcellus on the Cincinnati Arch, these clastics never prograded 

beyond the peripheral basin. 

This caused a large influx of clastics to be 

60 

These formations 

Some parts of

This like all of the clastic intervals between the black shales repre- 

sents a rapid regression in the area of the delta accompanying a period of 

tectonic quiesence, decreased subsidence, and a drop in eustatic sea level. 

Most of these deltaic clastics accumulated in the upper oxygenated layer or 

in upper parts of the dysaerobic layer. 

The Middle Devonian-Late Devonian boundary is marked by a prominent 

unconformity throughout most parts of central United States. 

ity represents a time of rapid uplift, warping and local emergence all over 

the craton (Fig. 8C) and may reflect a time when subduction was effectively 

halted by collision. 

regional uplift, when-even the peripheral basin is largely drained (Dickinson-, 

1974). 

and were deeply eroded. 

slightly submerged beneath very shallow waters, the waters were so shallow 

that erosion predominated over deposition. 

61 

The uncomform- 

This kind of event typically results in a period of 

Parts of the craton like the Cincinnati Arch were certainly emergent 

Even though other parts of the craton may have been 

During this interval of uplift in the Catskill Delta, structures created 

to the east formed temporary, local barriers to clastic sedimentation on 

western parts of the uplifted delta platform which permitted a brief episode 

of carbonatekedimentation, represented by the Tully, to develope in the 

shallow, aerobic,clastic-deficient waters (Heckel, 1973). With renewed uplift 

in the Acadian Mountains to the east during the early Late Devonian, renewed 

subsidence, transgression, and sediment-starved conditions resumed on the 

craton, particularly in the Appalachian peripheral basin, where the filly 

carbonate platform subsided below the pycnocline, giving rise to the black, 

fissile Geneseo or Burket shales (Fig. 8D). 

In the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian, six major cyclic alterna- 

tions of black, fissile shale and intervening fossiliferous clastics are

epresented in the record of the Catskill Delta (Fig. 3). Each cyclic alterna- 

tion of black shale and fossiliferous clastics represents the alternation of 

tectonically active, elevated conditions with tectonically quiesent, low 

conditions in the Acadian Mountains as described in Figure 5. 

with the circumstances of Marcellus deposition, subsidence and transgression 

apparently were more rapid;for the black shales that were deposited during 

these sediment-starved, transgressive periods definitely accumulated below 

the pycnocline (Fig. 8D). Although nektic, planktic, and epiplanktic fossils 

are locally common in these black shales, there is little evidence of a 

benthic fauna or conditions which would have supported one. 

62 

In contrast 

Like the Marcellus, the lower three Late Devonian black-shale units . 

(Geneseo-Burket, Middlesex, and Rhinestreet) and their intervening clastic 

deposits do not occur beyond the peripheral Appalachian Basin. 

Eustatic 

sea-level rise and subsidence across the craton apparently were not yet 

great enough to establish a pycnocline and an anaerobic bottom layer beyond 

the cratonic basins. Hence, cratonic highs like the Cincinnati Arch inter- 

sected the pycnocline (Fig. 8D). Nonetheless, biostratigraphic evidence 

indicates that black-shale deposition was occurring independently in the 

separate cratonic basins (e.g., - Hass, 1947a; Hass, 1956; Scott and Collinson, 

1961; Oliver and others, 1967; Klapper and others, 1971; Fig. 8D). Because 

none of the clastic intervals present in the Appalachian peripheral basin 

prograded beyond eastern parts of the Cincinnati Arch, the stratigraphic 

sequences in all three basins are largely different. While black shales 

were accltlrmlating separately in the three cratonic basins, the intervening 

high areas like the Cincinnati Arch were subjected to periods of subaerial 

and/or subaequeous erosion in the very shallow waters that covered them (Fig. 

8D). Very little deposition occurred in these areas, because carbonate

sedimentation was not favored in the less saline, equatorial waters (Lees, 

1975; Heckel and Witzke, 1979) and little clastic input reached these areas 

from source areas to the east due to the rainshadow effect and the confining 

nature of the peripheral basin. 

and reworking rather than deposition. 

in these shallow waters are lag or condensation deposits, composed of grains 

reworked from underlying units or transported from adjacent exposed lowlands, 

conodonts, fish fragments and plant materials derived from the water column, 

as well as phosphate reworked from underlying units and deposited authigenically 

Some ofthesedepositsmayhavebeenaccumulatingunderconditionsoflowsedimen- 

tation since the Middle Devonian. Phosphate may be deposited authigenically 

in shallow waters with low clastic input, near low-lying land masses, which sup- 

ply phosphate-rich surface waters to the adjacent seas (Bromley, 1967). This 

kind of phosphate occurrence is distinctly different from that accompanying 

an upwelling; such a shallow-water mechanism may account for the abundance of 

phosphate seen in the basal parts of the cratonic black-shale sequences (Fig. 

1). Most important about this, however, is the fact that this and adjacent 

63 

Also, the very shallow waters favored erosion 

Therefore, the only deposits that formed 

portions of the basal black-shale sequences on the craton accumulated in shallow 

waters and represent aerobic and dysaerobic conditons. 

deepening progressed during the late Devonian, shallow waters would have 

initially covered high parts of the craton. 

the craton were low in relief, transgression would have been rapid. 

rapidity of transgression combined with the low rate of sediment input would 

have resulted in very little sedimentary expression of these shallow-water 

conditions. 

As transgression and 

However, because these parts of 

What sedimentary expression does occur is restricted to the basal 

sandstone layers (lags) and the rare occurrences of fossiliferous carbonates 

and shales at the base of the sequence (e.g., - Duffin/Harg/Ravenna facies of 

The

eastern Kentucky). 

black-shale units on the Cincinnati Arch and other lines of evidence already 

mentioned, the "Black-Shale Sea" progressively deepened on the craton. Even- 

tually, deepening was great enough that a pycnocline was established through- 

out the cratonic "Black-Shale Sea", and black, organic-rich muds accumulated 

in the bottom layer throughout the sea. 

the deposition of the middle Huron Shale Member, for this is the first unit 

to completely overlap the Cincinnati Arch (Swager, 1978; Ettensohn and others, 

1979). 

As shown by evidence from the progressive onlapping of 

phosphate nodules in the upper Huron Shale Member, suggesting that the "Black- 

Shale Sea" had deepened sufficiently to allow upwelling (Fig. 8E). 

64 

In Kentucky, this occurred during 

This is approximately coincident with the first major occurrence of 

During the same period, eastern parts of the peripheral basin were 

essentially filled by the Catskill Delta, and the locus of subsidence and 

sedimentation moved westward, pushing the effective eastward limit of succes- 

sive black-shale transgressions progressively westward also (Fig. 8E). As 

tlie locus of sedimentation moved westward, the two last intervening prograda- 

tional episodes (Three Lick-Chagrin, and Bedford-Berea) migrated onto portions 

of the Cincinnati Arch, thereby pushing the upwelling waters westward and 

establishing short-lived periods, of dysaerobic conditions (Barron and 

Ettensohn, 1980; Fig. 7). 

In the Early Mississippian, the "Black-Shale Sea" attained its greatest 

extent, extending from eastern Ohio westward to southern Alberta. Large-scale 

collisional movements at this time in the Antler Belt (Poole, 1974) and in 

the present North Atlanta area where parts of Africa pushed the southern 

European microcontinents against east-central portions of Laurussia (Badham 

and Halls, 1975; see Fig. 4) resulted in depression of the entire central 

portion of the craton and eustatic rise in sea-level, causing the "Black-Shale

Sea" to transgress westwardlyacross theTranscontinenta1 Arch (Fig. ). Eventhough 

the transgression was relatively brief, the presence of relatively unfossili- 

ferous fissile, black shales as far westward as Alberta indicate that the sea 

was sufficiently deep to establish a pycnocline and an anaerobic.bottom layer. 

Although upwelling, as indicated by the presence of phosphate, continued in 

central portions of the Mississippian "Black-Shale Sea", it is uncertain 

whether upwelling occurred in the newer, western extension of the sea. 

The Lower and Middle Mississippian clastic wedge (Borden-Grainger-Pocono) 

that overlies the Mississippian black shale actually marks the end of the 

last black shale-clastic cycle (Figs. 5, 8F) and the beginning of a period 

of regional tectonic quiesence. 

were eroded, vast amounts of deltaic clastics prograded westward and south- 

65 

As the newly elevated mountains to the east 

westward in the "Black-Shale Sea" of the central craton (Fig. 8F). A similar 

progradation from the Antler Belt may have migrated eastward into western 

extensions of the sea (see Gutschick and Moreman, 1967). As subsidence and 

transgression declined in this period of tectonic quiesence, the deltaic 

clastics and associated deposits (e.g., Fort Payne) essentially filled the 

"Black-Shale Sea", establishing first, dysaerobic conditions (e.g., Nancy 

Shale of eastern Kentucky), and later aerobic conditions. The shallow-water 

platform built out into the former "Black-Shale Sea" basin during this 

progradation became the site of extensive, shallow-water carbonate deposition 

during the Middle and Late Mississippian. 

- 

-

1.) 

2.) 

CONCLUSIONS 

The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence was deposited in an 

equatorial, inland, epicontinental sea. The sea was bounded on the 

west by the Transcontinental Arch, on the north by the Old Red Sand- 

stone Continent, and on the south and east by the Acadian highlands. 

The only opening to the open ocean was to the southwest in the 

Ouachita region of Arkansas and in the Marathon region of Texas. 

Devonian-Mississippian black-shale deposition reflects a low rate of 

clastic influx, high organic productivity, and development of 

anaerobic conditions in a stratified water column within a restricted 

inland sea. 

3.) The organic productivity in the "Black-Shale Sea" apparently was rather 

4.) 

high. Although organic productivity in upper parts of the water 

column is usually high, organic productivity in upper parts of the 

"Black-Shale Seav1 apparently was extraordinarily high. 

lated to the equatorial nature of the sea, continual replenishment of 

nutrients by surface runoff from surrounding land, and the presence of 

an oceanic upwelling during later parts of black-shale deposition. 

Considerable organic input was also derived from terrestrial sources 

to the east, but much of the terrestrial organic matter is concentrat- 

ed in eastern parts of the black-shale sequence. 

This was re- 

The black shales were deposited during a dominantly transgressive 

period, which can be related to a time of increased spreading rateson 

a world-wide basis. 

The increased spreading rates were reflected in 

increased subduction, obduction, and collision at continental margins. 

66

5.) 

Deposition of the North American black shales was concurrent with and 

related to the Acadian Orogeny. 

developed across the paleoequator and just east of the "Black-Shale 

Sea. 

The resulting Acadian Mountains 

6.) Collision and uplift in the Acadian Mountains not only caused 

cratonic subsidence and transgression to the west, but created a 

barrier to the moisture-laden trade winds. This caused rainshadow 

conditions west of the mountains and reduced clastic influx into the 

"Black-Shale Sea." In the absence of clastics, the indigenous organic 

debris forming in the upper part of the water column was the major 

constituent of accumulating sediments. 

7,) During periods of tectonic quiesence, subsidence abated and erosion 

8.) 

lowered the mountains to the point that the trade winds could cross 

the equator anddeliver precipitation to western parts of the mountains. 

This resulted in vast influxes of clastics and rapid westward pro- 

gradations of the Catskill Delta into the "Black-Shale Sea." 

Seven such major cycles of alternating black shales and coarse 

clastics are represented in the Catskill Delta complex. The black- 

shale units from these cycles are: Marcellus, Geneseo-Burket, Mid- 

dlesex, Rhinestreet, Huron-Dunkirk, Cleveland, and Sunbury. The 

Pipe Creek Shale represents yet another black-shale unit occurring 

between the Rhinestreet and Huron-Dunkirk; because of its comparatively 

thin nature, it is not included with the others. 

shale units, only the latter three units (Hyron-Dunkirk, Cleveland, 

and Sunbury) were effectively deposited beyond the Appalachian periph- 

eral bas in. 

67 

Of the major black-

9.) Cratonic subsidence was greatest in the Appalachian peripheral or 

foreland basin west of the mountains. The increased subsidence in 

this basin apparently had a confining effect on the progradational 

wedges, for most of the clastic wedges did not migrate beyond the 

peripheral basin. Hence, even during rainy periods to the east, 

starved-sediment conditions persisted in cratonic portions of the 

"Black-Shale Sea." 

10.) Because the "Black-Shale Sea" received at least periodic influxes of 

fresh water, the surface waters were probably somewhat brackish. 

Moreover, due to the equatorial 

nature of the sea, the surface 

waters were probably warmer and less dense than the bottom waters. 

These conditions apparently resulted in the formation of a stratified 

water column or pycnoclinewhich prevented vertical circulation and 

oxygenation of the cold, dense bottom waters, Under these conditions, 

organic-rich sediments were preserved in anaerobic, azoic conditions 

below the pycnocline. 

11 .) During the initial stages of transgression, each cratonic basin 

(Appalachian, Illinois, Michigan) developed its own pycnocline, and 

black muds accumulated spearately in each basin. 

progressively with transgression, a pycnocline developed throughout 

the entire "Black-Shale Sea", so that black muds were deposited 

uniformly throughout the basin of deposition. 

curred during deposition of the upper Huron Shale, which was the 

first part of the shale sequence to completely overlap the Cincinnati 

Arch in Kentucky. 

welling oceanic waters entered from the continental margin. 

68 

As depth increased 

In Kentucky this oc- 

Eventually, depth increased to the point that up- 

This is

indicated by the presence of phosphates in the upper part of the 


12.) If the black-shale sequence is viewed as a single unit, it can be 

traced laterally from the Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale of New 

York across the continent to the Lower Mississippian Exshaw Shale of 

western Canada. Viewed in this way, the black-shale sequence repre- 

sents a transgression during a period of time linking the Middle 

Devonian through Early Mississippian. 

13.) The cratonic black-shale sequence represents deposition in a pro- 

‘gressively deepening sea. 

water conditions which are poorly preserved or condensed due to the 

rapidity of transgression and the low-lying surface over which the 

sea transgressed. 

the deepest phases of the sea. 

69 

Basal parts of the shale represent shallow- 

Upper phosphatic portions of the shale represent 

14.) The “Black-Shale Sea” attained its greatest extent during the Early 

Mississippianwhenit extended fromeasternOhio across the Transcon- 

tinental Arch into Alberta, Canada. This extensive transgression is 

related to widespread cratonic subsidence accompanying pulses of 

tectonism in the Acadian and Antler mountain belts.

REFERENCES CITED 

Allen, J. R. L., 1979, Old red sandstone facies in external basins, with 

particular reference to southern Britain: Spec. Pap. in Palaeontology 

NO. 23, p. 65-80 

Anikouchine, W. A,, and Sternberg, R. W., 1973, The world ocean, an intro- 

duction to oceanography: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliff, New 

Jersey, 338 p. 

Avila, John, 1976, Devonian shale as a source of gas, in Natural gas from 

unconventional sources: National Research Council, Washington, D .C . , 

p. 78-85. 

Badham, J. P. N., and Halls, C., 1975, Microplate tectonics, oblique col- 

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Trask, P. D., 1939, Organic content of recent marine sediments, - in Trask, 

P. D. (ed.), Recent marine sediments: Dover, New York, p. 428-453. 

Tully, J. P., and Barber, F. G., 1961, An estuarine model of the sub- 

Arctic Pacific Ocean, in Sears, Mary (ed.), Oceanography: 

for the Advancement of3cience Pub. No. 67, p. 425-454. 

80 

Am. Assoc. 

Twenhofel, W. H., 1939, Environments of origin of black shales: Am. Assoc. 


Wallace, L. G., Roen, J. B., and deWitt, Wallace, Jr., 1978, Preliminary 

stratigraphic cross section showing radioactive zones in the Devoni- 

an black shales in southeastern Ohio and west-central West Virginia: 

U.S. Geol. Surv. Oil and Gas Inves. Chart OC-83. 

Wells, J. W., 1947, Provisional paleoecological analysis of the Devonian 

rocks of the Columbus region: Ohio Jour. Sci., v. 47, p. 119-126. 

Williams, Harold, 1978, Tectonic lithofacies map of the Appalachian 

orogen: Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland, St. John;s, Newfoundland, 

scale: 1:1,000,000. 

Woodrow, D. L., Fletcher, F. W., and Ahrnsbrak, W. F., 1973, Paleo- 

geography and paleoclimate at the deposition sites of the Devonian 

Catskill Delta and Old Red facies: Geol. SOC. her. Bull., v. 84, 

p. 3051 -3064. 

Woodward, H. P., 1943, Devonian system of West Virginia: W. Va. Geol. 

Surv., v. 15, 655 p. 

Ziegler, A. M., Scotese, C. R., McKerrow, W. S., Johnson, M. E., and 

Bambach, R. K., 1979, Paleozoic paleogeography: Ann. Revs. Earth 

and Planet. Sci., v. 7, p. 473-502. 

Zonenshap, L. P., and Gorodnitskiy, A. M., 1977, Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

reconstructions of the continents and oceans, Article I, Early and 

Middle Paleozoic reconstructions: Geotectonics (Am. Geophys. Union 

Transl.), v. 11, p. 83-94.

APPENDIX I-C 

1-9

PALEOECOLOGY OF THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN 


August, 1980 

BY 

LANCE S. BARRON AND FRANK R. ETTENSOHN 

Of 




Prepared for 





UNDER 

CONTRACT NO. DE-AC21-76ET12040

PALEOECOLOGY OF THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN 


by 

Lance S. Barron' and Frank R. Ettensohn2 

ABSTRACT 

The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence of eastern North 

America is a distinctive stratigraphic interval that is generally characterized 

by low clastic sedimentation, high organic production in the 

water column, anaerobic bottom conditions, and a relative absence of 

fossil evidence of biologic activity. The laminated black shales which 

constitute most of the black-shale sequence are broken by two major sets 

of interbeds of greenish-gray clayey shales which contain bioturbation, 

in place phosphatic brachiopods, and pyritized micromorph invertebrates. 

The black shales contain abundant evidence of life from the upper part 

of the water column with fossils of fish and fish parts, conodonts, 

algae and other phytoplankton; however, there is a lack of evidence of 

benthic life. Brachiopods, crinoids, and some molluscs were probably 

epiplanktic. Asignificant physical distinction between the environment 

in which the black sediments were deposited and that in which the greenish-gray 

sediments were deposited, is the level of dissolved oxygen. 

The laminated black shales point to anaerobic conditions and the bioturbated 

greenish-gray shales suggest dysaerobic to marginally aerobicdysaerobic 

conditions. A paleoenvironmental model in which quasiestuarine 

circulation compliments and strengthen a stratified water 

column can account for both depletion of dissolved oxygen in the bottom 

environment and for prevention of oxygen replenishment. Clastic 

influx from adjacent fluvial environments can bring in the more 

abundant clays of the greenish-gray shales, and oxygen to support benthic 

life on the sea bottom. These pulses of greenish-gray clastic were shortlived 

and eventually were replaced by anaerobic condition and low rates 

of clastic sedimentation. 

'Research Assistant, University of Kentucky 

2Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Kentucky

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

We wish to give special thanks to Dennis R. Swager, Michael L. 

Miller, and Scott B. Dillman, former research assistants in the black- 

shale program at the University of Kentucky, whose theses provided 

valuable new data for our work. 

Edward N. Wilson, and Philip H. Heckel for their trips into the field 

with us and valuable discussion. Our special gratitude goes to P. L. 

Bryant who typed the manuscript and to Danna L. Antoine, who drafted 

the figures. 

iii 

We also wish to thank Roy C. Kepferle,


Page 

ABSTRACT .............................. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................... i i i 

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................... iv 

PALEOECOLOGY . ........................... 1 

INTRODUCTION ......................... 1 

THEPLANKTON ......................... 2 

Tasmanites . ........................ 2 

Acritarchs . ........................ 4 

Spores . .......................... 5 

Chit inozoans . ....................... 6 

Radiolarians . ....................... 6 

THE NEKTOPLANKTON ....................... 8 

Ostracods ......................... 8 

Conodonts ......................... 10 

THEEPIPLANKTON . ....................... 15 

Brachiopods and Pelecypods . ................ 16 

Graptolites ........................ 21 

Crinoids . .......................... 21 

THENEKTON .......................... 22 

Fishes . .......................... 24 

Cephalopods ........................ 31 

Nektic Gastropods ..................... 34 

Phyllocarid Crustaceans .................. 35 

BENTHOS ............................ 35 

TraceFossils ....................... 37 

Linjwla .......................... 40 

Molluscs . ......................... 42 

Foraminifera . ....................... 45 

Ostracods ......................... 45 

Organism-oxygen Relationships ............... 46 

Other Benthos ....................... 47 

PLANTS ............................ 48 

General .......................... 48 

Foerstia or Protosalvinia ................. 50 

THE TWO MAJOR FACIES ........................ 53 

REFERENCES CITES . ......................... 59 

PLATES1-14 ............................ 

iv

INTRODUCTION 

PALEOECOLOGY 

A paleoecological study of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian 

black shale is difficult not only because the depositional environment of 

these shales is poorly understood, but also because the Late Devonian was 

a critical time in the evolution and development of life on Earth. 

the first time since their initial appearance in the Silurian, land plants 

evolved to the point that upland forests could develop, 

rapidly in both fresh and marine waters, and a few fresh-water forms ap- 

parently evolved into amphibians at this time. The enigmatic conodont- 

bearing animal underwent explosive evolution and radiation, while large 

numbers of brachiopod genera became extinct. 

controls reflected in these biotic changes may be directly or indirectly 

related to those responsible for black-shale deposition, yet because the 

shale lacks abundant fossil evidence of metazoan life, because its fossils 

are both terrestrial and marine, and because its fossils are generally 

rare and poorly preserved, the connection remains unclear. Nonetheless, 

some significant paleoecological inferences about the included biota 

can be made using modern analogues, functional morphology, and sediment- 

organism relationships. 

paleoecological overview of the black-shale sequence through integration 

of the above techniques with observations from the literature and field. 

Because ecologic studies typically deal with organism habitats, the first 

part of the study will deal with fossils from the black shale in terms of 

of their larger habitats or environmental preferences. 

Fish evolved 

part of the study, the two major facies of the black-shale sequence will 

For 

The underlying environmental 

It is the purpose of this study to generate a 

1 

In the second

e examined in terms of the fossils contained in them. 

THE PLANKTON 

Throughout the black-shale sequence, plankton form the most widely 

present kind of fossil evidence. 

present; phytoplankton typically predominate. 

Tasmanites 

Both phytoplankton and zooplankton are 

Tasmanites as found in the fossil record are translucent amber-to- 

red colored discs or, when not collapsed by compaction, spheres. They 

range in size from 100 to 600 microns. Characteristically they lack sur- 

face ornamentation, and they lack unequivocally trilete or monolete 

markings. 

inconspicuous punctae are also present (Newton, 1875; Schopf, Wilson, and 

Bentall, 1944). 

At high magnification, a slight rugose nature is apparent and 

In the past, this genus has been both misunderstood and misinterpreted; 

interpreted for the most part as the spores of land plants which were 

transported by the wind or currents into the black-shale sea. 

Dawson (1871a) had described similar spore-like disc as Sporangites, 

Newton (1875) 

gave a much more thorough description of the fossil 

Although 

organism and named it Tasmanites after the Tasmanian white coal which is 

composed of these discs. Newton stated that Tasmanites were, "vegetable 

organs", but he was not sure from which plant the "spore cases" had come. 

He suggested that they were related to Lycopod macrospores. Referring 

to Ralph (1865) and his suggestion that the (Tasmanites) material was 

algal, Newton said, '!* . . improbable." Since that time, Tasmanites 

generally has been described as a spore of terrestrial origin. 

Schopf, Wilson, and Bentall (1944) discounted the relationship of 

2

Tasmanites to any of the primitive higher plants contemporary with the 

Devonian occurrence of the genus. They concluded, 'I. . . these micro- 

scopic fossil bodies represent about as great a realm for speculation 

now as they ever did as to their actual nature and affinity, but this can 

hardly be represented as a valid excuse for their continued neglect." 

In 1962, Wall suggested that Tasmanites was algal in origin and was 

very similar to the modern green alga Pachysphaera pelagica Ostenfield. 

Pachysphaera was described in detail by Parke (1966) as a planktic, 

marine green alga of the family Prasinophyceae, similar or identical to 

the fossil genus Tasmanites. 

The encysted phase of the Pachysphaera 

is the phase that resembles the fossil Tasmanites. 

The cyst stage 

develops from a motile form that bears four flagellae. The cyst begins 

with one chloroplast, one nucleus, and one pyrenoid with a starch sheath. 

Growth continues until the nucleus begins to divide. Nuclear division 

is accompanied by division of the cell contents. Eventually motile 

phases are produced and liberated by breaking of the tough, organic outer 

wall. 

Each cell of the motile phase contains one nucleus, one chloroplast, 

and one pyrenoid. Cells of both the motile and the encysted stages have 

been reported from depths of 70 meters in the English Channel and in the 

North Atlantic (Parke, 1966). 

Chaloner and Orbell (1971) and Brooks (1971) supported inclusion of 

Tasmanites with the Prasinophyceae. Brooks (1971) further stated that the 

exact nature of Tasmanites, whether marine or fresh-water, had not been 

firmly established. 

gested a brackish environment, whereas the 8' 3C values for Tasmanites 

punctatus suggested a marine environment. 

Using 613C values for an Alaskan tasmanite, he sug- 

lived in brackish to marine water and were concentrated by currents. 

3 

He concluded that the organisms

Chemical analyses of the Tasmanites wall have shown that it is com- 

posed of sporopollenin, a substance also identified in Carboniferous mega- 

spores as well as in spores and pollen of Recent higher plants. 

chemical analyses of dinoflagellate thecae report properties similar to 

those from the walls of Tasmanites (Brooks, 1971). 

Some 

Tasmanites remains have been found from a black shale below the 

Boyle Dolomite (Middle Devonian), in the Boyle Dolomite, and throughout 

the black-shale sequence up to and including the Sunbury Shale. 

stratigraphic range on a world-wide basis is from the Silurian to the 

Cretaceous (Brooks, 1971). 

The occurrence of a planktic green alga such as Tasmanites in the 

upper parts of the black-shale sea suggests the presence of primary pro- 

ducers, phytoplankton which would have been a source of oxygen. 

algae also made a significant contribution to the organic matter deposited 

on the black-shale sea floor. 

and with Recent occurrences suggest a brackish to marine, planktic 

environment for the probable green alga Tasmanites. 

Acri t archs 

The 

The 

Comparisons withother fossil occurrences 

Acritarchs are unicellular or colonial organic-walled microfossils 

that have a spherical, ovoidal, or triangular body or vesicle. The body 

may possess spines, processes or membranes which project outward (Williams, 

1978). These enigmatic, organic-walled microfossils have been reported 

from the black-shale sequence by Boneham (1970), Wicander (1973a, b), 

McLaughlin and Reaugh (1974), Reaugh and McLaughlin (1975), and Martin and 

Zielinski (1978). These fossils occur in both black shales and greenish- 

gray shales of the black-shale sequence. 

Although the exact affinities 

of acritarchs are unknown, they are generally regarded as some form of 

4

marine phytoplankton. Acritarchs indicate marine conditions, even though 

some Holocene forms are apparently found in fresh-water deposits (Williams, 

1978). Wicander (1973a, b) reported an apparent decrease in abundance 

and diversity of acritarchs upward in the section from a core in the Ohio 

Shale; the acritarchs became quite rare in the Bedford Shale. 

periods of abundance and diversity in both the Chagrin Shale and in the 

Cleveland Shale. Martin and Zielinski (1978) also reported varying 

abundances and diversities in conjunction with occurrences of Tasmanites 

and spores. 

large numbers of acritarchs, restricted marine with large numbers of 

Tasmanites, and terrestrial when the spores were dominant. It is 

doubtful that the black-shale sea was ever terrestrial in nature, though 

some of its sediment certainly had a terrestrial origin. 

5 

He did note 

They interpreted these variances to indicate open marine with 

Therefore, the acritarchs were probably marine phytoplankton, per- 

haps related to thecholophyceae (Downie, 1967j, and served as primary 

producers in the black-shale seas. They not only provided a source of 

nutrition for marine consumers, but contributed substantially to the 

organic matter deposited on the sea bottom. Tasch (1967) suggested that 

acritarchs were the leading primary producers of the Paleozoic. 

Spores 

Spores are included in this section even though most were not native 

to the marine environment, having been blown or washed into the marine 

environment form the terrestrial environment. 

In papers concerned with 

the study of acid-insoluble, organic-walled microfossils or palynomorphs, 

spores are generally treated with the acritarchs and tasmanitids. 

In an 

environment like that represented by the black-shale sequence, where trees, 

cones, and other terrestrial plant materials are preserved, it is certainly

not surprising to find spores in the same deposits. 

terrestrial plant material preserved in the black shale are more indica- 

tive of terrestrial conditions than of the marine environment in which 

they were deposited and preserved (Heusser, 1978). Nonetheless, the rela- 

6 

Spores, like other 

tive abundance of spores and other terrestrial plant material may be used 

as an indicator of relative proximity to shoreline. 

Chitinozoans 

Chitinozoans are small, hollow, vase-shaped microfossils with organic 

walls and radial symmetry about a central axis. 

Their affinities are very 

poorly understood. Reaugh and McLaughlin (1975) reported them from the 

Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee, occurring in one assemblage with abundant 

and djverse acritarchs and scolecodonts; and in another assemblage with 

abundant land plant spores, but reduced acritarchs, and scolecodonts. 

Chitinozoans were apparently marine, but whether they lived high in the 

water column or on the bottom is uncertain (Jansonius and Jenkins, 1978). 

They are listed in the plankton section because the nature of the black- 

shale deposits favors a planktic mode over a benthic one. 

between chitinozoans and graptolites has been suggested (Jenkins, 1970), 

but only one occurrence of graptolites has been reported from the black- 

shale sequence of this area (Butts, 1922). Nevertheless, this associa- 

tion can not be completely discounted. 

Radiolarians 

A relationship 

Radiolarians are sarcodine Protistans which secrete skeletons 

composed of amorphous hydrated silica (opal A) (Schopf, 1980), but may have 

been composed of other minerals in the past. The skeletons are exceed- 

ingly intricate and may be radially symmetrical or helmet-shaped

(Kling, 1978). 

cell into an outer and inner zone separated by a membrane. This dis- 

tinguishes them from the rest of the members of the Protista (Kling, 

1978). 

They possess psuedopodia and divide the contents of the 

Spumellarian radiolarians were reported from the calcareous nodules 

near the base of the Ohio Shale by Foreman (1959, 1963). Additionally, 

radiolarians were reported by Conant and Swanson (1961, cited a personal 

communication from Henbest) from phosphate nodules near the top of the 

Chattanooga Shale. Henbest (1936) reported radiolarians from the Arkansas 

Novaculite (Upper Devonian) which intertongues with black shales, and 

also mentioned radiolarians from phosphate nodules in the Tennessee black 

shale. 

Pyritized radiolarians have also been found in the black shale 

(Upper Devonian) of Ontario and Michigan (Mason, 1962). 

The ecology, geographic distribution, and bathymetric range of 

modern radiolariansare not well understood. We do know that radiolarians 

are marine planktic organisms that feed on various forms of phytoplankton 

and zooplankton up to the size of copepods, and that a varied assemblage 

of food material would have been available for radiolarians in the black- 

shale sea. 

The general absence of radiolarians outside of various nodules 

is probably related to destruction by compaction. The intricate opalline 

tests are delicate and easily destroyed by compaction, recrystallization, 

or solution. Calcareous radiolarian-like forms have been reported from 

silt laminae in the New Albany Shale of Illinois and north-central Ken- 

tucky (Harvey and others, 1977;Griffith, 1977). Although these were de- 

signated as calcispheres, their disthctive structure suggests that they 

are radiolarian skeletons replaced by calcite. It is likely that radio- 

larians were present in the plankton during most of black-shale deposition, 

7

ut simply were not preserved (Conant and Swanson, 1961). They are 

preferentially preserved in chert and various nodules because of pre- 

compaction lithification. 

The presence of the radiolarians further supports the existence of 

normal marine conditions in the upper part of the water column of the 

black-shale sea. More importantly, however, the presence of abundant 

radiolarians such as occur in the Arkansas and Caballos novaculites, 

which are partially equivalent to and intertongue with the black shales, 

probably reflect the presence of oceanic upwelling near a continental 

margin. 

margins result in large plankton blooms, which usually include abundant 

radiolarians (Schopf, 1980; Koopman, Sarnthein, and Schrader, 1978; 

Diester-Haass, 1978). Silica from these skeletons in numbers greater 

than normal will saturate the interstitial waters with dissolved silica, 

and possibly allow formation of radiolarian chert. Normally, opalline 

tests are dissolved rather than preserved in bottom sediments. 

abnormally high productivity occurs can the interstitial waters become 

saturated in dissolved silica (Diester-Haass, 1978). 

THE NEKTOPLANKTON 

The upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich oceanic water near continental 

a 

Only when 

This environmental subdivision is used to describe fossil organisms 

having Recent analogues that are known to be nektoplanktic, as well as 

those having no Recent analogue, and whose specific environmental pre- 

ferences are relatively unknown. 

Ostracods 

Ostracods are microscopic, bivalved crustaceans (Arthropoda) which 

are known in the fossil record from the early Cambrian. The carapace,

which is 

elevations (lobes) and depressions (sulci) modify the valve and these 

features are reflected on both the internal and external surfaces of the 

valve. 

and may consist 

usually calcified, may possess valvular vaulting in which 

Sculptural features are expressed only on the exterior surface 

acters (Pokornt, 1978). 

of meshes, ridges, tubercles, spines, or other char- 

These small crustaceans have been known for some time from Middle 

Devonian deposits, but only recently have they been reported from Upper 

Devonian rocks of the eastern United States. Stewart and Hendrix (1945b) 

reported ostracods from the Olentangy Shale of Ohio, and Stewart (1944) 

reported them from the underlying Delaware Formation. 

Warshauer (1978) and Duffield and Warshauer (1979) have reported 

ostracods from a core in the black-shale sequence of West Virginia. 

A genus common to all of those reports is Richterina, an 

(fingerprint'ostracotl) also found in the Three Lick Bed in eastern 


They occur over a wide geographic range, and make good Upper Devonian 

guide fossils (Porkom?, 1978). Duffield and Warshauer (1979) reported 

that the assemblage of ostracods in the black-shale core of their study 

showed similarities with European species of Late Devonian age. 

ostracods are pyritized and are found in the greenish-gray shales of the 


in the black shales may be the result of preservational bias and not their 

absence from the upper part of the water column in the Late Devonian black- 

shale sea. 

More recently, 

entomozoid 

The entomozoids are interpreted to have been marine plankton. 

The 

The lack of planktic or nektoplanktic ostracods 

The probable presence of ostracods in the upper part of the water 

column further supports the oxygenated nature of that part of the water 

9

column. 

waters is somewhat uncertain, but the entomozoids are generally considered 

to have been marine forms. Being planktic organisms, their carapaces 

contained less calcite and were not as thick as the carapaces of benthic 

ostracods; therefore, the carapaces dissolved more easily than did the 

more heavily calcified carapaces of benthic forms. Preservation of these 

planktic shells in the green shales, even by pyritization, indicates that 

the conditions in which the greenish-gray muds were deposited differed 

from those in the black sediments were deposited. 

slightly higher and may have allowed the pyritization to preserve the 

ostracods prior to solution. In the black sediments, the pH was lower 

and solution of the slightly calcified carapaces probably occurred much 

more quickly. 

Conodont s 

Whether they preferred completely marine or brackish surface 

10 

The pH may have been 

Conodonts are microscopic, toothlike fossils composed of calcium- 

fluorapatite. 

Apparently some of the conodont-bearing animals bore more 

than one type of element, but neither the functions of the elements nor 

the nature of the animal is known. 

the tooth analogue of conodonts continues to be well refuted. 

suggested that the elements functioned as basal supports of tentacles on 

a worm-like creature. The "genust1 and "species" names attached to part- 

icular elements are form names only. 

Early and even recent speculation on 

Assemblage names which group 

elements together are not considered in this discussion. 

One theory 

The enigmatic conodont-bearing animal evolved very rapidly in the 

Late Devonian, and as a pelagic nektoplanktic animal it distributed its 

phosphaticremainsin many different facies over a wide geographic range.

For these two reasons, conodonts are excellent index fossils. Although 

very little work has been done with the Late Devonian conodonts from 

Kentucky, extensive studies in the Late Devonian have been made in Tennes- 

see (Hass, 1956), Ohio (Bond, 1948; Cooper, 1931; Gable, 1973; Hass, 1947a), 

Indiana (Huddle, 1934; Rexroad, 1969; Rexroad and Scott, 1964), and West 

Virginia (Duffield, 1978; Duffield and Warshauer, 1979). These workers 

have found conodonts throughout most of the black-shale sequence. 

the basal green shales of the outcrops in Kentucky, and in the Bedford 

Shale, they become rather scarce. The bone beds or lag zones found in 

the sequence are well-indurated, phosphatic sandstones with up to 15,000 

conodont elements per kilogram of sample (Chaplin, personal communication) 

along with fish remains, Tasmanites, and pyritized or phosphatized gastro- 

pods. Both the black shales and the greenish-gray shales contain cono- 

donts, as do the phosphate nodules found in upper parts of the section. 

The biostratigraphic aspects of conodonts long overshadowed their 

potential as indicators of biofacies. Early work by Merrill (1965) in 

the Pennsylvanian of North America developed the idea of facies assemblages 

of conodonts. Subsequent work in the Devonian of Europe, North America, 

and Australia has led to a biofacies model for conodont assemblages. 

Druce (1970) and Seddon (1970) both presented models which were developed 

from work done with carbonates in the Canning Basin of Australia. In 

these models, Palmatolepis, Ancyrodella, Ancyrognathus, Playfordia, and 

Polylophodonta were found only from "deep-water" sedimentary units. 

Icriodus, Polygnathus, and simple cones came from "shallow-water" facies. 

Druce (1970) suggested that distance from the shore determined the habitats; 

whereas Seddon (1970) suggested that vertical stratification, which implied 

some relationship with distance from shore, was the important factor. 

In 

11

In Kinderhookian sediments from the same area, Siphonodella, Psuedopoly- 

pathus, and Gnathodus (complex forms) formed the llshallow-waterll assem- 

blate. Members of the "shallow-water" assemblage were found in the more 

dominant Palmatolepis-Ancyrodella assemblage, but the "deep-water" forms 

were rare in the llshallow-waterll assemblage dominated by Icriodus and 

Polygnathus (see figure 1). 

A model developed further by Seddon and Sweet (1971) presented a 

vertical stratification of conodonts in which the Icriodus assemblage 

occupied the uppermost part of the water column and in which the Palmato- 

lepis assemblage occupied the deeper part. This placed the morphologi- 

cally simple forms in shallow water above the more complex, deeper-water 

forms and explained the occurrence of Icriodus in a Palmatolepis assem- 

blage and the absence of Palmatolepis in the Icriodus assemblage. 

In Druce's (1973) model, a combination of distance from shore and 

depth controlled the occurrence of conodonts in three biofacies. 

facies I represented a very shallow water facies containing primarily 

Bio- 

simple cones. Biofacies I1 represented a facies of intermediate depth 

(possibly to 50 meters) and contained Icridodus , Pelekysgnathus, and 

Polygnathus. Biofacies I11 represented a deeper water facies (possibly 

below 50 meters) and contained Palmatolepis, Ancyrodella, Polylophodonta, 

and Ancyrognathus. 

Subsequent work in North America seemed to verify the use of 

conodonts in determining biofacies in carbonates and shales of western 

Canada (Chatterton, 1976), in the Snyder Creek Shale and Cedar Valley 

Formation of Missouri (Schumacker, 1976), and in carbonates and shales 

of the western United States (Sandberg, 1976). In all of these situa- 

tions, Icriodus represented the shallow-water facies, whereas Palmatolepis 

12

I 

n 

6 

f 

ii 

a 

0 

u

or wide-platform polygnathids or both represented the deep-water facies. 

Sandberg (1980) used conodonts to determine eight biofacies varying from 

peritidal to offshore pelagic. 

Using absolute and relative frequencies of Icriodus and Polygnathus, 

Weddige and Ziegler (1976, 1979) showed that the respective genera occupied 

different habitats in the sea. 

vertically stratified habitats and that Icriodus was dominant in the more 

shallow, higher-energy habitats. 

They suggested that the two occupied 

With regard to the black-shale sequence, Griffith (1977) used the 

Seddon and Sweet (1971) model and work done by Davis (1975) in the New 

York Devonian, to suggest that the New Albany Shale, which contains p 

gnathus and some Icriodus in the base, and Palmatolepis and Ancyrodella 

14 

Poly- 

and some Polygnathus higher in the section, deepened upward. Hass (1956) 

had earlier reported the presence of Palmatolepis from the thin basal 

sandstone (bone bed?) in .the lower black shale of the Dowelltown-Member 

all the way up to the lower part of the phosphate-nodule horizon in the 

upper black shale of the Gassaway Member of the Chattanooga Shale in 

Tennessee. 

Polygnathus occurred only in the basal sandstone, whereas 

Icriodus occurred from the basal sandstone up to the middle of the upper 

black shale of the Gassaway Member. 

Conodonts recovered in reconnaissance samples from a black-shale out- 

crop on Interstate Highway 64 in Rowan County in eastern Kentucky supported 

the findings of Hass in the Chattanooga Shale. Conodonts in the basal 

sandstone at the bottom of the lower Huron Shale or radioactive unit 5 

of Swager (1978), included Palmatolepis, Polygnathus, a few Icriodus, and 

a few simple cones; this sandstone is equivalent to bone bed number 17 

of Conkin and Conkin (1979). The bone bed or lag deposit near the top

of radioactive unit 5 (Swager, 1978) also contained Palmatolepis, p Poly- 

gnathus, and Ancyrognathus. Samples from the three greenish-gray shales 

of the Three Lick Bed contained both Palmatolepis and Spathognathodus. 

The lag zone at the base of the Sunbury Shale contained numerous Gnathodus 

(complex forms), Psuedopolygnathus, Polygnathus, and Siphonodella. 

The evidence of Palmatolepis and the other "deep-water" genera in 

the black shales of eastern Kentucky is suggestive of deeper water for 

the deposition of the black-shale sequence. However, a typical progres- 

sion from an Icriodus-dominant fauna at the base of the section to a 

Palmatolepis-dominated assemblage at the top does not appear to be 

present. All biofacies seem to be concentrated in the bone beds (lag 

deposits), and the intervening shales seem to be dominated by a Palmato- 

lepis assemblage. This kind of concentration of facies in a basal lag 

might be expected if the initial transgression was relatively rapid, 

as is suspected in the case of the black shales of eastern Kentucky. 

Nonetheless, the conodont biofacies and resulting bathymetric inferences 

can only be taken as suggestive of deeper water until a much more de- 

tailed study is undertaken. 

If Palmatolepis was a deep-water form, the 

black-shale sea would have been considerably deeper than the 50 meter depth 

suggested, because the 50 meter figure would only represent the top of 

the Palmatolepis habitat. 

THE EPIPLANKTON 

Normally benthic organisms which attached themselves, either perman- 

ently or temporarily, to floating objects such as logs or other 

plant debris occupied an epiplanktic habitat. Some early researchers 

used the term psuedoplanktonic in referring to this habitat. Normally 

benthic organisms could have attached themselves to floating superstrates 

15

as a reaction to a number of possible environmental factors: Floating 

logs of the size and durability of Callixylon were comparatively new to 

marine waters, and as such, presented new, albeit mobile, superstrates 

for organisms normally found in the benthos. Logs or stems floating in 

the sea naturally occur in the upper oxygenated or aerobic zone of the 

water column, and they may have formed the only habitable point of at- 

tachment at times when the sea bottom was anaerobic and black sediments 

were accumulating. The floating plant material probably was carried 

through a near-shore region of the sea where normal marine conditions 

prevailed, during which period, larvae of invertebrates attached to 

the floating superstrate. The plant debris continued to float and moved 

from the normal-marine area out into the part of the sea in which the 

black sediments were accumulating. Eventually the floating material 

became waterlogged and sank, killing the attached creatures in the toxic 

bottom waters. For small pieces of flotage, the growth of the attached 

organisms and the weight that they contributed may have caused relatively 

early sinking of the material (Thayer, 1974). 

Such occurrences in the black-shale sequence include crinoids at- 

tached to Callixylon logs (Wickwire, 1936; Wells, 1939, 1941, 1947; 

McIntosh, 1978), pelecypods attached to small pieces of plant matter 

(Nye, Brower, and Wilson, 1975), and brachiopods such as Lingula, Orbi- 

culoidea, and Leiorhynchus, of a supposed epiplanktic life (Thayer, 

1974). 

Brachiopods and Pelecypods 

Inarticulate, phosphatic brachiopods such as Lingula, Lingulipora, 

Orbiculoidea, and Schizobolus occur in black, laminated shales that 

show no evidence of benthic life. These brachiopods usually are explained 

16

as having been epiplanktic (Rudwick, 1965; 1970; House, 197Sb; Thayer, 

1974; Newton, 1979). Prosser (1912a) reported receiving a letter from 

the amateur paleontologist, Rev. Herzer, with whom he had worked. 

the letter, Herzer described finding in a calcareous nodule a Callixylon 

log, It. . . with many attached Lingula." Althoughmodernepiplanktic 

lingulids have not been reported, modern Lingula and Glottidia possess 

muscular pedicles coated with a sticky substance which was probably true 

of fossil forms. 

the Lingula to a log or to other plant debris. 

Glottidia attached the end of its pedicle to a piece of shell or other 

hard material while it was in its burrow. When the organism in its bur- 

row was buried by an additional six inches of sand, it detached from the 

shell and burrowed out. Assuming that fossil lingulid brachiopods had 

similar pedicle characteristics, they might have detached from their float- 

ing superstrates as these pieces of flotage began to sink into anaerobic 

waters. 

aerobic bottom waters. Williams (1977) suggested the evolution in the 

lingulids has been very slow over geologic time; reflecting that early on 

it developed a successful physiology and morphology that has required 

little change over time. Paine (1970) also suggested that Lingulas have 

been conservative over time. 

This sticky pedicle probably was capable of attaching 

tion, attribute modern characteristics to fossil forms. 

In 

17 

In studies by Paine (1963), 

Being unable to swim, the brachiopods sank and died in the an- 

With this in mind perhaps we can, with cau- 

The above situations can possibly explain why cerhain brachiopods 

sometimes are found on pieces of plant debris (Prosser, 1912a), sometimes 

in close association with plant material as in 'figure 2, and at other times 

not associated with any plant material or other recognizable flotage as in 

figure 3. Very small, thin-shelled lingulids may also represent larval

Figure 2. Brachiopods in close association with fossil wood. 

18

Figure 3. Brachiopods not associated with fossil wood. 

19

forms which existed as plankton for a longer period of time than normal 

because a habitable substrate (superstrate) was not present (Ziegler and 

others, 1968). After reaching a certain size, the weight prevented further 

planktic existance, and the organisms sank into the anaerobic bottom waters. 

The presence of Lingula and related inarticulate brachiopods has 

been and still is used to infer a near-shore, shallow-water environment of 

deposition for the black-shale sequence (Cooper, 1936-1937, 1957; Lewis and 

Schwietering, 1971). Additionally, Lingula is regarded as having been a 

resident of a shallow-water, near-shore environment throughout its 

geologic record (Raup and Stanley, 1971). Regarding the nature of lingulid 

brachiopods in the fossil record, Rudwick (1965) said, ''. . . the occur- 

rence of fossil lingulids without other brachiopods may, if there are no 

indications of toxic conditions, be taken to reflect littoral (intertidal) 

conditions of deposition." 

were attached to plant flotage or to other organisms (Rudwick, 1965, 1970). 

In any case, Lingula found in black, laminated shales were not living on 

20 

He suggested lingulids found in black shales 

the sea bottom, and as fossils of epiplanktic organisms, can not be used 

as indicators of nearness to shore. 

This conclusion is further supported 

by the taphonomy of many lingulid specimens found in the shale. 

Many of 

the specimens exhibit single valves, of similar size and in preferential 

orientation. This sugggests post-mortem transport and orientation of dis- 

sociated valves. As epiplanktic organisms, however, they lived in shallow 

water, but this says nothing about the depth of the sea in which they 

floated. Lingulids as indicators of depth and nearness to shore will be 

discussed further in the section on the benthos. 

Other epiplanktic organisms include the brachiopods Leiorhynchus, 

Schizobolus, Orbiculoidea, and Barroisella (Rudwick, 1965; Thayer, 1974),

and the pelecypods Buchiola (McAlester, 1970) and Lunulacardium (Nye, 

Brower, and Wilson, 1975). Forms such as Pterochaenia, Prosochasma, and 

Buchiola which have thin, chitinous shells were probably branchiopods 

(Thayer, 1974). 

Graptolites. 

Graptolites were colonial, chitinoid organisms preserved generally 

as flattened carbonaceous films. The colony consisted of branches (stipes) 

bifurcating from a supporting thread (nema). Each stipe bore overlapping 

cups (thecae) which contained the animals. Graptolites are known from the 

Cambrian through the Mississippian, and form excellent guide fossils for 

the Ordovician and Silurian. 

Graptolites have been reported only once from the black-shale sequence 

of eastern Kentucky. Butts (1922) found one Dictyonema specimen from the 

lower3meters of the black shale at Irvine, Estill County, Kentucky. 

Planktic members of the Graptolithina became extinct in the Silurian, which 

leads to the inference that Dictyonema was epiplanktic. Moore, Lalicker, 

and Fisher (1952) suggested that the nema was too flimsy to support the 

rhabdosome (colony) on the bottom, and that it probably held the colony 

from above in an epiplanktic habitat. If the previously discussed relation- 

ship between the chitinozoans and the graptolites is accurate, then the 

occurrence of epiplanktic graptolites is possible. Ruedemann and Lochman 

(1942) reported graptolites from the Lower Mississippian Englewood Forma- 

tion in the Black Hills of South Dakota, a formation coeval with the Sun- 

bury Shale to the east. 

Crinoids 

Crinoids are complexly organized and highly varied echinoderms. 

21

Although most forms found today are not attached to the bottom, most fos- 

sil forms were. They are exclusively marine animals, composed of 

articulated calcareous hard parts that can number up to several thousand. 

Although several reports of epiplanktic crinoids were mentioned earlier, 

crinoids in the black-shale sequence are considerably less abundant than 

are brachiopods. Some of this may have been preservational bias because 

the calcareous hard parts of the crinoids would have been more easily dis- 

solved than the phosphatic shells of the brachiopods. Hoover (1960) des- 

cribed crinoids, probably benthic forms, from the Olentangy Shale of 

Ohio. The conditions of that unit (probably Middle Devonian) were better 

oxygenated than that of the normal black-shale sea because the heavily 

calcified hard parts of the crinoids would certianly require a higher con- 

centration of oxygen, following the model of Rhoads and Morse (1971). 

Epiplanktic crinoids have been described from the Posidonia Shales 

(Lias), which are black shales, by Seilacher, Drozdzewski, and Haude 

(1968) and from the Lyme Regis Lias by Jackson (1966). Figure 4 is a 

photograph of crinoid columnals attached to a silicified Callixylon log 

from the black shale. According to McIntosh (1978) Melocrinites clarkei 

Williams was found attached to logs in the Angola Shale of New York. 

Wells (1947) reported the same genus on Callixylon logs in the Huron 

Shale. 

(Stewart and Hendrix, 1944). 

THE NEKTON 

This same genus is known also from the Olentangy Shale of Ohio 

Swimming organisms such as cephalopods, fish, and possibly some 

pteropod-like gastropods are called nekton, and fossils of these organisms 

occur throughout the sequence. Usually, however, they are not as abundant 

22

Figure 4. Callixylon log with crinoids attached. 

section). 

. 

.... 

23 

(plan view and cross

as the planktic forms. 

scales and teeth. Some fish fossils like those from the Cleveland 

Shale are preserved in such detail that muscle fiber and other detailed 

morphologic features can be observed. Molluscs, on the other hand, 

are not abundant, but they are reported in the literature and are known 

from the outcrop and from cores in eastern Kentucky. 

typically preserved by pyritization. 

Fishes 

The most common fish fossils are individual 

The shells are 

From Moy-Thomas and Miles (1971) the definition of fishes is: 

'I. . . all those free-living, aquatic, cold-blooded, gill-breathing 

craniates in which fins and not pentadactyl limbs are developed." 

the Devonian Period, and more specifically by the Late Devonian, the 

fishes underwent a period of explosive evolution and radiation in which 

members of the Aganthids (jawless fishes), the Acanthoidians (first 

true jawed fishes) , the Arthrodire and non-Arthrodire Placoderms (armor- 

ed fishes), the Chondrichthyans (sharklike fishes), and the Osteich- 

thyans (the bony fishes) were all present in various Late Devonian 

aqueous environments (Colbert, 1969; Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971; Olson, 

1971). 

Devonian fossil fishes from North America can be divided into two 

basic assemblages: 

The Scaumenac Bay fauna of Quebec is characterized 

by Placoderms such as Bothriolepis, lung-fishes (Dipnoi), and Cross- 

opterygians (tassle-finned fishes); The Cleveland Shale fauna is char- 

acterized by the giant Arthrodires such as Dunkleosteus (Dinichthys) 

and sharks like Cladoselache (Colbert, 1969). The characteristic groups 

from Scaumenac Bay were either all fresh-water species or a mixed as- 

semblage containing both fresh-water and marine species. After the 

24 

By

Early Devonian, the Crossopterygians were primarily fresh-water, whereas 

the dipnoans (lung fish) probably lived on the bottom in shallow, fresh 

water. 

The lung-fish probably possessed the ability to breath air 

(Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971; Romer, 1968). Placoderms lived mostly on 

the bottom and they developed more sophisticated adaptations to bottom 

life as the Devonian progressed. Through the Middle Devonian, the 

Placoderms were mainly fresh-water forms, but by the Late Devonian they 

had become marine. 

fresh-water, perhaps estuarine or brackish, innature whereas the Cleve- 

land Shale fauna, consisting mainly of sharks, which are generally con- 

sidered to have been almost always marine creatures, and the dinichthyids 

and other Placoderms which were probably marine (Moy-Thomas and Miles, 

1971) appears to have occupied a marine environment. 

25 

Thus, the Scaumenac Bay fuana appears to have been 

The black-shale sequence of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Tennessee 

has long been known for its fish fossils. 

haps most diverse assemblage of fishes is in the Cleveland Shale, re- 

mains are known from the entire sequence, from the basal lag zones to 

the Sunbury Shale. 

carried out by Newberry (1857 and later) and this work was apparently 

spurred on by an itenerant preacher and part-time paleontologist, the 

Reverend Herzer, who painstakingly extricated the fish bones from cal- 

careous nodules in the lower part of the black shale. 

Though the largest and per- 

Early morphological work with these fossils was 

Foremost among the fishes of the black-shale sea, of which we now 

have record, were the sharks and the Placoderms. The Placoderms were 

almost completely Devonian with no known Silurian ancestors, and only 

a few occurrences in the lowermost Mississippian. 

The most abundant of 

these armored fishes were the Arthrodires, which were characterized by

ody and head armor, pectoral fins, and a pectoral spine. 

and pectoral spine were reduced with time, whereas the pectoral fins became 

more developed (Romer, 1968). In the Late Devonian, Dunkleosteus (a 

dinichthyid) was foremost among the Arthrodires, and represented some 

sophistication over its bottom-scavenging predecessors of the Early Devonian. 

The dorsal-ventral flattening, whish characterized most Placoderms that 

dwelt on the sea bottom and some other bottom-dwelling fishes (Gaudant, 

1979), was reduced in the genus Dunkleosteus. 

analysis of Gaudant (1979) and perhaps extending it to an extinct group 

at some risk, some of the life habits of Dunkleosteus can be inferred. 

Moy-Thomas and Miles (1971) suggested that Dunkleosteus possessed a 

powerful bite, with the ability to exert a great deal of pressure upon 

anterior picks. Following reasoning from Gaudant (1979), the placement 

of the mouth (buccal opening) was related to the position of the food with 

respect to the fish. 

with an inferred large bite suggests a predatory life in the water column, 

not on the bottom.Colbert (1969) noted that Dunkleosteus had the ability 

to raise its head as it dropped its jaw due to the presence of of a hinge 

between the head shield and the thoracic shield. This would have allowed 

large bites. Olson (1971) also pointed out the development of cervical 

musculature and its role in the action of the head which was important 

in feeding. 

preyed on rather large fish found in the water column. 

fins became more developed in the Arthrodires, and probably were used as 

glide planes and controls (Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971); a life mode up 

in the water column is further supported by reductions of the body armor 

which should have made swimming more efficient. 

26 

The body armor 

Using the morphofunctional 

Therefore, the terminal opening of the mouth together 

The evidence seems to strongly suggest that Dunkleosteus 

The pectoral 

Characteristics of the

placoderm vertebral column suggest that the swimming was accomplished by 

eel-like motions (Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971). The heterceral tail of 

most placoderms (Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971) is suggestive of rapidly 

swimming pelagic forms, when also supported by other morphological char- 

acteristics (Gaudant, 1979). The anaerobic nature of the bottom sediments 

further support the life position of Dunkleosteus in the water column, 

and not on the bottom. 

Two characteristics of placoderms contributed to their replacement 

by Chondrichthyans in the Mississippian. 

27 

The modified dermal bone used 

for cutting and grinding in the placoderm instead of true teeth probably 

became a strong handicap in the later part of an adult placoderm life. 

When this dermal bone was worn away, it was not replaced (Moy-Thomas 

and Miles, 1971). 

Chondrichthyes was the energy used to build and maintain a calcified 

skeleton and armor. 

Another limiting factor of placoderms ~ ot found in the 

The cartilaginous skeleton of the Chondrichthyes 

less metabolic effort and additionally was more conducive to nektonic life. 

The efficiency and versatility conferred by this skeleton allowed the 

sharks to outcompete their probable ancestors, the placoderms, in the 

water column of the Late Devonian black-shale sea. 

The sharks have often been viewed as primitive fishes primarily be- 

cause of the cartilaginous skeleton, and the belief that it preceeded 

ossification. The fossil record contains no evidence of sharks or other 

elasmobrachs prior to the few scattered teeth in the Middle Devonian. 

The Osteichthyes (bony fishes) are very well represented in the Early 

Devonian rocks, so that the cartilaginous skeleton probably appeared 

after ossified skeletons. One theory suggested that the Chondrichthyans 

evolved from the placoderms. Stensio (according to Romer, 1968) grouped

the placoderms with the Chondrichthyans into one supergroup called 

Elasmobrachiomorphii, a classification which was used by Moy-Thomas and 

Miles (1971). 

The sharks are considered to have been marine except for Pleurocanths 

which apparently invaded fresh-water environments. Pleurocanth remains 

are poorly known from rocks older than Pennsylvanian (Romer, 1968). A 

common shark in the black-shale sea was Cladoselache which was amazingly 

well-preserved in the Cleveland Shale. 

Cladodus, and Ctenacanthus were all very smilar and probably very closely 

related (Romer, 1968). From the excellently preserved Cleveland Shale 

cladoselachians, we know that they possessed a torpedo-like shape, a 

broad heteroceral tail, and extremely well-developed pectroal fins useful 

in balance and glide-control (Colbert, 1969). Functional morphology along 

the lines of Gaudant (1979) allows us to infer a rapidly swimming, pelagic 

predatory life style for the genus Cladoselache. Large eyes (Colbert, 

1969; Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971) and an atypically foreshortened snout 

28 

The three genera Cladoselache, 

seem to indicate that sight was more impontant in prey detection than is 

the olfactory sense in other sharks, including the Recent forms (Moy- 

Thomas and Miles, 1971). 

Other characteristics of Cladoselache seem to indicate that it could 

have been the prototype ancestral shark. 

It possessed a primitive jaw 

articulation called amphistylic suspension (Colbert, 1969) which did not 

allow the sawing action of the moremodern hyostylic suspension (Moy- 

Thomas and Miles, 1971). Cladoselache also lacked claspers used in 

copulation. Claspers are found in sharks that succeeded the cladosela- 

chians in the Mississippian (Romer, 1968). In well-preserved specimens 

from the Cleveland Shale, the gut contents of Cladoselache included 

"cladodont" shark teeth and scales of bony fishes (Moy-Thomas and Miles, 1971).

Members of the family Osteichthyes are also known from the black 

shale, and they include the crossopterygians and actinopterygians. The 

crossopterygians or tassle-finned fishes possessed paired fins with muscular 

tissue extending into the fins from the body. 

terrestrial amphibians evolved from this lineage. 

Ichthyostega is known from Devonian rocks in Greenland (Romer, 1968). 

29 

Apparently the tetrapod, 

The earliest tetrapod 

It is quite reasonable to expect fresh- to brackish-water bony fishes 

in the black-shale seas; also, some of the bony fishes were marine. 

During floods and periods of generally large fluival influx the resultant 

large lens of brachish water could have allowed the riverine fish to move 

into the former marine enviroment. 

find marine fish fossils in comtinental deposits. 

Conversely, it would be unlikely to 

One question that often arises is why are there not more complete 

fish fossils found in the black shale, given the apparently good 

conditions for the preservation of organic materials. Schafer (1972) 

gives an excellent account of the conditions attending the post-mortem 

phase of the history of a fish. 

vertebrates in general and invertebrates, regarding preservation and 

fossilization. 

intact because the skeleton is usually in one piece. Vertebrate hard 

parts or skeletons generally consist of many smaller hard parts bound 

together by ligaments, tendons, and other uncalcified tissues which are 

quite susceptible to decay. 

also disarticulate a fish skeleton. The difference lies in that one 

valve of a clam is much more readily identified than is one bone of a 

fish. 

A fundamental difference exists between 

Invertebrates which possess hard parts often are preserved 

Currents which can disarticulate a clam can 

A crinoid is an example of an invertebrate that is comparatively 

rare in articulated form, and is more often found as columnals and plates

than as articulated calyx, cup, and column. 

lungs 

Vertebrates, particularly the Osteichthyes which apparently possessed 

in the Devonian, were likely to float for a length of time after 

death due to the accumulation of gases. 

refloat several times. 

be rare. 

where the water temperature is high, as it would have been in the 

equatorial, Late Devonian sea. Even fishes such as sharks which did not 

possess lungs could have floated because of gas accumulation in the 

abdominal cavity. 

particularly difficult to preserve intact. In the black-shale sea, the 

fish may have never touched bottom in a whole state, if the production of 

gas were fast enough, 

30 

A dead dish may float, sink, and 

Given such conditions, complete skeletons would 

Gas production as a byproduct of decay is particularly high 

With a cartilaginous skeleton, a shark would be 

Schafer (1972) lists two ways in which complete vertebrate skeletons 

may be preserved in marine sediments; the skeleton must be buried quickly 

by rapid sedimentation or else buried in a place unaffected by transporta- 

tion forces. 

and Barron (in preparation), the black shale accumulated under starved- 

basin conditions so that a skeleton could not have been buried rapidly. 

The model envisioned is not one of necessarily stagnant bottom waters 

either, so that preservation of intact fish fossils would be comparatively 

rare. Schafer (1972) does point out that fish which sink into anaerobic 

enviroments do not produce abundant gas, because the rate 

have been much slower than in an oxygenated environment. 

been espeically true if the fish sank directly into the anoxic waters 

immediately after death. 

As suggested in the paleoenvironmentalmodel of Ettensohn 

of decay would 

This would have 

In the equatorial region where the black-shale 

sea was situated (see Ettensohn and Barron, in preparation), the warm

temperature may have allowed gas formation to float the fish before it 

could sink into anoxic waters. 

With the difficulty of preserving a fish skeleton intact, the 

question remaining is why are the fish preserved so well in the Cleveland 

Shale? Again, Schafer (1972) points out that one of the primary causes 

of catastrophic fish kills is plankton blooms, or the so-called red tides. 

In these situations several environmental factors act to kill the fish. 

Schafer (1972) cites Numann (1957) regarding a "red tide" on the west 

coast of Africa. 

killed by toxins from the bloom. 

The ones killed in the upper ten meters of water were 

either smothered by anoxic waters which resulted from the oxygen demand of 

the decaying organic matter, or the gills of the fish closed due to ir- 

ritation from large numbers of microorganisms. 

31 

The ones below the ten-meter depth were 

Plankton blooms such as these occur in areas of upwelling currents 

which bring nutrient-rich bottom waters up into the photic zone. The 

extremely high level of nutrients would allow primary productivity to 

occur at an explosive rate (Schopf, 1980; Brongersma-Sanders, 1948). In 

the model of Ettensohn and Barron (in preparation), the deepening black- 

shale sea would have allowed upwelling to occur during depositon of upper 

parts of the black-shale sequence. 

deposition, and the resultant red tide could explain the large numbers of 

fish remains in the Cleveland Shale. 

that the water of the black-shale sea became deep enough 

and the resultant plankton blooms to occur. 

Cephalopods 

Such an upwelling during Cleveland 

This may also reflect the first time 

for upwelling 

Cephalopods are the most advanced of all the invertbrates in that 

they possess well-developed eyes, prehensile sucker-bearing tentacles,

and the ability to swim well. However, the surviving shelled form, 

Nautilus, is geographically restricted to the southwest Pacific Ocean 

and may be more stenotypic than its ancestors (Furnish and Glenister, 

1964). Although extrapolation from the eceologic characteristics of 

Nautilus to those of its early ancestors in the Devonian is somewhat 

risky, it may serve to provide some insight into the ecology of Devonian 

ammonoids. Modern Nautilus typically occurs at depths of 600 meters or 

greater, but it apparently moves into more shallow water at night. They 

prey largely on decapod crustaceans, but they also scavenge. 

contains gas which is used to attain 

32 

The shell 

buoyancy and balance; using jets 

of water pulsed through their siphon, they are quite good swimmers. The 

buoyancy mechanism, however, only impledes paleoecological interpretation, 

assuming that the ancestors of Nautilus were similarly disposed. 

Follow- 

ing death, the buoyant gas-filled chambers allow currents to transport 

the shell great distances, and thus the shells may be deposited in a 

facies where cephalopods never naturally occurred in life (Furnish and 

Glenister, 1964; Miller and Furnish, 1936-1937). Miller (19571 pointed 

out that where various stages of ontogenetic development occur together, 

it can be inferred that cephalopods were living there. 

Reports of cephalopods in the black-shale sequence date from at 

least Linney (1884) who reported an orthoceratite in pyritized accumula- 

tion near the base of the black shale in Clark County, Kentucky. 

More 

recently House (1978) reported a communication from Gorden that a fuana 

of cephalopods had been discovered near the base of the Cleveland Shale 

in Ohio by Dr. Hlavin. These fossils were pyritized also. In addition, 

pyritized cephalopods have been reported from a core in the black shale 

of Martin County, Kentucky, from greenish-gray shales in the black-shale

sequence (Miller, 1978), and from a core in Carrol County, Ohio (Byrer 

and Rhoades, 1976). Also, pyritized, micromorph cephalopods have been 

found in the greenish-gray shales of the Three Lick Bed of eastern Ken- 

tucky (Barron and Ettensohn, 1980). 

The aragonite composition of the cephalopod shell further hinders 

preservation because of the unstable nature of the aragonite. This was 

particularly important in the more acid, bottom waters which apparently 

characterized the sea during most of black-shale deposition. Sensitive 

as the shells would have been to solution, preservation of those that 

are found was probably because of temporary improvement (higher pH) of 

the bottom environment as in the Three Lick Bed or very rapid replace- 

ment of the aragonite with pyrite. 

It is difficult to make much of a statement about the paleoecology 

of the cephalopods from the black-shale sequence. 

and likelihood of post-mortem transport, some uncertainty exists about 

their true life habitat, but given the other indicators of marine environ- 

mental conditions, it seems that they could have lived in the upper part 

of the water column. 

33 

Given the possibility 

Kummel (1948) discussed dwarfed cephalopod faunas and their possible 

significance. 

effect of high concentrations of iron, low levels of oxygen, and presence 

of hydrogen sulfide. 

He pointed out previous studies that showed the stunting 

The micromorph forms of the Three Lick Bed could 

be explained by either of these ways, or by still other mechanisms. 

Larger cephalopods may have been present but either were not preserved 

or were transported out of the basin after death. 

The micromorph forms 

may have also been preserved because of special conditions in a mirco- 

scopic burial environment, which did not protect the macroscopic forms.

If there were no larger forms present, the micromorph cephalopods could 

have been stunted adults, short-lived juveniles, or both. Low salinity 

may have been present in conjunction with the influx of fine clastics 

which formed the greenish-gray shales. 

Similar conditions of low 

salinity are inferred to have caused the stunting of possibly euryhaline 

marine cephalopods (Kummel , 1948) . 

Nektic Gastropods 

Some of the more unusual forms of molluscs are the pteropods or 

!'sea butterflies .I1 

These are swimming gastropods that often display 

rather bizarre morphologies as well as those considered to be more normal. 

As pelagic forms, these gastropods possess thinner shells, which would 

have been more subject to solution. 

They are presently found only in 

marine environments to depths of about 500 meters (Herman, 1978). 

Styliolina and Tentaculites have often been reported as pteropods, 

but they are classed in the Miscellanea of the Treatise - on Invertebrate 

Paleontology under the cricoconarids, described as small, straight, narrow 

cones. 

Micromorph, pyritized gastropods form a substantial fraction of the 

microfauna of the greenish-gray shales of the Three Lick Bed. 

sible that these gastropods were pelagic swimmers and were preserved in 

the less harsh bottom conditions during deposition of greenish-gray muds. 

34 

It is pos- 

These same forms, however, might have been dissolved in the harsher condi- 

tions of black-shale deposition. Pyritized, micromorph gastropods are 

also found in the lag zone at the base of the sequence in eastern Kentucky, 

which tends to support an interpretation of a pelagic mode of life, since 

the other major constituents of lag deposits, fish remains, conodonts, 

and Tasmanites, were most likely pelagic forms.

Phyllocarid Crustaceans 

These arthropods, a subclass of the lsalacostracans, possessed a 

large, loose carapace and leaf-like appendages. The fossils of these 

are found largely in Paleozoic rocks. Fossils such as Echinocaris ant 

35 

forms 

Spathiocaris have been reported in the literature (Campbell, 1946; Hoover, 

1961). 

Some of these forms from the black shale have also been suggested 

to have been the anaptychi of cephalopods (Ruedemann, 1934). If they 

were indeed crustaceans, they probably led a nektonic life in the black- 

shale sea, or perhaps were associated with flotage as are modern arthro- 

pods in the Sargasso Sea. 

pyritized carapaces. Campbell (1946) actually named a zone after 

Spathiocaris, but it is seldom recognized today because of difficulty 

in finding the fossils. 

BEN"?iOS 

They occur in the black-shale sequence as 

Benthic organisms with preservable hard parts apparently were ex- 

tremely rare in the Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sea. 

nated nature of the black shales in the sequence is strong evidence that 

even animals with only soft parts were unable to live in or on this sea 

bottom. 

been cited as evidence of the shallow-water and near-shore nature of the 

deposits (Cooper, 1936-1937, 1957); however, these brachiopods were 

probably epiplanktic during black-shale deposition as previously dis- 

cussed (Rudwick, 1965, 1970). Had the Lingula lived in or on the black- 

shale sea bottom, the laminae would almost certainly show disruptive 

evidence of their presence. An exception to this condition possibly 

existed in the early stages of black-shale deposition, which are typically 

represented by basal portions of the black-shale sequence. 

The lami- 

The Lingula and Orbiculoidea found in the black shales have 

Relatively

abundant Leiorhynchus, Schizobolus, Chonetes, W isella, and other 

~. -- - - - __ __ __ . 

36 

__________ - - - 

fossils found in the basal portions of the black-shale sequence (Has~, 

1956; Campbell, 1946; Lineback, 1968; Wells, 1947; Kindle, 1900) sug- 

gest slightly less harsh conditions in the initial depositional envir- 

onntent on the craton. 

The brachiopods are present locally in such 

numbers as to suggest aerobic or dysaerobic conditions. Nevertheless, 

despite the oxygenation, organic matter continued to be the major sed- 

imentary constituent and accumulated in such quantities that it predom- 

inated in the sediment. The aerobic-dysaerobic interface would have 

had to have been at or very near to the sediment-water interface so 

that the brachiopods could have survived in a marginally oxygenated 

environment. 

The presence of shallow-water sedimentary features such 

as flaser beds and ripple marks, as weil as the presence of carbonates 

in the Duffin-Harg-Ravenna facies, also supports a shallow-water phase 

at the beginning of black-shale deposition. 

Linney (1884) noted the presence of pyritized fossils near the base 

of the black-shale sequence in Clark County, Kentucky, although he inter- 

preted the pyritized accumulations as fish coprolites. Butts (1915) 

reported Schizobolus and Leiorhynchus in the "lower few feet" of the 

section of Jefferson County, Kentucky. Butts (1922) again reported 

fossils in the basal part (lower 3 to 5 meters) of the sequence at 

Irvine in Estill County, Kentucky. Savage (1930) found gastropods 

which were similar to Bellerophon and Strapamllus along with Styliolina 

in the lower part of the black-shale sequence. Dolomitic lenses about 

three meters above the base of the section in Estill County, Kentucky, 

contained Ambocoelia, Chonetes, Gypidula, Hypothyridina (Hypothyris), 

and Strophalosia. Savage (1930) after listing the above fossils also

cited a comnunication from E.M. Kindle which reported an assemblage 

of fossils from the basal New Albany Shale of Indiana. 

reported a small variety of fossils from the basal part of his Port- 

wood Formation (Harg, Duffin, Ravenna facies). 

dominant fossil in the overlying Trousdale Formation. 

in Kentucky support those of the above workers, but we have also noted 

the presence of reworked Middle Devonianforms in the basal lag deposits. 

37 

Campbell (1946) 

Schizobolus was the 

Our observations 

The basal part of the black-shale sequence, which includes a local 

dolomitic facies, seems to represent a shallow-water accumulation during 

the initial transgressive phase of the black-shale sea. 

The bottom 

conditions which characterized the larger part of the black-shale depo- 

sition were, at best, dysaerobic, with oxygen demand quite high because 

of the large amount of organic matter present. 

seem to have had higher oxygen levels; perhaps this was because of the 

effect of somwhat higher energy which prevented the organic matter 

from settling out, and provided oxygen to the bottom water through 

vertical mixing. 

Trace Fossils 

The dolomitic facies 

Higher in the black-shale sequence, the only evidence of benthic 

life occurs in greenish-gray shales or dolomites interbedded with black 

shales in the lower Huron Member, the Three Lick Bed, or Bedford-Berea 

(Provo, 1977; Provo and others, 1977; Swager, 1978). The evidence in the 

lower Huron Member consists almost exclusively of burrows in the green 

shales, some of which penetrate the underlying black shales (figure 5). 

Jordan (1980) listed the various genera of trace fossils for the lower 

Huron Member and from the gray shales overlying the upper Huron Member. 

Griffith (1977) also found trace fossils in the Blocher Member and the

Figure 5. Trace fossils filled with greenish-gray shale in a black-shale 

matrix. 

Figure 6. Broad greenish-gray shale Lingula lftrailll 

with pedicle impression 

and Linmla shell. 

38

Camp Run Member of the New Albany Shale in north-central Kentucky. 

Blocher is probably correlative with the lower Huron, and the Camp Run 

is probably correlative with the Three Lick Bed (Provo and others, 1977). 

Trace fossils in the lower unit appears to have a more vertical orienta- 

tion whereas those in the upper unit have a more horizontal orientation, 

concentrated along the black shale-green shale interface (Griffith, 1977). 

The trace-fossil evidence of Griffith (1977) and the conclusions of Jordan 

(1980) suggest that the cratonic black-shale sea became progressively 

deeper with time and transgression. 

As Rhoads and Morse (1971), Griffith (1977), and Byers (1977, 1979) 

have pointed out, the presence of bioturbation in an otherwise laminated 

shale sequence strongly suggests an influx of oxygen and a change from 

anaerobic conditions to at least dysaerobic conditions. 

of a clacified fauna and a presence of bioturbation are characteristic 

of the dysaerobic zone of Rhoads and Morse (1971). 

The absence 

In southern Indiana, a change to more oxygenated conditions in the 

lower Blackiston Member of the black-shale sequence is supported by 

"worm trails", clams, and preserved goniatite cephalopods reported by 

Campbell (1946). The lower Blackiston of Campbell (1946) is probably 

correlative with the lower Huron Member of Provo (1977) and Swager 

(1978) . 

Evidence of benthic life is quite strong in the Three Lick Bed of 


bioturbation, and a pyritized micromorph fauna of clams, gastropods, 

agglutinated Foraminifera, and ostracods in the three greenish-gray 

shales of the bed. Trace fossils in this bed also extend from the green- 

ish-gray shales into the underlying black shales. 

39 

The 

Barron and Ettensohn (1980) reported -- in situ Lingula, 

Some of the most unusual forms of bioturbation in the Three Lick Bed

consist of rather wide (1.S centimeters) "trailst1 of green shale in 

surrounding black shale which end with a comparatively large (2 centi- 

meters) Lingula specimen with a mold or the pyritized remains of the 

pedicle in the center of the l%rail*t (Figure 6). Complete, in-place 

Lingula specimens are best known from an outcrop in Madison County, 

Kentucky, west of Berea, but have also been found in other sections as 

well, notably in Rowan County, Kentucky. The Linmla with their phos- 

phatic shells apparently were able to thrive in low-oxygen conditions 

which were too serve to allow normal calcified forms to do likewise. 

Lingula 

Lingula has often been used as indicative of near-shore, shallow- 

water facies. 

The Lingula-molluscan assemblage of the Ordovician is 

widely used to indicate lagoonal conditions (Walker, 1972). Locally, 

in the Brannm Member of the Ordivician Lexington Limestone, Linmla 

molluscs, and trilobites are present, but the environment of deposition 

appears to have been deeper, offshore marine, with less oxygen and cur- 

rent activity, rather than shallow lagoon (Cressman, 1973). The occur- 

rence of rather large Lingula, obviously in-place, and apparently 

thriving in the greenish-gray mud deposited in near-reducing conditions 

does not seem to support a shallow-water, near-shore interpretation. 

Patricularly when found with open-marine indicators such as conodonts 

and goniatite cephalopods. 

Thayer and Steele-Petrovic' (1975) suggested that Lingula did not 

inhabit fine-grained sediment for three reasons: 

The fine-grained 

material would have passed through the setae and fouled the insides; 

The fine-grained sediments may have acted as fluids and had insufficient 

strength to support the burrowing activity of Lingula; The fine material 

40

would have been easily re-suspended and would have clogged the organisms' 

feeding and respiratory mechanisms. 

paper, they suggested that a mucous substance secreted from between the 

valves may have allowed the Lingula to cope with the first two problems. 

If Glottidia (modern relative of Lingula) can close its valve to survive 

periods of lower salinity and oxygen and the general stress of a near- 

shore c odty, perhaps Lingula could have closed its valves to endure 

the m re turbide periods of deposition of the Three Lick Bed. The fact 

that the greenish-gray clays accumulated seems to indicate that re-sus- 

pending currents were rare, if they occurred at all. 

In a later section of the sampe 

Taking a modern characteristic of a genus, even of a "living fossil" 

such as Lingula, and applying it to a Late Devonian form is highly specula- 

tive. 

Nevertheless, modern Lingula possess the blood pigment hemerythrin. 

During periods of noral moxygen levels, oxygen is bound to the pigment. 

During periods of lowered oxygen levels, the'oxygen is released from the 

pigment (Paine, 1970). 

Such a mechanism, if it was present in fossil 

Lingula could explain the ability of Lingula to survive in marginal 

oxygenated environments as well as in intertidal environments. 

Cherns (1978) reported Lingula from deep, basinal waters in a 

Silurian basin in life-position. 

He also reported a Lingula from 

shallower, shelf environments. He stated that neither served, in that 

instance, as a near-shore, shallow- or brackish-water indicator. 

Paine (1970) stated that both Lingula and its modern relative 

Glottidia lived in muddy bottoms at depths of ten meters and greater. 

He supported that conclusion by showing that Lingula lived in shales 

which accumulated below wave base. 

A Recent species of Glottidia 

was known to become most abundant in deeper water. Paine suggested 

that modern research is biased toward the near-shore, shallow, sandy 

41

substrate because of sampling convenience. Becuase of high-energy condi- 

tions and the resulting destruction of shell material, the fossil record 

is probably biased toward preservation in deeper, lower-energy environments 

where muds accumulated. 

The point of this section is that Lingula have in the past and do 

presently inhabit the stressful near-shore environment, but they are 

not limited to that environment today, and were not likely limited to 

only that environment in the geologic past. As Rudwick (1965) said, 

Lingula can be used as an indicator of the near-shore environment in the 

absence of toxic conditions and other brachiopods. Most of the Lingula 

in the black shales were not living in the black muds, but were probably 

epiplanktic. 

Since Lingula did occupy apparent near-shore environments 

in the Ordovician and later times, it is likely that they developed very 

early the capability to survive low levels of oxygen using the pigment 

hererythrin. This capability would have allowed the Late Devonian 

Lingula to survive and even to thrive in the greenish-gray muds of the 

Three Lick Bed and other similar horizons in the black-shale sequence. 

Mo 1 lusc s 

The micromorph clams found within the green shales from the black- 

shale sequence probably wereliving in or on the bottom as both valves 

are generally recovered intact and articulated. Alternatively, one can 

not entirely rule out a possible epiplanktic mode; however, suggestive 

evidence is not apparent. Scanning electron micrographs of the clams 

fail to show growth lines or other such details. At higher magnification, 

the crystallization pattern seems similar to published micrographs of 

aragonitic structure (Harvey, 1972). If this replacment pattern is 

correct, the pyritization must have been synsedimentary. Clark and Lutz 

42

(1980), Nussman (1975), and Brown (1966) presented evidence suggesting 

that pyrite replaces aragonite before solution or change to clacite. 

Berner (1970) and Howarth (1979) stated that pyrite production is related 

to the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria; sulfate is reduced through 

anaerobic bacterial respiration to sulfide, and then the chemically free 

oxygen is used by the bacteria. 

form hydrotroilite (FeS.nH20) which is later changed to pyrite (Lineback, 

1968). 

high level in the black-shale sea. Although Clark and Lutz (1980) found 

surficial pyritization on living mollusc shells, the possibility of such 

development for fossils from the Three Lick Bed can only be speculated 

upon at this time. The suggestion by Clark and Lutz (1980) that pyritiza- 

tion seems to coincide with the occurrence of organic material in the 

mollusc shell is supported by selective pyritization of some burrows 

which may have been lined with mucous, and by the pyritization of Lingula 

pedicles. Zangerl and Richardson (1963) reported finding pyritized 

pelecypods in association with unpyritized phosphatic brachiopods. 

attributed the difference in preservation to the presence of phosphate 

in the brachiopods and its absence in the pelecypods. 

furthermore, stated that the occurrence of pyrite in sedimentary rocks 

is very strong evidence for the deposition of organic matter which was 

certainly the case during the dpeosition of the black shale. 

micromorph fossils from the Three Lick Bed the pattern of pyritization 

appears to be similar in all the molluscs but different from that of 

the ostracods (figure 7). 

43 

The sulfide then combines with iron to 

Such bacterial activity can be inferred to have been at quite a 

Schopf (1980), 

In the 

They 

The micromorph gastropods found in the Three Lick Bed probably were 

benthic. Alternatively, some of these gastropods may have been pelagic

Figure 7. Ostracod from Three Lick Bed. SEM micrograph. Area of box 

magnified 700 times to show pyrite replacement pattern. 

Figure 8. Pyritized pelecypod from Three Lick Bed. Magnified 230 times on 

left and 950 times on the right to show pyrite replacement pattern. 

44

swimmers, similar to pteropods. Pteropods have been recovered from 

Recent anaerobic sediments similar to the black shales in the Santa 

Barbara Basin (Berger and Soutar, 1970). The presence of mineralized 

gastropods in the basal lag of the black-shale sequence (also reported 

by Griffith, 1977) tends to support this interpretation. 

Foraminifera 

Pyritized benthic, agglutinated Foraminifera also occur in the Three 

Lick Bed and include the three genera: Rhabdmmina, Psuedoastrorhiza, 

and Thurammina. 

organisms. 

by Conkin (1961) and Conkin and Conkin (1964b, 1967, 1977) from the 

Upper Devonian greenish-gray shales, and are known from Middle Devonian 

sediments of Ohio (Stewart and Lampe, 1947). According to Toomey and 

Mamet (1978) the Late Devonian was dominated by the Saccamminidae and 

the Ammodiscidae, both families having tests formed of agglutinated sand 

or mud particles, and possessing only one chamber. Although benthic 

Foraminifera were very common during the Devonian, planktic Foraminifera 

had not yet devleoped. Benthic Foraminifera today occupy habitats vary- 

ing from ephemeral tidal ponds to abyssal red-clay ocean bottoms. It is 

possible that Late Devonian forms were equally opportunistic and could 

quickly move into the dysaerobic environment in which the greenish-gray 

muds were deposited. 

0s tracods 

These are interpreted to have been strictly benthic 

Similar benthic Foraminifera have been reported previously 

Benthic ostracods are also present in the greenish-gray shales of 

the Three Lick Bed. 

Similar forms have been reported by Stewart (1944) 

from the Middle Devonian bone beds of Ohio, by Stewart and Hendrix (1939) 

45

from the Olentangy Shale, more recently by Duffield and Warshauer (1979), 

and Warshauer (1978) from greenish-gray shales in a black-shale core from 

West Virginia. 

and attributed this low diveristy to harsh bottom conditions. 

Three Lick Bed ostracods were generally not heavily ornamented and as 

such probably fit into a deeper-water, off-shore group such as described 

by Gooday and Becker (1978). 

The latter reported a low diversity of benthic forms 

These ostracods were probably nekto-benthic predators and grazers. 

They also formed an important source of food for larger predators. 

ostracods occupy a very wide range of habitats 

sufficiently eurytopic in the Late Devonian to 

environment such as the one in which the Three 

muds were deposited. 

Organism-oxygen Relationships 

Pelecypods, gastropods, Foraminifera, and 

The 

46 

The 

today and probably were 

move into a dysaerobic 

Lick Bed greenish-gray 

ostracods are generally 

considered to have been more eurytopic in nature than were the calcareous 

brachiopods. 

gray mud environment was colonized by molluscs, ostracods, Foraminifera, 

and phosphatic brachiopods; wereas heavily calcareous benthic organisms 

are absent. 

This may explain why the imporved, but still harsh, greenish- 

The absence of heavily calcareous benthos is largely related 

to a lack of oxygen (Rhoads and Morse, 1971). Rhoads and Morse (1971) 

indicated that heavily calcified forms were present only where the con- 

centration of dissolved oxygen was greater than 1.0 milliilter per liter; 

some lightly calcified organisms could have exited below this level. 

Oxygen concentrations of about .1 to .3 millilters per liter apparently 

were necessary to support macrofaunal burrowing organisms. At levels 

below that, aerobic metazoans were largely absent and as a result, the

the sediments retained their original lamination. 

Based on this model, the lower Huron Member appears to have been 

primarily dysaerobic, with bioturbation providing evidnece of the increased 

oxygen levels compared with the normal anaerobic black-shale sea bottom. 

The conditions of deposition for the greenish-gray muds of the Three Lick 

Bed may have been marginally aerobic-dysaerobic. 

the micromorph molluscs could have been either juveniles that died 

before they reached maturity, or stunted adults that could not develop 

in a normal manner under such harsh conditions. A mechanism for increas- 

ing the level of oxygen will be discussed in a later section. 

Other Benthos 

With this in mind, 

Other evidence of benthic life is found in the phosphate-nodule 

zone near the upper part of the black-shale sequence. 

to acrothoracic barnacles have been identified in phosphate nodules. 

Similar borings have been reported by Tomlinson (1969) from the Devonian. 

The borings were probably made after lithification of the nodule, but 

prior to burial. 

nodules may indicate that the nodules were flipped about by currents, 

leaving only the edges as a safe habitat. That currents were present 

is further supported by imbrication of the nodules at some locations 

(Steve Lamb, personal communication). Apparently, the nodules existed 

for some time in a somewhat soft, semi-consolidate state, because Lingula 

specimens in apparent life position have been found in some nodules. The 

trace fossil Lingulichnites Szmuc, Osgood, and Meinke (1976) has a some- 

what similar outline in plan view to that of borings made by acrothoracic 

barnacles. The two types of borings, however, are not always easily 

distinguished in plan view. 

47 

Borings attributed 

Concentrations of some borings on the edges of the

PLANTS 

Terrestrial vegetation began to accumulate in sediments as early as 

Silurian time. 

were comparatively rare. 

From then until the Middle Devonian, preserved plants 

Evidently, beginning in the Middle Devonian 

. and becoming very widely divergent and geographically dispersed, land 

plants became firmly established in the Late Devonian. 

Apparently an 

ecological succession occurred, similar to succession known from marine 

enivronments in that the earlier plants eventually so modified the land 

(soil development) that larger, more sophisticated plants devleoped and 

spread. 

a rather substantial upland forest with significantly large trees (20 

meters high) and a diverse and abundant assemblage of lesser plants be- 

came an important part of the terrestrial environment. 

development of a cpmparatively lush vegetation, habitats suitable to 

terrestrial animals were developed, and rather quickly occupied. The 

oldest tetraped fossil is known from Upper Devonian rocks from Greenland. 

Likewise some of the earliest insect fossils are from the Late Devonian. 

What effect then did this vegetation have on the Late Devonian black- 

shale sea, the life in that sea, and the sediments deposited therein? 

General 

From the fossil record, we might infer that in the Late Devonian, 

48 

Ancillary to the 

First of all, the plant fossils found in the Upper Devonian-Lower 

Mississippian black-shale sequence are preserved by several methods: 

silicification, coalification, pyritization, calcification, phosphatiza- 

tion, and in a relatively unaltered chemical state. One might su?pose 

that the method of preservation might shed some light on the environment 

in which the plant material came to be deposited.

Silicified, slightly compressed logs probably were buried and 

mineralized fairly rapidly in sediment containing silica-saturated 

interstitial water. A mechanism for silica enrichment has been discussed 

under the section on radiolariams. The coalified material occurs as 

carbonized films just a few millimeters thick. 

reported coalified woody plant tissue the same as vitrain corresponding 

to a rank of high-volatile A bituminous coal. 

the upper Chattanooga Shale in Tennessee. 

almost certainly deposited in anaerobic reducing conditions where abundant 

hydrogen sulfide was produced by bacterial action, 

and plant material are associated primarily with the phosphate nodules 

in the upper parts of the sequence and have been exhaustively treated by 

Cross and Hoskins (1951a, b) and Hoskins and Cross (1947, 1951, 1952), 

Read and Campbell (1939), Read (1936a, b; 1937), and Scott and Jeffery 

(1914). 

the sequence in Ohio (Prosser, 1912; Cross and Hoskins, 1951b). 

49 

Breger and Schopf (1955) 

The material came from 

The pyritized material was 

Phosphatized wood 

Logs are also known from calcareous nodules near the base of 

Regarding reconstruction of the ancient vegetated landscape and 

ecology, little has been done in this area relative to the work done in 

classical paleobotany and systematics. Not alone, but perhaps foremost 

among paleobotanical ecologists is Beck. 

of the occurrence of Archaeopteris foliage and fructifications organically 

connected with Callixylon wood. Prior to that time, they had been con- 

sidered as two plants, which together had dominated Late Devonian plant 

fossils. 

In 1960 he published an account 

Beck (1964a) stated that the Archaeopteris tree was the main con- 

stituent of heavily forested highlands in New York state and Pennsylvania 

during the Late Devonian. The presence of forested land areas could

possibly be a part of the cause of starved basin conditions in that the 

forest cover reduced run-off, thereby reduced erosion and the sediment 

load of the rivers discharging from the Catskill Delta. 

Clearly some of the most abundant and diverse assemblages of plant 

fossils have been found in the phosphate nodules in the upper part of 

the section. 

Plants preserved in these nodules include both small bush- 

like or rush-type plants as well as stems from trees (Callixylon). 

addition to plants, animal remains such as brachiopods, conodonts, 

crustaceans, and fish remains are found in these nodules. 

Cross and Hoskins (1951b) suggested that the concentration of 

platns increased as the crest of the Cincinnati Arch was approached. 

They noted that this was less true for Callixylon remains than for 

material found mainly in the phosphate nodules. Distances from either 

Ozarkia or the land mass to the east led them to specilate that a low- 

lying land mass near Cincinnati may have provided a source for the smaller, 

more fragile stems (2.3 millimeters diameter) found in the phosphate 

nodules. 

It may also be possible that the smaller stems are preserved 

because ofthe\phosphatization, and may have not been unique to the seas 

of that time, but only uniquely preserved by the phosphatization. 

Foerstia or Protosalvinia 

Forestia or Protosalvinia as a problematic plant fossil occupies 

a controversy over its paleobotanical relationship. 

name is a subject of debate. 

50 

In 

Even the seneric 

The Malloid shape and general resemblance 

to tucoid algae along with association in the rock record with marine 

fossils have lead some workers to classify Foerstia as a pelagic 

marine alga (White and Stadnichenko, 1923; Schopf and Schwietering, 1970; 

Schwietering and Neal, 1978; Schopf, 1978). Others suggest that

Protosalvinia was adapted to a terrestrial environment and that it was 

not an alga but a member of an entirely separate group of plants (Gray 

and Boucot, 1978). A third interpretation suggests a littoral environ- 

ment for Protosalvinia and a similarity to members of the Phaeophyta 

(brown alga regarding reproduction and thallus-shape (Niklas and Phillips, 

1976). Such a cluster problem such as affinity, paleoecology, and taxonomy 

clearly falls beyond the scope of this project. 

Although Foerstia remains occur over a geographically broad range, 

it limited stratigraphic occurrence is a narrow zone in the Upper Devonian 

rocks of Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Virginia, Pennsyl- 

vania, New York, and Ontario (Schwietering and Neal, 1978). In eastern 

Kentucky, Foerstia occurs in radioactive units 4 and 5, the middle and 

lower Huron Member of Swager (1978) and Provo (1977). That Foerstia or 

Protosalvinia has been found only in marine sedimentary units, and never 

in nonmarine or unequivocally near-shore marine facies poses a substantial 

problem for an interpretation as a terrestrial plant. 

(1978) state: 

51 

Gray and Boucot 

"It is possible, therefore, to conclude that a variety of 

circumstances account for the present distribution pattern and 

depositional sites of Protosalvinia rather than the simple ex- 

planation that the depositional-preservational sites are the 

original life site as Schopf speculates." 

Foerstia thalli contain lignin-like long-chain hydrocarbon compounds 

and the tetradi contain sporo-pollenin (Niklas and Phillips, 1976). Gray 

and Boucot (1978) note the presence of resistant walls with sufficient 

durability to withstand transport over long distnaces and extreme 

chemical conditions. While this argument certainly can explain how these 

so-called land plants got all over the basin in one particular zone. More 

than this, though, it raises the question, that if these plants were do

durable, why hasn't even one been found in the nonmarine rock of the Upper 

Devonian of the eastern United States? 

out that uncalcified alga is very rare in the geologic record and that such 

durable walls are unusual for algae. Hiklas and Phillips (1976) suggested 

that the lignin-like compunds and the production of dessication resistant 

spores indicate at least periods of drying out. 

Gray and Boucot (1978) pointed 

In this short section, we have not tried to put forward one interpreta- 

tion over another, but have attempted to show some of the complexity as- 

sociated with paleoecological interpretation of Foerstia or Protosalvinia. 

52

THE TWO MAJOR FACIES 

The so-called homogeneous black-shale sequence contains several dif- 

ferent facies; but the black, laminated fissile shales and the greenish- 

gray clayey shales dominate the sequence. 

thin coaly layers, cone-in-cone limestone, dolomite, and the phosphate 

nodule zone. A number of characteristics distinguish the black, fissile 

shales from the greenish-gray clayey shales. 

obvious distinction. 

of benthic life; the black shales do not. 

the lamination contained in the black shales and the occurrence of 

bioturbation in the greenish-gray shales. 

tain more organic matter and quartz than the greenish-gray shales, and 

the greenish-gray shales contain more clay (illite) th&n the black shales. 

These factors affect the colors of the two facies. 

Minor facies include bone beds, 

The color forms the most 

The greenish-gray shales generally contain evidence 

This is directly related to 

The greenish-gray shales con- 

In figure 9 and in figure 10, the fossils from the two respective 

facies are shown in a suggested possible paleoenvironmental reconstruction. 

These are rather rough, schematic block diagrams which are not drawn to 

scale. The black, fissile shale enviornment shows laminated sediment 

undisturbed by bioturbation in which pyrite nodules form and into which 

necroplanktic logs have sunk with associated ep5planktic life. 

bottom sediments, anaerobic bacteria and perhaps other anaerobic and 

facultative anaerobes such as blue-green algae and nematodes respectively 

lived in a primitive sulfide community. 

In the 

A similar community has been 

described in Recent sand deposits by Fenchel and Riedl (1970). The dashed 

lines represent inferred gradations from anaerobic through dysaerobic to 

aerobic levels of oxygen based on the models of Rhoads and Morse (1971) 

and Byers (1977, 1979). In the aerobic zone (no depth inferred) "normal" 

53

Figure 9. Schematic block diagram of a reconstructed greenish-gray shale 

environment. Not to scale. Cladodus from a drawing by Grace 

Dar 1 ing . 

54

Figure 10. Schematic black diagram of a reconstructed black shale environ- 

ment. Not to scale. Cladoselache from a drawing by Grace Darling. 

55

nektic, planktic, nekto-planktic, and eptplanktic life are represented. 

All fish are represented in this diagram by a drawing of the shark 

Cladoselache. 

by a purely hypothetical, highly speculative drawing. 

goniatite cephalopods, Tasmanites, acritachs, and epiplanktic brahciopods 

and crinoids are shown. Inferrred ostracods and radiolarians are also 

represented. 

in the water column. 

Both shallow- and deep-water conodont animals are represented 

Additionally, 

Tripton is the non-living organic particulate matter found 

The greenish-gray shale diagram shows a significant change from the 

black shale diagram. 

turbated sediments which are greenish-gray and not black. The benthos 

includes Lingula, unidentified soft-bodied burrowers, micromorph forms 

of pelecopods, gastropods, orthocone ceplhalopods, ostracods, and 

Foraminifera. 

gradational change from dysaerobic to aerobic oxygen levels. 

aerobic zone, the life forms are essentially the same as for the black- 

shale diagram. All fish are represented by a drawing of the Arthaodire 

Cladodus. 

an increased suspended clay content and inferred pteropod-like gastropods. 

56 

The bottom contains life forms and disrupted or bio- 

Higher in the water column, the dashed line represents a 

In the 

Represented in this diagram and not in the previous one are 

The greenish-gray shales occur in the lower interbedded unit, the 

Three Lick Bed, and in the Bedford Shale-Sunbury Shale of the black-shale 

sequence. We will use the Three Lick Bed as an example to demonstrate a 

mechanism for deposition of the black, laminated sediments; and how varia- 

tions on this mechanism can account for deposition of greenish-gray, clayey 

sediments. 

(1980) . 

This has been previously presented by Barron and Ettensohn 

The diagrams in figure llshow the two mechanisms which we suggest can

OPEN 

OCEAN 

*--- 

CRATONIC 

SEA 

B. 

57 

LOWER DELTA 

PLAIN 

INCREASED FLUVIAL INPUT 

AND 

PROBRADATIONIL SEDIMENT 

+--- PREVAILING WINO C--- +--- INFLUX 

EENISH-GRAY SHALL 

OYSALROBlC 

Figure 11. A.) Development of quasi-esturaine circulation and upwelling 

in black-shale sea. 

B.) Disruption of upwelling through progradation sediment 

influx.

account for the deposition of the different facies. 

quasi-estuarine circulation occurs because the wind tends to blow water 

out to sea, away from shore; a net deficit of water results near-shore. 

Water along the bottom moves to replace the water blown out to sea. 

causes upwelling of cold phosphate-rich, oxygen-poor bottom water. 

upwelling brings to the oxygen-rich photic zone abundant nutrients, which 

support a high level of organic productivity. 

the aerobic zone by mixing of wind-driven circulation cells and from 

photosynthesis ofthe phytoplankton. This diagram is after Heckel (1977) 

and Miller (1978). 

In diagram A, 

In diagram B, a change occurs in the amount of fluvial input. 

58 

This 

The 

Oxygen is replenished to 

with that, the clastic input from the delta also increases. 

-brings with it oxygen and the combined effect is to pushtheupwelling 

Coupled 

This influx 

further seaward, to establish dysaerobic conditions on the sea-bottom, 

and to deposit greenish-gray muds on the bottom. 

tions devloped, opportunistic benthic life can colonize the bottom as 

shown in figure 9. Eventually the conditions controlling the influx 

would subside and thequasi-estuarine circulation would return to re- 

establish anaerobic bottom conditions. 

Once dysaerobic condi- 

The Three Lick Bed is a southern tongue of the Chagrin Shale of 

Ohio, which was one of the last major progradations of the Catskill Delta. 

Local turbidity-current deposits are known to be associated with this unit. 

A similar mechanism was suggested by Griffith (1977) and by Byers (1977, 

1979).

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a new trace fossil genus for lingulid brachiopod burrows: Lethaia, 

V. 9, p. 163-167. 

Tasch, Paul, 1967, The problem of primary production in the seas through 

geologic time: Review of Palaeobotany, v. 1, p. 283-290. 

Thayer, C.W., 1974, Marine paleoecology in the Upper Devonian of New York: 

Lethaia, v. 7, p. 121-155. 

Thayer, C.W., and Steele-Petrovic, H.M., 1975, Burrowing of the lingulid 

brachiopod Glottidia pyrimidata: its ecologic and paleoecologic 

significance: Lethaia, v. 8, p. 209-221. 

Tomlinson, J.T., 1969, The burrowing barnacles (Cirripedia: Order 

Acrothoracica): U.S. National Museum Bulletin 296, 162 pp. 

Toomey, D.F., Mamet, B.L., 1979, Devonian protozoa: in House, M.R., 

Scrutton, C.T., and Bassett, M.G. (eds.), The DeKnian System, 

Special Papers in Palaeontology, no. 23, p. 189-192. 

Walker, K.R., 1972, Trophic analysis: A method for studying the function 

of ancient communities: Journal of Paleontology, v. 46, p. 82-93. 

Wall, D., 1962, Evidence from recent plankton regarding the biological 

affinities of Tasmanites Newton 1875 and Leiosphaeridia Eisenack 

1958: Geological Magazine, v. 99, p. 353-362. 

Warshauer, S.M., 1978, Ostracode biostratigraphy in the bottom 395 

feet of CGTC Well 20403, Lincoln County, W.VA.: Eastern Gas Shales 

Project, Open File Report 109, 12 pp. 

Weddige, Karsten, and Ziegler, W i l l i , 1976, The significance of 

1criodus:Polygnathus ratios in limestones from the type Eifelian, 

Germany: in Barnes, C. R. (ed.) , Conodont Paleoecology, Geological 

Associationof Canada Special Paper, number 15, p. 187-199. 

, 1979, Evolutionary patterns in Middle Devonian conodont genera 

Polygnathus and Icriodus: Geologica et Palaeontologica, v. 13, 

p. 157-164. 

Wells, J.W., 1939, Association of crinoids with Callixylon in the lower - 

Ohio Shale: Paleobiologica, v. 7, p. 105-110. 

, 1941, Crinoids and Callixylon: American Journal of Science, v. 

239, p. 454-456. 

68

Wells, J.W., 1947, Provisional paleoecological analysis of the Devonian 

rocks of the Columbus region: Ohio Journal of Science, v. 47, 

p. 119-126. 

White, C.D., and Stadnichenko, T., 1923, Some mother plants of petroleum 

in the Devonian black shales: Economic Geology, v. 18, p. 238-252. 

Wicander, E.R., 1973a, Phytoplankton abundance and diversity during the 

Late Devonian and Early Mississippian of Ohio (abstr.): American 

Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 57, p. 812. 

1973b, Marine primary productivity during the Late Devonian-Early 

Mississippian of Ohio (abstr.): Cordilleran Section, 69th Annual 

Meeting, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 

v. 5, p. 121-122. 

Wickwire, G.T., 1936, Crinoid stems on fossil wood: American Journal 

of Science, 5th series, v. 32, p. 145-146. 

Williams, A.J., 1977, Insight into ligulid evolution from the Late Devonian: 

Alcheringa, v. 1, p. 401-406. 

Williams, G.L., 1978, Dinoflagellates, Acritarchs and Tasmanitids: 

- in Haq, B.U., and Boersma, Anne (eds.), Introduction to marine 

micropaleontology: New York, Elsevier, p. 322-324. 

Zangerl, Rainer, and Richardson, E.S., Jr., 1963, The paleoecological 

history of two Pennsylvanian black shales: Fieldiana: Geology 

Memoirs, v. 4, 352 pp. 

Ziegler, A.M., and others, 1968, The composition and structure of lower 

Silurian marine communities: Lethaia, v. 1, p. 1-27. 

69

A. ?Rhabdanunina sp. 

Pyritized. x40. 

PLATE 1 

Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. 

B. ?Thurammina sp. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. 

Pyritized. ~100. 

C. ?Psuedoastrorhiza sp. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

Kentucky. Pyritized. x40. 

D. Richterina sp. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. 

Pyritized. x60. 

E. Unidentified ostracod. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

Kentucky. SEM micrograph x60. 

F. Unidentified ostracod. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

Kentucky. SEM micrograph x300.

D 

A 

F 

B 

-- 

RATE 1 

E 

C

PLATE 2 

A. Lingulipora sp. Ohio Shale, Kentucky. x4.5. 

B. ?Barroisella sp. x5. 

C. Orbiculoidea sp. Ohio Shale, Burkesville, Kentucky. x4.5. 

D. Schizobolus sp. Chattanooga Shale, Clinch Mountain, Tennessee. x3. 

E. Orbiculoid brachiopod. Chattanooga Shale, Clinch Mountain, Tennessee. 

x3. 

F. Chonetes sp. New Albany Shale, North Vernon, Indiana. xS. 

G. Very badly preserved specimen, possibly a Rhynchonellid. 

H. Very badly preserved speimen, possibly a Rhynchonellid.

C 

A 

\I- 

-- 

B 

D E - 

G H

PLATE 3 

A. Unidentified gastropods. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

Kentucky. SEM micrograph, x240. 

B. Unidentified gastropod. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 


C. Columella from high-spired gastropod. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, 

Rowan County, Kentucky. SEM micrograph, x1100. 

D. ?Edmondia sp. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. 

SEM micrograph, x240.

PLATE 4 

A. Unidentified cephalopods. Ohio Shale, core from Columbia Gas well 

#20336, Martin County, Kentucky. about x2. 

B. Unidentified cephalopod. Ohio Shale, core from Columbia Gas well 

#20336, Martin County, Kentucky, about x7. 

C. ?Anaptychi of a cephalopod. Black shale core. x3.

D 

A 

FlAE 4 

B

PLATE 5 

A. Goniatite cephalopod fragment. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan 

County, Kentucky. Pyritized. SEM micrograph, x200. 

B. ?Orthoconic cephalopod. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 


C. Orthocone cephalopod fragment. Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan 

County, Kentucky. SEM micrograph, x150.

5 

-- 

a 

3

PLATE 6 

A. Crinoids attached to Callixlon log. New Albany Shale, Lexington, 

Indiana. xl. (From University of Cincinnati Geology Department Collections) 

B. Lingula sp. In place in greenish-gray shale. Three Lick Bed, New 

Albany Shale, Madison County, Kentucky. x2.5.

A 

B 

FlAlE 6

A. Spathognathodus sp. 

x40. 

PLATE 7 

Three Lick Bed, Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. 

B. Siphonodella sp. Lag deposit at the base of the Sunbury Shale, Rowan 

County, Kentucky. x40. 

C. Gnathodus sp. Lag deposity at the base of the Sunbury Shale, Rowan 

County, Kentucky. x40. 

D. and E. Palmatolepis sp. Lag deposit at top of the lower interbedded 

unit (Swager, 1978), Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. x40. 

F. Polygnathus sp. 

Kentucky. x40. 

Lag deposit at the base of the Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

G. Icriodus sp. Lag deposit at the base of the Ohio Shale, Rowan County, 

Kentucky. x40. 

H. Styliolina sp. Chattanooga Shale, Clinch Mountain, Tennessee. x15.

A 

RATE 7 

H J 

I 

G 

-- -

PLATE 8 

A. Trace Fossil filled with green shale in black shale. 

Rowan County, Kentucky. 

Ohio Shale, 

B. Trace Fossil, Planolites-type. Kentucky Highway 51, near Irvine, Kentucky.

A 

B

PLATE 9 

A. Zoophycos-type trace fossil. Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. xl. 

B. Zoophycos-type trace fossil. Devonian black shale, Kentucky. x.5.

A 

B 

-- 

RATE 9

PLATE 10 

A. Lingula trace fossils filled with greenish-gray shale in black shale. 

Three Lick Bed, New Albany Shale, Madison County, Kentucky. xl. 

B. Lingula and Lingulichnites-like trace fossil. 

Shale, Madison County, Kentucky. xl. 

Three Lick Bed, New Albany

. 

A 

B 

. ..

PLATE 11 

A. "Cladodont" shark tooth. Black shale, eastern Kentucky. x10 

B. Fish scale. Black shale, eastern Kentucky. x20. 

C. Fish tooth. Black shale, eastern Kentucky. x10. 

D. Actinopterygian jaw. New Albany Shale, Madison County, Kentucky. x5.5. 

E. Unidentified headless fish. The head may have been bitten off. 

New Albany Shale, eastern Kentucky. x1.5.

L a’ 

A B 

D 

E 

4 

C

PLATE 12 

A. Tasmanites sp. Ohio Shale, Rowan County, Kentucky. x150. 

B. Tasmanites sp. Plane polarized light. Ohio Shale, eastern Kentucky. 

C. Foerstia or Protosalvinia. Ohio Shale, Vanceburg, Kentucky. x6. 

D. Foerstia or Protosalvinia. Plane polarized light. Ohio Shale, eastern 

Kentucky.

PLATE 13 

A. Unidentified cone or fructification. New Albany Shale, eastern Kentucky. 

B. Coalified plant material. Black shale, eastern Kentucky.

PLATE 14 

A. Calli lon wood with attached crinoids. New Albany Shale, Lexington, 

&x 1. (from University of Cincinnati Geology Department 

collections) 

B. Carbonized films of stems. Chattanooga Shale, Clinch Mountain, 

Tennessee. x2.

A 

B

APPENDIX I-D 

1-10

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PALEONTOLOGY AND PALEOECOLOGY 

OF THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN BLACK-SHALE 

SEQUENCE IN NORTH AMERICA 

June, 1980 

Lance S. Barron and Frank R. Ettensohn 

Of 




Prepared for 





UNDER 

CONTRACT NO. EY-76-C-05-5202

CONTENTS 

Abstract.... ......................................................... 

Introduction........ ................................................. 

Acknowledgements ..................................................... 

Biblio~aphy ......................................................... 

Index................................ ................................ 

Page

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PALEONTOLOGY AND PALEOECOLOGY 

OF THE DEVONIAN-MISSISSIPPIAN BLACK SHALE 

SEQUENCE IN NORTH AMERICA 

by 

Lance S. Barronl/ - and Frank R. EttensohnZ/ - 

ABSTRACT 

.The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence is one of the most 

prominent and well-known stratigraphic horizons in the Paleozoic of the 

United States, yet the paleontology and its paleoecologic and paleoenvironmental 

implications are poorly known. This is in larger part related 

to the scarcity of fossils preserved in the shale - in terms of both diversity 

and abundance. Nonetheless, that biota which is preserved is wellknown 

and much described, but there is little synthesis of this data. The 

first step in such a synthesis is the compilation of an inclusive bibliography 

such as this one. This bibliography contains entries covering 

all the major works dealing with Devonian-Mississippian black-shale paleontology 

and paleoecology in North America. Articles dealing with areas of 

peripheral interest, such as paleogeography, paleoclimatology, ocean circulation 

and chemistry, and modern analogues, are also cited. In the index, 

the various genera, taxonomic groups, and other general topics are crossreferenced 

to the cited articles. It is hoped that this compilation will 

aid in the synthesis of paleontologic and paleoecologic data toward a better 

understanding of these unique rocks and their role as a source of energy. 

KEY WORDS: Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence, North Ameritsa, 

paleontology, paleoecologic and paleoenvironmental implications, synthesis, 

bibliography, paleogeography, paleoclimatology, energy. 

INTRODUCTION 

The Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence is one of the most 

prominent stratigraphic horizons in the Paleozoic of the United States, 

and is of great economic importance because of its potential as a gas and 

oil shale. These shales are remarkable in their homogeneous nature and wide- 

spread distribution throughout east-central and mid-western United States 

with extensions into the Southwest and into west-central Canada. Equally 

remarkable about these shales, is the apparent scarcity of typical marine 

fossils. Most studies report an absence of fossils or a restricted fossil 

fauna composed of the same few invertebrate elements, namely Lingula, 

- 

1/ Research Assistant, University of Kentucky 

2/ Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Kentucky 

-

conodonts, and fish-bone fragments. An unusual floral assemblage consist- 

ing of coalified logs (usually Callixylon), Tasmanites, and Foerstia is 

also typically reported. These are the common floral and faunal elements, 

and they are reported almost universally from the shales; yet many other 

floral and faunal elements also occur in these shales, but they usually 

are rare or local in occurrence. The unusual composition of the black-shale 

biota and its low diversity are attributed by most workers to widespread 

anaerobic conditions thought to exist throughout much of the North American 

epeiric sea at that time. Toward the eastern limits of the shale distribu- 

tion, however, the fossil fauna gradually increases in diversity and abun- 

dance reflecting a change to dysaerobic and aerobic environments as the 

eastern source areas were approached. Many of the above faunas represent 

typical open-marine assemblages. Hence, the black-shale sequence is not 

everywhere typified by a scarcity of fauna and flora. 

In order to better characterize the black-shale biota, to study its 

changes through time and space, and to determine its paleoenvironmental 

implications, we thought it important initially to compile a bibliography 

of black-shale paleontology and paleoecology. The following bibliography 

of entries is a compilation of all the major articles dealing with 

the paleoecology of the Devonian-Mississippian black-shale sequence of 

North America. The compiled references cover the paleontology and paleo- 

ecology of black shales ranging from Middle Devonian (Eifelian-Givetian) 

to Earliest Mississippian (Kinderhookian) in age. Geographically, the 

references cover areas ranging from Georgia to Alberta and from Arizona 

to eastern Canada. References dealing with extra-continental Devonian 

faunas are included for cosmopolitan groups such as the conodonts and 

cephalopoda. Also included are topics related to paleogeography, paleo- 

climatology, ocean circulation and chemistry, modern analogues, and black- 

shale paleoecology. Although some of the articles deal with specific organ- 

isms or communities from the black shale, many merely record the occurrences 

- of some rather common, nearly ubiquitous fossils~in the black shale. Such 

references typically mention Tasmanites (Sporangites), 

(Protosalvinia), 

and conodonts. A 

or early 19OO's, and hence the nomenclature used for fossils may be outdated, 

and in some cases, totally inappropriate. Where possible, these names are 

synonymized with more modern names in the index. 

Articles are listed alphabetically and designated with numbers. In the 

index, various genera, taxonomic groups, and other general topics are cross- 

referenced to these articles through their numerical designations. All of 

the articles were examined and verified except those marked with an asterisk 

("1


Our gratitude is extended to Mrs. Vivian Hall, Mrs. Mary Ransbottom 

Spencer, and the student staff of the University of Kentucky Geology Library 

for their assistance. We also wish to thank Trudy H. Bellardo of the Reference 

Department of the Margaret I. King Memorial Library, University of Kentucky. 

Special thanks are also due Jane T. Wells and Barbara A. Ross respectively for 

their typing and proofreading of the manuscript. 

Funding for this study was provided under contract number EY-76-C-05- 

5202 from the Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center.

0001 

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0008 

0009 

0010 

0011 

0012 

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0015 

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+ 

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1

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+ 

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2

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3

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+ 

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+ 

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-, 

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Campbell, Guy, 1937, New Albany Shale (abstr.): Geological 

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-’ 1885a, On Devonian spores: American Journal of Science, 

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-8 1885b, On the higher Devonian faunas of Ontario County, 

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-’ 1889, A list of the species constituting the known fauna 

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-’ 1891, The fauna with Goniatites intumescens Beyrich in 

western New York: American Geologist, v. 8, p. 86-105; 

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-’ 1893a, On the structure of the carapace in the Devonian 

crustacean Rhinocaris: and the relation of the genus - Mesoand 

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-* 189323, The protoconch of Orthoceras: American Geologist, 

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- , 1896, The structure of certain Paleozoic barnacles: American 

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- , 1897, Notes on some crustaceans from the Chexmmg Group of 

New York: New York State Geological Survey, 15th Annual 

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1899, The Naples fauna (fauna with Manticoceras intumescenes) 

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-’ 1900a, A remarkable occurrence of Orthoceras in the 

Oneonta beds of the Chenango 

-=+- 

Valley, New York: New York 

State Museum Bulletin 39. D. 167-171. 

, 1900b, Paropsmema c to hya, a peculiar echinoderm 

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- , 19OOc, Dictyonine hexactinellid sponges from the Upper 

Devonic of New York (Nepheliospongia): New York State 

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- , 1901a, Limestones of central and western New York, interbedded 

with bituminous shales of the Marcellus Stage; with 

notes on the nature and origin of their faunas: New York 

State Museum Bulletin 49, p. 115-138.* 

10 

-

0172 Clarke, J. M., 1901b, Value of Amnigenia as an indicator 

of fresh-water deposits during the Devonic of New York, 

Ireland, and the Rhineland: New York State Museum Bulletin 

49, p. 199-203.* 

0173 - , 1902a, Notes on Paleozoic crustaceans (Psuedoniscus and 

Phyllocarida): New York State Museum, 54th Annual Report. 

v. 1, Appendix 3, p. 83-124.* 

0174 - 1902b, A new genus of Paleozoic brachiopods, - Eunoa; with 

some considerations there from on the ornanic bodies known 

as Discinocaris, Spathiocaris , and CardiGcaris : New York 

%ate Museum Bulletin 52, P. 606-615.* 

01.75 

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1903a, Naples fauna in western New York: New York State 

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Clarke, J. M., and Swartz, C. K., 1913, Systematic paleontology 

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Upper Devonian, Maryland Geological Survey, v-6, p. 539-699. 

1915, Conceptions regarding the American Devonic: New 

-8 

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’ 

-’ 1917, Strand and undertow markings of Upper Devonian time 

as indicators of the prevailing climate: New York State 

Museum Bulletin 196, p. 197-238. 

-’ 1921, The oldest of the forests: Scientific Monthly, 

January, p. 83-91.* 

Clarke, J. M., and Ruedemann, Rudolf, 1912, The Eurypterida of 

New York: New York State Museum Memoir 14, Parts I and 11, 

439 pp., 88 pls. 

Claypole, E. W., 1883a, Note on a large fish-plate from the 

upper Chenumg (?) beds of northern Pennsylvania: American 

Philosophical Society Proceedings, v. 20, p. 664-666.* 

1883b, On a large crustacean from the Catskill group of 

-’ 

Pennsylvania (abstr.): Proceedings of the American Association 

for the Advancement of Science, v. 32, p. 265; Science, 

v. 2, p. 327.* 

-’ 1885, On Ctenacanthus and G acanthus from the Chemung of 

Pennsylvania (abstr.): Proceedings 1T-----f o the American Association 

for the Advancement of Scienie, v. 33, p. 489-490.* 

-’ 1887, Preliminary note on some fossil wood from the Carboniferous 

rocks of Ohio (abstr.): Proceedings of the 

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 35th 

Meeting, 1886, p. 219-220. 

1888, Fossil fish from the Ohio shale: .American Geolo- 

-i 

DSt, - V. 2, P. 62-64. 

-3 1892a, bekition of Titanichthys and its allies (abstr.): 

American Geologist, v. 10, p. 193. 

- , 1892b, The head of Dinichthys: American Geologist, v. 10, 

p. - 199-207. 

-’ 1892c, A new gigantic placoderm from Ohio: American 

Geologist, v. 10, p. 1-4. 

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Claypole, E. W., 1893a, The cladodont sharks of the Cleveland 

Shale: American Geologist, v. 11, p. 325-331. 

-, 1893b, The fossil fishes of Ohio: in Economic geology, 

archaeology, botany, paleontology, OhirGeological Survey 

Reports, v. 7, p. 602-626. 

-8 1893c, A new coccostean - Coccosteus cuyahogae: American 

Geologist, v. 11, p. 167-171. 

-, 18933, The three great fossil placoderms of Ohio: American 

Geologist, V. 12, P. 89-99. 

1, 1893e, On three new species of Dinichthys: American Geol- 

OfiSt, V. 12, p. 275-279. 

-* 1893f, The Upper Devonian fishes of Ohio: Geological 

Magazine, v. 10, p. 443-448. 

-' 1894a, Cfadodus? magnificus, a new selachian: American 

Geologist, v. 14, pi 137-140. 

- , 1894b, On a new placoderm, Brontichthys clarki, from the 

Cleveland Shale: American Geologist, v. 14, p. 379-380. 

- , 1894c, Structure of the bone of Dinichthys: American 

Microscopical Society Proceedings, v. 15, p. 1-7.* 

-* 1895a, The great Devonian placodenus of Ohio: Geological 

Magazine, (4), v. 2, p. 473-474. 

- , 1895b, The cladodonts of the Upper Devonian of Ohio: 

Report of the British Association for the Advancement of 

Science, p. 69S.* 

- , 1895c, On a new specimen of Cladodw clarki: American 

Geologist, v. 15, p. 1-7. 

- , 1895d, Recent contributions to our knowledge of the 

cladodont sharks: American Geologist, v. 15, p. 363-368. 

- , 18956, Actinophorus' clarki Newberry: American Geologist , 

V. 16, p. 20-25. 

- , 189Sf, On the structure of the teeth of the Devonian 

cladodont sharks : American %icroscopical Society, Proceedings, 

v. 16, p. 191-195.* 

- , 1896, The ancestry of the Upper Devonian placoderms of 

Ohio: American Geologist, v. 17, p. 349-360. 

- , 1896a, A new Titanichthys: American Geologist, v. 17, 

p. 166-169. 

-* 1896b, Dinichthys prentis-clarki: American Geologist, 

V. 18, p. 199-201. 

0209 -3 1897; A new Dinichthys - Dinichthys kepleri: American 

Geologist, v. 19, p. 322-324. 

0210 - , 1900, The American Devonian placoderms: Geological 

Society of America Bulletin, v. 11, p. 616. 

0211 - , 1903, The Devonian era in the Ohio Basin: American 

Geologist, v. 132, p. 15-41, 79-105, 240-250, 312-322, 

335-353. 

0212 Cleland, H. F., 1903, Fauna of the Hamilton formation of the 

Cayuga Lake section in central New York: U.S. Geological 

Survey Bulletin 206, 112 pp. 

0213 - , 1911, The fossils and stratigraphy of the middle Devonic 

of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Geological Survey Bulletin 21, 

science series 6, 222 pp.* 

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64

1106 

1107 

1108 

1109 

1110 

1111 

1112 

1113 

1114 

1115 

1116 

1117 

1118 

1119 

1120 

1121 

1122 

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1140 

1141 

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1144 

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1155 

1156 

1157 

1158 

1159 

1160 

1161 

1162 

1163 

1164 

1165 

1166 

1167 

1168. 

1169 

1170 

1171 

1172 

1173 

1174 

Williams, H. S., 1884b, The spirifers of the Upper Devonian: 

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68

1175 

1176 

1177 

1178 

1179 

1180 

1181 

1182 

1183 

1184 

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1186 

1187 

1188 

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1190 

1191 

1192 

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69

1193 Zielinkski, R. E., Dixon, J. A., MCIver, R. D., and Reaugh, 

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70

INDEX 

Acanthodes: 0361, 0533 Angulodus: 0553 

Acritarchs: 0077, 0324, 0325, 

0326, 0327, 0707, 0796, 1024, 

1043, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1139, 

1146 

Actinophorus: 0204, 0533 

Actinopteria: 0248, 0675, 1166 

Angustidontus: 0136, 0248, 

0271, 0272, 0493 

annelid teeth: 0158 

Annularia: 0533 

Anoplotheca: 0870, 1166 

Aganides: 0269, 0477 anoxic ocean: 0026, 0072, 0120, 

Agoniatites: 0864, 0870, 1166 

0304, 0920 

algae: 0595, 0639, 0675, 0734, 

1112, 1138 

Araucarioxylon: 0636 

. Archaeocaris: 0391 

algae, pelagic: 0820, 1138 Archeopitys: 0136, 0878 

algal flotant theory: 0231, 0664, 

1107 

Allorhynchus : 0664 

Allorisma: 0269, 0533, 0929 

Alveolites: 0533 

Ambocoelia: 0032, 0136, 0477, 

0512, 0533, 0588, 0865. 0886. 

0926, 0927, 0929, 0986; 1106; 

1166 

Ammodiscus: 0238 

Amphissites: 0533, 0673, 0983, 

1011, 1087 

anaerobic basins: 0125, 0371, 

0894 

anaerobic conditions: 0125, 0788 

Anaptychus: 0032, 0533, 1011 

Ancyrodella: 0094, 0233, 0490 

Archaeopteris: 0050, 0052, 

0053, 0138, 0287, 0596, 0640, 

0842, 0846, 0980 

Archoceras: 0540 

Arnoldella: 0136 

Arthrodires: 0295, 0299, 0300, 

0359, 0337, 0339, 0340, 0341, 

0343, 0344, 0506, 0528, 0560, 

0563, 0564, 0566, 0567, 1002 

Arthropoda: 0062, 0902, 0903, 

0924 

Aspidichthys: 0032, 0084, 0206, 

0533, 0620, 0772, 0786, 0865 

Asterocalamites: 0019 

Asterolepis: 0927 

Asteroptychius: 0533 

Asteroxylon: 0069, 0136, 0271, 

0272, 0533 

Ancyrognathus: 0094, 0233, 0490 Athyris: 0446, 0533, 0675, 

0865, 1085 

Ancyrospora: 0707 

71

atmosphere history: 0677 0417, 0451, 0659, 0663, 0664, 

0741, 0800, 0917, 0948, 1066, 

Atrypa: 0259, 0533, 0886 

1069 

Aulopora: 0533, 0997, 1011 black-shale radioactivity: 

Aulospora: 0707 

0045, 0100, 0309, 0377, 0379, 

0400, 0414, 1021, 1022, 1026, 

Avicula: 0533, 0675 

Aviculopecten: 0533, 0675, 0870, 

0886 

1027, 1028 

black shales: 0330, 0557, 0582, 

0646, 0841, 0876, 0884, 1051, 

1052 

- B - 

Bactrites: 0727, 0871 

Bairdia: 0533, 0982, 1011, 1087 

bone beds: 0238, 0239, 0240, 

0241, 0244, 0245, 1012, 1105, 

1106 

see phosphatic debris 

Barroisella: 0136, 0233, 0259, 

0390, 0391, 0533, 0615, 1014, 

borings: 0136, 0664 

Bothriolepis: 0361, 1120 

barnacles: 0154, 0165, 1132 Botryococcus: 0533 

Bellerophon: 0391, 0404, 0512, 

0533, 0669, 0927, 0929 

benthic communities: 0079, 0684, 

0685 

brachiopod biostratigraphy: 

0593 

brachiopods: 0263, 0458, 0593, 

0594, 0696, 0912, 0913, 1101 

Bertillonella: 0533, 1011, 1087 brachiopods, diminuitive: 

0177, 0217 

Beyrichia: 0044 

biogenic structures : 0120, 0121, 

0122 

brachiopod ecology: 0262, 0267, 

0815, 0816, 0834, 0912, 0913, 

1001, 1049 

Bissaculus: 0533, 1011 brachiopods, lingulid: 0046, 

bitumen, origin: 0454, 0778, 

0805, 0807, 0808, 0810 

0267, 0422, 0815, 0816, 0872, 

1001, 1049, 1145 

brevicones: 0389 

bituminous rocks: 0037, 0105, 

0171, 0370, 0471 Brontichthys: 0198, 0206, 0533 

Black Sea: 0303 Bryantodus: 0414, 0490, 1028 

black-shale bibliography: 0386, 

0581, 0614, 1064 

black shale, modern: 0415, 1027, 

1066 

black-shale paleoenvironments: 

0099, 0103, 0171, 0230, 0231, 

72 

br.yo zoans : 0664 

Buchiola: 0675, 0871, 0886, 

see Avicula 

Bungartius : 0533

Burlella: 0533 

see Quasillites 

Bythocypris: 0533, 1010 

Bythocyproidea: 0533, 1010 

- c - 

Calamites: 0018, 0019, 0533, 

0638 

Calamophyton: 0075 

Calamopityeae: - 0879 

Cardiopsis: 0615, 0616 

Cariniferella: 0533 

Caulopteris: 0286 

Cephalopoda: 0032, 0389, 0413, 

0461, 0540, 0541, 0542, 0543, 

0544, 0547, 0548, 0549, 0623, 

0624, 0643, 0717, 0727, 0729, 

0730, 0818, 0934, 0981 

Ceratiocaridae: 0061 

Ceratiocaris: 0391, 0468 

Calamopitys: 0136, 0271, 0272, 

0878 

Ceratoikiscum: 0394 

Calamopteris: 0136, 0878 

Ceratopora: 0533 

Calamospora: 0533 

Chajzrinichnites: 0383 

calcareous concretions: 0136, 

Chapelia: 0060 

0393, 0768 Chesapeake Bay.black shale: 

calcispheres: 0144, 0595, 0734, 

04 15 

0989 Chitinozoa: 0228 

Calcisphaera: 0595 Chonetes: 0032, 0084, 0113, 

Callixylon: 0015, 0016, 0017, 

0018, 0019, 0020, 0048, 0050, 

0051, 0070, 0071, 0136, 0231, 

0271, 0272, 0366, 0451, 0493, 

0533, 0535, 0536, 0575, 0640, 

0664, 0872, 0935, 0969, 1028, 

0136, 0157, 0259, 0390, 0391, 

0477, 0490, 0511, 0512, 0533, 

0551, 0552, 0615, 0616, 0664, 

0857, 0865, 0870, 0926, 0977, 

0986, 0997, 1011, 1035, 1036, 

1037, 1106, 1166 

1103, 1104 cirriped crustaceans: 0154, 1132 

Callognathus: 0206, 0533, 0619, 

0620, 0786 

Camarotoechia: 0084, 0136, 0269, 

0477, 0533, 0551, 0581, 0664, 

0865, 0870, 0886, 0926, 0927, 

0929, 1035, 1037, 1085 

Carocalophyton: 0008 

Cardiocaris: 0174 

Cardiola: see Cardiopsis 

cladodont sharks: 0203, 0205 

Cladodus: 0136, 0191, 0192, 

0197, 0202, 0356, 0361, 0490, 

0498, 0523, 0533, 0552, 0775, 

0862, 1003 

Cladoselache: 0290, 0291, 

0298, 0361, 0482, 0525, 0533, 

065 1 

Cladox>ilon: 0136, 0271, 0272, 

0533, 0877 

Cardiomorpha: 0533, 0675 CleDsidroDsis: 0136 

73 

1 

i

Clinopistha: 1166 

0162, 0533, 0771, 0785, 

1086 

coalified wood: 0100, 0233 

Coccosteus: 0110, 0192, 0193, 

0196, 0206, 0347, 0533, 0775, 

0865 

Coelonella: 0533, 1011, 1087 

Coleolus: 0084, 0157, 0533, 1166 

Colpocaris: 0136, 0271, 0272, 

0391, 0878 

Composita: 0929 

Concavicaris: see Ceratiocaris, 

Colpocaris 

Conchodus: 0086 

conodont color change: 0375, 

048 1 

conodont paleoecology: 0967 

conodonts: 0005, 0006, 0076, 

0092, 0093, 0094, 0095, 0109, 

0137, 0151, 0152, 0155, 0227, 

0229, 0230, 0233, 0247, 0249, 

0252, 0329, 0331, 0332, 0367, 

0375, 0402, 0442, 0481, 0485, 

0491, 0492, 0497, 0515, 0519, 

0532, 0552, 0553, 0554, 0623, 

0625, 0626, 0628, 0629, 0630, 

0635, 0661, 0688, 0721, 0731, 

0741, 0757, 0758, 0759, 0760, 

0761, 0804, 0805, 0852, 0872, 

0887, 0920, 0923, 0953, 0959, 

0960, 0966, 0967, 0996, 0998, 

1016, 1039, 1055, 1074, 1076, 

1142, 1175, 1188, 1189, 1191 

Conularia: 0136 

conulata: 0705 

Convolutispora: 0707 

corals: 0533, 0801 

74 

Cordaites: 0935 

Cornellites: see Pterinea 

Corythoecia: 0394 

Cranaena: 1035, 1037 

Crangopsis : 0806 

Crania: 0032, 0533, 0986 

Craniella: 0870 

see Petrocrania 

crinoids: 0470, 0664, 0674, 

0691, 0738, 0968, 1103, 1104, 

1141, 1148 

crustaceans: 0061, 0063, 0153, 

0154, 0163, 0166, 0173, 0184, 

0468, 0806, 0902, 0914, 0964, 

1018, 1123, 1130, 1132, 1133, 

1156 

Cryptostomata: 0533 

Ctenacanthus: ' 0185, 0350, 0361, 

0523, 0533, 0666, 0772, 0775 

Ctenoconularia: 0705 

Ctenodus: 0533, 0865 

Ctenoloculina: 0533, 1011 

Cycloceras: 0269, 1088 

Cyclora: 0042, 0136 

Cymatiosphaera: 0707, 1139 

Cyperites: 0282 

Cypricardella: 0259, 0392, 0533, 

0669 

see Microdon 

Cypricardinia: 0084, 0675, 1035 

Cypridina: 0533 

Cypridinella: 0136

Cyrtentactinia: 0394 

Cyrtia: 0145, 0533, 0865 

Cyrtina: 0533 

Cyrtospirifer: 0308, 0533 

see Cryptospirifer 

Cytherella: 0533 

see Cytherellina 

Cytherellina: 1087 

-D- 

Dadoxylon: 0018, 0533, 0666, 

0669, 0831, 0865 

Dalmanella: 0533, 0865, 0870 

deepwater origin: 0892 

delta, Upper Devonian: 0034, 

0035, 0675 

Del thyris : 0533, 0551, 0552, 

0664 

depth indicators: 0103, 0471, 

0789 

dermal plates: 0043 

Devonian 

0101, 

0529, 

0593, 

0758, 

Devonian 

Devonian 

0259, 

0690, 

biostratigraphy: 

0331, 0332, 0489, 

0540, 0542, 0547, 

0623, 0630, 0688, 

1039, 1087, 1109, 

coal: 0233, 0833 

0047, 

0527, 

0548, 

0707, 

1191 

correlations: 0246, 

0321, 0547, 0549, 0678, 

1100, 1163 

Devonian-Mississippian boundary: 

0112, 0218, 0225, 0233, 0237, 

0240, 0244, 0272, 0377, 0443, 

0477, 0493, 0533, 0537, 0608, 

0610, 0627, 0637, 0707, 0722, 

0723, 0725, 1034, 1038 

Diademodus: 0483 

75 

Dictyonema: 0114, 0918 

Dielasma : 0415 

Dielasmella: 0136 

DiexalloDhasis: 0707 

Diichnia: 0136, 0878, 0879 

Dinichthyids: 0083, 0346, 

0347, 0348, 0353, 0559, 0977 

Dinichthys: 0081, 0082, 0084, 

0086, 0136, 0189, 0195, 0199, 

0206, 0208, 0209, 0231, 0233, 

0289, 0292, 0293, 0302, 0356, 

0392, 0505, 0533, 0558, 0629, 

0669, 0742, 0772, 0774, 0775, 

0780, 0786, 0897, 0977, 0992, 

1005, 1182, 1183, 1184 

Dinognathus : 0533 

Dinomylostoma: 0361 

Dinophyceae: 0796 

Diplododella: 0553 

Diplodus: 0355, 0361 

Diplognathus: 0206, 0342, 0533 

Dipterocaris: 0155 

Dipterus: 0086, 0356 

Discina: see Orbiculoidea 

Discinocarina: 0174, 0914 

Dowillina: 0446, 0886 

Duisbergia: 0233 

Dunkleosteus: 0507, 1004 

see Dinichthys 

dwarf faunas: 0643, 0645, 0672, 

0934, 0964, 0976 

dysaerobic basins: 0123, 0364, 

0788, 0889

-E- 

Echinocaris: 0533, 1018, 1130 

Echinoderms: 0169, 0470, 0674, 

0738 

Edmondia: 0533, 0675 

Emanuella: 0136 

Endosporites: 0080, 0320 

Endothyra: 1053 

Entactina: 0395 

Entactinosphaera: 0395 

Entomis: 0044 

Entomozoe: 1087 

see Entomis 

Eodevonaria: 0310 

- Eodon: 0206, 0675 

Eoorodus : 0086 

epiplankton: 0691, 0800, 0865, 

0912, 0968, 1103, 1104, 1141 

Eriella: 1087 

estuaries, ancient: 0631 

Erne tria : 0929 

Euomphalidae: see Euomphalus 

Euomphalus: 0084, 0533 

Euphanerops: 0361 

Euprioniodina: 0515 

eurypterids: 0182, 0433, 0463, 

0464 

euxinic basins: 0123 

Exochoderma: 1139 

76 

Exochops : 0415 

- F - 

Favosites: 0533 

Fenestella: 0533 

fish fossils: 0085, 0086, 

0155, 0183, 0187, 0192, 0196, 

0214, 0215, 0216, 0294, 0301, 

0338, 0352, 0354, 0356, 0360, 

0361, 0362, 0363, 0447, 0522, 

0525, 0561, 0562, 0565, 0568, 

0570, 0571, 0572, 0574, 0653, 

0654, 0732, 0742, 0767, 0768, 

0769, 0772, 0776, 0777, 0779, 

0783, 0786, 0798, 0872, 0906, 

0932, 0933, 0978, 1062, 1063, 

1080, 1109, 1121, 1122, 1123, 

1124, 1125, 1126, 1128, 1149, 

1157, 1167, 1172, 1179 

Foerstia: 0106, 0231, 0490, 

0533, 0650, 0734, 0762, 0763, 

0792, 0793, 0794, 0847, 0872, 

0939, 0940, 0958, 1021, 1027, 

1118 

see Protosalvinia 

fondo origin: 0893 

Foraminifera: 0234, 

0237, 0242, 0279, 

1053, 1061 

0235, 0236, 

0728, 1012, 

Forbesiocrinus: 0533, 1148 

forests, Devonian: 0053, 0054, 

0181, 0420, o m, 0459, 0460, 

0886 

fossil bone petrography: 0901 

fossil wood: 0011, 0015, 0056, 

0100, 0181, 0186, 0288, 0366, 

0421, 0533, 0675, 0886, 0930, 

1113, 1191 

fossils, oriented: 0597 

Franklinella: 0533, 1011

Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction: 

0264 

fructifications: 0711, 0962 

- G - 

gastropods: 0461, 0670 

gastropods, pyritized: 0664 

germanium, in fossil wood: 0100 

Glottidia: 0815, 1001, 1049 

Glyptaspis : 0533, 0620 

Gnathodus: 0607 

Gonatodus: 0533 

Goniatites: 0084, 0161, 0391, 

0512, 0533, 0616, 0857, 1014 

Goniodus: 0206, 0786 

Gorgonichthys: 0192, 0196, 0206, 

0533 

Gorgonisphaeridium: 0707, 1139 

Grammysia: 0145, 0533, 0675 

graptolites: 0114, 0441, 0918 

grasshoppers: 0286 

gray/green shale environments: 

0638 

Guycampbella: 0533 

Gymnotrachelus: 0533 

Gypidula: 0927 

Gyracanthus: 0185, 0361 

-H- 

Hamburgia: 0136, 0415 

Haplentactinia: 0395 

77 

Haploprimitia: 0533 

Hederella: 0032, 0533 

Helodus: 0086, 0772 

Hemipronites: 0316 

Heteracanthus: 0361 

Heterophrentis: 0533 

Hibbardella: 0515, 0553 

Hierogamma: 0136 

Hindeodella: 0233, 0515, 0758, 

1028 

Holdenius : 0533 

Holeciscus: 0395 

Homacanthus : 0361 

Homostius: 0507, 1004 

Hoplonchus: 0361, 0533, 0865 

humic matter: 0322 

hydrogen sulfide: 1050 

Hymenozonotriletes: 0320, 0707 

Hyolithes: 1166 

Hypothyridina: 0136, 0253, 

0259, 0851, 0926, 0927, 0929 

Hmothvris: see Hmothvridina 

I I 

hystrichospheres: 0314, 0326 

- 1 - 

Icriodus: 0094, 0758, 1091 

Icriodus to Polygnathus ratios: 

1090 

Imitoceras: 0477, 0818 

see Aganides

- J - Lin la: 0043, 0084, 0113, 

0142, 0145, 0231, 0233, 

0259, 0269, 0271, 0272, 0368, 

0391, 0392, 0413, 0446, 0490, 

- K - 

0511, 0512, 0517, 0518, 0533, 

0551, 0588, 0615, 0638, 0664, 

Kalymma: 0136, 0878, 0965 

0666, 0667, 0671, 0696, 0743, 

0753, 0755, 0786, 0802, 0814, 

Kentuckia: 0525 

0861, 0865, 0916, 0927, 0986, 

1021, 1026, 1035, 1036, 1041, 

kerogen: 0097, 0098 

1085, 1106, 1144, 1162, 1166 

Kinderhookian: 0250, 0251, 0635, 

1016, 1055, 1073 

. +, 

Lin la paleoecology: 0267, 

*, 1145 

Kirkbyella: 1087 Lingulichnites: 1041 

Kloedenella: 1011 Lingulipora: 0136, 0259, 0368, 

0392, 0405, 1021 

Kloedenia: 0044 

Lingulodiscina: 0043, 0412, 

- L - 

0533 

leaves and leaf-rafts: 0068 Lituotuba: 0728 

- Leda: 0084, 0393, 0512, 0533, 

Lonchodina : 0515, 0553, 1028 

0675 

Lopholasma: 0032, 0259, 0533 

Leiopteria: 0675, 0857, 0977 

Loxonema: 0084, 0512, 0533, 

Leiorhynchus: 0113, 0136, 0145, 

0870 

0259, 0310, 0392, 0405, 0490, 

0533, 0588, 0591, 0615, 0616, 

Lucasella: 0533 

0617, 0664, 0857, 0864, 0865, 

0870, 0921, 0926, 0927, 0977, 

Lunulicardium: 0157, 0533, 

0986, 1106, 1166 

0615, 0675, 0871 

Leiosphaeridia: 1081, 1139 

Lycopods : 11 14 

Le idodendron' 0136, 0159, 0206, 

Lycopogenia : 0136 

-+mm.; 0533, 0669 

Lyginorachis: 0059, 0271, 0272 

Le idostrobus: 0010, 0136, 0271, 

--ET5--- 

0 2, 0533, 0711, 0878, 0962, - M - 

0980 

Macrocheilus: 0533, 0620, 1111 

Leptocoelia: 0310 

Macrochilina: 0616 

Leptodesma: 0533, 0675, 1166 

Macrodon: 0084, 0512, 0533, 

Ligonodina: 0515, 0553, 0758 

0675, 0756 

limuloid crustacean: 1156 Macropetalichthys: 0206, 0261, 

78

0349, 0361, 0797, 1002, 1005 

Maharanites: 0707 

mioflora: 0073 

miospores: 0276, 0689 

mangrove swamps: 0640 

. Mississippian biostratigraphy: 

0221, 0225, 0229 

Manticoceras: 0032, 0136, 0533, 

0540, 0727, 1106 Modiella: 0533 

marcasite: 1042, 1077 Modiomorpha: 0136, 0259, 0675, 

0870, 1106 

marcasite faunas: 0386 

marine, shallow: 0113, 0177, 

0499, 1020 

Monocladodus: 0191, 0533 

Mourlonia: 0415 

marine primary production: 

1043, 1136, 1137, 1.138, 1139 

marine shelf environment: 0028, 

0029, 0101, 0419, 0957, 1020 

Multiplicisphaeridium: 0707 

MylOStOIIia: 0086, 0206, 0296, 

0361, 0528, 0533 

Mytilarca: 0675, 0886 

Martinia: 0926, 0927, 0929 

Mazodus: 0533 

megaspores: 0147 

Megistocrinus: 0533 

- 

- N - 

Nalivkinella: - 0801 

Naples fauna: 0158, 0167, 0176 

Nehdentomis: 0533 

Melocrinites: see Melocrinus 

Melocrinus: 0032, 0157, 0470, 

0533, 1011, 1106, 1148 

Nematophyton: 0826, 0829, 0830 

Neoprioniodus: 0553 

Meris te 11 a: 

Mesoneuron: 0136 

Mesothvra: 1018 

Michelinia: 0533 

0136, 0405, 1085 

Michelinoceras: see Orthoceras 

Micrhystridium:’ 0707, 1139 

Microdon: 0393, 0512, 0675 

mi crop1 ank ton.: 03 23 

* Microzygia: 0136, 0271, 0272 

Mimagoniatites : 0801 

79 

Nucleospira: 0136, 0533, 0870 

Nucula: 0032, 0084, 0533, 0675, 

0870, 1166 

Nuculana: 0391, 0533, 0675 

see Leda 

- 

Nuculites: 0533, 0651, 0675, 

0870, 1166 

Nuculoidea: 0675 

see Nucula 

-0- 

ocean circulation: 0072, 0099, 

0304, 0675, 0892, 0894, 0919, 

1185, 1186 

f

Ohiocaris: 0902 . 

Onchus: 0361 

Onychodus: 0533, 0865 

Orbiculoidea: 0043, 0136, 0142, 

0231, 0233, 0238, 0269, 0271, 

0272, 0391, 0392, 0411, 0490, 

0512, 0533, 0551, 0615, 0651, 

0664, 0755, 0756, 0786, 0802, 

0807, 0861, 0862, 0865, 0870, 

0872, 0927, 1021, 1035, 1036, 

1106, 1166 

organic matter maturation: 

0038, 0039, 0098, 0099, 0675, 

1025 

organism-oxygen relationships: 

0372, 0889 

organism-sediment relationships: 

0372 

Orodus : 0523, 0533, 0772, 0865 

Orthis: 0393, 0533, 0859 

Orthoceras: 0032, 0084, 0136, 

. 0164, 0168, 0391. 0408. 0512. 

0533; 06161 0669; 0857; 0871; 

0977 

Orthothe tes : 

1166 

0533, 0551, 0552, 

ostracods: 0044, 0065, 0266, 

0318, 0332, 0424, 0425, 0598, 

0606, 0621, 0982, 0983, 1008, 

1009, 1010, 1011, 1087, 1088 

ostracod paleoecology: 0332, 

0606 

oxygen deficiency: 0072, 0451, 

0889, 0894, 0919, 1050 

Ozarkodina: 0553 

- P - 

Pachvdomella: see Senescella 

80 

Pachysphaera: 0148, 0820 

Palaentina: 0533 

Palaeoneilo: 0084, 0136, 0446, 

0512, 0533, 0616, 0620, 0638, 

0675, 0870 

Palaeopalaeomon: 0944, 1018, 

1130, 1133 

Palaeoscenidium: 0395 

Pal aeo so 1 en : 0084 

Paleobotany: 0010, 0012, 0013, 

0014, 0021, 0022, 0023, 0024, 

0058, 0069, 0149, 0264, 0271, 

0272, 0276, 0278, 0280, 0281, 

0287, 0305, 0381, 0389, 0450, 

0537, 0539, 0656, 0710, 0827, 

0828, 0878, 0881, 0882, 0969, 

0970, 1084, 1089, 1115, 1117 

Paleoclimatology: 0011, 0031, 

0036, 0180, 0328, 0457, 0677, 

0698, 0704, 0706, 0726, 0842, 

0949, 0950, 0954, 1117, 1178 

paleocurrents: 0597, 0605, 0942 

paleoecology: 0257 

paleogeography: 0099, 0264, 

0396, 0471, 0473, 0496, 0501, 

0545, 0546, 0556, 0569, 0578, 

0591, 0594, 0597, 0695, 0698, 

0699, 0700, 0726, 0746, 0943, 

0946, 0947, 0952, 0974, 0979, 

1097, 1116, 1144, 1169, 1178 

paleomagnetic reconstructions: 

0328, 0457, 0726, 0746 

Paleoniscus: 0155, 0523, 0553, 

0772, 0862 

Paleosabella: 0134 

Palmatodella: 0233, 0490 

Palmatolepis: 0094, 0151, 0233, 

0368, 0415, 0664, 0758, 1028

palynomorphs: 0697, 0883 Pietzschia: 0136, 0271, 0272 - 

Panderodella: 0553, 1028 

Panenka: 1166 

Paracardium: 0259 

Parallelodon: 0136, 0477, 0533, 

0865, 0929 

see Macrodon. Palaentina 

Paramylostoma: 0533 

Paraparchites : 0533 

see Coelonella 

Parodiceras: 0870, 1166 

pelagic larvae: 1058 

pelecypods: 0125, 0462, 0465, 

“0664, 0675, 0676, 0800, 0988 

pelecypod paleoecology : 0988 

perched faunas: 0592 

Periastron: 0055, 0136, 0271, 

0272, 0878 

Petrocrania: 0533 

Phacops: 0136, 0533 

Phaebodus: 0361, 0533 

Pharetrella: 0871 

phosphate nodules: 0136, 0233, 

0451, 0508, 0664, 1021 

phosphates, marine: 0103, 0693, 

0694, 0848, 0974 

phosphatic lag deposits: 0451 

Phthonia: 0533 

Phytokneme: 0010 

0063, 0163, 0173, 

81 

Pinacodus: 0094 

placoderms: 0190, 0194, 0198, 

0200, 0206, 0210, 0220, 0302, 

0781, 0843 

plankton, Paleozoic: 0915, 0916, 

0990, 1043, 1081, 1136, 1137, 

1138, 1139, 1140 

plankton, Recent: 1081 

plants, marine: 0938 

plants, terrestrial: 0008, 

0012, 0014, 0022, 0023, 0060, 

0069, 0070, 0073, 0271, 0272, 

0280, 0286, 0444, 0538, 0640, 

0712, 0879, 0963 

Platyceras: 0136, 0533, 0551, 

0552 

Platycrinites: see Platycrinus 

Platycrinus: 0470, 0533, 1148 

Platyrachella: 0136, 0551, 0552, 

0664 * 

Platystrophia: 0702 

Plethospira: 0136, 0392, 0404, 

0616 

Pleuropterygian sharks : 0233 

Pleurotomaria: 0084, 0392, 0512, 

0533, 0616, 1166 

Plicoplasia: 0310 

Plicorachis: 0136 

Plumulites: 0154 

Polydryxium: 0707 

Polyentactinia: 0395 

Polygnathellus: 0553

Polygnathids: 0554, 0844 Protokionoceras: 1085 

Pol;g;;hus: 0151, 0415, 0607, 

0992, 1028, 1091, 1176 

Polygnathus varcus Group: 0629 

Polylophodonta: 0094, 0233, 

0490, 0664, 1028 

Polyrhizodus: 0533, 0865 

Polyxylon: 0271, 0272 

Ponderodictya: 0533 

Pontocypris: 0533 

Poteriocrinites: see Poteriocrinus 

Poteriocrinus: 0533, 1148 

Praecardium: 0136 

see Panenka, Paracardium 

. Prasinophycean algae: 0074, 

0148,. 0820 

Prestwichia: 1156 

Prioniodina: 0553 

Prioniodus: 0392, 0405, 0415, 

0490, 0515, 0607, 1028 

Probeloceras: 0624, 0871 

Productella: 0415, 0533, 0865, 

0886, 0997, 1011, 1085 

Productus: 0511, 0533, 0859 

Proetides: 0477 

Proetus: 0533, 0801 

pro gym osperms: 0056, 0057, 

0138, 0931 

Promacrus: 0533 

Prothyris: 0533 

Protocalamites: 0136, 0271, 0272 

82 

Protosalvinia: 0106, 0148, 

0231, 0233, 0287, 0445, 0762, 

0792, 0793, 0794, 0840, 0847, 

0958, 0984 

Prototaxites: 0025, 0037, 0231, 

0233, 0650, 0791, 0936 

PseDhodus : 0086 

Psuedaviculopecten: 0675 

see Aviculopecten 

psuedoplankton, crinoids: 0691, 

0968 

see epiplankton 

Psuedopolygnathus: 0094 

Pterichthys: 1120 

pteridosperms: 0596 

Pterinea: 0533, 0675, 0886 

Pterinopecten: 0512, 0533, 

0675, 0857 

Pterochaenia: 0446, 0871 

Pteropods : 0461 

Ptychopteria: 0259 

Ptychtodas: 0094, 0361 

pyrite: 0067, 0672, 0675, 0708, 

1021, 1042, 1077 

pyrite fauna: 0386, 0672, 0708 

- Q - 

Quasillites: 0533, 1087 

see Burlella, Lucasella 

Quisquiletes: 0707 

- R - 

radiolarians: 0001, 0233, 0394, 

0395, 0451, 0508, 0521, 0531,

0708, 0898, 1061 6259, 0310, 0391, 0490, 0588 

0591, 0597, 0615, 0616, 0927, 

Reimania: 0136, 0272 

0929, 1036, 1037, 1166 

Reimanniopsis: 0272 

Schizodus: 0533, 0651, 0675 

Reptaria: 0032, 0533, 1011 Schizophoria: 0533, 0651, 0886 

Reticularia: 0145, 0533, 0865 

Rhacophyton: 0009, 0265 

Rhadinichthys: 0084, 0136, 0231, 

0233, 0533, 0992 

Rhinocaris: 0163 

rhipidistian fishes: 1057 

Rhipidomella: 0136, 0259, 0393, 

0533, 0551, 0552, 0664, 0870, 

0929, 1035, 1036, 1037 

rhizocarps: 0283, 0284 

- Rhombina: 0533 

Rhynchodus : 0361 

Rhynchonella: 0259, 0533, 0786 

rhynchonellids: 0696 

Rhynchopora: 0664, 0929 

Richterina: 0533, 1011, 1087 

Roemerella: 0733 

Romingeria: 0415, 0533 

Ropolenellus: 0533, 1011, 1087 

- s - 

Sanguinolites: see Sphenotus 

Sansabella: 0533, 1011, 1087 

sapropel: 0919, 1027 

scad fly: 0286 

Schizobolus: 0043, 0113, 0136, 

83 

Schuchertella: 0136, 0259, 

0393, 0533, 0664, 0865, 0886, 

1035 

scolecodonts: 0520, 0664 

Scolithus: 0157 

sealevel changes: 0313 

seed ferns: 0329 

Sernitextularia: 0728 

Senescella: 0533, 1011, 1087 

Senziella: 0707 

serpulid worms: 0133 

shale oil: 0027, 0692 

shallow water model: see marine, 

shallow 

sharks, fossil : 0191, 0201, 

0203, 0205, 0298, 0299, 0483, 

0526, 0567, 0655, 0906 

Siderella: 0136, 0271, 0272, 

0881 

Siphonodella: 0320, 0415, 0664 

Siphonognathus : 0094 

skates: 0351 

Soleniscus: 1111 

see Macrocheilus, Macrochilina 

Solenocaris: 0136, 0878 

Solenognathus: 0094 

Spathiocaris: 0084, 0136, 0153,

0155, 0174, 0233, 0368, 0493, 

0533, 0616, 0664, 0878, 0914, 

0916, 1037, 1102 

Stereopteris: 0136, 0878 

Stethacanthus: 0533 

Spathodus: 0136 Strapamllus: 0032, 0533, 0616 

Spathognathodus: 0233, 0320 

Sphenotus: 0259, 0533, 0675, 0929 

Spinocyrtia: see Platyrachella 

S irifer: 0084, 0145, 0259, 0533, 

-5m- 0870, 0886, 0926, 1085 

Spiriferina: 0533 

Spirophyton: 0136 

sponge spicules: 0110, 0445, 

1176 

Sporangites: 0032, 0043, 0113, 

stratified waters: 0304 

Streblotrypa: 0533 

* 

Streptelasma: 0032, 0533 

Stro halosia: 0533, 0612, 

6 7, 0927, 0997, 1011, 

* 

1166 

Stro heodonta: 0086, 0136, 

0, 0997 

Strophodonta: see Stmpheodonta 

Strophomena: 0512, 0533 

, 0136, 0285, 0405, 0588, 0607, Styliola: 0157, 0392, 0615, 

0616, 0786, 0857, 0927 

0692, 0724, 0805, 1011, 1014 

spores: 0147, 0156, 0276, 0282, 

0529, 0613, 0687, 0688, 0689, 

0690, 0707, 0833, 0853, 0896, 

0938, 0941, 1065, 1110, 1177 

Sporocarpon: 0613 

sporocarps: 0285, 0810 

spumellarian radiolarians: 0233, 

0394, 0395 

Styliolina: 0113, 0136, 0253, 

0310, 0321; 0404, 0451, 0490, 

0533, 0591, 0597, 0617, 0651, 

0664, 0870, 0977, 1011, 1166 

Stylonurus: 0062 

Svnbrioniodina: 0553 

Syringopora: 0533 

Syringospira: 0259 

stagnation, oceanic: 0233, 

09 19 Syringothyris: 0136, 0145, 

0259, 0533, 0865, 0929, 1035, 

Staurodruppa: 0395 1037 

Steloxylon: 0136, 0271, 0272 - T - 

Stenognathus : 0504 Taghanic onlap : 0591 

Stenokoleos: 0049, 0272 

Stenomelon: 0136, 0271, 0272, 

T 

Stenosteus: 0084, 0992 

a4 

Tamiobatis: 0351 

Taonurus: 0451, 0607, 0664, 

v 

Tasmanites: 0074, 0106, 0148, 

0231, 0233, 0271, 0272, 0326,

0368, 0451, 0493, 0664, 0708, 

Trichonodella: 0553 

0721, 0734, 0790, 0805, 0853, 

0872, 0985, 1021, 1028, 1081, 

Trigonoglossa: 0413 

1146, 1176 

see Sporangites trilobites: 0468 

Taxocrinus : 1148 Tripospira: 0533 

. 

Tegeolepis: 0345 

Tripododiscus: 0533 

Tentaculites: 0032, 0136, 0310, 

0490, 0533, 0597, 0615, 0616, 

0664, 0753, 0997, 1011, 1166 

TroDidocaris: 0136 

Tropidoleptus: 0618, 0675, 

0870, 0875, 1030, 1165, 1166 

Tetradella: 0533 

tuff-reworking model: 0309 

tetrapods, Devonian: 0579, 0706, 

1108 Tylothyris : 0136, 0664 

Tetrentactinia: -0395 

thermohaline circulation: 1185 Ulrichia: 1087 

Thrallella: 0533, 1011, 1087 

Timanites : 0730 

Tioga bentonite: 0244, 0315, 

0316, 0317 

- u - 

Ungerella: 1087 

see Frank1 inel la 

Uniellum: 0707 

upwelling currents: 0104, 0304, 

0500, 0661, 0675, 0693, 0734 

Titanichthys: 0188, 0192, 0194, 

0207, 0336, 0347, 0503, 0525, uranium: 0107 

0533, 0566, 0782, 0784, 0865 

uranium, in fossil wood: 0100 

Tolyparamina: 0238 

uranium-lead dating: 0219 

Tornacea : 1139 

- v - 

Tornoceras : 0032, 0259, 0477, 

-27, 0997, 1011, 1085, 

1086, 1106 

see Parodiceras 

vertebrate paleontology: 0104, . 

0150, 0220, 0561, 0580, 0706, 

0787, 0843, 0907 

trace fossils: 0113, 0120, 0121, 

vertebrates, air-breathing: 

0122, 0383, 0384, 0387, 0396, 

0036, 0579, 0706, 1108 

0416, 0451, 0475, 0664, 0675, 

0706, 0872, 1001, 1021, 1041 Veryhachium: 0707, 1139 

Trachosteus: 0300, 0533 

trade winds: 0328 

Tre 0s ira: 0651 

*ro tomaria, Tr ipo spira 

85 

Vitulina: 0253, 0258 

- w - 

Werneroceras: 0136, 0727 

t 

4

worm borings: 0134 

worm trails: 0136 

Xenodus: 0865 

- x - 

-Y- 

- z - 

Zaphrentis : 0533 

Zeacrinites: see Zeacrinus 

Zeacrinus : 0533 

86

SECTION I1 

GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES 

W, H, DENNEN 

W, HI BLACKBURN 

PR I NC I PAL I NVEST I GATORS

CHAPTER 11. A. 

LOCAL CHEMICAL VARIABILITY OF BLACK SHALE 

E. Nunez and W. H. Dennen 

A sample may be defined as a small piece whose properties are 

representative of the larger body of which it is a part. In rock 

sampling for geochemical purposes, it is traditional to consider 

a fragment which is uniform in appearance and of a size that it 

contains at least 1000 individual mineral grains to constitute a 

statistically satisfactory sample. The chemical properties of the 

rock unit from which the sample is taken are assumed to extend 

uniformly over a v-olume whose dimensions are fixed by the mid? 

point to the next sample. 

The observable variability of sedimentary rocks normal to the 

bedding obviously requires that rather closely spaced sampling be 

done in this direction. On the other hand, lateral continuity 

suggests geochemical uniformity along the beds and thus a wider 

spacing of samples. 

Published and unpublished work on various metamorphic rocks by 

Blackburn (1967) has shown that the ftlOOO grain rule" does nat 

always hold because the rock is composed of chemical domains, 

often with volumes measured in centimeters. It appears likely 

that these domains may be inherited fram an Originally non- 

uniform elemental distribution in the sedimentary precursor. 

11-1

11-2 

The black shale presents a very uniform overall appearance and 

single samples within identifiable beds or regular stratigraphic 

intervals have been thought to provide adequate geochemical 

information for purposes of correlation, basin analysis and 

concentration level for the elements studied. For academic 

reasons and because this rock may be used as a source of 

pyrolitic oil, natural gas or uranium, however, we have made a 

careful and detailed study of the shortyrange chemical 

variability at two separate locations. A t each site, three 

vertical columns of samples spaced at 1 m intervals were 

collected. The sample spacing within each column was 10 cm. 

The particular sites sampled are described by Swager (1978) as 

follows : 

- RWyl. "The base of the section is on the south side of 

Interstate 75 2.3 km east of the BathyRowan County line. The 

upper section is on the north side of Interstate 75 5.0 km from 

the Bath ?Rowan County line. This section is in the Jarman 

Quadrangle, Ky. and the base of the Ohio Shale is 216.5 m." 

- CAtl !!This section is exposed on the west side of Kentucky 

Highway 127 0.3 km north of Liberty in Casey County, Ky. The 

section is in the Liberty Quadrangle . . . . and the base of the 

New Albany Shale is 259.6 m." 

Samples from the RW71 section were collected at 11.8 m above 

the base and just above the uppermost of the Three Lick Beds. 

Samples from CAY1 section were obtained at 9.8 m above the base

11-3 

and just above the Three Lick Beds as at RW=.l. A t both locations 

the black shale was visually homogeneous. 

The thirtyythree samples taken at each locality were analyzed 

by Xyray fluorescence spectrometry. The results showed that 

although a few elements were present at essentially constant 

concentration over the 2m2 sampled area, most showed significant 

pointytoypoint variation. Figure II.A.l illustrates the nature 

of these changes graphically for a few arbitrarily chosen 

elements. Vertical differences by variation within a particular 

column and horizonal variability by difference between columns. 

Since some variability in results is necessarily contributed 

by methodologic precision, the true values for variance were 

obtained by 

C(loca1) T C(methodo1ogic) = C(true) 

where C = coefficient of variation = 

+ (s/A) X 100 

where s is the standard deviation and A is the average. 

14 replicate determinations by Xtray fluorescent analysis were 

used to establish C(methodo1ogic). The results are given in 

Table II.A.l. 

-

6 

V 

u 

z 

V 

A 

a 

U 

0 

4 

Fig. II.A.l 

11-4 

> 

0 

L 

9) 

CI 

d 

U 

C

11-5 

Table II.A.l 

Local and methodologic variance Xyray fluorescence 

Element C (local C(meth.) C(true) 

Si 

A1 

Fe 

Ca 

P 

co 

Mo 

N i 

V 

Zr 

5.5 

13.4 

18.2 

116. 

37.8 

35.6 

41.1 

35.3 

31.1 

111. 

0.1 

0.3 

3.5 

0.0 

0.0 

1.1 

0.3 

0.5 

0.9 

6.6 

5.4 

13.1 

14.7 

116. 

37.8 

34.5 

40.8 

34.8 

30.2 

104.

11-6 

A two dimensional graphic view of the variation was obtained 

by plotting the standard deviaton ,S, of each determination from 

the average value of all samples, A, and contouring the result. 

Figure II.A.2 is an example of these plots and shows, as do they 

all, the intimate and complex interfingering of chemical levels 

within the visually homogeneous rock. It would seem that sample 

sizes on the order of 0.5 to 1 m3 are required to eliminate the 

local variance between small samples. 

The analytic data for the samples measured in this study of 

local geochemical variance of the black shale will be found in 

Appendix II7A.

0 r;! 

0 ** . ' Ix 

.. 

.. 

0 0 

b : L 

+. ' 

11-7 

N . 4 . W 

H 

. m 

.d 

E

11-8 

TABLE II-A 

SMPLE SI02 AL2b3 FE203 CAO K S P 

% 4; x % 

% x % 

CA1-A0 56.87 15.26 4.73 0.04 4.56 3.39 0.12 

CA1-A10 

CA1-A20 

CAl-A30 

54.77 14.76 4.40 0.04 4.37 2.53 0.11 

57.55 13.98 4.85 0.03 4.48 3.03 0.12 

55.66 14.56 4.74 0.04 4.49 2.67 0.10 

CAl-A40 53.48 13.86 4.50 0.04 4.27 2.86 0.12 

CAl-A50 52.76 13.75 4.82 0.14 4.26 2.69 0.21 

CA1 -A60 53.97 14.38 4.64 0.04 4.35 4-10 0.12 

CAl-A7O 52.93 13.53 4.64 0.05 4.29 2.70 0.12 

CAl-A80 

CAl-A90 

-- 

CA 1 -A1 00 

CA1 -BO 

48.87 13.41 4.77 0.31 3.93 3.44 0.11 

48.03 13.62 4.29 0.14 3.81 2.41 0.12 

50.96 14.27 4.92 

----- 

50.25 14.17 4.03 

0.06 4.10 2.42 0.13 

--.__---- 

0.11 3.98 1.87 

0.12 

CA1-B10 58.59 15.96 5.45 0.06 4.71 2.70 - 0.11 

CA1-B20 

CA1 -B 3 0 

CAl-B40 

CA 1 -B5 0 

CAl-B60 

CA1 -B 7 0 

55.07 15.34 4.83 0.10 4.56 2.22 0.17 

55 -08 14.90 5.29 0.06 4.77 2.74 0.15 

52.62 14.26 5.37 0.07 4.34 2.48 0.17 

53.31 14.77 4.86 0.28 4.48 3.70 0.12 

53.08 14.16 5.23 0.14 4.47 3.15 0.13 

54.83 14.02 4.64 0.12 4.56 3.25 0.12

11-9 

TABLE 11-A (CONTINUED) 

SAMPLE SI02 AL203 FE203 CAO K S P 

x % x % % x % 

CAl-B80 57.47 14.84 5.94 0.06 4.73 3.98 0.14 

CA1- B 9 0 54.40 15.32 5.33 0.08 4.56 2.53 0.13 

--- 

CAI -B 100 51.37 13.08 4.61 ----- 

0.19 4.04 3.00 0.12 

CA1-CO 54.00 16.23 4.69 0.03 4.55 2-32 0.08 

CA1 -C 10 51.69 14.16 4.01 0.02 4.35 2.06 0.12 

CAl-C20 52.77 14.64 4.26 0.03 4.31 2.63 0.14 

CAl-C30 53.64 14.38 4.60 0.02 4.25 2-73 0.12 

CA1- C40 

55.77 14.61 4.81 0.03 4.42 2.86 0.14 

CAl-C50 56.05 15.37 4.71 0.03 4.34 2.35 0.13 

CAl-C60 57.15 15.70 5.26 0.03 4.61 2-89 0.14 

CA1 -C70 51.46 12.87 4.09 0.05 G.12 1-66 0.09 

CAl-C80 48.10 13.43 4.40 0.04 4.07 1.79 0.20 

CA1- C9 0 52.71 13.24 4.20 0.05 4.02 1-75 0.10 

CA1-C100 53.29 14.25 4.43 0.03 4.19 1.73 0.12 

RW 1 -A0 54.87 17.62 3.73 0.04 4.08 1-35 0.09 

RW 1-A1 0 56.77 18.37 3.47 0.02 4.15 0.87 0.08 

RWl-A20 58.26 19.00 3.56 0.02 4.28 0.98 0.09 

RW 1 -A30 56.82 18.02 3.31 0.03 4.17 0.58 0.06 

RW 1 -A40 56.07 17.63 4.19 0.02 4.11 1-00 0.07 

Rbl -A5 0 55.87 18.26 3.64 0.02 4.28 0.71 0.06

11-10 

TABLE I I -A( CONTINUED 

LOCAL KENTUCKY BLACK SHALE OUTCROP DATA 

SAMPLE SI02 AL203 FE203 CAO 

% % % % 

RWl-A60 

58.81 18.67 3.75 fl.fi2 4.24 0.70 

K 

x 

S 

x P 

0.06 

RW 1 -A70 56.77 17.43 3.24 0.02 1.03 0.55 0.07 

RW 1 -A80 57.78 18.37 3.65 0.02 4.49 1 .oo 0.07 

RW1-A90 59.52 18.70 3.73 

0.02 4.33 0.41 

0.05 

RWl-AlOO 58.44 19.42 

--- ------___-- 

3.82 0.02 4.42 0.92 0.06 - 

RW1-BO 53.24 17.40 3.48 0.03 3.95 0.72 0.08 

RW1-B10 59.74 18.11 3.48 0.02 4.37 0.80 0.06 

RWl-B20 57.89 18.03 3.23 0.02 4.18 0.64 0.08 

RWl-B30 59.89 18.92 3.23 0.01 4.50 0.58 0.05 

RWl-B40 57.40 17.18 4.31 0.02 4.03 0.41 0.07 

. - 

RW1-B5O 60.83 18.89 3.29 0.01 4.38 0.59 0.05 

RWl-B60 56.09 19.43 3.34 0.02 4.25 0.60 0.06 

RWl-N70 57.19 18.72 3.85 0.02 4.25 0.88 0.06 

RWl-B80 59.43 18.75 4.48 0.02 4.64 0.33 0.06 

RW 1 -B 90 59.32 19.24 3.63 0.02 4.52 0.80 0.05 

RWl-BlOO 55.99 19.99 3.63 0.02 4.21 1.10 

- - - - - - --- -- - 

0.06 

RW1-CO 60.02 18.28 4.00 0.02 4.23 1.22 0.08 

Rw1-C 10 55.21 17.57 3.71 0.02 4.20 0.90 0.06 

-

11-11 

SAMPLE SI02 AL203 FEZ03 CAO K S P 

% % % % % % % 

RW1-C20 

RW1 -C3 0 

RWl-C40 

RW 1 -C5 0 

RWl-C60 

RW 1 -C7 0 

RW 1 - C8 0 

RWl-CgO 

RW1- C100 

56.28 

58.35 

59.27 

59.17 

60 64 

56.92 

57.44 

56.80 

57.37 

18.09 

18.73 

19.47 

18.98 

19.60 

19.26 

17.98 

19.18 

18.66 

3.69 

3.92 

3.85 

3.57 

3.78 

3.62 

3.58 

3.97 

1.00 

0.03 

0.03 

0.01 

0.02 

0.01 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

4.33 

4.47 

4.61 

4.54 

4.73 

4.37 

4.34 

4.42 

4.46 

1.29 

0.94 

1.12 

0.79 

0.91 

0.97 

1.03 

0.91 

1 .oo 

0.09 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.06 

0.06 

0.08 

0.08 

0.08

11-12 

TABLE 11-A (CONTINUED) 

- 

SAMPLE RB co Y SR MO NI v. ZR 

PPm PPm ppm PPm PPm PPm Ppm Ppm 

CA1-A0 

CA1- A1 0 

CAl-MO 

CAl-A30 

CA1 -A40 

CAl-ASO 

CAl-A60 

CAl-A70 

CA1 -A8 0 

CA1 -A90 

CA1-A100 

CA1-BO 

CAI -B 10 

CAl-B20 

CAl-B30 

CAl-B40 

CA 1 -B 5 0 

CA1 -B 6 0 

CAl-B70 

166. 

153. 

163. 

166. 

92. 

162. 

21. 

143. 

0. 

144. 

147 

143. 

172. 

152. 

171. 

157. 

161. 

162. 

151. 

20. 

19. 

19. 

19. 

18. 

17. 

22. 

21. 

23. 

20. 

24. 

18. 

37. 

23. 

22. 

23. 

22. 

19. 

15. 

34. 

36. 

39. 

32. 

17. 

39. 

0. 

30. 

0. 

38. 

32. 

51. 

35. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

37. 

34. 

31. 

86. 

97. 

100. 

85. 

52. 

89. 

28. 

87. 

102. 

89. 

84. 

93. 

132. 

127. 

177. 

207. 

144. 

203. 

110. 

248. 65. 

336. 66. 

472. 52. 

314. 47. 

341. 48. 

365. 45. 

491. 52. 

286. 47. 

411. 52. 

396. 53. 

403. 52. 

412. 86. 

242. 54. 

385. 58. 

384. 40. 

501. 50. 

522. 50. 

497. 40. 

507. 46 

831. 32. 

949. 26. 

776. 42. 

774- 21. 

760. 0. 

615. 24. 

581. 0. 

417. 20. 

398. 35. 

424. 27. 

370. 18. 

787. 

765. 

696. 

672. 

546. 

448. 

451. 

537. 

19. 

63. 

62. 

90. 

101. 

91. 

125. 

31.

11-13 

TABLE 1 I -P( CONTINUED 1 

LOCAL KENTUCKY BLACK SH&E OUTCROP DATA 

SAMPLE m co Y SR MO NI V ZR 

PPm Ppm PPm PPm Ppm PPm PPm PPm 

--- 

CAl-B80 179. 20. 33. 161. 417. 29. 431. 75. 

CAl-B90 

160. 18. 33. 147. 485. 48. 390. 2549. 

- 

- 

CAI -B 1 0 0 142. 18. 29. 136. 497. 58. 390. 77. 

--- -- -- 

cA1-co 153. 19. 28. 102. 282. 73. 696. 66. 

CA1-C 10 1.36. 15. 30. 86. 392. 67. 769. 48. 

CA1 -C 2 0 143. 15. 26. 70. 424. 81. 1025. 16. 

CAl-C30 127, 17. 23. 77. 405. 49. 728. 20. 

CAI440 A30 17. 33. 111. 399. 46. 819. 

CA1- C5 0 140. 19. 23. 90. 429. 41. 660. 

CAl-C60 156. 22. 27. 101. 317. 59. 642. 

CAl-C70 101. 16. 19. 63. 459. 51. 426. 

CAl-C80 107. 15. 25. 59. 210. 57. 729. 

CA1- C9 0 132. 13. 31. 86. 480. 52. 403. 

-- 

CA1-C100 156. 

---I__-- 

14. 42. 92. 496. 57. 

-- 

424. 

RW 1 -A0 214. 17. 46. 68. 283. 57. 354. 

RW1 -A1 0 232. 9. 48. 74. 234. 41. 519. 

RW 1 -A20 165. 9. 29. 74. .205. 33. 452. 

R~l-A30 127. 7. 16. 71. 215 28. 529. 

RWl-A40 110. 12. 13. 63. 234. 28. 464. 7. 

RWl-A50 147. 9. 18. 92. 136. 20. 451. 21. 

49. 

24. 

31. 

26. 

20. 

42. 

- 

61. 

9. 

13. 

17. 

6.

11-14 

TABLE I Ex CONTINUED) 

LOCAL KENTUCKY BLACK SHALE OUTCROP DATA 

SAMPLE RB co Y SR MO NI v ZR 

PPm PPm PPm Ppm PPm PPm Ppm PPm 

RW1-A60 170. 7. 33. 96. 171. 32. 426. 28. 

RWl-A70 152. 10. 25. 90. 256. 26 - 361. 24. 

RW1-A80 141. 9. 20. 88. 186. 36. 531. 9. 

RW1-A90 172. 9. 33. 80. 143. 16. 295. 26. 

-- 

RYl-XlOO 184. 11. 36. -- -- 

101. 161. 26. 435. 38. - 

RWl-BO 68. 18. 5. 36. 258. 49. 369. 0. 

RW 1 -B 10 

RW1 -B 20 

RWl-B30 

RWl-B40 

RW 1 -B 5 0 

RWl-B60 

RW1 -B7 0 

RW1 -B8 0 

RW 1 -B9 0 

RW 1-8 100 

-_I_ 

F.14 1- GO 

RW 1 -c 1 0 

48. 

99. 

15. 

91. 

28. 

153. 

128. 

175. 

172. 

130. 

174. 

172. 

11. 0. 25. 197. 36. 508. 0. 

12. 10. 49. 209. 39. 439. 0. 

9. 0. 12. 199. 21. 557. 0. 

14. 22. 43. 214. 26. 381. 0. 

9. 0. 17. 190. 27. 407. 0. 

7. 33. 79. 200. 22. 513. 17. 

11. 29. 66. 234. 20. 363. 12. 

12. 36. 97. 87. 26. 375. 34. 

11. 39. 78. 172. 23. 422 - 19. 

13. 25. 72. 294. 35. 328. 6. 

-- - --- - 

14. 36. 80. 172. 41. 400. 28. 

14. 34. 87.. 114. 36. 433. 

_I- 

24. 

":.

11-15 

TABLE II-A( CONTINUED) 

SAMPLE RB co Y SR MO NI v ZR 

PPm PPm PPm PPm PPm PPm P P ~ ppm 

RW1- C 2 0 166. 15. 29. 71. 217. 54 * 538. 18. 

RWl-C30 159. 14. 29. 78. 158. 33. 450. 16. 

RW 1 -C40 18. 9. 0. 16. 198. 27. 556. 0. 

RW 1 -C 5 0 165. 12. 28. 72. 174. 29. 581. 20. 

RW 1 -C60 178. 8. 33. 89. 109. 21. 379. 26. 

RW1 -C 7 0 . 163. 12. 25. 79. 185. 37. 430. 14. 

RW1 -C8 0 121. 13. 18. 62. 241. 40. 385. 16. 

RW1-C90 156 16. 21. 72. 217. 36. 506. 14. 

RW 1 - C 1 00 165. 14. 28. 80. 240. 45. 428. 22.

INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER 1I.B. 

AREAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC GEOCHEMISTRY 

WILLIAM H. BLACKBURN 

The chemical variance of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian black 

shales was treated in a preliminary fashion by Dennen et al. (1978) em- 

ploying outcrop samples collected around the outcrop belt in Kentucky. 

This first attempt at geochemical characterization of the black-shale se- 

quence was made to determine which elements were acting independently and 

having a recognizable statistical variation. These elements might con- 

tribute to conclusions as to the depositional environment, the correlation 

of the internal stratigraphic units, and to the possibility of economic 

resources beyond the immediate goal of natural gas development. For ex- 

ample, the elements V, Co, Ni, Zn, Mo, Ca, S, Y, Sr and U were found to 

have wide variability or a bimodal distribution and were expected to be 

most useful in stratigraphic or areal analyses. From an economic stand- 

point, the black shales of Kentucky may be a source for uranium in the 

not so distant future: molybdenum and copper are locally enriched as well. 

The basic conclusions of the earlier work of Dennen et al. (1978) have 

not changed radically upon analysis of the considerable amount of data now 

available to us. Since the preliminary study, Markowitz (1979) completed 

over 400 whole rock analyses of the Ohio, New Albany and Chattanooga shales 

collected from complete or near complete sections on the eastern side of 

the Cincinnati Arch. His work was reported in total in a quarterly report 

of this contract. 

Data on the Kentucky black shales has been received from other con- 

tractors. Mound Laboratories supplied data for EGSP Drill Holes KY-2 

11-16

11-17 

(Martin County). Data for KY-1 (Perry County) were obtained for DOE- 

METC and the chemical data for KY-3 (Christian County) were provided by 

the Illinois Geological Survey. As a subcontractee for the Kentucky 

Geological Survey, the geochemical characterization group of the Ken- 

tucky Geological Research Group completed over 200 whole-rock analyses 

of materials from five cores taken on the western and southern sides of 

the Cincinnati Arch. The total accumulated data for the Kentucky black 

shales are now representative of stratigraphic as well as areal variance 

and it is on the analysis of the data that the present report as well as 

the paper by Blackburn and Markowitz (1980) are based. 

It should be noted that due to the curtailment of the contract length 

and the drilling program of the EGSP (twelve drill holes originally planned 

in Kentucky), the regional coverage of material was not realized. 

data, however, does provide a reasonable estimate of the areal and strati- 

graphic variance of black-shale geochemistry. 

DATA PRESENTATION 

Available 

As first realized during the study of Dennen et al. (19781, some chem- 

ical parameters do not afford information which is particularly useful. Some 

elements such as rubidium, albeit higher in these rocks than in the average 

shales, are strongly univariant and show little variance. Markowitz (1979) 

showed that those elements associated with the clastic fraction did, in fact, 

show an interdependence and the analysis of the variance of one of these ele- 

ments leads to conclusions about the group as a whole. 

The thrust of this 

report is then with those elements which do act independently, do have econ- 

omic potential, do have a bearing on a depositional model, or do have en- 

vironmental implications. With regard to the latter, it should be realized 

that the Ohio, New Albany and Chattanooga Shales will, in the long run, have

11-18 

more potential as oil shales than gas shales and that, as oil shales, 

will be produced by surface mining methods. 

of their .chemistry may then be a most important factor. 

The environmental aspects 

All the data used in this report is available to ESP. The elements 

discussed in this report are those which have environmental, economic or 

extraction implications. The data are presented in two ways: 

Averaqe value maps in which point sources, sections, drill holes 

- or outcroe grab samples, are shown as single values representing 

- the average for that locality. These data, although misrepresenting 

the local variability, do show the overall, regional, geochemical 

trends. 

Fence diagrams in which the geochemical data is presented in terms 

- of stratigraphic variability as well as areal variability. The in- 

ternal stratigraphy used is that of Provo (1977) which was further 

developed by Swager (1978). Prior to this report, the Provo strat- 

igraphic units were used only on the eastern side of the Cincinnati 

Arch. 

--- 

Careful examination of gamma-ray logs for Kentucky Geological 

Survey drill holes on the western side and especially the gamma-ray 

log of the EGSP d rill hole KY-3 in Christian County have led this 

author to believe that the internal stratigraphy developed by Provo 

(1977) can be extended westward. In any case, the lithostratigraphic 

units and nomenclature used by the Indiana Geological Survey, the 

Illinois Geological Survey and the Kentucky Geological Survey do not 

match well enough €or regional analysis. The technique used here 

does have some statistical validity as shown in a later chapter. 

The data variances are presented in terms of deviation from the mean 

value for a particular element. Generally, the data are presented as symbols

11-19 

or patterns representing: 

. < two standard deviations (

11-20 

TABLE II.B.1 

Measured outcrop sections and cored drill holes discussed in this chapter. 

Those marked with an asterisk represent cored drill holes. 

Designation Carter Coordinates 

LE 21-2-74, 200 FNL X 400 FWL 

FL 1-W-71, 3000 FNL X 1250 FEL 

PO 12-4-67, 1100 FSL X 1000 FWL 

ES 13-0-66, 1900 FSL X 100 FEL 

MA 

CA 

PU 

RU 

RW 

cu 

6-M-63, 1600 FNL X 2150 FEL 

25-K-56, 500 FSL X 2250 FWL 

19-H-58, 2850 FSL X 2400 FEL 

15-E-52, 1900 FNL X 2225 FEL 

1-T-71, 900 FNL X 1100 FWL 

21-0-50, 1250 FNL X 1400 FWL 

KY-1* 19-K-76, 1690 FNL X 325 FWL 

KY-2* 

KY-3* 

KY-4* 

N1* 

N2* 

N3 * 

N4* 

N5* 

16-P-85, 2750 FNL X 1650 FWL 

124-25, 650 FNL X 90 FEL 

12-R-79, 1780 FNL X 1320 FEL 

3-S-47, 3400 FSL X 700 FEL 

14-M-48, 3500 FSL X 1800 FEL 

17-0-59, 400 FSL X 1800 FEL 

21-P-46, 1400 FNL X 1600 FWL 

13-M-51, 1450 FSL X 950 FEL

11-21 

in resource evaluation within Kentucky. 

The data shown are of two types: 

1.) Organic carbon determined by the difference between total carbon 

and inorganic or carbonate carbon. 

0 

2.) An estimation of organic carbon by ashing of the sample at 500 C - 

a temperature which is below the thermal breakdown of the carbon- 

ates (Goldsmith, 1977). Data derived in this fashion has been used 

with success by Leventhal and Goldhaber (1978) and Dennen et al. (19- 

78). 

The average value map for organic carbon shows a general increase away 

from the northeastern Appalachian clastic source. 

in the Christian County shales as indicated by KY-3. This seems to be due to 

clastic dilution from a northwesterly source as indicated by increased silica 

values in this area. 

Carbon values decrease again 

Examination of the fence diagram for organic carbon shows the same gen- 

eral trends but also illustrates increasing values in the uppermost and lower- 

most stratigraphic units. Middle units tend to have lower contents of organic 

carbon but these units often show the effects of bioturbation, a process which 

will generally increase oxidation and therefore lower the organic carbon content. 

CHROMIUM 

Chromium shows a general trend inverse to that of organic carbon. It 

has higher values in the eastern and western sample localities and most likely 

represents a clastic enrichment in these areas. The fence diagram shows no 

consistent variability with stratigraphy and, therefore, no obvious relation- 

ship with the depositional environment is observable. 

Markowitz (1979) states that Cr is rather closely associated with the 

group of elements normally tied up in sulfides. This relationship is not

11-22 

easily explained as Cr generally does not show strong sulfophile tendencies. 

COPPER 

Copper distribution in these rocks is rather complicated. The lowest 

values are in Lewis and Fleming Counties with a general increase to the south, 

east and west. Anomalous highs are found in the basal units of the MA, PO, 

and ES sections of Madison, Powell and Estill Counties respectively. This is 

in the same region where Richers (1979) describes a zone of hydrothermal al- 

teration along with copper and uranium in Pennsylvanian rocks. 

that the high Cu values found here are related to the same event and have no 

relationship to the depositional scheme. 

It is possible 

The Christian County well, KY-3, has truly anomalous copper values, most 

of which are greater that two standard deviations from the average. An explan- 

ation of this is not presently available but one might speculate on an iron- 

copper zonation within the depositional basin similar to that described for the 

Zambrian Copper Belt or the Kupferschiefer. 

MOLYBDENUM 

Markowitz (1979) shows that Mo correlates best with uranium, carbon, and 

vanadium on the eastern side of the Cincinnati Arch. The diagrams for the 

whole state presented with this report and the data from which they were de- 

rived corroborate his conclusions. Molybdenum increases westerly and south- 

erly and is generally directly related to the uranium and organic carbon contents. 

The fence diagram for molybdenum is interesting in that, outside of the 

clastic-rich areas in the northeast, its concentration tends to increase upward 

in the section. 

NICKEL 

Nickel is generally rather low in these rocks but does show a strong

11-23 

easterly increase toward the Appalachian clastic source and westerly to- 

ward the clastic source for the Illinois Basin. 

Potter et al. (1980) show a relationship between the concentrations 

of nickel and vanadium and the sedimentation rate. They speculate that, 

at lower sedimentation rates, vanadium is taken up by organic matter be- 

cause of increased contact time with the seawater. They imply that N i 

does not vary much and therefore the V/Ni ratio is inversely related to 

sedimentation rate. The data presented here shows increased N i values in 

in the proximal shales. Could the V/Ni ratio be related also to the actual 

type of organic material available for interaction with the sea water? 

PHOSPHORUS 

The fence diagram for phosphorus shows this element to be highly var- 

iable both areally and stratigraphically. There seem to be no consistent 

trends which afford correlation of internal stratigraphic units. Since 

phosphorus is probably controlled by the presence of fossils with apatitic 

tests, one wonders if the conditions favorable to this life form were ever 

favorable over wide areas. 

A depositional mdel as described by Beckel (19- 

77) would have to take the local variability of phosphorus into account. 

Markowitz (1979) showed that the elements Cd, Co, Cr, Pb, Y, and Zn 

were all strongly correlated with phosphorus. 

taminent of apatite so this association is expected. Other than Cr, all 

the rest of these elements would be expected to be sulfophile in this 

environment and they do correlate to some extent with sulfur. Their 

association with phosphorus is much stronger and these elements may be 

present as phosphates. 

Yttrium is a common con-

SULFUR 

11-24 

Sulfur like phosphorus tends to be highly variable both areally and 

stratigraphically. It does, however, generally occur in higher concen- 

trations in the middle stratigraphic units. There is no clear indication 

of variance due to deposition within a particular environment within the 

basin. Some areas within the basin showing high organic carbon contents 

and high V/Ni ratios (probably indicating slow sedimentation rates under 

reducing marine conditions) show low sulfur contents. A study of the 

forms of sulfide, especially pyrite, in these rocks would probably be re- 

veal ing . 

URANIUM 

One of the contract goals of the Kentucky project was to produce 

deliverable maps showing the distribution of uranium within the Devonian 

black shales of eastern Kentucky. These maps, actually including all avail- 

able data for Kentucky are presented along with this report. 

Uranium is strongly related to the concentrations of organic carbon, 

molybdenum and vanadium. As speculated by Potter et al. (1980), the uran- 

ium contents may be possibly explained by sedimentation rates - a higher 

U value representing lower rate of sedimentation. 

VANADIUM 

Vanadium acts in a fashion inverse to nickel. Values of V increase 

southerly and westerly but decrease again in the shales of Christian County 

(KY-3) where nickel values are higher. Vanadium increases upward in the 

section and often the uppermost unit (PROW 1) has the highest vanadium 

content for a particular section. No such changes are observed for nickel 

and thus the V/Ni ratio increases upward in the section as well. Does

11-25 

this represent a general marine encroachment to the present north (pro- 

bably Devonian east) with continually decreasing sedimentation rates?

11-26 

REFERENCES 

Blackburn, W.H. and Markowitz, G. (1980): Geochemistry of the Devonian 

Gas Shales of Kentucky, U.S.A. Proceedings of the International 

Geological Congress, Paris, France. 

Dennen, W.H., Blackburn, W.H. and Davis, P.A. (1978): Abundance and Dis- . 

tribution of some chemical elements in the Chattanooga, Ohio and New 

Aibany Shales in Kentucky. Proceedings of the First Eastern Gas 

Shales Symposium. U.S. Dept. of Energy MERC?SP-7715, 49-67. 

Goldsmith, R.H. (197g): Changes in the mineralogy of oil shales heated 

from 400 to 900 C. Compass, 42-50. 

Heckel, P. (1977): Origin of the phosphatic black shales facies in Pennsylvanian 

cyclothems of mid-continent North America. 

61, 1045-1068. 

A.A.P.G. Bull., 

- 

Leventhal, J.S. and Goldhaber, M.B. (1978): New data for uranium, thorium, 

carbon, and sulfur in Devonian Black Shale from West Virginia, Kentucky 

and New York. First Eastern Gas Shales Symposium. U.S. Dept. of Energy 

MERC/SP-77/5, 259-296. 

Markowitz, G. (1979) : A geochemical study of' the Upper Devonian - Lower 

Mississippian black shales in eastern Kentucky. 

of Kentucky. 

M.S. Thesis, University 

Potter, P.E., Maynard, J.B. and Pryor, W.A. (1980): Final report of special 

geological, geochemical, and petrological studies of the Devonian shales 

in the Appalachian Basin. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy 

EGSP Contract DE-AC21-76 MCO 520 1. 

Pcovo, L.J. (1977): Stratigraphy and sedimentology of radioactive Devonian- 

Mississippian shales of the central Appalachian Basin, Ph.D. Dissertation, 

University of Cincinnati. 

Swager, D.R. (1978): Stratigraphy of the Upper Devonian - Lower Mississippian 

shale sequence in the eastern Kentucky outcrop belts. M.S. Thesis, Univ- 

ersity of Kentucky.

CAVEAT 

CHAPTER 11. C. 

KEROGEN DISCRIMINATION 

W. H. DENNEN 

Our proposal to attempt the discrimination of terrestriallye 

derived and marine-derived kerogenous material in the black shale 

by spectrochemical means was considered important in that it 

seemed likely that kerogen of different provenance would have 

different gas-yield efficiency. If a relationship of yield and 

kerogen type could be established, optimization of targets within 

the depositional basin would be possible. 

Phase one of the program was planned to identify elements 

whose concentration or ratio was indicative of kerogen type. 

This initial study was then to be followed by correlation of 

kerogen data with stratigraphic and basin analysis results (from 

Ettensohn) and gas productivity information (from Wilson). 

Additionally, correlation of kerogen type and radioelement levels 

was planned. These data are only now coming to hand and early 

termination of The contract has allowed only phase one studies to 

be carried forward. 

11-27

11-28 

INTRODUCTION 

It is assumed - a priori that kerogen in black shales is derived 

as Organic debris from terrestrial and marine plants and animals, 

that these materials are different both initially and in 

comminuted form, and that they will, therefore, respond in 

different degree to the natural cracking processes which yield 

natural gas. 

The purpose of the study has been to establish criteria for 

the distinction of kerogenous material from different precursors 

on the basis of its inorganic chemical content. It is presumed 

that the elements of interest are originally adsorbed on the 

kerogen and that a different suite or proportion of critical 

elements w i l l be present in the different kerogen types. 

If kerogen of different provenance does have differing 

sensitivity to cracking or different gas yields, there should be 

a useful correlation of the kerogen type with uranium Content, 

position within the depositional basin, and historical 

production figures. 

D. C. arc spectrochemical analysis using all elements 

detectable over the spectral range 2400-10,OOOA and laser 

microprobe analysis of elements in the spectral range 2400-4500A 

has been employed in evaluating the chemical variance among 

s amp1 es .

11-29 

It has been recognized that sample processing may remove or 

alter the concentrations of elements of interest. Consequently, 

a number of preparation procedures and several analytic 

approaches have been used. These are presented as a series of 

studies following.

11-30 

STUDY 1. COMPONENT ANALYSIS IN NEW ALBANY SHALE LABORATORY 

STANDARD 

Sample preparation. 

The flow sheet used for sample preparation is shown in Figure 

II.C.1. The boxed products are satisfactory for spectrochemical 

analysis and have been examined in a New Albany Shale laboratory 

standard for detectable elements in the wavelength region 

240073600A as later described. 

Benzene extraction of soluble organic materials from samples 

ground to pass 100 mesh is accomplished using simple reflux 

apparatus in which solvent and sample are allowed to boil. The 

solvent is slightly discolored and all of the organic material is 

extracted in a period of 5 to 6 hours for a one gram sample. 

Silicate dissolution is accomplished as follows: 

1) Weigh into an Oak Ridge centrifuge tube 0.125 

2) 

3) 

4) 

grams of the extracted sample, add 3.0 m l of 

48% HF and swirl. 

Place tube on a water bath at 100-C for one 

hour, swirl periodically. 

Remove tube from the water bath, cool to room 

temperature, open, add 25 m l distilled water 

and swirl. 

Add 2.8 grams of crystalline boric acid. 

Close the tube and shake until all the boric

5) 

Component Determination 

acid is dissolved. 

11-31 

Filter through a millipore filter. The 

residue is silica-free kerogen. 

Calculations of the percentages of the various components 

present in the New Albany Shale laboratory standard were made 

using both gravimetric and spectrographic data. The latter 

appears more dependable as indicated in Table II.C.1. 

Fig. II.C.1 

~~

11-32 

TABLE 11. C. 1 

Component* Weight Percent 

bb~333737377b~37777~~77777~~~777777777~7~77779~7~7777~7~~ 

Gravimetric Spectrographic 

E 

24.1 + 5.8 6.94 2 0.05 

I (yE+K+W) 25.4 2 9.3 26.26 - + 0.10 

W n. d. 6.0 

K by difference 20.1 13.32 

K by silica dissolution 20.1 n. d. 

S by difference n. d. 73.74 

S by silica dissolution 70.9 n. d. 

The particular spectrographic data used were: 

1) for E; average enhancement (of 19 elements) in the residual 

material after extraction, E/N 

2) for I; average enhancement in the residual material after 

ignition, I/N 

3) for W; a direct spectrographic measurement following Dennen 

and Quesada, Applied Spectroscopy, v. 21, 1567156, 1967. 

-----------------*----------------------------~---------------------- 

,~~,,,/~,,,~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

*N neat sample E benzeneyextractable portion 

I ignited sample K kerogen 

W water S silicate 

-

Spectrographic Analysis 

11-33 

Samples for analysis are -100 mesh powders mixed with equal 

parts by volume of specpure graphite powder and tamped into 1.5 x 

3 mm craters in .I20 inch diameter prearced specpure graphite 

electrodes. Samples are arced as the anode at 8 amperes to 

completion, about 70 seconds, using a .25 inch diameter carbon 

counter~electrode and a 7 mm analytic gap. 

The spectrograph employed is a large quartzaglass, Littrow? 

mounted prism instrument manufactured by Adam Hilger, Ltd. 

Incident light is focused on the collimating lens after passing a 

rotating mechanical sector having a 4x aperture ratio located at 

the entrance slit. Spectra are recorded on Kodak Spectrum 

Analysis a 1 glass plates, developed for 4 1/2 minutes at 19 C 

with constant stirring in a temperatureycontrolled tank, fixed, 

washed, rinsed with distilled water, and air dried. Usually 10 

spectra per plate are recorded. 

Photometry is accomplished by use of a JarreltAsh Co. 

nonrecording digital microphotometerycomparator. Line density 

and background are recorded and transformed to relative spectral 

intensity using a stepTsector calibration procedure.

11-34 

Since relative spectral intensity, I, is directly proportional 

to concentration, C 

n 

I=kC 

relative intensities may be used directly for many geochemical 

purposes or may be transformed to concentration values through 

the use of appropriate standards. 

The precision of the spectrographic method is not high, 

usually being - +5 3 15% of the value reported, but is usually more 

than adequate for trace element comparisons whose natural 

variations are often large multiples. 

Results 

The relative concentrations of the following elements have 

been examinea in the New Albany Shale laboratory standard for 

each of the boxed materials in Figure 1 as well as compared 

with a Paleozoic shale sample (APSC) taken along the Pennsylvania 

Turnpike and composited by bed thickness. Comparison of the 

content of these elements between APSC and New Albany shale (NA) 

is given in the table below and shows the black shale to be 

particularly depleted in calcium and sodium and enriched in 

boron, cobalt, copper, nickel and molybdenum with respect to the 

lraveragelt Paleozoic shale. These enrichments may be ascribable 

to adsorption on kerogen in the black shale.

element 

A1 

B 

Ca 

co 

Cr 

cu 

Fe 

Ga 

Mg 

NA/APSC 

0.53 

1.43 

0.29 

1.75 

0.70 

2.07 

0.78 

0.69 

0.51 

11-35 

e 1 emen t 

Mn 

Mo 

Ma 

N i 

P 

Pb 

Si 

Ti 

v 

Zr 

NA/APSC 

The benzene extraction process removed approximately 7 percent 

by weight of soluble hydrocarbons from the shale, but had no 

appreciable effect on the concentration of the inorganic 

constituents except for boron. This element was reduced to one? 

half of its original content and, therefore, must be markedly 

concentrated in the extracted substances. 

The kerogen content of the New Albany sample amounts to 

approximately 13 percent by weight. The kerogen contains 

detectable quantities of chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, 

molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon, titanium and zirconium 

(boron could not be determined because the use of boric acid in 

the dissolution process contaminates the product). The amounts 

of copper, iron, molybdenum, nickel, and zirconium are especially 

0.62 

4.67 

0.32 

1.91 

0.92 

0.68 

1.05 

0.74 

0.83 

0.81

high. 

11-36 

On consideration of the geochemical properties of these 

elements coupled with the probable effects of sample processing, 

it is concluded that the likely elements for kerogen 

discrimination are: 

Good 7 Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb 

Possible 7 Fe, Mn, P, Ti 

Unlikely 7 Si, Zr

STUDY 2. ACID EXTRACTIONS 

11-37 

The partition of elements in black shale into various fraction 

produced by ignition and acid extraction was examined on the 

assumptions that: 

1) the black shale is truly a siltstone with a 

relatively modest clay mineral content, 

2) adsorbed ions will be principally present on the 

large surface afforded by kerogen, 

3) adsorbed ions may be extracted by an acid wash. 

the conclusions of this study are: 

1. 

2. 

3. 

1:1 and 1:10 hot nitric acid extracts the same 

group of elements from both neat and ignited 

samples. The stronger acid is more effective in 

the extraction of B, Fe, Mo, Zn and Pb while 1:10 

nitric is more effective in extracting P, Al, Mn, 

Mg, Si, Ca and Cu. 

The mass of extracted material decreases with 

ignition and acid strength: 

neat sample, 1:l nitric acid 7 18% extracted 

neat sample, 1:lO nitric acid 7 8.8% extracted 

ignited sample, 1:1 nitric acid B 11% extracted 

ignited sample, 1:lO nitric acid B 4.5% extracted 

Assuming the extractability is primarily due to 

adsorption on kerogen and not related to kerogen 

trashtr or other activation, the partition of

5. 

-1 

11-38 

elements between kerogen and silicate phases of 

the black shale is shown in Figure II.C.2 where 

preferences d et ermi ned by compar ing 

concentrations in dried extracts of neat and 

ignited shale are compared. 

R€fmG€N 

PREFERENCE

11-39 

STUDY 3. NONaTRADITIONAL ATTEMPTS TO SEPARATE PHASES PRESENT I N 

THE BLACK SHALE. 

The separation of kerogen, silicate and sulfide phases of 

black shale into fractions suitable for chemical studies is very 

difficult. Typically, ignition or lowatemperature ashing is used 

to destroy hydrocarbons and harsh chemical treatments to destroy 

silicates. None of the more usual methods have a "delicate 

touch", however, and the response of the sulfide phase to the 

various treatments is unknown. Consequently, reported chemistry 

of the various black shale fractions must always be treated with 

some suspicion. 

Two sets of experiments to gain better insight to the phase 

chemistry of the black shale were conducted. In one, bubble 

transport was used to beneficiate a kerogen (+ sulfide?) fraction 

and in the other selective volatilization of neat sample in a 

specially designed spectrographic electrode was employed. 

Experiments using bubble transport beneficiation increased the 

kerogen content in the product by a factor of two as determined 

by ignition loss. 

Selective volatilization is a characteristic of d.c. arc 

excitation and has been enhanced by using a boileratype electrode 

provided with a powdered graphite filter pad between the sample 

and point of excitation. Resistance heating of the electrode

11-40 

should first drive off kerogen, perhaps together with highly 

volative elements, from the silicate/sulfide phase and time 

studies on neat and ignited samples may then be used to relate a 

particular element with its phases. The following associations 

appear to hold: 

Elements wholly or dominantly associated - with kerogen 

(early vaporization, absent in ignited samples). 

silver zinc 

lead nickel 

Elements wholly or dominantly associated -- 

with the 

silicate phase. 

zircon titanium 

vanadium sodium 

boron 

copper 

magnesium 

Elements present - in - both kerogen - and silicate 

fractions. 

manganese 

iron

11-41 

STUDY 4. REVISED CHEMICAL SEPARATORY PROCEDURES. 

The shift in emphasis in kerogen discriminaton studies from 

whole rock and fossil fragment sample materials to separated 

kerogen necessitated the development of a rapid means for 

separating kerogen from its silicate matrix. To this end, the 

following procedure was developed. 

- 

Acid Mixture: Working under a fume hood, transfer the 

contents of a l..=pound bottle of HF (48%) to a lyliter 

polyethylene bottle. Chill the HF in a bath of cold water for 

one hour. Keeping the polyethylene bottle in the cold water 

bath, add 165 m l of concentrated sulfuric acid, mix and allow to 

cool. Add 40 ml of concentrated nitric acid and mix. 

Procedure: 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Transfer 1.00 gm of each sample to special Teflon 

beakers. 

Add 30 m l of the Acid Mixture to each Teflon beaker and 

swirl to wet the sample. 

Cover the Teflon beakers with Teflon covers and place 

the beakers on a steam bath so that most of the beaker 

is suspended in steam. Allow to heat for six hours. 

Remove the Teflon beakers from the steam bath and 

dilute the contents to approximately 1 liter with 

demineralized water using a polyethylene container. 

Separate the solid and liquid fractions Using vacuum

11-42 

filtration. Wash filtrate with 0.2N NC1 and three 

times with demineralized water. 

6. Dry filtrate.

STUDY 5. ANALYTIC PRECISION. 

11-43 

Eight replicates of the same black shale sample were run to 

test instrumental/operator precision for the spectrochemical 

methods being employed. The elements determined and their 

coefficients of variations (C> are: 

Element C% 

B 9.9 

P 11.5 

cu 12.9 

Pb 7.0 

Cr 13.8 

Ga 11.7 

Mo 14.4 

V 14.6 

co 19.3 

Ni 12.8 

Zr 15.4

11-44 

STUDY 6. LASER MICROPROBE (LMP) ANALYSIS. 

The laser microprobe is a spectrographic analytical system in 

which a laser beam is directed to a sample through prefocussed 

microscope optics and the plume of vaporized and slightly ionized 

material breaks down a voltageybiased spark gap. The vapor in 

the plume is excited by the spark and serves as a source for an 

optical spectrograph. The unit employed, A Mark I1 LMP 

manufactured by the JarrellyAsh Co., affords excellent 

sensitivity for laser?vaporized pits approximately 50 microns in 

d i ame t er . 

Identifiable carbonized fossil fragments from the black shale 

and other sources were analyzed for a number of elements. 

Considering woody (coaly) fragments and marine algae (Foerstia) 

to represent two probably abundant precursors of kerogen, a 

number of samples of each was run and the resultant data is Shown 

graphically in Figure II,C.3. Foerstia is definitely depleted in 

lead and zinc and enriched in strontium, iron, aluminum and 

manganese compared with coaly material. Suggestively, the ratio 

of Pb or Zn to Sr, Fe, A1 or Mn should provide a means of 

distinguishing these kinds of plant materials. However, Since a 

ratio involving Zn or Fe Could be upset by the presence of 

sulfide phases (sphalerite or pyrite) in the rock and the A1 

content in samples is controlled by their clay content, only Pb, 

Sr, and Mn w i l l probably serve. Plotting of various element 

combinations for a number of r9ck samples indicates the best

100 

11-45 

F-7-77 

RELATIVE 5PECTRAL INTENSITY 

/ 

f I0 

Alum inu rn 

Fig. II.C.3

selection to be Sr:Pb, 

11-46 

Figure II.C.4, shows the results of a number of analyses of 

Various carbonized fossils believed to be kerogen precursors and 

a few kerogenous rock samples. A good separation of woody 

plants and animals is achieved, the marine plant, Foerstia, lies 

in an intermediate position, and the rock kerogen appears to be 

derived from woody plant material. 

10 

t 

- Re tatrve spectral Iniensity 

for Carbonqed Fossils 

- 0 woody plants v kemqenousKxb - 

0 anmals @ Foatta imO?l!ls plant) 

I I 1 I I I I I I I I 

Fig. II.C.4

11-47 

STUDY 7. COMPARISON OF INORGANIC COMPOSITION OF KEROGEN FROM 

OUTCROP SAMPLES I N LEWIS AND CUMBERLAND COUNTIES, KY. 

Kerogen separation was accomplished by dissolution of the rock 

with hydrofluoric acid, admittedly harsh treatment and one apt to 

strip adsorbed ions from the kerogen. The results, however, 

were generally consistent with other measures of partition 

obtained using the laser microprobe to compare the composition of 

carbonaceous fossil fragments and their matrix, Separations 

utilizing boric acid fluxing followed by treatment with acids to 

dissolve the rock, and comparisons of whole and ashed samples. 

The principal rockyforming elements measured (Ti, Fe, Al, Mg, 

Na and Mn) all show kerogenlrock partition ratios of less than 

0.5 and do not appear to contribute proportionately to the 

inorganic composition of kerogen. Minor elements such as N i , Pb, 

P, Cu and Zn show greater enrichment in kerogen with partition 

ratios between 0.5 and 3 (See Figure II.C.5). 

Among the metals, the order of enrichment in kerogen from 

greatest to least is a high group of Cr, Cu, N i and Pb followed 

by a low group of Mo, V, Zn and Co. 

The enrichment of chromium in kerogen without concomitant 

increase in such geochemical companions as N i , Mn, Mg, Fe and 

especially V is notable. Cr:X where X is one of these elements 

should be a sensitive measure of kerogen content in black shale.

5 

h 

Y 

E 

11-48 

Fig..II.C'.5 

CONTENT OF VAFUOUS EtEIVZENTS 

IN BLACK SHALE AND ITS CONTAINED 

KEROGEN 

Enriched in wholt ruck -

11-49 

The black shale section in Lewis Co. Kentucky is believed to 

represent deposition in shallow brackish water and that in 

Cumberland Co. in a deeper openymarine environment. Analysis 

shows Cr:V to decrease markedly from nearyshore to openawater 

conditions (assuming the New Albany section is nearyshore). 

County 

Cr:V (kerogen) 

New Albany Lewis County Cumberland 

Cr:V (whole rock) 4.5 0.88 .26 

Strontium, alone among the trace elements, has a marked 

preference for the silicate phase (Figure II.C.5) and, 

additionally, apppears to be enriched in woody material (Study 

II.C.6). The ratio Cr:Sr should thus also decrease with distance 

from shore as the fraction of terrestriallyyderived kerogen 

decreases. 

County 

New Albany Lewis County Cumber land 

Cr : Sr (kerogen 3.12 53 .22 

Cr:Sr (whole rock) 2.95 .16 .10 

In summary, since 1) the content of chromium in black shale 

depends strongly on its kerogen content and 2) chromium is 

enriched in neartshore brackish environments over deeptwater

11-50 

marine environments while the reverse is true for strontium, 

then: 

Cr:Sr increases with kerogen content. 

Cr:Sr increases shoreward. 

Other elements showing landward or seaward concentration 

changes in kerogen are: 

SUMMARY 

Enriched landward 7 Al, Mg, Ti 

No enrichment 7 Pb, Cu 

Enriched seaward 7 Fe, P, Ca, Mn, Ni, Na 

A summary of the various studies reported is provided in the 

following table which indentifies the particular elements 

measured and indicates their utility for various purposes.

H 

I 

wl 

P 

I I I + I I + l + l l 1 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 

I I 1 + 1 + + I I + + 

I 1 0 1 1 + 1 1 + I + 1 + 1 

1 + 1 1 + + I I + 1 I + I I + 

+ I + + + + + + 

. 

~~ ~ 

+ + I + 

8 

+ + + + + I + + + 

En 

of 

to 

Po 

di 

Ke 

( 

Ke 

( 

Pl 

( 

De 

(S

CHAPTER 1I.D. 

THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BLACK SHALE MATERIALS BY 

X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETRY 

W. H. Blackburn, A. E. Bland, P. A. Davis, G. Markowitz, C. G. Hull 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the tasks of the Devonian shale contract awarded to the Ken- 

tucky Geological Group was that of compiling all chemical data for this 

unit within Kentucky in order to contribute to the overall characteriza- 

tion of the material. These data were to be used for a statistical 

evaluation of the geochemistry of the unit and, thus, good regional and 

stratigraphic coverage was deemed necessary. 

program of the DOE did not allow for the anticipated coverage since only 

four cores were available for analysis. 

The protracted drilling 

The Kentucky Research Group, thus, 

went ahead with a sampling program based for the most part on twelve com- 

plete outcrop sections. Further, the Kentucky Geological Survey, through 

another DOE contract, drilled five holes on the western and southern sides 

of the outcrop belt affording considerably better coverage. 

In all, over 300 complete inorganic whole-rock analyses were to be 

made and it quickly became evident that a rapid analytic system which 

gave accurate and precise information was necessary. 

This chapter is a summary report of the analytic system used for 

major, minor and trace element determinations. 

It should be noted that 

uranium and thorium were determined by gamma-ray spectrometry and a report 

of the techniques used is given as an Appendix to this chapter. 

The instrument in use is a Philips PW1410/70 vacuum spectrometer 

coupled to a General Electric X-ray generator capable of 60 kv, 50 ma load 

11-52

11-53 

on the X-ray tube. The spectrometer is equipped with chromium-tungsten- 

and molybdenum-target tubes and five analyzing crystals: LiF(200), LiF 

(220), PET, ADP and ThAP. The selection of the analyzing crystal is made 

on the basis of best signal to background ratio for the element in question, 

good resolution of analytic line and linearity of background in the wave- 

length region of interest. 

The particular X-ray tube used is determined by excitation response. 

The chromium tube is used for elements up to Cr in atomic number; a 

tungsten tube is used for Cr to Zn, and a molybdenum target from Zn to Y. 

Niobium is the only element heavier than Y determined by X-ray fluorescence 

and W tube is used for its determination. 

Both gas-flow proportional and scintillation counters are available. 

The choice of the counter and its applied voltage as well as amplifier 

gain, pulse height descrimination and tube current and voltage is deter- 

mined by greatest peak to background ratio and thus to minimize counting 

times for a desired level of counting error. 

The spectrometer scaler/timer is intefaced to a teletype affording 

both immediate hard copy and punched paper tape. 

GENERAL METHOD AND CALIBRATION 

The ratio technique was used exclusively in order to obtain the 

highest possible precision. 

Long term variations in the performance of 

the spectrometer may be due to deterioration of the X-ray target-tube 

or electronic drift. 

be due to varying quality of the vacuum and thermal contraction and 

expansion of the analyzing crystal although the latter are minimized by 

the presence of a heater/blower in the spectrometer which holds the 

temperature to within one degree of 3OoC. 

Short term variations which might be observed may

11-54 

The ratio technique eliminates variations due to instability on the 

order of five minutes. Shorter term instabilities are rare. The 

technique consists of ratioing counts to a calibration pellet which is 

run a fixed cyclic interval. 

Samples are scaled proportional to the counts 

on the control at the beginning and end of the cycle. 

A further adjust- 

ment is made at the end of the batch by adjusting all counting data ac- 

cording to the value of the first and last control samples in the batch. 

Excellent counting precision has resulted from the technique and counting 

errors based on replicate counts on the same pellet over a ten-hour day 

were never greater than 1 percent. 

All determinations are made on neat pellets and although mass 

absorption corrections are imposed on the trace element determinations, 

no corrections are made for the interelement effects of major elements. 

This seemed to pose no great problem during the project but routines have 

recently been added to the computational scheme to correct the major element 

excitation for interelement effects such as absorption and fluorescence. 

Interferences due to line overlap have been discussed in some detail 

by Webber and Newbury (1971). Those of importance in this work are the 

interference of SrKB with ZrKa, RbKB on YKa, VkB on CrKa and CaKB on 

PKa. The commonly noted interference of CrKB on MnKa was avoided by 

using the LiF(220) analyzing crystal and a fine collinator. Similarly, 

a fine collimator coupled with very restrictive pulse height selection 

removed the effect of Ca on P. All other interferences were corrected 

by the use of stripping techniques. 

Calibration of the various elemental determination employed an assem- 

blage of international rock standards and ttin-house” standards with which 

there was considerable confidence in the composition. Normally, the 

radical difference in matrix of organic-rich sedimentary materials and

11-55 

the international standard rocks would generate considerable anomalies 

in the results. Ashing of the shale materials prior to analysis, how- 

ever, afforded a similar matrix presented to the X-ray beam and no bias 

was evident in the determinations on samples such as SGR-1 (Green River 

Shale); SDO-1 (Ohio Shale) - standards prepared by the U.S.G.S. Further, 

an in-house standard, the Applachian Paleozoic Shale Composite, was al- 

ways in excellent agreement with values resulting from other chemical 

determinations. 

SAMPLE PREPARATION 

Samples received from the field were broken by hammer into pieces of 

approximately 3 to 7 cm in diameter. These were passed throough a steel 

jaw crusher which had been previously contaminated with "half a handful" 

of the sample. 

The sample was then reduced further in an adjustable disc-grinder with 

ceramic plates. 

amount of the sample material previous to comminution of the remainder. 

Disc grinding reduced the sample to -100 mesh and at this point a splitter 

was used to provide material for gamma-ray spectrometry and X-ray fluores- 

cence analysis. 

Jaw crushing reduced the material to approximately 0.5 cm. 

The disc-grinder was precontaminated with a small 

For X-ray fluorescence analysis, approximately 5 grams of sample were 

0 

dried in a ceramic concible for 24 hours at 110 C. 

Weighing before and 

after the drying afforded a moisture value. Thedriedsample was then 

ashed at 500°C in a muffle furnace for 8 hours. This temperature was 

selected as it removes all organic material but is below the level of 

thermal dissociation of the carbonates (Goldsmith, 1977). Since organic 

carbon is the principal component lost during the ashing, the value, 

100 - %ASH, is a good extimate of the organic carbon in the sample.

11-56 

This method has been shown to be useful by Leventhal et al. (1978) and 

Dennen et al. (1978). 

The ashed samples were then ground to -325 mesh in a tungsten carbide 

ball mill and pressed, neat, into boric-acid backed pellets at 15 tons 

pressure.

11-57 

ANALYTIC PROCEDURES 

The theory and practice of elemental determination by means of X-ray 

fluorescence spectrometry have been well developed and described by 

various authors (Jenkins and DeVries, 1967; Miiller, 1972; Adler, 1966; 

Leake, 1969). 

For a more complete description of the X-ray fluorescence 

methods, the reader should refer to these authors. 

Major Element Analysis 

The counting technique for major element determinations was based 

on counting for a pre-set time, usually 20 to 40 seconds. 

Background 

was measured at an inteference-free wave length generally between one- 

half and two degrees two-theta on one side of the analytic position. 

In order to reduce (and generally eliminate) instrumental drift, 

a "control" sample was run every eighth 'determination. 

were counted every sixteenth determination. 

count rates were corrected for drift and intensities calculated from simple 

peak minus background. 

this is probably desirable. 

Standard samples 

Both peak and background 

No interelement corrections were made although 

Calibration curves employing the international rock and mineral stand- 

ards were constructed by linear regression of concentration on intensity. 

Concentration values for the standards were taken from Flanagan (1973) 

and Abbey (1975). 

Instrumental settings for the major element determinations are given 

in Table 1. 

Table 2. 

A summary of precision and accuracy estimates is given in 

Standard rocks W-1 and GSO-1 were run in triplicate along with 

the Devonian Ohio Shale SDO-1. 

Although precision of determinations is 

generally quite good, accuracy is problematic in some cases. A1 0 tends 

2 3

11-58 

Table 1 

Instrumental Settings for the X-ray Fluorescent 

Determination of Major Elements 

Element - Peak Source(KVA/ma) 

Si 

Cr(45/35) 

Ti 

A1 

Fe 

Mn 

Mg 

Ca 

Na 

K 

P 

S 

Cr(45/40) 

Cr(45/40) 

Cr (45/35) 

W(50/40) 

Cr (50/40) 

Cr (45/40) 

Cr (S0/40) 

Cr (30/20) 

Cr (45/40) 

Cr (45/40) 

Crystal PHS(E/AE) 

PET 2.5/5*0 

LiF(200) 2-5/5-0 

ADP 2*5/5*0 

LiF(200) 3.0/7-5 

LiF(200) 2.0/4.4 

TAP 2.7/5*4 

LiF (200) 2.5/5.0 

TAP 2-5/6.0 

PET 2 * 5/5 -0 

PET 2 *8/2 - 0 

PET 2-5/5*0 

Counter 

FP 

FP 

FP 

sc 

FP 

FP 

FP 

FP 

FP 

FP 

FP 

Path 

Vacuum 

Air 

Vacuum 

Air 

Air 

Vacuum 

Air 

Vacuum 

Vacuum 

Vacuum 

Vacuum

11-59 

Table 1 continued 

Instrumental Settings for X-ray Fluorescent 

Determination of Trace Elements 

Element Peak SourceFKVAlma) 

Ba 

W (50/40) 

Cd 

co 

Cr 

cu 

Ga 

Mo 

Nb 

Ni 

Pb 

Rb 

Sr 

v 

Y 

Zn 

Zr 

W (50/40) 

W (50/40) 

W(50/40) 

W(50/40) 

W (5 0/40) 

W (50/40) 

W (50/40) 

W (50/4 0) 

W(50/40) 

Mo(50/40) 

Mo (50/40) 

W (50/40) 

Mo (50/40) 

W (50/4 0) 

Mo (50/40) 

Crystal PHS(E/AE) Counter Path 

LiF (200) 2 - 0/4 04 FP Air 

PET 

LiF (200) 

LiF (200) 

LiF (200) 

LiF (220) 

LiF (220) 

LiF(220) 

LiF (200) 

LiF (220) 

LiF (220) 

LiF(220) 

LiF (200) 

LiF (220) 

LiF(220) 

LiF (220) 

2 * 5/ 5 -3 

2 0/4 - 5 

2 -0/4-5 

2.0/4 -5 

2 * 0/4 * 5 

2 -0/4 05 

2.0/4 -5 

2 * 0/4 - 5 

2*0/4-5 

2-0/4*7 

2-0/4.7 

2*0/4 -4 

2 0/4 - 7 

2.0/4 - 5 

2*0/4*7 

FP 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

sc 

FP 

sc 

sc 

sc 

Vacuum 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air 

Air

1 

2 

3 

w-1 - 

X 

S 

cv 

A 

1 

2 

3 

GSP- 1 - 

X 

S 

cv 

A 

sw-1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

- 

X 

S 

cv 

Si02 Ti02 2'3 

52.86 

51.69 

51.03 

51.32 

0.44 

1.78 

52.72 

68.03 

68.73 

68.94 

68.07 

0.48 

0.69 

67.31 

49.82 

49.54 

50.36 

50.30 

50.00 

0.30 

0.79 

1.00 

1 .oo 

1.06 

1.02 

0.03 

3.48 

1.07 

0.62 

0.64 

0.59 

0.62 

0.03 

0.66 

0.66 

0.84 

0.82 

0.81 

0.79 

0.82 

0.02 

2.60 

Table 2 

Precision and Accuracy of Chemical Analysis Major Elements 

15.80 

15.66 

15.69 

15.71 

0.07 

0.45 

14.87 

15.81 

16.02 

15.81 

15.88 

0.12 

0.76 

15.19 

14.16 

14.15 

14.08 

13.98 

14.09 

0.08 

0.59 

Fe203* MgO CaO Na20 K20 P205 M 

10.10 

10.07 

9.92 

10.03 

0.10 

0.96 

10.00 

3.66 

3.70 

3.64 

3.67 

0.03 

4.33 

4.33 

9.89 

9.96 

10.11 

9.81 

9.94 

0.13 

1.28 

6.54 

6.62 

6.56 

6.55 

0.07 

0.54 

6.63 

0.94 

0.99 

0.96 

0.96 

0.03 

0.96 

0.96 

1.73 

1.67 

1.65 

1.63 

1.67 

0.04 

2.58 

9.60 

9.62 

9.56 

9.59 

0.03 

0.32 

10.98 

1.83 

1.85 

1.82 

1.84 

0.02 

2.02 

2.02 

0.94 

0.90 

0.91 

0.92 

0.92 

0.02 

1.86 

2.17 

2.10 

2.11 

2.13 

0.04 

1.78 

2.15 

2.62 

2.69 

2.70 

2.67 

0.04 

2.80 

2.80 

0.33 

0.35 

0.35 

0.35 

0.35 

0.01 

2.89 

0.46 

A 49.81 0.73 12.62 9.21 1.61 1.04 .~ 

- 

0.65 

0.66 

0.68 

0.66 

0.02 

2.30 

0.64 

5.46 

5.52 

5.50 

5.49 

0.03 

5.32 

5.53 

3.68 

3.62 

3.67 

3.73 

3.68 

0.05 

1.22 

3.32 

0.16 

0.16 

0.16 

0.16 

0.00 

0.14 

0.25 

0.26 

0.26 

0.25 

0.00 

0.28 

0.28 

X = arithmetic mean; s = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation (one standa 

tion); A = accepted value; * total iron calculated as Fez03 

---- 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.0 

-- 

0.1 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0

w-1 - 

Table 2 continu'ed 

Precision and Accuracy of Chemical Analysis Trace Elements 

Ba Cd CO Cr cu Ga Mo Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr V 

1 333 0.21 21 98 108 17 0 17 8 6 14 214 246 

2 363 0.22 26 105 116 17 0 20 6 6 17 220 252 

3 34 7 0.22 19 109 117 18 0 15 7 6 16 219 243 

X 34 8 0.22 22 104 114 17 0 17 7 6 16 218 247 

S 15 0.01 4 5 5 0.6 - 3 1 0 2 3 5 

cv 4 3. 16 5 4 3 - 15 14 - 10 15 2 

A 160 0.15 50 120 110 16 0.6 15 9 8 21 190 240 

1 1300 0.61 5 33 15 17 61 46 246 233 65 

d 2 1260 0.52 4 30 18 20 54 44 246 237 72 

\D 

I 3 1240 0.58 4 28 19 21 55 49 251 236 67 

- 

H GSP-1 

X 1270 0.57 4 30 17 19 57 46 248 235 68 

S 31 5. 0.6 3 2 2 4 3 3 2 4 

cv 2 8 13 8 12 11 7 5 1 1 5 

A 1300 I--- 7.8 33 23 23? 78 64 250 240 54 

1 

2 

595 

588 

0.95 

0.95 

63 

59 

56 

54 

66 

62 

21 

20 

128 

120 

20 

17 

12 

12 

33 

32 

3 564 0.89 65 49 61 22 121 17 13 31 

SDO- 1 - 

X 582 0.93 62 53 63 21 123 18 12 32 169 

s 

cv 

16 

3 

0.03 

4.00 

3 

5 

4 

7 

3 

4 

1 

5 

4 

4 1 

2 

0 

0.6 

5 

1 

3 

3 

2 

- 

X = arithmetic mean; s - standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation (one stand 

A = accepted value. 

173 

167 

168

11-62 

to be high whereas total Fe and CaO are lower than the recommended values 

in W-1 and GSP-1. 

thus, the problem is not obvious. However, these elements may be sus- 

ceptible to matrix absorption or fluorescence effects to which there 

were no corrections made. 

The results for other elements are quite good and, 

The results presented here for the shale standard SDO-1 are in fair 

agreement with the recommended values. The latter, however, are based 

on rather limited data and should be treated with caution. 

Trace Element Analysis 

In many applications, X-ray fluorescent intensities are developed by 

counting on a peak position and two adjacent, interference-free background 

positions. The actual background count rate is interpolated graphically 

or mathematically. Problems arise, however, due to the fact that there 

are few completely interference-free positions in the normal rock spectra 

and the method is reliable over only a very limited wavelength range. 

The method is also very time-consuming. Further, trace element intensiti’es 

are considerably affected by the chemical and physical matrix of the 

sample. 

The correction for matrix effects is generally accomplished by 

the use of mass absorption coefficients which may be determined from the 

major element chemistry (Jenkins and DeVries, 1970). Reynolds (1963 1967), 

however, has shown that the mass absorption coefficient is inversely re- 

lated to the intensity of the peak intensity due to Compton scattering 

of the primary X-radiation. 

Since not only the characteristic line of the X-ray tube tzrget is 

scattered by the sample but also the continuum, any background may also 

be shown to be inversely related to the mass-absorption coefficient (Wil- 

brand, 1978; Feathers and Willis, 1976). Wilbrand (1975) developed a

11-63 

method whereby a sample's background intensity at the K-alpha wavelength 

of the element can be obtained by reference to a calibration curve once 

the mass-absorption coefficient has been determined by the Reynold's 

method. Feathers and Willis (1976) also noted that, between major element 

absorption edges, background intensities at different wavelength positions 

were linearly related. 

In the present study, mass absorption coefficients were determined 

as the inverse intensity of the Compton scattered molybdenum target radia- 

tion. Backgrounds for each element were determined by counting at the 

analytic peak position on simple specpure oxide pellets which exhibited 

a range of mass absorption coefficients. Background calibration curves 

were then generated and the final intensities were derived by correcting 

for background and mass absorption. 

Instrumental settings for the trace element determinations are given 

in Table 3 and an estimate of precision and accuracy is given in Table 4. 

Again W-1 and GSP-1 were run in triplicate over the course of the study 

and the resulting replicate determinations used to calculate precision. 

Precision is generally very good and accuracy is certainly adequate con- 

sidering the wide range of reported values for trace elements in the stan- 

dard rocks.

11-64 

REFERENCES 

Abbey, S. (1975): Geol. Surv. Canada Paper 74-41, 23 p. 

Adler, I. (1966): X-ray emmision spectrography in geology, Elsevier, 

Amsterdam, 258 p. 

Dennen, W. H., Blackburn, W. H. and Davis, P. A. (1978): Proceedings, 

First Eastern Gas Shales Symposium DOE MERC/SP-77/5, p. 49-67. 

Feathers, C. E., and Willis, J. P. (1976): X-ray Spectrom. v. 5, p. 41- 

48. 

Flanagan, F. J. (1973): Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 77, p. 1189- 

1200. 

Goldsmith, R. H. (1976): Compos, p. 42-50. 

Jenkins, R. and DeVries, J. L. (1964): Practical X-ray Spectrometry. 

Springer-Verlag, New York, 181 p. 

Leake, B. E. and others (1969): Chemical Geology, v. 5, p. 7-86. 

Leventhal, J. S. and Goldhaber, M. B. (1978): Proceedings, First Eastern 

Gas Shales Symposium, DOE MERC/SP-77/5, p. 259-296. 

Loevinger, R. and Besman, M. (1951): Nucleonics, v. 9, 26-39. 

Mhler, R. 0. (1972) : Spectrochemical analysis by X-ray fluorescnece. 

Springer-Verlag, New York 181 p. 

Reynolds, R. J. (1963): her. Mineralogist, v. 48, p. 1133-1143. 

Reynolds, R. J. (1967): Amer. Mineralogist, v. 52, p. 1493-1502. 

Webber, G. R. and Newbury, M. L. (1971): Camad. Spectroscopy, v. 16, 

p. 3-7. 

Wilbrand, J. T. (1976): X-ray Spectrom., v. 5, p. 42-48.

11-65 

APPENDIX 

Gamma-ray Spectrometric Determination 

of Uranium and Thorium 

All determinations of uranium and thorium were made by gamma-ray 

spectrometry. 

Samples were weighed and packed into 2.5 cm x 7.7 cm 

tinned, seamless aluminum cans which were subsequently labeledand sealed 

with plastic electrical tape. The samples were allowed to reequilibrate 

with radon and thoron for at least two weeks prior to counting. Each of 

the containers held 100 to 200 grams of mashed, crushed shale material. 

The sample preparation method was checked for contamination by preparing 

samples of quartz and dunite in the same mammer as normal samples: 

increase in activity above normal background was noted. 

detector. 

U and Th were determined using a 75 x 75 mm thallium activated NaI 

All counting took place inside a lead brick castle with walls 

at least 50 nun thick on all sides. 

Northern TN1705 1024 channel pulse height analyzer. Counting took place 

at two energy levels in order to solve for the two unknown count rates. 

The 1.76 MeV peak (Bi2I4 in the uranium series) was used for U and the 2.62 

MeV peak (ThZo8 in the thorium series) was used for Th. 

no 

The detector was compled to a Tracorl 

The gamma-ray spectrometric system was calibrated using standard 

radioactive samples acquired from the Canadian Certified Reference Materials 

Project and a U.S. Atomic Energy Commission standard consisting of uraninite 

diluted with dunite. Precision of the analyses was checked by replicate 

determinations on a Devonian shale sample and by the estimate of counting 

precision using the method of Loevinger and Berman (1961). 

Uranium deter- 

minations generally had a coefficient of variation of less than 2 percent 

and thorium generally had a coefficient of variation of about 5 percent.

IT-66 

These values were always less than the errors calculated using only counting 

statistics.

CHAPTER 11. E 

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE 

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE 

DEVONIAN SHALES I N KENTUCKY 

W. H. Blackburn and G. Markowitz 

The first attempt at a statistical analysis of the 

geochemistry of the Devonian Black Shales was presented by 

Bialobok et al. (1978). Using an Rdmode cluster analysis of data 

obtained from two West Virginia wells, they were able to discern 

nine groups and the results indicated that specific gravity, 

moisture, organic sulfur, Cu, Ba, Fe and Na correlated negatively 

with depth. Boron and chlorite, however, were shown to be 

directly related to depth in the section. 

This work, although limited in regional scope and complicated 

by the fact that internal stratigraphy of the black shale was not 

considered, showed that a statistical analysis of the lithologic 

Unit had promise. Some regularity and predictability was noted&& 

an observation not often made in the geochemistry of clastic 

sediments. 

Markowitz (19791, in his extensive study of the geochemistry 

of the black shales in the eastern outcrop belt of Kentucky, 

performed a rather extensive statistical study on the data. His 

11-67

11-68 

data set was made up of 163 samples collected from ten outcrops 

along the eastern flank of the Cincinnati Arch. The samples were 

colllected during the stratigraphic study by Swager (1978). The 

variables considered for each specimen included the 11 major 

elements, 19 trace elements and 9 normative minerals derived from 

the major element chemistry. Since the study of the internal 

stratigraphy by Swager was concurrent with that of Markowitz and 

fraught with uncertaincies, stratigraphic position was not 

included in the list of variables. 

Markowitz (1979) performed a complete correlation analysis 

and factor analysis on the data set at his disposal. The results 

of this study were submitted in full to METC in a quarterly 

technical report and only highlights w i l l be reviewed here. 

Since completion of his study, much more data has been added from 

this laboratory and from other contractors. A much greater areal 

coverage is now available and statistical inferences will take on 

greater meaning. 

SUMMARY STATISTICS 

The total data set available for Kentucky now contains 452 

individual samples. One problem still exists, however, in that 

not all contractors determine the same list of chemical 

variables. Thus , many statistical tests are limited to the data 

set with complete coverage. A selection of those variables is 

made by considering the potential of a particular element as a 

geochemical discriminator. Further, an attempt is made to have

11-69 

TABLE II.E.l 

Means and standard deviations of the variables selected 

for statistical analysis 

Variable 

Si 

Ti 

A1 

Fe 

Mg 

Ca 

Na 

K 

P 

S 

Ca 

cu 

co 

Cr 

Ni 

V 

Mo 

U 

Th 

Sr 

Zn 

Pb 

N 

452 

452 

452 

452 

425 

452 

426 

448 

438 

452 

452 

281 

214 

283 

303 

264 

216 

407 

390 

285 

216 

214 

Mean 

~- 

56.27 

0.07 

14.64 

5.68 

1.73 

1.43 

0.61 

3.86 

0.12 

2.49 

10.35 

68 

14 

40 

43 

185 

72 

23 

11 

127 

133 

23 

Std. Dev. 

5.20 

0.02 

2.59 

2.15 

1.56 

2.60 

0.93 

0.80 

0.25 

1.88 

6.92 

71 

32 

78 

53 

131 

65 

18 

4 

72 

3 50 

21

11-70 

each variable determined in at least half the samples in the 

complete data set. The final list of variables includes 10 major 

elements, organic carbon, and 11 trace elements. Table II.E.l 

gives the means and standard deviations of each of the variables 

selected for further statistical analysis. 

CORRELATION ANALYSIS 

A correlation analysis was carried out by Markowitz on 132 

samples from the eastern outcrop belt. Recent results on the 

complete data set show no significant geochemical results and, 

thus, Markowitz's work serves as the basis of this review. 

Correlation .coefficients suggest that the major and trace 

elements may be grouped into associations based upon high 

positive correlations between particular elements and low to 

negative correlations between these elements and those of other 

associations. 

- 

The Clastic Association 

Si, Ti, Al, K, Na, Rb 

The group clearly represents a elastic association. Based upon 

the correlation coefficients and geologic considerations (mineral 

and element associations and habits) , this group can be 

subdivided as follows: 

a) detrital quartz 

b) clayafeldspar (K, Rb, Na, Al) 

c) accessory minerals (Ti, Zr, Th)

- 

The Pyrite Association 

11-71 

In decreasing order, the following elements show a high positive 

correlation with Fe: 

Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, Nb, Ga, N i , Zn 

The group is characterized by the elements representing the 

sulfide fraction of the shale. The major elements Fe and S and 

the sulfophile trace elements Pb, Cd, Co, N i , and Zn are the main 

constituents. Niobium, gallium and chromium are included in the 

group although these elements generally show oxyphile tendencies. 

These elements have been noted before, however, in the 

carbonaceous fraction of bituminous rocks in association with Fe, 

Co, and Cu (Saxby, 1969). 

It is interesting to note that Cu does not correlate with Fe 

in these rocks but does correlate strongly with P and weakly with 

sulfur. Copper probably exists as a separate copper sulfide or as 

a phosphate. 

- The Carbonate Association 

Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Cd, and S 

The association of the typical carbonate elements Ca, Mg, Mn with 

sulfur, copper, and cadmium is unexpected. Was copper deposited 

by a secondary hydrothermal event which deposited carbonates and 

copper Sulfides? It should be noted that coals are generally more 

sulfur rich when associated with carbonate rocks.

- The Phosphate Association 

Pb, Co, Cu, Y, Zn 

11-72 

The group has a negative correlation with all the elements of the 

clastic association. The mineralogy of the group is not Well 

known except for the apatitic tests of phosphatic fossils. The 

other elements may also be present as phosphates. 

- The Organic Association 

U, V, Mo 

The manner in which these elements are associated with the 

Organic fraction of the shales is complex and not well 

understood. Whether the elements are actually present as the 

result of metaldorganic bonds, physical and/or chemical 

adsorption, or precipitated as colloidal sulfides is not known. 

SUMMARY 

Due to the early termination of the EGSP, the statistical 

analysis of the complete data base is not complete. Results to 

date corroborate Markowitz's observations but a careful 

evaluation by factor and discriminant analyses is planned. 

Preliminary results show that the geochemical correlation of the 

internal statigraphy of Provo (1977) has some promise and that 

discriminant analysis w i l l also help develop a depositional model 

for the shale sequence. 

Data on shale chemistry, especially with regard to radioactive 

elements, and its relation to gas productivity is presently being

11-73 

evaluated but does not hold much promise. Well production 

records are generally free of information regarding the relation 

between pay zones and stratigraphic level. A better aproach to 

the problem is using the results of laboratory outdgassing tests 

conducted during this project.

11-74 

REFERENCES 

Bialobok, S. J., Lamey, S. C. and Sumartojo, J. (1978): 

Geochemical characterization of the Devonian Black Shales 

for Cottageville, West Virginia: A preliminary look at 

multivariate analysis. Proceedings, First Eastern Gas Shales 

Symposium. U.S. Department of Energy MERC/SPd77/5. 

Markowitz, G. (1979): A geochemical study of the Upper 

DevoniandLower Mississippian Black Shales in eastern 

Kentucky. M.S. Thesis, University of Kentucky. 

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