Linking Typography & Youth Subcultures By Marji Oppegaard ...

Linking Typography & Youth Subcultures
By Marji Oppegaard
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Bachelor of Fine Art in
Graphic Design Program at The Art Institute of Seattle.
December 13, 2007
_______________________ _______________________
Faculty Tony Datillo Date

Acknowledgements
I would first like to thank the person who is most important to me, my amazing son,
Hunter. Without him I wouldn’t have had the motivation to finish my education. I would
also like to thank the people who helped care for him while I was going to school,
Grandma Sally and Grandpa Kenny. Thank you to my friends and family, who have
supported me throughout this all, and last but not least, I would like to thank my
spectacular boyfriend Jeff for doing everything he could to help get me through this.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Demographics & Subcultures
A Brief History of Typography
Using Type as a Voice
Youth Subculture: Punk
Youth Subculture: Preppie
Youth Subculture: Skater
Youth Subculture: Urban
Youth Subculture: Goth
Subculture Similarities
Conclusion

Introduction
There is a certain approach designers must take in order for their piece to be
successful, which is accomplished by writing a creative brief to decide the exact target
market. A creative brief is something that helps determine the specific facts that must be
known to identify the design’s intended audience. The purpose of this paper is to describe
how certain youth subcultures are targeted in the marketing industry using certain
elements, such as typography. To understand what will appeal to the target market, a
designer must first discover the specific demographics.
Demographics & Subcultures
Demographics are statistical characteristics including age, race, gender preference,
social or economic status, etc. Every bit of this information is crucial to making a design
successful. The demographics included in acknowledging a marketing strategy can also
contribute to personifying specific subcultures. Youth culture is one that contains many
subcultures. One might observe that the general terms and responsibilities of adulthood
have been delayed. Therefore, the search for identity as a young person has amplified its
significance.
Many youth subcultures come and go quickly, but some, such as hip-hop and punk,
have been long lasting. These subcultures tend to focus on a specific shared interest such
as music or style, or a perceived commonality such as race or class or a chosen sense of
marginalization as identity. Adolescents tend to steer away from what is perceived as a
typical teenager in order to feel more like an individual. i Society allows them to feel like
individuals by first acknowledging the subcultures themselves.

Though numerous subcultures are simply self-determined, many youth subcultures
would be nonexistent to society if it weren’t for some type of representation. When
designing to attract a specific youth subculture, their style and interests should be taken
into consideration. Along with colors and images, typography choices are made
depending on the subculture for which it is indented. A brief history of typography is
necessary to understand how it evolved into a form of subculture representation.
A Brief History of Typography
Since movable type was invented, typography has evolved from a being a means of
communication to being a form of representation. Although it is said that the Chinese had
created a form of movable type centuries before Johannes Gutenberg, after many trials
and tribulations, he was the first to successfully mass-produce a printed book in 1454,
which was the Gutenberg Bible.
Gutenberg’s printing process was accomplished by creating a stamp from steel with a
mirrored image of the letter struck into a softer piece of metal. Molten metal was poured
into the mold to create the character. To create a page of text, the necessary letters were
placed into a matrix, dipped into ink, and pressed onto the paper. ii This was the birth of
the art of typography.
In the sixteenth century, Claude Garamond was the first to design typefaces, create
punches and sell them to printing presses. From then on, others decided to design their
own unique typefaces. William Caslon, John Baskerville and Giambattista Bodoni were
just a few of those designers. In 1876, William Caslon IV, the great-grandson of type
designer William Caslon, designed the first sans serif font. iii Since the first few typefaces
were created, many, many more have been produced ranging from serifs to sans serifs,

olds and lights, extended and condensed, italic and oblique, along with a variety of other
styles. These styles all contribute to the font choices a graphic designer makes when
incorporating typography into their design.
Using Type as a Voice
“Advertising Design and Typography” by Alex W. White states “Type is a frozen
sound and should be handled as an actor handles volume, pitch, and tone in the delivery
of a role to add emotion, attitude, character and quality.” iv His book also lists six ideas to
consider when designing with type as the voice. These ideas include using contrast of
size, color, direction, space, type form and tone or value.
The size of font can make the voice of the design seem loud or quiet, important or
irrelevant. Larger fonts usually speak louder and represent importance, while smaller
fonts can represent quietness and irrelevance. The direction of the typeface can help draw
someone’s attention towards a certain point. While horizontal type is the most common
direction, type used vertically can be interesting, and diagonal type may be hard to relate
to a design, though when used properly it too can be attractive.
Making good use of space and contrasting a full section with an empty section, also
known as white space, can be appealing. Type form is important because it is another
way of representing a voice. Bold type tends to demonstrate a deeper, masculine voice,
while an italic voice can be thought of as quiet and feminine. The last thing the book
suggested to contemplate is tone or value. This relates to color. Color is best when used
to make the key elements stand out. It is also a good idea to use colors within one design
in moderation. Both dark and bright fonts can be viewed as important while neutral
colors may be passed over more easily. When designing for a specific youth subculture,

professionals also determine certain styles of fonts that appeal to the group. Some
exclusive youth subcultures include punks, preppies, skaters, urban youths and goths.
Youth Subculture: Punk
Often times, music is a way to recognize a youth subculture and typography plays a
key role in this area. Music especially plays an important role in the punk youth
subculture. When the punk youth culture first began, it was about people expressing
themselves toward political and social issues. The shocking styles were a means of
representation for teenage rebellion and differentiation. These days, punk has become a
bit more mainstream than when it started. Now it’s fashionable to wear fishnet stockings
and fingerless gloves. v The music has also become commonly heard. Along with people
who are part of this subculture creating promotion items for the genre, there are graphic
designers who specialize in doing work for this certain field.
Andrio Aberro is one of them. Andrio is a graduate of The Art Institute of Seattle
who established 33rpm in 2000. He became well known in the Seattle music scene for his
screen-printed designs and he then decided to move to Brooklyn, New York, to further
his graphic design career. Some of the better-known bands he has done work for include
“My Morning Jacket” and “Death Cab for Cutie.” He also did a lot of work for “The Vera
Project,” which is a nonprofit music and arts center run by youth, for the youth located in
Seattle. vi When the time comes for choosing typography for his projects, like any
designer, he considers his audience.
The poster Andrio designed for the band “My Morning Jacket” uses a sans serif font,
which is a font without any strokes at the ends of the letters. This
gives a more modern feel to the poster, as well as how the font is in

all capitalized letters, but the curvature to the letters gives it a softer feeling, rather than
having the feeling of being yelled at. The way that the letters are rounded also tone down
the bold strokes that create the letters. His poster design for “Death Cab for Cutie” takes a
different approach.
Andrio capitalized the “D” and two “Cs” and they are bold and large and capture the
attention of the viewer. They have a stenciled appearance to them as well as the texture of
being shattered as if they were made of glass. The other letters in
the title are rounded and thin and they contrast the bold look of the
capitalized letters. These type treatments combined give the poster
a nice bold look while also not overdoing the decorative type style.
The other poster he designed for “Death Cab for Cutie” has all
capitalized letters for the title that were drawn to look three-
dimensional and the fronts of the letters are see-through to reveal
the illustration behind it in order to make the title stand out. If the
font weren’t transparent it would seem as if it was loud because of
the bold dimension, thick strokes and the tall look of the font, but
the design of the letter fronts help to quiet it down a bit. Another way to recognize
someone belonging to a youth subculture is his or her clothing.
Youth Subculture: Preppie
The preppie youth subculture is one that can be easily acknowledged by the style of
clothing worn, but the prep culture, along with the clothing, has changed. It is said that a
true prep wears collared shirts and pressed slacks with argyle sweaters draped over their
shoulders. Preps used to be known as people with money who sent their children to

private schools and always seem coordinated with their looks and their lifestyle in
general. vii Today, within the general youth population, that definition has changed.
The approach to the prep culture has been remarketed to be quite the opposite image
than it used to be. These days, a preppie within the youth culture is thought of as
someone who is good-looking, popular with his or her peers, and usually shops at stores
such as Abercrombie & Fitch, American Eagle Outfitters and Buckle. The advertising for
these companies uses images of people that are quite the opposite from what used to be
the typical prep. Sexuality has become an element in contemporary prep marketing by
using images of beautiful people scantily wearing clothes to grab the consumer’s
attention. The typography used for these stores is also used for the purpose of attracting
the preppie youth subculture.
Abercrombie & Fitch uses a serif font, which is one with extra strokes on the ends of
each letter. It is written out in a clean, sophisticated
way and uses an ampersand. It’s simple and attractive and doesn’t get too decorative.
American Eagle Outfitters uses a similar style.
A serif font is also used for American Eagle Outfitters, but every letter is capitalized.
The serifs are a bit exaggerated on the letters,
which gives the font a little bit of a more
decorated look, yet it is still simple and clean which seems to be a trend within this
subculture.
Buckle, another popular store among the preppie youth subculture, uses a bold, sans
serif font. Though it is a sans serif font, it still looks clean and modern, which well
represents the clothing sold by Buckle. The thick

strokes make this font stand out and have a seemingly deep and confident sense about it.
This font is a bit similar to the ones used for the skater culture.
Youth Subculture: Skater
The skater youth subculture, one that uses bold fonts as well, is made up of
skateboarding adolescents. Though they do skateboard, they also snowboard, wakeboard,
surf, or do any extreme sports and they are often stereotyped as punks or druggies. It is
said that skaters enjoy the thrill of skating and tend to have a careless, laidback look on
life. viii Skateboard companies usually distribute both skateboards and clothing. Some
examples of companies that do so are Birdhouse, Element and Zoo York.
Birdhouse is a skateboard company owned by Tony Hawk, a well-known professional
skateboarder. The typeface that represents the
company is a bold, rounded, clean retro font,
giving it a strong, yet fun and modern
appearance. The dot above the letter “i” was
rendered to look like a bird with his head tucked in, which gives it a bit of an organic
look, a common look amongst skateboard companies. This subculture seems to be
attracted to this type of look, possibly because of the simplicity of the design.
Element pairs their type up with a nice tree logo surrounded by circles. Their type
varies from an all-lowercase sans serif font to a serif font with just the
first letter capitalized, depending on the application, which can be
anything from skateboards and stickers to clothing and other things.
The fonts are simple and easy, yet quite attractive in contrast when paired up with the
logo. Zoo York also has a nice contrast between logo and typeface.

The Letters Z and Y, in a decorative serif font, are combined
to create the Zoo York logo. A thick, textured block font is paired
up with the logo that creates a nice distinction for the company
title. It’s simple, but also stands out at the same time. Typography
of the urban youth subculture has a tendency to stand out as well.
Youth Subculture: Urban
The urban youth culture is made up of teenagers who grew up in a city and sport a
city style. This subculture is mostly influenced by African-American society as well as
the hip-hop culture. ix Clothing, as well as hip-hop music, is a representation of this
subculture, which is usually decorated with ornamental fonts because it seems to be the
style of type that goes along with their clothing and lifestyle. These typefaces seem to be
an attempt at losing the stereotype of having a bad boy routine along with this way of life
because of the smoother approach to them.
Sean John, a clothing company owned by famous hip-hop artist, Sean “Puffy”
Combs, uses the signature of the artist for the typeface.
Though it’s decorative, it still looks sophisticated and it is
personal.
G Unit is another company owned by a hip-hop artist, 50 Cent, which uses a
decorative font. The typeface is a script font that has a
cracked texture inside of it. The script font makes the type
look sophisticated, while the cracked texture gives it a bit of a tough, masculine feeling.
Rocawear is a clothing company owned by Jay-Z, another hip-hop artist. The
typeface for this company is a bit less decorative, but it is still an ornamental type. The

end of each letter stroke varies between rounded and squared, which gives it a nice
contrast between masculine and feminine. A typographic logo sits between the words
Roca and Wear which is an “R” and “W” combined with a wavy look to it that is a nice
contrast from the bold letters that makes up the other part of the logo. Another youth
subculture that uses a variety of decorative fonts is the gothic subculture, but the
difference between the two is that the gothic style is more jagged and distorted, while the
urban style is more classy and stylish.
Youth Subculture: Goth
Gothic in itself started as a reference to architecture that began sometime in the 12 th
century. During the 17 th century it began to be used as a reference to a literature style that
branched off the individualist movement, which usually revolved around the darker
elements of human nature. x Though goth is seen by many as a way of life, these days,
gothic is typically a way to categorize people who dress in black and dark colors all the
time. They are perceived as people who are always angry and wear dark makeup to
enhance that look. It is also said that they act and dress the way they do to attract
attention to themselves, though one might deny that when confronted. It seems that the
typefaces used within this subculture are a bit amateurish and poorly designed, though
they do definitely stand out the same way the people of this subculture do.
One of the most well known retail stores that distributes gothic music and related
clothing, is Hot Topic. Located in most malls across the country, Hot Topic has been
blamed for turning the style of Goths into a mainstream fad.
The Hot Topic logo is one that stands out amongst the other

etail stores found in shopping centers. It’s bold, chunky and distorted. It has a grungy,
masculine feeling to it, which represents the gothic stereotype well.
Cradle of Filth is a gothic rock band that uses an extremely ornamental font, but it
works for this style of music. The typeface used to
represent this band is a type of black letter font that
uses an appearance that the letters were created from a
mixture of fire and vines. This creates a dark look and feeling that slightly resembles a
middle age type of style. Things pertaining to the gothic subculture often have this type
of style representing them.
The Black Angel is also gothic style clothing store with a bold typeface
representation. An imitated blackletter style font is used for the lettering, but it doesn’t
have quite as much of a masculine, dark look to it as
the other two examples. This typeface is more curvy
and elegant, which gives it a feminine feeling. The background, though, is an implication
of fire, which contrasts nicely to the typeface, making it also have a bit of a masculine
feeling to it that can appeal to both males and females of the subculture. Appealing to
both genders within subcultures seems to be common as well as the idea of expecting
women to adopt masculine styles as their own.
Subculture Similarities
None of the mentioned examples lean toward one or the other gender. They do,
however, have obvious differences between them depending on the subculture, which
helps the affiliates of these subcultures have their own individual appearance and

epresentation. A man named Armin, though, found a similarity between the youth
subcultures.
He said, “Blackletter is the only style — that I can think of — that is a crossover. In
its similarly diverse variations — texturas, frakturs, rotundas, and schwabachers — it is
equally appropriate on beer labels and fashion labels; similarly kitsch on the facades of
quaint bed and breakfasts and covers of heavy metal albums; thoroughly serious on
newspaper mastheads and diplomas or certificates; and as recognizable as the identifier
for Pushpin's Monthly Graphic and the regime of Nazi Germany.” xi
Though blackletter was mentioned only in the gothic youth subculture, it is
interesting to think that someone has realized a similarity between the subcultures.
There may be similarities between these youth subcultures, but the differences are what
help to separate them. The time that a person seems to discover themselves as individuals
is during their youth. This is a critical time for advertisers to be considering the factors
that make the subcultures distinctive from each other. Most adolescents want to feel like
they are part of something that is out of the norm. Typography, along with other key
factors, such as images and color, are crucial to making ads, clothing, music and anything
else distinctive so that these subcultures feel as if they are being specifically targeted
instead of the youth culture as a whole.
Conclusion
There are many aspects to consider when marketing to any audience. The key
market is based off of demographics that help specify interests and culture. These
demographics generally include age, race, gender, social or economic status, etc. Because
a person’s most valuable time for identifying themselves as an individual is during their

youth, it is the most important time for marketing to consider the factors that adolescents
use to represent themselves as individuals, such as their clothing style, taste in music,
hobbies, interests and such. These are all part of what make a youth subculture different
from the stereotypical teenagers, also known as the preppies.
Teenagers have attempted to steer themselves away from what is thought of as the
typical youth image which then caused groups to form such as the punks, goths, skaters
or urban youths, along with many more. In order to make these groups feel like
individuals to the general public, designers figure out exactly what it is that will appeal to
them and stand out to them as a group. Typically when designing something for a target
market, elements such as images, typography and color are considered. The typography is
the voice of the piece. Each component of a typeface is important when relaying a
message to an audience. Serif fonts, sans serif fonts, bold fonts, condensed fonts and any
others each have their own look and tone to them. Therefore, every single portion of any
font is important because if the wrong typeface is placed on a piece, it won’t be
successful at doing its job of attracting the attention of the target audience. Whether it be
a youth subculture, or a culture from another country, the design must appeal to the target
market and using typography is important in completing that task.
Works Cited
i Holme, Petter, and Andreas Gronlund. "Modelling the Dynamics of Youth Subcultures."
Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Stimulation. 2005. 11 Nov. 2007
.
ii Phinney, Thomas W., and Norman Walsh. "A Brief History of Type." RedSun. 2002. 28 Oct. 2007
.
iii Haley, Allan. Hot Designers Make Cool Fonts. Gloucester: Rockport, Inc., 1998.

iv White, Alex W. Advertising Design and Typography. New York: Allworth P, 2007.
v Shively, Denise. "The Punk Way of Life: It's Not Only a Fashion Statement."
Suite101.Com. 2 Apr. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.
vi "33rpm." 33rpm Design. 2007. 28 Oct. 2007 .
vii "Urban Dictionary: Preppy." Urban Dictionary. 28 Dec. 2008. 13 Nov. 2007
.
viii "Urban Dictionary: Skater." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
ix "Urban Dictionary: Urban." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
x "Urban Dictionary: Gothic." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
xi
Armin. "Bridging the Gap Between Hip Hop, Sports and Youth Culture." Speak Up. 09
Apr. 2005. 26 Oct. 2007
.
Image Citation (In order)
Aberro, Andrio. My Morning Jacket. 2006. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
Aberro, Andrio. Death Cab for Cutie. 2006. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
Aberro, Andrio. Death Cab for Cutie. 2004. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
"Abercrombie & Fitch." Abercrombie & Fitch. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.

"American Eagle Outfitters." American Eagle Outfitters. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.
"Buckle." Buckle. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007 .
"Birdhouse." Birdhouse Skateboards. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
"Element." Element Skateboards. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
"Zoo York." Zoo York. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007 .
"Sean John - It's Not Just a Label..." Sean John. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"G Unit Clothing Company." G Unit Clothing Co. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"Rocawear." Rocawear. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007 .
"Hot Topic: Everything About the Music." Hot Topic. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"Cradle of Filth." Cradle of Filth Official Website. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"The Black Angel." The Black Angel. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
Bibliography
"33rpm." 33rpm Design. 2007. 28 Oct. 2007 .
"Abercrombie & Fitch." Abercrombie & Fitch. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.
"Advertiser Reaches Out to Youth with Off-Set, Mixed-Typography Font." The Onion.
2 Oct. 1996. 26 Oct. 2007 .
"American Eagle Outfitters." American Eagle Outfitters. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.

Aberro, Andrio. Death Cab for Cutie. 2004. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
Aberro, Andrio. Death Cab for Cutie. 2006. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
Aberro, Andrio. My Morning Jacket. 2006. 33rpm Design. 27 Nov. 2007
.
Armin. "Bridging the Gap Between Hip Hop, Sports and Youth Culture." Speak Up. 09
Apr. 2005. 26 Oct. 2007
.
Bierut, Michael, Jessica Helfand, Steven Heller, and Rick Poynor, eds. Looking Closer 3.
New York: Allworth P, 1999.
"Birdhouse." Birdhouse Skateboards. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
Bringhurst, Robert. The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver, BC: Hartley &
Marks, 2005.
"Buckle." Buckle. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007 .
Cannon, Sigrid. "RE: My Senior Thesis." Email to the author. 28 Oct. 2007.
"Chase." Chase Design Group. 2007. 28 Oct. 2007 .
"Cradle of Filth." Cradle of Filth Official Website. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
Davis, Susan E., ed. Typography 27: the Annual of the Type Directors Club. New York:
HarperCollins, 2006.
De Gregorio, Juan Pablo. "15 Tips to Choosing a Good Text Type." Typies: a Blog of
Typography and Graphic Design. 30 Nov. 2006. 26 Oct. 2007
.
Drate, Spencer, Jutka Salavetz, and Mark Smith. Cool Type. Cincinnati: North Light
Books, 1997.

During, Simon. Cultural Studies: a Critical Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2005.
"Element." Element Skateboards. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
"G Unit Clothing Company." G Unit Clothing Co. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
Haley, Allan. Hot Designers Make Cool Fonts. Gloucester: Rockport, Inc., 1998.
Heinlien, Doug. Personal interview. 26 Oct. 2007.
Heller, Stephen, and Philip B. Meggs, eds. Texts on Type: Critical Writings on
Typography. New York: Allworth P, 2001.
Heller, Steven, ed. The Education of a Typographer. New York: Allworth P, 2004.
Holme, Petter, and Andreas Gronlund. "Modelling the Dynamics of Youth Subcultures."
Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Stimulation. 2005. 11 Nov. 2007
.
"Hot Topic: Everything About the Music." Hot Topic. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"House Industries." House Industries. 2007. 28 Oct. 2007 .
Lake, Laura. "In Marketing You Must Know Your Target." About.Com: Marketing.
2007. 10 Nov. 2007
.
Lewis, John. Typography: Basic Principles. New York: Reinhold Corporation, 1966.
McLean, Ruari, ed. Typographers on Type. New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
1995.
Phinney, Thomas W., and Norman Walsh. "A Brief History of Type." RedSun. 2002. 28
Oct. 2007 .
Richardson, Margaret E., and Matthew Carter. Type Graphics. Gloucester: Rockport,
Inc., 2000.
"Rocawear." Rocawear. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007 .

Samara, Timothy. Typography Workbook. Glouchester: Rockport, 2006.
"Sean John - It's Not Just a Label..." Sean John. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
Shively, Denise. "The Punk Way of Life: It's Not Only a Fashion Statement."
Suite101.Com. 2 Apr. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.
Silver, Linda, ed. Print's Best Typography. New York: RC Publications, 1992.
Silver, Linda. Print's Best Typography 2. New York: RC Publications, 1995.
Smith, Alice. "A Study of Gothic Subculture: an Inside Look for Outsiders." A Study of
Gothic Subculture. 29 July 1997. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"The Black Angel." The Black Angel. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007 .
"The Vera Project." The Vera Project. 2005. 13 Nov. 2007
.
"Typography." Online Technology Learning Center. 2002. Tuscaloosa City Schools. 28
Oct. 2007
.
"Urban Dictionary: Gothic." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"Urban Dictionary: Gothic." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"Urban Dictionary: Gothic." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 15 Nov. 2007
.
"Urban Dictionary: Preppy." Urban Dictionary. 28 Dec. 2007. 13 Nov. 2007
.
"Urban Dictionary: Skater." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.

"Urban Dictionary: Urban." Urban Dictionary. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007
.
Van Wagener, Anne. "Elements of Typography." Poynter Online. 15 Oct. 2003. The
Poynter Institute. 28 Oct. 2007
.
Walton, Roger, ed. BIG TYPE. New York: HarperCollins, 2002.
"What are Demographics?" H-GAC. 2007. 10 Nov. 2007 .
White, Alexander W. Thinking in Type: the Practical Philosophy of Typography. New
York: Allworth P, 2005.
White, Alex W. Advertising Design and Typography. New York: Allworth P, 2007.
"Zoo York." Zoo York. 2007. 14 Nov. 2007 .