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GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites 

Oradea University Press 

Editors in Chief: 

Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, University of Oradea, Romania 

Waldemar MOSKA, Academy of Physical Education and Sports from Gdańsk, Poland 

Associate Editors: 

Doriano CASTALDINI, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy 

Olivier DEHOORNE, University of Antille and Guyanne, France 

Marin ILIEŞ, „Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania 

Ioana JOSAN, University of Oradea, Romania 

Assistant Editors: 

Cezar MORAR, University of Oradea, Romania 

Corina TĂTAR, University of Oradea, Romania 

Scientific Committee: 

Janne AHTOLA, University of Turku, Finland 

Irasema ALCANTARA AYALA, University of Mexico, Mexic 

Alina BĂDULESCU, University of Oradea, Romania 

Dan BĂLTEANU, Romanian Academy – Institut of Geography of Bucharest, Romania 

Huhua CAO, University of Ottawa, Canada 

Nicolae CIANGĂ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania 

Pompei COCEAN, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania 

Ştefan DESZI, „Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania 

Brahin EL FASSKAOUI, University of Moulay Ismaïl, Meknès, Morocco 

Allessandro GALLO, “Ca’ Foscari” University of Venice, Italy 

Michael C. HALL, University of Canterbury, New Zeeland 

Tadeusz HUCIŃSKI, Academy of Physical Education and Sports from Gdańsk, Poland 

Ioan IANOŞ, University of Bucharest, Romania 

Corneliu IAŢU, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iaşi, Romania 

Alexandru ILIEŞ, University of Oradea, Romania 

Gabriela ILIEŞ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania 

Nicolae JOSAN, University of Oradea, Romania 

Saşa KICOSEV, University of Novi Sad, Serbia 

Zdzisław KORDEL, Academy of Physical Education and Sports from Gdańsk, Poland 

Alan A. LEW, Northern Arizona University, United States of America 

Barbara MARCISZEWSKA, Academy of Physical Education and Sports from Gdańsk, Poland 

Gabor MICHALKÓ, Hungarian Institut of Academy of Budapest, Hungary 

Ionel MUNTELE, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iaşi, Romania 

Martin OLARU, West University of Timişoara, Romania 

Mario PANIZZA, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy 

Elisa PASTORIZA, National University of Mar del Plata, Argentine 

Salva Tomas PERE, University of Balleare Island, Spain 

Rodica PETREA, University of Oradea, Romania 

Emmanuel REYNARD, University of Laussane, Suisse 

Maria Luisa RODRIGUEZ, University of Lisabona, Portugal 

Eduardas SPIRIAJEVAS, University of Klaipėda, Lithuania 

Barbu ŞTEFĂNESCU, University of Oradea, Romania 

Dallen J. TIMOTHY, Arizona State University, United States of America 

Luca ZARRILLI, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Pescara, Italy 

Jan WENDT, University of Gdansk, Poland 

Krysztof WIDAWSKI, University of Wroclaw, Poland 

Allan M. WILLIAMS, London Metropolitan University, United Kingdom 

Joachim WILLMS, “Merkur” University of Karlsruhe, Germany 

Technical Editors: 

Maria GOZNER, University of Oradea, Romania 

Marius STUPARIU, University of Oradea, Romania 

Secretary on-line version: 

Ştefan BAIAS, University of Oradea, Romania 

Grigore HERMAN, University of Oradea, Romania 

ISSN 2065-0817, E-ISSN 2065-1198

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Str. Universităţii, nr.1, 410087 Oradea, Romania 

Academy of Physical Education and Sports from Gdańsk, Poland 

Faculty of Tourism and Recreation 

ul. Kazimierza Górskiego 1, 80-336 Gdańsk, Poland 

Research contracts: 

PN II, ID_667/2008 

Year IV, no. 2, vol. 8 

Oradea - Gdańsk 

2011

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ISSN 2065-0817, E-ISSN 2065-1198 

C O N T E N T S 

Year IV no.2, vol. 8, November 2011 

Fernando L. COSTA 

Volcanic Geomorphosites Assessment of the Last Eruption, on April to May 

1995, within the Natural Park of Fogo Island, Cape Verde 

(Art#08101-96) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 

Rolv Magne DAHL, Halfdan CARSTENS, Gunn HAUKDAL 

The Election of a National Norwegian Geological Monument. A Tool for Raising 

Awareness of Geolgical Heritage 

(Art#08102-97) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 

Javier DÓNIZ-PÁEZ, Rafael BECERRA-RAMÍREZ, Elena GONZÁLEZ-CÁRDENAS, Cayetano 

GUILLÉN-MARTÍN, Estela ESCOBAR-LAHOZ 

Geomorphosites and Geotourism in Volcanic Landscape: The Example of La 

Corona Del Lajial Cinder Cone (El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain) 

(Art#08103-98) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 

Ionela Georgiana GAVRILĂ, Titus MAN, Virgil SURDEANU 

Geomorphological Heritage Assessment Using Gis Analysis for Geotourism 

Development in Măcin Mountains, Dobrogea, Romania 

(Art#08104-87) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 

Fabien HOBLEA, Nathalie CAYLA, Pierre RENAU 

The Concept of “Hybrid Research” Applied to the Geoheritage of the Bauges 

Massif (French Alps): When the Promotion of the Geoheritage Helps 

Geosciences and Vice Versa 

(Art#08105-85) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 

Ioan Aurel IRIMUŞ, Dănuţ PETREA, Iuliu VESCAN, Camelia Bianca TOMA, Ioana VIERU 

Vulnerability of Touristic Geomorphosites in Transylvanian Saliferous Areas 

(Romania) 

(Art#08106-86). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 

Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, Alexandru ILIEŞ, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Ştefan BAIAS, Cezar MORAR 

Geotourist Map of the Băile Felix – Băile 1 Mai – Betfia Area (Bihor County, 

Romania) 

(Art#08107-93) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 

Sonia LEVRATTI, Maria Luisa RODRIGUES, Doriano CASTALDINI, Sara Tiziana LEVI 

Study of the Geomorphological and Archaeological Aspects of Sintra Area 

(Portugal) as Contribution to its Tourist Appraisal and Promotion 

(Art#08108-92). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 

Tommaso PIACENTINI, Doriano CASTALDINI, Paola CORATZA, Piero FARABOLLINI, Enrico 

MICCADEI 

Geotourism: Some Examples in Northern-Central Italy 

(Art#08109-91) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 

Cláudia PINTO, José VICENTE, Maria Manuel PINTO, Glória ESPÍRITO SANTO, Márcia MUÑOZ, 

Isabel MOITINHO 

Inventory, Dissemination and Preservation of the Geological Heritage in Urban 

Areas – Lisbon City Case Study 

(Art#08110-88) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 

Joan POCH, Jon Paul LLORDÉS 

The Basque Coast Geopark: Support for Good Practices in Geotourism 

(Art#08111-90) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 

Maria Luísa RODRIGUES, Carlos Russo MACHADO, Elisabete FREIRE 

Geotourism Routes in Urban Areas: A Preliminary Approach to the Lisbon 

Geoheritage Survey 

(Art#08112-100) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 

163

164 


Enrique SERRANO, Juan Jose GONZALEZ TRUEBA 

Environmental Education and Landscape Leisure. Geotourist Map and 

Geomorphosites in the Picos de Europa National Park 

(Art#08113-99) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 

Andrea SUMA, Pietro Domenico de COSMO 

Geodiv Interface: An Open Source Tool for Management and Promotion of the 

Geodiversity of Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park (Andalusia, Spain) 

(Art#08114-89) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 

Book review: 

Corina-Florina TĂTAR, Ioana JOSAN 

John URRY and Jonas LARSEN (2011), The Tourist Gaze 3.0, SAGE, Los 

Angeles|London| New Delhi|Singapore|Washington DC 

(Art#08915) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 

* * * * * * *

Special issue coordinated by: 

Maria Luisa Rodrigues 

Geographic Studies Centre, Lisbon University, TERRITUR and Research Group on Geodiversity, 

Geotourism and Geomorphologic Heritage (GEOPAGE), Portugal, e-mail: 

rodrigues.mluisa@gmail.com 

Doriano Castaldini 

Department of Earth Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy, e-mail: 

doriano.castaldini@unimore.it 

Enrique Serrano 

University of Valladolid, Departament of Geography, P1 Prado de la Magdalena s/n. 47011, 

Valladolid, Spain, e-mail: serranoe@fyl.uva.es 

Year IV, no. 2, vol. 8 

Oradea - Gdańsk 

2011

GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites Year IV no.2, vol. 8, November 2011, pp. 167-177 

ISSN 2065-0817, E-ISSN 2065-1198 Article no. 08101-96 

VOLCANIC GEOMORPHOSITES ASSESSMENT OF THE LAST 

ERUPTION, ON APRIL TO MAY 1995, WITHIN THE NATURAL 

PARK OF FOGO ISLAND, CAPE VERDE 

Fernando L. COSTA * 

Department of Natural Sciences/GeoDES, Institute of Tropical Research (IICT) 

Trav. Conde da Ribeira, 9 B, 1º, 1300-142 Lisboa, Portugal, e-mail: flcosta1955@gmail.com 

Abstract: Fogo Island presents the only active volcano of Cape Verde archipelago 

where the most important heritages of that activity are the conical aspect of the 

island, a caldera on its top and a main volcanic cone rising up the caldera floor. 

During April to May 1995 eruption the expelled materials have developed two major 

landforms, a volcanic cone and the lava flows. The aa lava type has built thicker and 

more irregular landforms than the pahoehoe lava type. A number of minor landforms 

were formed, such as depressions related to the craters or to an eruptive fracture, a 

multiple bomb impact craters and fractures at the cone top. The new landforms are 

the more relevant touristic attractions of the Fogo natural park, demanding an urgent 

scientific assessment and a detailed mapping in order to preserve and to mitigate its 

vulnerability to the anthropic destruction, such as by taking some “souvenirs”. 

Key words: Volcanic landforms, active geomorphosite, landscape conservation, Fogo 

Island, Cape Verde. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The ecosystems preservation is the main goal of any Natural Park definition. The 

abiotic components (climatic, hydrological, geological, geomorphological and 

pedological) are the foundations on which the biotic elements directly depend and one 

of the most important keys of management, natural richness and diversity (Pellitero et 

al., 2010). The relevance of these elements will be recognized and declared in the base 

documents of any natural park. As the biodiversity, the geodiversity is an important 

natural value, related to space and temporal components, and the geomorphosites are 

landforms with particular importance for the earth evolution knowledge climate and life 

history (Zouros, 2007). The geomorphosites assessement have been considered a 

fundamental tool for supporting management decisions for its protection and geotourist 

implementation (Pereira et al., 2007). The main assessement stages are the 

identification, inventory, selection and characterisation, numerical classification and 

ranking. The final scoring is a fundamental set to facilitate the geomorphosites 

promotion within a context of geotourism or landscape management. 

* Corresponding author 

http://gtg.webhost.uoradea.ro/

168 


The environmental legislation in Cape Verde concerns manly with the natural 

resources management, particularly the freshwater use and the geological resources 

exploitation, or with the air and water pollution and biodiversity (Pereira et al., 2009). 

Several studies have been done about the geologic heritage of Cape Verde Island, at 

the island scale, namely of Santiago (Pereira, 2005) or Fogo (Alfama, 2007). Some 

touristic geologic guides are also produce to Santo Antão (Sciunnach, 2003) and to Fogo 

(Alfama et al., 2008), based on Alfama, 2007. 

A detailed study of the geomorphological heritage was done at a drainage basin 

scale in Santiago Island (Moreira, 2009). Sixteen geomorphosites were identified, 

characterized and evaluated, in the Ribeira Principal valley, within the Natural Park of 

Serra da Malagueta, to provide a tool of management. 

In Fogo Alfama, 2007 and Alfama et al., 2008 have identified nine geosites of 

geological interest scattered all over island and seven one distributed in the Natural Park 

of Fogo. The inventory was based on field work observations and the majority of the 

geosites are chosen according its vulcanological and stratigraphical relevance, or also its 

panoramic landscape point of view. Between the sites within the park, only five are 

defined by its geological interest, the other two are features with cultural or biodiversity 

values. Only two are referred to the volcanic landforms of the last eruption, the new cone 

and a reference to the lava flows in general that may include someone of that more recent 

volcanic event. A brief allusion was done to the volcanic cone of the 1951 eruptive episode 

(Alfama, 2007). 

STUDY AREA 

Fogo is located in the southern group of the Cape Verde islands, in the central 

Atlantic, about 600 km far from the west coast of Africa, at 15º of north latitude (figure 1). 

Is the 4 th major of the 10 island of the Archipelago, with a surface of 476 sqkm. The Island 

has a general conical landform, with a medium diameter of 25 km and a basal perimeter 

of 81 km, as the most evident geoheritage of its volcanic origin (figure 1). This general 

form are truncated at its summit by a volcanic caldera breached to the east, by a flank 

collapse, and bounded to the west by a 1000 meters high escarpment. 

Figure 1. Fogo Island location 

Fogo is the only island in Cape Verde where volcanic activity is still observed 

showing many volcanic landforms all over, mostly lava flows, numerous ashes covers 

and about one hundred smaller cones, as the the main results from the eruptive 

products expelled. The most important heritages of that activity are the great diversity 

of volcanic landforms on its summit caldera, at 1600 m above the sea level, designated

Volcanic Geomorphosites Assessment of the Last Eruption, on April to May 1995, Within … 

Chã das Caldeiras (figure 1). A 29 sqkm caldera and a main volcanic cone, built in the 

middle of eastern opening of the caldera and rising 1200 meters its floor, 2.829 meters 

above the sea level (the highest point of Cape Verde), with a 500 meters wide and 150 

meters deep summit crater. 

Many lava flows, related with the twenty six known eruptive events, are scattered 

all over the caldera and the east slope of the island, reaching sometimes the east coast. 

About twenty secondary volcanic cones occupy the base of the main cone or the caldera 

floor, particularly the several one associated to the six last eruptions. 

The twenty volcanic events reported in the island from 1500 to 1799, occurred from the 

main cone, sometimes associated with volcanic activity in some vents on their flanks (Ribeiro, 

1954). Currently there are still fumarolic emanations inside its 500 meters large crater and its 

eastern slope. The last six events were held in the secondary cones, particularly in the 

northern sector of the caldera. During these events were formed some new cones or 

reactivated ancient ones, as during the last one in April-May 1995 (Costa, 1998). 

The central and highest area of the Fogo Island was classified as a Natural Park, 

through the law 3/2003 of February 24 th , in partnership with the German Government. 

The park occupies an area of 84.69 sqkm, and includes the main volcanic cone, all the 

caldera and its internal western scarp and also its external western slope above 1,800 

meters (figure 2). It is distributed along the 3 municipalities of the Island (Santa Catarina 

- 50%, Mosteiros - 28% and São Filipe - 22%), with a population of 1010 inhabitants 

(2001), particularly in the villages of Bangaeira and Portela. 

Figure 2. Natural Park of Fogo Island (PNF) 

The Park was created with the main goals to preserve and to monitor the flora 

and fauna species, as well as the endemic species (Leyens, 2002). The Park´s 

administration and the local community have an active participation of protection the 

environment and recovery. 

More than its biodiversity are the volcanic landscape and general panoramic of 

the park, namely the great dimensions of the summit caldera and the main volcano that 

appeal the touristic interests. A great geodiversity of volcanic landforms are scattered 

all over the park, such as cones, lava flows, pyroclastic covers or fumarolic eruptive 

vents. Excluding the western scarp and the main cone, the great majority of the park 

surface within the caldera is occupied by the volcanic landforms of the two more recent 

events, 1951 and 1995, according the local geological map (Torres et al., 1997a). The 

systems or particular areas and the some single places, related with these eruptions, 

169

170 


are, no doubt, the main touristic attractions of the park, especially the cone and the lava 

flows of the last one. 

The volcanic event of 1951 in Fogo Island was the subject of only one main study 

(Ribeiro, 1954). The most recent eruptive episode, in 1995, aroused a particular scientific 

interest by the Island during and after the eruption. About one hundred studies 

concerning this eruption have been published in peer reviewed journals and in many 

congress proceedings. 

Two international congresses are promoted in Lisbon and Fogo Island with 

thematic of this volcanic event. A proceedings volume of the Lisbon congress is published 

with contributions of the geophysics, geologic, geomorphologic, climatologic conditions 

and of the natural and human impacts of this volcanic eruption (IICT, 1997). 

Several Msc and PhD thesis are done after the event, three of them related with 

geophysical and geologic thematic (Quental, 1999; Heleno, 2003; Alfama, 2007). The 

great number and diversity of thematic studied makes available basic information on the 

spatiotemporal aspects of this eruption, fundamental to its very detailed knowledge. 

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 

This study deals with the first systematic inventory of the geomorphosites related 

with the volcanic landforms of the last eruption, on April to May 1995. The results may 

contribute to publicize and also to preserve this heritage which represents the most recent 

eruptive episode of the unique volcanic active region of Cape Verde archipelago. 

A geomorphological map at 1/10.000 scale and a geomorphosite not systematic 

inventory were done, based on aerial photo and mainly on field work, with campaigns 

during and after the volcanic eruption of 1995. 

A bibliographic reviewing was also done in order to propose a geomorphosites 

assessment, as accurate as possible in scientific terms, according with the criteria defined 

by Pereira et al., (2007). This numerical assesment consider the geomorphologiclal values 

(scientific and additional) and the management values (use and protection) and don’t 

take in account some cultural values (historic, artistic and literature importance), the 

economic (natural and human existing or potential threats) or the educational (didactic 

and interpretation facility) ones (Reynard et al., 2007). 

The 1995 volcanic phases and landforms building 

The eruptive event of 1995 was similar to the well documented previous ones 

occurred in the island. The event was preceded by soft intense volcanic earthquakes 

(4 mod. Mercalli scale), since Mars 30. The eruption started, by the 11 pm on the 2nd 

April (Correia and Costa, 1995), with a violent explosive phase, with piroclasts projection 

and aa lava type emission. The terminal volcanic activity, April 19 to May 18, was more 

effusive, with emission of pahoehoe lava type. 

Initially gas explosions, fire emissions reaching about 400 meters high, 4 meters 

length plastic bombs were projected to distances of 250 meters, from 3 to 4 vents 

aligned along a 2 km fracture depression (Wallenstein et al., 1997). A lava flow was 

emitted by a vent located at the southwestern part of the facture and occupies a local 

depression (figure 3). 

The activity became centred in an old volcanic cone, located at the northeastern 

sector of the depression. The fire emission reached 500 meters high and the eruptive 

column of gases rosed to a height of 4,500 to 5,000 meters and ashes until 3,000 

meters (Correia and Costa, 1995). The column was deformed towards east and the ashes 

falled at the eastern slope of the island due to the west to southwest predominant 

seasonal winds at this altitude. In this cone three main fumarolic craters, located at its 

summit, emitted the gasses, and two craters, centered near its western slope, emitted 

mainly the piroclasts and lavas.


The lavas flows, mainly to the southwest, formed a 30 meters large lava river and 

occupied a large depression of the central part of the caldera floor. A week after the 

beginning of this volcanic event, the lavas progressed until the bottom of the western 

caldera scarp, 3.5 km far from the main eruptive vent (Correia and Costa, 1995). On the 

April 19, at the end of the first phase, an area of about 3 sqkm of the caldera floor was 

covered by the aa lava type. The main volume of the new cone, builted by accumulation of 

scoria over an ancient one, in an area of 0.7 sqkm, was also defined (Torres et al., 1997b). 

Figure 3. Geomorphic heritages of the 1995 volcanic eruption. 

Ancient landforms: 1–Contour line (m); 2–Elevation points (m); 3–Drainage channel; 

4–Drainage channel loss; 5–Scarp of the caldera (Bordeira); 6–Break of slope; 7–Slope bottom; 

8–Flat floor of the caldera (Chã das Caldeiras); 9–Depressed areas; 10–Volcanic cone; 

11–Crater rim; 12–Volcanic vent; 13 a–Fracture depression; 13 b-Fracture; 

1995 volcanic landforms: 14–Scoriae cone; 15 a-Lava flows: a–until 11th April, b–July 1995 

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172 


The next phase was characterized by the emission of aa and pahoehoe lavas types 

through two crater, located at the northern slope of the cone. These lavas covered the 

anterior ones and also a new area of about 1.3 sqkm (figure 3). On May 18 the fronts were 

already stationary, the lavas had occupied about 4.3 sqkm and an estimated volume of 

about 22 to 35x106 m 3 (Wallenstein et al., 1997). 

Inventory of the 1995 volcanic landforms 

During the two month of this eruptive event the emitted volcanic products creates 

by accretion the two major volcanic landforms, the cone and lava flows. Other group of 

landforms is the several types of depressions, associated with the eruptive vents or the 

bomb impacts. 

The volcanic cone results from the accumulation of bombs, ashes and lavas, 

emitted through the vents of a pre-existing scoriae cone, located at the western slope 

bottom of the main cone. This accretion of volcanic products generates a new cone 

that buried the old one, basically during the two first weeks of the eruptive event. The 

new cone is the highest secondary one formed within the summit caldera of the 

island, reaching 150 meters high above its floor (Correia and Costa, 1995). The cone is 

dissymmetric, pre-conditioned by the topography of the ancient cone and the position 

of its vents (Costa, 1998). The northwest slope is steeper and more complex, related 

with the local lava flow emissions (figure 4A). The southeast sector is higher, due to 

the preferential pyroclasts accumulation during the event (figure 4B). The main 

craters have also a lateral position, with the rim open to southwest, related with the 

anterior volcanic unit. 

Figure 4. – New volcanic cone (Photo F.L.Costa: October 1995): A -northern view; B -southern view 

Figure 5. Lavas fronts slopes (Photo F.L.Costa: Jully 1995), A – aa lava; B - pahoehoe lava


During the eruption the lava flow river, conditioned by the topography of the precone 

and its crater rim opening, progressed essentially to the southwest, along the local 

main drainage slope direction. An inner central depression of the summit caldera was 

occupied by tow lavas types. 

Figure 6. Fracture depression (Photo F.L.Costa: Jully 1995): A – Northeastern sector; B - Western sector 

Figure 7. Craters (Photo F.L.Costa: Jully 1995): A – main crater; B – secondary crater 

Figure 8. Fumarolic vents (Photo F.L.Costa: Jully 1995) 

A – main fumarolic crater; B – fractures with gases emission 

The aa lava type modified and caused the elevation of the topography in a medium 

of 10 meters high, reaching locally 30 meters. Its summit has a very irregular morphology 

with angular blocks forming small hills. The front slopes, commonly 6 to 10 m high 

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(Costa, 1998), are very steep with 40º (figure 5A). The pahoehoe lava type, due to its 

fluidity, originated less irregular summit topography, with thinner, 1-2 meters high and 

smoother, 20º, front slopes (figure 5B). This lava type locally has prodigious ropy, lobated 

or jumbled surface morphology and helical front shapes. 

A great number of minor landforms were formed during this eruption, namely 

several types of depressions. The major ones are associated to the eruptive vents and the 

little one to the bomb impacts. 

The biggest depression is primed by a NE-SW fracture 2 km long, were the first 3 to 

4 vents were located (figure 6A). In morphological terms, has about 200-300 meters long, 

4-5 meters deep and 10 meters wide in its most evident sector. The fracture is western 

limited by a depression, partially covered by lavas and 4 meters long plastic bombs, 

emitted by a local vent (figure 6B). 

Other depressions are related to the several eruptive craters. The main crater 

comprises two coalescent depressions, associated with two eruptive fire emission jets 

observed during the first days of activity (figure 7A). 

A secondary crater appears at the northern slope of the cone, during the second 

phase of the eruptive event (figure 7B). 

Several depressions are associated with gases emission and the formation of 

vaporized colourful eruptive products. The bigger ones are four conical shaped fumarolic 

craters, located at the cone summit. The larger one is about 50 meter depth and 100 

meters large (figure 8A). Nearby the main crater long fractures and depressions, which 

reach more than a one meter depth, usually with a circular outline, cover this sector of the 

cone summit (figure 8B). 

A multiple bomb impact craters until a distance of 500 meters far from the main 

crater, covering the entire cone surface, are the more ephemeral landforms produced 

during this volcanic event. 

Geomorphosites assessement 

The personal campaigns of field volcanic landforms recognition in all islands of the 

Cape Verde archipelago, were very relevant to define a more accurate geomorphosite 

assessment in Fogo Island. The field works in Fogo took place particularly in the summit 

caldera before, during and after the 1995 volcanic event. The detailed observations and 

cartography of the geomorphologic features especially those related with this event 

(Correia and Costa, 1995; Costa, 1998; and Costa and Mendes, 2001), allow the inventory, 

the geomorphosites characterisation and a more precise numerical assessment. 

Ten geomorphosites were selected and numerical assessed. They included 1 

panoramic view point (volcanic cone), 3 single sites (main and secondary craters and 

fumarolic craters) and 6 places (other features). 

The results of the numerical assessment show that the most valuables 

geomorphosites of this last eruptive event, in terms of total value, are the volcanic cone, 

followed by its main crater, the fields of lava, particularly the pahoehoe type due to its 

surface structure, and the fumarolic craters (table 1). The lowest score was attributed to 

the bomb impact craters, but as minor landforms, particularly rare and very vulnerable to 

anthropic and natural destruction requires especial conditions of preservation. 

In terms of geomorphological value the cone are also the first one but the fumarolic 

craters are the second, and the aa lava type the third. In management values the cone and 

its main crater are also the first one. 

The cone is the most valuable feature in total, geomorphological and management 

values, and also thee aa lava type are the third scored in the same values. The second 

score of each one of these values varies between the main crater and the fumarolic craters. 

This results show also the great relevance of the additional values in weighting 

the scientific one to the geomorphological scoring, namely in the cases of the new


cone, the fumarolic craters, the two types of lavas or the main crater. The high-scored 

features are the more volumetric ones and with a more diversified themes of interest, 

as the cone sector where are concentred the major number of geomorphosites 

(craters, fumarolic craters and fractures, bomb impact craters) and the panoramic 

landscape are the largest one point of view. To this geodiversity of the new cone sector 

are also associated its integrity, geomorphologic and scientific knowledge, aesthetic, 

accessibility or visibility. 

Table 1. Geomorphosite numerical assessement 

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS 

All the governmental programs of Cape Verde during the third last decades have 

define the tourism as a fundamental and priority economic sector to the national 

development. The conventional tourism with the implementation of beach resorts at the 

eastern islands and also the ecotourism, with the promotion of walking activities at the 

mountainous islands, have been promoted. 

The recent law of creation of the national network of protected areas defines the 

legal regime of the natural landscapes, monuments, and sites with particular 

relevance in biodiversity terms, natural resources, ecological or socio-economics 

interests, cultural, tourist or strategic. In this context three natural parks have already 

been created, all of them in the mountainous sectors of the islands, the Serra da 

Malagueta (Santiago Island), Monte Gordo (S. Nicolau Island) and Fogo. The Park´s 

administrations, with the participation of the local communities, promote the 

conservation and valorisation of these areas, the development of the traditional 

activities and also the ecotourism. 

The Fogo Natural Park are, between these three parks, the more rich in 

geodiversity terms and relevant geomorphosites, and represents the most recent active 

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volcanic geo-historic episodes of the Cape Verde archipelago. The new landforms of the 

last volcanic episode are the more relevant touristic attractions of the park. 

After the last 1995 eruption a big development of the villages associated at the 

crescent promotion of eco and geotourism have been done within the park, with the 

implementation of tourist services of guides, restaurants and tourist accommodation or 

the local products, such as the wine production, unique in Cape Verde, fruit marmalade, 

goat cheeses, lava rock handicrafts. 

In the area of the park the agriculture and livestock production are the main 

activities of the local populations, although is not allowed free grazing, in order to 

preserve the biodiversity and the agricultural production. In order to assist the visitors of 

the park and limit their activities, it was instituted the payment of touristic entries within 

the park and was created a local information office. 

A large commitment is need to promote the geomorphological study of all the area 

of this natural park, based on field work very detailed mapping and a solid scientific 

geomorphosites inventory and assessement. Particular attention will be done to the 1951 

and 1995 volcanic landforms, manly due to the particular tourist interests by these more 

recent eruptive geomorphosites. 

The studies results will be regularly publicized by local, national or international of 

vulgarisation and scientific events in order to preserve this heritage unique and to 

mitigate its vulnerability. Are also relevant the edition of tourist guide and brochures 

scientific studies based and the local tourist guides formation. An urgent establishment 

and demarcation of pedestrian trails is fundamental to reduce the anthropic destruction, 

such as by taking some “souvenirs”. 

More effective and immediate preservation measures are necessary, particularly in 

the new cone area and its summit, where are located the higher scored geomorphosites 

features and the also the most ephemeral ones, due to the easy accessibility and frequent 

tourist visits. It is fundamental, for instance, define pedestrian trails with local panels, in 

order to limit the variations of the routes of visitors. 

REFERENCES 

Alfama V. I., (2007), Património geológico da Ilha do Fogo (Cabo Verde): inventariação, caracterização e 

propostas de valorização, MSc Thesis, Universidade do Minho, Escola de Ciências, Braga, pp.216; 

Alfama V. I., Gomes A. M., Brilha J., (2008), Guia geoturístico da Ilha do Fogo (Cabo Verde), Departamento de 

Ciências da Terra, Faculdade de Ciência e Tecnologia Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, pp. 61; 

Correia E., Costa F. L., (1995), Revista Portuguesa de Geografia, Breve notícia da recente erupção na ilha do 

Fogo e suas consequências Finisterra, Lisboa, XXX (59-60): 165-175; 

Costa F. L., (1998), Impactos geomorfológicos da erupção de Abril de 1995 na ilha do Fogo (Cabo Verde), 

Garcia de Orta, Série Geografia, Lisboa, 16 (1-2): 63-74; 

Costa F. L., Mendes M. H., (2001), Volcanic hazards in the Fogo Island, Cape Verde, 12th International 

Conference of the Geological Society of Africa: Geo-Environmental Catastrophes in Africa, Journal of 

the Geoscience Society of Cameroon, Yaoundé,1 (1A), 74-75; 

Heleno S., (2003), O vulcão do Fogo – Estudo sismológico, Colecção Teses, Lisboa, Instituto Português de 

Apoio ao Desenvolvimento, pp. 463; 

IICT (1997), A erupção vulcânica de 1995 na ilha do Fogo, Cabo Verde, Instituto de Investigação Científica 

Tropical, Lisboa, pp. 421; 

Leyens T., (2002), Biodiversidade da prevista área protegida na Ilha do Fogo (Cabo Verde), Deutsche 

Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, pp. 113; 

Moreira A. T., (2009), O património geomorfológico do vale da Ribeira Principal (Parque Natural da Serra da 

Malagueta, Ilha de Santiago, Cabo Verde), Avaliação e propostas de valorização, MSc Thesis, 

Universidade de Lisboa, Departamento de Geografia, Faculdade de Letras, Lisboa,218 p.. 

Pellítero R., González-Amuchasteguí M. J., Ruiz-Flaño P., Serrano E., (2010), Geodiversity and geomorphosite 

assessment applied to a natural protected area: the Ebro and Rudron Gorges Natural Park (Spain), 

Geoheritage, Online First, 24 October, pp. 12;


Pereira J. M., (2005), O património geológico da Ilha de Santiago (Cabo Verde): inventariação, 

caracterização e propostas de valorização, MSc Thesis, Universidade do Minho, Ciências do Ambiente, 

Braga, pp. 93; 

Pereira P., Diamantino P., Alves M. I. C., (2007), Geomorphosite assessment in Montesinho Natural Park 

(Portugal), Geographica Helvetica, Zurich, 62 (3): 159-168; 

Pereira J. M., Brilha J., Gomes A. M., (2009), Proposta para a promoção do património geológico e da 

geoconservação na conservação da natureza de Cabo Verde, 2º Congresso Lusófono de Ciência 

Regional, Praia, pp. 16; 

Quental L. R., (1999), Modelo para a avaliação de «hazard» e risco vulcânico na Ilha do Fogo, Cabo Verde, 

MSc in Georrecursos, Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisboa, pp. 83; 

Reynard E., Georgia F., Kozlik L., (2007), A method for assessing scientific and additional values of 

geomorphosites, Geographica Helvetica, Zurich, 62 (3): 148-158; 

Ribeiro O., (1954), A ilha do Fogo e as suas erupções, Memórias da Junta de Investigação Científica do 

Ultramar, Série Geográfica, I, Lisboa, pp. 327; 

Sciunnach D., (2003), Santo Antão (Ilhas de Cabo Verde): Itinerários geológicos voltados ao ecoturismo 

sustentável, Regione Lombardia, Milão, pp. 100; 

Torres P. C., Madeira J., Silva L. C., Silveira A. B., Serralheiro A., Gomes, A. M., (1997a), Carta geológica das 

erupções históricas da Ilha do Fogo: revisão e actualização, In: A Erupção Vulcânica de 1995 na Ilha 

do Fogo (Cabo Verde), Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, Lisboa, pp. 119-132; 

Torres P. C., Silva L. C., Mendes M. H., Serralheiro A., Madeira J., Silveira A. B., Gomes A. M., (1997 b), 

Cronologia da erupção vulcânica de 1995 na ilha do Fogo, Cabo Verde. In: A Erupção Vulcânica de 

1995 na Ilha do Fogo (Cabo Verde), Lisboa, Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical: 133-144; 

Wallenstein N., Gaspar J. L., Guest J., Duncan A., (1997), Estilos eruptivos observados durante a erupção 

vulcânica de 1995 na ilha do Fogo, Cabo Verde. In: A Erupção Vulcânica de 1995 na Ilha do Fogo 

(Cabo Verde), Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, Lisboa, pp. 145-152; 

Zouros C.N., (2007), Geomorphsite assessement and management in protected áreas of Greece. Case study of 

Lesvos Island. Coastal geomorphosites, Geographica Helvetica, Zurich, 62 (3): 169-180. 

Submitted: Revised: Accepted: Published online: 

29.07.2011 29.10.2011 02.11.2011 04.11.2011 

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GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites Year IV no.2, vol. 8, November 2011 pp. 178-184 


THE ELECTION OF A NATIONAL NORWEGIAN 

GEOLOGICAL MONUMENT. A TOOL FOR RAISING 

AWARENESS OF GEOLGICAL HERITAGE 

Rolv Magne DAHL * 

Geological Survey of NorwayP.O Box 6315 Sluppen, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway, 

e-mail: rolv.dahl@ngu.no 

Halfdan CARSTENS 

GeoPublishing AS, C/O Geological Survey of Norway P.O Box 6315 Sluppen, NO-7491 

Trondheim, Norway, e-mail: halfdan@geo365.no 

Gunn HAUKDAL 

Geological Society of Norway, C/O Geological Survey of Norway 

P.O Box 6315 Sluppen, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway, e-mail: gunn.haukdal@geologi.no 

Abstract: In 2010, The Geological Society of Norway (NGF), the Geological Survey 

of Norway (NGU) and GeoPublishing together formed an initiative to celebrate the 

geological diversity of their country. The public were invited to elect a National 

geological monument. Prior to the election, everybody were encouraged to nominate 

candidates. A jury picked 10 candidates from the nominees. The 10 chosen nominees 

were designated as geological national heritage. The candidates were presented and 

promoted by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation and the Norwegian Trekking 

Association. The candidates were also thoroughly presented and promoted on a joint 

website, and the public was invited to vote for their favourite candidate on the 

website. The winner was then presented on national television on October 18th. The 

nomination process mobilised local communities all around the country, and our 

aspiration was that the voting process would raise local and national awareness. This 

article presents the background, motivation and result of the process. 

Key words: Geotourism, awareness, geological heritage, geological monuments, Norway 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Norwegians are obsessed with outdoor activities in the natural environment. 

Visiting tourists also hold nature as the main attraction of the country. However, the 

geological aspect of the natural history is often not appreciated. There is a potential in 

teaching residents, pupils and tourists about the geological influence on the Norwegian 

natural environment, as well as learning more of the stories the rocks and particular 

landscapes can tell. 



The Election of a National Norwegian Geological Monument. A Tool for Raising Awareness … 

Some phenomena are unique to Norway, while others are more globally 

widespread. Nevertheless they all tell their little part of the story of the origin of 

Norway. Some geological attractions, such as World Heritage areas and geoparks are 

appreciated internationally. Other local attractions can serve as good examples of 

geological processes and phenomena suitable for field education in schools. Other 

geological attractions can also be primary spectacular, meaning that they generate 

attention and interest. 

GEOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN NORWAY 

Norway exhibits a wide array of landscapes, from soaring alpine peaks to gentle 

coastal cliffs. These different landscapes are all formed through a combination of tectonic 

forces from within the Earth and the action of water, wind and ice on the earth's surface. 

These processes have acted during different time periods and neighbouring landscapes 

may be of widely different ages. The gently undulating upland plateau of Hardangervidda 

is an ancient flatland that has been tectonically uplifted to its present position. In 

contrast, the nearby Hardanger fjord has been cut by glaciers into very recent time from a 

geological time perspective. 

The oldest rocks in Norway are of Archaean and Proterozoic age, whereas the main 

areas are covered with thrusted nappes from the Caledonian orogeny. Around Oslo, 

several rocks of Permo-to Carboniferous and Cambrian to Silurian constitute the famous 

Oslo Rift. Weathering processes, especially during and after the last Ice Age, have created 

unique shapes and features (figure 1). 

Humans have interacted with the Norwegian landscape since the end of the last Ice 

Age. The first humans followed the retreating ice margin and settled according to the 

conditions of the land, but simultaneously initiated the exploitation of the landscape as a 

natural resource. From an economical point of view the Norwegian landscape plays an 

important role through the tourist industry. Furthermore, landscape-forming process 

indirectly have a huge impact on society through the formation of natural resources and 

the cause of geohazards. The geological processes have also generated sites which have 

been included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. An excellent example is the UNESCO 

World Heritage site West Norwegian fjords. Other localities are important for education, 

whereas some are protected as natural monuments. Two areas, Magma Geopark at the 

southwestern coast, and Gea Norvegica geopark at the southeastern coast are also 

designated as Geoparks approved by UNESCO. 

RAISING AWARENESS IS NECESSARY 

However, geological diversity has not been appreciated as an asset neither for 

tourism nor nature managers. Unfortunately, the lack of geological knowledge is not 

recognised by the governments: “they do not know that they do not know”. Geological 

values and geoheritage are thus often neglected among policy makers, nature managers as 

well as the public. 

Several initiatives are taken in order to raise awareness of the significance of 

geology. In 2008, the Geological Society of Norway (NGF), GeoPublishing and 

Geological Survey of Norway (NGU) carried out a common outreach project in order 

to promote various rocks typical for Norway. The initiative resulted in the election of 

a national rock for Norway. The election process turned out to be a success. 10 

candidates were thoroughly presented, and several local initiatives were established 

in order to promote the candidates. Norwegians voted for Larvikite as their national 

rock, in close competition with 9 other commendable candidates. Among other things, 

the competition resulted in a book on Larvikite and the history of its use as building 

stone (Børresen and Heldal, 2009). 

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The public interest in the various candidates and in their influence on society was 

significant. Especially in communities hosting one of the candidates in their 

neighbourhood, the subject was high on the agenda. Encouraged by the success, 

another idea began to emerge among the coordinating organisations. Perhaps a 

competition with an election of a national geological monument would mobilise local 

communities in a similar way. The process of starting such an election began in 2009, 

and the election took place in 2010. 

Figure 1. Simplified Geological Map of Norway (Source: Solli and Nordgulen, 2006)


THE PROCESS AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTION AND THE 

CANDIDATES 

Everyone was invited to nominate their favourite candidate for a national geological 

monument. Approximately 100 proposals were submitted. A jury, made up of representatives 

from the geological community as well as tourist and trekking organisations, made a shortlist 

of 10 candidates. The jury emphasized that the candidates should be: 

� Representative, i.e. tell a significant piece of Norway's geological history, 

� Instructive, i.e. it should be possible to communicate this story to laymen in a 

popular, non-scientific manner, 

� Attractive, i.e. the place should represent a nice trekking destination. 

After the shortlist was presented, everyone could vote for their favourite candidate. 

After a hectic and busy election period, the jury officially recognised the result and a 

winner were awarded as a national geological monument. 

The selection of 10 commendable candidates from 100 submitted proposals was a 

demanding process for the jury. However, the shortlist ended up with a selection of sites 

widespread both geographically and thematically (table 1). A short description of the 10 

chosen candidates will be given, in random order. 

Grønligrotta is a part of a carstic cave system in Nordland. Torghatten is a 

monolithic mountain with a huge, characteristic cave running through the mountain. 

Bigganjarga is an area of exceptional scientific interest. It is basically an old 

moraine, but dating back to 700-650 million years, it is used as an indicator of an 

early glaciation of our planet, referred to as Snowball Earth. Leka is a spectacular 

island with an ophiolite complex. It is a well-preserved, tilted part of oceanic crust, 

exhibiting a cross-section from sea floor to mantle rocks. Jutulhogget is a large 

canyon, created by melting water from the deglaciation of a massive inland glacier 

covering most of Norway during the last Ice Age. The Pulpit Rock is a monolithic 

flat plateau with a 600 meter vertical drop to the Lysefjord. The fjord and the 

surrounding mountain sides, including Pulpit Rock, owns its existence to the glacial 

period. The same goes for the Geiranger fjord, which is an archetypical fjord 

landscape, carved out by glaciers. The area is also on UNESCOs World Heritage List. 

The hill Kolsås displays some of the geological features important for the Oslo area. 

The predominant rock is rhomb porphyric lavas from a permian rifting in the Oslo 

area, constituting a Permian analogue to today's African Rift Valley. Jomfruland 

moraine ridge is a typical and iconographical evidence of an advancing glacier. Today, 

glaciers are not in abundance. But the Jostedalsbreen glacier, the largest in 

Norway, is an evidence of changing climates and the erosional processes taking place 

today. Here, the result of recent processes can be witnessed and interpreted in order 

to understand landscape features elsewhere (table 1). 

Table 1. Shortlist of 10 eligible candidates for geological national heritage 

Place Feature 

Grønligrotta Karstic cave 

Torghatten Glacial erosion, 

Bigganjarga Tillite 

Leka Ophiolite 

Jutulhogget Canyon 

Pulpit rock Fjord 

Geirangerfjord Fjord 

Kolsås hill Permian rocks 

Jomfruland moraine Quaternary accumulation 

Jostedal glacier Recent process 

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Figure 2. Leaflet showing the different candidates (Geological Society of Norway, 2010) 

THE SELECTION PROCESS AND THE WINNER 

Several other stakeholders took part during the process. The Norwegian Trekking 

Organisation (DNT) as well as the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) expressed 

interest in the concept. An important outcome was that the main election process took 

place on a very popular website run by DNT and NRK (Friluftsliv for alle.), instead of on a 

less-visited website visited mainly by geologists, as originally planned. The candidates 

were presented in leaflets (figure 2), articles, on the web and even on television. During


September 2010, the election process was thrilling, with lots of local mobilisation around 

the country. The ranking on the list switched constantly, and it was a close race between 

several candidates. However, in the end, one candidate stood out as a winner. Leka 

ophioplite complex won the voting contest, and the jury approved the result. Thereby, 

Leka was awarded as the national geological monument of Norway. The result was 

presented on television, and the mayor of Leka received a certificate at the biannual 

Norwegian geological meeting in January 2011. 

Leka is an island approximately halfway between the soutnermost and 

northernmost point of the Norwegian coastline. This is the only place in the country 

where you can literally make a journey from the sea floor and into the mantle. From a 

geological point of view, it dates back to the Caledonian orogeny in Silurian-Devonian, 

400-500 million years ago. From a long distance, the brown to yellow colours of the rocks 

on the island is a characteristic feature. Numerous legends offer different explanations on 

the origin of this unique and dramatic landscape. According to geologist, though, the 

colour is caused by oxidation of iron from the ultramafic rock. Together with adjoining 

sequences of gabbro, dolerite dykes, pillow lavas and pelagic sediments, this constitutes 

an ophiolite sequence, i.e. a complete cross-section of the oceanic crust from below moho 

to the sea floor. Due to folding, the sequence is tilted. This means that one can literally 

walk on a trail from moho to sea floor. Together with a beautiful landscape of a 

surrounding archipelago, carved out by glaciers and frost weathering, Leka exhibits an 

area of outstanding geological heritage (figure 3). 

Figure 3. View from Leka, the winner of the competition Norway's National geological monument 

(Picture by Halfdan Carstens) 

FURTHER WORK 

After having received the award, the mayor of Leka municipality gave a keynote 

speech at the biannual Norwegian geological meeting in January 2011. According to his 

speech (unpubl.) the local governments and stakeholders will use the momentum to 

promote Leka even further as an excellent destination for geotourism, while also keeping 

in mind that the area needs protection. 

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One of the planned products from the election is a book. In this, we plan to present 

and celebrate the Norwegian geoheritage in general, and the national geological 

monument in particular. 

The competition and its outcome has led to new initatives. GeoPublishing, in 

cooperation with NGU and NGF, has launched a website (Geoportalen. no.) based on 

Google Maps, with links and coordinates to interesting geological localities in Norway, 

spanning from buildings with ornamental stones, to landscapes and geomorphological 

features. The site is based on the principles used in GeoCaching. The public is encouraged 

to upload and share their own findings via Smartphones. In addition, NGU is putting up a 

web mapping service displaying areas of significant value as geoheritage sites. The service 

is meant for policy makers, land-use planners, environmental consultants and other 

stakeholders. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Public outreach is an important way to draw attention to geological processes, 

structures and resources, as well as geologically interesting areas. As for protecting and 

highlighting selected objects, local participation and local stakeholders is essential. That 

is to say local initiatives addressing local geoheritage is better than national, top-to 

bottom initiatives, even if the latter may be more relevant and precise from a scientific 

point of view. The process of election of a geological national monument has shown that 

there is a inherent interest for geological heritage among the general audience. 

REFERENCES 

Børresen A., Heldal T., (2009), Larvikitt, Unik vakker og esklusiv, GeoPublishing; 

Geological Society of Norway, (2010), Vi kårer vår geologiske nasjonalarv, We are designating our geological 

national heritage! Leaflet (In Norwegian); 

Geoportalen no., www.geofunn.no, (in Norwegian); 

Friluftsliv for alle, www.ut.no, (In Norwegian). 

Solli A., Nordgulen Ø., (2006), Simplified bedrock map of Norway, Geological Survey of Norway; 


29.07.2011 27.10.2011 31.10.2011 01.11.2011



GEOMORPHOSITES AND GEOTOURISM IN VOLCANIC 

LANDSCAPE: THE EXAMPLE OF LA CORONA DEL LAJIAL 

CINDER CONE (EL HIERRO, CANARY ISLANDS, SPAIN) 

Javier DÓNIZ-PÁEZ * 

Department of Geography, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Involcan, Canary 

Institute of Volcanology, Tenerife, Puerto e La Cruz, Spain, e-mail: jdoniz@ull.es 

Rafael BECERRA-RAMÍREZ 

Geovol, Department of Geography University of Castilla La Mancha, 

Ciudad Real, Spain, e-mail: rafael.becerra@uclm.es 

Elena GONZÁLEZ-CÁRDENAS 


Ciudad Real, Spain, e-mail: elena.gonzalez@uclm.es 

Cayetano GUILLÉN-MARTÍN 

Involcan, Canary Institute of Volcanology Tenerife, Puerto e La Cruz, Spain, 

e-mail: cayetanoguillenmartin@hotmail.com 

Estela ESCOBAR-LAHOZ 


Ciudad Real, Spain, e-mail: estela.escobar@uclm.es 

Abstract: Geomorphosites and geotourism in volcanic landscape: the example of La 

Corona del Lajial cinder cone (El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain). Volcanic landscapes are 

very often visited by tourists. This paper underlines the relevance of geomorphological 

heritage as a tourist resource through an assessment of the different geosites (scientific or 

intrinsic values, cultural or added values and use and managements values) present in La 

Corona del Lajial Volcano, located in the Canarian island of El Hierro (Spain). El Hierro 

receives a type of sustainable tourism related to its ecotourist offer based on products like 

diving or hiking. However, the volcanoes on the island are not appreciated enough as a 

tourist attraction. The objective of this paper is to highlight the tourist potential of 

volcanic geomorphology as a tourist resource and alternative activity to diving, by means 

of the creation of new ecotouristic products such as volcanic hiking. 

Key words: Geomorphosites, sustainable tourism, volcanic geomorphology, mafic 

volcanism, El Hierro, Canary Islands 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Natural heritage implies a wide view of the biotic, abiotic and antropic aspects 

of the territory and constitutes the most important identity feature attesting to the 

preservation of their territory by any people. However, currently the biological 

criterion dominates when speaking about natural diversity, whereas geodiversity 

occupies a secondary position and hidrodiversity is generally overlooked (González- 



Javier D. PÁEZ, Rafael B. RAMÍREZ, Elena G. CÁRDENAS, Cayetano G. MARTÍN, Estela E. LAHOZ 

Trueba, 2006). While natural diversity is closely linked to biological patrimony, 

geomorphology has only been taken into account as an aesthetic, landscape value. All 

in all, biodiversity as much as geodiversity and hidrodiversity are part of natural 

diversity (Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño, 2007), which turns into some of the main 

territorial resources on which to base many of the present practices of the so-called 

sustainable tourism. 

Hiking tourism, which combines sports activities and the appreciation of Nature, is 

today one of the principal economic activities in the natural protected areas of the Canary 

Islands (Dóniz-Páez, 2010 and Guillén-Martín et al., 2010), and among the markets that 

will experience a great increase in a near future (Coratza et al., 2008). 

People visit volcanoes for a variety of reasons, the major one is probably the 

fascination of being close to the power of nature (Sigurdsson and Lopes-Gautier, 2000), 

followed by religious beliefs (Donovan, 2010). Additionally, volcanoes produce multiple 

benefits for society (agriculture, geothermal energy, rocks, minerals, tourism, etc.) 

(Dóniz-Páez et al., 2010 d); however, the major economic resource that stems from 

volcanoes is tourism (Sigurdsson and Lopes-Gautier, 2000). For example, in the case of 

Spain, the most visited natural protected area is the National Park of Las Cañadas del 

Teide, Tenerife Island (Dóniz-Páez, 2010), formed by a number of volcanoes of enormous 

complexity and a beauty landscape (Martínez de Pisón et al., 2009). 

The volcanic landforms, therefore, stand out as a factor to consider, an exceptional 

geomorphological heritage for science and an unquestionable social value. Even so, there 

hardly exists any interest in including territorial shapes, in general, and the eruptive ones, 

in particular, as one of the essential touristic attractions when designing itineraries, 

routes or circuits, although they are inescapably present in all of them. 

The objetive of this paper is two-fold: the first one, it tries to list the different 

geosites of La Corona del Lajial Volcano (figure 1) to eventually propose that these 

geosites, given their touristic potential, are finally made part of the general offer found 

in El Hierro Island. The first objective relies on the fact that this is one of the enclaves 

with the highest geodiversity on the island (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2010a and b), with an 

outstanding geomorphological landscape, and highly appreciated, well-preserved 

natural values, which brings about the need to increase the level of protection. The 

second objective rests on the physical proximity of this place to La Restinga, the main 

seaside touristic nucleus on the island. The sustainable tourist offer here is almost 

exclusively dedicated to diving in the marine reserve of El Mar de Las Calmas, which, 

given the temporal restriction to divers, makes it possible to diversify the market and 

combine the activities connected to sea sports and sun and beach with scientific 

tourism, excursions or volcano trekking. 

STUDY AREA 

La Corona del Lajial Volcano (CLV) is a quaternary mafic cinder cone on El Hierro 

Island. This monogentic volcano is in the south rift of the island (UTM: 204117-3064424) 

(figure 1) and formed by different volcanic ediffices along the 1.2 km eruptive fissure. The 

products present in the volcano are pyroclastic materials (lapilli, bombs, scorias, spatter) 

and important lava flows (Los Lajiales). The age of CLV is recent

Geomorphosites and Geotourism in Volcanic Landscape: the Example of La Corona del Lajial … 

These conditions also account for the presence of the coast scrub (Periploca 

laevigata, Euphorbia obtusifolia and Rumex lunaria). The climate and the type of 

volcanic products bring about a different occupation density. For this reason, under 

temperate-warm climate, the vegetation is more important than under warm climatic 

conditions. Likewise, the colonization of the vegetation is more significant in the 

pyroclasts than in the lava flows. 

Figure 1. Location of study area (La Corona del Lajial volcano) in the 

Canarian Island of El Hierro 

The recent volcanism, the scarce rains and the scrub vegetation, meaning unclear 

account for human occupation of the territory. In this part of El Hierro, there is only a 

village, La Restinga. This village is located on the coast and the main traditional economic 

activities are fishing, the growing of cereals and shepherding. Now, sustainable tourism is 

being boosted as an economic resource, with diving and hiking. 

METHODOLOGY 

The methodology implemented in this paper is based on the traditional procedures 

in volcanic geomorphology and the actual consideration of geomorphological heritage 

(figure 2). The analysis has been built on a bibliographical revision, topographical and 

geological maps, aerial photographs and field work. All this information has helped in the 

creation of a geomorphological map. Once each of the geomorphological forms and 

processes present in the volcano was identified, listed and mapped, the relative relevance 

of each of them was measured against factors as genesis, number, size, singularity, etc., 

and then, the most representative and singular elements, the geomorphosites, were 

selected using the geomorphological map. 

The geosites went through a semi-quantitative assessment thanks to the 

methodology used previously by other authors in natural protected areas (Serrano and 

González-Trueba, 2005; González-Trueba, 2006; Serrano et al., 2006; González-Trueba 

187


and Serrano, 2008), now with the introduction of that one specified for volcanic 

territories (Dóniz-Páez 2009; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2007, Dóniz-Páez et al., 2010a). This 

methodology is based on the quantification of the scientific or intrinsic values, cultural, 

or added values, and use and management values of the different geosites (Serrano and 

González-Trueba, 2005). According to the values obtained for any of the 

geomorphosites, their use will be different. In this sense, several uses can be proposed: 

natural, cultural, didactic, touristic etc. 

188 

Figure 2. Methodology for geomorphosites determination and his touristic potential 

Figure 3. Geomorphological sketch of the La Corona del Lajial monogenetic volcano


RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

Volcanic geomorphology: forms, deposits and processes 

Two important groups of forms can be identified in the CLV, namely, those 

associated with an explosive activity, and those connected with an effusive one (figure 3). 

The volcanic edifices correspond to the former, and the small scoria cones, hornitos and 

the accumulations of pyroclasts; the lava flows and their different morphological forms 

(small lava lake or pond of lava and lava cascade lava collapses, lava tubes, jameos, 

channels of lava etc.), to the latter. 

Volcanic edifices. In the CLV three types of eruptive edifices can be distinguished: 

cinder cones, small scoria cones, and hornitos (figure 4). Although the former is the most 

outstanding in a volcanic landscape for its dimension, the others are more numerous. In 

each of the volcanic cones the characteristic elements of basaltic monogenic volcanoes are 

likely to be recognised (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008; Dóniz-Páez, 2009), as also are the 

processes and sedimentary erosive forms typical of the initial phases of the dismantling of 

eruptive territories (Dóniz-Páez, 2006). 

Figure 4. Different edifices of La Corona del Lajial volcano: 1- cinder cone, 

2- small scoria cone and 3- hornito 

Cinder cones of La Corona del Lajial volcano constitute an eruptive edifice of 

multiple morphology according to the classifications of irregular bases, and formed by 

lapilli, bombs, scoria and spatter deposits and interstratified lavas (Dóniz-Páez 2009). 

The most significant feature of the volcano is the presence of several craters with different 

eruptive morphologies, behaviours and dynamics, from simple explosion craters of 

minimal size (< 5 metres deep) and specialized only in gas emission and lapilli in the 

north area of the edifice, to the ample craters (> 50 metres deep) in the central and south 

sectors of the volcano with their own ponds of lava, and thus indicating an important 

effusive activity. 

The small scoria cones are foci of usually explosive activity that produce scoria 

edifices, usually of reduced size, of semi-circular basis and having explosion craters. 

189


They are constituted by the accumulation of lapilli, and especially that of spatter and 

scorias. In the CLV four types of buildings of these edifices can be found, with a size 

superior to the usual, over 30 metres high and spitting abundant lavas that can flow 

for several kilometers. 

The hornitos are the smallest eruptive edifices in the CLV and they are not 

higher than 5 metres. They present irregular bases as a consequence of the association 

of various hornitos constituted by deposits of spatter, and eruptive centers that 

connect with channels of lava through which gases, pyroclasts and small pahoehoe 

lava flows are emitted. 

The eruptive edifices are being remodelled by erosion processes. The most 

significant are the colluvial and torrent processes that originated talusees and gully forms. 

There is no doubt that the most important erosion is man-made, due to the opening of 

paths and tracks, grazing and the building of stone walls, which have partially destroyed 

the original morphology of the cones. 

The volcanic lava fields: pahoehoe (lajiales) and aa (malpaíses). The most 

important trait of this volcanic zone is the long lava field. They are the predominant forms 

in the landscape of the CLV having a well-preserved state, and an extraordinary variety of 

superficial morphologies, forms and structures. 

In the lava field of the CLV it is possible to differentiate several types of 

superficial morphologies. The pahoehoe or lajiales lavas, of straight surface or slightly 

corrugated with folds, rich in detail morphologies, of scarce thickness, long flow and 

coming from the ponds of lava near the centres of emission and from hornitos. The aa 

or malpaíses lavas have as main feature a broken surface, rough, corrugated and 

made of heterometric and mobile fragments. And last, the blocks lava flows, of 

irregular morphology. 

In the lava field of the CLV minor and major forms can be seen. As regards the 

former, it is in place to remark the existence of ponds of lava, cascade lavas, leveés, 

channels of lava, the lava tubes, mound or tumuli and hornitos, whereas the latter include 

erratic blocks mainly. 

The ponds of lava and the lava collapses (figure 5) are one of the most remarkable 

structures in the lava field of the CLV. They are semi-circular structures made by the 

superposition of pahoehoe lavas of scarce thickness expelled in a radial emission from a 

culminating depression through several lava tubes, micro-lava tubes and channels, 

similar to the ones firstly described for Timanfaya in 2008 (Romero-Ruiz et al., 2008). 

The bottom of these ponds can be formed by a chaotic block surface, or by the injection of 

pahoehoe lava flows, which do not overflow the rim. These depressions are a consequence 

of the rapid emptying out of the pond through the lava tube system, micro-lava tubes and 

channels already mentioned. The cascade lavas (figure 5) are associated with the sectors 

where the lava flows have circumvented relevant surface irregularities, in some cases over 

50 metres, and that is why they appear covering the paleocliff. The lava preys (figure 5) 

correspond to these sectors where a previous obstacle engenders a depression that avoids 

the advance of the lava tongues, and these, when stopped, fill up the vacant depressed 

space. The channels of lava (figure 5) and lava tubes are related to each other and their 

genesis is due to a differential cooling process in the ravine, dissimilar from that of the 

banks. The difference lies in a tube that supports the ceiling, and when this collapses, it 

allows seeing its interior through the jameos, while the other two do not. The tumuli 

result from the processes of degasification of the pahoehoe lava streams during their flow, 

where pressure causes an inflation of the surface of lavas. 

The lava fields are also affected by these processes of meteorization and 

edafogenesis, but as it happens with the volcanic edifices, man-made actions 

engender the most significant effects: growing fields, stone walls, paths, tracks and 

roads, extraction of tiles for ornamentation etc. 

190


Figure 5. Volcanic landforms in the lava field: 1- ponds of lava, 2- lava collapse, 

3- cascade lavas, 4- lava preys and 5- channels of lava 

Figure 6. The human uses in the La Corona del Lajial volcano: 1- traditional agriculture 

on alluvial deposits, 2- stone walls, 3- modern agriculture in CVL lava fields and 4- trekking 

191


The uses of volcanic lanscape 

The Canarian volcanoes are important socioeconomic resources for the 

inhabitants of the islands and pyroclastic materials and lava flows have been 

consistently used. La Corona del Lajial volcano descends from an altitude of 500 meters 

to sea level. This clarifies that the volcanic products are under different bioclimatic 

conditions, which in turn brings about different uses of the volcano. The main resources 

obtained from the CLV are conditioned by this fact. In this sense, in the most elevated 

sectors, more humid and with a dense vegetation cover, the uses are related to the 

growing of cereals and fruits (traditional agriculture) and the extensive goat and sheep 

grazing (figure 6). The human imprint in these areas is present through a landscape of 

small fields enclosed by stone walls (figure 6), where windmill stones for grinding wheat 

can be easily found, altogether with aljibes (traditional systems to collect rain water), 

and stables. In the zones closer to the seashore, drier and with a thinner vegetation 

cover, the uses are connected with modern agriculture on hothouse (figure 6) fishing 

and diving tourism in the marine reserve of El Mar de Las Calmas, trekking (PR EH 11 

Tacorón-Pinar) (figure 6) and, to a lesser extent, sun and beach tourism in La Restinga 

and in Tacorón beaches. Therefore, the uses mentioned above endow the volcanic 

landscape of the CLV with an interesting cultural value. 

Geomorphosites in volcanic landscape 

The relief alone can constitute a component of the cultural or scientific heritage of a 

territory (Ilies and Josan, 2009). The original geomorphology of the CLV together with 

the geographical peculiarities of this area of El Hierro (recent volcanism, semiarid climate 

on the coast and humid on the heights, soaring topography, low population rates, notable 

differences of vegetal colonisation, sea erosion, etc.) result in a high level of geodiversity. 

192 

Table 1. Values of the geosites of the La Corona del Lajial volcano 

Identification Number Geosites type Scientific Cultural Use 

1 1 Cinder cones 4,2 2,6 10 

2 4 Small scoria cones 4,3 3 6 

3 2 Hornitos 3,5 2,9 5 

4 4 Lava collapses 3 2,2 11 

5 4 Cascades of lava 3,2 2,7 7 

6 2 Pound of lava 3,1 2,8 3 

7 3 Lava prey 2,4 2,1 11 

8 1 Jameos-lava tubes 4 2,3 4 

9 3 Pahoehoe lavas 7 4 5 

- Total: 24 Average values 3,9 2,7 6,9 

As a whole, nine geosites have been identified, which means 24 places (table 1 and 

figure 7), with a triple valorisation for each of them. Intrinsic and added values are 

assessed according to Serrano and González (2005), on a 0-10 scale, and its grading may 

give an idea of the dominant value (natural or cultural) in the geosite and how it has been 

used and how it should be managed. The assessment of the cluster and each geosite of the 

CLV shows higher rates for the natural values than for the cultural ones, which is in 

agreement with this natural protected area, one which, although having antropic 

imprints, still preserves the original morphology of it relief. The CLV concentrates the 

highest geodiversity in volcanic edifices, as opposed to the lava flows. This underlines that 

the volcanic cones possess a higher geodiversity than the lava flows (figure 7). This fact 

allows to see that the uses need to be different, and in agreement with the high or low 

geodiversity level in a given sector, being primordial the tourist use of lavas and the 

didactic one in the cinder or scorias cones.


The data obtained reveal that it is still all the most necessary the consideration of 

the CLV as a natural protected area. However, given its singularity and geomorphological 

representativity, it might be needed as well to endow the site with the uses proper of 

higher categories of protection (scientific, didactic and ecotouristic) with Natural 

Monument and Special Reserve labels. 

Figure 7. Sketch of the map of geomorphosites of La Corona del Lajial 

Volcano (for numbers see table 1) 

Geotourism, ecotourism and sustainable tourism 

The Canary Islands are a first-class world tourist destination. As different from 

other islands of the archipelago, which construct their offer on sunshine and sand model, 

El Hierro offers a sustainable alternative product resting on any of its natural attractions 

such as diving or hiking. The profile of the tourist visitor of El Hierro is one that shows a 

great sensitivity to Nature, and respect for the local population, and hence she/he is likely 

to be easily integrated in the host culture of the island. 

Over the 58% of the territory of El Hierro is protected according to the Canarian 

environmental legislation, which turns it into the Canary Island with the highest portion 

of protected territory in relation to its overall surface (AAVV, 1995). Additionally, the 

island has a marine reserve, it has been declared as Biospheric Reserved Space, and will 

be the first of the Canary Islands in basing its ordinary supply on renewable energy. All 

this intends to ensure the exceptional natural conditions of the island to avoid the human 

193


action and pressure on the territory, and will further condition the future touristic offer 

based on ecotourism and sustainable tourism. Ecotourism consists in “low impact nature 

tourism which contributes to the maintenance of species and habitats either directly 

through a contribution to conservation and/or indirectly by providing revenue to the 

local community sufficient for local people to value, and therefore protect, their wildlife 

heritage area as a source of income” (Fennel, 2008). 

In 2010 El Hierro received more than 34,300 visitors (Frontur-Canarias), a 

relatively low entry rate in relation to the visitors of other islands such as Tenerife 

(2,950,995) or Gran Canaria (2,462,980), but significant enough to question which might 

be the total tourist yield of the island, and especially in the light of data showing that the 

local population of El Hierro is 10,960 inhabitants (ISTAC). When observing figure 8, it 

will be noticed that the majority of visitors in El Hierro are hikiers (71.58%), and to a 

lesser extent tourists (28.42%). This can be explained by resorting to the vast insular offer 

centred on ecotourist activities: diving, excursions, trekking, observation of natural 

landscapes, gastronomy, local festivities, etc. 

5000 

4500 

4000 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

September 

(2009) 

194 

Tourists 

Hiking tourism 

January 

(2010) 

July 

(2010) 

Figure 8. Evolution of tourists and hiking tourism that arrive to the El Hierro (2009-2011) 

(Data source: Frontur-Canarias, Istac. Self elaboration) 

Junuary 

(2011) 

Volcanoes punctuate the geography of El Hierro and constitute a touristic resource 

of their own within the general offer marketed by the Regional Government. 

Nevertheless, El Hierro volcanic geomorphology and the different geosites are not directly 

present in the touristic offer of the island. This fact evinces the lack of a firm bid for the 

volcanic relief to play a key role as a tourist resource in El Hierro and its various touristic 

itineraries (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2010 c and e). Such a fact can be easily connected with that 

revealing that the majority of the visitors who come to the Canary Islands are interested 

in enjoying the sun and local beach offer, which, in turn added to the popularity of the 

islands as vacation resort, brings about a number of drawbacks for the volcanoes of the 

islands (Lopes, 2005), especially when devising tourist products branded as volcanoes 

(Dóniz-Páez et al., 2010d). 

CONCLUSIONS 

The geomorphological potential of volcanoes in the Canary Islands is mostly 

underused as tourist resource. There are hardly any exceptions in which the volcanic 

relief features predominantly among other tourist products offered. Yet these cases also 

show a clear prevalence of aesthetic or “landscape” values over the geosite. 

The geomorphology of the CLV is an exceptional instance of the basaltic 

monogenic volcanism typical of the Canary Islands, and its geodiversity is unique in the


whole archipelago. La Corona del Lajial Volcano presents high rates of geodiversity 

(table 1) in relation to the complexity of the eruption that originated it, to the 

geomorphological evolution, the recent age, the different climatic conditions that it 

hosts, to its being a protected natural space, the scarce population and the peculiar use 

that people have made of the CLV. 

Figure 9. Aerial view of La Restinga villaje, lava field from CLV and 

Mar de Las Calmas Sea, Photo courtesy of Carmen Romero 

La Corona del Lajial Volcano is close to the main touristic centre on the island 

(La Restinga), whose principal offer is diving in the Mar de Las Calmas (figure 9) and 

international fotosub safari. This, together with its great natural diversity 

(geodiversity and biodiversity), the existence of paths that traverse its lava fields and 

cinder cones and the impossibility of divers to be too much time immersed, which 

means that they have some free time, are reasons powerful enough to shape a 

195


potential offer and demand of this protected natural space as tourist resource. This 

gains special relevance in the light of the recent submarine eruption (in progress from 

10 October 2011) near La Restinga village (see www.ign.es), which has impeded the 

main tourist attraction in El Hierro, diving. 

Therefore, new tourist products can be promoted and new activities encouraged, 

which can serve as an alternative to diving. Such is the case of paths among lavas and 

volcanoes. The goal of these activities is to use the volcanic relief as an ecotouristic 

activity that can make visitors aware of the touristic potential of volcanoes in El Hierro. 

Acknowledgements 

This paper has been financed by GEOVOL group and falls within the scope of 

(AT-473) research at the Castilla La Mancha University (Spain). The English version 

is by Dr. Pedro Carmona, Department of English and German Languages, University 

of La Laguna (Spain). The authors would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for 

their helpful comments and feedback. 

196 

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197



GEOMORPHOLOGICAL HERITAGE ASSESSMENT USING GIS 

ANALYSIS FOR GEOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN MĂCIN 

MOUNTAINS, DOBROGEA, ROMANIA 

Ionela Georgiana GAVRILĂ * 

“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, 5-7 Clinicilor st., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 

e-mail: ionela.gavrila@ubbcluj.ro 

Titus MAN 


e-mail: tman@geografie.ubbcluj.ro 

Virgil SURDEANU 


e-mail: surdeanu@geografie.ubbcluj.ro 

Abstract: Our study follow the assessment of geomorphological heritage of the 

Măcin Mountains for geotourism development in the area. In order to analyze 

geomorphological features of this area and to achieve a digital map, we created a GIS 

databases comprising topographic map sheets, digital ortophotos and satellite 

images. Using these datasets the main geomorphologic features were extracted. As a 

result of this study we combined the most representative elements of the topography 

and we realized a digital map of landforms with geotouristic potential. 

Key words: geomorphological heritage, GIS analysis, geotourism, Măcin Mountains 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The term of geotourism was introduced in the scientific literature at the beginning 

of ‘90ties, but a universally accepted definition was not issued until today. In a broad 

sense, geotourism was defined by Reynard (2005) as being an esemble of activities, 

infrastructure and services that aimed the recovery of Earth sciences through tourism. A 

more precise definition was made by Hose (1996, 2000) which introduce in the concept of 

geotourism the terms of geological and geomorphological sites and the importance of 

preserving them for their use in educational and tourist purpose: “…the provision of 

interpretative facilities and services to promote the value and social benefit of geologic 

and geomorphologic sites and their materials and to ensure their conservation, for the 

use of students, tourists and other casual recreationalists”. Even if currently there isn’t a 

universally accepted definition, we can observe that the geotourism focuses on the 

recovery of geological and geomorphological heritage of an area. 



Geomorphological Heritage Assessment Using Gis Analysis for Geotourism Development … 

For the geomorphological heritage concept were also used different terms like: 

geomorphological assets (Panizza & Piacente, 1993), geomorphological goods (Carton et 

al., 1994), geomorphological sites (Hooke, 1994), geomorphological geotopes 

(Grandgirard, 1997) and sites of geomorphological interest (Rivas et al., 1997). In the 

present, for the geomorphological heritage concept is used the term of “geomorphosite” 

which was recently introduced in the scientific literature by M. Panizza, in 2001. The term 

was defined as being a landform that has acquired a special value due to human 

perception. Thus the geomorphosites, due to the human perception has two main values: 

scientific value and additional values (Reynard, 2005). So, geomorphosites are considered 

natural goods not only because of their intrinsic value (scientific, aesthetic), but also due 

to their extrinsic values (ecologic, historical, cultural, economic) thus forming the main 

resources underlying the development of geotourism. 

Măcin Mountains unfolds in the form of parallel ridges, in the south-east of 

Romania, respectively in the north-western part of Dobrogea Plateau, in Tulcea County. 

Although it covers a relatively restricted area, with altitudes lower than 500 meters, 

Măcin Mountains are individualized in relation with adjacent units through a variety 

induced by structure, lithology, tectonics. 

The rising of Măcin Mountains in hercynic-chimeric orogenesis determined the 

existence of one of the oldest and diverse geological formations from our country. The 

lithological diversity have led to the development of an geomorphological variety 

characterized by the alternance of jagged ridges with pyramidal peaks, steep slopes and 

ruiniphorm relief with lower depression areas, in which frequently imposing inselbergs 

occurs. The geodiversity and geomorphological variety is also increased by the existence 

in our study area (respectivelly on 1 % of our country territory) of approximately 50 % of 

Romania’s flora. From the floristic viewpoint the region is remarkable due the presence of 

over 72 rare or vulnerable flora species and 27 endemic flora species (Doniţă et al., 2007). 

Likewise, the ecological character of our study area is both represented by the presence of 

six from eight groups of Europe ecosystems and a unique priority habitat in the world (the 

dobrogean beech forest). Thus, the ecological and botanical richness enhance the 

scientific value of our study area. 

Our study approach a topical issue and follow the assessment of the Măcin 

Mountains heritage for the geotourism development in the area. In order to achieve the 

proposed objectives were made field observation and were used the methods of geological 

and geomorphological mapping, photo-interpretation and digital mapping. As a result we 

identify the most representative elements of the topography and we realized a digital map 

of landforms with geotouristic potential. 

METHODOLOGY 

The analysis of geomorphological heritage for geotourism development in Măcin 

Mountains was realized in two stages: the first stage consisted of field campaigns in which 

morphological information were accumulated and the second stage consisted in achieving 

the map of landforms with geotouristic potential from our study area. 

During field campaigns were used both the lithological map of Măcin Mountains at 

a scale of 1:50.000 and the topographical maps at a scale of 1:25.000. In the field were 

identified the landforms with geotouristic potential and were mapped these landforms 

both through representation on the map sketches and by taking GPS points. 

In the following stage (laboratory stage), by GIS analysis, we realized the digital 

elevation model of the Măcin Mountains using contour lines of topographical map sheets (at a 

scale of 1:25 000). On digital elevation model were added the morphological information 

obtained during the field campaigns like ridges, peaks, steep slopes, gorges and quarries. 

Thus, by layers overlapping resulted a map that contains both the topography and 

morphology of Măcin Mountains. On the resulted map of our study area were represented 

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only those landforms that can be easily identified in the field and which can be valorized 

from the scientific, educational and touristic viewpoint. On the map were also represented 

settlemets, main access roads, adjacent morphological units etc. 

The resulted map which highlights the areas with geotouristic potential represents 

the first step in achieving the geotouristic map of the Măcin Mountains. 

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 

The geological structure of the Măcin Mountains is characterized by great 

diversity (both in terms of age and genesis) being resulted during the hercynic and 

chimeric orogenesis. 

The main types of rocks that form the Măcin Mountains are crystalline schists, 

magmatic and sedimentary rocks. Mezometamorphic crystalline schists are indigenous to 

the Orliga Hill and the Megina Ridge being represented through amphibolites, gneiss, 

micaschists, quartz, carbonatic gneiss of Upper Proterozoic age, as well as feldspathic 

gneisses and micaceous tuffs. Epimetamorphic crystalline schists are represented by 

quartz, quartz and muscovite schists and they are indigenous to the Priopcea, Coşlugea, 

Boclugea, Piatra Râioasa peaks and Buceag Hill etc. 

Crystalline schists and sedimentary rocks that form our study area are pierced by 

magmatic rocks like granite and granodiorite of Paleozoic age (Mutihac, 1990). Granites 

are characteristic to the Negoiu, Piatra Mare, David, Carapcea hills etc. but they also 

appear in the Pricopanului ridge, Moroianu and Greci peaks being represented by quartz 

diorite, grandiorite, porphyre etc. We can also find alkali granite that compose Iacobdeal 

and Piatra Roşie hills. 

Among the sedimentary rocks we can distinguish tree main lithologic formations 

respectively Cerna, Bujoarele and Carapelit formations. The Cerna formation is of Silurian 

age and it is composed of quartz sandstones and clays on which limestones and marls 

overlap. The Cerna landform is characteristic between Priopcea and Bujoarele saddle. The 

Upper Devonian is represented through the Bujoarele formation being composed of clays, 

sandstones and limestones intercalations being indigenous to the Bujoarele and Igliţa hill. 

The Carapelit formation registers widths of over 1500 meters and is composed of arenites, 

gravels, volcanic rocks, sandstones and conglomerates from the Lower Carbonifer age 

(Ionesi, 1992) 

A large spatial extension in the study area is represented by loess and quaternary 

loess deposits which can be found along the Danube banks, in depressions and valleys. 

The geological diversity along with the age of the lithologic deposits individualized 

the Măcin Mountains within the territory of our country. The different resistance of rocks 

determined a spectacular morphology characterized by pyramidal peaks, structural steeps, 

ruiniform relief thus representing an area with real possibilities of practicing geotourism. 

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL HERITAGE 

The overall morphology of the study area is characterized by the alternance of 

prominent forms, oriented north-west – south-east with lower depression areas. The 

relief of the Măcin Mountains is composed of an esemble of long ridges, related with 

erosion witnesses, with altitudes lower than 500 meters. They are associated with lower 

areas generated by tectonics, weathering processes and erosion. Generally, slopes have 

stepped profiles and are fragmented by an underdevelopped torrential network. 

The morphological characteristics of our study area are determined by the 

configuration of the complex geological structure. Within the Măcin Mountains we can 

identify two anticlines (Megina and Taiţa) as well as two synclines structures (Blasova - 

Sacar Dere and Greci - Carapelit). Highly inclined formations appear as peaks or ridges, 

well individualized in territory. Valleys and depressions are developed both on the axis 

and the flank of the syncline, morphological materialization consisting of longitudinal


valleys in both cases (Luncaviţa, Taiţa valleys). Along the anticlines and its flanks (White 

Valley etc) appear transverse valleys such as Greci and Cerna Valleys. 

During the field campaigns we have found that interesting landforms from 

geotouristic viewpoint are determined by the petrographical composition. So, the 

geomorphological heritage assessment will be made through the petrographical relief 

viewpoint. The lithological variety of Măcin Mountains is reflected in the morphological 

diversity and spectacularity of landforms. 

The relief formed on the crystalline schists has a spread extension in Măcin 

Mountains, being covered with continuous debris deposits and fine eluviale deposits. 

Crystalline schists are reflected in the study area through dominant landforms, imposing 

ridges, pyramidal peaks and steep slopes. 

On the metamorphic rocks often appears steep slopes, heavily affected by 

weathering processes, which accumulates on their lower part debris deposits. From field 

observations we found that the petrographical relief developed on metamorphic rocks 

presents ruiniphorm aspects. Representative from this viewpoint are Priopcea and Dălchii 

ridges, Chervant peak, Piatra Cerna peak, etc. Also, the existence of older crystalline 

schists in the area is reflected by the rounded peaks with lower heights and peaks with the 

appearance of a dome being characteristic to the Orliga, Sărărie, Megina, Buceag hills. 

Măcin Mountains geomorphological heritage is also represented by petrographical 

relief developed on magmato-volcanic rocks. Within the area of study this type of relief 

occupies almost half of the surface. 

The morphology developped of granitic rocks is characterized by rounded peaks 

and erosion surfaces in which inselbergs like Piatra Roşie and Coşlugea often occurs. The 

different types of igneous rocks, especially of Paleozoic age have imposed in our study 

area spectacular and jagged ridges (Pricopan ridge), sharps peaks (Greci Massive), steep 

slopes (Buceag hills) etc. Also, they make themselves noticed in the landscape through 

high ridges being bounded by steep slopes, with level differences sometimes higher than 

100 meters like Negoiu, Piatra Mare, David hills etc. 

Spatial extention of granite rocks in the area also favored the expression of 

weathering processes. The resulted typical forms are granitic arenas, isolated spherical 

blocks and overcrowding spherical blocks, exfoliated rocks, towers, columns, walls, etc. 

Debris deposits and rocks flow (Colina Dălchii) are also frequent in our study area, 

being resulted by the weathering processes. Likewise, the weathering of quartzitic rocks 

from Priopcea Ridge and granitic rocks of Pricopan Ridge have led to the formation of 

tafons with small dimensions. 

Typical landscapes of weathered granitic rocks are common in Pricopan Ridge 

(between Cheia and Căprăriei peaks), Îmbulzita Hill, on the main ridge of Măcin 

Mountains (between Căpuşa and Cartalu peaks), Mangina and Curia valleys (in the northeast 

of Cerna locality), Cailău and Coşlugea peaks, Piatra Roşie massive, etc. 

As a result of selective erosion resulted both isolated and grouped peaks, likewise 

flat plateaus with limited extension. This type of morphology is very spectacular and can 

be an important resource for development of hiking touristic trails. 

Through field observations we found that the morphology developed on 

sedimentary rocks has a low visual impact due to both limited extensions of deposits and 

absence of prominent forms. In the following, we will only present those aspects that are 

important for geomorphological heritage. Paleozoic sedimentary formations like 

Bujoarele are represented by inselbergs in the form of domes. Representative of this type 

of morphology are Bujoarele Hills (Bujorul Românesc and Bujorul Bulgăresc) whose 

geotouristic interest is enhanced by the existence of Devonian age fossils. Limestones of 

the Muchea Lungă are represented through a fragmented ridge and gorges sector. The 

Carapelit formations are reflected in the area by gentle slopes and rounded peaks specific 

to the southern part of Măcin Mountains main ridge. Landscapes developped on loess 

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deposits has a narrower spread in Măcin Mountains, being represented by subsidence 

landforms. This landscapes doesn’t represent a part of geomorphological heritage of the 

study area, therefore will not be detailed. 

Besides the morphology developed on lithological formations, the morphology 

generated by anthropogenic activities is also a significant recovery with geotouristic 

potential. From Măcin canva are extracted magmatic rocks (granite, granodiorite and 

porphyre), metamorphic rocks (quartzite) and also sedimentary rocks (kaolinic clays). 

Anthropogenic exploitation activities of construction rocks have led to the creation 

of an excavation morphology, the most prominent landforms being quarries. By field 

mapping we identified more than 100 quarries, most of them abandoned (Izvoarele, 

Sulucu, Piatra Râioasa, Priopcea, Cheia). 


The result of our research consists in achieving the digital map of landforms with 

geotouristic potential of Măcin Mountains using GIS analysis. On the map we have 

represented only spectacular landforms, respectively those areas where geomorphological 

heritage can be a resource for practicing geotourism. To get information on altitudes and 

accessibility to the interest points were represented on the resulted map, the land 

elevation by using color tints. On the digital map of landforms with geotouristic potential 

of the Măcin Mountins were represented the following elements with geotouristic 

potential: ridges, steep slopes, peaks, gorges, fossiliferous points and quarries. Depending 

on the landforms identified as being part of geomorphologic heritage, in the future will be 

proposed thematic touristic trails. 

In following, we will present each morphological element identified and 

represented on the map and its geotouristic importance. 

Ridges are one of those landforms that are part of geological and 

geomorhopological heritage. One of the most representative ridge with geotouristic 

potential from our study area is Pricopan Ridge (figure 1). This is due to granitic 

lithology, alpine morphology and due the resulting forms generated by weathering 

processes. Thus, Pricopan Ridge presents geotouristic interes due their morphology 

characterized by pyramidal peaks (Caramalău, Sulucu Mare, Sulucu Mic, Piatra 

Râioasa, Şerparu peaks) and steep slopes that strongly contrast with the lower 

limitrophe units. The geomorphological landscape is completed by unique ruiniphorm 

landforms represented by spherical blocks, towers, columns, etc. Ruiniphorm relief is 

distinguished by size, by its chaotically distribution and also by its occurrence 

frequency. Remarcable are spherical blocks that occurs both isolated and associated 

increasing the spectacularity of the landscape. 

The main ridge of the Măcin Mountains represents another morphological 

element with geotouristic interest (figure 1). From landscape point of view the main ridge of 

Măcin Mountains is distinguished within territory by massiveness, amplitude differences 

imposed by the rock hardness level, etc. Thus, almost horizontal surfaces alternates with 

steep slopes, structural sharps and peaks well over 400 meters (Ţuţuiatu, Moroianu, 

Negoiu peaks). The occurrence frequency of morphology generated by weathering processes 

is lower than that of Pricopan Ridge, but the spectacularity of forms is similar. On the 

resulted map were also represented the jagged and intensely fragmentated ridge of 

Priopcea, Crapcea and the calcareous ridge of the Muchea Lungă. We have also noticed 

that the landscapes of these ridges presents real opportunities for practicing geotourism. 

Likewise, representative for the development of geotourism in the Măcin 

Mountains are the pyramidal and rocky peaks that offer the possibility of observing 

the types of rocks that form the structure of the studied area: Sulucu Mare, Şerparu, 

Vraju, Piatra Râioasa, Ţuţuiatu, Chietrosul Mare, Călcata, Cheia, Priopcea, Carapelit, 

Chervant, Crapcea peaks etc (figure 1).


Figure.1 The digital map of landforms with geotouristic potential 

Important from geotourist viewpoint are also the imposing steep slopes, with 

level differences of over 100 meters and vegetation devoid of the Negoiu, Piatra Mare, 

David hills, the western steep slope of Priopcea Peak, the western and south-western 

steep slope of Buceag Peak, the northern steep slope of Coşlugea Peak etc. 

Another element of scientific interest represented on the digital map consists of 

paleontological protected area that is present within the Bujoarele Hill, where 

traces of fauna were discovered which testify the Devonian age of the lithological 

deposits. Likewise were represented the areas where the artificial oppenings occurred 

like quarries. The abandoned mining and quarries Greci, Pricopan, Turcoaia, Priopcea, 

Iglicioara, Cheia, Viţelaru, Orliga etc. present a particular importance for 

comprehension of Măcin Mountains evolution. 

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On the resulted map were also represented infrastructure elements (access roads, 

localities), the main hydrographic elements and limitrophe morphological units. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The paper aimed to analyze the geoheritage of Măcin Mountains for geotourism 

development in the area. In these sense were analyzed the geological and 

geomorphological features of our study area, were identified landforms which consists in 

geotouristic attractions and were represented their spatial distribution on the resulted 

digital map. 

After field campaigns we have noticed that the petrographical relief is the main 

morphological element with geotouristic potential of Măcin Mountains. This is due its 

morphology developped on metamorphic and magmato – volcanic rocks represented by 

spectacular landforms (ridges, steep slopes, peaks, spherical blocks, towers, columns etc) 

which covers most of the mountainous area surface. 

Anthropogenic landscape represented by abandoned quarries generated by 

exploatations of construction rocks consists, in our study area, in an important part of 

geomorphological heritage. Thus, quarries represents a particular interest for the 

geotourism development due their scientifical and educational role. 

The existing fossiliferous point within the study area represents another advantage 

for geotourism development due its importance both for comprehension of Măcin 

Mountains evolution and understanding the Earth history. 

Thus, the geological diversity along with the age of the lithologic deposits and the 

morphological variety individualized the Măcin Mountains within the territory of our 

country like an mountainous area with real possibilities of practicing geotourism. 

Ackowledgement 

This paper was possible with financial support of project Ph.D. scholarship, Project 

co-financed by the Sectoral Operational Program For Human Resources Development, 

2007–2013, Priority Axis 1 “Education and training in support for growth and 

development of a knowledge based society”, Key area of intervention 1.5: Doctoral and 

post-doctoral programs in support of research, Contract no: Posdru/88/1.5/s/60185 – 

“Innovative doctoral studies in a knowledge based society”, Babeş-Bolyai University, 

Cluj-Napoca, Romania. 

The authors acknowledge to anonymous reviewer for their thoughtful suggestions 

and comments. 

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THE CONCEPT OF “HYBRID RESEARCH” APPLIED TO THE 

GEOHERITAGE OF THE BAUGES MASSIF (FRENCH ALPS): 

WHEN THE PROMOTION OF THE GEOHERITAGE HELPS 

GEOSCIENCES AND VICE VERSA 

Fabien HOBLEA * 

Edytem, Mountain Pole, University of Savoie, Technolac, 73 376 Le Bourget du Lac Cedex, France 

e-mail: fabien.hoblea@univ-savoie.fr 

Nathalie CAYLA 

Edytem, Mountain Pole, University of Savoie, Technolac, 73 376 Le Bourget du Lac Cedex, France 

e-mail: nathalie.cayla@univ-savoie.fr 

Pierre RENAU 

CalcEre, Montagny, 73 340 Arith en Bauges, France 

e-mail: bauges@pays-ages.fr 

Abstract: This paper presents the concept of “hybrid research”. This concept was 

created to indicate, here in the field of geosciences, actions of research which serve at 

the same time to increase the fundamental knowledge and the applications in term of 

management and promotion of the geoheritage. The “hybrid research” requires 

specific tools and field experiments, which we call “monitors”, being of use at once 

the observation and the measure of the phenomena and their visualization to 

educational and geotourism purposes. Two of these tools are presented: the 

GeoVision monitoring system and the participative multifunctional dye tracing. 

These two tools were conceived and experimented in the Bauges subalpine massif, 

Regional Nature Park candidate to become a Geopark. 

Key words: hybrid research, geoheritage, geotourism, geoeducation, monitors, 

Bauges, French Alps 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The works on the promotion of geoheritage were considered for a long time as 

minor and secondary towards the major subjects of research in geosciences. The current 

development of the topic of geoheritage, in answer to a significant social demand, 

requires the establishment of a specific and recognized research. In this purpose, we 

propose the concept of “hybrid research” that will be explained in this paper. 

This new concept results in new tools and methodologies, which we call 

“monitors”. Such tools are in the course of experiment in the Regional Nature Park of the 



The Concept of “Hybrid Research” Applied to the Geoheritage of the Bauges Massif … 

Bauges Massif (French Subalps) which is candidate to joign the European Geopark 

Network. Two examples of “monitors” experimented in the Bauges Massif are presented 

here: the “GeoVision” monitoring system and the “Participative Multifunctional 

Dye-Tracing”. 

THE CONCEPT OF „HYBRID RESEARCH” 

The promotion of the geoheritage in an educational and tourist purpose requires 

today specific tools, methodologies and processes. Their conception involves geoscientific 

researchers. The demand so increases that it can mobilize researchers' jobs full-time. But 

in some countries and particularly in France, these topics are not really supported by the 

academic establishment, in comparison with the aura which enjoys the fundamental 

research on the big subjects of geosciences as well as geosciences applied to the mining 

and oil search. 

To by-pass this difficulty which slows down the development and the structuring of 

a specific search around geoheritage, we think that it is possible and advantageous to 

reconcile geoscientific fundamental research and applied research in the promotion of 

geoheritage, both feeding mutually and being able to then benefit from a common 

financing. 

That is the creed of the concept of “hybrid research”, serving and associating at the 

same time the expectations of the fundamental geosciences and those of the promoters of 

the geotourism and the geoeducation (figure 1). 

Figure 1. The concept of “Hybrid Research”and its specific tools (“Monitors”) 

(Source: F. Hoblea, Edytem) 

As we can see on the figure 1, the hybrid research is based on a new type of tools, 

called monitors. These tools are also hybrid, e.g. they allow to catch data and 

measurements that serve the fundamental knowledge of the phenomenon observed 

(metrological function) and they also allow in the same time to show or explain to the 

public the natural event happening and the functionning of the geo or hydrosystem. 

One of the main advantage of this approach is that the collected scientific data and 

the results obtained from the field experiments or sample analyses are very often directly 

useful to answer the questioning of the public. And the experiments or the visualization of 

the natural events are rather spectacular to catch and hold its attention. 

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This new kind of tools is now experimented in french prealpine and subalpine 

massifs which are engaged in an application to became geoparks as the Chablais and 

the Bauges massifs, or in nature parks which want to protect and promote their 

geoheritage and natural resources through actions of participative science, as the 

Chartreuse Massif (figure 2). 

Figure 2. Location of the Bauges massif and other massifs quoted in the text 

These massifs are characterized by folded and karstic reliefs in mesozoïc 

sedimentary rocks with numerous thick layers of limestones (especially Tithonian and 

Urgonian). We present two examples of monitors developped in the Bauges Massif since 

2010 in the frame of an application to join the European Geopark Network. 

TWO EXAMPLES OF „MONITORS” 

The word „monitor” was chosen to indicate tools answering the definition of the 

hybrid research. This choice was guided by the fact that these tools have to assure at once 

a function of „monitoring” or collection of data, and a function of visualization just like a 

„monitor” (in the sense of monitor screen), and also an educational function, as an 

instructor („moniteur” in French). This term is particularly indicated to appoint the 

GeoVision project. 

GeoVision: the Nature movie. GeoVision consists in developing a station of 

measure and visualization of the processes relative to the extern geodynamics. The aim is 

to increase the knowledge of these phenomena while making them visible to the general


public, within the framework of territories concerned by geotourism and environment 

education. This station is a development of the process Hymage-TIP: an optical sensor 

connected with a treatment of images specific software, initially finalized for hydrometric 

applications (Fourquet, 2005; Fourquet et al., 2010). A prototype of station GeoVision is 

in development for the measure and the visualization of the phenomena of the Prerouge 

Spring floods, one of the main karstic springs of the Bauges massif (figure 3). 

Figure 3. GeoVision: Prototype of Prerouge Cave (Bauges Massif RNP) 

(Source: Denimal, 2010 / Edytem-CNRS-University of Savoie) 

Movement sensors linked with the camera will also allow to count and identify the 

visitors of the cave which is an easy caving site, but dangerous because of the sudden 

floods than can occur. Equipped with water level sensor inside the cave, the GeoVision 

station can also serve the prevention of the risk of flooding. 

It is so a multifunctional tool, serving geoscientific knowledge, geoheritage promotion, 

geotourism study and risk assessment and prevention. This multifunctionality is another 

characteristic that defines “Monitors”, as we can also see it with the second example. 

The Participative Multifunctional Dye Tracing 

A dye tracing is an experiment of coloring of an underground flow of water since 

the infiltration area to know the release of this flow and bound the catchment area. This 

type of experiment is used for a long time for the knowledge of the karstic aquifers, as well 

as to determine their vulnerability to the pollution. It is generally realized by scientists 

and professionnals of the management of the water resource. The results are going to 

guide measures of protection and management of the resource, which impose upon the 

users of the water as well as upon the activities considered dangerous for the integrity of 

the resource. These measures are often badly accepted and misunderstood, in particular 

because the public is not aware of impacts of its practices and activities on the water 

quality of the fresh water. Such conflictual situations exist in the Bauges massif, where the 

dairy breeding and the forestry are major economic and identital activities, where it is 

until now difficult to have a reasoned practice concerning the water resource. At the same 

time, the massif being engaged in a Geopark initiative (Peisser and Renau, 2010), it can 

be interesting to develop an educational application of the hydrogeological dye-tracing, in 

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particular within the framework of courses of study integrating the presentation of the 

karstic phenomena and the sustainable management of water resources. Of these reports 

was born the concept of Participative Multifunctional Dye Tracing (PMDT, figure 4). 

As its name indicates it, it is about an operation of participative science (Couvet et 

al., 2008), e.g. involving in its realization diverse types of public not specialists, but 

supervised. This monitor is intended at once to: 

-know and become known the structure and the functioning of the karstic aquifers; 

-bring information to the local elected authorities and the water resource managers 

to bound the perimeters of protection of the drinking water catchments; 

Figure 4. The concept of Participative Multifunctional Dye Tracing (PMDT) 

(Source: Edytem-CNRS-University of Savoie) 

-inform different types of public (local, pupils, farmers, etc.) and make them 

become aware of the vulnerability of their resource and of the possible impacts of their 

practices; 

-make accept protective measures by a dialogue and a co-construction of these 

measures with all the concerned actors, on the basis of the results of the dye tracing 

experiment in which these actors will have participated. 

The first experiment of PMDT took place in June 2010 in a karstic mountain of the 

Bauges massif heart, in association with the cavers and the pupils of the local middle 

school, within the framework of their courses of Earth sciences and environment 

education. The pupils were able to participate actively in the experiment and to realize in 

which point their springs were vulnerable, especially those which are fresh water 

catchments. Around the pupils, the operation mobilized cavers, students of the university, 

mountain guides, teachers of diverse disciplines in a real collective project. The managers 

of the resource also followed this experiment which brought them elements of 

information to try to resolve a problem of chronic pollution of a catched spring, 

incriminating a chalet of mountain pasture. The operation was a frank success and it was 

decided to renew it annually there where it will be needed in the massif. 

The second PMDT experiment will take place in mid-May on 2011 in the north 

border of the territory, with important intermunicipal stakes: the grounds of the


infiltration area of the concerned aquifers are situated on a municipality whereas the 

springs are catched by another municipality. A part of waters could also feed directly 

the Annecy Lake by a sub-lakeside spring. Even there the pupils will be in the front line. 

They indeed represent effective mediators to make messages pass towards the adults 

and their awareness offers the perspective of a more virtuous behavior when they same 

will be grown-up. 

CONCLUSION 

„Hybrid research” and its specific tools and experiments of type “monitors” should 

allow reconciling the expectations of the fundamental research and those of the applied 

research in the promotion of the geoheritage. Therefore we assume that with such an 

approach, fundamental and applied geosciences, far from competing, support each other 

and strengthen mutually, in particular as regards the financing, who can combine funds 

intended for the institutional research and those stemming from projects for territorial 

development. Hybrid research and monitors are particularly suitable for territories 

engaged in a Geopark initiative (Peisser and Renau, 2010). In the end we hope this kind 

of approach will tend to be more recognized as a substantial topic of research and a full 

outlet for the today geosciences. 

REFERENCES 

Couvet D., Jiguet F., Julliard R., Levrel H., Teyssèdre A., (2008), Enhancing citizen contributions to 

biodiversity science and public policy. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 33, 95-103; 

Denimal S., (2010), Valorisation hydrologique sur le territoire karstique des Bauges (Savoie), mémoire de M1 

de Géographie, Université de Savoie, pp. 99; 

Fourquet G., (2005), Développement d'un système hydrométrique par analyses d'images numériques. 

Evaluation d'une année de fonctionnement continu sur l'Isère à Saint Martin d'Hères", thèse de 

l'Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble, pp. 265; 

Fourquet G., Saulnier G. M., Vautier G., Ricard M., (2010), Hydrométrie vidéo : le capteur video HyMAGE-TIP 

(Hydrométrie par analyse d’images-télétransmission par protocole IP), On line 

http://sites.google.com/site/hydrometeogm/instrumentations; 

Peisser C., Renau P., (2010), Aspiring Bauges Subalpine Geopark. Application dossier European Geopark 

Network, Nature Regional Park of the Bauges Massif, pp. 50. 


29.07.2011 26.10.2011 28.10.2011 31.10.2011 

211



VULNERABILITY OF TOURISTIC GEOMORPHOSITES IN 

TRANSYLVANIAN SALIFEROUS AREAS (ROMANIA) 

Ioan Aurel IRIMUŞ 

“Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj–Napoca, Faculty of Geography, 

5-7 Clinicilor St., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania, e-mail: irimus@geografie.ubbcluj.ro 

Dănuţ PETREA 

“Babes-Bolyai” University of Cluj–Napoca, Faculty of Geography, 

5-7 Clinicilor St., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania, e-mail: dpetrea@geografie.ubbcluj.ro 

Iuliu VESCAN 


5-7 Clinicilor St., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania, e-mail: vescan@geografie.ubbcluj.ro 

Camelia Bianca TOMA * 


5-7 Clinicilor St., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania, e-mail: camellia.toma@ubbcluj.ro 

Ioana VIERU 


5-7 Clinicilor St., 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania, e-mail: ioana.vieru@ubbcluj.ro 

Abstract: Our study focuses on the impact analysis of contemporary 

geomorphological processes on tourism activities in the diapiric regions of 

Transylvania. The methodology implies identifying the causes of geomorphological 

processes that induce territory’s vulnerability and restrict tourist activities. Inside the 

study area, in the anticlines of Praid - Sovata and Turda, the saliferous 

geomorphosites were identified, along with the geomorphological processes and 

human activities that lead to their deterioration. The study required the use of 

topographical maps (1:50000 scale), aerial photographs and orthophotomaps besides 

the field investigations. The methodology led to the identification of the opportunities 

offered by the diapir geomorphologic landscape in order to outline complementary or 

alternative tourist activities that would ensure permanent tourist activities. 

Key words: vulnerability, saliferous geomorphosites, geomorphological processes, 

Transylvania 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The aim of this study is to analyze the vulnerability of saliferous geomorphosites. 

The vulnerability of a geomorphologic system can be defined according to its sensitivity, 

its feedback capacity to interior or exterior changes and its adapting ability to new states. 

They include both the impact of human activities on the relief form and the effect of 

contemporary geomorphological processes in its evolution (Irimuş, 2006). The 



Vulnerability of Touristic Geomorphosites in Transylvanian Saliferous Areas (Romania) 

Transylvanian sedimentation basin appeared in the process of slow and continuous 

sinking of the initial crystalline one that started at the end of Cretaceous. 

The studied areas are the anticline Praid - Sovata, situated in the eastern part of the 

Transylvanian Depression and the salt massif at Turda, situated in west (Irimuş, 1998). 

The following geomorphosites where identified in the area: the salt mine in Praid, Dealul 

Sării (Salt Hill) or the Natural Reserve of Sohat, the salt lakes and helio-thermal lakes in 

Sovata and the salt mine in Turda. The result of our study will be the identification of 

geomorphological processes and human activities that lead to the degradation of the 

geomorphosites and in some cases restrict the tourist activities. 

THE STUDY AREA 

The Transylvanian basin took shape at the end of Cretaceous and the beginning of 

Palaeocene, during subsidence processes, while at the margins, through orogenesis 

processes, the Carpathian Mountains appeared. The sodium chlorine, known under 

different names, salt, kitchen salt, rock salt, halite, is both a mineral and a rock, a 

monomineralic rock. The Transylvanian basin’s genesis, at the end of Cretaceous and 

beginning of Palaeocene, consisted of a slow but continuous sinking. The salt in the area, 

aged 13-14 million years, resulted from the isolation of the Transylvanian basin from the 

Pannonian one, due to the decrease of the planetary ocean level during the Badennian era 

(Horvath, 2002). 

The climate was a temperate-Mediterranean one, but the main cause of salt 

precipitation was represented by the isolation of the basin and not climatic conditions. 

Initially, salt deposited in horizontal layers, between other rock layers; afterwards, due 

to tectonic movements and its plasticity, it concentrated on low resistance lines of the 

other rock layers, forming different shapes (lamellar, ovoid, feather, massif) that 

compose the existing salt ore alignments. Therefore, salt appears both in depth, as a 

layer thick of hundred of meters, and at the surface or close to it, as diapiric alignments 

(axial areas to anticline folds) in the eastern and western part of the basin, linked by 

those in the north and south. The salt-core diapirs of different shapes and sizes, have 

generated through the uplift of salt to the surface, various specific landforms. Therefore, 

during the uplift generated particularly by its plasticity, the layers on top were vaulted 

or fractured (Irimuş, 1998; Irimuş, 2006). 

The Praid-Sovata anticline is represented by two diapir columns that are situated in 

the area of Sovata-Corund and are the best example of exploitation and capitalization of 

salt and salty waters. The evaporitic layer comes to the surface both in Sovata and Praid 

as salt massifs. The salt in Praid has a macro or micro-crystalline aspect, being impure 

due to the mechanical syngenetic dispersions that consist of clays, marls, sandstones and, 

crystalline limestones; they appear as disseminations, impregnations, layered inclusions 

or enclaves of different dimensions. 

The clays inside the salt of the “cap-rock” ore cover contain rock elements of 

foreign origin, that being Carpathian, Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, 

sandstones, crystalline limestones, gneiss or quartz. These elements were probably 

originated in the decomposition of the Mio-Pliocene conglomerate during the orogenic 

folds or were transported from the neighboring continental area. Rarely, clays with 

crystalline aggregate of secondary gypsum appears. 

The geological research made in Sovata revealed that the salt massif has an 

elliptic shape, longer on the north-east – south-west direction. The salt massive in 

Sovata appearing at the surface, is marked by drains, karrens and sinkholes that 

create interesting pseudo-karst features that appears associated with Ursu and Aluniş 

Lakes, the salty water ponds, salty muds, salty efflorescences and halophile plants 

(Horvath, 2002). The salt rock massif in Turda, is situated in the north-eastern part of 

Turda municipality, where the abandoned salt mines can be found. This ore is set on the 

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same salt anticline as the salt mine in Cojocna, and it has a width of 1000 m and a depth 

of over 230 m. The elongated ore has intercalations of argillaceous schist and is covered 

by a layer of 1500 m of argillaceous schist and gravel. Close to the surface, the salt is pure, 

solid, crystallized and largely granulated, but in depth it contains fine disseminated sand. 

The concentration of sodium chlorine is of 98-99%. The estimated geological reserve is of 

about 38 750 million tons (Irimuş, 2006). 

SALIFEROUS GEOMORPHOSITES 

“Geomorphosites are defined as forms of relief and geomorphological processes 

that gained an aesthetic and landscape value, scientific, cultural/historical and/or 

social/economic value, due to human perception or exploitations” (Panizza, 2001; 

Reynard and Panizza, 2005). 

According to J. P. Pralong (2005) “Geomorphological sites may become natural 

and tourist resources, because of their scenic, scientific, cultural and economic interests, 

components of their tourist value, in order to develop recreational activities and induce 

economic effects”. 

The salt massif in Praid, horizontally placed has a quasi-circular shape, slightly 

elliptic, with diameters of 1.2 and 1.4 km, while structural probes (S ACEX 401/1949, 

S 110/1973) estimated a depth of 2,6 to 2,8 km, being thus the most developed diapir 

structure in the country. Two geomorphosites already included in tourist activities 

were identified here: the salt mine in Praid and the Natural Reserve of Sohat 

(Horvath, 2002). 

The Natural Reserve of Sohat (figure 1, 2) on Salt Hill has a surface of 6 ha and is 

surrounded by steep slopes of salt, forms that offer a unique view. Inside the geological 

reserve we can see karst formations that continuously change its appearance (sinkholes, 

swallow holes, globular concretions). 

Figure 1. The Natural Reserve of Sohat 

The rich vegetation consisting of species adapted to saliferous soils also contributes 

to the interesting aspect of the reserve. On clear sky, the Salt Mountain has a shiny-white 

glow, while on increasing humidity time its colour becomes dark-grey (Józsa, 2002).


Figure 2. The limits of Sohat reserve 

Another geomorphosite is represented by Praid salt mine (figure 3, 4), where salt is 

still exploited and treatment facilities where created. The latter are placed on the level 

+402 m, also called “50” in the area of inferior layers, and has a total surface of 9400 

sqm. At this level, several facilities designed for tourists were created: the underground 

climatic treatment, with natural aerosols it is an unique microclimate in the country; a 

chapel for services in different religions; a children’s playground; a museum of historical 

salt exploitation in Praid; permanent medical services; photography exhibitions; selling 

points for folkloric items, popular ceramics; arts exhibitions (sculptures, paintings on 

salt); internet café, etc. (Horvath, 2009). 

Figure 3. The chapel of Praid Salt Mine Figure 4. Praid Salt Mine 

The geomorphosite identified in Sovata consists of a series of salty and heliothermal 

lakes: Ursu Lake (the main and largest lake), Alunis Lake, Green Lake and 

Red Lake. Ursu Lake (figure 5) appeared inside a depression formed after collapse, 

as a consequence of an intense process of salt dissolution, at the contact with other 

surface deposits, occurred during the period 1875-1880 (Alexe et al., 2006). The 

exact timing of the collapse can be given. It took place on the 27 th of May 1875, 11 

a.m, when a heavy rain shower generated high waters in Topliţa and Auriu rivers 

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216 


that drained the new formed crater. Due to its bear skin shape, the local people 

called it Ursu Lake (City Hall Sovata, 2009). Four years after its formation, the 

helio-thermal phenomenon was mentioned. Aluniş Lake (figure 6) appeard due to 

water leaking from Ursu Lake. The Red Lake (figure 7) and Green Lake (figure 8) 

are two lakes whose genesis was simultaneous with that of Ursu Lake, and their 

depth does not exceed 2 meters. 

Figure 5. Ursu Lake Figure 6. Aluniş Lake 

Figure 7. Red Lake Figure 8. Green Lake 

Figure 9. Terezia Mine, Turda Saline Figure 10. Rudolf Mine, Turda Saline 

The geomorphosite in Turda salt mine was created by salt exploitation starting in the 

Roman period. In 1932 exploitations were permanently ceased. It was declared natural 

reserve of national interest in 2000, and today it became a real mining history museum.


The tools used for exploitation and transportation (figure 11) are in excellent 

conditions, due to the stability of the massif and rock in its ceiling. As a result, Turda 

saline mine was realigned and received an extended functionality. Thus, in Rudolf 

Mine (figure 10, 12) were made rearrangements in order to have a concert hall, a 

sports field, a bowling, a minigolf likewise a huge gondola and an elevator. Also, on 

the lake from Theresa Mine (figure 9) was built a dock with boats. Overall, the Turda 

salt mine’s appearance has changed radically. The official opening after renovation 

was made on 22 January 2010 (Mera et al., 2010). 

Figure 11. Rudimentary tools used for Figure 12. Rudolf Mine, Turda Saline 

exploitation, Turda Saline 


Geomorphological processess and human activities leading to geomorphosites 

degradation are: natural dissolution of the salt massifs, settlements, infiltration from 

rainfall and salt exploitation. Natural dissolution of the salt massifs occurs in outcrops of 

the Salt Hill. Funnels dissolution and salt open rocks from Corund creek defile also 

landform surfaces susceptible to dissolution, especially during heavy rain periods. The 

main factor which makes the formation of salt karst is freshwater or slightly salted, 

causing the dissolution processes. 

Salt rock is extremely susceptible to karstification, the dissolution process being 

very fast due to cracks, joints and bedding planes which constitute pathways for water 

infiltration in the existing material. After a period of active dissolution the water becomes 

saturated and its action is reduced only to a dynamic action resulted from the flow energy. 

Gradually, the water will leave the surface flow and will follow the underground ways. 

Thus, exokarst from the beginning of the process will evolve into endokarst forms 

(dissolution caves, caverns, broad cracks, enlarged joints with irregular vertical 

development, corrosion caves, etc). In our study area, large caves cannot form because of 

the high degree of solubility of salt rock that would lead to overcoming of equilibrium 

conditions and to the collapse of the ceiling. 

In areas where salt formations crops up the following forms of exokarst are formed: 

sharp limestone pavements, sinkholes (conical, asymmetric and elongated ones; collapse 

sinkholes, suffosions sinkholes) and enlarged cracks on salt surfaces which were 

generated by small sinkhole migration to the water infiltration place. 

The gullies development is favored by chemical and hydrodynamic suffosion 

processes and settlement processes. Dissolution also has an important role in the genesis 

and evolution of suffosion and compaction processes. 

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CONCLUSIONS 

In our study area, dissolution is the main geomorphological process leading to the 

vulnerability of geomorphological sites. This process causes cracks, joints, funnels, 

pseudokarst forms, etc. These ones can cause the geosites degradation and can destroy 

spectacular features of the geomorphosites. 

Ackowledgements 

This paper was made possible with the financial support of the Ph.D. scholarship 

project, Projectco-financed by the Sectoral Operational Program For Human Resources 

Development, 2007 – 2013, Priority Axis 1 “Education and training in support for 

growth and development of a knowledge based society”, Key area of intervention 1.5: 

Doctoral and post-doctoral programs in support of research, Contract no: 

Posdru/88/1.5/s/60185 – “Innovative doctoral studies in a knowledge based society”, 

Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The authors acknowledge to anonymous 

reviewer for their thoughtful suggestions and comments. 

REFERENCES 

Alexe M., Gheorghe Ş., Fülöp-Naghy J., (2006), Lacurile Sărate de la Sovata, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, 

Cluj – Napoca; 

Horvath I., (2002), Descrierea geologică a zăcământului de sare gemă de la Praid, Salina Praid; 

Horvath I., (2009), Analiza potenţialului turistic al Salinei Praid, Salina Praid; 

Irimuş I. A., (1998), Relieful pe domuri şi cute diapire in Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Ed. Preasa Universitară 

Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

Irimuş I. A., (2006), Hazarde şi riscuri asociate proceselor geomorfologice în aria cutelor diapire din 

Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj – Napoca; 

Józsa A., (2002), Ţinutul Sării şi băile sărate ale zonei, cărţile Hazanéző; 

Mera O., Ştefănie T., Vişinescu V., (2010), Cetatea din muntele de sare, Ed. Delroti, Turda; 

Panizza M., (2001), Geomorphosites: Concepts, methods and examples of geomorphological survey, In: 

Chinese Science Bulletin, 46: 4-6; 

Pralong J. P., Reynard, E. (2005), A proposal for the classification of geomorphological sites depending on 

their tourist value, Il Quaternario, 18 (1), 315-321 

Pralong J. P. (2005), A method for assessing tourist potential and use of geomorphological sites, 

Géomorphologie: relief, processus, environnement, 3, 189-196; 

Primăria Sovata, (2009), Comorile Transilvaniei. Ţinutul Sării, Editura Romghid 

Reynard E., Panizza, M., (2005), Geomorphosites: definition, assessment and mapping, Géomorphologie : 

relief, processus, environnement, vol. 3, pp. 177-180; 


29.07.2011 27.10.2011 31.10.2011 01.11.2011



GEOTOURIST MAP OF THE BĂILE FELIX – BĂILE 1 MAI - 

BETFIA AREA (BIHOR COUNTY, ROMANIA) 

Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ * 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning - CSAT, 

1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: iliesdorina@yahoo.com 

Alexandru ILIEŞ 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 

1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania / University of Gdansk, Department of Geography and 

Regional Development, 4 Bazynskiego st., 80-952 Gdansk, Poland, e-mail: ilies@uoradea.ro 

Grigore Vasile HERMAN 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: grigoreherman@yahoo.com 

Ştefan BAIAS 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: baias_stefan@yahoo.com 

Cezar MORAR 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: cezarmorar@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The paper describes the characteristics, criterias and methodology used 

for the creation of the Geo-tourist map of Băile Felix – Băile 1 Mai - Betfia Area 

(Bihor County), located at the contact of the Tăşadului Hills and Tisa Plain. The geotourist 

map derived from the geological and geomorphological maps and combined 

the most evident geological-geomorphological features with fundamental tourist 

information. The goal was to produce a map that could be easily interpreted by 

tourists, to help them better understand the landscape. The geo-tourist map is a 

thematic pocket foldable colour map which will be printed with illustration notes 

both in Romanian and English. In addition, the tourist map contains a synthetic 

description of the main geological-geomorphological aspects, accompanied by 

relevant photos and information on excursion trails, behaviour rules, restaurants, 

tourist attractions in the surrounding areas etc. This type of map can succesfully 

contributes to the initiatives of local and regional stakeholders to improve tansfer of 

knowledge and tourism promotion. 

Key words: Geo-Tourist Map, Băile Felix, Băile 1 Mai, Betfia, Romania 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The geographical location determined by the altitude and latitude plays a decisive 

role in the existance, evolution and diversification of the tourism phenomena and 

elements, creating premises for a wide range of geoturist maps. The study area overlaps 

the Eastern part of the Sânmartin Commune of Bihor County (in the North-Western part 




of Romania), being bounded by the triagle formed by three component localities of the 

commune: Băile 1 Mai, Băile Felix and Betfia (figure 1). 

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Figure 1. The location of the Băile Felix - Băile 1 Mai – Betfia area 

The study area natural setting, support of all elements, mechanisms and activities 

represents the „touristification” base of a territory (Cazelais et al., 2000). Holding a high 

and diversified potential, it is positioned at the contact between the Tăşadului Hills, part 

of the Lăzărenilor Hills and the Miersigului Plain, subunit of the Western Romanian 

Plain. On a hilly background relief, shaped on a valley corridor that spills to the contact 

between the hills and high plain, the study area morphological elements are represented 

by energy of relief of about 200 m, determined by the lowest point of the Peţa Valley and 

the highest elevation of 364 m in Şomleu Hill (figure 2). 

Figure 2. Şomleu Hill and the Natural 

Reservation 

Figure 3. Băile 1 Mai Resort. Swimming pool 

with waves (built 107 years ago)

Geotourist Map of the Băile Felix – Băile 1 Mai - Betfia Area (Bihor County, Romania) 

One of the base resources that have caused the main motivation to “turistify” a 

territory is the thermal water (Cocean, 2005). Its use from Antiquity is attested by 

numerous archaeological evidences discovered over the territory of the three 

settlements, each with different names specific to certain historical periods 

(Munteanu et al., 1975, Munteanu et al., 1979): Băile Oradiei (Thermae Varadienses, 

Oradiei Spa), Băile Felix (Băile Sânmartin) and Băile 1 Mai (Saint Ladislau Spa, 

Haieului, Episcopeşti Spa etc). The period marking the use of thermal water (figure 3) 

and developing of the first centres with tourist and curative specific of the Băile Felix- 

Băile 1 Mai tourist system dates from the 18th century, and the maximum period of 

extension and infrastructure development dates from the second part of the 20th 

century (figures 2 and 3). 

THE STUDY METHODOLOGY 

Concerns for developing geo-tourist maps in the region are of relatively recent 

dates and belongs to the researchers from the Department of Geography, Tourism and 

Territorial Planning at the University of Oradea. The information analyzed in this 

study come from direct observations of authors in the study area over several years, as 

well as from literature and official sources of statistical data. The analytic study has 

proceeded from the study of cartographic materials considering existing information 

(Baias et al., 2010), created over time by various researchers (Ilieş and Josan, 2009) 

for various purposes. Thus, using the principles, methods, tools and models verified 

and applied in the literature (William, 1998; Ianoş, 2000; Gunn and Var, 2002; 

Castaldini et al., 2005; Castaldini, 2008; Coratza et al., 2008; Castaldini et al., 2009; 

Ilieş and Josan, 2009a; 2009b, etc), this scientific endeavor is the skeleton of a 

thematic approach that seeks to address the concept of integrated tourism (Rieser, 

2000) and shaping a tourist complex with a high degree of functionality. 

The geo-tourist map was derived (with appropriate simplifications and 

integrations) from the geomorphological map. They combine the most evident geologicalgeomorphological 

natural and antropic features (e.g. bedrock, hydrography, terraces 

deposits, scarps, landslides, quarries etc) – which can be observed and recognised even by 

non-experts – with basic tourist information (e.g. tourist pensions and hotels, camping, 

roads network etc). The map legend consists of two clearly distinct categories one with 

symbols representing the geological-geomorphological characteristics and a second one 

showing symbols concerning to tourist information. 

RESOURCES AND ELEMENTS GENERATING PREMISES FOR 

INCREASING THE TOURIST MOTIVATION 

Tourist rationale underlying the tourist system development of Băile Felix-Băile 1 

Mai derives from the natural treatment of the main factors which are: the climate, the 

thermal and mineral water and the therapeutic mud. Thus, the thermal waters used for 

therapeutic, in both resorts come from various wells, including the first wells drilled at 

the end of the 19th century, Izbuc and Balint (Munteanu et al., 1987, pp. 40) certifying 

the age of first use of this resource, a first genetic factor of the area „touristification” 

(Cazelais et al., 2000). 

The thermal water temperature is between 41° and 49° C at Băile Felix and at Băile 

1 Mai between 34° and 49°C, being used in the treatment of rheumatic illnesses, 

rheumatic disorders, inflammatory, degenerative disorders, posttraumatic disorders, 

central and peripheral nervous system, gynecological disorders, metabolic diseases, 

diseases of nutrition and endocrine diseases etc. (Blaj et al., 1979, pp. 250). In terms of 

hydrochemistry, the thermal waters from the Băile Felix and Băile 1 Mai contain 

bicarbonate, sultanate, magnesium, sodium, with a mineralization around 0.8 and 1 g/l at 

Băile Felix and 0,6-0, 8 g/l at Băile 1 Mai (Ţenu, 1981). 

221


222 

Figure 4. Natural Reserve Pârâul Peţea Figure 5. Indicative panel at the Reserve 

Pârâul Peţea entrance 

Figure 6. Băile 1 Mai. The former casino 

building 

Figure 8. Băile Felix Spa. Aerial photo-map 

(Source: The Travel Guide Oradea-Bihor, 2006-2007, 

pp. 65) 

Figure 7. Băile Felix. Apollo swiming thermal 

pool 

Figure 9. Băile 1 Mai. Tourist Map Model 

(Source: The Travel Guide Oradea-Bihor, 2006- 

2007, pp. 62) 

Regarding the elements of the natural and cultural heritage of the study 

region it was elaborated the study area map containing several points of interest, of 

which the specific natural attractions (Mohan et al., 1993): the Nature Reserve


Pârâul Peţea with endemic element Nymphaea lotus var. thermalis, relict species, 

the Melanopsis snail species and an endemic fish – Racoviţă’s Roşioara (Blaj et al., 

1979, 250, figure 4, 5), the Paleontology Reserve Betfia etc and others declared 

monuments of nature as the Betfia vertical Cave) etc. 

Valuable items of the cultural heritage are also reported in the above mentioned 

area: e.g. Apollo Swimming thermal pool water din Băile Felix which is an 

architectonic monument from XIX century (figure 7); The building of the former 

Casino in Băile 1 Mai (figure 6); the Chapel in Haieu with elements of Gothic and 

Romanesque construction dating from the 14th century etc. 

GEO-TOURIST MAP 

Until now there have been carried out several tourist maps for the resorts of Băile 

Felix and Băile 1 Mai, that can be viewed on the specific websites or in Oradea-Bihor 

Travel Guide (pp. 62, 64), published in 2006-2007 (figures 8 and 9). 

As underlined by Castaldini et al., 2005, a geo-tourist map is a thematic map which 

focuses on a particular aspect and is consequently, directed to specific users. 

The main goal was to develop a map easy to read and understand by tourists, 

represented by people with specialized training in this area or close to the domain, but 

also for people with no specialist training or even for people with secondary education 

(Castaldini et al., 2009, pp. 36). 

For optimal reading the map to be resorted to a number as small as possible, clearly 

highlighted by symbols, is clearly divided into legend: category symbols representing the 

main features of geological-geomorphological setting (e.g. bedrock, hydrography, erosion 

level, slopes on cretaceous deposits, fluvial terraces, flood plain deposits, natural reserve 

etc), main elements of the landscape that a tourist can observe and identify. 

Another category of symbols used characterized tourist information (the tourist 

information was mainly indicated with the commonly used colour (red) and symbols 

specific for tourist maps; they include: logistic information such as parking places, picnic 

areas, refuges, information points; general information (recommended trail, historical 

sites, chapel etc.). 

An effort was made to use simple, clear, graphically pleasing symbols with short 

captions, geological profile for explaining the thermal water existence etc. The very 

specialized terminology was avoided, in the same time maintaining the accuracy from the 

scientific point of view. 

Through the data combination, synthesis and generalization (ArcView GIS tools) 

it had resulted the study area geo tourist map. These documents are available in the 

digital format, too, so it can be easily updated and/or integrated with further data 

(Castaldini et al., 2009, pp.37). 

The geotourist map (figure 10) contain also a synoptic description of the main 

geological-geomorphological aspects, accompanied by relevant photographs and 

information, proposal for a tourist trails and restaurants, cultural and natural attractions 

in the area and in the surrounding areas, behaviour rules etc. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The geotourist map, thematic pocket colour foldable map, which will be 

printed with illustration notes both in Romanian and English, contains a synthetic 

description of the main geological-geomorphological aspects, accompanied by 

relevant photographs and information on excursion trails, behaviour rules, 

restaurants, tourist attractions in the surrounding areas etc. It can sucesfully 

contribute to the initiatives of local and regional stakeholders to improve tansfer of 

knowledge and to use this documents for tourism promotion. 

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224 

Figure 10. Băile Felix-Băile 1 May-Betfia (Bihor County), Romania. Geotourist Map 

(Source: Baias et al., 2010)


The mentioned documents were produced to meet also the ever-growing 

educational needs of public boards and contribute to a transfer of information from 

scientific research to possible users and local communities. These settings have facilitated 

the valorification of the study area which is visited by larger number of tourists each year. 

In this purpose we also suggested a tourist circuit aiming the promotion of the area 

natural and antropic attractions. 

Aknowlegments 

The research was carried out within the framework of Project CNCSIS IDEI: PN II 

667/2008, coordinator Associate Prof. Dorina Camelia Ilieş. 

REFERENCES 

Baias S., Blaga L., Dehoorne O., Grama V., Gozner Maria, Herman G., Ilieş Dorina Camelia, Ilieş A., Josan 

Ioana, Morar C., (2010), Băile Felix-Băile 1 Mai-Betfia (judeţul Bihor), Harta geoturistică, Editura 

Universităţii din Oradea; 

Blaj G., Szanto I., Chira I. (1979), Bihor – monografie, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureşti; 

Castaldini D., Valdati J., Ilieş Dorina Camelia, Barozzini Eliza, Bartoli L., Dallai D., Sala L., (2005), Carta 

Turistico Ambientale dell’Alta Valle delle Tagliole, Parco del Frignano, Eliofototecnica Barbieri, Parma; 

Castaldini D., (2008), Maps and Multimedia Tool for thr Environmental Tourism in Protected Areas of the 

Modena Apennines (Northern Italy), in GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, year I, no. 1, vol. 1, pp. 13- 

33, Oradea University Press; 

Castaldini D., Valdati J., Ilies Dorina Camelia, (2009), Geomorphological and Geotourist Maps of the 

Upper Tagliole Valley (Modena Apennines,Northern Italy), Carta geomorfologica e geo-turistica 

dell’alta Valle delle Tagliole (Appennino Modenese, Italia settentrionale), Mem. Descr. Carta Geol. 

d’It.LXXXVII, pp. 29-38; 

Cazelais N., Nadeau R., Beaudet G., (2000), L’espace touristique, Presses de l’Universite du Quebec; 

Cocean P., (2005), Geografie regională, Presa universitară clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

Coratza Paola, Ghinoi A., Piacentini Daniela, Valdati J., (2008), Management of geomorphosites in high tourist 

vocation area: an example of Geo-hiking maps in the Alpe di Fanes (Natural Park of Fanes-Senes- 

Braies, Italian Dolomites), in GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, year I, no. 2, vol, 2, pp. 106-117, 

Oradea University Press 

Gunn C.A., Var, T., (2002), Tourism Planning. Basics, Concepts, Cases, Routledge, New-York; 

Ianoş I., (2000), Sisteme teritoriale. O abordare geografică. Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti 

Ilieş Dorina, Josan Ioana, (2009), The tourist complex spa Băile Felix-Băile 1 Mai – personality, distinctiveness 

by protection versus depersonalisation and nonspecific by globalisation. Conceptual and practical 

aspects regarding the role of the natural and anthropic setting in tourist fitting (I), in GeoJournal of 

Tourism and Geosites, year II, no. 2, vol, 4, pp. 179-185, Oradea University Press 

Ilieş Dorina, Josan, N., (2009a), Geosituri şi Geopeisaje, Editura Universităţii din Oradea; 

Ilieş Dorina, Josan, N., (2009b), Geosites-Geomorphosites and relief in GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 

year II, no. 1, vol, 3, pp. 78-85, Oradea University Press 

Mohan Gh., Ardelean A., Georgescu M., (1993), Rezervatii si monumente ale naturii, Casa de Editura si Comert 

SCAIUL, 359 p.; 

Munteanu L., Grigore L.(1975), Băile Felix, Editura Sport – Turism, Bucureşti; 

Munteanu L., Berindei I., Grigore L., (1979), Mic îndreptar turistic Băile Felix Băile 1 Mai, Editura Sport – 

Turism, Bucureşti; 

Munteanu L., Jurcă S., Grigore L., (1987), Mic îndreptar turistic: Băile Felix-Băile 1 Mai, Editura Sport – 

Turism, Bucureşti; 

Rieser Hans-Heinrich, (2000), Concept of the integrated tourism, in Turism integrat. Banat şi Maramureş, 

p171-186 Editura InterGraf, Reşiţa, p.11 

Ţenu A., (1981), Zăcămintele de ape hipertermale din Nord-Vestul României, Editura Academiei Republici 

Socialiste România; 

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Williams A., (1998), Tourism Geography, Routledge Contemporary Human Geography, London and New York; 

*** (2006-2007), Ghid turistic Oradea-Bihor, Transilvania Tour, Editura Duran`s, p 62. 

*** Together for the water lily /Impreuna pentru nufăr, Fundatia Ecotop pt Cultura si Educatie Ecologista, 

Project FD al Euroregiunilor Carpatice. 

http://www.turismbaile1mai.com/micistoric.html; 

http://www.turismbaile1mai.com/micistoric.html; 

http://www.promoonline.ro/imgproduct/big/277/felix+1-mai.jpg; 

http://images.google.com/imgres?; 

http://lazarus.elte.hu/hun/digkonyv/topo/3felmeres.htm; 

www.turismbaile1mai; 

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.turismbailefelix.com; 

http://www.pensiunecarmena.ro/hartafelix.jpg; 

www.ghidulturistic.ro/zone.php?j=5; 

http://www.1lastminute.ro/Harti/Map/View/MapID/346/Harta-Baile-Felix-Romania.aspx; 

http://www.turismbaile1mai.com/harta1mai.html 

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29.07.2011 26.10.2011 28.10.2011 31.10.2011



STUDY OF THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AND 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SINTRA AREA 

(PORTUGAL) AS CONTRIBUTION TO ITS TOURIST 

APPRAISAL AND PROMOTION 

Sonia LEVRATTI * 

Via Cadiane, 172, 41126 Modena (Mo) Italy, e-mail: sonialevratti@virgilio.it 

Maria Luisa RODRIGUES 

Geographic Studies Centre, Lisbon University, TERRITUR and Research Group 

on Geodiversity, Geotourism and Geomorphologic Heritage (GEOPAGE), 

1600 Lisboa, Portugal, e-mail: rodrigues.mluisa@gmail.com 

Doriano CASTALDINI 

Department of Earth Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia 

Largo S. Eufemia, 19, 41121 Modena (Mo) Italy, e-mail: doriano.castaldini@unimore.it 

Sara Tiziana LEVI 


Largo S. Eufemia, 19, 41121 Modena (Mo) Italy, e-mail: saratiziana.levi@unimore.it 

Abstract: The Portughese town of Sintra is an UNESCO world heritage site for its 

cultural and environmental aspects. The town is located 30 km from Lisbon and 15 

km from the Atlantic Ocean, and is a touristic site in every seasons mainly for its 

architectural qualities. This work describes the geomorphological and archaeological 

aspects of the town and the surrounding Serra de Sintra in order to give an added 

value to tourist appraisal and promotion of the area. Serra de Sintra is an elliptic 

igneous massif 10 km E-W and 5 km N-S, 300-500 m above sea level. The geological 

structure is complex but it can be simplified as a core of sienites surrounded by 

granites intruded in a limestone plateau. The morphogenetic processes, beside 

common landforms such as narrow valleys, scarps and ridges, shaped a variety of 

particular granite morphologies such as round block fields, inselbergs, castle koppies, 

etc…. The most spectacular ones have been described and classified as geosites in a 

data-base. The oldest archaeological remains dates to the Mesolithic, but the area has 

been extensively occupied during the Neolitic/Calcolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages. In 

historical times Romans, Visigots and Arabs left some interesting architectural and 

linguistic marks. All the archaeological sites have been classified according to 

bibliographic, museal data and field surveys. They are also all included in a data-base. 

GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps at 1:25,000 and 1.10,000 scales of the Serra de Sintra and 

Sintra town are the information results collected in the geomorphological and 

cultural data-bases. The maps have been implemented, by means of an ArcGIS 

computer programme, integrating geological, geomorphological, archaeological and 

historical aspects with the tourist infrastructures (information points, parking areas, 

accommodations, panoramic points, etc.) in order to obtain documents readable, 



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simple, clear but scientifically accurate also for non-expert users. This study could be 

suitably simplified and summarized in a guide book, with enclosed GeoArchaeo- 

Tourist maps, as a contribution to improve the knowledge and appraisal of the Sintra 

territory also for its landscape and archaeological aspects. 

Key words: geomorphology, archaeology, tourism, maps, Sintra, Portugal 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The town of Sintra is known in Portugal as well as all over the world for being an 

UNESCO world cultural heritage site. Thousands of tourists from all over the world visit 

the town and the vicinity areas, mainly the castle (Mouros Castle) and the palaces and 

gardens (Vila Palace, Regaleira Houses and Gardens, Monserrate Park and Palace, Pena 

Palace, etc.). So the tourists only visit the central part of the town and some of the most 

attractive cultural monuments located within a range of few km, following the guided 

tours stablished by the local entity responsible for the tourism promotion. 

This work describes the research carried out on the geomorphological and 

archaeological aspects of Sintra town and the surrounding Serra (Serra de Sintra in 

portuguese language) in order to implement GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps, at 1:25,000 and 

1:10,000 scales, to provide a new tourist document for the appraisal and promotion of the 

overall area also under other aspects. 

The aim of this work was to realize a document, easily readable by tourists, about 

cultural as well as environmental aspects. 

Figure 1. Location of the Sintra area (Portugal) (Source: viaggi.globopix.net) 

The studied area is located in the southern sector of the historic region of 

Extremadura between Lisbon (30 km to West) and the Atlantic Ocean (15 km to 

East), (figure 1).

Study of the Geomorphological and Archaeological Aspects of Sintra Area (Portugal) … 

Sintra is a town that grows on the northern slopes of the homonymous Serra and is 

characterized by the tall conical chimneys of the Palacio Nacional or Palácio da Vila, 

which are also the symbol of the town; it was known in the Ancient World as Lunae Mons 

(mountains of the Moon) and was the legendary retreat of Diana the Huntress (Cynthia to 

the Romans, hence Çintra). 

Geographical Geological and Geomorphological Setting of the Studied Area 

The Serra de Sintra belongs to six Municipalities (Sintra, Colares, São Martinho, 

São Pedro de Penaferrim, Sta. Maria and São Miguel) and cover an area of about 50 km2; 

the altitudes range between 300 and 500 m.a.s.l. 

The climate of the area depends from two main factors: the proximity of the 

Atlantic Ocean and the fact that the Serra de Sintra acts as a condensation barrier. In 

detail, the ocean has a temperate influence, mitigating the thermal amplitudes and 

controlling the elevated level of atmospheric humidity. The Serra de Sintra, functions as a 

condensation barrier to the clouds and the maritime fogs, establishing a conrast climate 

on its slopes. 

The mean annual temperatures in the studied area range from about 9°C in winter 

to about 20°C during the summer. Precipitation range between a maximum of about 160 

mm/month in March and a minimum of 5 mm/month in July with a total amount of 

about 800 mm/year (Baltazar and Martins, 2006). Another important phenomenon in 

the area is the frequent occurrence of fog which acts as a kind of hidden precipitation 

causing condensation on the plants leaves (Alcoforado, 1984). 

From a geological viewpoint the Serra de Sintra is an elliptic igneous relief (figure 2) 

with 10 km E-W and 5 km N-S dimensions, which has a dome structure resulting from a slow 

and continuous growth of a magmatic massif (Kullberg M. C. and Kullberg J. C., 2000). 

Figure 2. Location of Sintra and the surrounding Serra de Sintra (Portugal) on a satellite image 

(Source: Google maps) 

The Sintra massif forms an approximately arcuate area, in which, in a very 

general sense, granite surrounds a smaller core area of syenite; there are also small, 

discontinuous areas of other igneous rocks such as diorite-gabbro, mafraite and igneous 

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breccias. The magmatic massif is surrounded by limestone plateaux constituted by 

sedimentary rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age (the southern plateau is the platform 

of Cascais with altitude near 200 m and the northern one is the platform of São João 

das Lampas with altitude near 300 m); the magmatic massif and the limestone plateaux 

are cutted by numerous igneous veins (figure 3). 

Figure 3. Geological map of the Serra de Sintra magmatic intrusion and surrounding 

sedimentary rocks, The yellow square corresponds to the area represented in the 

GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:10,000 scale (figure 12) (Source: Serviços Geológicos de 

Portugal, Carta Geológica de Portugal, 1:50.000, folhas nº 34-A,1991, and 34-C, 1999) 

Figure 4. Granite boulders and, in 

the back ground, an inselberg 

with the Pena Palace on the top 

(Photo S. Levratti) 

In spite of this complex outcropping rocks, 

the lithology is dominated by the granites, which 

are normally greatly weathered and fresh surfaces 

are hard to find; on the southern slopes of the 

Serra de Sintra there are several quarries, but 

even in these sites, the rock is normally 

weathered and soft (Ferreira, 1979). 

Because of the bedrock and the weathering 

processes the characteristic geomorphological 

landscape of the Serra de Sintra is represented by 

masses, blocks and boulders, that can be seen 

almost everywhere; in some places also landforms 

such as nubbins, castle koppies and inselbergs are 

visible (figure 4). 

Boulders can be found in many touristic 

places and people who is walking on the trails, 

have to pay attention because these big rocks can 

fall down from the slope; this rockfall hazard is 

indicated in some panels (figure 5).


Figure 5. Indication of rockfall hazard along a tourist trail 

of the Mouros Castle (Photo D. Castaldini) 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING 

The study area has been inhabited since prehistoric times: the oldest records date 

to the Mesolithic, with the site of the Penha Verde; many claims are attributable to the 

Neolithic/Chalcolithic; some examples are: Tholos do Monge, Rua Padaria, Bela Vista, 

remnants below Moorish Castle, etc. Important sites of the Bronze Age and even Iron Age 

(St. Euphemia, Monte Sereno, Santo Amaro, remnants below Moorish Castle) have been 

found (Ribeiro C., 1880; Simões, 1993). 

Romans, Visigoths, Arabs, remained long in the area, leaving deep scars: 

influenced architecture, the system of collecting water etc… 

Figure 6. Quinta da Regaleira (Photo S. Levratti) 

The main part of Sintra develops since medieval age, dominated by the Palácio 

Nacional and other monuments; even if the most majestic buildings are attributable to 

the Romantic period, with the building of the Palácio da Pena, other small palaces 

(Monserrate, Quinta da Regaleira, figure 6) and the creation of lush gardens (botanical 

museums, Parque da Pena and de Monserrate). 

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METHOD OF STUDY 

The research in the Sintra and Serra de Sintra areas has been carried out 

making studies on archaeological, geomorphological and touristic aspects which have 

been finalized to the implementation of GeoArcheo-Tourist Maps at 1:25,000 and 

1:10,000 scales. 

A GeoArchaeo-Tourist map is a thematic map where geological-geomorphological 

and archaeological aspects are integrated with the tourist infrastructures (information 

points, accesses, accommodations, excursion trails etc). The level of information has to be 

readable, simple, clear and scientifically accurate also for not specialist users. 

As concern the basic topographical maps, the 1:25,000 and 1:10,000 scales are 

available, but the resolution of the 1:10,000 scale map is not better, because both have 

contour lines with an interval of 10 meters. Moreover the 1:10,000 scale map has in the 

background the vegetation cover, that it is not particularly important for this study, and 

prevent us to use the background of the map to implant the geological-geomorphological 

and archaeological aspects as well as the tourist information. So, for the implementation 

of the larger scale GeoArcheo-Tourist map we decided to use the enlargement of the 

Military Topographic Map of Portugal at the scale 1:25,000 (415-416 sheets) instead of 

the original 1:10,000 map. 

From the practical point of view, has been applied the study method used at 

Otricoli (central Italy) by Bertacchini et al., 2007, with some modifications (figure 7). 

Figure 7. Scheme of elaboration of the GeoArchaeo-Tourist map 

(Source: Bertacchini et al., 2007, modified) 

According to this premise, the GeoArchaeo-Tourist Maps of Sintra, has been 

elaborated following the steps synthesized as follows. 

The geological - geomorphological aspects of the study area have been illustrated in 

geomorphological maps at 1:25,000 and at 1:10,000 scales produced from bibliographic 

research, analysis of aerial photographs and field survey. Geotourist maps were derived 

(with appropriate simplifications and integrations) from the geomorphological maps.


A geotourist map combines the most evident geological and geomorphological 

aspects with basic tourist information (for example parking areas, panoramic points, 

picnic areas, etc.). The aim was to produce maps that could be easily interpreted by 

tourists to help them understand the landscape. 

The last step of the GeoArchaeo-Tourist Maps implementation was to add the 

archaeological aspects to the geotourist maps (e.g. archaeological sites and their 

chronology, museums and churches, etc.). 

The implementation of these data with the ArcGIS computer techniques have 

facilitated, on the one hand, the reading of several detailed information about the physical 

landscape of the study area, and on the other hand, their simplification, especially for the 

elements of difficult identification or understanding. On the contrary, the ArcGIS 

computer programme has emphasized the basic aspects of landscape perception. 

Study on archaeological aspects 

The information on archaeological aspects are numerous and for their study 

bibliographic and cartographic researches have been carried out at the Municipality 

(Câmara Municipal) of Sintra, at the Archaeological Museum (Museu Arqueológico de 

São Miguel de Odrinhas) of Sintra and in the Lisboa University Library. 

In particular, as concern the location and the history’s site, the analysis of the 

various sources carried out through a meticulous selection of the information led to the 

implementation of a reliable and accurate data base for the “Inventory of the 

archaeological sites”. The inventory data sheets give information on site number and 

name and on its chronology, typology, accessibility, present day location (table 1). 

Table 1. An extract of the “Inventory of the archaeological sites”, Abbreviations: MASM-Museu 

Arqueológico de São Miguel de Odrinhas; CM-Câmara Municipal de Sintra; IPA-Inventario 

do Patrimonio Arquitetonico; MNA-Museu Nacional de Arqueologia 

Overall, in the study area, 47 sites have been found, but for only 29 of them detailed 

inventory sheets has been compiled, whereas 18 sites are missing for lack of information. In 

detail were found: 1 Mesolithic site, 10 Neolithic/Calcolithic sites, 5 Bronze and Iron age 

sites, 4 Roman age sites, 4 Arab period sites and 5 Medieval age sites. For the elaboration of 

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the inventory sheets (figure 8) has been utilized as example the “Atlas of Archaeological 

Heritages of the Modena Province” (Cardarelli and Malnati, 2003 and 2006). 

Figure 8. An example of a data sheet of the Inventory of the archaeological sites 

In order to better understand the occupation of the study area during the different 

periods, a “Table of the settlement continuity” was implemented (table 2). From table 2 is 

clear that the studied area has been habitated since the Neolithic period and in some sites 

(e.g. Nafarros, São Romão) there is a long continuity through the several centuries. 

Table 2. Extract of the table of the settlement continuity 

Site Mesolithic Neolithic Calcolithic Bronze 

Mucifal 

Marcador 

Quinta da Areia 

Nafarros 

Morelinho 

Carrascal 

Ribeira de Sintra 

St. Amaro 

Sao Romao 

age 

Iron 

age 

Roman 

age 

Arab 

period 

Medieval 

age


The data base of the archaeological settlements represents a clear state of the art of 

the Serra de Sintra archaeological aspects. 

Considering the location of the archaeological settlements and their chronology 

(see figure 11 - GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:25,000 scale and its legend in figure 10) it is 

clear that the sites from Mesolithic to Iron ages are mainly found on the higher parts of 

the Serra de Sintra igneous relief while the roman age sites have been built in the lower 

part of the territory constituted by a limestone plateau. The Arab and Medioeval sites are 

located in the magmatic massif as the older ones. 

These different locations highlights different strategies of control and use of the 

territory through the times. 

Geomorphological study 

The geomorphological study was based on aerial photographs and field surveys for 

mapping the main landforms of the studied area (scarps, ridges, granite block fields, 

major granite landforms, lakes etc). 

The most spectacular landforms (mainly the landforms due to granite weathering) 

have been decribed and classified as geosites in a data-base. For each of these has been 

compiled an inventory sheet (figure 9). The inventory sheet was implemented considering 

as examples those by the Italian National Institute for Protection and Environmental 

Research (ISPRA) and by Rodrigues (2009). 

Figure 9. Example of the Geosites Inventory sheet: “The camel head” geosite 

The geomorphosites were identified and classified in what concerns their type, the 

diversity of observed elements in the field, the acessibility, the degree of conservation of 

the geosite and its scale of importance (local, regional, national or international). In order 

to assess their value were also gethered information about the importance of the scientific 

value (rarity, representativity and integrity), as well as about the additional values such as 

cultural or historical ones, economic, ecologic and aestetic values. 

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The inventory sheet of the geomorphosite includes also information about 

potencialities of each one regarding use and management values or insuficiencies, as well 

as actual and potencial threats to the geosite and special needs of protection and 

geoconservation related with problems of natural and/or human vulnerability. 

The created data base of geomorphosites can be improved with other researches 

developed in zones surronding the study area and, in the near future, it would be 

possible to have a complete picture of the geomorphosites present in the whole Serra 

de Sintra area. 

The geoarchaeo-tourist maps 

As stated before, a GeoArchaeo-Tourist map can be defined as a thematic map 

which combines the most evident geological/geomorphological and archaeological 

aspects, with touristic informations (Bertacchini et al., 2007). The aim of this work was to 

produce a document that could be easily interpreted by tourists of average education to 

help them to recognize and appreciate the main features of the studied areas. 

The GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps of Sintra area have been implemented at 1:25,000 

and 1:10.000 scales. 

To make easier the reading of the maps, a clear, essential and easily distinguishable 

symbology was implemented (it is the same for both scale maps); the legend was 

subdivided into three different sectors: in the first one the symbols representing 

geological-geomorphological aspects are indicated, whereas the second one shows the 

archaeological and architectural aspects and the third one is dedicated to tourist 

information (figure 10). 

In detail, as concern the main geological and geomorphological aspects, in the 

maps are indicated the rock types (granite and sedimentary rocks), streams and ponds, 

granite block fields, main ridges and scarps and geosites with their identification made in 

the Geosites inventory sheet (e.g. figure 9). 

The archaeological and, above all, architectural elements constitute the main 

attraction of the zone and, consequently, they have been shown with evident symbols, in 

order to be immediately recognized by the tourists. In particular the archaeological sites 

are indicated in different colours according to their chronology, moreover architectural 

sites, museums and churches are also indicated. 

The tourist information have been shown with the conventional symbols used in 

the tourist maps. Like that, the tourist can know the location of information points, 

parking areas, bus stops, panoramic points, picnic areas, fountaines, bar/restaurants, 

hotels, service stations. Examining the GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:25,000 scale 

(figure 11) it is clear that the main archaelogical and architectural attractions, geosites and 

tourist facilites are concentrated in the Sintra zone. 

Anyhow outside the Sintra zone, several picnic areas, bar/restaurants can be 

found. A panoramic point is located on the top of Cruz Alta (the higher peak South- 

West of Sintra) from where is possible to have a beautiful view of the Sintra zone. 

Archaeological sites, of Neolithic-Calcolithic and Roman age, are present mainly in the 

northern sector of the Serra de Sintra where sedimentary rocks outcrop. The southern 

sector of the Serra de Sintra, where granite rocks outcrop, shows a landscape 

caracterized by granite block fields. 

This map, taking into account its scale, can be considered as an “outline map” 

of the Serra de Sintra, that can help the tourist to choose his kind of tour to discover 

the Serra for seeing the landforms and to feel the nature, or to discover the history 

and the architecture of Sintra town. 

Examining the GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:10,000 scale (figure 12) it is evident 

that in the southern area, close to Sintra, the tourists have a wide choise of archaeological


and architectural attractions to visit (e.g. Mouros Castle, Pena Palace, Convento dos 

Capuchos, Quinta de Regaleira, figure 6) as well as of geosites, which are concentrated in 

the Mouros Castle zone (e.g. figure 9), to appreciate. 

Figure 10. Legend of GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:25.000 and 1:10.000 scales 

Figure 11. GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:25,000 scale, The red line indicates the 

boundary of the GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:10,000 scale 

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Figure 12. GeoArchaeo-Tourist map at 1:10000 scale 

The tourist facilities are quite developed; for instance there are numerous 

bar/restaurants and hotels, information points, parking areas and it is easy to find bus 

stop stations, also linked to the Câmara Municipal touristic tours. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This research is the first integrated study on geological/geomorphological, 

archaeological and tourist aspects of Sintra district. 

In detail, the work has led to: i) an unified and detailed inventory of archaeological 

sites which previously were set out and described in various sources in generic and 

dishomogeneous documents; ii) the implementation of the first data base for inventory of 

geosites of the studied area; iii) the elaboration of GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps, at at 

1:25,000 and 1:10,000 scales of the Serra de Sintra area which are the first maps of this 

type elaborated in Portugal. 

This work could be suitably simplified and summarized in a guidebook, with 

enclosed GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps as a contribution to improve the knowledge and 

appraisal of the Sintra territory. 

The GeoArchaeo-Tourist maps at 1:25,000 and 1:10,000 scales could be prepared 

as a foldable, pocket-size, map printed on both sides (on the front side the map at 

1:25,000 scale and on the back side the map at 1:10,000 scale respectively) which the 

tourists can consult in the field while visiting the Serra de Sintra area. The map at 

1:10,000 scale could be improved with the indication of the rockfall hazard points 

(Aringoli et al., 2007, Pelfini et al., 2009) mainly located along the tourist trails in the 

Morish Castle (figure 5). 

The material currently available for the tourists in this area is restricted only to the 

historical and architectural aspects and therefore the guidebook suggested in this paper 

could be an important contribution for tourists to discover the Sintra’s area also for its 

landscape and archaeological aspects.


REFERENCES 

Alcoforado M.J., (1984), Representação cartográfica das árvores deformadas, Ventos dominantes em torno da 

Serra de Sintra, Finisterra. Revista de Geografia Portuguesa, XXIX (38), pp. 137-169; 

Aringoli D., Farabollini P., Pambianchi G., (2007), Valutazione della pericolosità geomorfologica lungo i 

sentieri escursionistici del Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini (Appennino centrale), In Piccazzo M., 

Brandolini P., Pelfini M. (eds), Clima e Rischio geomorfologico in aree turistiche, Studi regionali e 

Monografici 39, Pàtron Ed., Bologna, pp. 145-178; 

Baltazar L., Martins C., (2006), Atlas do Parque Natural de Sintra- Cascais, Available at the web site: 

http://www.ambitare.com/atlas_pnsc; 

Bertacchini M., Benito Calvo A., Castaldini D., (2007), The Geoarchaeo-Tourist Map of the Territory of Otricoli 

(Umbria Region, Central Italy): Preliminary Notes, Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, 

tom. XVII, Editura Universitatii din Oradea 2007, pp. 105-114; 

Câmara Municipal de Sintra, (1996), Sintra, Património da Humanidade, Sintra; 

Cardarelli A., Malnati L., (2003), Atlante dei Beni Archeologici della Provincia di Modena, vol. I, Pianura, 

All’insegna del Giglio Firenze, pp. 227; 

Cardarelli A., Malnati L., (2006), Atlante dei Beni Archeologici della Provincia di Modena, vol. II, Montagna, 

Firenze. All’insegna del Giglio Firenze, pp. 243; 

Carvalho, S. L., (1987), A Presença Árabe em Sintra na Idade Média in Rev. «História», Pub. Projornal, 

Lisboa, nº 101; 

Ferreira, A. B., (1979), Os mantos de alteração e o modelado das regiões graníticas: Ideias recentes e 

orientações de pesquisa, Finisterra, Revista Portuguesa de Geografia, XIV (28), pp. 218-244; 

Kullberg M. C., Kullberg J. C., (2000), Tectónica da região de Sintra, Memórias Geociências, Museu Nac. Hist. 

Nat. Univ. Lisboa, nº 2, pp. 1-34; 

Italian National Institute for Protection and Environmental Research (ISPRA), Scheda di rilevamento dei Geositi, 

Available at the web site: http://www.isprambiente.gov.it/site/_files/progetti/Scheda%20geositi_17062011.pdf; 

Pelfini M., Brandolini P., Carton A, Piccazzo M., (2009), Geotourist trails: a geomorphological risk-impact 

analysis, In Reynard E., Coratza P., Regolini-Bissig G. (Eds.), Geomorphosites. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil, 

Munchen, pp. 131-143; 

Ribeiro C., (1880), Estudos Pré-históricos em Portugal, Noticia de algumas estaçãoe monumento pré-histórico. 

Lisboa: Typographia Academica; 

Rodrigues M. L., (2009), Geodiversidade, Património Geomorfológico e Geoturismo, TERRiTUR and Research 

Group on Geodiversity, Geotourism and Geomorphologic Heritage (GEOPAGE) of the CEG, Institute of 

Geography and Space Planning, Lisbon University, pp. 123; 

Serviços Geológicos de Portugal, (1991), Carta Geológica de Portugal, 1:50,000, folhas nº 34-A; 

Serviços Geológicos de Portugal, (1999), Carta Geológica de Portugal, 1:50,000, folhas nº 34-C. 

Simões T., (1993), Pré-Historia de Sintra, In João Medina (Dir) – História de Portugal, Lisboa, vol I, p . 224-230; 


29.07.2011 28.10.2011 01.11.2011 03.11.2011 

239



GEOTOURISM: SOME EXAMPLES 

IN NORTHERN-CENTRAL ITALY 

Tommaso PIACENTINI 

Department of Geotechnology for Environment and Territory, University „G. D'Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, 

Via dei Vestini, 30, 66013 Chieti Scalo (CH) Italy, e-mail: tpiacentini@unich.it 

Doriano CASTALDINI * 


Largo S. Eufemia, 19, 41100 Modena (MO) Italy, e-mail: doriano.castaldini@unimore.it 

Paola CORATZA 


Largo S. Eufemia, 19, 41100 Modena (MO) Italy, e-mail: paola.coratza@unimore.it 

Piero FARABOLLINI 

Department of Earth Science, University Camerino 

Via Gentile III da Varano, 62032 Camerino (MC) Italy, e-mail: piero.farabollini@unicam.it 

Enrico MICCADEI 

Department of Geotechnology for Environment and Territory, University “G. D'Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, 

Via dei Vestini, 30, 66013 Chieti Scalo (CH) Italy, e-mail: miccadei@dst.unich.it 

Abstract: Italy is a country with a rich natural heritage that is having difficulty in 

finding the right areas for acquiring knowledge, protection and improvement. In 

particular, the geological component of the landscape has not yet acquired a sufficient 

value as a cultural asset which people can learn about and share. Within the Italian 

territory geotourism activities and products are recently widespread and, in this 

paper, some examples of activities carried out in the Emilia-Romagna, Marche and 

Abruzzo regions (northern-central Italy) are illustrated. They show different possible 

approach to the realization of geotourism maps, geological itineraries, portable and 

on site illustrative materials, web based projects, geosites analysis. These activities 

are targeted at various potential users, tourists, local residents, young people, schools 

etc., and are aimed at the enhancement of geological and geomorphological aspects of 

the natural heritage making it available to the public. 

Key words: geomorphology, geotourism, maps, northern and central Italy 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Italy is a country with a rich cultural heritage and complex national territory. Just 

as the abundance of archaeological and architectural sites and finds does not yet 

correspond to any adequate conservation policy, also Italy’s natural heritage is having 

difficulty in finding the right areas for acquiring knowledge, protection and improvement. 

In particular, the geological component (s.l.) of the landscape has not yet fully acquired 




value as a cultural asset which people can learn about and share. Therefore, new ways and 

new strategies must be found to awaken the interest not only of the scientific and official 

world but also of the general public. 

The ever-growing consolidation of a new kind of tourism, more sensitive to 

environmental issues, has given rise to rapid expansion of the naturalistic tourism in 

Italy, which is among the countries with the highest tourism vocation worldwide. 

Observation and appreciation of Nature and traditional cultures are the main motivation 

inducing tourists to seek holiday sites and excursions with a well-defined naturalistic 

character (Coratza et al., 2008). 

Recently, in Italy, like in many other countries, scientific and legislative initiatives 

have demonstrated an increasing interest towards the geological heritage and the 

development of a sustainable tourism. Particularly important is the „Recommendation 

Rec (2004) 3 of the Council of Europe on conservation of geological heritage and of 

areas with special geological interest” (adopted on May 2004) and the recent „European 

Manifesto on Earth Heritage and Geodiversity”. In particular, as it is stated in this last 

document, „Earth Heritage and Geodiversity create opportunities for education, 

recreation and tourism. […] Geological landscapes and sites, by themselves or in 

combination with their cultural, historical and ecological heritage, offer potential for 

sustainable tourism, education and landscape appreciation”. 

In this paper some examples of geotourism activities carried out in the Emilia- 

Romagna, Marche and Abruzzo regions (northern-central Italy) are illustrated (figure 1). 

These examples are rooted in the complex geological and geomorphological setting and 

geomorphological features of the regions. They are based on the premises and intentions 

of the development of new activities in the field of geotourism with the following aims: 

• Arrange integrated-type proposals based on well-tried itineraries which insert 

geological elements to support or complete the themes usually followed e.g. archaeology, 

architecture, flora and fauna etc. (Bertacchini et al., 2002; Piacente and Coratza, 2005). 

• Put together geotourist maps and illustrative materials, aiming not only to spread 

information about our geological heritage but also to develop environmentally sustainable 

tourism (Coratza and Marchetti 2005; Miccadei et al., 2008). 

• Encourage the creation of professional figures who can forge a connection with 

the world of science and with the business world (Panizza and Piacente, 2005). 

• Increase the sensitivity of young people to scientific, and particularly earth 

science, knowledge providing the perception of the geological and geomorphological 

processes within their spatial and temporal scale. 

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL OUTLINE 

The Apennines of northern-central Italy are a fold-and thrust mountain chain 

related to an orogenic system (chain-foredeep-foreland), derived from the post- 

Eocene collisional history between the European and African plates and from a 

complex, multi-staged evolution (e.g. Carminati et al., 2004; Patacca et al., 2008; 

Mantovani et al., 2009). 

The geomorphological features of the northern-central Apennines are connected to 

different processes which have been active over a long time (mainly from the Early 

Pleistocene) on different lithological types and with changeable geodynamic and climatic 

conditions in terms of areal distribution, intensity and recurrence. 

The topographic relief of Apennines Chain is made up of a series of ridges elongated 

in directions that vary from NW-SE to N-S, separated one from the other by narrow valleys 

or by wide intermontane tectonic depressions (e.g. D’Alessandro et al., 2003 a). 

The Adriatic Piedmont areas are characterized mostly by gently reliefs joining the 

wide Po Plain in Emilia Romagna, alluvial and narrow coastal plains in Marche and 

Abruzzo. At the Apennines front of the Emilia Romagna and within river valleys of the 

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Tommaso PIACENTINI, Doriano CASTALDINI, Paola CORATZA, Piero FARABOLLINI, 


Marche and Abruzzi Piedmont, a series of Pleistocene-Holocene river terraces are 

present. The terraces have been tectonically tilted towards plain and coastal areas, as a 

consequence of the high rate of the Apennine uplift during the Quaternary (e.g. Picotti et 

al., 2009; Mayer et al., 2003; D’Alessandro et al., 2008; Della Seta et al., 2008). 

Figure 1. Shaded relief image of Italy and location of Emilia Romagna, Marche and 

Abruzzo regions, The symbols indicate the location of the examples described in this work 

(Source: Authors’ elaboration from SRTM DEM) 

The northern sector of the Emilia Romagna Region belong to the Po Plain, which is 

the most extensive plain in Italy (Castiglioni et al., 1997; Castiglioni and Pellegrini 2001). 

Along the Apennine boundary of the Po Plain, extensive surfaces, corresponding to a Late


Pleistocene fluvial fan coalescence crop out. Holocene fluvial deposits, due to fluvial 

aggradation of both the River Po and its southern tributaries, occupy the plain. In the 

Emilia Romagna costal area the streams flow through sand dunes corresponding to old 

shore lines. 

In the Marche and Abruzzo regions the coastal area is characterized by a high coast 

with cliffs and palaeocliffs, while the plains are limited to a narrow coastal plain and to 

the alluvial plains of the main rivers at the hilly piedmont area. 

Structural landforms resulting from both regional tectonic evolution (also neotectonic) 

and selective erosion have assumed considerable prominence. The most 

characterizing morphological features are crests and valleys controlled by homoclines, 

folds, faults and joints (mid-northern Apennines). Within central Apennines 

characterizing landforms are fault related scarps and slopes as well as mesas and cuestas. 

In the piedmont area, small mud volcanoes („salse”) genetically connected to the 

emission of mud, gas and petroleum along discontinuities produced by the frontal 

overthrusting of the Apennine range, can also be found. Different interpretations can be 

made to explain the genesis mud volcanoes in this area, but in general they are associated 

to the hydraulic gradient due to rainfall and controlled by stratigraphic-structural setting 

of Pliocene clay deposits onlapping mainly pelitic-arenaceous Messinian sediments 

(Farabollini et al., 2005). 

Landforms and deposits due to running waters (e.g. scarps, valleys, alluvial fans) 

are widespread all over the study areas. In the main fluvial valley, alluvial plains and 

terraces are present, made up of mainly gravels deposits. Along the Apennine margin, 

calanchi, landform similar to badlands, are widespread. 

Slope processes, and particularly mass movements are important, due to 

lithological setting and to local high energy relief. Almost every slope in the 

piedmont area and several in the chain area, have been somehow affected by small 

or large landslides (APAT 2007). From the typological viewpoint all landslide types 

are represented. 

Glacial landforms (e.g. cirques, roches moutonnées, moraine ridges) and moraine 

deposits are found in the upland areas. They testify Late Pleistocene glaciers which 

extended at altitudes as low as 900-1000 m a.s.l. (Federici 1979; Jaurand 1999; Giraudi 

2004). Only the Calderone glacier (Abruzzo) is preserved at present all over the 

Apennines: although its size has decreased considerably, it is still the southernmost 

glacier in Europe (D’Alessandro et al., 2001). 

In the upper sector of the Apennines, periglacial landforms and deposits (e.g. 

avalanche tracks and cones, rock-glaciers) are also widespread. Karst landforms (e.g. 

dolines, caves) are widespread allover the calcareous ridges of central Apennines. 

Marine landforms give a strong imprint to the coastal landscape of high and low 

coasts with different features within the three regions. 

Finally, as concern anthropic landforms, the irreparable damage to slopes caused 

by quarrying activities (raw materials) should be pointed out as well as the modification 

of the drainage of major and secondary catchments due to the building of artificial lakes 

both for hydroelectric and agricultural purposes. At the higher elevations, the 

geomorphological impact determined by the setting up of ski slopes and skilifts in some 

areas should also be mentioned. 

GEOTOURISM AND LANDSCAPE OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ITALY 

The coexistence of the features of an evolutionary history still active, has made the 

landscape of the Italian regions (among which Emilia Romagna, Marche and Abruzzo 

regions), a world fame gym for geologists (s.l.). The complex palaeogeographies find their 

expression in the main ridges of these regions whose rocky cliffs allow the researchers 

imaginary trips through ancient tropical heavens with lagoons, coral atolls and deep seas. 

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Glacial landforms, alluvial fans, terraced deposits etc., preserve the memory of „past 

worlds”. The landscape itself, now rough and steep in the chain area, decreasing gradually 

in the piedmont, and finally smooth in the hilly reliefs down to the alluvial and coastal 

lowlands, bear witness of different geomorphological processes that acted in the 

Quaternary age and are acting today. The result of the geological and geomorphological 

evolution is that the landscape represent a great example of variety and complexity of 

processes and phenomena that characterize and make unique the whole national territory 

and this geological heritage worth to be the subject of a specific protection and 

enhancement. 

Environment protection is first and foremost ensured by an extensive network 

of protected areas. Parks and reserves safeguard rock exposures, ecosystems, 

landscapes, species and botanical associations, habitats and staging points for fauna, 

which are all typical of the regional territories. Recently, however, they have also 

started playing an active role in scientific research, in environmental education, in the 

conservation and maintenance of the local ecological balance, in the recovery and 

enhancement of the historical and geological heritage, in the promotion of 

environmental values, with a view to tourism. 

The enhancement process is based on the combination of scientific research, 

analysis of existing risks and resources, increase and improvement of tourist facilities, 

and cultural promotion initiatives (Panizza and Piacente 2005). As such, this process is 

generally targeted at different potential users: tourists – by allowing them to find out 

more about the park areas; park area residents – by increasing their awareness of the 

resources, but also of the risks, that can be found in their territory; and tourist sector 

professionals – by developing new opportunities and sustainable ways of exploiting these 

area’s peculiar features and uniqueness. 

Examples of activities carried out in the field of geotourism and enhancement in 

northern-central Italy are illustrated in this paper. In particular, they are focused on 

geological itineraries and trails, tourist packages, geotourist maps and illustrative 

materials, creation of professional figures, and projects involving schools and young 

people, within Emilia Romagna, Marche and Abruzzo regions (figure 1). 

EXAMPLES IN THE EMILIA ROMAGNA REGION 

Environmental protection in Emilia-Romagna Region is ensured by an extensive 

network of protected areas which include 2 national parks of national and international 

interest and 13 regional parks of regional and national interest and 14 natural reserves, 

mostly of regional-local interest (http://www.ermesambiente.it/wcm/parchi/index.htm). 

The two national parks stretch along the ridge of the Apennines and down the Tuscan 

slope while the regional parks and reserves are mainly located in mountain or hilly 

sectors. One meaningful exception is represented by the huge park of the Po delta, which 

includes wetlands of international importance distributed both along the coast and 

inland, and also reserves for the protection of remnant environments in the Po Plain. 

As it is impossible to list and describe all the initiatives, in the following notes will 

be illustrated those which, in our opinion, are considered the most significant. 

Geosites 

In order to meet society's increasing need for information on geoenvironmental 

matters, the Geological Survey of the Emilia-Romagna Region (Servizio Geologico, 

Sismico e dei Suoli - SGSS) has launched a comprehensive outreach programme to share 

the basic knowledge in the field of Earth Sciences. To achieve this aim the SGSS made 

geological information available to the public (students, citizens, tourists, politicians etc.) 

using its website (www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/geologia) and other media like: maps


of geoenvironmental itineraries, documentaries, educational CDs, exhibitions, books and 

information leaflets. To realize this material the SGSS created a working group, including 

geologists, graphic designers, educators etc., giving a job opportunity to young persons. In 

particular, a detailed census of the „regional sites of geological interest” (geosites, 

geotopes) has been implemented using data collected from more than 25 years of regional 

geological mapping (1:10.000 to 1:50.000 scale). The geosites census is constituted by 711 

“elements”, to which can be added 775 caves developed on an area of 53,000 ha. A digital 

database stores all the information about the „regional sites of geological interest” 

facilitating the implementation of innovative geological maps and other products. 

Geotourist maps, Geoenvironmental maps and itineraries 

As concern cartographic material the SGSS implemented maps of 

geoenvironmental itineraries, which illustrate the most interesting geological aspects of 

some areas of Emilia Romagna Region. To date, five maps have been printed related to 

Ceno Valley, Bologna hills, Trebbia Valley, Casentino Forest and Matilde di Canossa 

territory (Regione Emilia-Romagna 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003 a and 2003 b). 

A new document is the „Emilia-Romagna Geological Landscape Map”, at 

1:250,000 scale (Regione Emilia-Romagna, 2009) (figure 2), which emphasizes the 

relationship between geology and landscape, showing how different rocks produce 

different features and different behaviour of the territory. The legend of the map 

includes 13 main landscape units (and of a series of low rank units): Western Peaks, 

Mid - Eastern Peaks, Mountains; Landslides and Badlands, Ophiolitic Crags, 

Sandstone Spurs, Windows on the Deep Apennines; Triassic Gypsum, Layer Upon 

Layer, Foothills, “Vena del Gesso”, Alluvial Plain of the Apennine Rivers, Po Plain, 

Coastal Plain. Each landscape unit is illustrated by clear photos and simple 

descriptions. The map try to shows the basic concepts of geoscience looking at the 

landscape that we see every day. 

As concern the documents implemented by University researchers, a research 

group of Modena and Reggio Emilia University (in cooperation with local Boards) has 

the oldest tradition in the field of Geological Heritage (s.l.) studies in a local context. 

Important investigations were carried out over the territory of the Modena Province 

and Emilia-Romagna Region and were eventually collected in a volume presenting the 

census and assessment of the Geosites of Modena Province from a scientific 

standpoint (Bertacchini et al., 1999) and in a book dealing with geotourism 

methodological approach, published by the Emilia-Romagna Region (Poli, 1999). The 

spirit that inspired this innovative (at that time) research and defined the goals and 

methods was the deep conviction that in Italy, as in most other countries, the 

geological aspect has not yet assumed the value of Cultural Asset. In this sense 

research has produced not only a new census of significant geological sites on a 

regional scale, which reconsiders and updates previous ones, but also geologicalcultural 

and tourist-educational itineraries which have Geology as a leading theme 

(Piacente and Poli, 2003). In these activities young graduates on Geological and 

Natural Sciences have been involved. 

More recently, to improve knowledge, utilisation and appraisal of the environment 

of protected areas located in hilly and mountain areas of the Apennines of Modena, three 

Tourist-Environmental Maps and a CD-Rom have been implemented. The hilly area is the 

Natural Reserve of Salse di Nirano; the “Salse” are small mud volcanoes formed by 

emissions of salt water mixed with mud and pushed up by methane rising to the surface 

along ground discontinuities (figure 3; 1 in figure 1). The mountain sectors consist of the 

upper Tagliole Valley and Mt. Cimone area (2, 3 in figure 1), located within the Frignano 

Park; they are mainly characterized by glacial, periglacial, gravitational and running water 

landforms and deposits. 

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Figure 2. Emilia-Romagna Geological Landscape Map, at 1:250,000 scale 

(Source: Regione Emilia-Romagna, 2009) 

Figure 3. Mud volcanoes (Salse) in the Salse di Nirano Natural Reserve 

in the Emilia Romagna Region


Figure 4. Geotourist map extracted from the front side of the Tourist-Environmental map of 

Salse di Nirano Reserve in the Emilia Romagna Region (Source: modified from Barozzini et al., 2004) 

Geomorphological maps and Digital Terrain Models (DTM) have been produced in 

a first step. Geotourist maps are derived from the geomorphological maps in a second 

phase. The geotourist maps combine the most evident geological/geomorphological 

features with fundamental tourist information. The goal is to produce maps that could be 

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easily interpreted by tourists to help them understand the landscape. The geotourist maps 

and the DTM are the cartographic documents characterising tourist-environmental maps 

(implemented in a third step) which are thematic pocket foldable maps printed on both 

sides with illustration notes both in English and Italian (figures 4, 5; Barozzini et al., 

2004; Castaldini et al., 2005, 2008). In addition, the tourist-environmental maps contain 

a synoptic description of the geological, geomorphological, botanical and zoological 

aspects, accompanied by photographs and information on excursion trails, visitor centers, 

behavior rules, refuges/restaurants and, finally, cultural and tourist attractions in the 

protected and surrounding areas. 

Figure 5. Digital Terrain Model extracted from the back side of the Tourist-Environmental 

map of the Upper Tagliole Valley in the Frignano Park, Emilia Romagna Region 

(Source: modified from Castaldini et al., 2005) 

The CD-Rom consists of a digital multimedia gallery, produced in the 2007 for 25 th 

anniversary of the Reserve of Salse di Nirano, that can be browsed like a web page 

(Castaldini et al., 2007). The CD-Rom is structured in five main units. A brief 

introduction, with the guide to the CD-Rom, is followed by the description of the Reserve. 

The core of the CD-Rom is represented by the scientific aspects (description of geology, 

geomorphology, flora and vegetation, fauna, fossils and climate). The other parts are 

dedicated to the tourist aspects (with a Geotourist map) and to a multimedia gallery that 

groups sound recordings, movies, photos plus a virtual flight. The CD-Rom contain 

several thematic maps which can be downloaded as PDF files. 

In the very last years several things have been changed in the Reserve of Salse di 

Nirano; many small and superficial landslides, which in some cases affect roads and 

trails, occurred or have been reactivated and new structures for tourists have been installed 

(an Ecomuseum, new educational and excursion trails). Therefore a new Touristenvironmental 

map containing an updated geotourist map and a 3D image, computed 

using a DTM and digital othophotos, have been implemented (Castaldini et al., 2011).


Web based activities and field trips 

Researchers of the Parma University very recently have realized the WebGis of the 

geological sites of the Parma Province territory (Artoni et al., 2009). The goal of the 

WebGIS (http://webgis.geo.unipr.it/) is to give a complete and easy to update 

description, of the geological, geomorphological and palaeontological assets which have 

been considered interesting as they testify the processes which led to the present day 

landscape. This WebGis contains a detailed description of 58 sites of geological (33), 

geomorphological (21) and palaeontological (4) significance which can be located on 

satellite images, aerial photographs and maps. 

Researchers of the Bologna University launched the Project “Edu Geo” to develop 

the knowledge in the field of Earth Sciences to Upper-School teachers and to Upper- 

School and University students through field excursions, which can be booked contacting 

the organizers (http://www.edu-geo.it/). To date, five excursion have been programmed 

to illustrate the geological and geomorphological aspects of some parts of Italy. Two of 

them are held in the Emilia Romagna Region: in the Santerno River valley (Apennines) 

and in the Po delta (Po Plain). 

EXAMPLES IN THE MARCHE REGION 

The network of protected areas of the Marche region includes 2 national parks 

shared with Abruzzo, 4 regional parks, 5 natural reserves 

(http://www.ermesambiente.it /wcm/parchi/index.htm) and 31 local reserves, in 

which the geological and geomorphological landscape represent an articulate system 

of geoenvironmental-tourist interests (figure 1). The Marche Region, as almost all the 

other Italian regions, excepted general guidelines (PPAR Regional Plan for Landscape 

and the Environment), has no legislation that includes actions of preservation and 

safeguarding for geological heritages. However, following the indication of the general 

guidelines, the Marche Region has carried out a geosites inventory, that includes the 

most significant elements of the landscape, worthy of being preserves (Various 

Authors, 1991). The analysis of geosites as examples of geodiversity (Sampaolesi and 

Farabollini, 2002) and the spread of their knowledge, is the fundamental base to 

identify specific actions aimed at: restoring natural outcrop conditions; defining 

activities to promote and enhance geosites; establishing specific regional legislation 

for preservation and safeguard. 

On this base the main goals of geotourism activities in the Marche area are: the 

natural and cultural protection of areas characterized by great geomorphological 

evidences (e.g.: glacial and periglacial landforms of Pilato Lake); the conservation of high 

natural dynamism areas (e.g.: badlands and mud volcanoes in the Mt. Ascensione area); 

the environmental improvement of high vulnerability areas due to marine erosion 

processes (e.g.: Conero cliffs); the enhancement of pre-existing tourism through the 

definition of territorial models using landscape asset and/or the development of business 

opportunity and sustainable employment in areas where tourism is very local, seasonal, 

and specific (e.g. Natural Park of Gola della Rossa and Frasassi). Some examples are 

presented in the following sections. 

Geosites 

The periadriatic area is characterized by the occurrence of several small mud 

volcanoes. One of the most interesting landform is located in the Montelparo area. 

The relatively shallow nature of the water and the strong human impact in the 

territory that tends to erase such elements, represent the base for the enhancement and 

protection proposal according to their fragility (Scalella et al., 2008). 

Therefore also at institutional level, the Province government has adopted in 2009 

a specific act for the protection and enhancing of badlands, mud volcanoes and other 

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significant of geo-naturalistic sites of environmental and aesthetic interest (Farabollini et 

al., 2005; Scalella et al., 2008). 

Methods and procedure for achieving an adequate protection and enhancement 

include in this case: analysis of the territory and its resources and hazards; exploitation 

mainly through geological-geomorphologic itineraries. 

Geotourist maps and itineraries 

The interest generated by geotourism necessarily give advantage to areas which, for 

natural and geological features, are already elements of great spatial and environmental 

concern. However, tourism can have a considerable appeal also in less known areas that, 

for their geological configuration and history, are characterized by the occurrence of 

several geosites with certainly aesthetic significance, as well as scientific and educational. 

This is the case of Mt. Ascensione (originally named Black Mountain, then Polesio 

Mountain), located in the southern Marche, whose scientific peculiarities are a key for the 

comprehension of the Plio-Quaternary evolution of the Marchean piedmont (figure 6). 

Figure 6. Panoramic view of Mt. Ascensione (southern Marche Region) 

The Mt. Ascensione features (higher Pliocene deposits in Europe, very developed 

badlands, thick glacis deposits, cuestas etc.), allow to consider this area as a pole of tourist 

attraction (4 in figure 1), according to the indications of the Province of Ascoli Piceno. 

In particular, the development of tourism is promoted by the implementation of 

geoturist itineraries and maps (Scalella et al., 2008). These itineraries utilise the road 

infrastructure being mostly located on watersheds and providing spectacular panoramic 

views (figure 6, 7). 

In the Park of Gola della Rossa and Frasassi (5 in figure 1), well known for its 

remarkable scientific value, the geotourism has been considered an economical resource. 

The Consortium of Municipalities of the Mountain area of Esino, to which the Park 

belongs administratively, classified this area as “Geological Park” taking into account 

aesthetic value of geological landscape and scientific-educational quality of the landforms 

(Farabollini and Spurio, 2007). 

The “Gola della Rossa and Frasassi” Park has an extensive series of marked 

trails. The mapping of geological sites (Farabollini and Spurio, 2007) gave an improved 

attractive for those who wish deeply discovery an area in which the most famous 

landscapes are dominated by geological and geomorphological processes. The 

explanation of geological sites such as the underground complex of the Frasassi caves, 

allows for the comprehension the karst processes that are the main attraction of the 

whole territory (figure 8, 9).


Figure 7. Proposal for geotourist itineraries in the Mt Ascensione area (Marche Region) 

(Source: modified from Farabollini and Scalella, 2003) 

Figure 8. Small candles room (Sala delle candeline), Frasassi caves 

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Figure 9. Geoexcursion map of Gola della Rossa and Frasassi Park 

(Source: Farabollini and Spurio, 2007)


The mountain landscape of the Sibillini Mountains (southern Marche; 6 in Figure 1) 

represents the highest portion of the region (over 2000 m a.s.l.). This area, recently 

classified as National Park of Sibillini Mountains, thanks to its rocks exposures and 

landscape features, represents the “geologic history” of the region. Outcropping 

sedimentary rocks are mainly calcareous and the different sequences are the result of 

marine Meso-Cenozoic paleogeographies. 

On the highest elevations, different glacial and periglacial landforms are present 

(i.e. glacial cirques, moraines, glacial lakes, stratified slope deposits etc.). The Pilato 

Lake (figure 10) lies within the “heart” of Sibillini massif, and represents one of the few 

lacustrine episode in central Italy, connected to the Quaternary glacialism. Placed at an 

elevation of 1940 m a.s.l. and surrounded by the highest peaks of the Sibillini 

Mountains (Mt. Vettore, 2476 m a.s.l. and Scoglio del Lago, 2448 m a.s.l.), it extends 

over a maximum surface of about 30000 m 2 and shows a peculiar “spectacles” shape. 

The valley-ward dam is due to a frontal moraine while mountain-ward, different 

generations of wide embedded glacial valleys and cirques are present (Aringoli et al., 

2007a; Aringoli et al., 2008), thus, this lake constitutes a geosite of exceptional 

scientific value representing the only glacial lake preserved in central Italy. These 

features surrounded also by several legend about its origin, probably of medieval time, 

provide a strong instrument for the comprehension of the impact of glacial processes in 

the present Appennines landscape by a wide public. 

Within the Sibillini Park a geomorphological study carried out on the risk 

associated to the use of the main tourist and popular hiking trails led to the synthesis of 

surveyed data along some major excursion itineraries of the Park and elaborated the 

assessment of geomorphological hazards and environmental resources with regard to the 

tourist fruition (Aringoli et al., 2007 b). 

Figure 10. Pilato Lake, Sibillini Mountains 

EXAMPLES IN THE ABRUZZO REGION 

Complex Meso-Cenozoic palaeogeographies are still reflected by the main 

mountain chains of Abruzzo and offer imaginary journeys through ancient, now 

vanished, coral atolls and blue deep seas. Glacial valleys, alluvial cones, actual soils 

and palaeosoils still preserve the memory of these „Quaternary-worlds”, with unique 

landscapes all over the region. 

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Since the beginning of the 20 th century, a specific protection policy for the 

safeguard of this landscape has been implemented by setting up a system of three 

national parks and one regional park that cover about one third of Abruzzo surface and 

several local protected areas, scattered all over the region (http://www.ermesambiente. 

it/wcm/parchi/index.htm). Most of them have biotic (wildlife) and abiotic (geology and 

geomorphology) interest, both main parks and local reserves, which may include a fluvial 

wetland and fluvial landforms, or coastal flora and fauna and beaches and coastal dunes, 

or a forest and a karst spring or a karst valley. 

The geological heritage, deeply-rooted in the region is the subject of several 

projects of geological (s.l.) education for a wide audience, with the creation and 

installation of on site information panels and geological trails, the realization of geotourist 

maps and the planning of geological excursions (7,8,9 in figure 1). 

Geotourist itineraries and information panels 

Inside the park areas the enhancement process mainly consists, so far, in the 

creation of geological on site information panels – currently being set up in the National 

Park of Abruzzo, that includes same parts of Lazio and Molise regions (figure 11; 7 in 

figure 1) – and of geological and geomorphological itineraries proposed in the Gran Sasso 

and Laga Mountains National Park (8 in figure 1). 

Figure 11. Simplified geological scheme of the National Park of Abruzzo, extracted from 

geological on site information panels of the National Park of Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise 

Source: Miccadei et al., 2011 b


The information panels and the itineraries are mostly based on different type of 

tools variously combined, such as: a) 3D reconstructions, aimed to provide a threedimensional 

perception of geologic geomorphologic processes and elements; b) landforms 

and rocks depicting on the landscape, aimed at increasing the perception and 

identification of rock, landforms and processes distribution, as well as their impact on the 

landscape; c) paleogeographic reconstructions, aimed at highlighting the concept of time 

and landscape evolution. Some examples are presented in the following notes. 

Landforms and rocks depicting on the landscape of the Sangro River - The Sangro 

River is the main stream crossing the National Park of Abruzzo and is presented as the 

“sculptor” of the landscape. Several landforms bear witness to the erosional and 

depositional processes that took place over time along the river (figure 12). 

The Pescasseroli plain is, indeed, extensively covered with fluvio-glacial deposits 

that formed in subsequent depositional phases, up to the Upper Pleistocene. They are 

presently preserved in clear alluvial terraces (figure 12 a) and bear witness to erosional 

and depositional phases in the alluvial plain during the Quaternary period due to climate 

fluctuations (D’Alessandro and Miccadei, 2010). The Opi gorges allow to get a clear 

perception of past and present erosional processes (figure 12 b), while the view on the Le 

Prata plain shows an alluvial plain whose formation is still ongoing and offers hints for 

possible explanations of the relationship between the land and resources like peat, which 

was once used for heating, or the ground water present in the alluvial plain (figure 12 c). 

Figure 12. Geological information panel of Pescasseroli alluvial plain and Opi gorge (extracted from 

geological on site information panels of the National Park of Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise). a) Geological 

sketch of the Pescasseroli alluvial plain. b) Opi gorge along the Sangro River. c) Le Prata peat bog. 

Source: Miccadei et al., 2011 b 

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Paleo-geographic reconstructions of ancient glacial landforms (Campo 

Imperatore) - The main reliefs found in the Gran Sasso and Laga Mountains National 

Park show clear signs of glacial morphology as relict landforms resulting from cold 

climate phases of the Pleistocene (e.g. Jaurand, 1999; Giraudi, 2004). 

The southern slope of Campo Imperatore features a series of outstanding, very 

well-preserved cirques, as in the case of the Scindarella Mountains, while the glacial 

valleys are filled, in the lower part, by extensive moraine deposits which allow to 

reproduce and explain in a simple way the palaeo-landscape of the cold climate phases of 

the Quaternary period (figure 13a, b). This is basic for explaining to a wide public the 

imprint of glacial landforms in present landscape of the Apennines. 

Geotourist maps 

The first geotourist map in Abruzzo was realized in the Aventino - middle Sangro 

area (figure 14; 9 in figure 1; Miccadei et al., 2008). 

The area shows a regional crosscut through the landscape that link the eastern 

front of the Apennines chain to the related piedmont area, with landforms carved in 

different type of rocks. The map is reinterpreted from geological maps, distinguishing 

outcropping rocks as concern their surface expression into distinct geological landscapes. 

Limestone, marls, sandstones, clays, chalks, gypsum, gravels and landforms are presented 

as windows over a 200 million years history that today can be observed in a unique 

“breathtaking” landscapes rich of colours and suggestions, labelled with appealing names 

(i.e. the sliding rocks, the shining hills, the floating mountains; figure 14). Symbols 

highlight the location of main geological and geomorphological features (i.e. national 

geosites, fossil sites, oil well, caves, glacial cirque remnants, and other geological interest 

areas). The main hydrography elements are also indicated (rivers, springs, hydrometric 

stations). Finally, tourism facilities (offices, information centers, museums, trails, etc.) 

are added to the geological and geomorphological aspects in order to complete the 

geotourist map. The map outline is very similar to that presented for the Emilia Romagna 

region, although in this case the distinction of rock units is more landscape oriented. 

According to this, the backside of the map and the explanatory notes include text 

and figures explaining features and origin of different types of rocks and related 

landscapes. Furthermore, each of the eleven Municipalities included in the map, is itself 

presented as a window or terrace through which is possible to have a view of the Abruzzo 

Apennines geology, where overlook means plunge into a see far away millions of years or 

in a stream far away hundred thousands of years. 

With this approach, in the geotourist map and its explanatory notes, the geology is 

presented in a simple and educational way written for children, teenagers and adults, 

going back over a history wrote during millions of years. In this way, the map represents a 

business card, useful to discover and enjoy a wrapping and spectacular nature and 

beautiful tourism oasis, using geological contexts or peculiarities as key elements to 

develop tourism in less-familiar areas. 

Geological tourist field excursions for schools 

Geological tourist field excursions have been planned and carried out in order to develop 

the knowledge in the field of Earth Sciences to young people (Upper-School students) and 

teachers. Excursions have been undertaken within the activity of the Italian Association for 

Geology and Tourism and of the University of Chieti-Pescara project “Challenge of the Technical 

and Scientific knowledge” (http://ots.udanet.it/). The main purpose of the project is to arise the 

sensibility of young people to technical and scientific knowledge and in the geology field it is 

aimed at with web based activities and games, lections and lab exercises, and particularly field 

excursions. In a broad sense, these could be considered both teaching and geotourist excursions.


To date, several excursions have been held in the Abruzzo Region. In the mountain 

areas field excursion have been held: in the Marsica area, illustrating the remnants of 

ancient landscapes and Mesozoic paleogeographies and the recent evolution of ridges and 

valleys (Miccadei 1993; D’Alessandro and Miccadei 2010); in the Sulmona basin, 

illustrating the evolution of a landscape due to tectonics and Quaternary climate 

fluctuations (figure 15a) (Miccadei et al., 1999, 2004). In the hilly piedmont area 

excursion have been held: in the Pescara hinterland (Penne) and in the Chieti town, 

illustrating the Pleistocene geomorphological history since the emersion of the area from 

marine environment and the recent dynamics of rivers and landslides with related risks. 

In the coastal and islands area excursion have been planned: in the southern Abruzzo 

rocky coast, illustrating the geological evolution related to Pleistocene uplift and marine 

processes, and the recent dynamics of beaches and active and inactive cliffs due to aeolian 

processes, marine processes and landslides (D’Alessandro et al., 2003b); in the Tremiti 

Islands (offshore the southern Abruzzo coast but actually in the Puglia Region; Miccadei 

et al., 2011a), illustrating the complex interaction among marine, karst, fluvial and 

weathering processes in the geomorphological evolution of an area that since the 

Pleistocene was alternatively connected and not connected to the Italy coast owing to sea 

level fluctuations (figure 15b). 

Figure 13. Geological information panel of Campo Imperatore (extracted from geological and 

geomorphological itineraries of the Gran Sasso and Laga Mountains National Park), Photo (a) and 

paleogeographic reconstruction (b) of Scindarella Mts. glacial landforms 

(Source: Miccadei et al., 2011 b) 

FINAL REMARKS 

In this work examples of activities on geotourism in Emilia Romagna, Marche and 

Abruzzo regions are described. They are focused particularly on: analysis and 

enhancement of protected areas and geosites; geotourist and tourist-environmental 

maps; geological itineraries; portable and on-site geological illustrative materials. 

The described examples illustrate the documents implemented for the 

enhancement of the geological (s.l.) landscapes, at different spatial (from regional to 

local) and temporal (from Trias to Holocene and present) scales. This is focused on 

developing the sensitivity of people to read in the landscape long term temporal scales 

processes, that lead to the present landscape of a region, as well as short term temporal 

scale processes characterising the resource management or the local geological and 

geomorphological risks. 

Two types of geotourist maps have been implemented. The common aim was to 

produce maps that could be easily interpreted by tourists to help them understand the 

landscape. The Geotourist map elaborated by University of Modena and Reggio Emilia 

researchers combines the most evident geological/geomorphological aspects with basic 

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tourist information. The legend consists of two clearly distinct categories one with 

symbols representing the geological/geomorphological characteristics (e.g. simplified 

bedrock and superficial deposits, scarps, ridges, streams, lakes) and a second showing 

symbols concerning to tourist information (e.g. parking places, footpaths, picnic areas, 

refreshment and overnight-stay places etc). The geotourist maps by Abruzzo researchers 

emphasize the relationship between geology s.l. and landscape, showing how different 

structural factors, geomorphic processes and climatic features can produce different 

features and behaviour of the territory. Limestone, marls, sandstones, clays, chalks, 

gypsum, gravels and landforms are presented as windows over a 200 million years history 

but also as result of short term geomorphological processes. 

Figure 14. Extract from Geotourist map of the Aventino - Medio Sangro area (Abruzzo Region) 

(Source: modified from Miccadei et al., 2008, www.geoplanet.eu) 

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3D reconstructions, landforms and rocks depicting, and palaeo-geographic 

reconstructions aim at providing three-dimensional perception of geologic 

geomorphologic processes and elements, at increasing the perception and identification 

of rock, landforms and processes, as well as their impact on the landscape, and at 

highlighting the concept of time and landscape evolution. 

In many cases the improvement of people’s perception of geological processes 

exploits the link of history, legend, and myth to geology and landscape. 

Fig. 15 - Field geological excursion with students: 

a) observations of triangular facets along the Mt. Morrone fault slope in the Sulmona Basin; 

b) observations of active cliffs of the Tremiti Islands 

The examples include activities at regional and institutional level, as well as at 

university level, in same cases in collaboration with upper school institutions. They 

also include activities developed specifically for tourism at local and regional scale or 

private initiatives, within the Park areas or within the Italian Association for Geology 

and Tourism. Besides the several possible approach to geological heritage 

enhancement, they show a different development level of geotourism in Italy. Indeed, 

only a wide interregional tourism network integrating initiatives targeted at various 

potential users and connecting universities, local and regional institutions, Parks and 

local reserves, schools, private initiatives etc., can lead to reach the goal in term of 

educational dissemination of geological and geomorphological themes, awareness of 

the complex meaning of the landscape. 

Thus, according to the “European Manifesto on Earth Heritage and 

Geodiversity”, the territory goes out of the “classical” role of simple scenery of the 

human history and becomes integral part of the different cultures that develop in it 

and that interact with it. The growth of interest in the geological and 

geomorphological thematic of the territory is bringing about the maturation of a 

strong sensibilities toward a geologic tourism both from the institutions and the 

private citizens. Furthermore all these activities can represent job opportunities in the 

field of tourism for the graduates and for people living and working in less developed 

areas within the Italian territory. 

The integrated approach to the discovery of geological heritage - as presented in 

this paper - through various tools and activities and targeted at various potential 

users can be summarised by quoting a famous statement by Marcel Proust: “the real 

voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes”. 


The studies are within the framework of the: 

- FAR Project Research of the Earth Science Department of Modena and Reggio Emilia; 

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- financial support of local public administrations (Municipality of Fiorano Modenese and 

Frignano Park); 

- Faculty funds of the University “G. D'Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara (Prof. E. Miccadei); 

- Faculty funds of the University of Camerino (Prof. P. Farabollini). 

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Northern Apennines, Tectonophysics 474 (1-2): 285-294; 

Poli G. (ed) (1999), Geositi testimoni del tempo, Regione Emilia-Romagna, Bologna; 

Regione Emilia-Romagna, (1999), Itinerari geologico-ambientali nella Val Ceno, Carta a scala 1: 60.000. 

Eliofototecnicabarbieri, Parma - SELCA, Firenze; 

Regione Emilia-Romagna, (2001), Itinerari geologico-ambientali nelle colline bolognesi, Carta a scala 1: 

50.000. Eliofototecnicabarbieri, Parma - SELCA, Firenze; 

Regione Emilia-Romagna, (2002), Itinerari geologico-ambientali nella Val Trebbia, Carta a scala 1: 30.000. 

SELCA, Firenze; 

Regione Emilia-Romagna, (2003 a), Itinerari geologico-ambientali nel Parco Nazionale delle Foreste 

Casentinesi, Carta a scala 1: 60.000, SELCA, Firenze; 

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Regione Emilia-Romagna, (2003 b), Itinerari geologico-ambientali nelle terre matildiche tra Canossa e 

Quattro Castella, Carta a scala 1: 15.000 e note illustrative, Systemcart S.r.l., Roma; 

Regione Emilia-Romagna, (2009), Il Paesaggio Geologico dell’Emilia Romagna, Carta a scala 1: 250.000. 

SELCA, Firenze; 

Sampaolesi S., Farabollini P., (2002), La conservazione e la tutela dei geositi: l’esempio della piramide di terra 

nel Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini (Marche centro-meridionali), Geologia dell’Ambiente 2: 28-37; 

Scalella G., Tamburri S., Pignoloni I., Farabollini P., Bonifazi B., Veccia L., Latini E., with the contribution from 

Barra F., Brunori C., Casini A., A.P.A.T., (2008), Metodologie G.I.S. applicate a proposte di geoturismo 

nel territorio della Provincia di Ascoli Piceno, Rendiconti online Soc Geol It 2: 1-4; 

Various Authors, (1991), Le emergenze geologiche e geomorfologiche delle Marche, Regione Marche-Giunta 

Regionale, Ancona; 


29.07.2011 26.10.2011 28.10.2011 31.10.2011



INVENTORY, DISSEMINATION AND PRESERVATION 

OF THE GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE IN URBAN 

AREAS – LISBON CITY CASE STUDY 

Cláudia PINTO * 

Lisbon Municipality, Campo Grande, 25 – 4º B, 1749-099 LISBOA and Center of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, 

University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, Edifício C6, 1749-016 LISBOA, e-mail: claudia.narciso.pinto@gmail.com 

José VICENTE 

Lisbon Municipality, Campo Grande, 25 – 4º B, 1749-099 LISBOA, e-mail: zepvicente@gmail.com 

Maria Manuel PINTO 

Lisbon Municipality, Campo Grande, 25 – 4º B, 1749-099 LISBOA, e-mail: maria.manuel.pinto@cm-lisboa.pt 

Glória ESPÍRITO SANTO 

Lisbon Municipality, Campo Grande, 25 – 3º A, 1749-099 LISBOA, e-mail: gloria.e.santo@cm-lisboa.pt 

Márcia MUÑOZ 

Lisbon Municipality, Campo Grande, 25 – 4º B, 1749-099 LISBOA, e-mail : marcia.munoz@cm-lisboa.pt 


Center and Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, Edifício C6, 

1749-016 LISBOA, e-mail : imalmeida@fc.ul.pt 

Abstract: Through field work campaigns and with the colaboration of several public 

entities, were identified several outcrops in Lisbon city. Nineten of them were 

classified as Geomonuments. In consequence they were included in Municipal 

Planning Instruments, its acessibility and visibility was assured and description 

totems were developed. Involving the general public was the strategie adopted in 

order to proceed with the dissemination and preservation strategies. In urban areas is 

not expectable to find references of evolution and earth dynamics, mainly because of 

the general tendency that promotes the total ocupation of the ground with 

construction. However, in Lisbon it is still possible to observe some outcrops 

preserved among buildings and roads, some of them with large dimensions that 

materialize several geological formations since Cretaceous to Holocene Periods. The 

original paleoenvironments associated to the lithostratigraphic diversity presented in 

Lisbon area, leads to a great potentiality of the city aiming the preservation and 

dissemination of the geological heritage. The Lisbon Municipality, in cooperation 

with the MNHN (Nacional Natural History Museum), the Lisbon University and 

LNEG (Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia – the portuguese institute with 

functions similar to a Geological Survey), developed field work campaigns aiming the 

inventory of the preserved outcrops in Lisbon city, with scientific, educational and 

cultural interest, liable to be classified as Geomonuments. After the classification of 

those outcrops, some projects were developed aiming the preservation and 



264 

Cláudia PINTO, José VICENTE, Maria Manuel PINTO, Glória Espírito SANTO, Márcia MUÑOZ, 


maintenance of those places and some dissemination strategies such as the 

development of thematic trails to general public and schools. 

Key words: outcrops, geomonuments, urban geology, inventory, preservation, 

heritage, Lisbon 

* * * * * * 

INVENTORY OF OUTCROPS 

Lisbon Municipality in colaboration with the Faculty of Sciences of the University 

of Lisbon proceded to field campaigns in order to identify outcroups in Lisbon city. Fourty 

six outcrops were identified covering all the 20 lithostratigraphic units that represents the 

geology of Lisbon. From those identified, 19 outcrops were selected concerning its 

regional geology representativity, scientific, pedagogical and cultural interest as well as its 

size and the possibility of conservation. 

The 19 selected outcrops are shown in table 1 and figure 1. 

Outcrop 

Table 1. Inventory of Geosites 

(Data source: Lisbon Municipality) 

Lithostratigraphic 

unit 

G1. Rio Seco Formação de Bica 

G2. Rua Sampaio 

Bruno 

G3. Av. Duarte 

Pacheco 

G4. Av. Calouste 

Gulbenkian 

G5. Av. Infante 

Santo 

G6. Aliança 

Operária 

G7. Calçada de 

Carriche 

G8. Rua Virgílio 

Correia 

G9. Quinta da 

Granja 

G10. Quinta do 

Lambert 

G11. Forte de 

Santa Apolónia 

Argilas de Prazeres 

Formação de 

Caneças and 

Formação de Bica 

Formação de 




Complexo Vulcânico 

de Lisboa 

Formação de Benfica 

Argilas de Prazeres 

and Areolas de 

Estefânia 

Lithology / age Relevant aspects 

Limestones / 

Cretaceous 

Muddy limestones 

/Miocene 

Marls and limestones 

/ Cretaceous 


/ Cretaceous 

Limestones / 

Cretaceous 

Basalts / Neo- 

Cretaceous 

Mudstones / 

Oligocene 

Mudstones and 

sandstones/Miocene 

Argilas de Prazeres Mudstones / Miocene 

Areias com placuna Sandstones / Miocene 

Calcários de Quinta 

das Conchas 

Lumachelle layers / 

Miocene 

Size, possibility of 

conservation, ancient 

quarry 

Limestone with spherical 

carbonated concretions 

of bryozoa colonies 



quarry 



quarry 

Silex Nodules 

Size, basalt with 

columnar jointing, 

ancient quarry 

Thick conglomeratic 

series with reddish 

colour 

Unit Limit 

Carboniferous layers, 

possibility of 

conservation 

Thin sandy sediments, 

depositional cycles, unit 

limit 

Large size ostreidae 

fossil contents, 


conservation

Inventory, Dissemination and Preservation of the Geological Heritage in Urban Areas … 

G12. Rua 

Mouzinho de 

Albuquerque 

G13. Rua Capitão 

Leitão 

G14. Rua dos 

Eucaliptos 

G15. Rua do 

Armandinho 

G16. Parque da 

Pedra 

G19. Parque da 

Bela Vista 

Areias com placuna 

miocenica and 

Calcários de 

Musgueira 

Areias de Vale de 

Chelas 

Limestones and 

Sandstones / Miocene 

Sandstones / Miocene 

Grés de Grilos Sandstones / Miocene 

Calcários de Marvila 

Formação de 



Areias de Quinta do 

Bacalhau and 

Calcários de Casal 

Vistoso 

Sandstones and 

Limestones/Miocene 


/ Cretaceous 

Limestones, 

sandstones and 

mudstones/Miocene 

Figure 1. Location of the Geosites in Lisbon 

Unit Limit 

Sandy sediments with 

wind and water transport 

and depositional 

signatures, fossil 

contents 

Possibility of 

conservation, fossil 

contents, lithology 

Fossil contents 


conservation, unit limit 

and ancient quarry 

Size, unit limit, 


conservation, 

depositional cycles 

PALEOENVIRONMENTS AND THEIR GEOLOGICAL EXPRESSION 

The oldest rocks that outcrop in Lisbon city are from Cretaceous Period (≈ 97 

M.a.) and materialize a marine transgression episode (relative sea rise) (Pais et al., 

2006). In Cretaceous, Lisbon was located in a marine environment with warm shallow 

waters, allowing the formation of marls intercalated with compact limestone layers. 

These aspects are visible in Av. Calouste Gulbenkian and in Av. Duarte Pacheco 

Geomonuments (figure 2). 

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Figure 2. Av. Duarte Pacheco Geomonument (Cretaceous formations) 

Several fossils are associated with these sediments and can be found in the 

outcrops, among them bivalve, gastropod, crustaceous, equinoderm and some vertebrate. 

In the upper layers of this formations it is common to find rudists (Pais et al., 2006). 

During the periods of sedimentation and compaction of these sediments in the 

reef, small lagoons were formed. Its connection with the sea would be temporary allowing 

the formation of thin limestone layers with few fossils and silex nodules. These layers are 

visible in Av. Infante Santo Geomonument (figure 3). 

Figure 3. Silex Nodules (Av. Infante Santo Geomonument)


With the emersion of the formed rocks, differential erosion processes occurred 

(chemical dissolution of limestone along fractures), leading to karst and cave formation 

and highlighting textural heterogeneities (Pais et al., 2006). These caves were used for 

Palaeolithic settlements as shelter and the silex was used for weapons, tools and flint 

manufacturing (Galopim, 1989). 

Cretaceous limestones were also explored for construction and ornamental 

materials and some quarries are known in Monsanto, Ajuda and Vale de Alcântara (Pinto, 

2005). Building facades and Monuments, as well as sidewalks in Lisbon, are made 

predominantly from these materials. 

In Late Cretaceous Period a volcanism event occurred in Lisbon area (≈ 65 M.a.). 

The intense fracturation originated by plate movement allowed the installation of several 

conducts, chimney and dikes that conduct magma to surface. This magma deposits 

covered the subjacent cretaceous formations originating the Lisbon Volcanic Complex 

(CVL) (Pais et al., 2006). 

The most part of Lisbon Council is covered by basaltic sheets, a consequence of 

effusive events, intercalated with pyroclasts from explosive events (mainly composed by 

ashes). Their origin was probably one single volcanic building, located in Mafra region, 

higher than 2000m, with some inactive episodes showed by intercalated sediment 

materials. Its thickness can be as high as 400m, as in Carnaxide and Odivelas, but in 

Lisbon the CVL thickness rounds 100m (Pais et al., 2006). 

The Aliança Operária Geomonument is an outcrop included in CVL and is located 

in an inactive quarry which is nowadays occupied by a sports complex “Boa Hora Futebol 

Clube”. In those thick basaltic layers it can be observed columnar jointing (hexagonal 

columns), as a result of the contraction of the basalt during cooling (figure 4). 

Figure 4. Columnar jointing in Lisbon Volcanic Complex (Aliança Operária Geomonument) 

The basaltic lavas were explored in some quarries located in Lisbon, and applied as 

gravel (Pinto, 2005). They can be seen in some Lisbon street pavements. 

Lava and ashes alteration originates high quality agricultural soils, leading to 

human occupation of those areas since past as a way of subsistence of populations. 

However nowadays, the urban expansion has lead to the extinction of those regions in 

Lisbon council. In Palaeogene Period (≈ 40 M.a.) an emersion phase occurred with a 

lack of sedimentation, caused by an intense tectonic activity which lead to relief 

building (Pais et al., 2006). 

Lisbon, without Tagus river at south, exhibited a continental sub-arid landscape, 

where erosion processes acted intensely. Large volumes of heterogeneous sediments 

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(blocks and thin sediments) resulted from the destruction of those reliefs. Those materials 

were transported from higher areas to deposition basins by a drainage network pattern of 

torrential rivers (Pais et al., 2006). 

Those basins, controlled by tectonic structures and with few connections to the sea, 

allowed the deposition of the thick conglomeratic series of Benfica Complex. The oxidation 

processes occurred in iron minerals presented in the transported sediments configures the 

reddish colour, typical of an oxidant deposition environment (Pais et al., 2006). 

In Miocene Period (≈ 24 M.a.) and after an intense continental sedimentation 

phase, marine environment reinstalls as a consequence of subsidence, allowing the 

installation of Tagus Basin vestibular area (Pais et al., 2006). 

Quinta da Granja Geomonument (figure 5) shows a transition phase between 

Palaeogene continental to a Miocene peri-continental environment, materialized by the 

occurrence of black carboniferous and mudstone layers. 

The carboniferous layers were deposit in a lacustrine environment with continental 

signature, with low levels of oxygen, shallow depth and low hydrodynamics, allowing the 

organic matter and flora preservation. 

Figure 5. Carboniferous layers (Quinta da Granja Geomonument) 

Mudstone layers typical from “Argilas de Prazeres” formation exhibit a signature 

of peri-continental influence. This formation was explored by clay industries such as 

“Cerâmica Lisbonense” (Pinto, 2005). 

During the next 16 M.a., sea level raises and falls several times, originating rocks 

typical from peri-continental and litoral environments, which correspond to characteristic 

sediments and fossils (figure 6). They can be seen around several outcrops in oriental part 

of Lisbon city (Pais et al., 2006). 

CLASSIFICATION OF LISBON OUTCROPS AS GEOMONUMENTS 

After the selection of these 19 outcrops, Lisbon Municipality made a proposal to the 

Faculty of Sciences, MNHN and LNEG aiming the classification of the outcrops as 

Geomonuments (Geological Monument) (Galopim de Carvalho, 1989, Galopim de 

Carvalho, 1999, Ramalho, 2004). 

They were classified by the Lisbon Municipality Assembly and intregrated as 

Nature Exo-Museums (Galopim de Carvalho, 1999) in the municipality planning 

instruments, namely the Municipal Master Plan (http://pdm.cm-lisboa.pt). A minimum 

of a 10 m protection buffer was implanted in order to preserve the assessment and 

visibility of the Geomonuments and the construction of structures and infra-structures is 

conditioned in those areas.


Figure 6. Ostreidae fossil in a lumachellic layer, characteristic of peri-continental and litoral 

environments (Forte de Santa Apolónia Geomonument) 

DISSEMINATION AND PRESERVATION OF GEOMONUMENTS 

The most powerful preservation method is through people’s will. In this case it is a 

mission of the public entities to promote knowledge to the populations, giving them 

means and tools to understand the importance of the preservation of the geological 

heritage. As resumed by Mathis A. (2005): Through interpretation, understanding; 

through understanding, appreciaton; through appreciation, preservation. 

Accordingly, thematic trails to general public and schools have also been 

developed, and one is an extremely sucessful trail – Ocidental area of Lisbon by bicycle, 

through six Geomonuments integrated in Monsanto’s Natural Park and surrounding area. 

A guide book with a portuguese and an english version about Parks, Gardens and 

Geomonuments of Lisbon was edited by the Lisbon Munipality in June, 2009, with 

descriptions of the places that can be visited (CML, 2009). 

It has also been developed the contents to the information totems to implant in the 

Geomonuments with a brief description of the geological setting and its location in Lisbon 

city. Only one totem is already implemented – Rua Sampaio Bruno (figure 7). 

Figure 7. Totem of Rua Sampaio Bruno Geomonument 

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Some landscape architecture projects that include and promote the Geomonuments 

have also been developed, such as in Rio Seco, Parque da Pedra and Quinta da Granja and 

can already be visited and used as Urban Parks. 

FUTURE WORKS 

The next step of the Project will be the constitution of a network, where Museums 

and Geomonuments can be connected by using public transportation, allowing general 

public and tourists to visit the places on their own. 

Figure 7. Totem of Rua Sampaio Bruno Geomonument 

One of the thematic trails proposed is about a paleoenvironment sequence, from 

continental to marine. The trail begins in a continental environment, materialised by the 

conglomeratic series of the Calçada de Carriche Geomonument (G7). Then, a typical 

fluvial environment, with sandstones with wind signatures, materialised in the Quinta do 

Lambert Geomonument (G10). The sequence continues with a pericontinental 

environment shown by the mudstones and carboniferous layers presented in the Quinta 

da Granja Geomonument (G8). The next step will be in the Natural History Museum 

where a permanent exposition abou Lisbon Geology will be exhibit. The trails continues 

through the Sampaio Bruno Geomonument (G2), where a reef platform environment is 

presented. It can also be seen a muddy limestone with spherical carbonated concretions 

corresponding to bryozoa fossil colonies with few centimetres diameter.


The trail ends in a marine environment, materialised by the thick sequence of 

limestones with rudists fossils. 

Acknowledgments 

The authors wished to thank to Professor Galopim de Carvalho and Professor 

Fernando Barriga for their helpful comments during the inventory phase of this project. 

REFERENCES 

Galopim de Carvalho A. M., (1989), Exomuseu de Geologia, Comunicação no “Encontro Nacional do Ambiente, 

Turismo e Cultura”, Lisboa/Sintra, 1 a 4 de Novembro, pp. 10; 

Galopim de Carvalho A. M., (1999), Geomonumentos, Uma reflexão sobre a sua caracterização e 

enquadramento num projecto nacional de defesa e valorização do património natural, Editado por 

Liga dos Amigos de Conimbriga, pp. 30; 

Mathis A., (2005), Communicating Geoheritage Values with the Public - Geological Society of America, 

Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 37, No. 7, pp. 190; 

Pais J., Moniz C., Cabral J., Cardoso J., Legoinha P., Machado S., Morais M., Lourenço C., Ribeiro M., 

Henriques P., Falé P., (2006), Notícia explicativa da Folha 34-D Lisboa, Instituto Nacional de 

Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovação, pp. 74; 

Pinto M. J., (2005), Levantamento cartográfico de locais de pedreiras no Concelho de Lisboa, 5º Volume da 

Colecção de Estudos Urbanos – Lisboa XXI, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, pp. 159; 

Ramalho M. M., (2004), Património Geológico Português – importância científica, pedagógica e sócioeconómica, 

Geonovas, 18, pp. 5 – 12; 

Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, (2009), Guia dos Parques, Jardins e Geomonumentos de Lisboa, Pelouro de 

Ambiente, Espaços Verdes, Plano Verde, Higiene Urbana e Espaço Público, pp. 372, http://pdm.cmlisboa.pt 

(2011), Site da Revisão do Plano Director Municipal do concelho de Lisboa; 


29.07.2011 18.10.2011 24.10.2011 25.10.2011 

271



THE BASQUE COAST GEOPARK: SUPPORT FOR GOOD 

PRACTICES IN GEOTOURISM 

Joan POCH * 

GEOSEI S.C.P; Autonomous University of Barcelona, Faculty of Science, Department of Geology, 

Edifici C, Cerdanyola del Vallès (08193) Barcelona, e-mail: zientzia@geogarapen.com 

Jon Paul LLORDÉS 

Coastal Flysch Route, Xenda Natura S.L., Ategorrieta, 59, G-II (20013) San Sebastián, 

e-mail: jpllordes@yahoo.com 

Abstract: Over an eight-year period, a wide variety of geology and nature tours 

has been created in the Basque Coast Geopark, offering many different options to 

a very diverse public: varying duration of the visits and difficulty of the routes, 

different topics, prices, types of experience, etc. Examples include boat trips to 

observe the main coastal outcrop, visits on foot to different geosites, or combined 

land and sea visits, etc. Despite there being no tradition of geotourism in the 

zone, or any history of paid guided tours, the geopark’s model is successful. This 

makes us determined to consolidate what has been achieved and prepare to take 

on new challenges. 

Key words: geopark, geotourism, good practices, working groups, network 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

European Geoparks assisted by UNESCO offer a unique context for sustainable 

development based on a special geological heritage. These territories are members of a 

broad Network (European Geoparks and Global Geoparks Network) which has high 

quality standards in relation to the sustainable management of geological heritage. The 

survival of the Network itself depends on a continuous process of quality improvement, a 

process which is connected to the acquisition of new tools for sustainable management. 

In 2003 the first systematic drafts for methodology and evaluation processes were 

proposed (Zouros et al., 2003) and were completed at the meeting held in the Madonie 

Geopark (Sicily, Italy) in October 2004, where the role of UNESCO was defined (Madonie 

Declaration). Since then the activities’ evaluation process has been refined through the 

continuous exchange of ideas between Network members. 

Geological heritage management covers various facets: geoconservation, 

geotourism, education, provision of information, promotion of local products, etc., with 

the aim of improving the geopark inhabitants’ quality of life. Management of the 

geological heritage, through sustainable tourism, is one of the most powerful tools to 

achieve this goal. 




THE BASQUE COAST GEOPARK 

The geopark is located on the west coast of Gipuzkoa province, in the 

Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, in northern Spain (figure 1). The 89sqkm 

geopark includes the municipalities of Zumaia, Deba and Mutriku, and is 

inhabited by around 19,700 people. Extended information in Llordés and Baceta, 2009 

and www.geoparkea.com. 

Figure 1. The Basque Coast Geopark is located in the north-west part of the 

Province of Gipuzkoa (Basque Country, Spain) 

(Source: Basque Country ‘s Topographic Map) 

In this territory, where the western Pyrenees (Basque Mountains) meet the ocean, 

two geological domains stand out: the coastal flysch succession and the karst landform of 

limestone massifs from the Lower Cretaceous, which defines the inland zone. 

The exceptional geographical location and excellent infrastructure mean that the 

region is in a key location, with very good connections to all the main Basque cities. For 

example, San Sebastián can be reached by car in 30 minutes and Bilbao in less than 50 

minutes. The French border is 35 km to the east. 

The territory encompasses a 23 km coastline consisting largely of steep cliffs 

affected by tides and includes one of the most extensive intertidal abrasion platforms in 

Europe (figure 2). The coastal area contains a complete record of the important 

boundaries between geological ages such as the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T boundary) and 

the Palaeocene/Eocene boundary, and also includes the stratotypes (international 

references) for two stage boundaries within the Palaeocene (Danian-Selandian and 

Selandian-Thanetian). See for example, Schmitz et al., 1998 and Pujalte et al., 2009. 

There are Cretaceous flysch outcrops in the northernmost part of the territory. 

They consists of a thick and monotonous turbidite succession of axial flows (from E to W), 

deposited in the Pyrenean ridge, with interspersed layers mainly consisting of 

hemipelagic marls and limestones. A more calcareous lowermost unit and another upper, 

detritic calcareous unit are worthy of note. 

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The Mesozoic-Cenozoic transit is characterised by a stratigraphic continuity and a 

lithological appearance. The boundary can mainly be identified by the change in the 

microfauna. The boundary was also recorded by a centimetre-thick layer of iridium-rich clay. 

There are outcrops of Tertiary materials in the northern part of the territory, which 

date from the Palaeocene to the Lower Eocene. The Palaeocene is represented by the socalled 

“Danian Limestone Formation”, which contains several lithologies that are very 

typical of this region (red layers), locally eroded by submarine canyons that were filled 

during the Thanetian Stage. 

Figure 2. A unique coast, which reveals 60 million years of uninterrupted geological 

history, in a spectacular landscape created by the continuous action of the sea. 

(Source: J.P. Llordés) 

Figure 3. Two Paleocene stratotypes limits were defined in Itzurun beach during the Paleocene 

Workshop held in June 2007 (Pujalte et al., 2009): Selandian - Danian (S / D) and Thanetian - 

Selandian (T/ S). Source: J.P. Llordés 

The limit Danian - Selandian (D/S) is defined in Itzurun beach, 49 m above the K-T 

limit and can be recognized by an abrupt lithologic change to clay facies, associated with a sea 

level fall (Molina, 1994). Estimated age: 60.5 Million years (My). The limit Selandian /


Thanetian (S/T) is also defined in Itzurun beach, and the limit coincides with the change of 

magnetic cron 26n/26r. Estimated age: 58.7 My (Roggenthen, 1976). See figure 3. 

The Lower Eocene is represented by a very homogeneous turbidite sedimentation, 

with the currents from east to west. It contains alternating layers of sandy limestones and 

calcareous marls. The highest stratigraphic layers are found in the E and are characterised 

by bands of sandy calcareous marls between the sandstone units. The marine 

sedimentation continued intermittently until the start of the Oligocene (not represented 

in the territory). At this stage, the sea retreated until it was almost as far back as today’s 

coastline, whilst the Alpine folding lifted up the Pyrenees. 

The folded layers of the Geopark’s coast can be explained by several generations of 

folds, formed in different post-Eocene deformation phases, with a subhorizontal axial 

plane. This structure is strongly north-vergent. The most outstanding characteristic of the 

Tertiary coastal range in the Zumaia area is the inversion of the series, with overturned 

dips that become normal towards the E. 

Due to the multitude of limits and the high quality of the outcrops, Zumaia section 

is especially relevant for the construction of geological time scales based on: 

� Analysis of carbon and oxygen isotopes (Charisi and Schmitz, 1995). 

� Magnetostratigraphic analysis layer by layer (Roggenthen, 1976). 

� Cicloestratigrafía: constant alternation between marly and calcareous layers 

responds faithfully to the climate-astronomical Milankovitch cycles. This phenomenon 

has become one of the biggest attractions for scientists (Pujalte et al., 1994). 

� Paleontological analysis and Icno-Palaentology: Zumaia rocks contain abundant 

fossils of marine invertebrates (ammonites, inoceramids) as well as microfossils 

(foraminifers, plankton). See for example, Arenillas and Molina, 1996; Pujalte et al., 1994 

see figure 4. 

� Icno-Paleontology: The layers of flysch are a true natural museum of fossil 

footprints of the hemipelagic environment. 

Figure 4. The layers of flysch are a true natural museum of fossil footprints 

(Icno-fossil: Chondrites) of the hemipelagic environment, Source: J.I. Baceta 

Inland the landscape is dominated by hilly countryside, where much of the 

agricultural activity takes place. A group of mountains composed of Urgonian limestone 

— former barrier reefs — can be found in the southern part of the region (figure 5). 

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The most characteristic palaeogeography during the Lower Albian shows reef 

systems in raised zones, separated by terrigenoussystems into intra-platform ridges. This 

structure is attributed to the transtension effects caused by the drifting of Iberia. The 

Basque-Cantabrian Basin experienced its period of greatest subsidence during the Aptian- 

Albian, due to the NE-SW and NW-SE crustal extension. 

Figure 5. Itziar Sanctuary and Andutz Mountain (Deba, Mesozoic reef limestone) 


To sum up, the outstanding geomorphology and landscapes of the Geopark are 

mainly the result of the combination of a varied geological substrate and unique climatic 

conditions dating as far back as the Pleistocene and up to the present day. On a large 

scale, two geomorphological elements stand out: the coastal geomorphology of flysch 

succession subject to an open, mesotidal coastal regime, gives rise to the formation of a 

very extensive wave-cut platform, along with series of promontories, coves and different 

types of accumulation (sandy or pebble beaches, accumulations of topple deposits, etc.), 

and the karst landform of the limestone massifs from the Lower Cretaceous that define 

the inland zone, include a large number of forms, both superficial (karren, poljes) and 

endokarstic (caves, shafts, emergences etc.). 

The municipalities of Deba and Mutriku have one of the greatest concentrations of 

caves of archaeological significance in the whole of Gipuzkoa province. In Deba we find 

two important archaeological sites from the Upper Palaeolithic period, namely the Ekain 

and Praileaitz caves. The cave paintings in Ekain cave (in particular the figures of horses), 

are one of the best examples of Franco-Cantabrian art. As a result, the Ekain cave was 

declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. The replica of the Ekain cave, 

Ekainberri, can be visited in the neighbouring town of Zestoa. 

The educational value of this heritage is also very important, as evidenced by the 

success that has been achieved by initiatives such as the Algorri Interpretation Centre of 

Zumaia (Hilario, 2008) and the Nautilus Fossil Museum (Mutriku). 

GOOD PRACTICES IN GEOTOURISM 

Geotourism in this area started in 2002, when the first guided walks to the Zumaia 

outcrop began, including places such as the K-T boundary, and also day-long hikes along 

the outcrop between Deba and Zumaia, which offers a continuous geological record 

spanning 60 million years. Over the years, new activities and facilities have sprung up


along the whole coast, resulting in a high level of geotourism development in the area. 

The number of agencies promoting geotourism has been growing, including tourist 

information centres, town councils, regional organisations, the Gipuzkoa Provincial 

Council and the Basque Government, as well as private initiatives, which have also played 

a very important role in its development. There have been increasing numbers of 

programmed geotourism visits each year, thanks to the growth in demand and the 

response from the bodies involved in managing and developing this zone. Thus, for 2010, 

a programme of over 170 geotourism tours has been organised in the zone. 

When analysing the development of geotourism in the area, it is interesting to 

identify the keys to the initiative’s success. A large number of important factors explain 

this phenomenon, some of which are listed below: 

1. The special characteristics of the zone, such as the temperate climate, which 

allows outdoor activities during most of the year, good access to these coastal 

municipalities from outside the area, the wide range of services offered (bars, restaurants 

and accommodation, etc.), the infrastructures (good train and bus connections, 

pedestrian access routes to the coast, coastal trails, ports and piers, etc.) have all provided 

excellent foundations for the development of geotourism. 

2. This zone is not too far from the main cities and towns in the Basque Country 

(Bilbao, San Sebastián, Biarritz...), ensuring a large number of potential visitors. 

3. The existence of a resource previously little known to the population has been of 

vital importance: the geological heritage, with its multiple facets, such as the stratigraphic 

record, geomorphological and landscape assets, its aesthetic qualities, fossils, etc., in 

addition to the cultural assets of this area, which make this coast quite unique. This 

geoheritage is also easy to access by foot and boat, and is located very close to towns and 

villages, which act as gateways. The recognition of this heritage’s importance and 

designations by regional or international bodies, and the interest of the area’s media have 

also played a key role. 

4. The motivation of many individuals, institutions and companies that have 

worked in the zone, displaying great enthusiasm and energy. A large number of personal 

actions and decisions have been motivated by a common factor: a desire to protect and 

promote the heritage. One example of this is the amateur fossil collector J.M. Narvaez’s 

determination to collect and conserve the fossils from the coast of Mutriku, and the local 

municipalities’ backing for the creation of interpretation facilities, etc. 

5. The fact that the town councils and tourist information centres started to 

organise geotourism activities in conjunction with private companies. Reasonably 

priced guided tours have thus been developed, which have been actively promoted since 

the very beginning. 

6. The creative and innovative development of a thematic route, the Coastal 

Flysch Route, has helped integrate and foster the different existing resources. It has 

included amongst many other things, the design of a brand that promotes all the guided 

tours on offer with high-quality promotion. This has also led to notable progress in the 

development of geotourism in the zone (figure 6). 

7. The use of new opportunities offered by the Internet (with an online reservation 

system, see www.flysch.com) to promote and sell these activities has been of particular 

importance, since it gives visitors more information and makes it easier for them to make 

reservations. It also makes it easier to organise and manage activities, allowing the 

number of tours on offer to be increased in accordance with demand. 

SOCIO-ECONOMICS BENEFITS 

According to the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa (2004), in 2004 tourism 

expenditure in Gipuzkoa accounted for 7.5% of the province’s GDP, and was at that time 

its fourth most important economic activity, with a 34.5% increase over the previous 

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five years. According to the same source, the average amount spent by visitors who did 

not stay overnight in the province was 50 € per day, and for tourists who did stay 

overnight it was 80 € per day. 

Figure 6. Geotourism by boat to observe the main coastal outcrop. Boat trips 

combine the interpretation of the natural and cultural heritage. 


Over the last few years, here has been a positive trend in tourism activity in this 

area, probably as a result of the initiatives carried out there. According to results released 

by the Spanish National Statistics Institute (INE 2009), the number of overnight stays in 

the geopark territory has increased by 44% over the past four years, reaching a total of 

111,920 overnight stays. It should also be noted that the geopark area has experienced 

greater growth than the surrounding region. 

Moreover, in summer 2010, a total of 32 people were employed as either fulltime, 

part-time or occasional guides in the geopark territory and in its associated 

resources. The activities of local companies working in this field (tourism, 

interpretation centres, environmental education, etc.) have been consolidated, which 

also constitutes a positive result. 

SUPPORTING FOR GOOD PRACTICES 

The GEOGARAPEN Association is the managing body for the Basque Coast 

Geopark (figure 7), with the general meeting and board of directors sitting at the core. 

Since the candidacy was presented in November 2009, new partners have been brought 

on board and although the joining process is still open, the Association currently has 

enough partners to ensure the project's long-term position. 

The Association represents a broad spectrum of managing organisations from the 

territory, covering the full hierarchy of the official authority of the Basque country: at the 

municipal level, the mayors of Zumaia, Deba and Mutriku as founding members; at the 

provincial level, Gipuzkoa Provincial Council (Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa); at the 

regional level, the Government of the Basque Autonomous Community, which is in the 

process of being incorporated (Basque Government). In the public sphere, the Association 

has also incorporated the University of the Basque Country (EHU – UPV, Universidad del 

País Vasco), the Aranzadi Society of Sciences (Sociedad Científica Aranzadi, a not-forprofit 

society), UNESCO Etxea (the regional delegation for UNESCO), and the local 

development organisations for both the rural and socioeconomic areas.


Figure 7. Organisation chart for the Basque Coast Geopark Managing Body. All partners attend 

the General Meeting. In addition to this, the Association has set up a number of agreements 

with other collaborators on the project, from both the public and private sectors 

(Source: C. Iturrriagagoitia) 

The strength of this management structure, unique in the Basque Country, allows 

us to develop and connect up in a local network, under the umbrella of the geopark, all 

sustainable development activities. 

The management body is supported by the active collaboration taking place 

between the partners and collaborators, which are organised into five specific working 

groups, which bring knowledge, standards and agency to the different work areas of the 

entire territory: (1) Science and territory; (2) Environment and sustainable 

development; (3) Tourism and geotourism; (4) Culture and local development and (5) 

Coordinating group. 

Because of their transversal nature, some of the geopark’s typical activities are 

not restricted to one single working group, but must be carried out in greater depth by 

the managing body, which will benefit from the partial suggestions of this network of 

working groups. 

The group “Tourism and geotourism” includes de participation of the Regional 

Government’s Department of Tourism, Municipal Departments of Tourism, tourist 

offices, local development agencies, tourism sector businesses, journalists, etc. 

Main activities of this group are related to: marketing plan, defining new tourism 

products, managing the geopark’s tourism brand, standardisation and approval 

programme for geopark tourism businesses, coordinating with the regional government’s 

marketing plan, obtaining tourism certification (national and international), promoting 

and managing tourism via the internet, tourism fairs, press trips, being present in the 

media, publications and promotional videos, training tourism businesspeople, 

coordinated activities with other geoparks, etc. 

As examples of supporting good practices, it should be mentioned the protocol with 

the businesses collaborating in the geopark makes it possible to establish and evaluate the 

specific quality standards that these businesses must comply with in order to be able to 

benefit from the geopark umbrella, such as for example, knowing about the updated offer 

of geological information for geotourism. This close collaboration with businesses makes 

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it possible to know what the evolution of the benefits related to geological heritage 

management is. 

CONCLUSION 

Once the geopark concept has been accepted as a strategy model for the territory, 

geotourism development is planned to take place in three stages in order to integrate all 

the existing elements in the zone and develop them to their full potential: the coastal 

stage, which has already been developed, the inland stage and the global stage. The final 

purpose of this three-stage proposal consists of distributing the benefits generated by 

geotourism across the whole territory, involving the local population, and contributing to 

the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage. 

REFERENCES 

Arenillas I., Molina E., (1996), Biostratigrafía con foraminíferos planctónicos y eventos paleocenográficos del 

tránsito Daniense/Selandiense en el corte de Zumaia (Guipúzcoa), Actas XII Bienal de la Real Sociedad 

Española de Historia Natural, pp. 272-276 (Madrid); 

Charisi S. D., Schmitz, (1995), Stable (δ13C, δ18O) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopes through the Paleocene 

at Gebel Aweina, Eastern Tethyan region, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol., 116, pp. 103-129, 

Amsterdam; 

Hilario A., (2008), El Flysch de Zumaia y Centro Algorri: divulgación geológica y gestión de un afloramiento 

espectacular (Zumaia, País Vasco), De Re Metallica, 10-11, pp. 1-9, Sociedad Española para la Defensa 

del Patrimonio Geológico y Minero (Madrid); 

Llordés J. P., Baceta J. I., (2009), Basque Coast Geopark: An Aspiring Geopark, In De Carvalho, C. N. and 

Rodrigues J., (eds.), New Challenges with Geotourism, Proceedings of the VIII European Geoparks 

Conference, Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal, 14-16 September, pp. 274-278; 

Molina E., (1994), Paleocene section in Spain: chonostratigraphical problems and possibilities, GFF, 116, pp. 

58-60, Stockholm; 

Pujalte V., Baceta J. I., Payros A., Orue-Etxebarria X., Serra-Kiel, J. (1994), Late Cretaceous – Middle Eocene 

Sequence Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy of the SW and W Pyrenees (Pamplona and Basque Basins, 

Spain), Groupe d’Étude du Paléogene/International Geological Correlation Program 286, Field Seminar 

Guide-Book, Basque Country, 118 pp. Univ. Basque Country, Bilbao; 

Pujalte V., Payros A., Apellaniz E., (2009), Climate and Biota of the Early Paleogene: recent advances and new 

perspectives, Geologica Acta, Vol.7, Num. 1-2, pp. 1-9; 

Roggenthen W. M., (1976), Magnetic stratigraphy of the Paleocene. A comparison between Spain and Italy, 

Mem. Geol. Soc. Italy, 15, pp. 73-82. Rome; 

Schmitz B., Molina E., Salis K., (1998), The Zumaya section in Spain: A posible global stratotipe section for the 

Selandian and Thanetian Stages, Newsl, Stratigr., 36 (1), pp. 35-42 (Berlin – Stuttgart); 

Zouros N., Martini G., Frey M. L., (2003), 2 nd European Geoparks Network Meeting, Proceed. International 

Symposium Geological Heritage Protection and Local Development, 3-7.10.2003, Levos Island, Greece; 

http://www.geoparkea.com (Basque Coast Geopark’s website); 

http://www.flysch.com (Coastal Flysch Route’s website); 


29.07.2011 26.10.2011 28.10.2011 31.10.2011



GEOTOURISM ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS: A PRELIMINARY 

APPROACH TO THE LISBON GEOHERITAGE SURVEY 

Maria Luísa RODRIGUES * 

Geographic Studies Centre, Lisbon University (CEG-UL), TERRITUR and Research Group on Geodiversity, 

Geotourism and Geomorphologic Heritage (GEOPAGE), Portuguese Association of Geotourism (APGeotur), 

e-mail: rodrigues.mluisa@gmail.com 

Carlos Russo MACHADO 

Science and Technology Research Institute of Atlantica University, Research Centre for Global Change 

Portuguese Association of Geotourism (APGeotur), e-mail: cmachado@uatlantica.pt 

Elisabete FREIRE 

Research Centre for Architecture, Urban Studies and Design (CIAUD), Faculty of Architecture-Technical 

University of Lisbon (FA-UTL), Portuguese Association of Geotourism (APGeotur), e-mail: efreire@fa.utl.pt 

Abstract: Geodiversity and geoheritage, which is the base to the establishment of 

Geotourism routes, are best preserved in rural areas (where natural heritage was not 

yet destroyed by human intervention). However, many urban areas have preserved 

quite interesting examples of geoheritage. Urban geoheritage can and must be known 

and promoted, by setting up geotourism routes for national and foreign visitors. The 

value that these geotourism routes add to the common tourist guides may represent a 

precious asset to a segment of tourists increasingly interested on the integration of 

natural heritage and other types of heritage, and may contribute to the growth of 

national tourism industry. In this paper the basic conceptualization it will best set 

and applied to Lisbon Metropolitan Area and, as a still preliminary approach, to the 

Lisbon city itself. 

Key words: Geoheritage, Geotourism, Urban Geotourism, Lisbon Metropolitan Area, 

Lisbon city 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Nowadays, most of the population lives within urban centres, moving away from 

the natural environments. Whereas people just love and preserve what they know and 

value, it is difficult to stimulate the urban population to fully appreciate the richness and 

diversity of natural resources in our country. 

Among these resources, it is our aim to emphasize the landscape georesources and 

the geomorphologic, geologic and hydrologic heritages which are so common and of a 

rare beauty on the most rural areas of Portugal mainland, as well as, at the Islands of 

Madeira and Azores. 



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Thus, it is important to know the concepts of Geodiversity, Geoheritage and 

Geotourism, in order to safeguard and to promote the non biologic (or abiotic) natural 

heritage, and to understand how this valorisation may contribute to the sustainable 

regional development. 

Geodiversity is the set of natural abiotic elements (geologic, geomorphologic, 

pedologic, hydrologic, scenic, etc.) that exists on a certain territory or region. 

The higher the amount of these elements within a certain area, the larger is the 

existent geodiversity (Rodrigues and Fonseca, 2008). Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño (2007) 

present a summary table of the elements they consider to be geodiversity and consider 

that the most integrated vision of it is the one presented by Kozlowski (2004). 

From the point of view of the establishment of urban tourist routes we are much 

more interested on the concept of Geoheritage, i.e., on the representative values of the 

geodiversity of a certain territory. According to Rodrigues and Fonseca (2008), 

geoheritage consists on the entire set of abiotic natural elements existing on the Earth's 

surface (emerged and submerged), which should be preserved due to its heritage value. 

Thus, geoheritage includes the geologic, geomorphologic, pedologic, hydrologic, scenic 

(etc) heritages. 

In fact, this is the geoheritage notion, and its territorial patterns, which, after 

identification, classification, inventory and assessment, geotourism intends to promote as 

it will be discussed on the following topic. 

URBAN GEOHERITAGE AND GEOTOURISM 

Most of the references on geoheritage and geotourism are related to non-urban 

areas. However, there are also geoheritage within the urban areas and so it is possible to 

do urban geotourism. 

In Portugal, the studies that were undertaken by Professor Galopim de Carvalho 

must be enhanced because of their importance on the dissemination and promotion of the 

national geoheritage. Although, among the Portuguese population it is best known his 

work related to the dinosaurs evidences (trails, skeletons, eggs etc), his main 

contribution, in this research field, was focused on the study and classification of what he 

designated as geomonuments. Some of these geomonuments, usually of a geologic type 

(as Galopim de Carvalho is a sedimentologist), were identified in Lisbon and he was able 

to make them to be classified and protected (Galopim de Carvalho, 1999; Câmara 

Municipal de Lisboa, 2009). 

On an international level, it is relevant to mention the initiatives undertaken by the 

city of Montreal that, in 2007, became the first urban centre to sign the Geotourism 

Charter of National Geographic Society. This Charter, which includes 13 principles, 

focused on sustainable development, aims to support tourism that sustains or enhances 

the geographical character of a place, i.e., its environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage, 

and the well-being of its residents. In fact, as it is worldwide known, this is the definition 

of Geotourism advocated by the National Geographic Society's Center for Sustainable 

Development. Therefore, it is obvious that the director of the National Geographic, 

Jonathan Tourtellot, was the great mentor of this initiative, as well as, of the patronage 

and the dissemination of the Montreal Map Guide. 

Among the scientific meetings promoted by the IAG (International Association of 

Geomorphologists) Working Group “Geomorphosites”, at the conference that was held in 

Lisbon (ICGG 2010), there were two presentations that were directly concerned to the 

urban Geoheritage and Geotourism (Pinto et al., 2010 and Rodrigues et al., 2010). In the 

first one has set out an assessment of the Lisbon city preserved geologic heritage. The 

second case was dedicated to the study of the issues that we are developing on the present 

paper and that are mainly related to the geoheritage: the geomorphologic heritage and the 

important geotourism assets not only of the Lisbon region, but also of the city itself.

Geotourism Routes in Urban Areas: A Preliminary Approach to Lisbon Geoheritage Survey 

However, there is not yet an agreement about the concept of urban tourism. The 

very concept of geotourism is quite recent and it is a denomination that has appeared only 

at the beginning of the 1990’s. Even though, it is often erroneously confused with other 

types of tourism such as the nature tourism, which it is geared to the wildlife, or the 

ecotourism, that in its most pure format aims the untouched nature by humans in order 

to watch their flora and fauna. 

Geotourism is a segment of tourism that some confuse with geological tourism, as 

“geo” would be synonymous with geological rather than Earth… One of the pioneers of the 

modern concept of geotourism was Hose (1995, see also 2005), who has described it as 

“…the provision of interpretive and service facilities to enable tourists to acquire 

knowledge and understanding of the geology and geomorphology of a site (including its 

contribution to the development of the Earth sciences) beyond the level of mere aesthetic 

appreciation…” (Hose, 1995, pp. 17). In the same tone Newsome and Dowling (2005) say 

that “…in our definition of geotourism the «geo» part pertains to geology and 

geomorphology and the natural resources of landscape, landforms, fossil beds, rocks 

and mineral, with emphasis on appreciating the processes that are creating and created 

such features…” (Newsome and Dowling, 2005: 3). 

For us these definitions are still somewhat restrictive. While referring the geosites, 

which are the sites that represent the geoheritage, and in which Hose has worked on, 

related to the geologic and geomorphologic heritage, these definitions do not encompass 

other abiotic values like those of hydrology or soils (Rodrigues and Fonseca, 2008, 2009; 

Rodrigues, 2009a, 2009b). Therefore, we argue that the concept of geotourism must be 

considered both in broad and in strict senses (Rodrigues, 2009b, 2011). 

In strict sense, geotourism is a tourism segment focused on the sustainable 

usufruct (by geotourists and local communities) of the geoheritage fruition. 

Geoheritage must be considered here as defined by Rodrigues and Fonseca (2008, 

2009 a): “…all the natural abiotic elements present in the Earth surface, emerged or 

submerged (representing the geodiversity of the Earth), that should be preserved due to 

its heritage value. So, geoheritage includes all types of abiotic heritage: from geology 

(fossils, minerals, structures, sediments, etc.), from geomorphology (landforms, 

correlative deposits, landscapes, etc.), from hydrology (sources, rivers, hydrographic 

basins, karst hydrology, etc.), from soil science (palaeo-soils, “pedosites”, etc.) or other 

types of heritage…”. 

In broad sense, geotourism can be considered as a tourism segment mainly 

focused on the sustainable usufruct (by geotourists and local communities) of the 

geoheritage fruition, which can be added the cultural heritage (material and immaterial) 

of the areas. In this sense geoheritage is the driving force of the geotourism itineraries, 

but the cultural heritage it is also added to increase the value of the visited regions. This 

broad concept of geotourism strengthens its ability as an additional resource to be 

included in a sustainable model of promotion and development of areas that preserve a 

rich and diversified heritage. 

Using these definitions of geotourism to urban environments we will obtain 

quite different amounts of data in the inventory of the urban sites. With the first 

definition the inventory sheets will be filled by all the urban geosites (geological 

geosites, geomorphologic ones, as well as hydrologic and pedologic geosites). Using 

the second definition we have to add also the principal elements of the cultural 

heritage (material and immaterial), such as principal monuments (with historical data 

and geological data related to the building materials), museums, gastronomic 

heritage, tourist information, etc. 

At the present study, we are only working in the inventory of the data 

available to fulfil the definition of geotourism in strict sense, i.e., doing the 

inventory of the urban geoheritage. 

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GEOTOURISM POTENTIALITIES IN LISBON METROPOLITAN AREA 

The Lisbon Metropolitan Area 1 has, in the 18 municipalities that comprise it, urban 

and rural areas with a vast potential in Geotourism terms, either in the strict or in the 

broad sense. 

With a population of over 2.8 million inhabitants, the Lisbon Metropolitan Area 

(AML) is the largest urban agglomeration of Portugal, concentrating about 27% of its 

population in less than 1% of the national territory; but its influence clearly goes beyond 

its administrative boundaries. 

However, far from being a homogeneous urbanised region, AML is the result of the 

overlapping elements of rural and urban landscapes, which are often linked trough a 

conflictuous way, with urban fabric, more or less dense and continuous, sprawling over 

the non-urban land, forming a mosaic that encompasses coastal, mountain or bottom 

valley areas, where the agricultural or forest spaces allocated to production or 

conservation denote very different levels of human intervention. Nevertheless, this 

mosaic equally reveals a potential for complementary relationships of these land cover 

types, in which the biotic natural heritage and the geoheritage can play an important role, 

both for the environmental management and for the metropolitan area economy as 

tourist attraction factors. 

Although the ex-ante assessment included in the Operational Programme of the 

Lisbon and Tagus Valley region 2 (CCDR-LVT, 2002) does not leave any doubts about 

some of the problems that, on the point of view of the environmental and landscape 

quality, stand up at the AML; this document also makes clear that despite this urban 

sprawl, the region presents still unique natural and heritage conditions whose 

potentialities for tourism and leisure in natural and rural areas should be developed 

(CCDR-LVT, 2002, pp. 231). 

From the point of view of the Lisbon Metropolitan Area geoheritage, it is important 

to highlight the existence of certain elements, where geoheritage and cultural heritage 

(material and immaterial) come together to provide significant geotourism potentialities. 

Next, we are going to point out the most significant ones which are located in figure 1. 

Natural Parks 

According to the Legal Framework for Nature Conservation and Biodiversity, national 

parks are areas containing predominantly representative samples of distinctive natural 

regions, of natural and humanized landscapes, of elements of biodiversity and geosites with 

scientific, ecological or educational value (Decree-Law No. 142/2008 of 24 July). 

In the Lisbon Metropolitan Area there are two national parks (figure 1): 

The Natural Park of Sintra-Cascais 3 (Nº 1 of figure 1) was established with 

the aim of protecting geomorphologic features, flora and landscape of an area subject to 

intense urban pressure. In this area there is a strong relationship with the cultural 

landscape, which led, in 1994, to the classification of part of the natural park in the 

UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites in the category of “Cultural Landscape”. 

This natural park includes the Serra de Sintra, a magmatic massif that intruded the 

Mesozoic sedimentary formations, in which are carved the coastal platforms of São João 

das Lampas, to the north, and of Cascais to the south of the mountain. 

1 The Lisbon Metropolitan Area, as a public collective person of associative nature and territorial scope, was 

established in 2003 (under Law 10/2003 of May 13) being provided with three bodies: the Metropolitan 

Board, the executive body, the Metropolitan Assembly, the deliberative body, and the Metropolitan Council, 

an advisory body; 

2 The Operational Programme of the Lisbon and Tagus Valley region is based on the Development Strategy for 

the Lisbon and Tagus Valley Region, which was prepared as part of the National Plan of Economic and Social 

Development (PNDES); 

3 Established by the Regulatory Decree No.8/94, of March 11 that reclassified the Sintra-Cascais Protected 

Landscape Area established in 1981;


Figure 1. Protected areas in Lisbon Metropolitan Area 

(Source: based on Caetano et al., 2008; APA, 2003) 

From the geotourism point of view it should be stressed the great interest for 

observation of magnificent examples of granite morphology (figure 2), as is the case of 

inselbergs, castle koppies, nubbins or granite blockfields, apart from anthropomorphic 

or zoomorphic figures (Levratti et al., 2011). Furthermore, there is a particular 

geoheritage interest in areas located in the metamorphic aureole (contact of the 

magmatic massive with the sedimentary formations), the active dune systems of 

Guincho-Cresmina, the Oitavos hill formed by a consolidated paleo sand-dune, the 

manifestations of volcanic activity expressed in dykes and resulting morphology visible 

in the coastal cliffs, etc. In addition, the existing cultural heritage, including the level of 

concentration of palaces and lush gardens, gives an understanding of the ways human 

occupation relate to the physical environment. 

The Natural Park of Arrábida 4 (Nº 2 of figure 1) was established in order to 

protect the values of geology, flora, fauna and scenic locations as well as material evidence 

of cultural and historical significance. 

This natural park, located on the Setúbal Peninsula, is formed by the Arrábida ridge 

that stretches for about 35km, with a general direction ENE-WSW, carved in limestone 

that were folded into an anticline faulted structure. The western sector of this natural 

park encompasses the coastal platform of Cape Espichel, a high marine abrasion surface. 

The geotourism potentialities of this natural park are related to the structural 

geomorphology, in the strict sense (tectonic), of Arrábida ridge, as well as, with the 

development of forms due to differential erosion (cuestas, crêts and hog-backs) and with 

4 Established by Decree-Law No. 622/76 of 28 July, Trough the Decree No. 23/98 of 14 October, the boundaries 

of this protected area have been changed in order to include a marine reserve area; 

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the dissolution of limestone (karst morphology, figure 3). There are several viewpoints 

where one can admire the landscape and understand the relationships between the 

geological structure and landforms. In addition, in some viewpoints along the coastline, it 

is possible to identify the large escarpments of the coastal cliffs of Cape Espichel and the 

steep slopes of the southern coast of the Setúbal Peninsula. 

Figure 2. Granite landform (castle koppie) in 

Sintra Mountain 

(Source: Diogo Florindo and Rogério Santos) 

Figure 3. Stalactites and 

stalagmites (Arrábida cave) 

(Source: Francisco Rasteiro) 

Protected Landscapes 

According to the Legal Framework for Nature Conservation and Biodiversity, it is 

considered as “protected landscape” an area containing landscapes resulting from the 

harmonious interaction of man and nature, and which show great aesthetic, ecological or 

cultural value (Decree Law No. 142/2008 of 24 July). 

The Costa da Caparica Fossil Cliff Protected Landscape 5 , (Nº 5 of figure 1) 

located on the Setúbal Peninsula, is another protected area that exists in the Lisbon 

Metropolitan Area, consisting of the steep slope that marks the western coast of the 

Peninsula Setúbal. 

Figure 4. Panoramic view of the northern landscape taken from the Costa da Caparica 

Fossil Cliff (its termination is on the right side of the picture) 

Please note the large ancient littoral plain almost covered by buildings and infrastructures as far as the 

present day narrow beach. We can also see the connection of Tagus estuary with the sea and in the 

background the Mountain of Sintra is quite visible (Source: Carlos Machado) 

5 Classified by Decree-Law No. 168/84 of 22 May;


Some viewpoints located near the northern end of the fossil cliff give an overview of 

the coastal platform, the limits of the scarp to the west and the coastal plain (figure 4). In 

addition, it is possible to understand the relationships established with the human 

settlement, particularly in terms of vulnerability to wide variety of environmental risks, 

mainly those related to the erosion of the coastline. 

Nature Reserves 

The Legal Framework for Nature Conservation and Biodiversity (Decree-Law No. 

142/2008 of 24 July) sets out the nature reserves, whilst a type of protected area regional 

or local scope, as areas containing ecological, geological and physiographical 

characteristics or other type of aspects with scientific, ecological or educational value, and 

which are not inhabited on a permanent or significant manner. 

In the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, the estuaries of Tagus and Sado Rivers were 

classified as nature reserves (figure 1). These two reserves have a similar geotourism 

potentiality, related to the fact that both are coastal wetlands, making the transition 

between river environments and ocean environments, resulting in dynamic ecosystems, 

with high primary productivity and high vulnerability due to the strong anthropogenic 

pressures they are subject. In addition, it is visible the potential for observation and 

understanding of the phenomena related to the transport and accumulation of sediments, 

the variation of the tide, the evolution of the coastline and the changes in sea level. 

The Tagus Estuary Nature Reserve 6 (Nº 3 of figure 1) covers an area of about 

14,000 hectares consisting of a large area of estuarine waters, muddy fields, islets, 

marshes, salt marshes and agricultural land. However, the areas adjoining to the Tagus 

River estuary also have a large population density, being this nature reserve subject to 

significant anthropogenic pressures related, namely, to harbour activities, occupation of 

the riverside and discharge of domestic sewage. 

The Tagus estuary is the most extensive wetland in the country and presents a high 

biological and ecological value expressed on the great biodiversity and diversity of habitats. 

In addition, it should also be stressed its importance as habitat for migratory birds. 

The geotourism potentialities of this nature reserve is related not only to the 

occurrence of larges floods in this sedimentation basin, but also to the existence of 

marshland, in particular the Marshland of Corroios, which play an important role as bioaccumulator 

of pollutants resulting from its self-purification capacity which operates in 

the removal and recycling of inorganic nutrients (Canário, et al., 2007). 

The Sado Estuary Nature Reserve 7 (Nº 4 of figure 1) corresponds to an area of 

about 23,000 hectares that was classified in order to defend and promote a set of 

economic, social and cultural aspects associated with the ecology of the estuary, which 

was threatened by the intense pollution, particularly in terms of destruction of elements 

with high botanical and faunistic value. From the geotourism viewpoint it should be noted 

the potential related to the geomorphology of this nature reserve, dominated by the 

estuarine landscape (marshlands, tidal channels, etc.), where it is possible to observe and 

understand the functioning of floodplains, and of dunar systems and beaches in the 

Tróia–Comporta sandspit (figure 5) and its interaction with human settlement. 

Other classified sites and geomonuments 

In addition to natural parks and nature reserves, other geomonuments were also 

classified in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area. From the point of view of the Legal 

6 Established by Decree-Law No. 565/76 of July 19, became part in 1980, of the list of Wetlands of International 

Importance (Ramsar Convention), and was classified, in 1994, under Directive 79/409/CEE, as Special 

Protection Area for Wild Birds by the Decree-Law No. 280/94 of 5 November; 

7Established by Decree-Law No. 430/80 of 1 October. Was included in 1996 in the List of Wetlands of 

International Importance (Ramsar Convention), It was classified as Special Protection Area for birds by 

Decree-Law 384-B/99 of 23 September; 

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Framework for Nature Conservation and Biodiversity (Decree-Law No. 142/2008 of July 

24) these sites correspond to areas containing one or more specific natural features 

which, by their uniqueness, rarity or representativeness in ecological, aesthetic, scientific 

and cultural terms, require preservation and maintenance of its integrity. 

The Carenque Geomonument (Nº 7 of figure 1) was created 8 in order to 

preserve and enhance a set of one hundred dinosaur footprints from the beginning of the 

Upper Cretaceous (with an age estimated at 90 to 95 million years) align along a track of 

almost 130 meters, discovered in 1986 in a inactive quarry. 

The Lagosteiros, Pedra da Mua e Pedreira do Avelino Geomonuments, 

located at the Natural Park of Arrábida (Nº 10 and 8 of figure 1), were created 9 in 1997 

aiming at preserving and enhancing the tracks of dinosaur footprints located therein, 

which constitute one of the most important sets of paleontologic occurrences in Portugal, 

dating from the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. 

The Classified Sites of Granja dos Serrões and Negrais Karren Fields 10 

are located at the northern boundary of the municipality of Sintra (Nº 6 of figure 1) and 

are an admirable set of mega-karren inherited from processes of dissolution in Cretaceous 

limestones of the Upper Cenomanian (Rodrigues, 2009). 

These Karren fields, which document the geomorphologic processes that take place 

at the interface of the atmosphere with the lithosphere and the biosphere, present a shrub 

and tree cover representative of the spontaneous vegetation of the region and are subject 

to significant anthropogenic pressures that have contributed to their complete destruction 

in Negrais by limestone exploration companies. Hence, the need to reclassify, in 

accordance with current national legislation, the Granja dos Serrões Karren field (figure 

6) from classified site to geomonument. 

Figure 5. Panoramic of the Sado Estuary viewed 

from a Belvedere in the ridge of Arrábida Natural 

Park (Source: Carlos Machado) 

Figure 6. Detail of the Megakarren of the 

Granja dos Serrões Classified Site 

(Source: Miguel Leal and Patrícia Saraiva) 

The Classified Site of Zambujal Cave 11 , located in the municipality of 

Sesimbra (Nº 9 of Figure 1) has a particular speleological and biological interest. The cave 

was discovered in the 1970’s and was quickly recognized for its beauty and rarity of the 

rock formations found within (figure 3). Similarly, it has been understood the important 

role that this cavity, included in the Arrábida karst, plays as habitat for several species of 

cave fauna. The cave contiguous area, also with protection status, witness an ancient and 

8Established by Decree-Law No. 19/97 of 5 May; 

9Established by Decree-Law No. 20/97 of 7 May; 

10These sites were classified by Decree-Law No. 393/91 of 11 October and are currently in the process of 

reclassification to Geomonuments; 

11This site was classified by Decree-Law No. 613/76 of 27 July, and is currently in the process of reclassification 

to Geomonument;


diverse human presence, in addition to a strong pressure exerted by the owners of the 

limestone quarries that, due to the use of explosives, have already produced considerable 

damage in the cave formations. 

CONTRIBUTION TO A GEOTOURIM ROUTE IN LISBON 

From the set out in the previous section, it can be seen that the Lisbon 

Metropolitan Area has an enviable geoheritage wealth when compared to other European 

(or even world) metropolitan areas. The city of Lisbon also preserves traces of a diverse 

morphology typical of the right bank of the Tagus estuary. 

Figure 7. Location of geomorphologic sites with geotourism interest in Lisbon city 

1. Edward VII Park; 2. Rossio / Lisbon downtown; 3. São Jorge Castle Hill; 4. São Pedro de Alcântara 

Belvedere; 5. Alcântara River Valley; 6. Landslide in the Alcântara Valley left slope; 7. Rio Seco right slope 

It is no coincidence that Lisbon is known as the “city of seven hills”. Among these 

hills, we highlight the one in which was built the St. Jorge Castle (Nº 3 of figure 7 and 

figure 8) or the St. Pedro de Alcântara Belvedere, overlooking from a high point, located 

at the right bank of the Tagus river (figure 9), are the interfluves of a dense drainage 

network (with general N-S orientation) that incises the right (north) slope of the Tagus 

and which is found throughout Lisbon peninsula until Cascais. If outside the built-up 

areas, this drainage network is still visible, consisting of relatively short streams, but with 

high destructive power during flash-floods occurrences; but, in the urbanised areas, and 

particularly in the city of Lisbon, the streams are all artificially channelled, and thus the 

runoff is not visible. Nonetheless, this fact does not prevent neither the visibility of the 

valleys morphology running through the town towards the Tagus or the perfect 

reconstitution of its great river banks, although, mainly the Tagus right margin it is 

already quite obliterated. 

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Figure 8. São Jorge Castle Hill view from the 

floor valley in the Martim Moniz Square 

(Source: Carlos Machado) 

Figure 9. Panoramic view of the city taken 

from the Torel Garden belvedere 


The Tagus river presents at the final sector of its estuary a large alluvial plain 

dotted with marshes and islets that are included on the Tagus Estuary Nature Reserve, as 

it can be seen in figure 1. However, this same figure allows also to see that the Tagus river 

mouth is marked by a narrow passage, called the “Gargalo do Tejo” (neck of the Tagus) 

which is conditioned by tectonics. Thus, from the low and flooded alluvial plain, Tagus 

river reaches the ocean trough a gorge defined by two steep slopes very well-marked in 

the morphology: the right bank, in which the old city was built, with the buildings and 

infrastructures gradually occupying not only the hills and the river bank, but also the 

actual thalweg through land reclamation (figure 10); the left margin until today slightly 

urbanized and still maintaining their rectilinear and abrupt appearance (figure 11). 

Figure 10. Steep slope of the Tagus right margin, in 

the Rocha do Conde d’Óbidos area 

Notice how the stairway allows the communication from the 

top to the bottom of the slope (Source: Carlos Machado) 

Figure 11. Steep slope of the Tagus 

River left margin 

Notice how this bank is relatively free of 

constructions (Source: Elisabete Freire) 

With regard to the valleys that, going through the city of Lisbon, incise the right 

bank towards the Tagus, its artificial channelling never stopped raising hydrologic 

problems in the city. In fact, all the tributaries of this right margin have a hydrologic 

regime featured by the occurrence of flash-floods, which is associated with very short 

stormwater time of concentration, in periods of intense and concentrated rainfall; this 

heavy precipitation may occur between November and March. These times of 

concentration have decreased significantly and proportionally to the urbanization of their 

watersheds, as shown by studies in the tributaries of the right bank located at the west of 

the city of Lisbon until Cascais. This is naturally associated with increasing soil sealing as 

a result of the buildings and streets, joining the other ever-present factor in this entire


river margin related to the difficulties of river flow and rainwater drainage during periods 

of high tides. The tides are felt throughout the lower stretch of the Tagus visible in figure 1 

(justifying the existence of marshes and a rich and diverse flora and fauna); the effect of 

the tide is deeply marked, at the right margin, which difficult, or even restraints the 

drainage during flood episodes. 

The urban floods related to the problems described above occur naturally at the 

river mouth of the main valleys that indent the city of Lisbon. However, outside these 

specific situations of catastrophe for residents and merchants, the valleys preserve its 

natural beauty; although, only in one of them its occupation was intentionally planned in 

the frame of the impressive scheme developed by the Marquis of Pombal in order to 

rebuild the city after the strong earthquake, which combined with a large tsunami, have 

destroyed the city in 1755. In fact, the area now occupied by the Avenida da Liberdade, 

which connects the Marques de Pombal Square to Restauradores and Rossio (downtown) 

(Nº 2 of figure 7), was then transformed in a vast garden with great width (90m, following 

the wide valley that runs through) taking advantage of the existing water sources to 

supply fountains and lakes placed among the trees. 

Figure 12. Edward VII Park (upstream sector 

of the Liberdade Avenue valley) 

Remark to the left the São Jorge Castle Hill and to the 

right the Heights of São Pedro de Alcântara 


Figure 13. Rossio Square in Lisbon 

downtown 

Remark the green area that occupies the Liberdade 

Avenue (Source: Carlos Machado) 

Until the third quarter of the 19 th Century this area was known as the “Passeio 

Público” (public promenade). The avenue which can be seen today is an 1100m long 

and 90m wide boulevard that dates from the period 1879-82 and corresponds to the 

intermediate sector of the valley. The upper sector of this valley is visible upstream 

the Marquis of Pombal Square throughout the area called Edward VII Park (Nº 1 of 

figure 7), completely transformed into a landscaped area (figure 12) 12 . The wide 

sidewalks, which border the landscaped areas, where it is possible to see some 

centennial trees, and typical benches, are paved with the renowned and traditional 

Portuguese pavement in which white stones (limestones of the Upper Cenomanian) 

and black stones (basalts of the Lisbon Volcanic Complex that during the Late 

Cretaceous covered the previous formations) are artistically assembled. Downstream 

the Avenue, the runoff goes to the Downtown area (Baixa Pombalina) (figure 13) and 

12 The opening of the Avenida da Liberdade, and the destruction of the Public Park (Passeio Público), is framed 

by the large urbanisation plan of Lisbon developed by Frederico Ressano Garcia during the second half of 

the 19th century. This engineer that was highly influenced by the urban renewal of Paris directed by 

Haussmann, planned the systematic expansion of the Lisbon, from the banks of the Tagus to the inner 

plateaus. It was also during this period that was carried out the landfill on the right bank of the river Tagus. 

The Edward VII Park, although foreseen in the 19th century urbanisation plan, was only built in the midtwentieth 

century (Silva, 1989 and Ferreira, 1994); 

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to the Commerce Square, which is clearly an example of land reclamation, and 

therefore of land filling and human occupation of the Tagus River thalweg. 

Figure 14. View of the Alcântara River Valley taken from the Águas Livres Aqueduct 

Remark how the steep slopes are covered, to the right, with vegetation of Monsanto Park, and to the left, with 

some houses. The valley floor hides the stream and its surface becomes impermeable due to the occupation by 

roads and railways. On the background it is possible to see the hills of Tagus left margin 

Figure 15. Landslide in the Alcântara Valley 

This landslide affected the middle and bottom sector of the Alcântara valley left slope that cuts up a rock 

formation where clays, marls and marly limestones dominate. The setting up of a gas station, at the slope 

bottom, the clearing of vegetation and the remove of shacks, induced by an urban rehabilitation program, 

have contributed to trigger a large landslide (Source: Elisabete Freire) 

Figure 16. Right slope sector of Rio Seco (Dry River) cutted in compact limestone 

This rock was quarried and used as building material and to make lime. The limekiln vestiges turn this area 

into a geological, geomorphologic and cultural heritage. At present, this area is been partially restored 

as urban and leisure park (Source: Elisabete Freire) 

Another valley well marked in the urban landscape is the valley of Ribeira de 

Alcântara with about 12km in length and a catchment area of around 35km 2 (Nº 5 of 

figure 7). The upper section starts at Brandoa (in the neighbour municipality of Amadora) 

and it is called Ribeira da Falagueira (which still runs in open air), than the name changes


to Ribeira de Benfica, in the area of the same name (in this section the valley is occupied 

by the Sintra railway), and it joins the Ribeira do Lumiar becoming the wide valley of the 

Ribeira de Alcântara (figure 14) that is crossed by the Águas Livres Aqueduct; this 

aqueduct was built in the mid-eighteenth century, to supply water to Lisbon, and it has 

withstood the 1755 earthquake. 

The Alcântara Valley is occupied by major road and rail axis that have been 

contributing to soil sealing and to enhance urban floods occurring in built-up areas where 

before stood the river mouth of this stream. The steep slopes of the valley’s downstream 

sector are not suitable for human occupation. So, the right bank is wooded in conjunction 

with the Monsanto Park (the largest green area of Lisbon, about 1000 ha, forested in the 

1940’s 13 ); the left slope, that for many years was occupied by a Slum (Casal Ventoso) now 

demolished, presents clear signs of instability (Nº 6 of figure 7 and figure 15). 

A third example of river incision in the city of Lisbon is the Rio Seco valley (Dry 

river) which flows from Ajuda quarter towards the Aliança Operária street, and hence to 

Tagus River (Nº 7 of Figure 7). As well as the downstream sector of the Alcântara valley 

this is an area of frequent flooding during intense rainfall. When this stream cuts compact 

limestone the valley presents steep slopes of fluvial-karst canyon type. Figure 16 shows 

the right margin of the River Seco, cut in massif limestone, explored in quarries and used 

to make lime. So, there are also some remains of limekiln that makes this area a geologic, 

geomorphologic and cultural (historic, social and economic) heritage; at present, its left 

side sector is half abandoned; its right side has undertaken some rehabilitation works that 

has made it into a small urban park. 

FINAL REMARKS: A VISION TOWARDS THE FUTURE 

As it can be seen in figure 7, on the right slope of Tagus River there is still an 

important valley which crosses the eastern sector of the city of Lisbon, and corresponds to 

Chelas River. This eastern sector of the city, because it was one of the most degraded 

areas in the urban fabric, was partially requalified when it was set up, in Lisbon, the 

World Exhibition EXPO98. 

From an ancient rural area of large farms, this area changed into a commercial and 

industrial space, being the urban fabric rather chaotic and sometimes sprawling on the 

river bed. Its study needs to be further explored in order to include this sector in the 

geotourism route of the city. Another aspect to develop is related to the implementation of 

a systematic inventory of all the scenic spots and viewpoints that tourists can visit to have 

a perception of the urban landscape. These viewpoints will be included into the 

geotourism routes and, for each one there will be an interpretation sheet of the landscape. 

Therefore, the survey of the geomorphologic heritage of Lisbon we will be 

concluded, i.e., the survey of the aspects related with the landforms (hills, valleys, edges, 

etc.) and with the landscapes (viewpoints and landscape interpretation sheets). 

Once this geomorphologic heritage survey is accomplished, it will be combined with 

the geologic heritage survey, mostly of which was preserved by the intervention of Professor 

Galopim de Carvalho who has began its inventory. Fortunately, the support of Lisbon Town 

Hall (CML) allowed maintaining both this inventory and the preservation of geosites. Some 

results of this effort can be seen in CML (2009), Pinto (2005) and Pinto et al. (2010 and 

2011). The final map dedicated to the geotourism in the city of Lisbon will include, besides 

the essential geoheritage information, other supplementary, but important, information to 

the tourists: of a cultural nature (main monuments, museums, places of sale of gastronomic 

heritage) and of informative type (tourist offices, accessibilities and other pertinent 

information). We are confident that the future Geotourism Route of the city of Lisbon, 

which will explore, in a didactic and entertaining way, the possible interactions of geologic 

13 The Monsanto Forest Park was created through the Decree-Law No. 24:625 of November 1, 1934. 

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heritage, geomorphologic heritage, cultural heritage and tourism; it can be an important 

incentive to promote, among existing and potential stakeholders in the Lisbon Metropolitan 

Area, a tourism segment with increasing importance, both for the regional economy, and 

the management of territory and environment. 

REFERENCES 

APA, (2003), Atlas do Ambiente Digital: Mapa das Áreas de Conservação da Natureza, Amadora: Agência 

Portuguesa do Ambiente, (online version at http://sniamb.apambiente.pt/webatlas/); 

Caetano M., Araújo A., Nunes V., Carrão H., (2008), Portugal CORINE Land Cover 2006 - Accuracy 

assessment of the High Resolution Built-up map for Continental Portugal, Relatório Técnico, Lisboa: 

Instituto Geográfico Português; 

Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, (2009), Guia dos Parques, Jardins e Geomonumentos de Lisboa, Pelouro de 

Ambiente, Espaços Verdes, Plano Verde, Higiene Urbana e Espaço Público; 

Canário J., Branco V., Vale C., (2007), Environmental Pollution, Seasonal variation of monomethylmercury 

concentrations in surface sediments of the Tagus Estuary (Portugal), 148(1), pp. 380-383; 

Carvalho Galopim, (1999), Geomonumentos, Uma reflexão sobre a sua caracterização e enquadramento num 

projecto nacional de defesa e valorização do património natural, Edição da Liga dos Amigos de 

Conimbriga; 

CCDR-LVT, (2002), Programa Operacional da Região de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo, Complemento de 

Programação, Lisboa: CCDR-LVT; 

Ferreira V. M., (1994), Lisboa evolução: De Ressano Garcia a Duarte Pacheco, in Dicionário da História de 

Lisboa, Sacavém: Carlos Quintas and Associados-Consultores, Lda, pp. 526-528; 

Hose T. A., (1995), Geotourism – Engineering Geology and Environment, Selling the Earth to Europe (P. 

Marinos, G. Koukis, G. Tsiambcos e G. Stournas, eds.), Balkema, Roterdam, pp. 2955-2960; 

Hose T. A., (2005), Geotourism, Appreciating the deep time of landscapes, Niche Tourism: contemporary issues, 

trends and cases (M. Novelli, ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 27-37; 

INE (2011), Censos 2011 – Resultados Preliminares, Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de Estatística; 

Kozlowski S., (2004), Geodiversity. The concept and scope of geodiversity, Przegląd Geologiczny, Vol. 52, 

nr 8/2, pp. 833-837; 

Levratti S., Rodrigues M. L., Castaldini D., Levi S. T., (2011), Study of the geomorphological and archaeological 

aspects of Sintra area (Portugal) as contribution to its tourist appraisal and promotion, GeoJournal of 

Tourism and Geosites, 2/2011; 

Newsome D., Dowling R., (2005), The scope and nature of geotourism, Geotourism (R. Dowling and 

D. Newsome, eds.), Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 3-25; 

Pinto C., Vicente J., Verríssimo M., Almeida I., (2010), Inventory, dissemination and preservation of the 

geological heritage in Lisbon city, Proceedings of the International Conference on Geoheritage and 

Geotourism, ICGG 2010 (M. L. Rodrigues and E. Freire eds.), Lisbon, pp. 67-68; 

Rodrigues M. L., (2011), The scope of Geotourism, International Congress of Geotourism-Arouca 2011, Arouca; 

Rodrigues M. L., Fonseca A., (2008), A valorização do geopatrimónio no desenvolvimento sustentável de áreas 

rurais, Colóquio Ibérico de Estudos Rurais – Cultura, Inovação e Território, Coimbra and also in 

www.sper.pt; 

Rodrigues M. L., Fonseca A., (2009), Geopatrimónio e Desenvolvimento Sustentável Estratégias de Valorização 

de Áreas Rurais, Cultura, Inovação e Território: o Agroalimentar e o Rural (Coord. of L. Moreno, M. 

Sánchez and O. Simões), Lisboa, SPER - Sociedade Portuguesa de Estudos Rurais, pp. 143-152; 

Rodrigues M. L., Freire E., Machado C., (2010), A geotourism map of Lisbon city: a preliminary approach, 

Proceedings of the International Conference on Geoheritage and Geotourism, ICGG 2010 (M. L. 

Rodrigues and E. Freire eds.), Lisbon, pp. 79-80; 

Rodrigues M. L., (2009a), Geoturismo. Turismos de nicho, Motivações, produtos, territórios (J.M. Simões e 

C.C. Ferreira, eds.), CEG, Univ. Lisboa, pp. 57-62; 

Rodrigues M. L., (2009b), Geodiversidade, Património Geomorfológico e Geoturismo, Territur and Research 

Group on Geodiversity, Geotourism and Geomorphologic Heritage (GEOPAGE), CEG, IGOT, Lisbon 

University; 

Serrano E., Ruiz-Flaño P., (2007), Geodiversity. A theoretical and applied concept, Geographica Helvetica, 62, 

3, pp.140-147; 

Silva R. H., (1989), Lisboa de Frederico Ressano Garcia, 1874-1909, Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. 


02.08.2011 29.10.2011 02.11.2011 04.11.2011



ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND LANDSCAPE LEISURE. 

GEOTOURIST MAP AND GEOMORPHOSITES IN THE 

PICOS DE EUROPA NATIONAL PARK 

Enrique SERRANO * 

University of Valladolid, Department of Geography, P1 Prado de la Magdalena s/n. 47011 

Valladolid, Spain, e-mail: serranoe@fyl.uva.es 

Juan José GONZÁLEZ TRUEBA 

University of Cantabria, CIESE-C, Av/, Universidad Pontificia s/n, E 39520 Comillas 

(Cantabria) Spain, e-mail: gonzalezj@fundacioncomillas.es 

Abstract: Picos de Europa National Park is the oldest and most extensive National 

Park in Spain, a symbol of conservationism and management of Iberian nature. The 

present day use is defined by abandoned ancient traditional structures, summer 

livestock and mainly tourism in and around the National Park, and over the last forty 

years the visitors of the National Park has grown until 2 million per year. The context 

of the map it framed in the next questions, which places are most frequented by 

visitors?, what places are the most interesting to visitors?, what are visitors looking 

for?, and who visits the National park? The main type of visitors are mountaineers 

(1,5%), hikers (5), active tourists (10%), recreational tourists (66%) and students 

(16%). Hikers and active tourist represent the 18% of visitors to the National Park, 

over 120,000 visitors per year. They are, joint the monitors and teachers guiding 

students groups, the main objective of documents and geotouristic maps. The map 

has five levels of reading (planimetry, altimetry, geomorphology, human uses and 

tourist routes), the elements are represented by areas, patterns and symbols in 

colours, and the selected significant elements represent the topography, 

geomorphological features (glacial, karst, nivation, landslide) and human remains 

(mining, grazing) and routes between geomorphosites and more representative 

scenic view points. The interpretative geotouristic maps are useful tools to develop an 

approach to tourist activity and for interpret nature and landscapes from direct 

knowledge of the field but also they are a powerful tool for environmental education 

in National Parks and Natural Protected Areas. 

Key words: Geotourist maps, Environmental education, Natural Protected Areas, 

Geomorphosites, Picos de Europa 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Nowadays, Mountain Natural Protected Areas receive a wide range of visitors, from 

tourists, hikers, mountaineers to birdwatchers. All enter the mountains by paths or tracks 

to reach huts, scenic views, summits or walls with different aims, sport, relaxation or 



296 


adventure. Most admire and enjoy the landscape without understanding the elements or 

the landscape itself. Active tourism, involving visiting mountains, engaging in sports, 

exploring nature or viewing the landscape, is the main economic activity in and around 

these Natural Protected Areas. Such activities in Natural Protected Areas (N.P.A.) are 

referred to as Geotourism. When people walk, hike or climb mountains in N.P.A.s, the 

landscape and geofeatures are considered as important elements to enjoy, aesthetic views, 

the broader landscape, steep faces or paths crossing gorges, slopes or crests. Geotourism 

contents are an important component of the open-air activities in nature, just as are 

knowledge of artistic style or historical framework in visiting cathedrals, castles or art 

museums in Cultural tourism. Basic research and practical applications can help the 

individual to connect with, enjoy and conserve cultural and natural values of Natural 

Protected Areas and to help maintain and develop local communities by means of 

geoconservation and geotourism initiatives (Dowling and Newsome 2010; Farsani et al., 

2011). Many countries currently follow an active strategy with laws, socio-economic or 

protective plans in which geodiversity action plans, such as those of the UK, the geopark 

networks, in Europe currently made up of 36 geoparks with development and tourist 

plans (Zouros and Mckeever, 2009), Australia and others, have a relevant role in the ways 

described. But in the same sense work must be done on Natural Protected Areas, and 

especially on National Parks, in which landscape and abiotic values have become very 

important factors for conservation measures over the last hundred years or so. Different 

tools and initiatives can be used in the field and among visitors in order to promote the 

interpretation and enjoyment of abiotic and landscape values, and making leaflets and 

other literature available to visitors is one of the cheapest and easiest ways of doing so. 

THE GEOTOURISM EXPERIENCE IN N.P.A.S – LEISURE, KNOW- 

LEDGE AND CONSERVATION 

The definition of Geotourism includes the interactive interpretation of abiotic 

characteristics of a site or landscape. This mainly includes the abiotic feature related to 

the organization of the landscape, but the human uses related to the exploitation of 

mineral resources, the alteration of geoheritage and the genesis of anthropic landforms 

must also be considered. Geotourism is used in two distinct senses, from the broadest 

context as geographical tourism or nature interpretative tourism, including natural, socioeconomic 

and cultural considerations (Stueve et al., 2002, National Geographic Society, 

2005), to the previous and most limited definitions which merely imply the geological and 

geomorphologic features (Hose, 1996, 2006; Joyce, 2007; Newsome and Dowling, 2006; 

Dowling and Newsome, 2010), which is geological tourism. All authors in both lines point 

to the need to consider the landscape, historical, cultural and natural contexts, with openair 

activities (walking, hiking) and the visit to geoparks and geosites in each context 

(Gray, 2004; Farsani et al., 2011), transcending the more restricted definitions. This is the 

same consideration as Geomorphosites as a compendium of scenic, natural and cultural 

values (Panizza, 2001, Panizza and Piacente, 2003; Reynard, 2009). Thus, a broad range 

of subjects are implied within geotourism and interpretative activities, e.g. interpretative 

walks or scenic views with landscape contents in which human and natural elements are 

difficult to separate. The main elements involved in geotourism in mountain Natural 

Protected Areas are: 

- Geomorphology: earth surface landforms, processes and geomorphosites. 

- Geology: rocks, minerals, fossils, structures, palaeontology, geosites. 

- Hydrology: lakes, glaciers, rivers. 

- Human use: traditional (terraces, water management), mining, cultural values. 

- Landscape: natural and human features, cultural values, history. 

The experience of geotourism must be based on different sources of knowledge 

oriented towards reaching a basic comprehension of the abiotic environment during the

Environmental Education and Landscape Leisure. Geotourist Map and Geomorphosites … 

stay or during activities there. Of course, the biological environment completes the 

understanding of landscapes and life in Natural Protected Areas, but we consider that 

biological features and biodiversity are the subject of priority attention by managers while 

abiotic features and geodiversity do not receive the same consideration in management 

and environmental education. The natural diversity of N.P.A.s, the sum of Biodiversity 

and Geodiversity, is not attended to because more attention is required for abiotic 

elements of natural diversity (Gray, 2004; González-Trueba, 2007a; Serrano and Ruiz, 

2007; 2009). The knowledge and enjoyment of geodiversity and abiotic elements in 

nature, especially in National Parks, is based on three points: 

- Direct contact with nature: This is the most important and main objective in 

geotourism and must be developed through slow procedures such as walking or hiking as 

far from mechanical engines as possible. This means that visitors and hosts need at least a 

wealth of knowledge, an adequate cultural level and an attitude towards nature, territory 

and geoconservation. 

- Tools prior to experience: Different types of lectures to attend, or books, booklets, 

brochures, guidebooks or maps to consult before travelling or making visits. In this sense 

Interpretive Centres have an important role in introducing tourists and visitors to the 

nature of N.P.A.s. Interpretative Centres are now the first contact with the reading of the 

landscape, but when the time spent visiting interpretative Centre is too long, the true 

contact with nature and the experience that the geotourist seeks is delayed. 

- Field tools to guide and advise the geotourist: Documents such as local guides, 

posters and panels are the most common tools in this field. Several experiences have been 

made in Europe, where a wide range of didactical and outreach tools are offered to 

visitors and tourists (Pereira et al., 2009). Maps and leaflets showing and explaining the 

location and characteristics of landscapes and abiotic features are one of the most useful 

tools in this respect. Maps and explanatory brochures of geosites and geomorphosites are 

useful to local guides, instructors and tourists, cheap and easy to transport, and report the 

essential qualities of the territory by the spatial representation of abiotical features. 

Panels are not recommended because they are too much expensive, easily broken and 

cause a high impact on landscape. 

To interpret the various elements that make up geotourism documents and tools 

are needed for visitors, environmental educators and tourism workers, all of them 

concerned with geoconservation. Pralong (2009) has point to the necessity of didactic 

goods and services adapted to the different kinds of visitors, differentiating between three 

basic visitors: specialists; people genuinely motivated; and occasional tourists. The latter 

includes the majority of visitors. In mountains areas, nevertheless, the second and third 

types are very heterogeneous and people genuinely motivated (hikers, mountaineers, 

amateur naturalists) are more common than they are in other areas. Moreover, 

interpretative practices in the mountains need appropriate tools that allow workers and 

visitors to interpret the basic keys of the territory they want to know and teach. 

Geotourist maps, geomorphosite selection and presentation in NPAs 

An attempt must be made in outreach and didactic documents to explain the basic 

abiotic keys of the territory oriented to achieving a high level in the development of 

leisure, culture and education in open-air activities in NPAs. Maps containing abiotic 

information are not a new tool in nature outreach of National Parks. Two steps should be 

observed in the publishing of maps and documents: 

1) During the 80s and 90s of the twentieth century maps and guides with 

geological or glaciological information were developed and published in American and 

European Natural Protected Areas (e.g. USA National Parks, French and Swiss Regional 

and National Parks, British, German, Italian or Spanish Natural Protected Areas). But 

the published maps were mainly geological maps with tourist information (80s-90s) 

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and geological guides with a high level and content, both scientific maps and guides 

published about NPAs intended for scientists, managers, teachers or visitors with a very 

high level of interest. 

2) Interest in abiotic elements and the landscape together led to the development of 

Interpretative Centres in Natural Protected Areas and involved the development of thematic 

maps and guides (palaeontological, geological, glaciological) intended for visitors and 

tourists, and information on geology, geomorphology, topography, trails, culture, huts and 

tourism was included on the same map. This is useful as a topographical guide to exploring 

paths and places, and as an abiotic nature guide, centred mainly on geomorphological or 

geological features (e.g. Smiraglia, 1995). The geotourist map was born. 

Maps with abiotic and tourist information have different scales and focuses, such as 

road maps with symbols representing geomorphosites, palaeontological sites, panoramic 

and landscape views or topographical maps indicating walking routes, representing sites 

and drawing landforms, lithologies, structures and geosite maps. Different proposals have 

led to maps being drawn up with topographical and tourist information on natural 

elements (such as the Geotourist mapguide of the National Geographic Society), maps 

with tourist information only or specialised maps with simplified geological or 

geomorphological information (Szarvas, 2010). The Geotourist map has been defined as 

“a map that is used to communicate with a public of non-specialist and that visualises 

geoscientific information as well as tourist information” (Regolini-Bissig, 2010, p.3). But 

maps intended for geotourists are of a very different class and have also been given 

different names, such as, for example, Tourist-Environmental map (Barozzini et al., 

2004; Castaldini et al., 2005a), Exploring the landscape (Goodenough et al., 2004), 

Geomorphological-Tourist map (Angelini et al., 2004), Geotourist map (Castaldini et al., 

2005b; 2009), Geological Tourist map (Sapp et al., 2006) or Geo-Hiking map (Coratza et 

al., 2008). All of these can be assumed to be similar to Geotourist maps, a useful and 

portable document intended to help understand the landscape. Nevertheless, they are 

very different documents. Regolini-Bissig (2010) has differentiated between five types of 

geotourist maps defined by scientific content: index maps, tourist maps, two types of 

geoscientific maps and interpretative maps. The latter is the most appropriate tool for 

education and recreation because the map focuses on the communication of geoscientific 

themes for understanding geomorphological or geological phenomena, origin and 

evolution, but where the tourist information is of secondary importance. 

The common aims of all Geotourist maps (Castaldini et al., 2005a; 2009; Coratza 

and Regolini-Bissig, 2009; Regolini-Bissig, 2010) are: to help understand landscapes and 

abiotic elements to non-specialists and to improve knowledge of landscapes or geosites 

visited. Finally, the geo-tourist map replaces aggressive elements in the field (panels, 

posters, signs and small buildings) which are expensive to set up and conserve, and it 

permits the private (hikers, tourists, mountaineers) and collective (teachers, rangers, 

mountain and tourist guides) use of maps. 

The basic principles of geotourist maps (Castaldini et al., 2005a, 2009; Carton et al., 

2005; Coratza and Regolini-Bissig, 2009; Regolini-Bissig, 2010) are to emphasize only the 

recognizable landscape features and to be simple, clear and handy in the field. Both 

principles are synthesized to provide a useful map for visitors and the general public to 

discover and understand abiotic elements, but always maintaining scientific rigour as a 

document of scientific diffusion and knowledge. The map must be useful for environmental 

education and also to promote the enjoyment and conservation of the areas mapped with 

responsible use and behaviour. Geoconservation must be a key objective in the preparation 

of detailed geotourist maps with routes or interpretative trails. 

The detailed geotouristic map of Natural Protected Areas in mountain areas 

includes information in two areas. First, the representation of landforms and geological 

elements in the general context of the protected area and detailed maps of


geomorphosites are oriented to a deeper understanding of the more interesting areas 

visited by hikers. Basic guidelines for geotourist map design have been proposed, 

including considerations for users, themes, level of information, scales, dimensionality 

and design (Regolini-Bissig, 2010). All of these are very useful for application to geosites 

or geomorphosites, but when working in wide areas, including landscapes and 

geomorphosites linked by pedestrian trails, other considerations must be included. These 

are the most common surface features among geomorphosites on different levels of 

information, interconnection between landforms and processes, or a general view 

including common features of the network of geomorphosites. 

The second area is in information for hikers: trails linking geomorphosites, hut 

sites, springs or features with natural and cultural values (mines, historical routes). 

Tourist information is a secondary goal of the map and these must be expressed in 

simplified form. 

Geotourist maps are a cultural tool designed to encourage visitors to understand 

landscape abiotic elements and to improve the social value of Natural Parks. Trails are 

proposed and features are explained as a complement to biological observation 

(mammals, birds, trees or forests) by itineraries and sightseeing to representative 

geomorphosites. The map guides hikers by previously existing trails, among 

geomorphosites and the most representative scenic viewing points. 

A GEOTOURIST MAP FOR THE EASTERN MASSIF OF THE PICOS DE 

EUROPA NATIONAL PARK (SPAIN) 

The Picos de Europa is a calcareous high mountain massif characterised by 

karstic and glacial features, divided in three main massifs, Central, higher (2648 m), 

Western and Eastern (figure 1). 

Figure 1. Location map and limits of the Picos de Europa National Park 

The domain of successive thrust faults of north dip involves a hard morphological 

dissymmetry. Wall and escarpments are dominant on the south side while less abrupt 

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relief is found to the north, where Quaternary glaciers have been more important and 

glacial landforms are dominant (González Trueba, 2007a; 2007b). The Picos de Europa 

National Park receives over 2 million visitors per year (table 1), although only a reduced 

number goes to the forest and the high mountain. 

Table 1. Picos de Europa National Park (43º5’- 43º15’ N; 4º35- 5º5’ W) 

Data source: OAPN, CANTUR, ASTUR 

Declaration Date: 

1995 64.660 Has 

First declaration: 1918 10.000 Has 

Visitors per year 2009 1,858,671 

Provinces: Asturias Cantabria León 

Main Gates Cabrales Covadonga Lakes Fuente De Valdeón 

Nº Visitors (2009) 319.368 717.475 676.535 112.292 

% visitors (2009) 17.1% 39.5% 37.2% 6.2% 

% Visitors by mechanical Funicular 

Bus: 14% Cable Car: 44% 

engine (2009) 

Railway: 3,5% 

The Picos de Europa is a Atlantic mountain range in which annual precipitation as 

snow and rain surpasses 2500 mm/yr. It is a holokarst and nivokarst environment where 

the deepest caves in Europe are located. The glacial features (glacial cirques, glaciokarstic 

depressions, troughs and moraines from the Pleistocene age to the Little Ice Age) and 

icepatch remains from the Little Ice Age characterize the high mountain environments. It 

is a Glacio-karstic landscape. 

A small area of the present day National Park was declared in 1918. It is the oldest 

National Park in Spain, an important milestone in conservationism in Spain. The reason 

behind the original declaration was the landscape, religious and historical values, centred 

on lakes and peaks, the religious and the patriotic significance of the Covadonga area. In 

1995 the National Park was extended from 10,000 Ha to 64,660 Ha, including the Central 

and Eastern massifs. It is the most extensive National Park in Spain, a symbol of 

conservationism and management of Iberian nature. The present day human landscape is 

defined by abandoned ancient traditional structures, summer livestock and mainly 

tourism in and around the National Park. 

Over the last forty years the national park has grown slowly in number of visitors, 

with low periods (1997/98; 2001/2002; 2005/2008) and increases, visits oscillating 

between 1,5 and 2 million per year (figure 2). 

Figure 2. Number of visitors to the Picos de Europa National Park 

The context of the map it is very important for its design. We need to know the 

potential users and interesting features for the interpretation of landscape and landforms.


For the study and selection of routes and geomorphosites represented on the map we 

have formulated several questions on Geomorphosites assessment 

- Which places are most frequented by visitors (figure 3)? We must know the gates, 

itineraries and places and landscapes of interest to visitors, and frequentation of places 

and trails. Figure 4 shows the most frequented areas and itineraries. 

Figure 3. Most frequented places and gates to access to the National Park. 

- What places are the most interesting to visitors? (figure 4). Includes types and 

activities of visitors. 

Figure 4. Geomorphosites and places of interest to visitors 

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- What are visitors looking for? The general idea of the map and leaflets is not to 

attract visitors to geomorphosites, but so that visitors can understand the landscape 

where they are located. The map explains the places where visitors walk or landscapes 

where they perform activities as well as the geomorphosites located on the trails and 

itineraries. In the Picos de Europa National Park 46 geomorphosites have been selected, 

although only 22 are located in the most visited areas. From these the most interesting 

geomorphosites must be selected according to their added and use value, and not their 

scientific value. Geomorphosites of high scientific value or high sensibility, such as caves 

for example, are not featured on the maps and leaflets because they must be devoted to 

the conservation. Others, with high use values, include explanations of the main abiotic 

characteristics of the landscape. The geomorphosites are located in the Eastern massif 

(González-Trueba and Serrano, 2010). 

- Who visits the National park? We are interested in what kind of visitor is to be 

found walking or hiking along National Park trails. This is an important factor in the 

aims of the geotourist map. Pralong (2009) pointed to the need to produce didactic 

goods and services for each different target group, and differentiated between 

specialists, visitors genuinely motivated and occasional visitors. Each target group has a 

differential demand for activities and documents oriented to his level of interest, 

preferences or the activity developed in the natural sites. According to their main 

reason for visiting the Picos de Europa National Park, the General Secretariat of 

Tourism has established five kinds of visitor: 

1) Mountaineers: They move within the massif in search of walls or the highest 

summits to climb. They represent ~ 13,500 mountaineers per year, 1.5% of visitors to the 

National Park. It is a small number, but they are often interested in landscape and abiotic 

values (rocks, minerals, landforms or processes). 

2) Hikers: They spend time observing nature (bird, flora, forest, landscape, 

landforms), and combine sport and knowledge of the environment in the National Park 

and its surroundings, thus raising the tourist experience. They represent ~ 40,500 

tourists per year moving mainly in the high and medium mountain, but not inside and on 

the top of massifs. They make up 5% of visitors to the National Park, a relatively small 

number, but they are important for geotourism activities because they are motivated 

visitors interested in natural, cultural and heritage values. 

3) Active Tourists: Their main activities are related to cultural and historical values, 

but they are sensitive to the landscape and nature of the Picos de Europa and 

surroundings. They include several types of geotourism, such as ecotourism and casual 

nature tourists. There are ~ 81,000 active tourists per year, representing 10% of visitors 

to the National park. 

4) Recreational tourists seek leisure and recreation in a natural environment, 

looking for excitement, aesthetic landscapes, sightseeing and new places to visit. They 

only need new places or excitement for a short time, arriving by road, funicular railway or 

cable car with short walks to admire the landscape and visiting the places where there are 

tourist products and services. Lakes (Covadonga), villages (Covadonga, Bulnes) or 

viewpoints (Fuente De) are the most frequented places in the National Park for this type 

of tourist. There are 540,000 of such tourists per year, 66% of the visitors to the National 

Park. It is a important number for the tourism industry in the villages in and around the 

National Park, with gastronomy, rural markets and parties, farming, health (spas) and 

cultural or artistic visits (middle ages monasteries and churches, rural palaces, and so 

on). They are not potential users of geotouristic documents, maps included. 

5) Students: Study trips and environmental education are important activities in 

the National Park with a strong tradition of visitors from UK together with those of 

different Spanish regions. They study fauna and flora, but also geography and geology at 

several educational levels, from primary studies to university. Visits of students in groups


reach ~ 135,000 per year, 16% of total visitors. It is a considerable number and because 

they are guided by teachers and monitors they need documents for abiotic nature, 

Geotourist maps and Geomorphosites. 

Recreational tourists are the main economic activity in and around the national 

park and the local government strives to get tourist to spend over several hours or whole 

days in the National park. These initiatives must be made together with others that 

support the individual and collective experience, knowledge of nature and mainly 

conservation. Educational support is the best way, and appropriate documents may be 

prepared with this aim in mind. Hikers and mountaineers practise their activities in the 

National Park and support is needed for the knowledge of natural and cultural 

environments where activities take place. Active tourists are the target of geoconservation 

and environmental education, joint guides, monitors and teachers, and interpretative 

documents such as geotourist maps are most useful. The National Park must work on 

conservation and improvement of the ecosystem and landscape, including geodiversity, in 

the places where these activities are practised and develop educational activities with 

young people and adults. This is the best target for working with interpretative documents 

as geotourist maps. Tourist types 2 and 3 represent only 18% of visitors to the National 

park, but come to over 120,000 visitors per year. They move inside the National Park and 

are the main potential users of geotourist maps, in which education and knowledge are 

more effective. 

THE MAP: METHODOLOGY 

The methodology to draw up the map is based on the selection of key elements 

from a prior geological and geomorphological map, the simplification of reading levels 

and the spatial representation of significant elements, according to the usual geotourist 

maps (Castaldini et al., 2005, 2009; Coratza and Regolini-Bissig, 2009; Regolini-Bissig, 

2010). Appropriate pathways to interpret relief as a key aspect of the landscape of high 

mountains are included in the map. 

Figure 5. Example of an Interpretative detailed map of the Macondiú Peak and itinerary 

The proposed map in the Picos de Europa is a 1:25,000 scale map representing the 

topography, geomorphological features (glacial, karst, nivation, landslide) and human 

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remains (mining, grazing), the most significant for shaping the high mountain landscape. 

The map has five levels of reading (planimetry, altimetry, geomorphology, human uses 

and tourist routes) and the elements are represented by areas, patterns and symbols in 

colours. The map contains routes that allow the interpretation of all key elements and is 

accompanied by a location map, a geological sketch and a brief text describing the 

pathways. The map includes: 

- Abiotic features: Geomorphological and geological information including 

landforms and geological elements in context, and must be complemented with detailed 

maps and figures of geomorphosites (figures 5, 6 and 7), the more interesting areas 

visited by hikers, students and active tourists. 

- Hiker and tourist information: The map contains information on trails linking 

geomorphosites, hut sites, springs, cultural and natural features (mines, historical 

routes) (figures 5 and 6). 

Figure 6. Example of an interpretative detailed map of the Acero Peak area. Itinerary in red. 

Once the best places of geomorphological values have been selected, we make the 

assessment of geosites (González Trueba and Serrano, 2010) to make the geotourist 

map and geomorphosite explanations on the map or in the leaflets. On the exposed 

methological framework (figure 8) we have work only on Geomorphosites inventory in 

this work because geomorphosites and geomorphological landscapes are the most 

expressive and useful tools for education and leisure in mountain areas. The


geomorphosite assessment can be made using different methodologies applied at 

several places in Europe (Pralong, 2005; Reynard, 2004; 2009; Serrano and González 

Trueba, 2005; Bruschi and Cendrero, 2005), but when applied to geotourism it is more 

important to consider mainly the added and use values (Pralong, 2005) rather than 

scientific values (figure 8). 

Figure 7. Mining features (orange) and morphology in the Ándara area 

Figure 8. Methodological framework for geotourist map making 

Following the method applied in the Picos de Europa (Serrano and González 

Trueba, 2005; González Trueba, 2007; González Trueba and Serrano, 2010) we have 

focussed efforts on the added and use value contents on the assessment card. In this case 

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the educational (educational resources and educational levels) and tourist (real tourist 

content and potential tourist content) added values have special importance together with 

use values such as accessibility, fragility, vulnerability, risk of degradation and state of 

conservation and limits of acceptable change (Serrano and González Trueba, 2005). The 

map attempts to show the basic characteristics of geomorphosites by interpretative 

documents of landscapes and panoramic points; places of interest for landscape and 

landform systems interpretation, such as morphostructural (figure 9), morainic 

complexes (figure 10), slopes; and sites where abiotic elements can be studied in detail, 

such as karst landforms, moraines, deposits or processes. 

Figure 9. Morphostructural interpretative sketch of the Morra de Lechugales Group 

Figure 10. Picture and interpretative sketch of Las Salgardas frontal morainic complex


The resulting document is a useful tool to develop an approach to tourist activity and 

for support in the field. It is aimed at local guides, monitors and tourists-hikers wanting to 

interpret nature from direct knowledge of the field. The geotourist map represents the 

context and the itineraries linking geomorphosites facilitate knowledge of details for the 

understanding of landscape. The map guides the hikers by already existing trails between 

geomorphosites and more representative scenic view points (figures 5 and 6). 

CONCLUSION 

Interpretative geotourist maps can be a powerful tool for environmental education 

in National Parks and Natural Protected Areas, especially when made available to 

students and for selected targets of visitors. 20% of visitors to the Picos de Europa 

National Park can be considered potential users of interpretative documents, in particular 

the interpretative geotourist maps. This potential is high because there are over 120,000 

such visitors per year, consisting of mountaineers, hikers and active tourist visitor kinds, 

and students. 

Interpretative geotourism maps can be a useful tool for leisure and educational 

activities leading to abiotical nature interpretation, knowledge and leisure to not 

genuinely motivated visitors. It has an important function as a participating document in 

the valuation by visitors and local communities of abiotic elements of landscapes and 

geodiversity, and conservation of Natural Protected Areas as a tool for scientific outreach 

and geoconservation. 

Finally, an effort must be made to create attractive and efficient geotourism maps 

in their design, interpretative and scientific outreach contents, and useful information. 

So, they are a very useful tool for educational and geoconservation advances. 


This work was funded by the projects OAPN 053/2010 (Ministry of the 

Environment and Rural and Marine Environment, Spain) and the support of the Picos de 

Europa National Park. 

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Zouros N., Mckeever M., (2009), European geoparks network and geotourism, in C. Neto de Carvalho & J. 

Rodrigues, (eds.), New Challenges with geotourism, in Proceedings of the VIII European Geoparks 

Conference, 19-24, Idanha-a-Nova Municipality/Geopark Naturtejo, Idanha-a-Nova. 


02.08.2011 31.10.2011 02.11.2011 04.11.2011



GEODIV INTERFACE: AN OPEN SOURCE TOOL FOR 

MANAGEMENT AND PROMOTION OF THE 

GEODIVERSITY OF SIERRA DE GRAZALEMA NATURAL PARK 

(ANDALUSIA, SPAIN) 

Andrea SUMA * 

Department of Earth Science, University of Ferrara, Saragat Street 1, 44122, 

Ferrara, Italy; e-mail: smundr@unife.it 

Pietro Domenico de COSMO 

Geoscienze Department, University of Padova, Giotto Street 1, 35137, 

Padova, Italy; e-mail: pietrodomenico.decosmo@unipd.it 

Abstract: The main purpose of the present work is to show the prototype of an innovative 

WebGis graphical interface, related to Open Source (OS) Database Management System 

(DBMS), for the management and promotion of geodiversity features of the Sierra de 

Grazalema Natural Park (Andalusia, SW Spain). Located on the Betic Ranges, the study 

area shows a wide variety of geological and geomorphological features, mainly consisting in 

spectacular exo- and endokarstic landforms. The identification, interpretation and 

appropriate representation of the major exokarstic forms have been carried out through 

photointerpretation and spatial analysis functions of OS Geographical Information System 

(GIS) and Digital Terrain Model analytic tools. Furthermore, the field detection allowed a 

better understanding of these karst morphologies and their correct positioning in the 

stratigraphical and geological regional framework. Due to the large proportions of the Park 

surface (53.411 ha), the smaller scale zone of Sierra de Libar (85 squ. km) was chosen as 

pilot study area, in order to check the feasibility and to improve the design of the main 

research. The large amount of these preliminary data collected for the Sierra de Grazalema 

Natural Park have been inserted into a Database (DB) where spatial data are managed by 

GIS software. These DB allow the management, implementation and exportation of data, 

particularly on the Internet. The aim of the project, in addition to the collection and 

characterization of the geodiversity, provides the possibility of divulging through WebGIS, 

all the 2D and 3D informations collected. The ability to show all the available data online 

can be carried out through GeoDIV application, created ad-hoc for the project, using 

Mapserver OS application that allows viewing, querying and graphical output of spatial 

data. The continued implementation of the database will be directly linked to GeoDiv that 

will display automatically updates and changes to the database. 

Key words: Geodiversity, GeoDIV, Open Source, GIS, Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

In the last decade geoweb applications (supported by Geographical Information 

Systems, GIS) have started to be widely used at different levels to communicate and 

educate to Geodiversity and Geoconservation (Bissig, 2008; Reynard, 2008; Martin, 



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2010; Giordano et al., 2011) and, in some cases, to adopt new approaches for global 

Geoheritage management (Ghiraldi et al., 2009; Ghiraldi et al., 2010; Stankovic et al., 

2011; Zanoletti et al., 2011). 

By general, we can define web mapping as a set of applications that enables the 

visualization of geographically referenced data through an online web interface. While 

most web mapping applications today allow users to perform some spatial analysis 

(short path finding algorithms, measuring areas or tracks, etc.), this does not 

constitute a GIS application, because other and simple analytic functions are not 

permitted (imagine spatial queries, buffer analysis, etc.). On the other hand, Web GIS 

definition is clearly related to Geographic Information Systems that use web 

technologies as a method of communication between the elements of a GIS. The 

interaction between these components is usually very direct and internal in desktop 

GIS. Web GIS enables the communication of all components to happen remotely 

through the web, performing diverse data, analysis algorithms, users and 

visualization techniques that may be hosted at any location on the web. This seems to 

represent a valid reason to justify a general increasing effort to represent and 

communicate Geodiversity themes and features via Web GIS. 

In our case, we decided to develop a Geodiversity WebGIS interface (GeoDIV) 

making solely recourse to open source (OS) software and aiming to represent the main 

geological and geomorphological features of a pilot study area within the Sierra de 

Grazalema Natural Park (SW Spain). Considering the recent momentum given to global 

studies on geological heritage and geoconservation through the Spanish participation in 

international projects connected with these themes (Global Geosites and European 

Geoparks) (Carcavilla et al. 2009; AA. VV., 2010), we posed the problem on how 

efficaciously communicate on the web the great richness and variety of a relatively small 

natural area. By means of the progressive development of the GeoDIV interface it can be 

possible to visualize, query and download all the geological, geomorphological and 

touristic data belonging to the local Geodiversity database. All these features have been 

previously identified and digitized through photointerpretation and spatial analysis 

functions of OS GIS and Digital Terrain Model (DTM) analytic tools, and by an intensive 

field survey performed to better understand morphologies and their correct positioning in 

the stratigraphical and geological regional framework. On the other hand, the use of OS 

software makes possible the cost reduction of design, management and maintenance of 

GeoDIV interface, at virtually no cost. 

SCOPE OF WORK 

The main aim of the present work consists in creating and developing a userfriendly 

Web GIS interface related to the Geodiversity features of a pilot study zone 

located in a Natural Park area in Andalusia, South-West Spain. We try to put forward and 

share the perspective in which Geodiversity is intended as the natural range of geological, 

geomorphological and soil features, including their assemblages, relationships, 

properties, interpretations and systems (Gray, 2004; Carcavilla et al., 2008). This 

innovative way of representing the geoheritage elements has a twofold extent: firstly 

being a potentially useful device for inventories and measures for the conservation of the 

geological heritage and geodiversity and, secondly, contributing to the exploitation of 

geological and mining tourism (geotourism) and the use of the geological resources to 

promote development in the rural areas. In particular, Geotourism is an aspect of 

sustainable tourism related not only to the knowledge and the conservation of geological 

and geomorphological heritage of our planet, but it can also offer employment 

opportunities within the tourism sector and is an activity with huge economic potential 

(Gray, 2004). In this sense it is worth to note how, granting importance to the

Geodiv Interface: An Open Source Tool for Management and Promotion of the Geodiversity … 

conservation of the environment, the landscape, and the natural and cultural heritage, the 

“aware usability” of a region and its features (for instance a site of geological relevance) 

is enhanced and allows its preservation. 

STUDY AREA 

The study area lies within the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park, in the 

northeastern part of the province of Cádiz (Andalusia, SW Spain). Due to the large 

proportions of the whole Park surface (53.411 ha), the smaller scale zone of Sierra de 

Libar (85 squ. km) was chosen as pilot study area, in order to check the feasibility and to 

improve the design of the project (figure 1). 

Figure 1. Location of the study area (red polygon) within the borders of the Sierra de Grazalema 

Natural Park (orange polygon) 

(Source: modified Landsat 2007 image) 

Libar Massif is characterized by high seasonal rainfall and is mainly formed of 

Jurassic dolomites and limestones, and Cretaceous marls and marly limestones, all 

belonging to Penibetic tectonic Unit of the westernmost part of the Betic Ranges (Martın- 

Algarra and Vera, 2004). The Jurassic rocks mentioned above tend to form a large 

anticline (generally N40°E), whilst Cretaceous rocks blanket the synclines and tectonic 

grabens (Martin-Algarra, 1987; Gracia and Benavente, 2006). This fold structure appears 

to be overthrusted by clayey tertiary Flysch (Campo de Gibraltar Complex) and 

subsequently cut by transverse faults (Andreo et al., 2006; Gracia and Benavente, 2006). 

The lithology and geological setting surely contributes to mould a peculiar landscape 

characterized by steep slopes and plateau-shaped mountain ridges, and, in particular, by 

a wide variety of geological and geomorphological elements, mainly consisting in 

spectacular exo- and endokarstic landforms (closed depressions, dolines, polje, karren 

assemblages, cave systems, cryptocorrosion planation surfaces, etc.). 

Great part of this peculiar karstic landscape did not appear in the most recent lists 

of geosites compiled by the Spanish panels for the conservation and management of 

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geodiversity and geoheritage (Villalobos and Pérez Muñoz, 2004, AA. VV., 2009). Only in 

recent times, by the adoption of the national Law 42/2007 (on Natural heritage and 

Biodiversity), an increasing interest in geoconservation arose in local authorities and 

regional and national administrations (García-Cortés and Carcavilla, 2009). In this sense, 

the integration of studies and the compilation of inventories has been promoted and 

financed by Andalusian regional government resulting in the “Andalusian Strategy for 

the Conservation of Geodiversity” (Carcavilla et al., 2009). At least 15 locations of interest 

within Libar Massif area have been reported in the Strategy inventory as part of a larger 

“Subbetic Karst area”. They have their own code and description report (Villalobos and 

Pérez Muñoz, 2004) in a list of areas and points of geological and geomorphological 

interest (figure 2). Besides these places of great interest, well known and officially 

recognized and listed in the geoconservative strategy mentioned above, at least 60 caves 

(of speleological interest), 4 minor poljes, 58 karst springs (some of which of great 

hydrological importance), a huge amount of dolines (isolated or organized in very 

spectacular fields) and impressive karrenfields are also present and not yet inventoried 

(figure 3). In this sense, our project also aims to help to provide a general perspective to 

this impressive and wide variety of karst landforms and systems. 

Figure 2. Subbetic Karst area and its geosites inventoried in the Andalusian Strategy of the 

Conservation of Geodiversity 

(Source: Villalobos and Pérez Muñoz, 2004) 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

As noted above, the Sierra de Libar area presents a great richness in karstic 

landforms, which surely contributes to its considerable geodiversity. In order to achieve 

a correct identification, interpretation and appropriate representation of these major 

exokarstic forms (aimed at implementing GeoDIV database), a 3-phases methodology 

has been carried out. 

All geological and geomorphological data have been collected through 

photointerpretation and spatial analysis functions of OS GIS and Digital Terrain Model


(DTM) analytic tools. Integrative Remote-sensing detection and mapping of karst 

depressions was also performed (Suma et al., 2010; figure 4). 

Figure 3. Areas and points of geological and geomorphological interest not yet part of the 

Andalusian Strategy of the Conservation of Geodiversity. Upper left: El Algarrobo tectonic polje, 

NE of Montejaque (Malaga); upper right: Burfo base-level polje, N of the Sierra de Libar; lower left: 

large dolines field, NE of the Sierra de los Pinos; lower right: karrenfield of clints (locally known as 

Torcal) next to the Puerto del Correo, central part of the Sierra de Libar 

(Source: A. Suma) 

Moreover an intensive and detailed field survey (supported by an Ultra Mobile 

Personal Computer, UMPC) was carried out to complete data collection and perform the 

ground truth verification (through accurate GPS georeferencing) of previous remotely 

sensed data. Using UMPC device it was possible to work on field directly on a GIS 

program (Quantum GIS, QGIS) and, through the HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet 

Access) transmission protocol, to send automatically and in real time shapefiles and 

image files to the GeoDIV Database (DB) (figure 5). The combined use of field survey, 

UMPC and OS Software (QGIS; Geographic Resources Analysis Support System, GRASS; 

The GIMP) permitted us to compile a general database of all the geological and 

geomorphological features of the study area and to produce geological and 

geomorphological detailed maps. 

The large amounts of preliminary data previously collected have been inserted into 

the PostgreSQL DB where spatial data are managed by PostGIS. The whole project 

provides the possibility of divulging through the WebGIS all the 2D and 3D 

informations collected. The ability to show all the available data online, will be carried 

out through GeoDIV application, created ad-hoc for the project, using Mapserver OS 

application that allows viewing, querying and graphical output of spatial data (figure 6). 

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Figure 4. Detection of karst depressions by remote sensing techniques. Lower right: 0,5 m spatial 

resolution orthophoto of part of the study area. Upper right: 3/1 spectral band ratio derived by a 

pan sharpening merging method applied on a Landsat 7 ETM+ 2000 digital imagery; the reddish 

and yellowish areas clearly show soil solution residues (with a high content in iron-bearing 

minerals), which mainly fill the bottom of dolines and small karst depressions. Left side images: 

findings of small (from few millimeters to 2-3 centimeters) single or aggregated grains of Goethite 

and Hematite (below) on the bottom of enclosed depressions (above) in the Sierra de Libar area 

(Source: Suma et al., 2010) 

Figure 5. Schematic diagram illustrating the various implementation phases of GeoDIV database 

It is worth to mention that the first web publication of our GIS data was done 

through PMapper WebGIS interface (Mantovani et al., 2009; de Cosmo et al., 2008; de 

Cosmo, 2010). It allowed us to add layer (track, pathway, walk, points of interest), zoom,


make queries, etc. but above all to produce and download a georeferenced “tif” extension 

raster map of the study area. Within the main GeoDIV WebGIS interface (very similar in 

use and visualization to any Windows or Linux desktop application), some integrative 

tools are present. The continued implementation of the database will be directly linked to 

GeoDIV that will display automatically updates and changes to the database. As a future 

extension it will also be possible to use personal GPS devices (with free operative systems 

or not) or mobile phones to download and install data of interest directly from the 

WebGIS interface or PostGIS database. 

Figure 6. A screenshot of the GeoDIV WebGIS interface 

RESULTS 

One the main of results of this study consists in the use of Open Source (and then 

completely free) softwares for the development and maintenance of DBMS, WebGIS 

interface and UMPC. For instance, PostgreSQL and PostGIS allowed us to manage the 

entire dataset. We directed our’s efforts towards the carrying out of the final DB. This is 

the main core of the project because it contains: previously collected data, tracks and GPS 

points, remotely sensed data (orthophotos, aerial and satellite images) processed in GIS 

environment, videos and photos. 

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Making easily accessible to a wide variety of users this large amount of geodiversity 

data (geosites and geomorphosites) was another important outcome. This was possible 

through the design and construction of the WebGIS interface which consents the 

exportation of customized thematic maps. Due to the use of OS softwares this interface 

could permit the development of innovative applications (downloading of P.O.I., tracks 

and multimedia contents on portable devices or mobiles). 

Finally the use of UMPC device with gvSIG OS software enabled the acquisition of a 

large amount of data (GPS points, photos, videos, shapefiles, etc.) in a shorter time than 

traditional field survey. 

DISCUSSION 

As noted above, the innovative procedures for the promotion of geoheritage have 

developed only in recent times. The authors involved in these issues used different 

methods to develop ways for promoting geoheritage in many national contexts: from the 

simple creation of thematic maps (Castaldini et al., 2005; Serrano e Gonzalez-Trueba, 

2005; Martin, 2010) to digital mapping outputs (Ghiraldi et al., 2009; Ghiraldi et al., 

2010; Stankovic et al., 2011; Zanoletti et al., 2011). The latters used both OS and 

commercial softwares. Particularly those who used OS softwares (Ghiraldi et al., 2009; 

Ghiraldi et al., 2010; Zanoletti et al., 2011), if compared with traditional maps, 

experienced some obvious disadvantages: the requirement of a high band-width access to 

the Internet; the vulnerability to server and network problems; the need of a certain 

familiarity with GIS application. On the other hand the WebGIS applications present 

several advantages: cheapness if developed with Open Source software; easiness to be 

distributed to a wide audience and to be updated and maintained; interactivity options 

and connections to related information (multimedia contents). 

In our case the combined use of different OS softwares and UMPC device has 

quickened the development and implementation of the DB. For instance PostgreSQL and 

PostGIS are able to manage spatial data in a quicker way if compared to other Relational 

DBMS (like MySQL). In addition, besides giving the position of the point of interest, the 

UMPC device allows to edit shapefiles and take videos and photos sending them in real 

time through HSDPA transmission protocol to the DB main server. At last, GeoDIV 

interface is fully customizable (thus improving the flexibility of visualization) unlike 

precompiled graphic interfaces such as PMapper. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Due to the presence of a spectacular variety of karstic landforms (part of a broader 

geodiversity and extended to the whole zone of the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park) the 

chosen study area represents an ideal pilot area to set up and develop a geodiversity 

WebGIS interface. Enabling the visualization and the querying of geographically 

referenced data through its online interface, GeoDIV is an innovative (and virtually at 

near to zero cost) way of mapping geoheritage. In fact, it is a potentially useful device for 

inventories and measures for the conservation of the geological heritage and geodiversity. 

Furthermore, it can crucially contribute to stimulate and boost local geotourism and 

aware use of geological resources, the latter being activities with huge economic potential. 

The project described in this paper is a prototype and then is still in progress, particularly 

for data increasing and updating, and for the implementation of new innovative 

applications. As part of a more extended project in collaboration with Geotema L.t.d. 

(spin-off of Ferrara University) and Dolomiti Project L.t.d. (private society for the 

enhancement of geodiversity and geotourism in Northern Italy), some geological and 

geomorphological real field tours of Natural Parks (including Sierra de Grazalema Natural 

Park) through GPS devices are being developed.


There are several advantages in the use of personal GPS devices or mobile phones: 

1) the possibility of downloading and installing data directly from GeoDIV interface or 

PostGIS DB; 2) the importation of routes, tracks, waypoints of geological and 

geomorphological interest on the GPS devices or phones; 3) the visualization of short 

videos, animations or explicative documents when you are in proximity of a point or place 

of interest. In particular, the last point has a fundamental implication which deserves to 

be pointed out and which can be defined as a relevant form of “sustainable geotourism”. 

Making unneeded the installation of new informative and explanatory panels related to 

the local geodiversity, it consents to reduce the ecological impact and the not irrelevant 

costs of new poster design and maintenance, and also integrates local biodiversity 

knowledge enabling a fully holistic approach to the aware use of nature. 

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29.07.2011 19.10.2011 24.10.2011 26.04.2011

Book review: 

John URRY and Jonas LARSEN (2011) 

The Tourist Gaze 3.0 

SAGE, Los Angeles|London| New 

Delhi|Singapore|Washington DC 

ISBN 978-1-84920-376-0, 

ISBN 978-1-84920-377-7 (pbk), 282 pp 

The tourist gaze is becoming a very up-to-date 

issue, being a highly debated, cited and circulated 

term in the tourism studies and culture research. The 

book places emphasis on highly actual travel-related 

issues pinpointing them with relevant examples from 

the contemporary societies and the emerging trends 

of the production and consumption of tourist places, 

the tourist gaze being the main ‘exponent’ 

throughout the analysis, debates and critiques. The 

term ‘tourist gaze’ from the recently released book, 

i.e. The Tourist Gaze 3.0 by John Urry and Jonas 

Larsen incorporates a wider spectrum of signs, 

experiences, and practices being rather a reflexive 

process than the mere static and passive process of 

sightseeing. 

In the present mobile world, both the gazer and the gazee need to be read and interpreted 

within a time-space compression, translated as “a shift from a solid, fixed modernity to a more 

fluid and speeded-up liquid modernity” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:23). Adjusted to these new trends 

and shifts the tourist gaze emerges as multifold: the romantic gaze; the spectatorial gaze; the 

anthropological gaze; reverential gaze; the environmental gaze; the mediatized gaze; the family 

gaze, the collective tourist gaze, the photographic gaze. Among these afore-mentioned hypostases 

the anthropological gaze emerges as an epitome of intrusiveness, since the tourist gaze inherently 

implies “an intrusion into the people’s lives” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:10). Nonetheless, as the 

authors further on state “the observation of physical objects [be it townscape, landscape, a 

lifestyle] are less intrusive than those that involve observing individuals and groups” (Urry and 

Larsen, 2011:61). 

The book covers a wide range of tourist-gaze interwoven topics such as theories; mass 

tourism; economies; working under the gaze; changing tourist cultures; places, 

buildings and design; vision and photography; performances; risks and futures which 

function as distinctive chapters within the book, along with an extremely generous bibliography and 

an index list. The first chapter entitled Theories displays a conceptual framework about the 

tourist gaze as well as recent literature references to it, highlighting the fact that the tourist gaze is 

not a unique phenomenon but it engulfs a set of experiences that may vary “by society, by social 

group and by historical period” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:2). Furthermore the authors state that the 

tourist gaze emerges as a way of breaking away from the mundane, “the established routines and 

practices” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:3); the term invites to a reverie, some kind of vagabondism, as 

ascertained by Bauman. The complexities which revolve around economies and the tourist gaze 

are highlighted within the 4 th chapter meanwhile referring to the spatial fixity of tourist services, a 

term mostly associated with producers (whose quality of service is essential for the meting the gaze) 

and the mobile feature which is assigned to consumers. The quality of services is an extremely 

important issue in the new globalized world since the “electronic word of mouth” (Urry and Larsen, 

2011:59) within this liquid modernity can have a major either helpful or destructive impact of a 

tourism-related business. Even the tourist-related stakeholders within the new globalized market 

have internationalized and transnationalized, mostly based in North America or western Europe, 

not necessarily to the advantage of the host societies since only between 20-60% of the expenditure 

remains with the latter, thus tourism as a strategy to boost revenues in developing societies did not 

turn out the expected results. The same globalized market triggered new trends in the tastes of the 

new tourists thus witnessing a shift from the standardized package holiday to independent travel. 

319

Furthermore the authors reveal the thin and fragile boundaries between hospitality and hostility, 

the latter case given by tourists’ intrusions into host communities’ life. 

Within the 5 th chapter, i.e Changing Tourist Cultures the authors dwell upon the loss of 

specificity of tourism as a fully-fledged domain, thus generalizing the tourist gaze by intermingling 

areas of art, education, photography, television, music, sport, shopping, architecture, low and high 

cultures all part of the contemporary society. Media also plays a major role into shaping new desires 

for tourist travel thus constructing new contemporary mediatized gazes, therefore new sights, 

buildings, etc are constructed to shape the gaze. There are different modes of gazing, the same sight 

can be consumed in a different way according to the “habitus and dispositions of tourists” (Urry 

and Larsen, 2011:199). The next debate about Places, Buildings and Design (chapter 6) comes 

as a continuation to the previously stated fact that old and new buildings are redesigned “for the 

gaze” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:118), tourist places partly consisting of “anticipated, designed and 

remembered places” (Urry and Larsen, 2011: 119). Among these tourist places the theme spaces are 

meant to stimulate the visual sense through spectacular and anticipatory signs. Some examples are 

provided herewith such as Jorvik Centre in York, the Camelot theme park in Lancashire, the 

American adventure in the Peak District, the Oxford Story, the Crusades experience in Winchester 

and the Pilgrim’s Way in Canterbury. A subchapter refers to New Museums where new 

consumption trends have emerged, the fascination with the mundane and the ordinary has come to 

the forefront and “a contemporary-isation of history” has occurred (Urry and Larsen, 2011:150). 

This new trend is taken even further as distinct boundaries between museums and social 

institutions are becoming blurry, as “shops can look like museums” (as for instance the Prada store 

Epicentre in New York). On the backdrop of this evolving/involving process even museum brands 

have appeared, with franchised branches worldwide (e.g. Guggenheim Museum). Places and 

buildings are thus re-designed to meet the tourist gaze, and a way through which they can be 

visually consumed is photography. The 7 th chapter Vision and Photography debates on the fact 

that “photographs extended the tourist gaze in time and space” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:180), in a 

short time lapse the photographs have digitalized opening a new era of the visual and instantaneous 

consumption. Photographs have become “performances of the now” (Urry and Larsen, 2011:185) 

through the popular Flickr and Facebook programmes. The authors stress that the tourist gaze can 

be seen as a performance, which engulfs an active multi-sensuous experience, nonetheless the 

visual sense being the organizing sense of this tourist experience. In the 8 th chapter 

Performances, Goffman’s performance turn is analyzed in close relation to the gaze, which is seen 

as a psychological, expressive and socialized tourist body. The tourists are not only audience but 

also performers, in the sense of “walking, gazing, photographing and remembering” (Urry and 

Larsen, 2011:191). An ill-intended performance can easily turn tourists into terrorists. The last 

chapter of the book, ref. Risks and Futures refers to the person-made risks of the industrial 

society and the way in which tourism itself can be self-destructive. 

With an analytical discourse and the power of exemplification, the tacking of up-to-date 

emerging trends in tourist behavior and the authors’ genuine ability to read it, the book invites to a 

critical observation and meditation on today’s “society of spectacle” towards which tourism is 

heading to, meanwhile bringing a great contribution to tourism research and theoretical 

development. 


We should like to address our special thanks to the leading prestigious international SAGE 

Publications (www.sagepublications.com) for the kindness of dispatching (free of charge) the very 

recent release of Urry and Larsen’s influential and seminal work, i.e. the third edition of The Tourist 

Gaze 3.0 (available for electronic or paper purchase for 24.99 £) for reviewing to the GeoJournal of 

Tourism and Geosites. 

320 

Corina-Florina TĂTAR and Ioana JOSAN 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, 

Tourism and Teritorial Planning - CSAT

GEOJOURNAL OF TOURISM AND GEOSITES 

University of Oradea 


1 Universitatii Street, 410087 Oradea, România, Phone/Fax: 0040 259 408 475, 

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