Azitujournal

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019

Contents

Y. Çağatay Seçkin • Editor I

Editorial

Sinem Gürevin, Yasin Çağatay Seçkin

Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes

case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş 1-15

Mehmet Ronael, Gülden Demet Oruç

Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul:

The case of Akaretler row houses 17-36

Hatice Gökçen Özkaya

Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul

Kadı registers 37-47

Imene Selka Oussadit, Chihab Selka, Mohammed Nabil Ouissi,

Olivier Bouet

Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western

Algeria: Sabaghine bath in Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma 49-58

Murat Sönmez, Beyza Nur Batı

Poiesis of objects: Theory of making 59-70

Natalia Vladimirovna Norina, Veniamin Aleksandrovich Norin,

Yuriy Vladimirovich Pukharenko

Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering

disciplines 71-86

Haniye Razavivand Fard, Yüksel Demir, Marco Trisciuoglio

The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability

and sustainability in university campuses 87-102

Seniye Banu Garip, Gökçe Evren

The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences

in exhibition spaces 103-114

Ferro Yudistira, Yandi Andri Yatmo, Paramita Atmodiwirjo

From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial

assemblage of heterogeneous components 115-129

Sema Mumcu, Serap Yılmaz, Duygu Akyol

With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect

environmental concerns and awareness in landscape design 131-144

I

Editorial

Y. Çağatay SEÇKİN • Editor

Once upon a time, a little boy worked

at his desk in the bluish bedroom of his

childhood home in Istanbul. The boy’s

homework assignment was to write

one of his dreams.

He started to think what he is going

to tell. He could tell the girl he is in love

with. The first goal scored against Bordeaux

in midweek, by Fenerbahçe’s legend

striker Selçuk Yula was also like a

dream. On the other hand, was it possible

to tell his lifelong dream, to become

the owner of a Porsche Carrera 911?

All of them deserved to tell as a

dream. However, he decided to tell the

boy who got to be architect. It is the

most current research topic for him, especially

after the last movie he watched

that weekend with his grandma. It was

Michelangelo Antonioni’s The Passenger.

Maria Schneider was a young student

of architecture and the boy still

remembers the scenes that Schneider

and Nicholson moving around Gaudi’s

buildings in Barcelona.

Decades later, his dream come true,

the boy got many degrees on architecture

and design, and finally, in 2013,

was offered to write the editorial at A|Z

ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture,

which has for 15 years told both

dreams and realities of architecture and

design. After 7 years of duty, starting in

March 2020, as I step aside as your editor-in-chief,

and I slide happily into my

new role in the editorial board.

My warm appreciations go to both

Prof. Mehmet Karaca, PhD., the Rector

and Prof. Murat Gül, PhD., the Dean,

for their invaluable and excellent sup-

port to A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty

of Architecture.

I also express my gratitude to Dr.

Koray Gelmez. There are no words to

tell his contributions to the Journal,

during this time. Without his companionship,

everything would be much

harder for me and the Journal could

not be beautifully designed as it is.

Last but not the least let me thank

four wonderful ladies, Sinem Becerik,

Pelin Elfiti, Ebru Şevkin and Ece Yurtaçan,

whose competent, meticulous,

and tireless work is absolutely invaluable.

They have most of the merit for

the present quality of this journal, and I

hope that they will continue cooperating

with our new editor-in-chief, in the

same great way that they did with me.

Hereby, I would like to thank all our

readers for the support they provide to

the Journal, one more time. If we have

told both dreams and realities of architecture

and design for a long while, it

all happened by your help. We really

looked forward your comments, contributions,

suggestions and criticisms.

They all shaped our way. It’s been a privilege

to connect with the thousands of

you who have reached out to me. Let’s

continue to do so, in my new duty as the

head of the City Department of Parks,

Gardens and Green Areas. I invite you

to e-mail me at cagatay.seckin@ibb.gov.

tr. Please do not hesitate to share your

ideas that we could be focusing on, and

let’s make Istanbul green.

In this issue, there are 10 articles

coming from the researcher of different

universities and research institutes,

typically. Enjoy your reading and meet

with us again in next issue on March

2020.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 1- 15

Documentation and mapping of

underwater cultural landscapes

case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş

Sinem GÜREVİN 1 , Yasin Çağatay SEÇKİN 2

1

snmgurevin@gmail.com • Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of

Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

2

seckincagatay@gmail.com • Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of


Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.37097

Abstract

The scope of documentation and mapping of underwater landscapes consists

of different disciplines, such as, landscape architecture, archeology, history, geometrics

and underwater research. Kaş has witnessed ancient civilizations and has

countless remains that are waiting to be found and understood. The main objective

of this research is to reveal these ancient remains and make them a part of

the academic literature. When they have become acknowledged and mapped, a

guideline could be provided for preserving and managing our heritages. Since

prehistoric times, humans have been using Earth’s water for transportation, nutrition,

and trade. Due to the relationship between human and water, people have

overcome far distances and cultures become able to interact with each other. Since

water covers the seventy-one percent of the world, excluding underwater while

studying cultural landscapes, would be ignoring an extensive piece of the whole.

Kaş was selected as research area because its culture and interaction with sea dates

backs to prehistoric times. The chosen sites include the dive sites located in the

central area and nearby islands. First, the history, geography and the importance

of Kaş were researched. Preliminary survey maps formed with reference to underwater

topography, currents, prevailing winds, and refuge locations for vessels.

Thereafter, carefully planned dives were followed through. Within the extent of

research, the findings and artifacts are documented and marked with their exact

coordinates on an underwater map. Finally, the research is moved forward with

studying protection and managing underwater cultural landscapes and conclusions

have been made for Kaş.

Keywords

Cultural landscapes, Underwater, Mapping, Submerged.

2

1. Introduction

This study assesses Kaş in underwater

cultural landscape structure. The

aim of this research has been, how to

research and reveal the submerged underwater

cultural landscape areas and

to detect underwater cultural heritages,

mapping and documenting them

with a scientific approach, so that they

can be admitted to academic literature

and become a part of our culture.

When these cultural landscape areas

are recognized, the preservation of

our heritages would be possible. This

documentation can also be used as the

substructure for a management plan of

underwater cultural landscapes.

A detailed literature study was

conducted within the scope of the research.

During the literature review

process, the historical records and the

existing data banks about the underwater

existence of the region were examined,

the people in the region were

consulted, the aerial photographs and

satellite images were examined, and

the underwater examinations with the

water surface scans were carried out.

Then, underwater research started.

Since the researcher has had many previous

dives in the area over a decade,

pilot areas were appropriately selected.

Certain remains were preferred in the

pilot areas with convenience sampling

method and documented with numerous

dives. All obtained data were

evaluated and compiled as a whole and

mapped.

As a result, the present problems

have been identified and solutions have

been generated. In addition, the conservation

and management of cultural

landscape areas and its relationship

with tourism were evaluated.

Cultural landscape, which is one

of the main subjects of the landscape

architecture discipline, determines

the range of this study. Landscape is

a complex concept that can contain

many different meanings according

to time, culture and place. Landscape

architecture can include disciplines

ranging from geography and tourism

to archeology and anthropology. The

distance between cultural resources

and nature can only be eliminated by

cultural landscape approach. Recognizing

the relationship between natural

resources such as archeology, geography

and history, which constitute

cultural resources, helps to understand

the complex socio-economic system.

Cultural heritages are non-renewable

cultural resources and shed light

on the cultural landscape with the anthropogenic

and natural changes of the

past. The cultural heritages are effective

in the development of the quality and

identity of urban and rural areas, as

well as being a source for tourism.

The cultural landscapes that cover

the seas are formed by the combination

of the concept of archeology with sea

and land (Westerdahl, 1992). The ships

and the crews of the ships shape the

culture of the seas. Archeology continues

on both water and land. The only

thing that distinguishes them is the

diving mask.

Numerous archaeological remains

have been found in the terrestrial areas

within the boundaries of Kaş and

researches are continuing for more.

The history of the region, the interaction

of people with the sea and even

the fact that some ancient cities in the

region are under the water, show that

a comprehensive underwater research

should be added to the researches on

land. The ruins and shipwrecks that

divers and fishermen have come across

over the years confirm that the region

has important submerged cultural heritages.

However, these values continue

to be eroded by storms and currents in

time. They are also exposed to theft in

the last hundred years due to the development

of diving techniques and

diving technologies. In order to be able

to protect the underwater cultural heritage

in the Kaş District of Lycia and

to be able to add those to our cultural

values, it is very important to present

the artifacts found in this area with the

information of the remains on a map.

Such a study was never done before in

Turkey and reveals the original value of

this research.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin

3

The fact that the cultural heritages

of the research area underwater are

shown on the map with its exact coordinates

and current status will help

us to protect and recognize our cultural

values. Due to the scope of the

research, it will be possible to support

the ongoing studies of the cultures that

have been found so far and to reach

new information.

This research aims to reveal the historical

landscape, development and

change of the region. As the findings

indicated on the map with their historical

information, it helps to understand

the whole of the research area in

chronological order.

2. Underwater cultural landscape

Nowadays, because of climate

change, scientists often mention the

increasing effect of rising temperatures

on sea level. When the world was not

exposed to human influence the difference

in the sea level, was occurred

much more slowly by allowing the adaptation

of living things. But now, it is

happening at a rapid pace because of

human effect. Since our world, which

is about 4.5 billion years old, has been

constantly changing, it is seen that the

sea level increases between 40 and 130

meters together with the change from

region to region. Given that people

throughout history usually live at the

edge of the water, the original traces of

many civilizations to altered to underwater

today.

The historical traces that were buried

in the waters, not only give information

about the first civilizations and

the origins of humanity, but also give

information about the climate change

and its effects. Marshall Islands that are

located near the Equator in the Pacific

Ocean stands as a textbook example for

climate change effect. Marshallese have

adapted to their environment, building

a culture on more than 1,200 islands

spread across 750,000 square miles

of ocean. But today, due to changing

climate conditions, tropical cyclones,

damaged reefs and fisheries, worsening

drought and rising sea level compose a

treat to their lives. People of Marshall

Islands are forced to relocate or to construct

a new island or raising an existing

one. Soon, their culture of thousand

years will become a submerged

cultural heritage, and their future generations

will need to study underwater

remains to learn about their culture. As

this example shows, with the remains

found underwater, people learn about

their interaction with environment,

lifestyles and cultures.

Starting from this point of view, the

concept of underwater cultural landscape

was fully developed by Christer

Westerdhal in 1992. In this concept,

Westerdahl tried to understand underwater

archeology more in a holistic

way with his studies. “The maritime

cultural landscape signifies human utilization

(economy) of maritime space

by boat, settlement, fishing, hunting,

shipping, and its attendant subcultures,

such as pilotage, lighthouse and

seamark maintenance” (Westerdahl,

1992:5-6). Historical monuments on

land benefit the understanding of the

remains encountered in the seas and

vice versa. As a result, more accurate

information about history and cultures

is reached with the evaluation of all the

remains together.

“The archaeological concept combining

sea and land would be the maritime

cultural landscape. It means that

the starting point for the subject of

maritime archaeology is maritime culture”

(Westerdal, 1998).

The cultural landscape is the result

of the transformation of the natural

environment through time, by people

living in certain regions for centuries.

In underwater cultural landscapes,

submerged traces of humans and civilizations

are examined. In some cases,

these may be objects from wrecks or

wrecks themselves; in some cases there

may even be flooded cities with the rise

of water.

There are a lot of cultural traces underwater.

These are mostly shipwrecks

that sunk because of natural, technical

or accident-related reasons. These

ruins, which have unique value, not

Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş

4

only give information about the period

- civilization they belong to, but

also display how that culture spread.

More studies need to be done about

these cultural traces found underwater.

Researches on this issue have begun to

progress and has not yet reached their

potential.

Studying the past is a broad and

comprehensive subject, and traces of

the past can be found on land or underwater.

These traces must have a historical,

architectural or scientific value

in order for the remains to be important

cultural assets. When the found remains

can be included in a socio-cultural

order based on a discipline, they

become ruins with cultural value.

In its most basic form, it would be

correct to define the remains that carry

the historical, scientific or architectural

traces of human culture as underwater

cultural sources. Within this definition,

from the smallest to the largest

of the sea vehicles and submerged air

vehicles and their cargos, underwater

cities and structures, and even human

remains may be underwater cultural

resource.

However, it should be noted that it

would be wrong to think that manmade

objects with archaeological and

cultural values are the only traces of

humans under the water. Today, thanks

to technological developments, there is

countless structural hardware under

the water. Underwater materials such

as cables and pipelines are not part of

the underwater cultural resources.

All cultural resources, which are

used to define the identities of societies,

are regarded as a value belonging

to humanity. Cultural heritage is a

factor that expresses the shared histories

of individuals in a society and

strengthens the sense of unity among

them. It ensures the continuity of the

experiences and traditions that people

have accumulated throughout history.

Underwater cultural heritages cover all

traces of the sea floor as a result of human

influence. Thus, the underwater

cultural landscape also includes underwater

cultural heritage.

The underwater cultural heritage

has been formed by the human-marine

relationship that has been going on for

thousands of years, they have left untouched

because the technology was

not existed to identify and reach these

legacies. In this day and age, with the

recent technical developments, human

beings are able to examine the underwater

environment and its content.

Although the relations of societies

and individuals with the sea are as old

as the history of mankind, the development

of marine societies has gained

momentum especially since the 1500s.

Underwater cultural heritages have

spread throughout the world for hundreds

of years such as ships, cargo, aircrafts

and so on. There are also many

sunken ancient cities, such as the ruins

of Alexandria in Egypt. Throughout the

history of the world, natural disasters

caused thousands of ships sinking into

the sea and have buried many cities in

the coastal areas. Many of these ships,

structures and other cultural elements

cannot be seen from the water surface,

and these remains have been safely

preserved under lakes - seas - oceans

and have survived to the present day.

As mentioned before, cultural landscapes

are the areas created by human

influence, people have left their traces

in these regions and shaped them. As

the return of this relationship, the traces

left by people from the cultures of

the past periods not only helps people

understand the past, but also the culture

of life.

First of all, depending on the geography

they are located in, they help the

personal development of the individuals

who are interested in cultural landscapes

and offer them new activities.

Consider an area with archaeological

heritage found in an area that is not

accessible by car, this region directs

people who want to reach it to nature

sports and this orientation brings with

them the desire to respect and protect

the nature. The best example of this situation

can be considered in Lycia, the

main study area of this study.

The ancient Lycia Region is one of


5

the ten best hiking trails in the world.

Along the Lycia Way, which is 535 kilometers

long, there are many beautiful

natural landscapes accompanied by

ancient ruins. As you can reach all the

ancient cities of Lycia in this way, many

remains from the later periods can be

seen along the way. However, while

walking a route such as the Lycia Way,

it is almost impossible not to admire

and respect nature, and this communication

with nature makes people who

respect and protect the environment

and the past.

It is also possible talk about the

same fascination and respect in the

underwater cultural landscape that the

relationship underwater has gone one

step further. Because, with the help of

improving technologies, now people

are able to experience underwater that

is out of our comfort zone. This kind

of involvements can cause enormous

changes in the lives of individuals.

People who want to observe the underwater

cultural landscapes first hand

will have to do start with diving training

and learn to be safe under the water.

Understanding diving as using only

certain technical materials to go underwater

and return would be making an

enormous mistake. Diving is also being

a part of the marine culture. Most divers

are respectful to the sea and underwater

life; in addition they do their best

to protect this environment.

Obviously, although there are not

many people to disrupt the underwater,

there are still some individuals

who harms under the sea and cultural

heritage. The most important of these

damages is the stealing of the remains,

because of their material value or only

to get a souvenir from underwater.

People also give the greatest harm to

the sea creatures and the remains by

touching them or polluting the sea.

However, many divers are acting as a

community to protect the underwater

and organizing activities for protection

and cleaning.

When the issue of pollution is cited,

it will not be right to stay only at the

individual point, it is a known fact that

private establishments and parties have

polluted the nature and the seas to a

great extent. In addition to this situation,

the underwater cultural landscape

areas have been significantly damaged

due to the increasing construction and

insufficient infrastructure. Although

the waters of Kaş, which owes much of

its beauty to its cleanliness, are not like

before, these faults are still relatively

reversible.

Finally, boats and fishermen should

be mentioned. The anchors of the boats

damage the underwater cultural heritage

more if the locations of heritage

sites are not known. Anchors on a fish

nest or remains give irreversible damage.

In the case of fishermen, fishing

nets and cages are also added to this

situation. These nets and cages damage

both the remains and all living things

and their habitat without discrimination.

3. Methodology for the underwater

cultural landscape research

A theoretical resource research was

conducted as first step in the methodology.

With the help of the resources, a

proper way was found to do an underwater

documentation. Also main components

of the theory were reviewed,

such as maritime cultural landscape

theory or underwater archeology.

The methodology followed in the

research after determining the main

case area, was a general survey. Many

sources were studied thoroughly and

the important data collected. After the

literature research with books, maps

and aerial photographs, many interviews

were conducted with local people

including fishermen and divers.

The main questions that were asked

during with interviews were:

• Are there any remains or wrecks

in the area other than the ones that are

known with dive spots?

• What are changes that you have

observed in the long term?

• What are changes that you have

observed in the short term?

• What do you think about the cause

of these changes?

• What do you think can be done in

order to improve Kaş and underwater?


6

After all the theory studies, field

study was the subsequent step. The archaeological

research techniques alone

are not enough in researching the cultural

heritage that is placed under the

water. Although the path followed in

underwater archaeological researches

contains points that overlap with a

normal archeology excavation, it also

includes different disciplines due to

its environment. The underwater cultural

landscape studies occur with the

disciplines of archeology, underwater

research and diving progress together.

Before being able to breath under water,

there was not exact way to search

beyond the land to the sea. The developments

in the research and diving

techniques have helped the improvements

for exploration and investigation

of underwater cultural heritage.

The field study part of the research

was started with surface sea survey.

Since it was not possible to have all

requirements, the water surface scanning

was carried out just to generate

an example. Subsequently, underwater

research was initiated by diving. In this

process, the sonar devices have helped

to determine the areas that have traces

for remains. Many dives were executed

and the ruin samples were photographed

and measured. Afterwards,

the data obtained were examined, documented,

evaluated and mapped in

case areas.

4. Case study

Kaş district of Antalya, located in

ancient Lycia, is designated as the case

study area in the research of the mapping

of the underwater cultural landscape.

There are many reasons why the

Kaş was examined, but the most important

one is incontrovertibly underwater

cultural values of the area.

Many cultures and civilizations lived

in Kaş but according to the oldest archaeological

remains the first ancient

city in the area was Habesos. This area

was later called Antiphellos. The reason

for this name is the ancient city of

Phellos, located above the district of

Kaş. Antiphellos is one of the important

port cities in the history of Lycia.

During the Anatolian campaigns of

Alexander the Great, he ruled this region,

but after the death of Alexander,

the region experienced a transition between

the Seleucids and the Ptolemies.

In all historical sources, this city stands

out in the Roman Period and refers to

the bishopric center in the Byzantine

period. In the Byzantine period, area

was exposed to Arab raids but later

became part of the Anatolian Seljuk’s.

After passing to the Anatolian Seljuk’s,

the region in which the center of Kaş

began to be called with the name Andifli

and the name still stands for the

central district.

According to the information given

by the Kaş District Governorate

and the Municipality of Kaş, after the

collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk, the

Tekeoğulları took over the region and

joined the territories of the Ottoman

Empire during the time of Yıldırım

Beyazıt.

Antiphellos was a small port settlement

established in the 4th century

B.C. It was the port of Phellos. Antiphellos

came forefront with the decline

of Phellos in the Hellenistic Period.

This situation also continued in

the Roman period. Thanks to the cedar

tree and sponge trade, it had become a

rich port city, which could be self-sufficient

in time.

The fortification walls, which built

against Meis Island by the shoreline,

can be seen in part today since they

have become part of today’s buildings.

There is an ancient theater in the western

part of the city, which overlooks

the sea, it has been well preserved so

far and it has been restored in recent

years. The ancient theater is seen in

Figure 1.

The King’s Tomb with lions, which

can be considered as symbol of Kaş is

Figure 1. Ancient Theater, Kaş (Gürevin,2016).


7

located at the end of the Long Bazaar

(Uzun Çarşı) Street. This tomb is an elevated

sarcophagus consisting of three

sections. The lower grave chamber,

called Hyposorium, is about one and a

half meters high, and the ground is collapsed.

It has a flat base with a height of

80 centimeters. At the top of the sarcophagus,

there is a stone cover with a

Lycia type pointed arch, carved from a

separate rock. There are two lion heads

standing on their paws on both sides

of the cover. The tomb takes its name

from these lions. The short side of the

cover is divided into four plates. Hyposorium

carries a detailed inscription

of Lycia tomb on whom the right of

burial would be given, but this article

cannot be read.

The most prominent ruins in Kaş are

located in the western part of the present

settlement. There are not any existing

roads to Kaş in the Limanağzı Region;

this location can only be reached

by walking or small boats. On the

slopes of the Sebeda Castle, the tombs

side by side face the sea.

The rock tombs can be seen along

the north and west slopes of city. There

is also a cistern very close to the central

port of the district. This cistern is

dating back to the 5th century B.C was

used to store water in the beginning but

then used for wine, olive oil and vegetables.

The cistern was made by carving

a single block of stone in size of 12x6

meters and the ceiling rests on seven

carved columns. It is the only cistern

remaining from a series of cisterns in

the area extending up to the ancient

theater. Various amphorae, plates and

vessels were found during the excavations

in the cistern.

There is also a Hellenistic temple in

the central part of Kaş. Overlooking

the ancient harbor, this temple is the

only Antiphellos temple that has survived.

The only seen part is the lower

boundary of the walls built using cut

stone. The temple, which it belongs

not yet known, was repaired during

the Roman period and the excavations

started in 2012 by Antalya Museum

Management.

There is a dor type tomb called Akdam

that was built in 4th century B.C.,

it is place to the northeast of the Ancient

Theater. The structure was constructed

by cutting natural rock. It has

a height of 3.5 meters and has 24 female

figures dancing by holding hands.

On Hastane Street, there is a temple

built using regular cut stone. It was determined

that the foundation stones of

the building were from the Roman Period.

(http://www.antalyakulturturizm.

gov.tr).

In Figure 2 Antiphellos’ settlement

plan can be seen. When we examine

this plan, the northern necropolis is

seen on the slopes of the hill, which is

today known, as the Sleeping Giant.

Figure 2. Antiphellos City Plan (Texier, 1862).


8

In the Far East, the eastern necropolis

was found, while the settlement of Antiphellos

moved from the center of Kaş

to the Çukurbağ Peninsula. The acropolis

and monumental tombs are located

south of the northern necropolis.

The church is located to the east of the

city center. While the theater overlooks

the sea in the west, there are two bathhouses

in the south by the sea.

These are all foremost cultural heritages

of Kaş that are placed on land.

As mentioned in the methodology,

many interviews were done through

the research process. One of these interviews

was specifically enlightening.

It was with Mehmet Aytuğ, who was a

former Lycia Way guide and dive master.

He told that there were many more

wrecks and remains, but those areas

are now prohibited for diving. He also

told that some invasive species, which

have come from Red Sea, are becoming

a great threat to local species. He said

that the underwater of Kaş used to be

full of life but it is getting worse every

year. He thinks that, the change in the

people profile also changes Kaş in every

aspect. He believes that people are

needed more knowledge and caring to

get better.

This kind of interviews helped us to

evaluate the differences in the last two

decades more distinctively and proved

that a preservation and management

plan is a necessity.

After all these studies, underwater

surveys had begun. At this stage, it was

a necessity to investigate the factors

causing underwater heritages. While

the majority of the underwater ruins

were caused by the sinking of the sea

vessels, the remaining part was formed

by the submerged structures and the

cities.

Seafarers have experienced the biggest

fears of storms since ancient times.

However, storms in the formation of

residues are not the only factor, however

topography, current and wind in

general should be examined. In addition,

in recent years people with different

reason underwater in the form of

conscious remains. These factors are

examined in layers below.

Kaş’s topography has hard rocky

cliffs that are an obstacle development

and transportation. The rocky structure

of the land continues underwater.

All of the dive sites in the study area are

composed of rocky areas, sometimes

they are the extension of the coasts, but

sometimes they are reefs formed by the

rocks in the sandy underwater regions.

Figure 3. Topography Map of Kaş Underwater (Gürevin, 2018).


9

The coasts of Kaş, which are geographically

called Dalmatian type,

have karstic structure. The relationship

between the sea and the land is highly

indented - this is why there are many

islands and peninsula in the region. As

a result of this coastal type, the continental

shelf in the Kas region is narrow

but the sea depth is extended.

When the topography of the seaside

of Kaş is examined, it is seen that

there are many different sizes of islands

as well as hills rising underwater. Although

it is not known whether these

rock formations were above or below

the water surface in the past, the combination

of harsh weather conditions

and topography still pose a threat to

the watercrafts. To summarize it is accurate

to notify that topography has

constantly influenced the culture of the

region since its first settlement.

Underwater topography map of the

research are can be examined with

Figure 3. Base of the maps, which are

formed in this research, are prepared

with using Navionics Marine maps,

Google Earth Maps and Electronic

Navigation Charts.

Wind, thermohaline and wave currents

are usually seen in the research

area. Sudden changes in the topography

affect the streams in the waters of

Kaş.

These currents change their intensity

depending on the storm periods.

In addition, İnce Burun, located in the

Limanağzı Region, constitutes bursts

in the rocky cliffs between Heybeli Islands

and Pina Island and in the cliffs

to the southwest of Kovan Island.

Another factor that affects the sea is

wind. The winds from the west, due to

the geographic features of Kaş, are frequently

seen, including northwest and

southwest. Likewise, the winds from

the east also has severe disturbs.

It is not possible to ignore the effect

of winds gusting within the research

area on the formation of underwater

remains in the region. Even today, it

is seen that the extreme winds gusting

during the storm periods, the waves in

the sea damage the coastal roads and

attached boats.

When the physical conditions distressing,

it is justifiably necessary to

question how these situations can be

solved. When these conditions of Kaş

are examined, it is obvious that sea

vessels need to find shelter at different

points for different prevailing winds.

The most important factor in shelter

points will be that when the vehicles

Figure 4. Shelter locations for prevailing winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).


10

have any problems in the region where

they take shelter, it will not throw to

the shore but to the open water without

any human interaction. For example, a

sail must take the head of the boat to

the shore and take the wind from the

head while anchoring in a heavy storm

or anchoring in a buoy. Thus, when

the anchor or buoy becomes ineffective

due to environmental conditions,

the boat can drift towards the cliffs on

the shoreline and become damaged or

Figure 5. Shelter locations for west winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).

Figure 6. Shelter locations for east winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).


11

even sinking into the open sea.

Refuge points in the research area

for different weather conditions were

marked on the maps and the positive

and negative aspects of the refuge in

these areas were examined. Figure 4

displays shelter locations for every prevailing

wind. Figure 5 shows shelter

locations for west winds and Figure 6

shows shelter locations for east winds.

Figure 7. Amphora at Neptune Dive Point (Gürevin, 2018).


Even in the course of researching

cultural landscapes in dry land is challenging,

an underwater survey can be

faced with much more difficulties.

We needed to find a boat with sonar

scanners, which would allow us to scan

from the surface first. We managed to

overcome this challenge by accompanying

our different friends when they

went to the research areas. Another

challenge was to establish the right

team. We always took support from

Altay Yiğitler on the surface, he is both

a technical dive instructor and captain,

and since he has been living and working

in Kaş for a long time, he helped

us with everything, never denied sharing

his knowledge and time. On the

subject of the diving partner, we had

to find volunteers for this study, who

can cover the cost of their dives, spend

their holidays underwater for our research,

and most importantly be a reliable,

good diver. Of course, as it can

be understood from this point of view,

it was not possible to have a great deal

of time to do documentation diving.

We dived during the dive season and

found the remains of the ruins, and

then waited for the appropriate time to

dive for documenting the remains with

a dive partner.

In this process, it will not be correct

to no mention that there were minor

difficulties such as failing underwater

cameras, prolonged dive times and

missing technical equipment. All of

these difficulties sometimes caused to

repeat our dives. These times sometimes

coincided with very hot days or

very heavy storms, but the work was

completed thanks to the sacrifice of everyone.

Every single factor, data and underwater

maps were examined primarily

in the selection of pilot areas. With

the help of preliminary survey maps,

the focus points are relieved. Since all

dives were performed in diving points

in Kaş, attention was paid to the presence

of traces from different cultures

in selected regions. As a result of these

researches, four diving points were selected

as pilot regions.

These regions are;

• Lighthouse diving point, Limanagzi

- Ince Burun

• Kovanlı dive site, Kovan Island,


12

Five Islands

• Canyon dive site, Kovan Island,

Five Islands

• Neptune diving point is the Çukurbag

Peninsula.

A brief documentation of one of the

pilot sites could be about Neptune diving

point. Neptune diving point is located

in Çondur Cape of the Çukurbağ

Peninsula. There is a rocky formation

at the top of this dive site, which starts

at 8 meters deep. These rocky reef stages

continue down to 45 meters in progress.

In the southern part of the reef

there are many amphorae belonging to

the ancient periods.

As a dive partner was not available

in the study of the remains at Neptune

region, it was completed by accompanying

recreational group dives in the

region. For this reason, six dives were

carried out for approximately two

months to document the remains and

to obtain the coordinates.

This dive site also has an artificial

reef. In 2011, a 29-meter long TCSG-

119 coded coast guard boat was sunk

to create a new reef to enhance the

populations of fauna and flora at the

dive site. This shipwreck was left 21

meters depth at first, but due to strong

storms it had got loosen and slide to

the band of 35 - 40 meters.

The first Neptune dive was conducted

on 11 June 2018. On 11 June, the

weather was partly cloudy and about

27 °C. The wind started to get more

intense when the dive started; it was

blowing at about 15 kilometers per

hour. The boat was reached the location

around 10:45 and we began to get

ready for the dive. We started diving

at 11:05 by jumping from the boat. In

this dive, the main goal was to determine

which remains should be documented.

The dive lasted for 42 minutes

and the water temperature was 21°C on

the surface and 19°C in the maximum

depth. The maximum depth of dive

was 30.8 meters and our average depth

was 16.2 meters.


Figure 10. Neptune Dive Point Remains with their coordinates (Gürevin, 2018).


13

After emptying the air in our bouncy

control device and going under the water,

we started to move south, towards

southeast. We encountered the first

amphora at 7 meter without getting

too far from the boat. After taking note

of the approximate location of this amphora,

we continued towards the reef

in our southeast. We met the second

amphora at 19 meters. The reef starts

at that point. There were many amphorae

in the reef. Some of them were

assembled together and fragmented.

We encountered a large number of

amphorae between 20 and 30 meters.

A total of six points were marked to

document with the subsequent dives.

As we encountered an inverse current

on the way back, we moved towards

the boat at a depth of about 12-13 meters.

When we approached the boat, we

came to the surface after finishing our

safety stop for 3 minutes at 5 meters.

Afterwards, we accompanied 5 more

dives and completed the documentation

of the remains.

Figures 7 – 8 – 9 are photographs of

the remains documented during the

dives. Figure 10 shows the coordinates

for the remains of Neptune diving

point on the map.

5. Conclusion

This research was an application of a

cultural landscape analysis to the submerged

cultural landscapes in Kaş. The

results have shown that the underwater

cultural landscapes have extremely

high potential for educating and moving

us forward.

For the formation of social identity,

the awareness of the past is undeniable.

Social emotions, together with society,

have gained meaning, and the feeling

of continuity of society is valuable for

each of the individuals who make up

the society. The general conclusion,

derived from the sources examined

within the many researches, reveal that

feeling happiness and stability in their

lives creates happier societies.

Cultural values are parts of a whole

that constitute the past of society. For

this reason, cultural resources which

constitute the social memory and

which are based on the general culture

of the people living in the region

are very important. However, as mentioned

above, these sources can be located

on the land as well as under the

waters.

The sources of cultural values have

been destroyed and emerged throughout

history. While the destruction in

the wars was one of the reasons for

the destruction of the culture, the economic

problems, the different political

views and the perspective of the religions

to the cultures are also important

in this regard. Destroying traces of

ancient cultures has made it easier for

new cultures to dominate.

While all these obstacles exist, it is

very difficult to maintain cultural resources,

especially if they are underwater

as in this research. Because these

areas are more easily exposed to theft

and looting, and those located near the

coasts are also threatened by urbanization.

Even today, underwater cultural

resources cannot be adequately examined

or preserved by academics, or by

a different institution. Sometimes personal

interests are prioritized, but most

of the times there is no support for research.

In addition, the underwater cultural

resources contribute to life. A shipwreck

becomes a nest of many fish and

provides an ecosystem development

around it. Thus, it increases the population

by creating a living environment

for creatures underwater. At this point

the issue that needs to be considered is

whether the shipwreck has a polluting

effect or not. The wrecks from the previous

periods with cultural value, since

they did not use energy resources like

today, have very few pollutant effects.

In order to increase the underwater

life, objects that have been intentionally

submerged in order to create a reef

are first cleaned and their fuel is discharged,

thus minimizing the polluting

effects.

The access to cultural values in the

underwater world made them vulnerable

to false threats as well as to help us

understand history, cultures, and civilizations.

For this reason, preservation

of underwater cultural heritage means

protection of our historical values.

The subject of conservation of underwater

cultural landscapes includes

many variables. Because while keeping


14

the values under water, some of the

threats occurring on the land are decreasing

but many different problems

can arise.

The remains of cultural landscapes

underwater are not only threatened by

people but also by nature. While these

areas are generally less known, they

may be more easily exposed to theft

and looting in accordance with the intentions

of those who know it. The reason

for this is that it cannot be safely

protected a cultural area under the sea

as it is on land. Nevertheless, with the

effect of the sea and storms, some remains

are condemned to disintegrate

or disappear.

Beside these mentioned problems,

the idea of on-site protection will add

value to the region where the cultural

heritage is located and will cause the

water in the region to be taken under

general protection and increase the

tourism. It should also be noted that

some remains begin to deteriorate as

soon as they come into contact with air.

The most useful measure to protect

the underwater cultural landscape areas

is to inform the local people in the

region and to ensure that their values

are appreciated. Although, there is

nothing can be done against the dangers

of nature.

As seen from the explanations, the

present conditions raise a question

about whether the remains that are

part of the underwater cultural landscape

areas should be protected in site

or exhibited in a way that they can be

brought to the surface suitably and be

accessible to more people. The most

sensible thing to follow in this case

is to implement the process of decision-making

in the underwater cultural

heritage.

We offer on site protection for our

research area. Because, the natural

structure and the remains constitute a

cultural landscape area as a whole.

The pilot research zone, Kaş, has an

improved protection program from the

World Wildlife Foundation to protect

living species. Although this program

is not prepared to protect the underwater

cultural landscapes, the buoys

created within the program help to

prevent the boats anchoring to the

places where the remains are located.

However, a more extensive preservation

and management plan should be

developed to protect the underwater

cultural landscape areas and tourism in

the region should not be ignored while

this plan is being developed.

Whether landscape areas are designed

or naturally exist, in order to

maintain its continuity, it requires natural

resources such as air, water and

soil. It is in an indestructible connection

within the surrounding natural

systems. This connection is the main

feature that distinguishes cultural

landscapes from other cultural heritages.

This is the reason why almost

every other cultural heritage cannot

be moved. The relationship of cultural

landscapes has with environment,

sometimes needs it to be repaired but

always requires to be managed. Management

and planning of cultural landscapes

can be achieved by working together

of many different disciplines.

Strategies can be developed for the

management of cultural landscape areas

with the cooperation of landscape

architects, historians, archaeological

landscape experts, forestry, design, architecture,

engineering, cultural geography,

wildlife, seed – pollen experts,

landscape maintenance and management

experts. Management of each

cultural landscape requires a different

method, a different strategy. Because

the environment, climate, geographic

and historical characteristics may vary.

While some cultural landscapes may

be a small region in the middle of a

metropolis, some may be underwater,

others can be a rural area spread over

thousands of acres.

The management of cultural landscapes

begins with the identification

of the region, which is regarded as a

cultural landscape area. After that, the

most important step is to prevent the

factors that may have caused damage.

In order to ensure continuity of the

site, a good management plan should

be prepared. These areas generally require

ongoing management in the field,

and as the outset of this management, a

landscape architect, who specializes in

landscape protection, is required.

If we want to explain the management

of cultural landscapes further,

the subject can be started with the in-


15

terpretation of the cultural values in

the landscape. The interpretation of

landscape areas includes ideas, meanings,

concepts and dynamics that compose

the space. For example, while the

relic is important for an archaeologist,

the aesthetics and beauty of the area is

important for a historian, for an artist

or for a traveler. Cultural landscapes

are a whole and a reflection of the cultures

that create them. For this reason,

all the components that generate them

are important and must be protected.

So we have to identify, document and

map them to constitute a start point.

As a result of all these researches

that have been gone through, it is obvious

that the culture in Kaş is shaped

and developed by topography. It is significant

to reveal and understand all

the traces of these previous cultures, in

order to reveal the values of the region

and to share with everyone. To understand

existing culture, our setting and

ourselves in which we live, we need to

understand the growth and history of

our culture with its causes and consequences.

References

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ed. by K. Hiscock, 51-65, 126- 158.

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dem Avşar Tepesi. Bonn: Habelt.

Westerdahl, C., 1992, The Maritime

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ark:/48223/pf0000126065.locale=en)

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com/earth)


ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 17-36

Residents’ experiences of a

gentrified neighborhood in

Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row

houses

Mehmet RONAEL 1 , Gülden Demet ORUÇ 2

1

mehmetronael@gmail.com • Graduate School of Science Engineering and

Technology, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

2

guldenoruc.itu@gmail.com • Urban and Regional Planning Department,

Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Received: February 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.46547

Abstract

The gentrification process has been examined by sociologists, urban planners,

geographers and many other professionals since the 1970s. However, despite a great

deal of research into the concept, process, and other dimensions of gentrification,

there are few studies which consider the importance of the perspective and

experiences of residents and users.

This paper focuses on the gentrification process and its impact on the nongentrifier

residents of the Akaretler neighborhood of Beşiktaş, an area which

was transformed following a major restoration project 10 years ago. In-depth

interviews were conducted with long-term residents and business owners to

investigate how they evaluate the changes in their neighborhood as well as the

positive and negative impacts of gentrification on their lives. According to the

findings, while the majority of respondents acknowledged the physical success

of the restoration project, some of them also pointed out the negative economic,

social, and cultural outcomes it has raised over the past 10 years. The outstanding

negative issues are social integration difficulties, the lack of affordable properties,

changes to property functions, and cultural contrast.

Keywords

Akaretler row houses, Commercial gentrification, Istanbul, Neighborhood

change, Residents experience.

18

1. Introduction

Many scholars have studied the gentrification

concept in depth; however,

this issue is still considered to be a hot

topic because of the power wielded by

the construction sector. Especially in

the last decade, the gentrification has

become a global approach extending

its context from the central core to

suburbs, and also slums (Cocola-Gant,

2019); moreover, the fundamental motivations

behind this development are

the financialization of housing market

(August & Walks, 2018), the increasing

power of economic actors in the urbanization

process (Slater, 2017), the

remarkable ascendance of neoliberal

economic policies (Smith, 2001), and

the increasing role of global gentrifiers

such as construction companies

and states (Rofe, 2003). Therefore; it is

clear that the role of financial capital

came into prominence after 2000, not

only by encouraging home ownership

through home loans but also through

the rise of corporate proprietors and

platform capitalism (Aalbers, 2019)

and this concept has been accepted

as a global strategy for reaching maximum

land value, and it has occurred

in varied types in different parts of cities

(Lees et al., 2016). Although it extended

its scope and transformed to a

method containing the reproduction

of capital in urban space, the unchanging

consequence of this process is the

displacement of existing residents willingly

or unwillingly (Lees et al., 2015).

While some researchers have attempted

to identify gentrification in

their perspectives (Hammet, 1984;

Smith & Williams, 1986; Ley, 1992;

Kempen & Weesep, 1994; Bondi, 1999;

Kennedy & Leonard, 2001; Atkinson,

2003; Bostic & Martin, 2003, Cocola-Gant,

2018), others have examined

the main reasons, actors, and driving

forces behind the concept (Wheaton,1977;

Kern, 1981; Lees, 1996; Ley,

1986; 1996; Aalbers, 2019 ). In addition

to the investigations into the concepts,

processes, and dimensions of gentrification,

many scholars have also concentrated

on its physical, social, economic,

functional, and cultural effects

on the existing environment (Sampaio,

2002; Billig & Churchman, 2003; Musterd

& Ostendorf, 2005; Cameron &

Coaffee, 2005). However, it must be

stated that when evaluating gentrification

only a few of them have considered

the importance of the perspective

and experiences of residents (Freeman,

2004; Slater, 2006; Murdie&Teixeria,

2011).

This study is intended to increase

the understanding of the impact of

gentrification on both residents and

business owners living in the areas

surrounding Akaretler, the historical

row houses located within Beşiktaş, a

major population center of Istanbul. In

particular, it investigates the effects of

the transformation that occurred as a

result of the restoration of these houses

10 years ago.

The rest of this paper is divided into

3 sections; a conceptual background

of the study that summarizes the concept

of gentrification, examples of gentrification

in Istanbul and a literature

review of the positive and negative

impacts of gentrification on neighborhoods

is given in the second section.

The third section contains information

regarding the case area of Akaretler

that includes a short history of the district,

the project, methodology and the

findings of the research. The final section

is devoted to conclusions.

2. Gentrification and Istanbul

Although there are numerous explanations

for the notion of gentrification,

it can be basically described as

investing to encourage high-income

white collar settlement in historic and

precious sites in urban cores, and the

clearing of these valuable sites of their

current low-income residents and users

(Smith & Williams, 1986; Ley, 1992;

Kennedy & Leonard, 2001; Atkinson,

2003).

After Glass’ (1964) explanation of

gentrification, Smith (1986) expanded

the meaning of the concept and

introduced a new type of gentrification

which became known as “second-wave”.

Although there are differences

between these two types of

gentrification, such as their causes, actors,

processes, and scale, (Hackworth

& Smith, 2001), the fundamental and

unchanging phenomenon for both is

the willing or unwilling displacement

of existing residents or users (Smith,

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Ronael, G. D. Oruç

19

1979). After 2000, researchers started

to focus on a third-wave of gentrification

derived from a partnership between

the state and the private sector

(Hackworth & Smith, 2001; Davidson

and Lees, 2005; Cameron & Coaffee,

2005; Uitermark, Duyvendak & Kleinhans,

2007; Hackworth, 2007).

This third wave gentrification has

some distinctive characteristics like

the partnership between companies

and states, effective anti-gentrification

strategies, and the expansion of gentrification

to the peripheries (Cameron &

Coaffee, 2005; Uitermark, Duyvendak

& Kleinhans, 2007; Hackworth, 2007).

Lees (2003) identified seven different

types of gentrification which are classical,

statebased, capital-based, commercial

also known as retail gentrification

(Hubbard, 2016), mix-use, re-gentrification

that was renamed as super-gentrification

(Davidson and Lees, 2010),

and new-built gentrification. In this

scope, many scholars have worked on

these types and extended their content;

moreover, they also identified new

types of gentrification (Cocola-Gant,

2019). These are rural gentrification

derived from the increasing attraction

of the natural environment for

high-middle class occupants (Phillips,

2005), studentification including the

development of special regions for students

only (Smith & Holt, 2007), and

tourism gentrification based on the

transformation of residential areas to

attractive zones for visitors (Gotham,

2005; Cocola-Gant, 2018). In addition,

these different gentrification types can

lead to the occurrence of each other in

time, and the mutual relationship between

tourism and commercial gentrification

can be given as an example

(Gotham, 2005). While the changing

commercial activities increase the interest

of visitors for the area, being a

touristic destination changes the commercial

pattern in depth, and it causes

the existence of new functions appealing

to visitor’s expectations more (Cocola-Gant,

2015).

Although there are several types of

gentrification based on different motivations,

they can be collected under

two main approaches which are

defined according to the aims of the

implementation and the power of the

main actors (McKinnish, Randall &

Kirk, 2010). In brief, these approaches

are; gentrification as an urban transformation

policy and gentrification as

a negative consequence of urban transformation

(Hyra, 2016).

In Turkey, the gentrification issue

gained importance after the 1980s,

largely due to the effects of globalization

(Islam, 2009). The first wave of

gentrification happened organically in

Bosphorus neighborhoods during the

1980s, and the first group of new potential

residents; artists, writers, poets,

and musicians started to arrive, thereby

changing both the land values and the

local lifestyle. However, that period is

characterized by the harmony that was

achieved between new and existing inhabitants

and few displacement issues

were observed (Islam, 2009). While

the gentrification process continued

in Bosphorus neighborhoods, second

wave gentrification started to occur in

the historical areas of the city core at

the end of the 1990s (Polat, 2016). Historical

apartments with views of the

Bosporus, easy accessibility, and access

to cultural and entertainment activities

appeared after the pedestrianization of

Istiklal street made Beyoğlu, Cihangir,

Galata and Asmalımescit more attractive

for new social groups (Polat, 2016).

Ergün (2004, also in 2006) concentrated

on the first and second wave gentrification

process in Istanbul neighborhoods

and produced a detailed map

of gentrified zones. After a transitional

period, third wave gentrification began

with the ratification of law no. 5366. In

Istanbul, the Tarlabaşı, and Sulukule

projects are considered to be the first

examples of gentrification as part of an

urban transformation policy (Islam,

2009). The same period saw many other

projects around the city, including

the transformation of Fener and Balat,

the development of Galataport, and the

Haydarpaşa Port Project (Figure 1).

In addition to research that includes

the general prospects surrounding the

gentrification issue in Turkey, there

have been several more recent studies

which have evaluated and focused

on the consequences of gentrification

in-depth through the experiences and

thoughts of residents and users (Tuncer

& Islam, 2017; Uysal & Sakarya,

Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses

20

Figure 1. Gentrification waves in Istanbul.

2018; Uzgören & Türkün, 2018).

The restoration project for the

Akaretler row houses was started in

1988 and completed in 2008. It is the

largest restoration project undertaken

in Istanbul, and can be accepted as a

critical case of third wave commercial

and mixed-use gentrification. Following

this project, the local neighborhood

underwent a rapid and significant

transformation.

2.1. Effects of gentrification

The main concept of gentrification

can be identified as providing physical,

economic, and especially social

revitalization, while also including the

conservation of the assessable components

of a given area, such as its historical

buildings. However, this policy

has been shown to have deep effects on

the existing urban pattern (Sampaio,

2007). When Appleyard (1981) defined

gentrification, he emphasized the

combination of economic recovery and

physical conservation, and stated that

this combination is a “solution”. Tiesdell,

Oc, and Heath (2008) accepted

Appleyard’s definition, and supported

the claim that gentrification is a necessity

for the conformance of the urban

place to a changing economic system.

In addition, they also highlighted the

social outcomes and displacement issues

as being undesirable elements of

the process. Whether it is a solution

or necessity, the gentrification process

definitely has both positive and negative

influences on existing urban structures

(Billig & Churchman, 2003).

One of the basic consequences of

gentrification is the segregation that

occurs in both the physical and social

environments (Chirstafore & Leguizamon,

2018). In the physical context,

gentrified zones of cities are comprised

of “prestige” elements such as highquality

conditions and facilities, entertainment

services, and accessible

transportation options that are intended

to segregate them (Sampaio, 2002).

These zones also arouse the interest of

the public sector and the municipal

authority, causing them to make upgrades

to the urban infrastructure (Billig

& Churchman, 2003). In this way,

gentrification improves the quality of

an area’s physical structure, reverses

physical decay, and restores/upgrades

individual buildings (Kennedy &

Leonard, 2001; Musterd & Ostendorf,

2005; Inzulza-Contardo, 2011).

In the social context, Clay (1981)

claimed that the gentrification process

develops a neighborhood’s profile

and contributes to a more positive


21

image. Musterd and Ostendorf (2005)

described the importance of physical

restructuring to solve social difficulties;

on the other hand, they also

highlighted the displacement issue as

an adverse result of gentrification. The

social balance that can be identified

as a state of harmony between people

with different social status is a vital dimension

for a healthy neighborhood,

and this harmony supports the occurrence

of a local identity; however, the

organization of interactions between

citizens and the integration of newcomers

should occur naturally and not

be forced (Vance, 1966; Frankenberg,

1994). Thus, gentrification process as

an external intervention breaks this

balance and causes both displacement

and segregation (Sampaio, 2002; Boterman

& Gent, 2014; Parekh, 2014;

Shaw & Hagesman, 2015; Billingham,

2017). In addition, the existence of

newcomers that are highly educated

and from high-income groups leads

to social pressure on local people, and

it is this pressure that complicates the

processes of integration and adaptation

(Robinson, 1995; Fabula et al., 2017).

Table 1. Positive and negative effects of gentrification.

Gentrification intervention can also

change the functional characteristics

of the neighborhood and contribute

to the activity opportunities of citizens

(Freeman, 2005; Musterd & Ostendorf,

2005; Ernst & Doucet, 2014). On

the contrary sometimes these activity

opportunities which aim to attract future

gentrifiers, especially in the case

of commercial gentrification (Cocola-Gant,

2015), causes displacement

of the local shops or businesses even

before the residents and at some point

this change in the habitual environment

of the long term residents might

lead to the loss of sense of belonging.

For this reason new opportunities

should be planned in detail as they play

a crucial role in sustaining the balance

between social groups and also support

the soul of the neighborhood (Billig &

Churchman, 2003; Keels et al., 2013).

From the cultural perspective, Beauregard

(1986) classified cultural

needs and aesthetic values as the fundamental

demand forces behind the

gentrification process. In addition, Ley

(1996) highlighted the significance of

the relationship between the movement

of urban artists and gentrification

in the city core, and asserted that

artists are the pioneers of gentrification

(Lazarević et al., 2016). The creation of

a free social atmosphere and bohemian

lifestyle invites more artists and helps

to sustain the gentrification process

in a self-perpetuating system (Caulfield,

1994). Ley (2003) claimed that

the existence of the creative class that

contains people work in art-based jobs

or science-related industries (Florida,

2002), contributes to both the cultural

and economic capital of an existing

neighborhood (Mccarthy & Wang,

2015). However, this new creative class

threatens the local cultural identity

because as the existing community is

displaced by the newcomers, they take

their local values, traditions, and characteristic

behaviors away with them

(Tiesdell, Oc, & Heath, 2008).

In addition to the social and cultural

aspects of gentrification, the economy

is always one of its major driving forces,

and this is reflected in its potential

not only to increase property values

(Smith, 1979; 1996), but also to maximize

the value of living in urban core.


22

Smith (1979) argues that the process

of gentrification is more related to the

occurrence of capital than the return

of people to the central core of cities;

moreover, he also stated the contribution

of gentrification to reach the highest

value of the property. Therefore;

gentrification is considered to provide

a reliable path to economic recovery

because the physical investment

attracts high-income groups and increases

demand; thus, the market value

of the buildings and land increases

(Billig & Churchman, 2003; Bardaka

et al, 2018). The rise of investment and

demand from high-income groups

also attract private sector developers,

thereby increasing the number of projects

in the surrounding areas (Smith,

2001; Bishaw, 2014). In addition, and

as mentioned above, gentrification attracts

the cultural class and this class

develops cultural capital. This circular

situation causes the commodification

of culture and the consumption of art;

and whether the commodification is

positive or not, it makes an economic

contribution and increases economic

capital (Cameron & Coaffee, 2005;

Meltzer & Ghorbani, 2017) but also

consequently causes a social transformation

in the area. As a conclusion,

the most commonly mentioned positive

and negative effects of gentrification

in the literature are summarized

in (Table 1), and these effects can only

be restricted by concentrated efforts at

conservation (Sampaio, 2007). However,

Bandarin (1979) claimed that there

is no way to provide physical, economic,

and social conservation simultaneously.

Cities can be affected positively

only by systematic organization, an increase

in the participation capacity of

citizens, and detailed planning (Bandarin,

1979).

3. Case study: Akaretler row houses

restoration project

3.1. Location, history and physical

characteristics

Akaretler is a group of row houses at

what is now the intersection of the Şair

Nedim and Süleyman Seba streets in

the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul (Figure

2). This is one of the most characterful

districts within the city due to its central

location, historical heritage, local

Figure 2. Location of Akaretler row houses.

shops and markets, and the variety of

functions it offers. It is also a critical focal

point of the European side of Istanbul

with a significant potential for both

day and night usage, and until recently,

it has managed to preserve much of its

local atmosphere. Many different social

groups have been attracted to this area,

but a majority of its current residents

are middle-class families and university

students.

The Akaretler row houses are con-

Figure 3. Pervititch map (Source:http://www.tas-istanbul.com/

portfolio/portfolio-4/page/22/).


school, a center of the CHP political

party, and Turkey’s first mental health

hospital (Batur, Yücel, & Fersan, 1979).

In total, the row house group consists

of 66 parcels and 133 residential

units (Figure 3). The parcel sizes are

generally similar, and the plots are divided

by vertical lines. There are two

main building typologies and only

minor variations were applied during

their original design (Figure 4-5) (Akbayar,

1998).

23

Figure 4. Akaretler row houses type 1.

Figure 5. Akaretler row houses type 2.

sidered to be the first mass housing

project of the Ottoman Empire and are

accepted as Istanbul’s most continuous

and monumental example of attached

houses (Özsoydan, 2007; Batur, Yücel,

& Fersan, 1979).

The architect of the Akaretler project

was Sarkis Bey Balyan, and it was

undertaken on the orders of Sultan

Abdülaziz in January 1875. The houses

were originally intended for the

guards and workers of Dolmabahçe

Palace to use as lodgings, but some

were rented separately by people from

middle and low income groups. (Koçu,

1993). During the Republican period,

the ownership of the row houses was

transferred to the General Directorate

of Foundations, and their usage was

allocated for public institutions and organizations.

In addition to their original

purpose, the row houses have been

used as an officers’ residence, a district

post office, a police station, the Mimar

Sinan University campus, a primary

3.2. Akaretler row houses restoration

project

By the beginning of the 1980s,

Akaretler had been confronted by numerous

physical and social problems.

As a possible solution, the ministry of

culture and tourism planned the restoration

of the row houses (Milliyet

Newspaper, 1980). To further this aim,

the existing tenants were evicted by the

municipality and the speed of this process

caused a great deal of bad feeling

(Eğilmez, 1982).

In 1982, law no. 2634 was ratified.

This law was intended to encourage

tourism, and was the first step of a new

renovation project. According to this

law, the private sector could invest in

public properties under the auspices

of the regulations covering public

land allocation for tourism. In order

to initiate the Akaretler Row Houses

Restoration Project, Net Holding

signed a build-operate-and-transfer

contract with the General Directorate

of Foundations on October 15, 1987.

This contract stipulated that they follow

the rules set out by the Ministry of

Tourism. At the end of the build and

operation period, which was defined

as 49 years, the company was required

to transfer the buildings to the General

Directorate of Foundations.

Net Holding developed a proposal

which included the Atatürk Museum,

offices, an apart hotel, a hotel, stores,

and parking functions that all fell within

the scope of the Akaretler Development

Project. According to the proposal,

the project was to be carried out in

three stages, but construction did not

start until 1996 because of economic

and political problems. The long period

of inactivity between 1988 and 1996

was regularly in the news and was a


24

Figure 6. Development process of Akaretler.

subject of great debate. Sabah Newspaper

had a headline which stated, “History

is dying” for Akaretler in 1994.

According to the news article that followed,

the area had suffered physical

and social depression since it fell into

disuse (Sabah Newspaper, 1994). However,

after a construction license was

granted in 1996, the image of Akaretler

changed in the print media, as illustrated

by subsequent headlines such as:

“Heavenly Project for Akaretler” and

“Akaretler is Shining” (Radikal Newspaper,

1996; Sabah Newspaper, 1998).

The construction of the first and second

stages and the carpark unit were

completed between 1996 and 2002. In

2003, Garanti Bank Life Tourism Commerce

Inc. purchased the shares of the

Akaretler Project, and in 2005, Bilgili

Holding took control. Between 1987

and 2008, the project changed 13 times

because of changes that were made to

its requirements (Figure 6) (Sürmegöz,

2010). The new developer intended to

transform the area into a luxury-shopping

district and so the project included

a hotel, 55 residence units, and 34

shops when it was completed in 2008

(Figure 7). In 2009, the Akaretler Row

Houses Restoration Project won the

first place in the ULI Global Awards

of Excellence which included 39 projects

from 17 countries. The award was

mentioned in magazines and newspapers

and was used as an important advertising

tool.

Despite all the advertisements and

developments, the row houses did not

attract as much attention as expected.

Therefore, the land use policy of the

development company underwent a

radical change and the area entered a

transformation period to convert it

into an art and design district. Empty

shops were rented to art galleries and

design studios, and many cafes, restaurants,

and bars were opened. However,

after this process, and like the previous

stores, some of these restaurants and

art galleries shut down and the units

were again left empty. During this period,

Akaretler was reintroduced as an

investment opportunity that stood in

contrast to more instantly profitable

properties (Severöz, 2017). Currently,

the units previously used by shops

and boutiques have become branded

restaurants, cafes, bars, and art galleries

and still there are empty buildings

that remain for rent. The area hosts, except

from the new residents of the row

houses, mostly upper middle and upper

income residents and daily visitors

from Istanbul.

3.3. Effects of Akaretler row houses

project

In this study, both the negative and

positive impacts of the project on the

Figure 7. The latest proposal for Akaretler (Source: Bilgili Holding).


25

neighborhood is evaluated according

to the perspective of local residents.

To understand how both non-gentrifier

residents and business owners,

who might also be the subject of

displacement in the future, interpretate

the impact of gentrification on

their neighborhood, semi structured

in-depth interviews were conducted

with 28 local people. The in-depth interviewing

method allows a primary

connection to the knowledge source

without the need for mediation and

creates a comfortable atmosphere in

which the participants are more likely

to reveal genuine feelings and opinions

(Showkat & Parveen, 2017). While 22

of the respondents were local residents

or business owners, there were also

2 academic urban planners, 2 urban

planning authorities from the Beşiktaş

municipality, and 2 real estate agents.

All of the interviewees were over 35

years old and were aware of the past

and present situations of the Akaretler

row houses and their surroundings.

The educational level of the research

group ranged from high school graduates

to holders of bachelor degrees and

Ph.Ds. The majority of the respondents

(60%) are self-employed with workplaces

located in the surrounding areas

of Akaretler. Information was obtained

in the summer and fall 2018 and each

interview lasted between 20-30 minutes.

In this study, the effects of the

Akaretler Row Houses Restoration

Project have been evaluated according

to their physical, economic, functional,

cultural, and social aspects.

3.3.1. Physical effects

The interviews made with the local

people shows that the majority support

the changes in the physical conditions

arising from the restoration project. All

the respondents have lived in the district

for more than 30 years, and when

they compare the before and after situation

of the row houses, they find the

restoration to have been successful

and are pleased with the new physical

environment. In addition, they asserted

that their own properties have

been positively affected by the project

in terms of better above ground facilities

and also improvements to underground

infrastructure such as the water

supply and sewage systems.

“The physical atmosphere is definitely

more impressive than the former condition.”

(Male, 65, Tradesmen)

“The row houses were changed from

unwanted wrecks to impressive elegant

buildings due to the project. Today, when

I walk on the street, I feel like I am in a

movie scene.” (Female, 45, Resident)

“Today, the whole environment is totally

unusual and immaculate. Also, the

Şair Nedim and Süleyman Saba streets

developed with the project and this state

has increased the attractiveness and value

of our properties.” (Male, 48, Tradesmen)

In addition to the local users, academicians

and authorities in the local

municipality claimed that the improvement

and renovation of the physical

pattern can be accepted as the most

successful part of project (Figure 8).

For these historically and architecturally

valuable buildings, the conserva-

Figure 8. Akaretler row houses before and after restoration (Source: Bilgili Holding).


26

tion and development approaches were

combined appropriately.

“The whole physical structure, both

above ground and underground, was

renovated. This new environment has

attracted users and investors, especially

big brands, and has increased the liveliness

and motion in the site.” (Female,

Urban Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)

“The balance between the conservation

and development approaches is

very successful and the restoration proposals

are highly suited to the historical

pattern.” (Female, 45, Resident, Urban

Planner-Academician)

Consequently, as Kennedy and

Leonard (2001) pointed out, a high

quality physical environment that provides

prestige for newcomers is one of

the authentic outcomes of the gentrification

process. In addition, according

to the interviews and observations

in this study, it can be stated that the


Project improved the quality of the

physical structures while protecting

their historical and architectural value.

Although Sampaio (2002) emphasized

the physical segregation between the

inside and outside of a revitalization

project, the physical segregation of

Akaretler had always existed due to its

architectural value.

3.3.2. Economic effects

Together with the increase of commercial

activities such as services and

tourism in the project area, it can be argued

that an economic revival and improved

employment rates were created

in the neighborhood. After the revitalization

project, Akaretler became a new

focal point like the Taksim and Nişantaşı

neighborhoods. However, it could

not become as economically developed

as hoped, and the concept was changed

from that of a luxury shopping district

to that of a creative hub. Nevertheless,

the imposition of high rents continued

to decrease the demand for the buildings,

and so the real estate policies underwent

a further revision.

“After a few years from the completion

of the project, the demand for the row

houses started to decrease due to their

high rent and sale prices; moreover, even

the people from high-income groups did

Table 2. Land unit prices (in $) of Akaretler

based on revenue administration.

Table 3. Unit prices of Akaretler based on

revenue administration.

not prefer these buildings. Many brands

started to close their shops and these

were transformed into restaurants, coffee

shops, and bars. However, the real estate

firm of the project kept their prices

pegged for a long time.” (Yeşiltaş, Real

Estate Agent)

“… the big brands began to close their

branches because of the high rents…

Then, they planned to invite art studios

and revised their project visions

from finance to art; however, the prices

were not affordable, especially for artists

and small studios.” (Usluca, Real Estate

Agent)

In addition to the financial situation

of the project itself, its economic effect

can also be observed in the property

values of its immediate surroundings.

According to data from the reports of

the Revenue Administration (Table 2),

the dollar unit prices of land increased

between 2002 and 2014 along the Şair

Nedim and Süleyman Seba streets (Table

3). Especially after the completion

of the project in 2010, this progress has

continued to accelerate.

On the other hand, the project drew

the attention of the investors to the

neighborhood and a new large-scale

housing project was planned and completed

during the same period.

“When the restoration project was

completed, the demand for its surroundings

developed rapidly. Some large-scale

housing projects like Maçka Residence

were constructed. Due to the restoration

project and large-scale housing estates,


27

the square meter unit prices of buildings

were at least doubled.” (Yeşiltaş, Real

Estate Agent)

“It can be clearly said that the restoration

project increased the economic

power of the district. It also affected

property values positively and became a

driving power behind the making of new

large-scale investments.” (Female, Urban

Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)

“The restoration project increased the

rents and prices in its surroundings. In

particular, students started to complain

about high rents because property owners

point to the project as a precedent.

This situation is the basis of the gentrification

concept.” (Female, 77, Resident,

Urban Planner-Academician)

Physical improvements increase

the market demand for an area and

increase the highest potential value of

the properties within it (Smith, 1979;

1996; Billig & Churchman, 2003). This

effect also spreads beyond the project

borders and produces similar results in

its surroundings (Smith, 2001). In the

case of the restoration of the Akaretler

row houses, the economic value and

activity caused by the project cannot

be ignored. The increased land values,

unit prices, and employment level, and

the overall economic revival in the area

can be accepted as positive economic

outcomes of the project especially from

the point of landowners. On the other

hand, serious financial issues arising

from the real estate policies surrounding

the project and affecting the tenants,

some of whom have been living in

the area for a long time, must be counted

as a major negative consequence.

This tendency might lead a residential

gentrification in the surrounding area

in the long run.

3.3.3. Functional effects

According to Batur (1979), and as

previously mentioned, the Akaretler

row houses have had many different

functions. The majority of local users

remembered these functions and

they emphasized their public nature.

They claimed that the row houses were

more open to public use before the

restoration, but today their commercial

functions as cafes, bars, and hotels

that appeal to mostly middle and upper-income

residents and visitors from

different parts of Istanbul limit user diversity

due to the financial constraints

of the local people.

“The community center where we

spent our free time was very important

for us. There was a coffeehouse in the

center where people used to met each

other and discuss daily issues. Also, there

were some sport activities like table tennis

for young people to spend their time.”


“There were different functions like a

grocery store, shoemaker, ironmonger,

and other shops in the row houses. We

used them a lot, especially the community

center.” (Male, 65, Resident)

“The row houses were open to us, it

was free, today we have to pay money

to do something in there.” (Female, 40,

Resident)

“When the project opened to the public

in 2008, we were shocked because

of the big brands, expensive shops, and

restaurants. We knew that the restoration

would change many things; however,

we did not expect such radical

changes.” (Male, 50, Tradesmen)

After the completion of the project,

in order to attract the desired social

profile the type of functions totally

changed (Figure 9), so the local identity.

Today, some of the row houses have

residential functions, but the majority

are used by service industries such as

rented office spaces, art studios, restaurants,

bars, cafes, and a hotel. Although

local users complain about this change,

academicians and authorities support

this transformation and the new functions.

They emphasize the importance

of the row houses and claim that they

should be used for more suitable purposes.

“The project is in harmony with the

touristic aspect of Beşiktaş. There are

several different facilities and most of

them attract users from different areas.

The area also has strong connections

with the Nişantaşı, Taksim and Bosporus

neighborhoods. In short, it is a

very vivacious place in Beşiktaş and the

project has allowed this to be possible.”

(Female, Urban Planner for Beşiktaş

Municipality)

“The functional pattern of area totally

changed with the project. There is a

strong relationship between these new

functions and the surrounding areas.


28

Figure 9. Functional change of row houses (Source: Bilgili Holding).

The project has an integrated spatial

scenario in terms of its functional systems.”

(Female, 45, Resident, Urban


In brief, it can be said that the project

has played an important role in

promoting new functions and supporting

mixed use. The functional change,

occurred in Akaretler, spread and continued

along Süleyman Saba and Şair

Nedim Streets. The number of coffee

shops, restaurants, hotels, art galleries,

and specific retail activities like organic

food market started to increase in these

streets. While this commercial transformation

contributes to the demanded

urban space quality by the newcomers,

the same urban space causes a

decrease in the life quality of especially

low income residents. Despite the difficulties

and concerns regarding public

access, these new functions have created

a new focal point in Beşiktaş and

increased interest in the area and its

close surroundings. They play a critical

role in sustaining the balance between

local users and newcomers, and as new

functions are planned, both the needs

of existing users and the expectations

of outsiders should be evaluated to

provide a sustainable social environment

(Billig & Churchman, 2003; Freeman,

2005).

3.3.4. Cultural effects

In terms of the cultural environment,

the first visible result is the

Ataturk museum which is open to the

public on weekdays. In addition, the

exhibition halls, design studios, and art

galleries which were converted from

retail stores after 2010 along with the

transformation of the district into a

venue to hold street festivals, celebrations,

and shows changed the cultural

pattern of the area. The new activities

which offer various consumption alternatives

and support the trendy life

style, made Akaretler more attractive

to especially high-income groups and

daily tourists. The interviewed academicians

evaluated these developments

as a contribution to the existing cultural

capital of the Beşiktaş district and to

the row houses:

“Beşiktaş has always had cultural

potential; therefore, the project does not

affect the area’s cultural perspective too

much. It just increased the type of users,

such as tourists, and supported a greater

variety.” (Female, 45, Resident, Urban


“Cultural events increase the attraction

of the row houses… The row houses

have become a popular place with the

help of event advertisements in magazines.”

(Female, 77, Resident, Urban


However, the majority of local users

asserted that events and festivals do not

match their expectations, and believe

that they should include more local

values or traditions. In addition, they

emphasized that there is not a sincere

atmosphere that would prompt them

to communicate with the newcomers,

especially tourists. Therefore, they generally

do not attend these organized

events.

“I have never been to the Ataturk

Museum, I do not even know if it is free

or not. A few days ago, there was an exhibition

but I do not know what exactly

it was. I saw the posters when I walked

by on the street.” (Male, 54, Tradesmen)

“The user profile totally changed after

the restoration project. Especially due to

the existence of the W Hotel, the number

of foreign tourists has increased. Also,

people from high-income groups have

started to come to Akaretler. But, I have

no communication with them.” (Male,

44, Resident)

“Many events have taken place there,


29

but I never attend. I have no time or

money for them, I have to work.” (Male,

42, Tradesmen)

“At New Year, they arranged a celebration

party in the street. However, this

celebration led to traffic problems and

noise pollution. We complained to the

authorities, but we did not get a result.”

(Male, 55, Resident)

“How can I go to a shopping festival?

Everything is too expensive for

me. I prefer the neighborhood bazaar.

There should be more local and cheaper

events.” (Female, 40, Resident)

The restoration project transformed

the row houses to a place for cultural

events which in turn raised their popularity.

However, while these attractions

invite the desired new user profile, they

exclude local residents due to their

economic and social constraints. In response,

these residents demand cheaper

activities that contain both local and

traditional values.

3.3.5. Social effects

As mentioned above, there are some

positive physical, economic, functional,

and cultural effects of the Akaretler

Row Houses Restoration Project. However,

the social outcomes of the project

have proved to be the most wide-ranging.

All of the other effects of the project

have a direct connection with the

social environment, and they have lead

to some problematic changes and conflicts.

The first issue to result from the

project was the forced displacement of

the existing tenants, and this is a key

memory for many of the participants

in this study.

“Before the beginning of the construction,

I think in the 1980s, my relatives

and other people were removed and

transferred to other public housing in

Beşiktaş. People from the municipality

told them that the row houses will be

used for tourism. Because of their jobs,

my relatives were not affected too badly;

however, some of their neighbors had

some difficulties due to this sudden eviction.”

(Female, 48, Resident)

“Many stores in Akaretler closed before

the beginning of the construction.

Many people had to leave their homes.”

(Male, 50, Resident)

“My grandparents lived in the row

houses. They did not think that they

would be evicted by the government because

of the project. However, they suddenly

had to find a new house to move

to, and this process was very distressing.

There were many families like us…” (Female,

45, Resident, Urban Planner-Academician)

The second issue is the economic

disparity between users. Although the

project has provided a recovery in the

neighborhood economy, local people

could afford and use these row houses

before the restoration. Today, they

only appeal to incoming highincome

groups, and the high rents mean that

they are not affordable for local residents.

This condition is exemplified by

the huge gap between the unit prices of

Akaretler and those outside of the project

area.

“Rents were more affordable before

the restoration process. Now, the situation

is the total opposite. Rents start

from 10000$, and so living in Akaretler

is like a dream. Akaretler means money

for us. If you don’t have money to spend

there, you cannot use anything from

there.” (Male, 55, Tradesmen)

“I spent my childhood in the row

houses, and when I compare the past

and present situation, I accept the positive

physical effects of the restoration

that have increased the aesthetic value

of the environment. However, none of

the new functions appeal to us. At least

the name of the hotel could be Turkish.

I miss the neighborhood soul, the honest

grocery owner, and the entertaining

times in the coffee house.” (Male, 57,

Resident)

“When the construction started, I

read a news item that was like an advertisement

for the project. The headline of

the news was “Cooking onions or garlic

and eating kebabs is forbidden!” Just this

news gives an idea about the user profile

of the project.” (Male, 48, Resident)

The last issue was derived from the

functional and physical effects of the

project. Although the quality of the

physical environment has increased

and the projects have provided a new

type of mixed-use functions, these

opportunities appeal only to the predetermined

high and middle-high income

user groups. Local residents do

not prefer the new facilities due to their


30

high prices and they use the Akaretler

row houses as a shortcut. In the past,

the row houses had local shops and

public facilities and were more open

to public use. People could spend their

time without spending money, especially

in the community center.

“The row houses were more open to

public use and there were more proper

facilities and spaces for us. We could use

the school, community center, and other

commercial facilities like the grocery

store. Now, the row houses appeal to a

specific social profile, especially high-income

groups.” (Male, 54, Resident)

“None of these restaurants and upper-class

shops appeal to us. I hope they

will not spread to other parts of the Şair

Nedim and Süleyman Saba streets.”


“We can only use the streets of the

Akaretler to walk through, they are the

only free things in there.” (Female, 47,

Resident)

“The multi-story parking garage

could be very beneficial for us because

of the parking problem in Beşiktaş; however,

the prices are so high. I have only

used it once and I cannot afford regular

use.” (Male, 55, Resident)

“The new functions and new users do

not affect my jobs positively. I never get a

job from the people living there. If there

is an electrical problem, they will not

hire me to fix it.” (Male, 65, Tradesmen)

Although academicians and authorities

in the municipality support

the opinions of the local residents and

identify this project as an example of

gentrification, they also claim that it

is successful because it increases the

quality of the physical and social environment,

promotes a better vision

of Beşiktaş, and also protects the deserved

architectural and historical significance

of the row houses.

“I think that the restoration project

is a successful example of gentrification.

The social environment changed

positively after the project... The other

functions have also changed the dominant

user profile that is, generally, white

collar workers. From the state officials of

foundations to high-income white collar

workers, that means gentrification.” (Female,

77, Resident, Urban Planner-Academician)

“The project invited a new social profile

that includes white collar workers,

artists, and international tourists....

Also, with the restoration, the property

prices in Süleyman Saba and Şair Nedim

streets increased rapidly. I can say

clearly that the project initiated the current

gentrification process in Akaretler,

and that the social consequences of the

project should be observed and studies

should be done in the future.” (Female,

Urban Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)

Consequently, as seen in Table 4,


Project has affected the economic,

physical, functional, social and cultural

environment both positively and negatively.

According to existing residents,

these changes have had a negative influence

especially on the social environment.

Some positive effects such

as the economic contribution of the

project do not affect local residents and

business owners directly; therefore,

there is an argument to be made that

the majority of the positive effects are

valid only within the site, and do not

apply to its surroundings.

As Shaw & Hagemans (2015) stated,

the displacement issue is an adverse

result of gentrification. In addition, as

the existing community is displaced

Table 4. Positive and negative effects of Akaretler project.


31

by newcomers, they leave with their

local values, traditions, and characteristic

behaviors (Tiesdell, Oc, & Heath,

2008). On the other hand, external

interventions often break the natural

harmony between social status and

complicate the integration process

(Robinson, 1995). In this context, the

interviews and observations show that

while the public accessibility of the row

houses decreased, the privatization of

the public spaces increased. Those responsible

for the project have not been

able to provide integration between the

social groups, and this has lead to segregation.

4. General evaluation and result

Gentrification is a physical, economic,

social and cultural phenomenon,

and commonly involves an invasion

“by more affluent users” (Hackworth,

2002) of a previous group’s area and the

replacement or displacement of many

of the original occupants (Kempen &

Weesep, 1994; Bondi, 1999; Bostic &

Martin, 2003). From the first wave to

the third wave of the process, gentrification

has been transformed from an

unexpected result of the transformation

process to a deliberately applied redevelopment

policy tool (Hyra, 2016).

In Istanbul, with the third wave, the

role of private firms and public-private

partnership increased and gentrification

became a legitimate redevelopment

policy (Çeker and Belge, 2015).

In this sense the Akaretler Row Houses

Restoration Project can be accepted as

an example of third wave gentrification

because of the roles of both the

state and private sectors. However,

even though it started with the aim of

conserving the existing pattern and the

revitalization of physical conditions, it

has lead to the gentrification of the area

and has brought some negative social

consequences.

In terms of the physical impact;

Akaratler Row Houses Project provided

tangible positive results such as a

higher environmental quality, the development

of amenities, and a better

aesthetic atmosphere. In addition, the

success of the project in terms of sustaining

a balance between preservation

and development is highlighted. However,

local residents remarked on the

physical disparities between the project

and the surrounding area, which is

in-line with the claims of Chirstafore &

Leguizamon (2018).

In functional terms, high-quality

mixed-use functions decreased the

public access to the site, despite the

fact that new proposals should be open

to all groups (Billig & Churchman,

2003). The changes in the physical and

functional environment increased the

demand for both the site itself and its

surrounding area and so increased

the value of land and buildings. Even

though the Akaretler Row Houses Restoration

Project has provided economic

recovery, after the project the area

transformed into a new focal point like

Taksim, Ortaköy, and Nişantaşı and

gained a new identity which is far from

its previous local identity. In addition,

local residents pointed out the lack of

affordability and the high prices of the

row houses. New economic conditions

bring new social profiles (Musterd and

Ostendorf, 2005) and these new social

groups, namely; white-collar workers,

apply social pressure to existing users,

leading to social segregation (Boterman

& Gent, 2014; Parekh, 2014). Although

the responding academicians

highlighted the existence of a positive

social profile in Akaretler, local respondents

dwelled on the economic

disparity between the groups, a lack

of social balance, and integration difficulties.

And also, some respondents

still remember the eviction of their

relatives from the row houses with a

degree of bitterness. The social integration

problems have also affected the

cultural consequences of the project.

In Akaretler, according to the academicians

and the municipal authority,

the new profile supports the cultural

value of the area, and the project has

transformed the row houses into an attractive

venue for cultural events. On

the other hand, the local respondents

indicated that they do not attend these

events, as they do not appeal to them

either socially or economically. In such

cases, the perceived lack of respect for

the local identity makes social integration

more difficult, even impossible as

indicated by Tiesdell and his colleagues

(2008).

Even though the Akaretler Row


32

Houses Restoration Project can be stated

as being successful physically, today

the district appeals only to the pre-determined

high-income groups it was

intended to attract, rather than offering

its services to all, and it would not

be incorrect to predict that this process

will spread to most of its surrounding

areas as already happened along the

Süleyman Seba and Şair Nedim Streets.

With an expansion of the effects of gentrification,

the negative impacts on the

neighborhood can only increase and

even these effects might lead to new

forms of gentrification in the district.

Urban transformation should be a

process that protects residents’ rights

and place memory, and which also ensures

their participation. It is the local

authority that can and should prevent

capital-oriented transformation, the

privatization of public spaces, the displacement

of local people during this

process, and the destruction of local

culture. As a result, there is a need for

clearer urban policies regarding the

protection of social and cultural patterns

while attempting to conserve or

repurpose architecturally valuable examples

of the physical structure.

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Case issues and data on houses

in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı

registers

Hatice Gökçen ÖZKAYA

gokcenakgun@yahoo.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of

Architecture, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

Received: July 2018 • Final Acceptance: July 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.67044

Abstract

The Kadı registers, like many written sources of Ottoman record-keeping, are

important sources for historical research on Ottoman urban and housing history.

These records also include research potential in terms of taking into account

different cases together. The purpose of this article is to reveal this potential for

architects and architectural historians. To do this, for four different regions of

Istanbul – Istanbul (Suriçi), Eyüp, Galata and Usküdar – legal matters that arose

in four periods in the 17th century have been studied in detail. This study has

included many cases involving different housing issues, such as sales, mortgage

(rehin) or temporary sales of houses as collateral (bey bi’l vefa/bey bi’l istiğlal),

inheritance of property, tenancy of houses, granting ownership rights (hibe),

establishment of waqf (charitable) foundations and cost estimation of housing

repairs. In turn, discussions about the houses in different contexts that were

recorded in the courts during the 17th century have been revealed. Within the

scope of the article, these cases about the houses and the data obtained from

this material is introduced to researchers. In this way, a substructure is prepared

for new discussions, comparative reviews, analyses and research in the field of

housing during the Ottoman period in Istanbul.

Keywords

House, Istanbul, Kadı registers, Ottoman, 17th century.

38

1. Introduction

As in many cities in Ottoman regions,

due to the lack of the number of

houses dated before the 19th century,

“housing in the Ottoman period” is an

area that is full of unknowns and waiting

to be investigated in the capital city

of Istanbul. In order to eliminate gaps

in this area, Ottoman written documents

provide valuable data. This article

deals with cases in Istanbul Kadı 1

registers of the 17th century that exemplify

the houses of a large urban group

in Istanbul and the information about

the houses in these cases. The aim is to

introduce these cases, which provide

important information about the houses

and the city, to architectural history

researchers and to create a new route

for Ottoman housing research. This

study was established within the scope

of a research project supported by the

TUBITAK Career Development Program

and also provides information

about the material used by the project.

The material contains all kinds of

court records related to houses in Istanbul

in the Kadı registers of the 17th

century. Examined registers and the

number of cases about houses in them

are shown in Table 1.

These registers include transactions

on many issues, such as sales, mortgages

(rehin), inheritance of property,

tenancy of houses, granting of ownership

rights, establishment of waqf

foundations, and the estimated costs of

housing repairs. The number of cases

in Istanbul (Suriçi), Eyüp, Galata and

Usküdar involving these issues has

been evaluated and is shown in Figure

1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively.

According to these graphics, the

most frequently encountered cases are

sales transactions. The cases involving

this issue are in the percentage

segments that vary between 44%–

58% in the registers examined on

the basis of regions (Figure 5). In the

second order, the transactions where

the debtor is providing the house as

collateral for a loan are displayed.

These transactions include mortgage

(rehin) of houses and temporary sales

transactions called “Bey Bi’l vefa”

or “Bey Bi’l Istiğlal”. The ratio of the

number of cases on this issue varies

Table 1. Examined registers and number of cases related to houses.

Figure 1. Number of cases according to issues in Istanbul (Suriçi)

for four periods of the 17th century.

between 12%–24% (Figure 5). Other

case issues are generally below 10%

in the context of the number of cases.

These can be arranged in order as cases

about a portion of hereditary with the

houses divided among the inheritors,

cases related to the tenants such as

tenancy of houses, transferring tenant

rights, granting the residence permit,

cases related to granting ownership

rights of houses, cases related to the

establishment of waqf foundations and

cases related to the estimation of the

cost of repairing houses. In addition,

issues such as the so-called istibdal

(exchange of properties between

property owners -waqfs and people)

and other issues are negligible in terms

1

Kadı is a

Muslim judge

who interpreted

and administered

the religious law

of Islam and

settled civil cases

about sales of

the properties,

disputes between

the urban dwellers,

inheritance,

housing and Islamic

endowments, etc.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya

obtained from these cases. After the informative

section, the article puts forward

proposals as to how data from the

registers can be used for research about

urban texture and the architecture of

urban housing.

39

Figure 2. Number of cases according to issues in Eyub for four

periods of the 17th century.

Figure 3. Number of cases according to issues in Galata for four


2

Concerning

the studies about

the history of

Ottoman houses

using the cases of

sales transactions,

see Artan, 1989;

Faroqhi, 2009;

Gönenç, 2014;

Halaç, 2010.

3

For further

information on

these cases, please

see Günay, 2012,

p.15-24.

of both being very low in proportion

to the whole and the very limited

information to be obtained from them.

In addition, the data obtained from

the Kadı registers also vary according

to case issues. Figure 6, which shows

what kind of data can be accessed in

each case, will be enlightening in this

sense. These data will be explained in

detail with case issues.

Following the quantitative evaluation

of the cases and data, detailed

information will be given on the case

issues and the data groups that can be

2. Sales of houses

The most common case related to the

houses in the Kadı registers concerns

the sale of houses. On average, 44% of

the cases that could be examined about

the houses during the 17th century in

Istanbul (Suriçi), 58% of the cases in

Eyüp, 52% of the cases in Galata and

57% of the cases in Usküdar (Figure

5) concern property sales. The results

show that sales of houses between individuals

are the most common practice,

and that middle-class city-dwellers

frequently put their homes up for sale.

Also, these ratios show why sales transactions

in the court registers have been

frequently applied as data to be used in

research about Ottoman houses. 2

A house sale was a transaction taking

place with the approval of the buyer

and seller in the presence of the Kadı,

so detailed information about this process

and the houses subject to sale is

given in the registers. 3 First of all, since

sales transactions take place between

individuals, the case registers contain

the title and name of the old and new

owners of the houses. Thus, in the light

of this information, researchers can determine

the socioeconomic status, ethno-religious

background and gender

of the new and former owners. Also,

the location of the houses is indicated

with the name of the city and the information

about the quarter (mahalle),

as also are the names of the owners of

the properties surrounding the house.

Therefore, it is possible to find out

where residents recorded in the registers

live in the city. This allows one to

see the distribution of different urban

groups in the city. In addition, it is also

possible to get information about the

size and features of the houses being

sold. This allows us to access spatial

data of the house, such as the rooms,

open spaces, as cooking spaces, storage

areas, components related to hygiene

and some insight into how these

spaces are arranged in the house. The

other important data about the hous-

Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers

40

es obtained from the sales registers are

the sales prices of the houses, namely

their financial value. As a result, all information

creates a rich database for us

to make evaluations about the housing

stock in Istanbul.

3. Mortgage (Rehin), temporary sales

(Bey Bi’l vefa and Bey Bi’l Istiğlal) of

houses

Following house sales in frequency

are transactions where a debtor provides

a house as collateral for a loan

(rehin) or a temporary sale (Bey Bi’l

vefa or Bey Bi’l Istiğlal). In other words,

different practices such as a kind of

mortgage or repo are among the most

common case issues related to homes. 4

On average, these issues affected 17%

of registered transactions in Istanbul,

23% in Eyüp, 12% in Galata, and 24%

in Usküdar (Figure 5).

It is worth explaining that these cases

have not been mentioned until now

in studies about Ottoman houses, but

they are thought to constitute a source

of material as rich as sales transactions

and create a new discussion route by

providing important and interesting

contributions to this area. Indeed,

these are the methods through which

Ottoman people used to try frequently

to borrow money. With these ways,

for a certain time until the debt is paid,

the properties are given as collateral to

the money lender or sold temporarily

to the lender, on condition that when

the debtor/old owner pays his debt,

he buys the property from the lender

again for the same price. 5 As a result

of the mortgage (rehin) of the properties

for a temporary period, the lender

does not gain any profit. The property

should only be taken as collateral and

the lender cannot utilize it if the real

owner of the property does not permit.

(Mesci, 2017) However, as a result of

the temporary sale of the house (bey

bi’l vefa), it is possible for the creditor/

lender to lay down conditions at the

beginning, he can use that property

during this period. 6

On the other hand, bey bi’l-istiğlal

is defined as a type of bey bi’l vefa in

which the borrower sells his home to

the lender and then rents his home

from that lender until he pays his

debt. 7 Thus, the borrower will be in

Figure 4. Number of cases according to issues in Usküdar for four


Figure 5. Percentage distribution of cases by issues for four regions

in the 17th century.

Figure 6. Distribution of types of data obtained from registers by

case issues.


4

Indeed, there

are researchers

who discuss the

similarity of these

processes with

repos. In his paper,

Turan explained in

detail the different

and similar aspects

of Bey Bi’l vefa to

repo. See Turan,

2015, p.127-128.

5

In Netîcetü’lfetâvâ

ve

Mecmûa-i Atâiyye,

the definition

of Bey bi’l-vefa

is explained as

“Bedelini geri

getirdiğimde bana

satman şartıyla

sana sattım,

diyerek yapılan

akde bey‘u’l-vefa

denir. (I sold it to

you on condition

that you sold it to

me when I paid

the price.)” This is

cited by Kaya from

these documents:

Dürrîzâde,

Mehmed Ârif

Efendi, Netîcetü’lfetâvâ,

trc. Seyyid

Hafız Mehmed el-

Gedûsî, Matbaa-i

Âmire, İstanbul

h. 1265, s. 496;

Atâullah Mehmed

Ef., Mecmûa-i

Atâiyye, müst. Ali

b. Yahya, yazma,

İstanbul h. 1140

(Süleymaniye,

Esad Ef. 920), vr.

132a. See Kaya,

2010, p.101.

6

Bey bi’l vefa

is discussed in

a wide range of

studies in the field

of Islamic law.

For more detailed

information about

these discussions

that are out of the

scope of the article,

see the following

resources: Yelek,

2016, p.109-119.

this case the tenant of his own house

and the creditor will benefit from the

rent of the house during the specified

period. If the debt is paid at the end of

this period, the house will return to its

first owner.

When examined in detail, it can

be seen that these three applications

–mortgage (rehin), bey bi’l vefa and

bey bi’l istiğlal- are derivatives of each

other. Gözübenli (1990) also makes

statements supporting this thought. He

states that, according to the Hanafi faqih,

the transaction which is expressed

as a temporary sale for a period of time

until the debt is paid, actually means

a mortgage. According to this, in all

three transactions, it can be said that

the debtor used his house as a pledge

until he was able to pay his debts to the

lender. On the other hand, in the context

of the benefits, there are differences

between them so that for the lender

bey bi’l istiğlal seems to be a much

more profitable practice. The rent value

of the house sold temporarily with

bey bi’l istiğlal is added to the debt at

the beginning. When the registers are

examined, it is obvious that this application

is more attractive for the creditors

compared to the mortgage (rehin)

and bey bi’l vefa because the amount of

rent, with a minimum rate of 10% on

average, is paid to the lender as a fixed

income during the term of the debt.

In the registers, quantitative results

among the applications also confirm

this situation. Bey bi’l istiğlal (81% of

the three methods) is the most preferred

method. In other words, the

temporary sale and renting of a house

to the borrower by the lender at once

is a frequently encountered situation in

the registers. 8

In addition, when the parties of

these transactions are examined, one

encounters some interesting findings.

The lenders who temporarily become

owner of the house in return for the

loan are generally either waqf foundations

or underage orphans. The reason

for them to get involved in these applications

is that the cash money is managed

and this means that these institutions

and orphans obtain income in

this way. These findings are consistent

with the findings of Kaya (2010) who

examines the accounting records. He

says that more than half of the waqfs in

Usküdar at the end of the 18th century

were using cash capital management

methods led by bey bi’l istiğlal and they

achieved the most income in these

ways. 9

In accordance with this information,

it can be understood why this material

with its rich content is interesting for

studies about Ottoman houses. First of

all, from these registers, we learn the

names and titles of persons/institutions

that are the money lenders (new

temporary house owner) and also the

original house owner who is the debtor

– and mostly the temporary tenant of

his house after the sale process. Indeed,

the original owner of the house generally

continues to live in the same house,

even as a tenant for a certain period of

time, especially for sales transactions

made through istiğlal. Therefore, if the

residents in the houses are to be examined,

this situation of the owner should

be taken into account.

Besides the borrower’s and lender’s

names, detailed information pointing

out the quality of the house is given

in the registers. Since there is a debt

in these applications, the quality of the

house provided as collateral for this

debt is important. For this reason, as

in the sales transactions, the houses

are described with their size, features,

components and location in the city.

Thus, these cases are useful for architectural

researchers to evaluate spatial

arrangements of Istanbul houses in the

17th century.

Another data group that can be reviewed

from these cases are the sales

prices and the rental prices of the houses

for istiğlal cases. However, the situation

for these loan cases are different

from straight sales transactions. Since

the house is sold temporarily as collateral

for the debt, it is advisable to have

doubts about whether the price of the

house given in the registers is the real

value or not. As a matter of fact, Mesci

(2017) explains this subject in his thesis.

He says that it is not necessary to

determine the real price of goods sold

by the way of bey bi’l vefa; goods can

be sold under or above the real value.

On the other hand, the real value of the

house is not expected to be less than

the owner’s debt. Therefore, it is useful

41


42

to think that the sale price of the house

sold against the debt is more than the

debt, and that it may be worth close to

it. However, it is certain that the analysis

cannot be made on exact sale prices

as in the sales registers. The same situation

goes for the rental value of the

house, unfortunately.

As an example of this situation,

the sicil numbered 139 of the Rumeli

court provides remarkable information

about a case of bey bi’l istiğlal.

(Rumeli Court sicil no.139) A person

named Yorgi owed 160 esedi guruş

to a waqf foundation and pledged his

house against this debt to the foundation

through istiğlal. However, when

his debt could not be paid, the house

was put on sale at auction by the foundation.

During this sale, it was stated

that Yorgi’s debt was 216 guruş and the

sale price of the house was 250 guruş.

The difference and increase of 56 guruş

in the debt must be due to accumulated

rent. However; due to the lack of information

about the elapsed time, it is

impossible to find out the monthly or

annual value of the rent. But it seems

that the house was being sold over 90

guruş of debt through auction, indicating

that the prices in these applications

do not point to the real values of the

houses, as Mesci explained. Also, as we

have seen, it is reasonable to assume

that the real value is equal to or more

than the debt.

4. Inheritance / Portion of the

inheritance

Cases about inheritance of properties

also provide material for studies

of the Ottoman houses. However,

it should be noted that the number

of these cases is very limited because

registers related to the houses inherited

and shared between the inheritors

throughout the century are on average

9% of the registers in Istanbul, 3% of

the registers in Eyüp, 13% of the registers

in Galata and 4% of the registers in

Üsküdar (Figure 5).

Since the cases vary in terms of the

data available, it is necessary to evaluate

them in two groups. First, some of

the cases mainly involve a discussion

about how to equitably share the portions

of the house among the inheritors

and disagreements between the shareholders

about this subject. According

to the data obtained from this first

group, we can find information about

the property owners/tenants, location

of the house and the residents of neighboring

lands as well as sometimes the

size of the house. Second, other cases

are concerned with estate accounting

(tereke). In this group, the amount of

data obtained from the registers about

the estate accounting is very limited.

These registers provide only the data

on the location and the real value of

the house. Therefore; it is useful to take

into account that all these cases, which

do not have a large number of registers,

have limitations in terms of supplying

valuable information about the houses.

5. Tenancy (Tasarruf) of houses

On average, 12% in Istanbul, 4% in

Eyüp, 6% in Galata and 2% in Usküdar

(Figure 5) of the cases are about

the tenancy of the houses. Therefore,

these issues can be said to have a low

proportion of the cases. The transactions

related to tenancy are evaluated

in three groups: (1) renting houses, (2)

transferring dominium utile to another

tenant and (3) granting residence permits

in waqf houses.

In the first group of cases, the terms

and conditions of tenancy are very important

for understanding the practice.

For Ottomans, there were different

forms of tenancy 10 , but in this article

we stated only one form of it. That is

because the houses were usually rented

to tenants in the form of icareteyn

in these registers. In the form of this

tenancy, two separate rent moneys are

taken from the tenant, namely icare-i

muaccele and icare-i müeccele. Rented

houses are repaired with the first

payment called icare-i muaccele, while

houses rented for a long period of

time are paid for with the second rent

money called icare-i müeccele, which

is calculated on a daily, monthly or

yearly basis. In this form of tenancy,

the tenant may use the rented building

and land for almost a lifetime and may

leave the dominium utile to his or her

children as inheritance or transfer it to

someone else. So, when we look at the

data obtained from court records on

this issue, we will find additional useful

data other than the sales price of the

7

Kaya, cited the

definition of Bey

bi’l-istiglal from

Mecelle (MD.

118) as “Bayi‘ bir

malı istîcar etmek

üzere vefâen bey‘

etmektir.” See Kaya,

2010, p.101.

8

Kaya draws

attention to the

increase in the

use of the “bey bi’l

istiğlal” method

when comparing

between the

Kanuni’s period

and the 18th

century. Even if

the rate of this

increase was not

determined during

the period in which

it was examined,

one notices they

have a significant

percentage of

the transactions

recorded in the

register about the

houses. See Kaya,

2010.

9

Kaya states that

“Vakıfların, nakit

sermaye işletirken

doğrudan faiz alma

imkânları yoktur.

Vakıf mütevellileri

de diğer şahıs ve

kurumlar gibi

faiz yasağını

çiğnememek

üzere muamele-i

şer‘iye veya

bey‘ bi’l-istiğlâl

gibi yöntemlere

başvurmak

durumundadırlar.


(Foundations

do not have the

opportunity to

get direct interest

when operating

cash capital. Like

other people and

institutions, to

manage the cash

money, trustees

of the waqf

foundations apply

such methods as

muamele-i şer’iye

or bey bi’l-istiğlal

to prevent the

prohibition of

interest)” and

according to

the results of

his survey, “81

vakıftan 28 tanesi

sadece nakit

sermaye işleterek

gelir elde ederken

11 tanesi sadece

kira geliri elde

etmiştir. 42 vakıf

ise her iki tür

gelire de sahiptir.

Bu vakıfların

toplam geliri

yıllık 1.347.017

akçe olup bunun

905.663 akçesi

nakit sermaye

getirisi iken geri

kalan 441.354 akçe

kira gelirlerinin

toplamıdır. (28 of

the 81 foundations

were operating only

cash capital and 11

were operating only

rent income; 42 of

the foundations

had both types of

income. The total

income of these

foundations was

1.347.017 akçes,

while 905.663

akçes of it was

income of the

cash capital, the

remaining 441.354

was the total of

rental income)”.

See Kaya, 2010,

p.97.

house, such as the name and title of the

residents (i.e., tenants), the location of

the house in the city, spatial configuration

in the house and the rental price

(Figure 6).

The second issue encountered in the

records related to tenancy is transferring

dominium utile, which refers to

the right to use a property even though

not owning it. This transfer process,

called ferağ in Ottoman Turkish, had

to be actualized with the permission of

the property owner. The tenant could

transfer dominium utile of all or part

of the house to another person in exchange

for a rental transfer price with

approximately the same value as the

sales price. So, in these registers, as

in the sales transactions, ferağ value,

which is approximately the same value

as the sales price is a piece of information

important for understanding the

financial value of the house. The other

data obtained from these cases are also

the same as what is found in cases of

renting.

The third issue of this type concerns

the granting of residence permits in

the houses of waqf foundations to their

officers working there. Since these are

the houses that are allocated to the

foundation workers for free in return

for their services, there is no rental cost

involved. For this reason, in these registers,

we cannot get any information

about the financial value of the houses.

When the waqf foundation would give

residence permission in one of their

houses to a worker in return for his

services, the data entered in the registers

are the name and title of the worker,

the location of the house and also

information about the neighbors.

6. Granting ownership rights (Hibe)

of houses and establishment of waqf

foundations

The cases for the donation of houses

from one person to another or to a waqf

foundation provide similar quantitative

and qualitative data for the studies

of Ottoman houses. Of all cases investigated,

those involving hibe and waqf

establishment represented just 3% / 3%

in Istanbul, 3% / 3% in Eyup, 4% / 3%

in Galata and 4% / 3% in Usküdar (Figure

5), respectively. As can be seen, the

percentage of the cases in both matters

is very low.

In the context of the data obtained

from these cases, since there is no data

on sales or rental prices and also descriptions

of spaces in the house are

not included in some registers, the

number of cases of useful data will decrease

even further for the researcher

who wants to study Istanbul housing

history.

7. Cost estimation for repairing

houses

These are cases in which itemized

expenses spent for repairing houses

by examining on-site records are recorded.

This type holds a very limited

place among the cases of the houses

quantitively. On average, this subject

constitutes 3% in Istanbul, 2% in Eyüp,

2% in Galata, and 1% in Üsküdar (Figure

5) of all cases. On the other hand,

it should be noted that repair cases are

interesting in terms of presenting a different

group of data on housing studies.

These cases include clues about the expenditures

related to the construction

work and what is taken into account

in valuation of the houses. Because

the expenditures for the construction

materials and components used for repairing

the house are recorded one by

one, the data obtained on the construction

of a house is very valuable.

8. Potentials of data in Kadı registers

for research about architecture of

Ottoman houses and urban texture

in Istanbul

All these cases in the Kadı registers

exemplify many houses of a large urban

group, namely houses of different

socioeconomic and ethno-religious

classes, over a large area of Istanbul

(Suriçi) and Bilad-ı Selase regions

(Eyüb, Galata and Usküdar) in the 17th

century. To understand the registers’

area of exemplification and where the

mentioned houses are in a city plan, research

mapping the city quarters in the

17th century will be very useful. An Istanbul

map including four regions prepared

in accordance for this purpose

shows the extent of the research area

and the richness of the registers clearly

(Figure 7).

After the information about case

studies and in the light of this map-

43


44

Figure 7. City map showing locations of houses in 17th century Kadı Registers.

ping, it is useful to review the data

groups shown in Figure 6 and evaluate

the potential of data for research about

the architecture of Ottoman houses

and urban texture in Istanbul. Indeed,

each group of data has the potential

to be evaluated in itself. On the other

hand, comparative reviews of different

data groups will be an interesting and

critical approach to open discussion

about housing and urban texture.

For a discussion of the potential of

these data, let us start with sale and

rental prices. The prices of houses in Istanbul

city and its regions and the trend

of the prices through the century give

clues to understanding the living and

housing conditions of urban-dwellers.

Examining the calculation of prices

and discussing the factors having an

impact on differentiation and changes

of them according to the regions

during the same period are important

facts to consider in terms of the land

appraisal and urban density. Discussion

can be made on comparative studies

according to the regions and also

the quarters (mahalle). Indeed, distinguishing

the impact of the land value

from the impact of the building itself

on the sales price is very difficult. But

it is possible to open a discussion by

comparing these data with the other

data groups. For instance, comparing

the prices of houses with the same

space components will give an idea

about their relative land appraisals. In

addition, high- and low-priced houses

in the city can be compared and evaluated

in terms of their residents and

locations in the city. In this way, how

the features of land such as area and

location in the city have a role in land

appraisal and the urban density of regions

and the houses located in them

can be interpreted.

In this respect, Yerasimos (2003)

assessed thirteen districts (nahiye) of

Istanbul in the 16th century based on

waqf houses in the Waqf Tahrir Registers.

He explains how different socioeconomic

groups of inhabitants are

distributed in these districts and also

how some of the spaces of houses are

differentiated according to the districts

based on the quantitative data.

And in the context of the 17th century,

the houses in the Kadı registers

can be studied with a similar approach

and quantitative method with the help

of a great quantity of data. It is possible

to study sale and rental prices of

houses showing their economic value

for understanding the range throughout

the century across the city. Or

urban-dwellers in Istanbul’s different

10

For more detailed

information about

tenancy and the

different forms of

it in the Ottoman

Empire, see

Beyaztaş, 2001.


45

regions can be evaluated according to

their socioeconomic or ethno-religious

identities through the information

about their name, title and (if available)

occupation. Both data groups have the

potential to be investigated and classified

by quantitative methods and be

assessed as groups according to these

classifications with their location in the

city. As a consequence of this study, the

distribution of groups of houses in the

city will provide information about urban

structural characteristics (homogeneous

or heterogeneous) of regions

and mahalles.

We should now mention the constraints

of the Kadı registers. Only

houses and mahalles subject to the

courts in that period were recorded in

these registers. Thus, it is impossible to

exemplify all of the houses in the city by

means of examination of one or more

registers. Nevertheless, they are sources

which give important information

and clues about the city and Ottoman

housing. In fact, all of the Ottoman

written sources have limited information

as well. However, by means of each

source we can see a small detail of the

big picture at every turn. So reproduction

and re-evaluation of the studies

based on different sources together will

be significant for understanding Istanbul

houses of the Ottoman Period and

to see the big picture.

After this explanation, continuing to

examine the data about the architectural

characteristics of the city’s houses

is meaningful. In almost all of the cases

in the registers, we find descriptions of

spaces in houses including information

about the number of floors, the different

named parts of the house and the

space components as in the following

examples:

“…tabaka-i ulyâsında bir bâb oda ve

tabaka-i vustâsında iki bâb oda ve dehliz

ve süflâsında bir matbah ve bir kiler

ve bir su kuyusu ve cüneyneyi müştemil

mülk menzil… [house having one room

on the upper floor, two rooms and vestibule

on the first floor and one kitchen,

one store-room, one water-well and

a small garden on the ground floor]”

(Bab Kadı Registers Sicil no. 46, 352)

or

“…muhavvata-i hâriciyesi beş fevkānî

ve üç tahtânî odaları ve matbah

ve ahûr ve tahta-pûş ve eşcâr-ı ve muhavvata-i

dâhiliyesi beş fevkānî ve üç

tahtânî oda ve matbah ve hamam ve

eşcâr-ı ve iki çeşmeyi müştemil… [hariciyye

having five rooms on the upper

floor, three rooms on the first floor and

kitchen, barn, tahtapuş, trees and dahiliyye

having five rooms on the upper

floor, three rooms on the first floor,

kitchen, hamam, trees and two fountains]”

(İstanbul Kadı Registers Sicil

no. 3, 287).

As seen in the examples, which

space components a house and its

floors were composed of are understood

clearly from these descriptions.

Therefore, these are significant data

waiting for discussion about the terminology

of household spaces, the interpretation

of spatial arrangements on

the basis of distribution of these areas

over the floors and the different house

sections, the structural characteristics

of dwellings, open / semi-open / closed

spatial relations and living and comfort

conditions in the house. On the other

hand, to draw a certain plan of a house

is not possible with this information,

because positions and relations of a

space with the others on the same floor

are not unambiguous and also forms,

sizes and proportions of the spaces are

not given and cannot be deduced from

the descriptions.

In addition, in much research ignoring

historicity, the spaces and

terms regarding them were defined as

they have not changed for centuries

and their meanings are always fixed.

Yet necessities and functions being in

the first place, all of the architectural

terms, elements and components have

been transformed continually. Şenyurt

(2018) has striking arguments about

terms used for some interior spaces

of Ottoman houses. She explains

the meanings of terms and examines

transformations of terms and also

spaces represented throughout the Ottoman

period extensively. For this extensive

research, she uses the archival

documents and literary works. In this

manner, it is possible to discuss the terminology

of Istanbul houses and their

interior spaces with the help of the information

obtained from the Kadı registers

as well.

In addition, the architectural diver-


46

sity of the houses has been largely ignored

until now. However, in my opinion,

the spatial arrangements of houses

in the registers do not lend themselves

to typological classification. It is not

really meaningful to classify and generalize

them, if we want to understand

housing conditions in the city in all

their aspects. Similar to other Ottoman

written documents, the Kadı registers

have the potential to break the mold

about this subject containing numerous

examples of houses. Thus, it is possible

to investigate the examples individually.

On the other hand, not only taken

individually but also all together, the

houses present information about domestic

culture and the standards of the

houses. For this, quantitative analysis

can be made about space components.

Yerasimos (2003) and Tanyeli (2003)

investigated Istanbul houses in the 16th

century with this method and revealed

an Ottoman city of Istanbul contrary

to common belief. In a similar manner,

the Kadı registers give us the opportunity

to evaluate the living conditions in

the city with the help of the analysis of

the living spaces such as rooms, toilets,

bathrooms, kitchens, barns etc. and

put forward an idea about ordinary

and luxurious spaces and elements in

the houses. In addition, comparison

of the results of different periods and

different regions can be made for interpreting

changes and continuities about

the living and comfort conditions in

the houses. Analysis of the other data

groups are supportive of these evaluations.

Finally, the data about expenditures

for the construction materials and

components used for repairing houses

are also very interesting and valuable

for research about construction and

building materials of Ottoman houses.

With the help of these data, it is possible

to comprehend the use of building

materials and construction techniques

and to discuss Ottoman terminology

of these materials. Also, if the subject

is supported with the other archival

documents, the records in the Kadı

registers will become meaningful and

Ottoman housing construction will be

clarified.

9. Conclusion

In this article, in accordance with

the purpose, every case about the

houses in the court registers are examined,

not remaining limited by the

materials we have been accustomed

to use. That is because every case and

the data obtained from them is worth

mentioning. The introduction of this

material, which allows a wide urban

area to be seen from different angles

in the context of housing, will define a

very efficient area to open up new discussions.

The Kadı registers contain a

wide range of material with cases on

various issues. As a result, they provide

an opportunity to examine the houses

of different urban groups that show the

existence of a movement in the city exposed

through the purchase and sale of

houses. Moreover, the registers allow

researchers to study the houses of different

urban groups through the borrowing

of money from people or waqfs

by the way of a pledge or temporary

sale of their houses. Furthermore, we

can study the houses rented to a tenant

or transferred to another tenant, those

houses granted to someone else or a

waqf foundation or the houses inherited

and shared by the inheritors.

The potential employment of the

data obtained from these cases is discussed

in detail. In the light of these

data, the houses of ordinary city-dwellers

who have not been much involved

in research about Ottoman houses

can be re-examined and evaluated

in different contexts. We can now get

information about the distribution of

houses in different regions of the city

according to their financial values (sale

and rental price) and by their dwellers’

socioeconomic and ethno-religious

identities in the 17th century. Having

this information can help us start a

discussion about which factors most

differentiate the values of houses (location

in city or land appraisal, luxurious

spatial and construction elements

such as bathroom, water supplements

etc.), what kind of living and comfort

conditions the houses had and whether

these conditions had changed in the

city throughout the century. All these

research possibilities lie within reach

thanks to the help of the data obtained

from the Kadı registers.


47

Acknowledgement

This research is funded by TU-

BITAK (The Scientific and Technological

Research Council of Turkey),

National Young Researchers Career

Development Program (3501) under

the grant no: 115K537. The author

would like to thank TUBI-

TAK, support is greatly appreciated.

Archival documents

Istanbul Kadı Registers Sicil no. 3,

(TSMA) 213, (TSMA) 225, (TSMA)

246

Rumeli Kadı Registers Sicil No. 35,

80, 116, 139

Bab Kadı Registers Sicil No. 3, 46

Eyüb Kadı Registers Sicil No. 19, 49,

50, 74, 75, 97

Galata Kadı Registers Sicil No. 46,

48, 64, 65, 89, 90,136

Usküdar Kadı Registers Sicil No.

133, 205, 240, 241, 296

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a Theatre of Life: Profile of The Eighteenth

Century Bosphorus (Unpublished

Doctoral Dissertation Thesis).

Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Bektaş, İ. (2017) Muhasebe Kayıtları

Işığında 18. Yüzyılın İlk Yarısında

Üsküdar Para Vakıfları (Unpublished

Master’s Thesis). Sakarya University

Institute of Social Sciences Islamics

Economics and Finance Program.

Beyaztaş, M. (2001) İslam Hukukunda

Vakıf Gayrimenkullerin Kiraya

Verilmesi Usulleri ve İcareteyn (Unpublished

Master’s Thesis). Marmara

University, Institute of Social Sciences,

Department of Islamic Law.

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17. yüzyılda Ankara ve Kayseri’de

Ev Sahipleri ve Evler. İstanbul:

Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.

Gönenç, Ö. F. (2014) XIX. yüzyıl

Mardin Barınma Kültürü 1837-1866

(Unpublished Master’s Thesis) Mardin

Artuklu University, Institute of Sciences,

History of Architecture Program.

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(Vefâen Satış) ve Bey’ Bi’l-İstiğlal.

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Dergisi, 9, 109-119.

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Dil. SDÜ Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal

Bilimler Dergisi, 27, 15-24.

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Sicil Defterlerine Göre Domestik

Kültür, Barınma Koşulları ve Ev İç Mekânı

Bileşenleri (1695-1902) (Unpublished

Doctoral Dissertation Thesis).

Anadolu University, Institute of Social

Sciences Department of Art History.

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Üsküdar Vakıflarının Gelir

Kaynakları. Dîvân Disiplinlerarası

Çalışmalar Dergisi, 15(29), 95-132.

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Sicilleri Işığında Bey‘ Bi’l İstiğlâl

Akidleri, Unpublished Master’s Thesis,

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Sciences, Economic History Program.

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Mekan ve Yaşam Zamanın Mekanları

Mekanın Zamanları. İstanbul:

Doğu Kitabevi.

Tanyeli, U. (2003) Norms of Domestic

Comfort and Luxury in Ottoman

Metropolises Sixteenth to Eighteenth

Centuries. The Illuminated Table, The

Prosperous House, (ed. Suraiya Faroqhi,

Christoph K. Neumann). Würzburg:

Ergon-Verl., 301-316.

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ve Bey’u’l-Îne ile Mukayeseli Olarak

Günümüz Repo İşlemlerinin Fıkhî

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Vefânın İslam Hukuku Açısından

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Araştırmaları Dergisi, 27, 257-286.

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Suraiya Faroqhi, Christoph K. Neumann),

Würzburg: Ergon-Verl., 275-

300.



Comparative study and analysis

of two medieval baths in western

Algeria: Sabaghine bath in

Tlemcen and El Bali bath in

Nedroma

Imene SELKA OUSSADIT 1 , Chihab SELKA 2 , Mohammed Nabil OUISSI 3 ,

Olivier BOUET 4

1

imene.selka@gmail.com • Faculty of Technology, Department of Architecture,

Abu Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria

2

selka.chihab@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technology,

Abu Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria

3

ouissi_n@yahoo.fr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technology, Abu

Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria

4

olivier.bouet@evcau.archi.fr • National School of Architecture of Paris Val De

Seine, Paris, France

Received: April 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.47855

Abstract

The abundance of water and springs has always allowed the presence of quite

numerous baths in the ancient medinas. These public buildings have played a major

role in the daily lives of the inhabitants, and have continued to evolve to this day.

In this place the bathers carried out a hygiene of the body and the mind but also

allowed themselves, meetings and discussions between the different social classes.

Today, the modernization and degradation of the medinas, that of Tlemcen,

Nedroma or other cities, threaten this architectural element, whose traces must

be transmitted to future generations as a testimony to a civilization. Given its

multifunctionality, the hammam deserves a multiple dimensional reading. In this

article, we will present an inventory of two existing baths: the Nedroma one dating

from the 11th century, and the one of the dyers whose dating is unknown; before

moving on to a comparative study of their architectural and spatial characteristics.

Indeed, their comparative study allows us to answer a set of hypotheses relating to

their dating, but also to grasp the typology and architectural aspect in which they

are part: more modest baths, if we compare them with the monumental baths of

Turkey or the Middle East.

Keywords

Bath, Hammam, Nedroma, Tlemcen, Typology.

50

1. Introduction

The bath, Moorish bath or

hammam 1 , is this space where all social

classes, even all families, mix together

and today represents a legacy of the

collective baths inherited from the

Romans; hence their importance in

urban fabrics, in social life, but also in

economic life (Benaboud, 2005). Each

culture has created its own form, but the

bath culture in the Maghreb is an event

in which the purification of the body

remains the main element. In addition,

there are other secondary elements,

such as wedding and religious rituals,

health activities, and entertainment

activities (Karatosun and Tuba, 2017).

The bath is a concept that has evolved

over time and in socio-cultural

contexts; Resulting from the fusion of

Greek, Roman and Turkish traditions,

it has been established by researchers

and historians that it was the Greeks

and Romans who knew the first

public baths of antiquity (El Habashi,

2008). In their conception of cities,

the Romans gave great importance to

the thermal baths and excelled in its

interior and exterior decoration, using

the most noble materials and the most

advanced techniques (Dumreicher and

Kolb, 2008).

With the arrival of the Umayyads

to authority and Damascus as its capital,

bathing quickly became part of

the customs of the inhabitants of the

Middle East, and quickly found its

place among Muslims. In Al Andalus,

it is the Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman

Iér, who contributes to the development

of the bath, and thus gives

it all its architectural splendour (Pauty,

1933); and on the other side of the

Mediterranean, it is thanks to the contributions

of Andalusian art and Marinid

architecture that it has acquired its

Maghreb form (Carlier, 2000). According

to André Raymond, the attendance

or absence of baths would constitute a

significant element in the spatial distinction

of the city’s neighbourhoods

and its importance; for him, the most

beautiful and remarkable baths were

located near the centre (Raymond,

1985). The bath was also found either

near the mosque, and within the religious

complex itself, or near important

water sources (Benaboud, 2005). Each

ancient medina has a large number

of baths; there are 60 baths in Algiers

according to D. Haëdo, 57 in Damascus,

just over a hundred in the Iberian

Peninsula in the 10th century (Castano

Blazquez and Jimenez Castiillo, 2004).

From the East to the West and Hispania,

the public bath with its hygienic, entertaining

and social functions was an

integral part of the inhabitants’ mores.

Today in Algeria, and despite the

importance given to historical monuments

and heritage, they remain buildings

little studied by researchers and

scientists. Some Algerian baths have

been studied in the context of archaeological

excavations or censuses during

the colonial period; as is the case

of Agadir bath (Bel, 1913), Sabaghine

bath in Tlemcen (Marçais and al,

1903), or the Qalaa of the Beni Hammad,

but there are probably still some

in other cities of the country that remain

unknown to researchers. On the

other hand, studies on baths in Algiers

during the Ottoman period were carried

out by the architect and Dr. Nabila

Cherif Seffadj, a study published in his

magister and doctoral thesis (See The

baths of Algiers during the Ottoman

period. History, topography and urban

study, Doctoral thesis, 2005).

2. General presentation of the site

and the two baths

2.1. The site

The two baths studied are located in

the wilaya of Tlemcen, in northwestern

Algeria. The latter consists of 20

daïras, including Tlemcen in the centre,

and Nedroma in the northwest of

the wilaya.

The former medina of Tlemcen, to

which Sabaghine bath belongs, is one

of the oldest historic cities in the country,

it alone contains a heritagea of inestimable

value and has qualities specific

to the urban structure and architecture

of Muslim cities (Ghomari, 2007).

As for the old medina of Nedroma,

which includes the El Bali bath, the city

is located at the foot of Mount Fillaoucene,

on an ancient Berber city. (Sari,

1968).

Al Bekri first gave it this name in

1068, and there were never any remains

or inscriptions found that could attest

to the Roman presence in the city, so

1

Ibn mandur in

his book gives the

following definition

of the term,

Hammam: word

of Arabic origin,

singular male name

of hammamat,

derived from the

root hamim which

means hot water.

Hamim also means

“Sweat”.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet

51

he described the city as « at the foot of

a great mountain, the Fillaoussène. To

the north and west of the city lie fertile

plains and cultivated fields. It is ten

miles from the sea; it is a considerable

city surrounded by walls and having a

river bordered by gardens that produce

all kinds of fruit ». Another description

of Nedroma is provided by Al-Idrissi,

around 1164 (559 H): « Nedroma, a

considerable city, well populated, surrounded

by walls, provided with markets

and located on a hill at mid-shore....

Fields sown and watered by a river depend

on it. On the eastern side of the

hill, there are gardens, orchards, houses

and water in abundance » (Grandguillaume,

1976).

The city still has a site of inestimable

historical and heritage value and

a strategic position. It contains a set

of historical and cultural values that

have contributed to the creation of an

identity specific to the region, it is easy

to see that without being equal to the

great metropolises such as Fez, Kairouan,

Constantine or even Tlemcen

- its neighbour and rival - Nedroma is

part of the medina family (Khattabi,

2017).

2.2. The two baths

Sabaghine bath:

Located in the northeast part of the

medina of Tlemcen, and with a total

surface area of 572m², the Sabaghine

bath owes its name to the dyers’

alley where it is located. It was also

nicknamed the Sidi Bel Hacen bath

in memory of the pious Ahmed Bel

Hacen El Ghomari who honoured the

place with his frequent visits (Marçais,

1911). It is the most quoted bath in the

works concerning the city of Tlemcen,

probably due to its history and architecture.

In 2010, the bath was restored as

part of the “Tlemcen Capital of Islamic

Culture 2011” project; work began on

the shoring of the floors, arches, domes

and stairs, as well as the stripping of the

various plasters. The work is now at a

standstill.

The bath is surrounded by dwellings

and is difficult to distinguish from the

outside except by the treatment of its

entrance.

El Bali bath:

Also known as the El Mourabitine

bath (Almoravid bath), it is located in

the heart of the old medina of Nedroma,

in the place called Tarbi’aa and is

considered as one of the oldest baths in

Algeria, hence its name of old bath.

The bath, unlike Sabaghine bath, has

been a national monument since 1912

and was restored in 2003. Still functional,

it is frequented daily by the inhabitants

of the district and the city of

Nedroma.

3. Comparative study of the two

baths

A comparative study of the two

monuments, based on an analytical

reading, is necessary to identify common

and similar points, but also points

that diverge spatially, conceptually

and architecturally. It also allows us to

highlight the typological characteristics,

if any, of the baths in the region.

The choice of common and divergent

points was identified and developed

on the basis of the methodology of architectural

analysis (Boudon, 1975),

as well as the work provided by Caroline

Fournier on the Al Andalus baths

(Fournier, 2016).

4. Historical background

First, it is important to review the

chronology of the two baths. For both

baths there is no official document attesting

to their date of construction.

Sabaghine bath, was linked to the Almoravid

period according to Georges

Marçais; in effect, it is difficult to date

the construction of the bath, no historical

document exists on this subject.

However, it can be linked to the first

period of the 11th century (Marçais W

and al, 1903), on the basis of its architectural

style and its similarity to other

baths preserved in Spain or Sicily.

The El Bali bath, an annex to the

Great Almoravid Mosque of Nedroma,

was built to allow the faithful to practice

their ablutions, hence its dating by

researchers to the Almoravid period

(1095-1147) (Merouane, 2005).

5. The situation

It is clear that the location of the two

baths remains dictated and defined

by their functions and importance, as

Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western Algeria: Sabaghine bath in

Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma

52

not only a major site and key element

within cities but also as a place of social

exchange, gathering and spiritual

purification for the inhabitants of the

districts (Raftan and Radoine, 2008).

Sabaghine bath is located in the heart

of the medina of Tlemcen, in the heart

of the old Tagrart district founded in

the 11th century by the Almoravids.

El Bali bath, is also located in the

heart of the former medina of Nedroma,

but unlike Sabaghine bath, it has

an entrance visible from the outside,

despite the lower level of its access

compared to street level.

6. The architectural character

6.1. Spatial organisation

The bath has a number of rooms

with a specific purpose and organization:

Their arrangement ultimately

consists in harnessing the heat, so that

there is a gradual graduation of heat

between the different spaces. Generally,

the bath space is organized according

to the multiple needs of the user, ranging

from the purification of body and

mind, to the commutative or meeting

space. It is therefore divided according

to these needs into three distinct parts:

-the intermediate room or bayt alwastani:

used to rest the swimmer

during his bath, and for the various

massages and treatments provided to

the body.

-the hot, warm room or bayt alsakhun:

space used as a steam bath,

equipped with cold and hot water basins.

-the cold room or bayt al-barid, or

rest rooms.

-additional rooms are provided in

addition to this basic layout, such as

toilets or warehouses (Cherif Seffadj,

2009).

Architecturally and in terms of

space organisation, the two baths are

similar: both contain three large spaces

and are arranged around a central

space of quadrangular shape: in the

past, it was the most important part

of the bath: the intermediate or tepid

space 2 (El Habashi, 2008). The latter is

ordered around a central space decorated

with a water jet, surmounted by a

vault and surrounded by lateral galleries;

the intermediate space is delimited

by a series of arches and columns. At

Figure 1. Ground floor plan of El Bali bath.

the level of the two baths the intermediate

space is no longer and has been

converted into a cold room and therefore

the transition from the cold room

to the hot room is done instantly. On

the other hand, for Sabaghine bath, a

small space was built between the two

rooms to serve as a new tepid room.

The spatial design of the two baths

remains the same, however, and reflects

a unique, centralised mode of operation

and articulation, and therefore

does not present an in-line sequence of

parts. This is what we notice in the El

Bali bath, where the intermediate space

(currently the cold room) is located in

the centre of the bath and occupies a

little more than half of the total bath

area. The bath has not been modified

except for the transfer of a few spaces

and the addition of sanitary facilities

at the entrance. Nevertheless, we notice

the addition of the cold room with

the changing rooms due to the reduced

surface area of the bath. Also, two water

basins for the bath supply are located

in the north-eastern part of the

building.

In the case of Sabaghine, a comparison

between an old bath reading published

in 1900 by Marçais, and the current

form of the latter was necessary,

in order to highlight the changes it has

undergone. In the book on “The Arab

Monuments of Tlemcen”, the authors

give a detailed description of the bath

and already point out at that time that

it had undergone transformations and

additions to its spaces.

According to William Marçais’ de-

2

In almost all the

well-preserved

baths, where

the organisation

of the spaces is

centralised, it

is around the

intermediate

room that the

other spaces are

articulated.


53

Figure 2. Ground floor plan of Sabaghine bath

established based on that of Marçais in 1900.

Figure 3. Current ground floor plan of the bath.

Figure 4. Hypothetical plan of the bath

previously.

scription; from vestibule A, a vaulted

room, where a part has been dedicated

to the installation of latrines (L), a

square space B with 5 m sides is accessed,

the frigidarium. A dome resting

on twelve monolithic limestone

columns with a water jet in its center

tops this space, surrounded by four

galleries. The part surrounding the

central space was raised and provided

with benches for bathers to rest, at the

time placed on the ground. From the

galleries of this central space, access is

given to ancillary rooms that are also

used for bathers’ rest.

A door on the left of the cold room

opens directly onto the hot room, the

antique caldarium, and isolates the

temperature of the oven from the rest

room. Oven C, divided into 3 parts of

unequal dimensions; the first largest

C, contains a hot water tank and distributes

for this purpose the steam and

humidity necessary for this space. The

other two parts limited by stone columns

are symmetrical; part C’ has a

fairly deep cabinet, and finally the third

part C’’ is half occupied on one side of

the cold water tank and on the other

side of a space for massage.

The other rooms present, were used

either as a rest area or as a storage area

for the bath. However, Marçais points

out the absence of the intermediate

room or tepid room. According to

him, it was probably located at the location

of room D. The space G, at the entrance

to the bath and adjoining room

F, served as a fuel storage space for the

bath [Figure 2]. Today the bath seems

to have been mutilated with different

arrangements from its original layout;

however, it is worth noting either the

addition of new parts such as the two

mezzanines (in the entrance hall and

gallery 4), or the separation of rooms

by brick walls or wooden partitions,

or the drilling of skylights in the vaults

and domes. A part has also been designed

to act as an intermediate room

between the cold room and the hot

room, a space that is missing from the

plan made by Marçais. The toilets are

no longer at the entrance of the bath

but have been moved to another space.

For the hot room, the location of the

cold and hot water pool has been modified.

To this end, the following figures



54

show all the modifications compared

to the initial plan drawn up by Marçais

in 1900 [Figures 3].

At the Sabaghine bath, the absence

of the cold room or changing rooms

is highlighted: have the spaces been

merged into a single space or has the

changing room area been demolished?

Figure 4 shows a hypothetical plan of

the bath previously [Figures 4].

For the surface area of the two baths:

the total surface area of El Bali bath is

244m², almost half that of Sabaghine

bath which is 572m², this difference in

surface area is reflected in the relative

proportions of the different rooms:

Most of the difference in surface

area between the two baths is found in

the cold room (ex intermediate room)

as well as in the hot room; that of El

Bali bath is almost half that of Sabaghine

bath for both spaces [Table1].

6.2. Architectural components

The vertical elements:

The columns

In the dyers’ bath, the former intermediate

chamber or bayt al-wastani

is the centre of the composition. The

arches, which rest on the eight monolithic

columns, form the octagon and

support the dome. As for the other

four corner columns, which each have

two arches, they form the square of the

central space and replace the octagonal

plane of the dome. The bath has two

other columns at the level of the warm

room in a square shape with no decoration,

and two others in niches. Apart

from the columns of the hot room,

the other 12 columns are identical in

shape, size, shaft, and capital. The columns

are without base, with a cylindrical

barrel without fluting, and a square

capital inspired by the Corinthian order

[Figure 5].

El Bali bath has 4 columns at the

level of the former bayt al-wastani that

support the dome in the center and 2

columns in the entrance hall. All the

columns of the bath are identical and

have, like those of Sabaghine bath, a

cylindrical barrel without fluting, but

they contain a base, with a square capital

and without volute or decoration.

It also includes 4 other engaged pilasters

in the walls at the level of the warm

room in a square shape and without

Table 1. Surface comparison of the spaces of the two baths

(Authors).

Figure 5. Identification of the columns at the Sabaghine bath.

Figure 6. Identification of the columns at the El Bali bath.

ornamentation [Figure 6]. The columns

are made of stone in both baths,

and are not only decorative elements

but also represent internal supports for

the structure of the building. As for the

capital, it is an essential element in the

column because it allows the thrust of

the vaults and arches to be distributed.


3

Examples include

the 10th century

Umayyad Alcazar

bath in Córdoba,

or the 11th century

Villardompardo

bath in Jaen.

4

Small openings

in the vaulted bath

roofs for natural

light to pass

through.

The walls

Traditionally, building materials are

sought and transported close to the

building site, including soil, sand or

stone. In both baths, the load-bearing

walls are 1m thick and have been made

with rammed earth or pisé or tabiya.

This technique is very common for

this type of building; it is a very solid,

hard, compact material that is resistant

to strong thermal changes (Chennaoui,

2009).

The thickness allows to insulate the

spaces and to avoid heat losses, especially

in the hot room. One or two coats

of lime plaster will strengthen the waterproofing

of the parts. The pointing

mortar is generally thick and consists

of soil and lime. For the recent separations

at the two baths, they were made

with hollow brick, but solid brick was

used at the furnak level.

The horizontal elements:

Arcs and arcades

The arches are elements that are

part of the building’s structure but also

decorative elements; there are eight

horseshoe arches protruding beyond

the octagon that forms the dome of

Hammam Sebaghine’s cold room, and

three others at the entrance vestibule

of El Bali bath. On the other hand, it

is the semicircular arch that dominates

the spaces of El Bali bath and there

are twelve of them in the cold room.

The horseshoe arch made of brick is

very common among Muslims, and is

mainly chosen in bath galleries with

large changing rooms or a large intermediate

room, it is found in the majority

of Al Andalus baths dating from the

10th to 11th centuries. 3

In terms of the framing of the interior

doors, the lowered semicircular arch

dominates; and in terms of the exterior

door, the horseshoe arch for El Bali

bath and the semicircular arch for Sabaghine

bath.

Roofing: Vaults and domes

The two baths are enhanced at the

level of the former warm room by a

dome supported by columns in the centre,

and by a set of barrel vaults around

it. The central space of Sabaghine bath

is more masterful and larger than that

of El Bali bath, and is therefore decorated

with an octagonal fluted dome

of sixteen arches or panels, with three

lateral openings for the passage of light

[Figure 7]. The dome is used to cover

the alcoves and the central space of the

intermediate room with a square plan.

Examples of half-timbered domes have

been found in Gracia Jofre’s baths in

Seville and in Gibraltar in the intermediate

rooms.

The one of El Bali bath is a dome on

trunks adorned with ten m’dhaouis 4 ,

and undecorated [Figure 8]. The passage

of natural light through the rest of

the baths was done through the circular

m’dhaouis at the level of the barrel

vaults which covered all the remaining

55

Figure 7. View of the Sabaghine bath dome

from the cold room.

Figure 8. View of the dome that adorns the

centre of the El Bali bath.



56

spaces (hot and cold room). Cradle

vaults are the most commonly used in

the baths of Al Andalus, as well as in the

Maghreb, they are particularly adapted

to the circulation of heat (Azuar ruiz,

2005). Made of brick, from the outside

the domes are covered with a layer of

plaster with no trace of tile roofing.

The terrace of El Bali bath consists

of a dome and seven barrel vaults that

can be distinguished from the outside

and are topped by 3 chimneys for the

evacuation of hot air. Unlike Hammam

Sabaghine, which is topped by a

dome and six barrel vaults, but also has

three fireplaces.

The barrel vaults that adorn the Sabaghine

bath are difficult to distinguish

from the outside because they are buried

under new illegal buildings (shops

and housing). These in column-beam

structure, have encroached on a large

part of the roof of the bath and cover

totally or partially several vaults by endangering

the stability of the latter. The

bath terrace was once used by dyers to

dry skins, wool and fabrics using an

outdoor staircase [Figure 9].

The hypocaust furnace system

The hypocaust is this underfloor

heating system, used since Roman

times in the thermal baths and maintained

in the Arab baths. The principle

of hypocaust is as follows: a powerful

chimney or oven directly adjacent to

the building produces hot air that circulates

under the floor of the rooms to

be heated raised by means of small piles

or low walls. Air also circulates behind

walls, as hypocaust rooms are almost

always equipped with heated walls held

in front of the walls by stones or, more

frequently, by terracotta dowels (Bazzana,

1999). In traditional baths the

oven or furnak is located behind the

hot room with independent access, it

allows to propel the hot air but also to

heat the water of the pool at the level

of the hot room; as it is the case in the

Sabaghine bath.

At the El Bali bath, the oven is located

under the hot room immediately,

near a space for storing wood for

combustion. From the viewpoint of

the smoke emanating from the space,

the walls are almost black. A smoke

exhaust duct of square cross-section

passes through the walls of the hot

Figure 9. Plan of the terrace of the Sabaghine bath.

room to exit at the level of the terrace

in the form of chimneys, a level of 2m

above the level of the terrace. In addition,

the space requires the most qualified

workers.

The ornamentation

There is a total absence of decoration

in the two baths; apart from the interest

in the dome of Sabaghine bath and

the capitals of the columns, the other

areas of the bath are characterised by

their simple design and execution.

7. Conclusion

The comparisons made in this study

provide information on the richness

and importance of each bath, both of

which are public baths built within cities

(medina). We discover that Sabaghine

bath, with its surface and interior

decoration reflected in its dome and

capitals, was probably more imposing

and important than El Bali bath. The

latter, annexed to the great Almoravid

mosque of Nedroma, did not enjoy the

same social and economic status as Sabaghine,

which was located in the heart

of the former medina of Tlemcen.

The spatial design of the two baths

is identical and therefore belongs to a

single family where the layout of the

different rooms is centralised; unlike

the Merinid baths of El Eubbed


demonstrate that the management of

this type of monument is essential for

the safeguarding and enhancement of

our cultural capital, which will first

result in a national classification of Sabaghine

bath.

Further studies will allow us to develop

all the baths still existing in Tlemcen,

or to compare them with similar

baths in Spain, in order to highlight

similarities and differences.

57

5

In her book on

Al Andalus’ baths,

Caroline Fournier

links this type of

bath to Jaén’s 11th

century model. She

cites Naranjo and

Villardompardo as

similar examples.

Another bath,

located in Palma

de Mallorca,

has only its

intermediate room

with a centralized

layout.

6

Return to

the general

presentation part

of the bath.

Figure 10. Spatial organization diagram

common to both baths.

(Marçais G and al, 1903), Morocco

(Terrace, 1950), or other baths in Spain

dating from the 10th century, whose

shape and layout of the spaces is linear

or in a row (Fournier, 2016). The organization

of Sabaghine bath and El Bali

bath is based on the central quadrangular

room, which represents almost

half of the total bath area. To this end,

this mode of organization reflects a single

mode of operation, where the user

must follow an elbow circuit and where

his privacy is preserved. The rooms are

not placed in a row and therefore the

hot room is perpendicular to the one

before the intermediate room. There is

also a recessed space in the warm room

for the bathers’ intimate toilet in the

two baths [Figure 10].

For this purpose, we can therefore

link these two baths to the 11th century

baths already reported in Spain 5 .

And by the similarities observed, we

can link the construction of Sabaghine

bath to the 11th century, thus linking it

to the Almoravid dynasty present at the

same period in Tlemcen, and confirm

Marçais’ 6 hypothesis. The architectural

study of the two baths provides us, in

addition to information on the way in

which the spaces of this type of monument

function and are arranged, with a

new material support; which, in addition

to its historical richness and use,

represents a traditional architectural

unit that bears witness to the ingenuity

of mankind in the past. An ingenuity

that is reflected in the constructive

mode, but also in the design of the hypocaust,

mainly reserved for the hot

room equipped with two basins.

Through this study, we want to

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Poiesis of objects: Theory of

making

Murat SÖNMEZ 1 , Beyza Nur BATI 2

1

msonmez@etu.edu.tr • Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of

Architecture, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey

2

byznbati@gmail.com • Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture,

Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey

Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: September 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.94547

Abstract

The aim of this study is to discuss the basic state of object production.

Essentially, objects exist as a result of the act of making. Making occurs through

the processes of cognition, conceptualization, and representation. Cognition

and conceptualization are dealt with the notion of noesis, which occurs on the

foundation of four concepts: the self, matter, form, and aim. A design is formed

by the cohesion of these four components. Some practical acts are required to

represent this design. However, these practical acts continue the conceptual state

of making because they require the knowledge of making. All stages that create

objects are developed depending on mental productions; this features the process

of poiesis. Poiesis is an act of creating objects simply as a product of our integrative

comprehensions. This study involves the redefinition of the concept of making in

the context of the intuitional, undefined, and unlimited states of poiesis.

Keywords

Artefact, Noesis, Production of objects, Techne, Conceptualization.

60

1. Introduction

Human beings perceive the world

and existence based on their natural

and created environments. Existence is

perceived within the unlimited world

of human thought with their matter

quality and occurrence form. While

humans attempt to express existence

verbally or through the act of making,

their theories and ideas fall short

if they do not contain the potential of

their conceptualization. Nowadays, it

can be said that, even if the abundance

of these expressions does not appear

any deficiency on the possibility or variety

of the occurrence of objects, the

production of an object is based on the

literal knowledge that is gained or produced

by people. As if all object meanings

and all methods of object creation

are discovered, object production is

repeated with this literal knowledge.

Therefore, it can be said that there is a

complex perception of object production

that is affected by literal knowledge.

This situation necessitates the

reconstruction of content of making to

evaluate all factors that constitute or affect

the design thinking of today.

The question of how human beings

produce objects without the widespread

transmission of knowledge and

artificial images can be explained by

the conceptual origins of mental and

practical actions, as well as the relationship

between meaning and content

of these concepts. Therefore, this study

can be considered as a research for the

concepts underlying the production of

the objects. With this research, it can

be reasoned about the starting point

of the idea of the conscious person to

produce the object and turning this

idea into action. Accordingly, inferences

can be drawn about the problem

that the object is the product of original

ideas and that the object is reproduced

in a creative way. This method

can allow the architect and designer to

use the concepts that define their professional

actions consciously.

Essentially, objects are created by

humans as a result of the process of

making. It can be said that everything,

except for natural objects, is created as

a result of the human act of making.

Since the impetus of every object’s creation

is to reveal something that does

not exist, the act of making requires a

reflection on a creature. Plato explains

this situation as follows: ‘Poiesis (to

make, to create), as you know, is complex

and manifold. And all creation or

passage of non-being into being is poiesis’

(Symposium and Phaedrus, 1993,

p. 28). Thus, human is in a position of

creator for each object one makes. The

position of creator for humans can be

related to the creation of a non-pre-existing

thing or abstract notions and

comprehensions.

The creation of comprehension can

be considered as the whole of intellectual

and practical acts. This can be understood

with the examination of the

concept of making. Making is a process

of comprehending the self, matter,

form, and aim first, and later, representing

these comprehensions into products.

This process defines an existential

gap between the human mind and the

physical world. Objects materialize in

this gap as a result of the interaction

between existence and environment.

Therefore, the expressive potential of

objects is the sum of comprehensions

between the mind and environment.

Taking the mind and the interpretive

methods of primal humans, which

have not yet been captured by artificial

imagery, as an example may enable us

to make more productive inquiries and

to understand how objects are made.

It can be said that primitive humans

could use the first quality of matter and

the utility function of matter, within

the first thought system, in which they

comprehend natural creations by examining

their semantic value. Using

this framework, this study develops a

fundamental query of the theory and

practice of creative acquisitions and

expressions, which displays the basic

methods of object creation. Thus,

sub-concepts and meanings that form

the content of the theory of making

can be defined. It is recommended that

these concepts and meanings also refer

to the current content of the concept

of making; because the subject, object

and the act of making remain fixed

even if the requirements, conditions

and methods change through time.

To discuss the basic state of object

production in this study, a concept of

making was adopted by trying to un-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Sönmez, B. N. Batı

61

derstand how the state of consciousness

of human evolved to create something

in the historical process. In this

concept, a conceptual typesetting was

created, as concepts are the means of

seeing human capacity for object production,

and typesetting explains the

stages of making. Thus, enabling this

study to develop its method to clarify

these concepts by using the deep and

valuable content of philosophy for expressions

and approaches to making.

With this conceptual inventory, the

simple relationship between the object

and human being is presented to the

vision of making of today’s world. This

method is a micro theory experiment, a

scientific-inferential scenario that handles

a new typesetting to address the

design and production of humankind.

It can be claimed that understanding

the reality of making requires a review

of the layers of this scenario.

2. The process of making

Making is considered possible as a

result of consciousness. Questions of

how human cognition and consciousness

evolved, including bases, or how

and when object creation arose, have

long been complex issues. However, it

is safe to assume that humans first created

objects as a result of comprehending

their own existence—thinking,

watching, examining, influencing, and

even taking inspiration from human

existence.

It can be thought that human beings

are unique creatures in perceiving

matter and interacting with the environment.

The first step in perceiving

existence must be the sensation; as it

is inevitable that humans recognize

the environment with sight, hearing,

or other sensual abilities. However,

this knowledge must be explained to

oneself. At this point of awareness,

it could be said that the senses pass

through a perceptual filter and allow

one to re-establish the world in one’s

minds. This may actually be the first

interaction with the environment. The

reflection of environmental impacts

on consciousness as knowledge, highlights

the ability to think conceptually.

This ability helps to re-explain and reshape

everything humans sense in the

environment. It must be a justification

to call primitive humans who perform

conscious acts Homo habilis, because

conscious acts reveal the ability to

conceptualize and interpret. Thanks to

these new abilities, Homo habilis was

the first species to exhibit the capacity

for tool making and object production

(Haviland, Walrath, Prins, & McBride,

2011).

It would not be wrong to think that

a human who is aware of the self, environment,

and matter through consciousness

makes sense of these components,

interacts with them and

designs them for requirements. Humans

require objects; this is the first

incentive for reactions to the environment

and the development of capabilities

and products as a result of these

reactions. Humans begin activities of

production by developing new meanings

for the matter that they have begun

to understand. Humans who understand

these requirements are likely

to turn environmental impacts and

qualification to their favour, or reform

the matter to meet these objectives.

Products of cognitive behaviour

types and abilities were created approximately

two and half million years

ago by the invention of stone tools by

a group of diligent explorers. The first

stone tools known from regions in

Eastern Africa are simple sharp aggregates

(Tattersall, 2007). When Homo

heidelbergensis developed Acheulean

axes or Clactonien flagstones, they met

the needs of the mind which was intricately

achieved through cognition with

a type of stone. The hardness of stone

was sensed, and the sharp side was

honed to meet their needs, creating a

type of product. Making the stone device

is the best indirect reflection and

expression of cognitive capacity (Tattersall,

2007). Hence, examining these

first products illuminates one method

of understanding the possibilities of

the human mind and its capacity for

creation.

Humans’ advanced mental strength

and abilities can be considered to be

the basis for more complex social

and technologic developments that

encourage creative behavioural improvements.

Therefore, new types of

life, perception, and production are

developed. Humankind began devel-

Poiesis of objects: Theory of making

62

oping more detailed tools by learning

from the natural environment, as well

as sharing knowledge and experiences

with each other. Humans’ tools evolved

to include specially designed prongs,

knives, and scrapers (Faulkner, 2014).

Tool technology was developed as

production techniques were created,

transferred, and repeated; so this way

the technology by which cultural objects

used by communities were created.

The occurrence of every new object

can be considered as the construction

of a cognition state. In this study, it is

assumed that these states are developed

on the basis of four components as a

result of inferences made by primitive

humans: the self, matter, aim, and form.

It is asserted that all design processes

are made by understanding of these

four elements and establishing their

cohesion. These assumptions make it

possible to talk about the occurrence

processes by which constructions and

designs are created. In other words,

some practical acts are carried out in

the materialization of designs. These

practical acts require knowledge of

making. Therefore, the process of

making continues with its intellectual

content by situations related to

conceptualization. According to

Aristotle, the occurrence of an object

is referred to as “of the comingsto-be

and movements, one is called

‘thinking’ (noesis) and the other

‘making’ (poiesis); thinking is the one

that proceeds from the starting point

and the form, and making is the one

proceeding from the completing stage

of the thinking” (Metaphysics, 1985,

p.15). Since the practical acts of object

production deal with the results of

thinking and designing, the making

processes expressing the occurrence

of objects are concluded with the

matter formation of humankind’s

understanding. It can be said that this

process that occurs between thinking

and matter formation is also a creation

to Aristotle. In this context, making

defines the relationship between

the object founded by the mind

and the object’s matter of existence.

While Homo heidelbergensis created

Acheulean axes with the ability of

cognition and conceptualization,

the object that occurred is an

artefact as a way of representing this

conceptualization.

2.1. Noesis: Cognition and

conceptualization

Objects are the products of acts directed

by the mind and cognition. The

mind has an ability to simultaneously

know and think of existing objects (pathetikos

nous) and is the place of cognition

and conceptualization (poietikos

nous) (Aristotle, 1999). Cognition and

conceptualization of known objects

form the real aspect of the mind and

its effective-creative side. To discuss

the mind’s perception and process of

understanding as a single term, ‘noesis’

may be used, the Greek word for

intelligence or understanding. It is

derived from noein, meaning to perceive

or think, which in turn is derived

from nous—mind or intellect (Smith &

McIntyre, 1982). In this study, noesis

refers to both cognition and conceptualization,

including four aspects: the

self, matter, aim, and form. Noesis can

establish a relation among these four

states and provide integrity through

their unification.

Noesis of the Self: Making primarily

requires one’s cognition. In recognizing

the structure of the body, its

function and rules enables humans to

know themselves, because, after humans

understand the physical presence

of their bodies, they come to discover

the circumstances beyond their physical

presence are not included in the

mechanical position of the body and

are internally changing. Physically,

existence is not completely mechanic,

since the body can be separated into

two entities. One being ‘the external

body’, perceiving matters as a means of

senses and nerves, and the other ‘our

body’, discussed on the level of spirit

and cognition (Sartre, 2017). In this

analysis, humans can understand their

inner freedom, independence from

their environment and conditions, and

will. Thus, humans can direct their inner

experiences.

It could be thought that there is a

comprehension of ‘me’ within the cognition

that humans reveal for themselves.

This comprehension reveals

knowledge that is directly led by the


63

mind. The entity referred to as mind

consists of knowledge within a human.

What Descartes calls the ‘real self ’ is

a non-spatial but thinkable substance

as well as a mental unit (Churchland,

2012). The mind causally interacts with

the body. For example, sensory activities

of the body cause visual, audial, or

tactual perceptions in the mind. The

comprehensions and decisions of the

mind cause the conscious behaviours

of the body. Therefore, the ‘body which

is an object for mobilising objects is an

acting centre; [without conceptualizations

of mind] a design cannot reproduce’

(Bergson, 1988). In other words,

the existence of an object is not a result

of physical activity, but a mental production.

Human beings, who comprehend or

design, collect all connections of the

universe in their minds. So, humans

must know themselves to understand

everything around them. All creatures

have a spirit which is ‘the natural shape

of [an] object having a substance and

life.’ However, the spirit is also the carrier

of mind (logos) that separates human

beings from other creatures (Aristotle,

1999). Therefore, spirit may be

considered to provide all actions for

humans including thinking, judgement,

and perception. This makes humans

creative creatures. When humans

explore their creativity, they find the

power to change and determine the

rules of universe. All the searching,

finding, and creation attempts carried

out by humans are results of this. Thus,

humans create their own existence

with conscious acts, differentiating

themselves from others in their environment.

This differentiation makes

humans a kind of creator by means of

a consciousness that broadens matter,

form, and requirements.

Noesis of Matter: The first knowledge

about creatures that was acquired by

humans is the one gained directly with

the senses. It is the simplest method by

which humans can recognize matter

and the environment. This is enough

to create some impressions of matter in

the mind. However, according to Plato,

such acquires of knowledge seemed to

be a sub-type for human beings. Plato

divided experiences of existence into

two categories: sensible and intelligible.

While sensible experiences include understanding

facts and objects in world,

intelligible experiences are mathematical

concepts and ideas (Cevizci, 2015).

The knowledge of ideas is the highest

form. Therefore, knowledge is natural

to the existence of humans alongside

ideas. Humans remember these

through understanding matter and developing

experiences.

In this context, humans exhibit a

more advanced ability to know than

the experiences gained from their senses.

According to Aristotle, creatures

have sensual abilities; however, while

some creatures interiorize these senses

by intercepting them ‘spiritually’, others

do not (Posterior Analytics, 1999).

Experiences are created when perception

is interiorised and repeated, allowing

humans to develop a knowledge of

existence. The mind must be created

here; because creatures that turn experiences

into knowledge, not by supposing

these as instinct and unconsciously

repeating them, but by shaping their

actions with this knowledge are clever.

Perhaps Aristotle’s view of ‘knowing’

is not beyond time and space unlike

Plato’s view. The ideas that exhibit the

highest type of knowledge are found

together with the matter and form.

However, senses yield the lowest type

of knowledge according to both Aristoteles

and Plato and for this reason,

knowing is discussed on the level of

consciousness. Knowing cannot be

observed without any intervention of

the mind. As a result, humans find the

reality they perceive in the matter and

reality they sense. When matter images

created in the mind are combined

with consciousness and the relations

between consciousness and matter are

established, the actions of the spirit are

encouraged. ‘The brain movements

caused by the external objects trigger

thinking in the spirit even if they do

not give place to the similarities’ (Sartre,

2017, p. 11).

In this context, there are two types

of knowledge that arouse humans’

creative stimuli. The first is the knowledge

of matter that belongs to instinctive

notions and is an automatic and

code-designated memory system. The

second is the knowledge of form that

belongs to mental notions and is an ef-


64

fective-creative memory system (Bergson,

1988). The knowledge of matter is

a part of natural order, is in connection

with the environment, and is gained by

understanding the world. The knowledge

of form examines the data of nature

and rearranges matter to create

fact from new species (Malo, 1992).

Therefore, the understanding of creation

resulting from the relation and

cooperation between mind and matter

can be achieved. Matter that could not

be found by the mind itself is discovered

by the instincts. Since the instincts

do not have the ability to search and

know, they are nourished by the ability

of the mind. This cooperation can

be found in the Homo faber who creates

tools as a kind of semi-person that

overcomes nature incompletely (Gasset,

1941). The mental data required

for establishing life independently

from matter is created by establishing

knowledge about matter.

Noesis of Form: Humans begin to

understand, conceptualize, and interiorize

when they establish a relationship

between existence and new circumstances

for creation. The perception

and experiences of the environment

are described with images and notions

that are created in the mind. In the

pre-mind stage, we attempt to explain

the objects which are understood as

knowledge in the mind and created by

our perception devices in the recognition

and interpretation processes. It is

related to the conceptualization and the

ability to think abstractly. The ability to

think abstractly forms a phenomenon

that occurs in the mind before physical

actions are borne from the body. As

stated by Ditfurth:

Before delivering the purpose of

performing actions directly related to

the concrete, external object to a process

that is again realized by concreate

movements, …, an “interior space”

would have been created within the

consciousness of the subject, or rather

a “space of design”. Within such a designing

space, a certain action can be

“designed” in terms of all its possible

consequences, the subject then acts according

to it. (Bilinç Gökten Düşmedi;

Bilincimizin Evrimi, 2007, p. 501).

This internal designing space is the

place in which the senses are conceptualized.

Matters are discussed over the

notions where qualifications are uncertain,

and qualities are unlimited.

A discussion of physical existence

exceeds the scope of this paper, but different

forms of existence are discussed

because humans are creatures that design

the environment and themselves

within the environment. The condition

of being human substantiates our perception.

These substances are indirect

and pure advantages of understanding.

Therefore, they are the original

form of existence. For example, Sartre

discusses these substances as images

(Sartre, 2017). Images are in the mind

and are different from the objects we

sense. When images become objects,

they are not just in our mind anymore.

There is a process of creation that ensures

the transformation of matter into

images and images into objects with its

three steps, perception, imagination,

and objection. The ‘external body describes

the matters, it knows, in a part

of brain by means of senses and nerves

and makes an action in our body’ (Sartre,

2017). Through this action, images

come to existence. So, the images are

created at the stage in which physiology

and consciousness integrate. This

kind of interaction between matter and

mind indicate that form is designed in

the mind and is determined from the

matter. Therefore, the object is the occurrence

of form into matter. Our consciousness

which transfers the external

to internal and conceptualizes matter

for the internal, also regulates matter

from images to objects. In this arrangement,

making, the creation of objects,

always forms the actions of humans

and enables them to exist by arising

from the backstage (Plato, 1993). Making

takes the form of designs that are

envisioned by the mind. This situation

can be understood from qualification

of making by its forename, this way, the

making of a ‘thing’ can be mentioned.

As making gives pre-knowledge about

the object to be created, it also indicates

that the object has already been

designed in the mind.

Noesis of Aim: It can be considered

that the intellectual designs, new meanings,

and qualifications to be attributed

to matter are formed by requirements.

Matter is organized and formed to


65

present creation in the simplest and

purest way to meet the requirements

in the best way. For example, the mind

conceptualizes the requirements of an

object, and creates a form to hold water

to meet the need for drinking, which is

instinctively known, by linking sensed

thought and impermeable matters with

this form. Thus, form and matter are

decided according to certain requirements.

The requirements can be understood

with the object’s purpose, as well.

Each object is created ‘due to a thing or

for a thing’ (Aristotle, 1961). Humans

provide the form to matter for certain

purposes. This matter-form-aim relation

could be examined by the four

causality principles of Aristotle:

1. Causa materialis: matter with

which an object will be created

2. Causa formalis: form which includes

matter, the shape of an object

3. Causa finalis: aim of the object,

the reason for which an object is created

4. Causa efficiens: the provision of

the object or, in this case, person who

makes the object (Heidegger, 2015).

In this sense, human thoughts regarding

creation can be considered to

be developed by forming matter with

respect to certain requirements.

In this study, the notion of making is

analysed as noesis and representation.

It is assumed that humans develop

cognition and conceptualization that

are considered with the term of noesis

through processes that include the self,

matter, form, and aim. In the context

of these four states; human interaction

with their body, environment, and

matter leads to constructive and transformative

speculations on matter in the

context of certain requirements. The

accumulation of sense and the process

of filtering it forms a ‘thing’ in the

mind with a substance-free integrity, as

all layers of interaction. The concrete

responses of the ‘thing’ created in the

mind are a kind of representation. Kim

Tanzer calls this representation ‘thingifying’

(Tanzer, 1992). Thingifying is

the theoretic meaning of idealization

and objectivation. In this sense, objects

are created in acknowledging findings

and forms that the mind develops with

a purpose. Therefore, in this study,

cognition and conceptualization refer

to the theory of making which is approached

with the construction of the

object in mind. The notion of representation

is suggested as a fundamental

notion in the materialization of an object,

design, and conception that exists

in the mind. Representation refers to

the meaning and content of an object’s

existence and knowledge for its materialization.

3. Representation

It can be said that even if object

production emphasizes the unlimited

concrete experiences within the process

of making, all designs are formed

through the cohesion of matter’s conceptualization,

form, and aim. In order

to express this design and make it used

and recognized, some practical actions

are required. However, it refers to a

production in mental content; knowledge

of making is necessary for these

practical actions to represent this design.

In other words, the practical side

of making is in the mental actions.

The mental content of the actions in

practice could be referred to as ‘techne’.

Techne is a type of cognition, as in,

objects are created from this form of

cognition (Heidegger, 2007). It provides

knowledge on how a notion is

revealed. In this sense, techne is a common

origin point in the mental content

of technical and technological terms

that deal with the answer to the same

question. It is thought that the origins

of technique and technological terms

contemporarily used are based on

the notion of techne used in Ancient

Greece (Ural, 2015). Technique can

be considered to be the knowledge of

making and is based on ability and experience.

Instead of knowledge based

on experience and inferences, the use

of scientific knowledge has begun,

which means that the practical acts of

making are carried out in the technological

field. It can be said that, in technology,

the practical aim is applying

the knowledge of making rather than

exploring it.

3.1. Technique

Knowledge of Making: Knowledge

of making can be referred to by technique.

Technique reveals the four noe-


66

sis components (the self, matter, form,

and aim) (Heidegger, 2015). Technique

is the integrity of designs and the procedures

that help to have a specific result.

It is the tool for producing objects

in accordance with their fundamental

structure and conceptualized form. In

fact, for this reason, all possibilities of

the concrete experiences of making are

mentioned here. However, this form’s

representation indicates an action that

requires knowledge regarding the object.

Plato uses the term technique as

the same meaning of knowledge (episteme),

because representation already

has a certain knowledge. According

to him, objects have already been observed

as designs in the ideal world

before they are created. Therefore, the

realization of current potentiality is

technique. The knowledge kept secret

in the universe is developed by the effects

of humans, consciousness, and

aim; this is called realization (Plato,

2015). Similarly, Aristotle thinks that

the occurrence of an object is the process

of occurrence of form. This is the

indication of objects being created by a

certain knowledge. The practical action

of the entire making process is created

from knowledge or it creates knowledge,

which indicates that this section

can be referred to as the ‘knowledge

of making’. In other words, the knowledge

of making and technique are the

bases of all actions which turns designs

into objects. Therefore, all human actions

for making are related to mind, as

well as action.

3.2. Technology

Knowledge of Making for Practice:

‘Making’ does not refer to labour

as suggested by Marxian analyses of

Homo laborans, the worker. The circumstances

in which production refers

to labour are not related to the intellectual

conditions of object creation and

uniqueness. Therefore, the processes

and products of technology require

different discussions regarding object

creation. Due to technology being interested

in object creation process like

other practical sciences whose purposes

are actions, it requires a type of

information. Since technology uses

cumulative and developing knowledge

and scientific information, the act of

making involves concrete and physical

actions. Therefore, unlike technique,

technology does not resort to finding

new object-specific knowledge. However,

in the case of knowledge not dominating

the act of making, it becomes

a mediating component that does not

destroy the creative process of making.

The field of technology that causes

the means of production to change

suggests a model of production independent

from conceptualizations between

objects and their production

or new knowledge and humans. This

field detracts object production from

conceptualization, experiment, and

variety, while also destroying the relationship

between matter and form.

Objects are created only to meet certain

requirements. Franklin tackles this

concept, and refers to it as prescriptive

technology (The Real World of Technology,

1990). Prescriptive technology

causes the collapse of creativity in the

making process and standardizes objects.

The best example of this is the

factory production, which includes the

maker in only a small part of the making

process. On the other hand, holistic

technology, which is suggested by

Franklin, is associated with the kind of

making in which the maker is a creator.

Although the maker is in cooperation

with other disciplines, they are entirely

involved in the making process and

apply their own experiences to the process.

This reveals new content at every

turn in the object production.

As a result, it can be understood

that all processes that create objects

are performed intellectually. The object

first exists in the conceptualizations of

humans toward the self, matter, aim,

and form. The design of the object is

achieved with the cohesion of these

conceptions. Then, since the realization

of these concepts requires the knowledge

of making, the mental aspect of

making is sustained. The knowledge of

making is engaged to design. For this

reason, in this content, it can be said

that each object is a creation. The will

that occurs in all processes of making

turns into concrete things, a process

called poiesis.

4. Making as poiesis

The creative acts involved in the cre-


67

ation of objects occur in the processes

of conceptualizing the holistic nature

of an object. The comprehension of

this integrity reveals the design of object.

Producing a design that did not

previously exist is a form of creation.

Therefore, the creation of objects is related

to poiesis. Poiesis is based on the

creation of non-pre-existing objects

and the transformation from privacy

to full-enlightenment (Heidegger,

2015). Poiesis is the process by which

humans reveal the conceptualizations

of the mind by affecting matter. It is a

representation of an abstract design by

processing and transforming matter.

Aristotle presents arts and crafts as examples

for poiesis, because they transform

matter into a different thing, from

its original state to specialized objects

for each of their purposes. The literal

meaning of arts and crafts is techne for

Aristotle (Kart, 2015). Techne can be

considered as a form of creation since

it involves the activities that consist

of the knowledge of objects and their

making.

It can be claimed that objects are created

in the continuity of noesis, which

refers to ideal and abstract thought

and practice, which is the activity of

its concrete production. The mental

and ideal processes in each stage of this

continuity indicate that the production

of objects is creation. Therefore,

object production should be examined

in conjunction with creative action or

poiesis, which offers a unique approach

that eliminates the analytic dilemma of

considering only mental or practical

components.

Due to form of the object being designed

in the mind, the process of making

differs from other actions. Aristotle

explains the distinction between act

and making with the terms praxis and

poiesis. Generally, praxis is differentiated

by its use with an action word, while

poiesis is a term of activity used with a

poiein verb in the context of ‘making,

producing, and creating’ (Kart, 2015).

Therefore, making and creating are different

from all other actions because

they reveal object designs by producing

concrete results. They involve a

process that is based on noninstinctive

actions, personal conceptualizations

and concrete expressions.

5. Discussion of theory of the

making in design and architecture

Making is both a deliberate action

and a state of knowing. Since making

directly intervene and interfere with

the world, it contains more than design.

Design describes the activity of architecture

[or other disciplines associated

with design] with an implicit bias:

cognitive modelling is favoured and

physical qualities [are] minimized. In

contrast, making refers to the realms

of mental and physical construction,

acknowledging the dialectic quality of

the process. (Knesl, 1992, p.6).

For this reason, objects can be considered

as the physical results of mental

work. As the matured ideas are

transferred into material realities, they

are not forced to change. Ideas are observed

in the model and aim of the act,

as well as the projection of the processes

involved in the realization of act.

The understanding of poiesis yields the

design of an object that represents the

original idea and is pure and unique.

Because within this understanding:

• Humans reveal their consciousness

and have the energy to alter existing

states with this consciousness. This energy

reveals humans’ capacity for creation.

• The object is the product of understanding

and creative performances.

For this reason, it is created from the

individual perception of humans who

make objects.

• Humans create an intellectual

space of their own by questioning existing

situations. Thus, everything that

they have created is the response of a

field of inquiry and thought.

• The mind has a wide comprehension

capacity. As a result, many possibilities

of object creation are discoverable,

and the identification of matter is

always possible.

• Certain decisions are taken, and

knowledge is built. Therefore, the discrimination

between theory and practice,

mind and body, and subject and

object becomes blurred and intertwine.

As envisaged, objects reveal their

meaning and aim.

• There are some comprehensions of

matter. It is ordinary to reach findings

about the statement value of matter


68

that is produced through interrogation.

Therefore, it is possible to discover

possibilities beyond the material

realities of objects. Furthermore, comprehending

matter can reveal contrast

sensual experience of objects.

• Matters are considered with barriers

and obstacles in the design process.

Therefore, it is more likely that matters

deviate from the original intention.

• Images appear as a result of integrative

understanding. They appear as

pure findings of the mind and exist as

a result of experience. This opens the

process on a representational level and

leads to a new formal vocabulary.

• Each component should express

something about the integrity of the

object when revealing the image. No

factor divides the perception of integrity.

• A method is discovered for each

object. Instead of using the common

methods of making, the knowledge of

making itself is produced in order to

reveal comprehensions and designs.

The practical circumstances of making

are included in design.

• Since object production is practice

of design, it has its own strong

and appropriate intellectual culture.

This is because the design establishes

a field of inquiry and discussion on its

own without importing from different

cultures such as art or science (Cross,

2007).

• Although the method shows ontological

and epistemological differences

in technical and technological

situations, it includes the knowledge

of making on the basis. However, the

knowledge of making gains more

meaning in the expansion of the technique

towards the consciousness-matter-method,

because technology shapes

consciousness, and develops more on

production rather than creation. The

technique emerges as a result of consciousness

making discoveries on results.

Therefore, it reveals the poetics

in the relationship and interaction between

idea and method.

• Objects are exactly the result of

design which is “neither completely

predetermined nor universal (as in the

notions of ideal form or essence), but

specific to individual acts of making”

(Childers, 1992, p. 5).

In the context of these expansions

that make up the content of poiesis,

this study states that poiesis constitutes

the intellectual boundaries of the theory

of making as a theoretical equivalent

of making. The design is observed

in the mental content of making and

the design object is a product of the

knowledge of cognition and conceptualization

that occurs uniquely in each

human. Therefore, the theory of making

and poiesis should be considered

as the hypothetic basis of all original

productions in the field of design and

architecture.

6. Conclusion

The act of making indicates a form

of human existence, in other words, the

mind. The mind is the place of cognition

and conceptualization or noesis.

It can be said that noesis initiates the

creation of objects. In this study, noesis’

development based on four conditions,

the self, matter, form, and aim,

is asserted. When humans understand

their own mental abilities for cognition

and conceptualization, they can reveal

their creative identity. Noesis of matter

explains that matter can bear different

qualities apart from the ones sensed

by humans and be differentiated from

its own (for example, the stone is hard

but could be sharp, as well). Noesis

of form makes it possible for humans

discover new meanings to be attributed

to matter and find a way to express

an intention. Therefore, it can be said

that form is determined by the noesis

of aim. For this reason, these four

components can be understood holistically

and simultaneously. These four

fundamental and conceptual components

explained in the context of noesis

considering the design integrity of

noesis as the intellectual backbone of

making in our minds. The revelation

of this design also refers to noesis and

the mental process, since it requires

the knowledge of making in its practical

process. All the conditions related

to making are developed mentally. This

emphasizes poiesis, because poiesis is

the creation of previously non-existed

objects, and the occurrence of noesis in

matter as claimed in this study. Since

poiesis deals with each act through

a mental process, it creates different


69

Figure 1. Conceptual schema of making.

qualities, because conceptualizations

of the mind in the mental process are

expected to be unique. Therefore, this

study proposes to examine original

objects as potential results of poiesis.

Hence, the act of making that produces

objects remains within the limits of

the theoretical and practical aspects of

poiesis.

This study questioned how humans

have created objects in order to find

creativity of the mind towards the

production attitude. This explanation

is made by the conceptual typesetting

laid out by the theory of making

[Figure 1]. This conceptual content of

the theory of making will lead to the

renewal of the established order in

the fields of design and architecture.

Instead of the concept of design currently

discussed in an epistemological

field, it underlines the necessity of reinterpreting

the concept of design in

an ontological field. The ontological

content of the concept of making can

manifest itself in technical and tectonic

searches. In this content, the actions

creating the objects of all design fields

arise from conceptions of designers.

Thus, this study invites the rediscovery

of the concept of making’s ontological

origins as a theoretical premise that enables

the identification of experimental

research areas of how matter and form

can be grasped afresh. With the theoretical

tools proposed in this study,

it can be provided the expansion and

deepening of design thought in contemporary

design environments. From

education to practice, this study can

be a basis for the reform and advancement

of all fields of design.

References

Aristotle. (1961). Aristotle’s Physics.

(R. Hope, Trans.) Lincoln: University

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Architectonics as synthesis of

architectural and engineering

disciplines

Natalia Vladimirovna NORİNA 1 , Veniamin Aleksandrovich NORİN 2 , Yuriy

Vladimirovich PUKHARENKO 3

1

bennor@yandex.ru • Department of Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering,

Saint Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering,

Petersburg, Russia

2

norinveniamin@yandex.ru • Department of Technology of Building Materials

and Metrology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Saint Petersburg State University of

Architecture and Civil Engineering, Petersburg, Russia

3

tisk@spbgasu.ru • Department of Technology of Building Materials and

Metrology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Saint Petersburg State University of

Architecture and Civil Engineering, Petersburg, Russia

Received: March 2018 • Final Acceptance: July 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.91489

Abstract

The article is dedicated to the solution of some tasks faced when teaching

students of architectural departments and related to insufficient knowledge of

technical science. The need for introducing a profound study of such technical

disciplines as “Structural performance of materials”, “Construction mechanics”

into the educational program of architecture students has been proved. Methodological

principles for selecting and structuring the contents of the Architetonics

discipline have been defined. A project for scientific and methodological support

of the Architectonics discipline has been developed. We state that currently there

is a wide range of graphical software products allowing students of archi-tectural

departments to model various interesting shapes. Along with that, we note that

graphic software products do not allow for adequate check of the constructive

solution, so educational modeling is frequently limited by solving space-planning

and imaginary tasks. A problem of implementing calculation and designing software

into the educational architectural designing has been considered.

Keywords

Architectonics, Design of architectural and engineering structures, Educational

program of architecture, Integrated system of strength analysis, Russian

engineering education.

72

1. Introduction

A new stage in development of Russian

architecture that started with the

transition to mixed economy in the

context of private property rehabilitation

could not help but affect the system

of architectural education. First,

it affected the style of architectural

projects. “Historicism” that had been

informally prohibited for 25 years, covered

the entire architectural “shop” in

the country almost instantly. Projects

reflecting the drive to search for new

trends in architecture development

released from decorative representation

began to emerge as an alternative

from neohistorism. There were also

new design objects like temples, business

centers, or elite apartment houses.

In the 1990s, computer design was

introduced to the training process for

the first time. Contacts with foreign

colleagues and universities intensified,

and people got indeed acquainted with

the latest construction technology.

The Town Planning Code and related

legislative documents set a new sequence

of town planning documentation

development. As contrasted with

the Soviet procedure of “top to bottom”

urban planning, it is done from

bottom to top. The Town Planning

Code cancelled state standards and the

original prescription of what needs to

be designed and in what amount. Now

self-government authorities decide

how many schools and kinder-gartens,

parking lots and trade places, sports

complexes and squares should be built.

The population is gradually becoming

the main driving force for generating

and implementing any town-planning

ideas. Today, a city planner should be

able to both solve financial, sanitary

engineering and transport issues competently

and form a beautiful ur-ban

environment. Despite some success,

we must admit that, in general, Russian

architectural universities have

not adjusted to new requirements yet.

According to corresponding member

of the International Academy of

Architecture M. G Meerovich: “The

teachers engaged in training cannot

do this (with rare exceptions), and to

say more, they cannot explain to others

how to do this”. (Meerovich 2010).

Simultaneously with the development

of standards, one should be able

to formulate procedures to be implemented

in real life. All the above are

tasks of a modern architect and planner,

or urban planner. These tasks

should be solved together with representatives

of other academic subjects,

but within the scope of their personal

professional responsibility. Where can

we get these specific knowledge and

skills? It is architectural education that

initiates development of the new fields

of activity and qualification of graduates.

In the past, an architect took decisions

based on the “objectivity” set

by standards, theoretical postulates,

and possibilities of the construction

industry base. Today, town-planning

decisions become increasingly subjective

- most often they are taken situationally,

based on personal conviction

and knowledge but not on general requirements

and regulations. To implement

such tasks, perhaps, a completely

different personality is needed rather

than one that the system of higher architectural

education provides today.

Today, we need people who are more

likely to not draw but design and construct.

They should know how to use

mathematical formulas and calculation

methods easily. It means that we need

an engineer with skills in architecture,

not an artist. Most top managers at factories

that produce various building

structures have the same opinion. This

conclusion was made because we have

monitored the opinions of top managers

at industrial enterprises in St. Petersburg

and Leningrad Oblast during

field trips to the sites with students of

St. Petersburg State Architectural and

Construction University. To date, capacity

of production facilities at these

enterprises is enough to make real almost

any intention of an architect with

artistic skills. The problem is lack of

qualified personnel to do drawings of

proposed structures supported by cor-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko

73

responding calculations and recommendations.

Top managers of any certain

enterprise within the said territory

are interested in creating departments

for design and engineering at their enterprises

and are very anxious about

the issue related to selection of appropriate

personnel.

The purpose of this study is to develop

and substantiate scientific and

methodological ground for training

the future architects taking into account

the engineering component of

training.

The scope of the study is a special

training of architects in the field of engineering.

The object of the study is a project

of scientific and methodical support

for teaching engineering to architects.

According to the purpose of the study,

the following tasks were set:

1. To study the condition of the investigated

issue

2. To identify the place and importance

of technical subjects in the

framework of architectural education

3. To prove the need to introduce

advanced technical subjects like Statics

and Dynamics of Buildings and Structures,

Building Materials, Performance

of Con-struction Materials, and Construction

Mechanics into the training

course for students of architectural departments.

4. To define methodological principles

of selecting and structuring the

content of Architectonics.

5. To develop a methodological support

project for Architectonics.

2. Theoretical analysis

2.1. Development trends of

a ‘technological’ society that

define new vectors of mentoring

and educating architects

Transition to the “technological” society

increases requirements for modern

up-bringing and education that

are formed taking into account current

trends in society de-velopment. It

contributes to formation of an integral

personality – a creative, smart, and educated

person who has strong attitude,

democratic views, and a proactive approach

to life. The tasks faced by architectural

education in the light of the

problems in the 21st century leave no

doubt as to the need for radical change

in education. A real solution to this

problem is to achieve the level of professional

architectural consciousness

that guarantees continuity in the conditions

of active introduction to new

achievements in science and technology.

The solution to such a problem cannot

be implemented within the framework

of separated scientific and technical

subjects and by means of them.

It can be implemented only within the

framework of “human ecology” (Kaznacheev

1988). Currently, a new direction

in architectural science is being

considered. It is an interdisciplinary

direction that determines relationship

between nature and the human being.

This means that architects of the

future will need new knowledge, new

skills, and new ideas. They will have

to learn how to team work with engineers,

biologists, physicists, and other

professionals. Therefore, they will have

to master the professional language in

order to have at least a little idea about

the basic concepts on which they build

their reasoning. In any case, architects

should stop locking themselves up and

start communicating with the world.

According to the studies of biologists

V. Meyer, F. Kahn, N. Bogolyubov

and others conducted at different times

(Kahn 1929, Maier 1968, Bogolyubov

1940), architectonics of supporting

systems of living organisms is linked to

providing a high degree of strength and

lightness in elements that are characterized

by cost-efficient distribution of

material (Temnov 2001). Therefore, in

recent years, architects and engineers

in Russia (Y. Lebe-dev, S. Voznesensky,

V. Temnov, etc.) and in Western countries

(P. Nervi, A. Menges, E. Hampe,

S. Calatrava, P. Portoghesi, etc.) have

actively referred to the experience of

living nature. This is due to the fact

that structures of living organisms, as

well as building struc-tures, are strong,

Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines

74

rigid and resistant to gravitational,

atmospheric and other force actions.

This experience is successfully used in

design and construction of buildings

and facilities with modern forms and

efficient structures.

Thanks to this interdisciplinary approach,

an architecture that cannot be

simply drawn but only created through

deep understanding is being developed

at the Institute for Computational Design

in Stuttgart, Germany. Moreover,

consideration and studying of the most

unexpected objects is used for this understanding.

For example, a shell of a

spider (Architecture at your fingertips.

Achim Menges develops software

codes and makes a revolution in architecture

2014).

University of Massachusetts pays

great attention to this field of research.

In particular, a digitized process of

making a cocoon by a mulberry-fed

caterpillar was used there to construct

various spaces. The Group Director

Neri Oxman believes that when studying

the natural processes like ability of

silkworms to build their cocoons from

silk threads, scientists will be able to

develop methods of “printing” architectural

structures in a more efficient

way, which can be achieved by modern

3D-printing technologies. This group

investigated the relationship between

digital and biological products to be

produced in architectural scales. A

dome of silk fibers called “Silk Pavilion”

was created at the interdisciplinary research

laboratory “MIT Media Lab” of

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(“Silk Pavilion” - silkworms and a robot

weave together 2013).

At the same time, a natural object is

not simply copied; what is copied is its

very essence. On this basis, the Stuttgart

Institute develops avant-garde projects.

For example, bimetals are used to simulate

work of muscles. Alternatively, a

living cell is created which is capable to

build a given structure by reproducing

and then fossilizing like a coral under

certain conditions (Dmitrieva 2015).

Based on the information above, we

can conclude that an architect of the

very near future will need universal

knowledge to operate successfully. And

they are all the more necessary when it

comes to buildings related to adaptive

architecture – there is simply no way to

do this without well-developed engineering

skills (Emmitt S. 2002, Emmitt

S. 2004, Wiberg 2011, Schnädelbach

2016, Schnädelbach et al 2012, Fuchs

2013, Kontovourkis et al 2013, Jager et

al 2016), since, in a certain sense, objects

of adaptive architecture are machines.

Therefore, we can assume that

it cannot hurt for an architect to know

the fundamentals of the basic subjects

for mechanical engineers like machine

elements and the theory of machines

and mechanisms, as well as performance

of construction materials. Of

course, an architect will not have to

independently calculate an assembly

unit that ensures intended movements

of structures. It is the work of a designer.

However, an architect should know

which assembly units already exist and

which ones can exist in reality based on

the laws of physics.

However, to acquire enough knowledge

in design, an architect actually

needs to be trained in design, and it

seems almost impossible today. In addition,

a good knowledge of behavior

of structures is not yet a guarantee that

an architect will be able to find expressive

tectonic images. Therefore, an issue

related to significant correction of

study programs of architectural and

design schools should be recognized

as one of the current problems. At the

same time, the current development

of architect’s skills in design can be

achieved not at the expense of an increase

in number of class hours, but

im-provement of content quality for

special design subjects.

2.2. Problems of developing the

syllabus of teaching educational

programmes in the major of

architecture at Russian universities

The problem of arranging the content

of educational programs for architects

has always been of attention to

many researchers. One can definitely


75

say that it is a crosscut-ting issue of

pedagogy, which is topical at every

stage of developing training courses for

architects.

The following question is important:

how the content of education of architects

should be projected to the higher

school. Let us turn to studying the

issue of technology of designing the

competence-oriented content of the

architects’ training courses.

The Russian system of higher education

was formed based on paradigm

of knowledge. The whole educational

process was organized according to

“knowledge – skills – abilities” triad

where exactly knowledge was the first.

It was believed that knowledge digestion

process had potential for development

by itself letting to form working

knowledge and to put it to use. The logic

of implementing the competence approach

differs fundamentally from the

previous knowledge paradigm by the

fact that the goal of education in Federal

state educational standard of higher

education (HE FSES) is specifically formulated

competences (general cultural

and professional). In this regard, there

are some contradictions:

• Between specific objectives of education

in the form of competencies that

shall be mastered because of studying

the educational program, on the one

hand, and an unclear idea of what the

content of education should be in order

to form these competencies.

• Between the integrative nature of

competences, which requires appropriate

complex means for their formation,

on the one hand, and the disciplinary

nature of the curriculum aimed at the

formation of subject knowledge and

skills, on the other hand.

Hence, the following problem arises:

what should the projected content

of architects’ education be in order to

form the needed competencies?

As the analysis shows, curricula for

training bachelors consist of cycles of

subjects and sections (Dreher 2013).

The set of subjects in each cycle is determined

by the types of professional

activities with which undergraduates

will deal, and the content of curricula

is determined by the task of the most

thorough and in-depth study of each

subject. Despite the fact that matrices

of the correspondence of the subject

and the competences formed within it

are compiled in the course programs,

this process is often of a formal nature.

Teachers conduct this correspondence

“by eye”, mainly to accomplish the assignment

of the management team.

With such a planning system, subjects

that do not meet the requirements of

formation of assigned competencies

are included into the course content,

or, conversely, subjects that are necessary

to form the assigned competencies

are missing. Curricula and course programs

are an important prerequisite

for professional training. At the same

time, the more rationally these documents

are compiled, the higher the

probability of successful student training.

Individual subjects of the curriculum

should be harmoniously interconnected;

interdisciplinary continuity

should be established between subjects

and their topics.

The logic of the new generation of

HE FSES requires movement from

goals of results to the content capable

of providing these results. Therefore,

designing of the scope, level, content of

theoretical and empirical knowledge,

practical skills, and necessary experience

are directly dependent on the results

of education expressed in the form

of competencies. You can neither “tear

off ” competencies from the content of

education nor you should expect that

you could ensure their acquisition only

through the content of education.

In the process of teaching, the

teacher and the student deal with a

certain subject. What should it be in

the context of competence approach

implementation? The course program

should contain information about objectives,

structure, scope, content, and

other methodological support of the

subject (Ogorelkov 2013). Moreover,

we proceed from the fact that a student

should be introduced to the educational

program as a whole from the very

beginning of training, so that he/she

could immediately understand what

competencies should be formed in the

course of studying the subject, during

the term, year, or the entire period of

study; what tasks he/she should per-


76

form in the course of studying, etc. In

addition, in our opinion, it is necessary

to move on to a different structuring of

teaching aids based on the project and

technological approach.

2.3. Methodological approaches

to the engineering-focused

training of architects

The study data was collected in the

course of analysis of the contemporary

training of architects in Russia

and abroad. The study data was collected

in the course of analysis of the

contemporary training of architects

at Saint Petersburg State University

of Architecture and Civil Engineering

(SPbSUACE) (Predmetno-modulnaya

matritsa obucheniya arhitektorov

[Subject and Module Training

Matrix for Architects] 2016), Moscow

Architectural Institute (Primernaya

osnovnaya professionalnaya obrazovatelnaya

programma vysshego obrazovaniya

[Model Main Professional

Educational Programme of Higher

Ed-ucation] 2016), Nizhny Novgorod

State University of Architecture and

Civil Engineering (Annotatsii i rabochiye

programmy distsiplin [Abstracts

and Steering Documents of Academic

Disciplines] 2018), Novosibirsk State

Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineer-ing

(Osnovnye obrazovatelnye

programmy [Main Educational Programmes]

2011), the Institute of Urban

Science and Urban Environment,

the Karlsruhe University (Germany),

the University of Strasbourg (France)

(Proekt Rossiya 82. Obrazovaniye 2016

[Project Russia 82. Education 2016]),

the Institute for Computational Design

and Construction of Stuttgart, University

of Massachusetts, and the University

of Niš (Study program – Architecture

2011).

In the contemporary dynamic international

environment of architectural

education, the Russian higher

school is by no means always showing

the signs of progress. Judging by the

current state of the Russian architectural

school, the question arises if we

can expect any interesting and competently

drafted projects at the Russian

architectural universities, which

demonstrate more and more signs of

stagnation. Many problems of teaching

the architectural way of thinking

in Russian schools are rooted in the

predominance of artistic ‘frills’ when

interpreting the architecture, wherein

a quest for a showy envelopment remains

the main issue. From the very

beginning of teaching the profession,

there have been artistic exercises aimed

at creating that showy envelopment instead

of designing a form using modern

materials and techniques. The disastrously

underrated role of the scaled

down modelling of modern structures

made of the same materials that are

sup-posed to be used to build real-life

facilities leads to Utopian projects. A

failure to provide sufficient new equipment

to mockup workshops prevents

students from appreciating the sense of

structure or from understanding how

engineering materials work in real life,

and that is what can be experienced

during scaled down modelling.

In some foreign universities (Karlsruhe

University (Germany), the University

of Strasbourg (France), Helsinki

University of Technology), teaching

many engineering cross-disciplines

(first of all, design) provides to students

a fundamental training in terms of appreciating

the sense of how to use materials

with different properties. Spatial

image of an item in the form of multilayer

axonometric projections and

sections with no envelopment gives an

idea of how competently materials and

structures are used to support highly

demanded processes. Special attention

should be paid to Juhani Pallasmaa’s

laboratory of prototype design where

students study professional subjects

through scaled prototypes that they

make with their own hands.

The analysis has revealed that the

current training of architects is, with

rare exceptions, more involved with

computers thus distancing the students

from reality. Modern teaching

methods do not involve manual count

of engineering structures either. Numerous

recent computer graphics textbooks

are primarily focused on simulating

the geometry of designed objects

and solving the drawing and graphics

problems. At the same time, there are

almost no textbooks focused on auto-


77

mated calculations and applied design

assignments.

The drawbacks of architects’ training

in Europe can also be as follows;

for example, the University of Sheffield

teaches an operating method not

specific skills while independent student

activities seem to be too much

of a share there; Delft University of

Technology seems to pay little attention

to design as such; the Institute for

Advanced Architecture of Catalonia

does not always adapt the engineering

aspect of design to real life situations

(Proekt Rossiya 82. Obrazovaniye 2016

[Project Russia 82. Education 2016]).

However, the bottom line is that contemporary

teaching methods provide

neither good construction skills nor

professional intuition in future architects.

3. A project for methodological

support of Architectonics

The authors suggest introducing

a new subject called Architectonics

into the curricula of architectural and

designing specialties as an integrated

course of the following subjects:

Building Materials, Architectural and

Building Constructions, Statics and

Dynamics of Buildings and Structures,

Performance of Construction

Materials, and Structural Mechanics.

In architectural science, artistic and

Figure 1. An animated demonstration of

creating an “open” joint of external wall

panels in a technological sequence.

imaginative comprehension of forces

invisible to the eye is called Architectonics

(from Greek ἀρχιτεκτονική –

the art of building) (Weisman 1899).

The following national scientists carried

out rigorous theoretical studies on

the topic of Architectonics: B. Nikolaev,

A.I. Nekrasov, V.F. Markuzon, V.P.

Zubov, A.G. Gabrichevsky, Y.S. Lebedev,

V.G. Barkhin, A.E. Gutnov, M.V.

Shubenkov, etc. (Nekrasov 1994, Nikolaev

2006, Shubenkov 2006, Zubov

2001).

The project of methodological support

of the subject of Architectonics

provides a solution of interdisciplinary

tasks in architectural design. The objective

of the project for the scientific

and methodological support of Architectonics

is to create the most acceptable

from practical point of view

methods of visualization of the most

frequently encountered elements of

building structures subjected to calculations.

The need to bring the solution

of each problem to a finite numerical

result often leads to various simplifications,

which validity in each case is

confirmed experimentally or by mathematical

analysis.

During the development of the project

for scientific and methodological

support of Architectonics, the authors

were guided by the fact that one should

strive to both apply complex mathematical

calculations and receive a deep

understanding of the essence of occurring

physical phenomena and carry

out simplified computational modeling

(schematization) of them. Therefore,

to successfully master Architectonics,

students shall necessarily get skills of

both machine and manual calculation

for most common elements of building

structures along with design skills.

The scientific and methodological

support of Architectonics should include

the following:

• The course program (please find it

attached)

• Methodical recommendations for

course studying

• Methodical instructions for the

practicals

• Complex individual tasks for computational

and graphic works

• Educational, didactic, and reference

materials


78

• The method to control the level

of mastering the subject based on the

rating technology of knowledge assessment

4. Methodical recommendations for

the course of Architectonics

Methodical recommendations for

the course of Architectonics

The following actions should be taken

for successful implementation of

the course program in Architectonics:

The first section of the subject - Architectural

Constructions (AC) should

include lectures and exercises. Presentation

of lecture material in Architectonics

shall be accompanied by a

presentation created, for example, in

Power Point (Fig.1).

Practicals should be carried out only

as field trips:

a) Across the university’s academic

buildings.

b) To existing buildings outside the

university, including residential, public

and industrial buildings and structures.

c) To construction sites.

d) To factories of building materials

and structures. Presentation of a photo

album with situational pictures shall be

an indispensable requirement for a student’s

report.

Architectural Days shall be provided

for in the curriculum for the successful

mastering of the first part of Architectonics.

An Architectural Day is a

day within a working week on which

students shall only deal with Architectonics.

It is reasonable to study by this

scheme during two terms of the first

year.

The second section of the subject is

the Basis for Calculation of Architectural

Structures (BCAS). It shall include

lectures and practicals.

Presentation of lecture material shall

necessarily be accompanied by a presentation,

since theoretical issues related

to statics and dynamics of structures

are particularly difficult to understand

and shall be accompanied by any form

of visualization, including electronic

presentations. It is expedient to start

studying a certain subject with a selection

of photo materials from the photo

albums with situational shots (for example,

Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5).

Therefore, students will not solve

related abstract problems (as it is done

now) and calculate real structured taken

from practice. An example is calculation

of a statically definable metal

frame required for the restoration of a

destroyed building wall (Fig.6).

To successfully master the second

part of Architectonics, the curriculum

shall include 4 academic hours (2

hours of lectures and 2 hours of practicals)

every week for three terms of the

Figure 2. Photo of a balcony console for calculations of transverse

bending.

Figure 3. Photo of an arch for calculations of transverse bending.

Figure 4. Photo of columns for calculations of stability.


79

Figure 5. Photo of envelopments and frameworks for calculations

of combined strength.

Figure 6. The scheme of calculation of a statically definable metal

frame developed by a student on the example of reconstruction of

a destroyed building wall.

second and third year. It is reasonable

to combine manual and com-puter

calculations. Automated calculation

involves usage of the calculation extensive

features and design software

SCAD Оffice that is notable for its high

degree of visualizing the calculation results.

The architectural form is material

and has one very important feature,

which has not been sufficiently studied,

in our opinion. This feature is associated

with the presence of hidden

forces that arise in the material because

of influence of all kinds of physical

load. These forces are studied in detail

by various branches of physics, the theory

of elasticity, strength of materials,

theoretical mechanics, and so on. The

specific nature of the topic is that invisibility

of internal forces results in the

necessity to attract complex engineering

calculations or intuition. By covering

spheres of logical and imaginative

thinking and revealing points of their

contact, the topic of Architectonics is

among the most difficult ones in architecture.

It is considered that a professional

architect should be able to cover

both these areas of activity; however,

such interaction is carried out with

great difficulty in the modern educational

process and often in practice

(Fisher 2006, 2008, 2013). In the vast

majority of cases, it is very difficult for

students to grasp the relationship between

the logic of architectural forms

making and precise analytical calculations

based on abstract modeling of

physical processes (Melodinsky 2004).

Now there are new software products

that allow working in the mode

of complex design getting the result in

a quick and accurate way, in a visual

and intuitive form, which is important

for future architects. Quite a many

programs have already been used in

architectural and building design:

“Lira”, “Monomah”, COSMOS, AN-

SYS, NASTRAN, etc. (Radzjukevich

& Kozlov 2001). Thanks to these programs,

architects have a possibility to

solve almost all design tasks that can

be formalized and algorithmized. Almost

all sections of construction physics

(heat protection, sound insulation,

acoustics, insolation, etc.) and structural

mechanics (theory of strength of

materials, theory of stability, theory of

plasticity), theory of structures (statics,

dynamics, stability of structures),

building structures, geophysics, etc.

can be referred to them. All kinds of

dynamic processes are also modeled,

and it is important for building design

taking into account seismicity. However,

despite such a huge variety of

software products that can be used to

solve different project tasks, in the majority

of cases students of architectural

institutions develop only drawings and

3D models followed by designed projects

visualization. In fact, the computer

is used only as a tool for geometric

modeling and is a tiny fraction of real

capabilities of modern software. The

main difficulty of the problem lies in

the fact that studying of new products


80

and their adaptation to the learning

process are a separate large organizational,

scientific, and methodical job

that requires participation of a diversified

group of specialists.

The topicality of this work is related

to the fact that many textbooks (the

theory of strength of materials, theoretical

mechanics, structural mechanics,

etc.) run their course, because visualization

of conditions and the behavior

of a projected object are presented in

them in an extremely abstract form.

Often such textbooks contain only formulas,

graphs, curves, and diagrams

that students perceive with some difficulty

(Azizyan et al 2002, Beljaev 2001,

Bespalov 2011, Stasyuk et al 2004).

In this regard, in our opinion, the

attempt to study some computational

software products for their “integration”

into the educational process undertaken

at Novosibirsk State Academy

of Architecture and Fine Arts

(NSAAFA) deserves attention (Radzjukevich

& Palchynov 2009). A comparative

analysis of software products

showed there that SCAD Offis (Structure

CAD Office) is most preferable for

educational design. If determined accu-rately,

it is an integrated system for

strength analysis and structural design.

A store of NSAAFA experience in this

direction makes it possible to identify

a number of possibilities of new software

products. First, it should be noted

that it became possible to visualize

the distribution of equivalent stresses

both on the surface and inside the analyzed

structural element. An object

is automatically painted with different

colors using the color indication or the

so-called von-Mises scale. It is conventionally

assumed that the less the stress

in the material is, the “colder” the color

(dark-blue, blue) is. And vice versa,

areas working under high loads are

painted with “warm” and “hot” colors

(yellow, red). In this case, information

about the operation of the element acquires

extreme clarity, which is very

important for students of architectural

and design profile to perceive the material

studied.

Obviously, to ensure complete design,

in addition to creating “beautiful

pictures” it is also necessary to do physical

modeling, i.e. to turn certain physical

properties to geometrical models

for their investigation. Therefore, the

material form can be considered a certain

derivative of its internal physical

properties and given external conditions

to which it is adjusted or adapted.

Modeling of such a form that coincides

with the spatial structure of stresses

makes it possible to introduce a new

method of form making, which can be

conditionally called adaptive-tectonic

(Charleson 2005, Charleson & Pirie

2009).

It is possible to set conditions to detect

a conditionally optimal form for

such elements as “support”, “console”,

“counterfort”, “beam”, “wall opening”,

“shell”, etc. In addition, for more adequate

artistic understanding of design,

it is promising to create a typology of

tectonic units like:

1. Load receipt unit (column cap,

counterfort abutment to the wall, etc.);

2. Unit of load transfer by distance

(column shaft, pilaster, post, spacer,

etc.);

3. Unit of load transfer to the base

(base, socle, etc.);

4. Unit of changes in the direction of

line of force (counterfort angle).

5. Unit of load transfer from some

loaded sites to another quantity of restrained

sites (branching in trussed

systems).

Obviously, it is a far from complete

list of situations reflecting the operation

of hidden forces in a material.

Development of this area of research

is only beginning. Carrying out such

virtual experiments with material and

loads makes it possible to bring out the

process of architectural form making

and, accordingly, design to a qualitatively

new stage. An architect receives

a tool that allows looking through the

material and it, in turn, can provide the

basis for a significant approximation of

artistic-intuitive and engineering-design

approaches to design and form

making.

Detailed studying of the program

showed that it makes it possible to carry

out calculations accompanied by visual

graphic presentation of structural

layout operation, indicate loads, and

allows choosing optimum structural

elements. This product interacts seamlessly

with many other software prod-


81

ucts and allows working correctly with

imported geometric models, which is

very important when using graphic

software products.

The results of machine and manual

calculations shall represent mutual

verification of the correctness of the

result received. However, in our opinion,

manual calculation shall prevail,

since it allows “feeling” the structure,

not to mention the fact that in some

cases machine calculation cannot even

be used.

5. Recommendation

The projected methodology of

teaching Architectonics can be used to

train architects at construction universities

and architectural and art academies,

because it is an effective way to

increase the level of knowledge of students

and form their professional activities.

It is recommended to:

• Include mathematics and physics

into the list of entrance examinations

for architectural specialties as the basic

general subjects.

• Equip the park of the educational

architectural workshop with any of

architectural and construction design

programs - “Lira”, “Monomakh”, COS-

MOS, ANSYS, NASTRAN, etc. - that

allow to work in the mode of complex

design getting results in a quick and

accurate way, in a clear and intuitive

Figure 7. Averaged results of the pass/

fail examinations in Architectonics,

Architectural Engineering Structures, and

Structural Mechanics.

form, which is important for future architects.


architectural workshop with a laser

scanner that allows carrying out

high-precision and high-performance

measurements of architectural and

building structures.


architectural workshop with a 3D

printer with the help of which students

can get a demonstrable result of their

architectural and planning solutions.

• Use 3D printer features to print

both as mockups of entire construction

projects and 3D copies of piece architectural

structures, that can be used

like Lego elements to “put together”

mockups of, for example, skeleton-type

structures.

• Adhere to the proposed study program

of Architectonics.

6. Conclusions

1. The developed project of scientific

and methodological support of Architectonics

for architects training is an

important and relevant material of the

theory and practice of general technical

subjects teaching.

2. Peculiarities of industry training

of students of construction institutions

were singled out based on the principles

of integration, systematization,

polytechnic education, etc.

3. Requirements for the selection of

the content of basic technical training

of architects in Architectonics were

formulated taking into account peculiarities

of vocational education.

4. A project for the methodological

support of Architectonics at a construction

university was developed.

5. The course program in Architectonics

was partially tested during the

autumn term in 2015-2016 academic

year. The results were as follows:

a) The interest of students in studied

subjects like Architectural and

Building Structures, Performance of

Construction Materials, Construction

Mechanics was heightened, and it is

confirmed by an increase in attendance

as compared to previous years;

b) Summarizing the results of the

survey, we can say that students appreciate

the innovations, because now

they cannot only draw, but also cal-


82

culate architectural constructions, i.e.

solve real issues in the field of architecture

and construction.

c) Having analyzed the current and

intermediate knowledge assessment,

we can say that students’ performance

has improved because of rhythmic

work during the term, which, in turn,

was due to their interest in the subjects

studied (Fig. 7). The comparative analysis

data was collected in the course

of the winter examination periods

2014/2015 and 2015/2016. In January

2016, the first pass/fail examination

was held in Architectonics as an experiment

in three groups. The results were

compared with those shown by the

three student groups at pass/fail examinations

in Architectural and Building

Structures and in Construction Mechanics.

Previously, there had been no

Strength of Materials on the cur-riculum

for architects.

Therefore, the performed exploratory

work allows concluding that the

application of the proposed scientific

and methodological support for Architectonics

as an important basic technical

subject is bound to improve the

quality of teaching of students of architectural

universities. The timeliness of

introduction of an integrated course

of art and basic technical subjects is

in full agreement with national priority

project “Education” currently being

implemented (Prioritetnij national`nij

proekt «Obrazovanie» [National

Priority Project “Education»] 2016).

When creating large educational and

research-and-production complexes, it

is possible to suggest the organization

of a department for Architectonics at

architectural faculties of architectural

and construction universities.

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Appendix

Course program suggested

for Architectonics:

Introduction

Part 1. Architectural

constructions (AC)

1. General principles of design

of bearing and enclosing

structures of buildings

1.1. General principles of design

of the load-bearing frame and its elements

1.2. Selection of load-bearing frame

materials

1.3. Enclosing structures, requirements

to them. Methodology of their

design solutions.

2. Architectural designs of lowrise

residential buildings

2.1. Foundations of low-rise buildings

2.2. Frames of low-rise buildings

made of stone


made of wood


with the use of metal and plastic

2.5. Floor slabs and floors

2.6. Roofs and roof coatings of lowand

medium-rise buildings

2.7. Elements of low-rise construction

(verandas, terraces, vestibules, internal

wooden staircases

2.8. Household ovens and fireplaces

3. Architectural designs of singlestorey

industrial and civil buildings

3.1. Load-bearing frame systems

3.2. Elements of the load-bearing

frame of single-storey industrial buildings

(columns, crane girders, bracing,

side-framing columns)

3.3. Coverings of single-storey

buildings

3.4. Flat roof framing without horizontal

thrust. Beams and trusses.

3.5. Spacer flatwork

3.6. Beam-and-girder systems

3.7. Thin-walled space structures

3.8. Suspension structural systems

3.9. Pneumatic and tent coverings

3.10. Wall railings of heated and

non-heated buildings

3.11. Skylights

4. Architectural designs of

multi-storey buildings

4.1. Load-bearing frames of civic


4.2. Load-bearing frames of

multi-storey industrial buildings

4.3. Foundations of multi-storey

buildings

4.4. Wall enclosing structures of


4.5. Structural components of

multi-storey buildings (balconies, recessed

balconies, window bays, ceiling

slabs, staircases, ramps, construction

elements of carrying and lifting equipment

4.6. Translucent vertical structures

4.7. Doors and gates

4.8. Partitions

4.9. Prefabricated large-size units of

floor and ceiling slabs

4.10. Suspended ceilings

4.11. Floors

5. Construction of buildings in

areas with special conditions


85

5.1. Construction in seismic areas

5.2. Construction in the Far North

and in hot climates

5.3. Construction in areas with collapsing

and anthropogenic soils

Part 2. Basics of Calculation of

Architectural Structures (BCAS)

1. The most important requirement

for architectural structures

1.1. Tasks and objective of structural

mechanics

1.2. Real structure and design diagrams.

Basic assumptions of structural

mechanics

1.3. Geometric characteristics of

plane sections. Center of gravity of

plane figures

1.4. External and internal forces

1.5. The concept of stresses. Normal

and shearing stresses.

2. Axial tension and compression

2.1. Stresses and deformations.

Hook’s law

2.2. Calculation of statically determinate

systems

2.3. Peculiarities of calculation of

statically indeterminate systems

2.4. The concept of strength calculation.

The method of allowable unit

stresses. Calculation using ultimate

breaking loads. Calculation using limit

states

Practicals

• Selecting the section of the lower

chord of a welded trapezoidal truss of

an industrial building

• Selecting the section of reinforcing

steel of a reinforced concrete column of

square cross-section with consoles

2.5. Influence of own weight

Practicals

• Determination of the required

number of concrete end-bearing piles

of a grillage

• Determination of the volume of

brickwork of a stepped brick column

loaded with an axial compressive force

2.6. Calculation of ideal cables

Practicals - stress-rapture testing of

the load cable of an aerial ropeway

3. Shift

3.1. Stresses and deformations

3.2. The concept of shear fracture

and bearing stress

Practicals


height of reinforced concrete column

consoles based on shear resistance


length of embedding of a round plain

reinforcing bar in concrete under pulling

loads

• Determination of the height of

square in the plan of the foundation for

the centrally compressed reinforced

concrete column based on its strength

of punching (shear) by the column

3.3. Calculation of welded joints.

Butt joints. Lap joints. Combined

joints.

Practicals

• Testing of welded joint strength

• Determination of the stretching

stress that a welded joint can withstand

3.4. Calculations of riveted and bolted

connections for shear, compression,

stretching

Practicals


number of rivets

• Calculation of fastening of the

compressed diagonal of a truss to the

gusset plate

• Bolted connection calculation

• Determination of the ultimate tensile

stress that a bolted joint of the lower

chord of a truss can withstand

3.5. Calculation of halving joints

Practicals - calculation of the heel

joint of a skew notch for a truss made

of squared beams

3.6. Calculation of glued joints

Practicals

• Test for simple shear and breaking

of the joint of two wooden boards by

means of double straps

• Determination of the load-bearing

ability of a glued joint in units of tubular

elements of a fiberglass arch truss

4. Torsion

4.1. The concept of twisting and

torque moments

4.2. Stresses and deformations

during round bars torsion

4.3. Calculations for strength and

stiffness

5. Plane transverse bending

5.1. General concepts of bending.

Types of supports and beams. Types

of loads. Determination of reactions of

support.


86

5.2. Internal force factors in beam

cross-sections

5.3. Normal stresses under bending.

Strength condition

Practicals

• Test for the strength of a steel beam

freely supported by two supports

• Selection of the cross-section of

wooden beams across which the inserted

floor of the building is arranged

• The cross-section of a collar beam

over the gateway

5.4. Shearing stresses under bending

and their verification in the course of

beams calcu-lation

Practicals – selection of cross-sectional

dimensions of a bridge sleeper

made of pinewood

5.5. Main stresses under bending

Practicals – selection of the

cross-section of a metal console and

carrying out of a strength test

5.6. Calculation of the strength of

hybrid beams

5.7. Determining displacements under

bending.

Practicals – determining deflection

at the free end of a steel console using

the meth-od of initial parameters

5.8. Calculation of stiffness of beams

and frames

Practicals

• Selection of the cross-section of a

steel console by strength and stiffness

• Calculation of the stiffness of a

statically determinate frame

5.9. The concept of calculation of

single-span statically indeterminate

beams

Practicals - selection of the cross-section

of a steel statically indeterminate

beam

6. Resistance to combined stress

6.1. Skew bending

Practicals

• Test of the strength and stiffness

of wooden girders supporting the roof

that rest on upper chords of wooden

triangular trusses


steel girder supporting roofing slabs

that rests on the upper chord of a steel

truss at a roof slope of 1:12

• Calculation of a horizontal

three-layer curtain wall panel with aluminum

casing and foam filling

6.2. Bending with tension or compression

Practicals - selection of the rectangular

cross-section of wooden rafter

spars of rafters for the roof

6.3. Off-center compression

Practicals

• Determination of the required size

of an industrial building that is square

in plan view of the foundation of a reinforced

concrete column

• Test of the strength of a rigid

wooden eccentrically loaded strut of a

rectangular cross section

• Construction of a kern area for a

rectangle, a circle, an I beam

7. Buckling

7.1. The concept of flexible bar stability.

Critical force. Critical stress

Practicals

• Test of a compressed pine strut for

strength and stability


centrally compressed steel column

• Selection of the cross-section of

the compressed upper chord of a metal

truss


bi-stable welded centrally compressed

through column

• Calculation of a brick column for

strength and stability

8. The concept of dynamic loads.

Impact strength. Free vibration with

one degree of free-dom. Forced

vibration of a system with one

degree of freedom. Resonance.

Practicals


steel beam lying on two supports, onto

which a weight falls from a certain

height

• Calculation of the impact strength

of a frame

9. Calculation of curved structures

• Calculation of an arch bar

• Calculation of a triangular arch

stiffened on the supports

• Calculation of a statically definable

arch without stiffening



The histology atlas of campus

form: A framework to explore

liveability and sustainability in

university campuses

Haniye RAZAVIVAND FARD 1 , Yüksel DEMİR 2 , Marco TRISCIUOGLIO 3

1

razavivand@itu.edu.tr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,

Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

2

demiry@itu.edu.tr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,

Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

3

marco.trisciuoglio@polito.it • Department of Architecture and Design,

Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy

Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.32650

Abstract

This paper focuses on the concept of university campus form, aiming at exploring

the sustainability and liveability parameters in relation to campus form.

The research intends to provide a theoretical framework to evaluate physical and

morphological dimensions of campus form which affect sustainability and liveability

of campus setting and surrounding urban context. The study primarily has

conducted an extensive literature review on the subjects of sustainability, liveability,

urban form, and university campus physical features. Then, it has done a content

analysis of fifty university campus masterplans, selected from throughout the

world to identify common strategies, and actions of campus development plans.

Afterward, it has identified the principal criteria which influence the sustainability

and liveability of campus form. To evaluate the university precincts according

to the proposed set of criteria, a Histology Atlas of Campus Form has been developed

which provides a model to measure each morphological dimension of

campus according to a 3-point Likert scale system. The developed model has been

applied to case studies to assess their performance. The ultimate objective of this

study is to investigate the campus form attributes on the ability to generate liveability

and sustainability.

Keywords

University campus, Campus form, Sustainability, Liveability, Histology atlas of

campus form.

88

1. Introduction

University is a by nature a placebound

entity and university’s mission

is tightly linked to its physical form.

The physical form and mission of universities

have largely changed within

centuries. Primary universities were

mono-functional and isolated entities

aiming at nurturing elite citizens. However,

the recent global transformations

have made a radical shift in mission

and consequently on the physical space

of universities. The mission of primary

universities was focused on education

and research while contemporary universities

have adopted new roles and

new responsibilities. The third mission

of universities is dedicated to urban

outreach activities and addresses economic,

socio-cultural, spatial, and environmental

challenges of the societies

(Razavivand Fard et al., 2017). Accepting

these new roles, universities have

become more collaborative and integrated

objects in their societies.

The mission of a university is the basis

of the institution’s strategies and actions

and is directly linked to the university’s

vision and general philosophy.

The educational programs, university’s

built-space, the social dimension of the

university, and its connection with the

broader society is grounded on the institutional

values. In this respect, the

campus physical environment plays a

fundamental role in the realization of

the objectives and core values of the

institution (Kenney et al., 2005). As

Chapman (2006) argues, “the institutional

story is told through the campus

. . . The campus is an unalloyed account

of what the institution is all about.”

The physical setting of a university,

its physical features, and configuration,

has a large impact on the quality of a

university and academic life (Caldenby,

2009). Campus physical space is not

just the mean to facilitate learning but

it has a larger influence on the educational,

social, cultural, economic life

of the academic community and the

broader society. A university campus

with a high-quality urban space can attract

and nurture high quality human

capital, assure the presence of people

and support diversified activities, stimulate

the flow of synergy, foster social

and economic well-being, and consequently

contribute to vibrancy, livability

and sustainability of campus space,

the hosting neighborhood, city, and

region.

2. Sustainability and liveability

in relation to urban form

University is a microcosm of a city.

Considering the large dimension and

the diversity of functions, the university

campus has many common attributes

of an urban space including

built space, open space, circulation

networks, and their configuration and

the relationships between these components.

Therefore, the design principles

that are applied to urban space can

be applicable to a university campus as

well. Building on this, the sustainability

and liveability factors which are related

to an urban form can be referred

to the campus form.

Urban form sustainability and sustainable

development have been lately

at the core of academic debates. It is

underlined by scholars that the physical

form of an urban space influences

its sustainability (Jabareen, 2006;

Jenks, 2004; Salat, 2006, 2011; Wheeler,

2003). Developing a sustainable urban

environment signifies to set a group of

morphological strategies and relationships

through arranging the components

of urban form. These principles

intend to diminish the urban sprawl,

increase compactness, decrease commuting

distances, reduce energy consumption,

CO2 emissions and pollutions.

Jabareen (2006) in his eminent research

on the urban form sustainability

has identified seven key factors to

achieve urban sustainability. These

parameters include compactness, sustainable

transport, density, mixed land

use, diversity, passive solar design, and

greening. These items are very comprehensive

and have been mentioned

in many other studies.

Salat (2006, 2011) have conducted

comprehensive researches on the concept

of sustainable urban form through

analyzing the urban form of various

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio

89

cities throughout the globe. They adopt

a three-dimensional model including

urban form, social and economic, and

environmental elements and emphasize

on the importance of the urban

context. In this model, urban morphology

is a key component in achieving

sustainable development. Salat (2011)

note that “The form of a city is constituted

by the spatial and social patterns

that compose it and that allows us to

describe its networks, its built spaces,

and its empty spaces in geometric, topological

and hierarchal terms in two,

three and even four dimensions, incorporating

the temporal depth that

every city contains.” (Salat, 2011). They

have discussed the importance of connectivity,

consistency, diversity, mixed

land-use, in various urban contexts.

According to Salat (2006), three fundamental

factors for sustainable urban

development are: protecting the environment,

supporting diversity and mix

of building types in neighborhoods,

and creating a downtown which is

compact and walkable. They state a

sustainable urban setting should support

inhabitants’ walking, biking and

using public transportation. It should

be compact and support mixed landuse

where the social and functional

mix decreases travel needs and reduces

social segregation.

In literature related to urban form,

concepts of sustainability and liveability

are interrelated. Accordingly, sustainability

endorses a better quality of

life and a more liveable urban environment.

Liveability is a broad concept. Regarding

Girardet (2004) liveability and

sustainability are correlated though

may not always imply the same issue.

He defines a liveable urban space as

a setting with well-organized neighborhoods

with proper facilities within

a walking distance, appealing public

spaces, with dynamic streets, and

well-connected. Livability and the

concept of livable urban space are very

much related to the notion of quality

of life while it is associated with the vitality

and congeniality of urban space.

Thus, a livable urban space indicates an

inspiring quality of life situations with

attractive public space, social activities,

sense of community, environmentally

resiliency and economic vigor. Lynch

(1981) in his renowned book “good

city form” has identified five significant

features as: vitality (a healthy environment),

sense (sense of place or identity),

fit (a setting’s adaptability), access

(to people, activities, resources, places,

and information), and control (responsible

control of the environment). The

attributes of the urban space including

being fit and vital foster safety, satisfaction,

and sustainability. Gehl (1987)

has investigated the outdoor activities

that take place within an urban setting

and has defined three different types

of activities as necessary activities, optional

activities, and social activities.

Thus, urban space can encourage social

interaction and diverse activities

and behaviors. Norbert-Schulz (1979)

highlights the significance of identity

and genius loci as well as Lynch (1960,

1981) who emphasizes on the importance

of image, place identity and components

of a good city form. Hillier

(1984) describes the prosperity of urban

space is relevant to the presence of

people and their activities. Thus, permeability,

connectivity, and accessibility

are key factors of the space in generating

activities. Existence of diversified

functions enhances the potential of occurring

diversifies activities and interactions.

In this sense, an urban space

with a high level of mixed land uses

and diversity contribute to the presence

of people and consequently promotes

vitality. Jacobs (1961) has underlined

the importance of the mixed-use

urban environment that can enhance

urban diversity and foster the presence

of people in the urban fabric. She supports

the issue of diversity and vibrancy

in urban settings.

In this context, universities because

of their educational mission, their

large size, and impact on their societies

are key agents in directing the society,

forming its future and the transition

towards a liveable sustainable

environment. Universities are among

chief organizations in the society that

comprise infrastructure, facilities,

land, human and economic capital,

and function as large urban enterprises.

So, sustainability initiatives can be

The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in

university campuses

90

incorporated into their research and

educational agendas and their operations

and should be manifested in their

physical setting. To do so, universities

have concerned that they need strategies

that profit students, staff and also

a broader community. Today, many

universities are attempting to improve

their facilities considering the concepts

of sustainability and liveability to be

more connected, coherent, green and

pedestrian friendly (Wheeler, 2004) as

well as being an integral part of their

surrounding urban context.

3. Physical features of

university campus

The physical environment is a setting

that diverse activities take place

within it. This is evident that the quality

of space and the physical characteristics

of the setting have an impact on

the activities (Whyte, 1980), interactions,

participation, feelings, and perceptions.

Although this fact is not exclusively

indicating a campus setting, it

is a common sense that can be ascribed

to a campus space as well. Therefore,

it can be admitted that there is a correlation

between the spatial quality of

university space and the quality of academic

and urban life. The influence of

campus space on the academic and social

life of university is vastly examined

in the literature mainly through a pedagogical

and psychological perspective

(Boyer, 1987; Griffith, 1994; Strange &

Banning, 2001; Temple, 2009), but the

subject has not much acknowledged in

the academic debates concerning architecture

and urban design attributes

of the campus space. Whilst, physical

features of the campus create a great

impact. The scale of this impact can

differ from the visual qualities such as

micro-scale artifacts to more macro

consequences.

Strange and Banning (2001) note

that “although features of the (campus)

physical environment lend themselves

theoretically to all possibilities,

the layout, location, and arrangement

of space and facilities render some

behaviors much more likely, and thus

more probable, than others.” University

setting provides a platform for

diversified activities including education,

research, informal idea exchange,

socializing, working, and living. Campos

Calvo-Sotelo (2014) refers to the

university campus as a “Third place”

between residential space and workplace

where a different range of daily

activities take place. Due to its flexibility,

this outdoor space provides potentials

for communications and social

interactions. Kenney et al. (2005) state

that more than 50 percent of learning

in a university is occurring in the

form of informal learning and through

out-of-classroom activities. In this respect,

the whole campus space act as

a learning environment and needs to

be designed in a way that enriches the

academic and social knowledge experience

of students. Based on the literature

on the vitality of urban space, it

can be argued that within a university

campus, the existence of high ratio of

mixed uses and diversity of functions

can enhance the presence of students

for longer hours in the campus setting.

Doing so, the presence of students and

being involved in diverse activities d

generates synergies and enhances vibrancy

and vitality of the space. In this

sense, residential campuses function

more successfully in this regard. The

combination of student housing within

campus space is a key strategy that

many university masterplans follow to

promote the liveability of their university

precinct. Clearly, a campus setting

should provide a platform for diverse

optional and social activities (Gehl,

1971) besides academic functions.

Creating an urban space that reinforces

social activities can contribute to social

sustainability (Gehl, 2010). In order to

provide the potentials for social functions,

it is important that campus space

can be accessible and permeable. Ease

of access can guarantee the movement

of people within the precinct and enhance

their willingness to be more engaged

in the setting. Thus, designing a

well-distributed and connected movement

network is a key issue in university

campuses. It needs to enable the

vehicular access of services to different

buildings and meanwhile facilitate the

free movement of pedestrians within

the setting. A good arrangement of

movement network is a fundamental

issue in promoting liveability and

walkability of a university campus.


91

Physical attributes of a campus setting

can be well outlined by a comprehensive

campus plan. Campus plans

outline the institutional objectives of

the university including attracting prospective

students and faculty, promoting

the quality of life, improving the

academic atmosphere, contributing to

sustainability goals, and enhancing the

proximate urban space.

A campus plan embraces three main

constituents of the setting: buildings,

landscape, and circulation. The campus

plan defines the configuration

of landscape and then the built form

is designed to frame the open space.

Placemaking and Placemarking are two

fundamental aspects of campus design

(Dober,1992). Placemaking is describing

the arrangement of the campus

plan, distribution of campus land-uses,

the position of buildings and open

spaces, movement (pedestrian and

automobile) network and bounding

campus borders and its interface with

the adjacent urban fabric. This plan

set a framework to address functional,

programmatic, and visual objectives. A

well-designed campus plan can convey

university’ situation within the broader

society, deal with land-use challenges,

and make a decision for site position.

Placemarking considers the physical

characteristics of the campus for generating

a sense of place and visual identity.

Landscape components, architectural

style, and landmarks are among

the elements that assist the university’s

placemarking.

The main elements of a campus space

including the organization of uses, the

arrangement of pathways connecting

the uses, the layout of open spaces, the

density and mix of functions widely

affect the vibrancy and vitality of

the campus setting. The paths, plazas,

courtyards and all open spaces of the

campus landscape are the places where

planned and unplanned encounters

taking place. Campus public space is a

platform for informal learning and social

interactions. It is the vital component

in forming the sense of place that

is inevitably associated with the campus

experience. Therefore, these spaces

need to be vibrant, dynamic, attractive,

and memorable in order to enrich the

campus experience. Many campus revitalization

projects, particularly postwar

campuses, are conducted intending

to inject vitality and homogeneity

to the campus landscape as well as supporting

the sustainability issues.

One of the good studies which can

be fruitful for this research is the research

done by Hajrasouliha (2017).

He has reviewed 50 American university

campus master plans which mainly

created after 2000 in the USA and has

identified their common objectives and

challenges. He has categorized them in

10 categories and 100 recommendations

which reveal the most important

factors for university campus designers.

Regarding these categories, it can

be better understood which qualities

were at the center of importance for

campus designers. These 10 categories

are defined as (1) walkability (2) sense

of community (3) livability and safety

(4) environmental sustainability (5)

landscaping (6) town-gown relationship

(7) identity (8) imageability (9)

partnering (10) learning environment.

Then, he has investigated the morphological

dimensions of campus planning

on the academic success of students.

Kenney et al. (2005) identifies a

comprehensive campus plan encompassing

nine principles:

• The priority of total plan to individual

buildings and spaces.

• Using compact and mixed campus

land uses to enhance livability and interactions.

• Shaping an identity through landscape

elements that convey the campus

unity and its relationship with surrounding

urban setting.

• Forming a mutual physical connection

with the surrounding urban

space.

• Creating placemaking through

campus architecture.

• Adding meaning and identity to

campus urban space.

• Considering environmental issues.

• Controlling the auto circulation.

• Considering technology and innovative

approaches.

Any campus plan needs to be comprehensive

and addresses the vision

of the institution, guide the growth

and change, and reinforce the strategic

plan. The didactic and community

vision, history, culture, tradition, and


university campuses

92

the context are bases of a good campus

plan (Kenney et al., 2005).

4. Methodology

4.1. Sustainability and liveability

criteria of university campus form

This paper, as a part of a broader

doctorate dissertation on a multi-criteria

analysis of sustainability and liveability

of university campus from, has

intended to develop a model to evaluate

university campus form in terms of

sustainability and liveability. For this

purpose, a literature review was done

on the subjects of the university’s third

mission and urban outreach activities,

urban form, sustainability, liveability,

and campus design principles. Then,

through an interpretive study, the main

issues were conceptualized. Afterwards,

a content analysis of fifty masterplans

was done. The masterplans

were selected randomly throughout the

world excluding the American campus

masterplans. The content analysis was

attempted to identify common goals,

strategies, and actions which were

identified by campus planners. The

findings of masterplan content analysis

were merged with the findings of the

study done by Hajrasouliha (2017) on

American campus masterplans.

In the next step, the whole acquired

data incorporated to create a set of

criteria. The proposed model comprises

nine criteria including liveability,

legibility, cohesion, compactness,

walkability, accessibility, connectivity,

integration, and sustainability and

twenty-eight sub-criteria. From the

whole twenty-eight criteria, twenty-two

of them are directly related to

campus form.

To assess the performance of campus

regarding each sub-criterion the

study has developed the “Histology Atlas

of Campus Form”.

4.2. Atlas of histology

The Histology is a branch of biology

that examines the microanatomy of

cells, tissues using a microscope. This

method aims at identifying and visualizing

the microscopic structures of tissues

and assess the correlation between

structures and function. Thus, “Histology

Guide teaches the visual art of

recognizing the structure of cells and

tissues and understanding how this is

determined by their function.” (Url-1).

4.3. Developing a histology atlas of

campus form

Grounded on the Histology Atlas in

biology, A Histology Atlas of Campus

Form was developed. The proposed

Histology Atlas illustrates the structure

of campus form criteria in a schematic

way. In this sense, the visual dimension

of each criterion and its performance

level has been demonstrated in three

levels between the best, the average,

and the worst performance situation.

Developing the Campus Histological

Atlas makes it possible to evaluate

the campus spatial maps and score

them for each criterion in a base of

three-point Likert scale.

4.4. Applying the model on a selected

university campus

4.4.1. Harvard University

Campus development:

Harvard University is a private research

university and the first American

university established in 1636.

Figure 1-3. Histology of human tissues (Source: http://www.histologyguide.com, Retrieved at May 2019).


93

Figure 4(a). Histology Atlas of Campus Form

(Source: Authors).

After the colonization of the United

States, there was a strong belief that

the New World required educated

people for prosperity. So doing, Harvard

College was founded on a oneacre

piece of land in Newtown village

–then changed its name to Cambridge.

This piece of land now comprises the

core of the campus, the Harvard Yard.

The Harvard Hall I was the first purpose-built

edifice of the campus located

in Harvard Yard with an E-shape form.

Indeed, design of the Harvard campus

followed the ideals of the English Collegiate

system and intended to shape a

community for students to study, live

and socialize. However, it rejected the

inward-looking cloistered structures of

English universities and instead outward-looking

separated buildings were

designed within a park-like landscape.

This spatial arrangement was organized

in a way that is open and accessible to

serve the community. These ideas later

became a prototype for American university

campuses that continued within

the centuries.

These early phase buildings were designed

in red brick and High Georgian

style and this architectural style created

unity and harmony within the Harvard

Yard. Another major construction

phase occurred between 1869 to 1909

that 35 new structures were erected and

it was massive construction in comparison

to earlier 34 buildings which

were built within 233 years since the

foundation of Harvard University. The

structures of this latter period mainly

considered the functionality. They

were designed with various architectural

styles and were scattered around

the Harvard Yard and the North Yard.

Thus, there was not a unified architectural

style nor an established development

plan. In the period of 1909 to

1933, it was noticed that there was a

need for a holistic plan for Harvard development

to control the physical expansion

and the architectural character.

So, the Georgian Revival was chosen as

the university’s architectural style and

a master plan was developed in 1910.

The Second World War aftermath put

its traces on Harvard University and

caused transformations in its physical

body. The International Style was practiced

in the university’s architecture


university campuses

94

and new materials, forms, scales were

introduced into the Harvard campus.

In spite of creating new radical transformations,

it was intended to create a

correlation between Harvard’s historical

character and the newly introduced

forms. Within the chronology of Harvard

development, from a Colonial,

Colonial Revival, Georgian, Georgian

Revival, Neo-Classical, Romantic Revival

to Modernist, New Modernism,

Post Modernism, and New Historicism,

an arrangement has been created

that preserve Harvard’s unique spirit so

vital and dynamic and align its physical

growth to its academic objectives. The

edifices are human-scale and in great

harmony with the surrounding neighborhood.

The campus is highly integrated

into its hosting city through its

green areas and open spaces (Coulson,

et al. 2011).

Indeed, Harvard has had a decentralized

planning tradition which has

served for centuries. Within this long

history, diversified buildings with different

morphologies and architectural

styles have emerged. Brick is not the

only but the common material which

has been used in different architectural

styles and created a continuity across

the campus.

Harvard yard has been considered as

the “political, academic, and spiritual

center of the Harvard”. However, since

the foundation of Allston Campus on

the southern part of Charles River, the

river has become the geographic locus

of the university. The Charles River

has a significant role in structuring the

campus because of its particular vistas

and its clear directional quality. It also

functions as a natural barrier and defines

the edges. At the same time, the

river offers potentials for connecting

Harvard main campus to Harvard’s

other campuses and also adjacent universities.

Harvard is a single university composed

of various institutes, faculties,

and departments which function autonomously.

This feature enhances its

intellectual vibrancy and increases the

diversity of physical environments.

Harvard University has a decentralized

characteristic. Being developed on a

precinct basis, there is not a particular

mechanism for sharing recourses and

Figure 4(b). Histology Atlas of Campus Form (Source:

Authors).


95

growth of shared facilities. In addition,

Harvard faces difficulties to be expanded

within its dense urban fabric.

Harvard University has developed

from a single building in a rural area to

a large integral campus within a dense

urban fabric. Harvard University is in

close interaction with its hosting urban

space. Its academic prosperity and economic

growth have brought a responsibility

to contribute to the improvement

of its urban space through providing

teaching and research facilities, laboratories,

offices, and affordable housing.

The high level of campus and urban

land-use integration is mainly at the

edge of campus where most of the residential

and commercial uses are situated.

diversified land-uses such as lecture

halls, services, and residences are scattered

around the campus and enhances

the informal exchanges and vitality of

the space. The diversity and balanced

distribution of land-uses and activities

increase the nightlife security due to

the presence of 24-hour activities on

the campus. There are residential areas,

retail and commercial buildings, sports

facilities, libraries that are active and

open during the night hours. This issue

increases the perceived safety not only

inside the campus but also in the surrounding

urban area. Providing housing

is one of the core objectives of Harvard

as an educational community and

a residential college. There are a variety

of residences available for students and

faculty members. While the students’

dormitories are mainly in proximity

to academic buildings, the affiliates

housing are mostly located in campus

boundaries. The existence of residential

buildings enhances Harvard’s campus

liveability, informal interactions

and the sense of community.

There are several facilities and services

provided for Harvard students

and faculty to boosts their quality of

life. Harvard Square can be considered

the locus of many social, commercial

and recreational activities. There are

other activity zones forming corridors

along the streets in campus edges.

Considering the greenness, approximately

sixty percent of Harvard campus

is devoted to open space which defines

its structure and expresses its rich

spatial quality. It composed of diversified

typologies of open spaces including

courtyards, quadrangles, gardens,

and paths which hierarchically forms a

unique spatial experience for the users.

The campus edges have various

forms of barriers including high and

low walls, high and low fences, hedges

and gates. Each type of boundary creates

a different form of physical character

in terms of visibility and pedestrian

and vehicular accessibility. In spite of

containing various kinds of boundaries,

it can be noted that Harvard

campus merges with the surrounding

Figure 5. Harvard University Aerial View (Source: Url-2).


university campuses

96

Figure 6. Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each analyzed criteria

(Source: Authors).

urban space. It has a high level of public

accessibility in different modes and

conserves its public character.

Moreover, Harvard University offers

a wide range of amenities to its urban

context including cultural, athletic, religious

facilities, museums, exhibitions

spaces. There are plenty of seminars,

workshops, educational programs, art,

and cultural events, theatre performances,

sports games that are held in

Harvard during the year which are accessible

to the public.

Harvard University spatial

analysis:

Discussion

Harvard University has been selected

as a case study because of its very

high academic ranking and high per-


97

Figure 6 (Continued). Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each

analyzed criteria (Source: Authors).

formance in sustainability, and being

the best representative of an integrated

university campus. Primarily, through

literature review and examining campus

development maps, masterplans,

university annual reports, university

website, google maps, and videos of

the campus, the campus development

process and its spatial features were

described. Then using campus masterplans,

Google Earth maps, Google

maps and Openstreetmaps, campus

analytical maps were reproduced. Each

map illustrates one or more of the criteria

of the Histology Atlas of Campus

Form. Then, the Histology Atlas of

Campus Form was used as a benchmark

to assess each spatial and morphological

criterion. It is noticeable

that, in most of the criteria related to

spatial and morphological dimensions,

Harvard University has scored very


university campuses

98



high. The campus has been located at

the center of the city of Cambridge,

Massachusetts and has been evolved

with its surrounding urban context.

Thus, there is a high level of spatial homogeneity,

connectivity, and integration

between the two domains. Campus

shows a low level of compactness and a

high level of density considering its urban

fabric context. Being constructed

within a phase of history, it has several

spatial structures but the entire campus

is well-organized and demonstrate

consistency and unity. The campus


99



has a unique architectural character

with several landmarks and is highly

legible. Land uses are mixed with the

inclusion of various types of student

housing which enhances the liveability

and vitality of the setting. Campus

boundaries are visually and physically

preamble. There are several types of

transportation means that increases

campus accessibility. The campus has a

high ratio of green space and well-designed

open spaces that are accessible

to the public. Harvard University also

shares many of its amenities with the


university campuses

100



general public including museums, exhibition

spaces, performance spaces,

library, hospitals, and athletic facilities.

In this sense, Harvard University itself

is a landmark for the region and well

integrated with its community.

5. Last remarks

Universities are large urban institutions

and microcosms of society.

They are agents of transformation and

contribute to the socio-cultural, environmental,

economic, and physical

development of their hosting urban

space. As place-bound institutions,

they are influential entities in liveability

and sustainability of their campus

space and surrounding urban context.

Considering the urban form, concepts

of sustainability and liveability are interrelated.

Accordingly, sustainability

endorses a better quality of life and a

more liveable urban environment. The

idea is applicable to the campus form

but it needs to consider the specific

physical and functional aspects of a

university campus setting.

To avoid subjective evaluation of

liveability and sustainability of university

campus form, this research

has developed “The Histology Atlas of

Campus Form”. The model is grounded

on the interpretive study of concepts

of university’s outreach activities, liveability,

sustainability, campus form,

and campus design principles. It also

benefits from the findings of campus

masterplans content analysis. Campus

masterplans address the university’s

goals, objectives, and missions. Although

there are complexity and diversity

considering diversified university

masterplans, their defined strategies

can be used as a complementary source

for the existing academic literature on

the subject of university campus physical

features.

The research has developed a set of

criteria composed of nine criteria and

twenty-eight sub-criteria to assess the


101

sustainability and liveability of campus

form. These criteria include liveability,

legibility, cohesion, compactness,

walkability, accessibility, connectivity,

integration, and sustainability.

This research attempts to operationalize

the spatial and morphological aspects

of campus form in terms of liveability

and sustainability and provide a

theoretical framework that can be applied

to various university campuses.

The proposed model hopes to provide

a comprehensive multi-criteria analysis

to assess a university campus form

in terms of sustainability and liveability.

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The effects of interaction and

learning styles on children’s

experiences in exhibition spaces

Seniye Banu GARİP 1 , Gökçe EVREN 2

1

baseskici@itu.edu.tr • Department of Interior Architecture, Faculty of


2

gokcevren@gmail.com • Interior Architectural Design Program, Institute of

Social Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.57804

Abstract

The ‘didacticism’ oriented exhibition spaces first seen in 20th Century that begun

with the idea of modern museums have led the new design understanding

to be influential and also enabled the visitors actively participate in exhibitions.

Today, interaction design is used extensively in exhibition spaces and in-depth

studies are required to provide interaction most particularly for children. This

article examines the contribution of interaction design and methods to spatial

experience and learning process of children in exhibition spaces. In this context

it is investigated how the processes of learning, experience, communication and

interaction can be coordinated by means of emotions, senses, activities and play.

A research which includes an exhibition design for primary school children and

an experiment which is done with 121 children that experienced the exhibition is

conducted. The exhibition is designed to give information about the story of the

novel ‘My Sweet Orange Tree’ of Jose Mauro de Vasconcelos to children via generated

spatial experiences. Students’ experiences and behaviors are observed, and a

questionnaire is done in order to understand the children’s evaluations and to test

their understanding of the story. As a result, some clues related with interaction

design were highlighted for future applications. Basicly, it is experienced that, in

exhibition spaces for children, interactivity can be ensured not only by use of digital

technicques, but also various methods as well.

Keywords

Exhibition design, Interaction design, Learning styles, Play.

104

1. Introduction

The archetypes of exhibition spaces

used for preservation and exhibition

within the historic process go back

to Paleolithic Era (Hein, 2000). However,

the exhibition spaces described

as the first ones in history are ‘cabinets

of curiosities’. These spaces from

16th Century have become the places

where the intriguing objects found

during geographical explorations are

exhibited (Bayar, 2011). The museums

which have opened to public in time

have become public places for learning,

investigating, meeting with people

and entertaining (Hooper-Greenhill,

1991). Especially the ‘didacticism’ oriented

exhibition spaces first seen in

20th Century that begun with the idea

of modern museums have led the new

design understanding to be influential

and also enabled the visitors actively

participate in exhibitions. The ‘Deustches

Museum’ (Ahlamo, 2013) which

was opened in the early 20th Century

in Munich can be qualified as a transition

period during which the visitors

have become ‘active’. In time, exhibition

spaces have become places appealing

to senses where the objects are not

only exhibited but presented together

with different experiences. The physical

activities of visitors when they visit

an exhibition space such as pressing

buttons have gained acceptance as a

communication tool for information

transfer and a factor arousing the

awareness of visitors (Henning, 2006).

In 1960s and 1970s learning in museums

has become an ‘exploration’ with

the theories of professional psychologists

like Jean Piaget, LV Vigotsky and

Jerome Bruner (Hein, 2000). At the

end of the 20th Century, the museums

have adopted the idea that all visitors

should take an active role in a museum

and establish a mutual communication

with museums (Hein, 2000). Under the

influence of political, economic and

social developments in that period, the

museums have become places where

the public would exchange opinions

and the visitors have gained an active

role due to these developments. This

active role has become more concrete

in time and underlay the interactive

exhibitions at the present time. For this

reason, it is necessary to study the designs

of interactive exhibition spaces

extensively and examine the experiences

thoroughly.

This article examines the contribution

of interaction design and

methods in exhibition spaces to spatial

experience and learning process

of children. Within the scope of the

study, it is aimed to investigate, reveal

and practically test the required methods

to provide interaction for children

in exhibition spaces. It is investigated

how the processes of learning, experience,

communication and interaction

can be coordinated by means of emotions,

senses, activities and play. When

studying on the concepts of interaction

and communication for children in exhibition

spaces, particularly experience

and learning processes gain importance.

In this context, it is considered

that studies investigating learning and

behaviors of children such as behavioral,

cognitive, social and humanistic

theories should be taken as a reference

in design of interactive spaces for children.

In addition to this, the relationship

of play was investigated along with

spatial experience and learning activity

and it is discussed on the basis of play

theories.

2. Learning, playing, and interaction

in exhibition spaces for children

Exhibition spaces are communication

platforms. According to Hooper-Greenhil

(1991), communication is

a fundamental function of museums

which attracts the visitors to exhibition

space, satisfy their needs and meets

their intellectual needs. Communication

in exhibition spaces has been

examined and interpreted in terms of

different dimensions. According to

Witcomb (2003), this multi-dimensional

communication between the

space and the visitors can be examined

in three basic forms; single acting,

double acting and multi acting (mass)

communications. Single acting com-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren

105

munication is the first and basic form

of communication where the exhibition

space plays the role of transmitter

and visitors are recipients. As stated by

Witcomb (2003), visitors are regarded

only as recipients in this form of communication

and stipulated as the last

step of the production process but not

as an active element of it. Double acting

communication is a form of communication

where the visitor mutually interacts

with the space and contributes

to the space. This definition generally

accepts interactive exhibition forms,

McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013)

ascribe this property to freedom and

unlimitedness of exhibition spaces and

even consider the at will back and forth

circulation of visitors as a feedback of

visitors provided to the space. Multi

acting (mass) communication has

emerged as the exhibition spaces have

become places for social meeting and

sharing. With this purpose, exhibition

spaces had an important role as social

meeting points. Multi acting communication

form contributes both to this

role and to educational purposes.

Hein (2000) states that the exhibition

spaces have become places where

senses and emotions of visitors are

aimed to influence in the process of

time, instead of where information are

transferred by the exhibited objects.

One of the components of experience

is physical activity as well as senses

and emotions. When considered in

terms of learning, interpretation has

relationships with senses of sight, hearing,

smell, taste and touch, and kinetic

movement. When physical activity

unites with senses and emotions, the

visitor has an experience and the information

obtained as a result of this

experience is imprinted onto visitor’s

brain.

The potential of the exhibition space

in learning arises from the possibility

of educating and actively stimulating

the emotions and imagination (Hooper-Greenhill,

1991). The advantage of

exhibition spaces compared to books

is that they make the visitors, sort of

readers, have a role in the activity and

this makes the exhibition spaces more

productive (Locker, 2011). In addition,

interactivity will encourage the visitors

to make other visits as well as presenting

an entertaining experience (Digger,

2002). The play factor in interactive activities

provides an attractive learning

style especially for children (Locker,

2011). Studies have shown that knowledge,

thoughts and emotions acquired

in interactive exhibitions can be remembered

even after 6 months (Allen

and Gutwill, 2004). According to a research

made by Adams and Moussouri

(2002), the visitors classify interactive

exhibitions as entertaining, exciting,

educating, memorable, appealing to

different senses and activating the visitors

compared to noninteractive exhibitions.

According to Bloom and Powell

(1984), it will be appropriate to associate

the activities in museums with

the notion of ‘learning’ instead of ‘education’.

Defining the museums as

learning places is a conscious and purposeful

act and consequently the role

of the museums in education will be

understood better. Although very few

theoretical studies related to “learning”

in exhibition spaces are done and no

conventional practices are available,

numerous theories have been developed

in respect of learning throughout

the history. Behavioral theories which

incorporate Pavlov’s theory of classical

conditioning (Watson, 2013), Skinner’s

operant conditioning theory and connectionism

theory (Skinner, 1938) are

focused on passive quality of learning

and argued that learning is realized as

a reaction to external stimuli. On the

other hand, cognitive theories have

emerged against the theories which exclude

individuals from act of learning.

These theories which are composed of

Gestalt theory and constructivist theory

dwell on the activities of individual

and define the learning process with

phases of perception and coding of

stimuli, comparing them with the past

data, committing them to memory

and remembering them. Piaget’s theory

of constructivist learning has been

The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences in exhibition spaces

106

considerably influential on exhibition

spaces. In the proceeded process, some

social theories have been suggested.

The social theories composed of Bandura’s

observational learning theory

(Bandura, 1977) and Vygotsky’s social

constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978)

have emphasized that being together

in a place and communicating and

interacting with each other affects the

learning process of individuals. The

prominent humanistic theories suggested

are Montessori’s experiential

theory and Rogers’ emotional learning

theory. These theories suggest that children

can learn more deeply by gaining

experience (Mclnerney, 2007). Acquisition

of emotions and experience is of

capital importance for the knowledge

have a realistic impact on the individual.

When the studies in this field are

examined, it is revealed that the concept

of ‘learning’ is in connection with

active acts, social interaction and emotional

and kinesthetic activities of the

individual.

When children’s learning experience

is examined, it is seen that ‘playing’ activities

includes these processes at the

most. Contribution of the concept of

play to learning has been presented

in time by means of different theories

and different definitions. Play concept

presents important specification for

designing exhibition spaces for children

by providing both social and individual

interaction and experience to

children. Piaget, Smilansky and Parten

introduces three important basic theories

of play in this respect. Piaget classifies

games in three categories; practice

play includes plays that children repeat

the actions of simple motor skills and

support learning (Piaget, 1962; Ginsburg

and Opper, 1987). By contrast

with this, symbolic play allows children

to symbolize objects and things

as different than the intended function.

The third group expressed as formal

play, defines the games where the roles

and tasks specified basing on a certain

group of rules are performed. Some

plays classified by Smilansky share

similarities with Piaget’s classification.

In addition to these, constructive plays

by which children can reveal their creative

and active aspects and dramatic

plays in which the children play an active

role in games are also determined

as two different types of play (Goldman,

1987). Parten has examined the

plays in terms of their ways of social

communication (Parten, 1932). While

unoccupied plays are games that children

experience on their own, onlooker

plays are games that the children

play separately but observe eachother.

In parallel plays, children play the

Figure 1. Relations of experience, ınteraction and communication with learning theories and

theories of play.


107

same game differently while in associate

plays children start to communicate

but are not influenced by each other.

Finally, cooperative plays are games in

which children play by mutual interaction

and communication.

Comprehension and application of

the classifications of play are crucial for

reinforcing the experiences of children

with different methods in exhibition

spaces. In this context, relationships of

all titles and notions investigated and

discussed are shown in Figure 1 with

the aim of establishing a general framework

and understanding the relationships.

3. Case study: “My Sweet Orange

Tree” exhibition design for children

Within the scope of the research, an

exhibition is designed and a case study

is conducted in order to investigate

the contribution of interaction design

and methods to spatial experience and

learning process of children. The research

is supported by Istanbul Technical

University, Master Degree Scientific

Research Projects Support Programme.

Aiming at presenting Jose Mauro de

Vasconcelos’ children’s novel named

“My Sweet Orange Tree” interactively,

Table 1. Analysis of the book “My Sweet Orange Tree” and

structure of the exhibition.

an experimental exhibition including

different interaction techniques for semantic

comprehension of the novel is

applied and primary school students

have participated in this experimental

exhibition. The exhibition was held

at the Science Center located on the

ITU Faculty of Architecture Campus

within the scope of the Science Festival

which lasted for four days. A total

of 121 school-age children in the age

group between 7-13 have experienced

the study. As a result of the study, some

clues related with interaction design for

children were highlighted for future applications.

3.1. Design process and

application of the exhibition

During the working process, the

content of the novel ‘My Sweet Orange

Tree’ was analyzed at first stage and an

exhibition was created which the events

within the book were represented. The

novel tells the grow up story of a 5 year

old child named Zeze. The story was

divided into 7 main parts and each

part was exhibited by using a different

interactive exhibition technique. At

the end of the exhibition, responses,

activities and experiences of the children

during the exhibition were observed

and the impacts of interactivity

methods that were used on senses,

emotions and memory of the children

were examined by survey method after

the experimental exhibition.

In order for the parts to be

experienced interactively, physical

activity methods such as touching and

joining in an activity were implemented

in the light of the notions of sense,

emotion and experience along with

standard demonstration. The parts of

the story, their contents and experience

modes are shown in Table 1.

The exhibition space has been

constructed in the manner to include

the sections resulting from the analysis

of the book. In each section, experiences

related to a different part of the book

are presented. These experiences are

constructed with different methods in

the light of different learning and play

theories (Figure 2).

The following objectives are planned

to be achieved as the basic design

criteria:


108

Figure 2. Parts of the book “My Sweet Orange Tree” on the plan of exhibition

space.

• Providing an experience to children

that resembles book reading

• Ensuring the children pass through

emotional and experiential stages similar

to those of the main character of the

story, Zeze

• Appealing to different senses of the

children

• Enabling the children to have an

experience they can understand and

remember

• Encouraging children to read the

novel named ‘My Sweet Orange Tree’

450 units of cardboard boxes in size

of 30x50x50cm were used to create the

exhibition space (Figure 3). The exhibition

space as a whole resembles the activity

of book reading, it is composed of

hidden and consecutive steps to arouse

curiosity. Thus, the only part that children

can see from the outside is the entrance,

that is the cover, and they will

see other stages as they proceed. These

progressive stages are arranged in the

order determined in accordance with

the analysis of the book basing on the

important milestones in the oncoming

sections of the book. Table 2 contains

images related to how all parts of the

book are experienced by the children.

3.1.1. Parts of the exhibition:

Introducing book through spatial

experience

The students who visited the exhibition

were taken in twos and they were

observed one by one at each tour. The

decision to enable two children expe-

Figure 3. Application process of the exhibition.


109

Table 2. Images related to how parts of the book are experienced

by the children.

Figure 4. Steps that children will follow.

rience the exhibition at the same time

was taken to ensure the social interaction

to take place. When two children

arrive at the exhibition space, they see

a wall and two earphones (Table 1a).

This represents the moment when the

reader first sees a book. The wall that

the visitor sees is the equivalent of the

book cover. In order to arouse the curiosity

of the visitor, it is arranged in

the manner so that it is not possible

for them to see other spaces, as well as

reading a book. Two different guidance

are provided with earphones which

are in different colors. First the story

is briefly summarized as an introduction

and later on, the visitor is asked to

follow either one of the blue or orange

colored steps.

Both children will follow the steps

in the color they are told to pass to

the next part (Figure 4). When they

step on the footprints, an illuminated

inscription appears on the ground informing

them about their first task in

the next part.

In the first part of the exhibition, a

grammatical game where it is intended

to give main information about Zeze’s

life has been developed. Aim is to motivate

children to read the text and at

the same time enjoy themselves as they

are playing the game of combining the

words with the images that represent

those words (Table1b). The system on

the play wall in this part is operated

with electromagnets. These electromagnets

close the mechanism when a

child moves on and then opens it for

the next child. Thus the images fall on

the ground and the game will be ready

for the following experiences.

In Part 2, Zeze meets a sweet orange

sapling and makes friends with it. Being

a daydreamer, Zeze is friends with

dogs and chickens and he also believes

that many living creatures around him

speak to him. He engages in a similar

dialogue with this sweet orange sapling

he met. In this part of the exhibition,

a three-dimensional physical tree figure

faces the visitor. This tree figure

is made of MDF material which was

produced with CNC cutting technique.

There is an inscription on the sweet orange

sapling which reads; ‘Trees speak

with their whole body. Put your ear on

my trunk and listen to my heart beat!’


110

There is an odorizer under the tree figure

and a wireless speaker on the upper

part. A heartbeat is heard from this

speaker. The aim in this section is making

the children put their ear on the

tree like Zeze and listen to the heartbeat

of it (Table 1c). In addition orange

fragrance is emitted into the space to

appeal their sense of smell along with

senses of sight and hearing of the children.

Part 3 is the section of poverty at

Christmas. In this part of the novel,

Zeze and his brother Luis dream of

a New Year’s Eve gift. A truck full of

gifts will come to the neighborhood

for poor children but when the children

arrive at the square where this

truck is parked, all gifts were handed

out and nothing was left. As a New

Year’s tradition, Zeze puts his shoes

in front of his door for Santa Claus to

fill them but there was no gift in them,

either. Besides, there is nothing much

for them to eat at New Year’s Eve. In

brief, Zeze has aspired for a gift in this

part but his hands were empty. In this

part of the exhibition it is aimed that

children would share a similar feeling

with Zeze. Accordingly the command

on the steps tells them ‘Look for your

gift in the boxes!’ Two children open

the boxes lined up with two tracks on

both sides one-by-one but there are no

gifts in these boxes both only inscriptions

which tell that Zeze didn’t get any

gifts. The inscriptions in four boxes are

respectively as follows; “Zeze and his

brother dream of getting gifts at New

Year’s Eve”, “But they don’t receive any

gifts and they don’t have money to

buy any”, “Zeze’s father is unemployed

and his family is very poor”, and “This

saddens especially Zeze and his father

very much”. The children have eagerly

opened the boxes either in sequence or

randomly and faced with the saddening

story of Zeze (Table 1d).

Part 4 is named as ‘meet with the

street singer’. In this part of the novel,

Zeze meets with a street singer and

starts working with this street singer.

In this part of the exhibition, the visitor

receives this command: ‘Move on with

your friend step-by-step!’ and each

visitor should move on following the

steps having the same color with him/

her. There are numbers on these steps,

thus the visitors will pass over the same

numbers in turn (Table 1e). In implementation

of this part, the children

hear a part of the story of this part

when they step on each footprint. Sensors

are placed under the footprints.

The text being read is accompanied by

music. When they come to the last few

footprints, they will only hear this music

and leave this part.

Part 5 is where Zeze and Valaderes

from Portugal meet. Zeze and Valaderes

are two characters who meet and

love each other too much. In this part,

the aim is having the children communicate

with each other more. The command

issued to the children when they

pass to this part is as follows; ‘Place

your head in the hole!’ Two cardboard

figures await the children in this part.

There are holes on the heads of these

figures that the children can place their

heads. The children follow the footprints

in their own colors, arrive at

their places and place their heads into

the holes. When they put their heads

into the holes, they will see each other

and the inscription in front of them.

This inscription says; ‘Read your frıend

who you are!’ There are self-presentation

texts of Valaderes and Zeze next to

each other’s figures. Thus the children

Figure 5. Primary school students visited the exhibition.


111

Figure 6. Age profile of the participant students.

Figure 7. Common words that the participants who were in

different age groups have used frequently (a.7-10 age group b.

11-13 age group).

Figure 8. Most liked parts of the exhibition by students.

will have a more intense dialogue with

the other visitor they share the space

(Table 1f).

Part 6 represents the part where Zeze

was beaten. Zeze is unjustly beaten by

his father and older sister and these

beatings leave deep marks in his heart.

Zeze becomes seriously sick in bed and

decides not to love his father any more

because of these beatings. In this part

of the exhibition, children diverge and

move on separately. An image which is

seen differently from two angles is used

here (Table 1g). When the children enter

the space, they see a smiling child

but the child transforms into a beaten

and harmed child as they move on.

At the end of the story, Part 7, Zeze’s

beloved Portuguese friend Valaderes

is passed away and Zeze has become

a grown child and left his imaginary

heroes. The children read the inscriptions

on the floor aloud one by one and

complete the exhibition and the story.

The inscription on the floor is as follows;

‘One day when Zeze is at school,

one of his friends hurriedly enters the

classroom and tells the class that there

was a train accident nearby and Valaderes,

whom Zeze loves so much is

dead. Thereupon Zeze becomes so sick

in bed. When he is recovered, he leaves

his dreams and heroes and becomes a

grown child’ . In this part where Zeze

leaves his dreams, children leave the

exhibition.

3.2. Survey method

121 students visited the exhibition

in scope of the experiment (Figure

5). Their experiences were observed

during their visit, and a questionnaire

was applied to the students in order

to understand their understandings

of the story, the most liked parts, and

their enthusiasm on reading the book.

Figure 6 represents the age profile of

the participant students.

3.3. Results and evaluations

In the survey, students were asked

to summarize the story of “My Sweet

Orange Tree”. Figure 7 shows the graph

of common words that the participants

of the exhibition who were in different

age groups have used frequently.

Results show that there are some differences

and also similarities between

different age groups. According to this,

it is seen that the students in the 7-10

age group mostly remember the events

while the students in the 11-13 age

group remember the whole story and

Zeze’s poverty.

Figure 8 shows the graph which

contains the numerical values related

to the parts of the exhibition that the

students liked most. While the students

in the 7-10 age group loved Part

3 most (33%), the students in the 11-

13 age group loved Part 5 (33%) most.

Smaller children (between 7-10 age)


112

liked repetitive and practical activities

and they were more effective on their

memories; while social activities were

more attractive for other children (between11-13

age). The written information

was not attractive for the smaller

children and they could not remember

the information. On the other hand,

for both age gropus, comprehensibility

ensured pozitive effects.

The students who have visited the

exhibition were examined in terms of

their experiences, emotions, senses

and the activities they’ve performed.

As a result of the observations, some issues

were determined that might be inputs

for future designs. The evaluations

regarding each part are given below:

• At the entry, the earphones handed

out to children were found interesting

especially by the students of younger

ages. The students older than 10 years

have listened to the voices from the

earphones and immediately left the

place but those who were younger than

10 years have listened to the voices for

a longer time. It was found out that the

7-10 age group liked this part more

than the students in other age groups.

• It was observed that all age groups

loved Part 1 evenly but the percentage

of being liked is not higher than the

percentages of other parts. While most

of the younger children have chosen to

read the inscription from the beginning

and aloud, it was observed that

the children at the age of 11 and older

were tend to see the words quickly

and place them in their places. Thus

written texts have been perceived by

younger children more strongly and in

the part of the survey where the story

is summarized, especially the children

who are in the 7-11 age group have

rendered the story by using the exact

words in the text.

• The second part where the children

saw the tree was also interesting

for the children. Listening to the heartbeats

of the tree and sensing the orange

fragrance was an exciting activity for

the groups younger than 11 years and

their reaction was mostly astonishment.

However, some children have

identified themselves with the main

character of the book, Zeze, in this part

and stated that they feel like they are

Zeze in this exhibition.

• Part 3 which was about poverty at

Christmas is selected as the part the

children loved most (28%). They have

all got excited and looked for their gifts

and were disappointed like Zeze when

they couldn’t find them. They have

read most of the inscriptions excitedly

and eagerly and poverty of Zeze was

the most frequently mentioned words

within the survey.

• None of the students liked Part 4.

The interactive experience provided

in this part was not understood by the

students and the need for extensive

guidance was felt.

• Part 5 where Zeze met with Valaderes

was the second most liked part

of the exhibition (26%). This part was

appealing for children in younger and

older age groups and it has become an

activity which strengthens the dialogue

between two students in each group.

The majority of children have read the

text aloud to their friends. However, it

was understood that there was a need

for flexibility regarding dimension

and space since the age range was very

wide. Most of the children have mentioned

meeting with the old man in the

survey.

• Regarding Part 6, particularly the

students in the 7-11 age group have remembered

the beating Zeze got from

his father and 47 students (39%) have

mentioned this beating. Many children

were stunned in this part during the

exhibition. Especially the younger children

have found the change in the images

surprising. However, very few of

the children have read the inscription

on the wall. As they were got used to

interact till this part, they have tried to

change the accordion image by playing.

• Part 7 where they have left the

exhibition was one of the parts where

the children have read the inscriptions

most but just a few have mentioned the

data in this part in their summaries

(14%). This was the part of the exhibition

that the children have wandered

easily and quickly. Reading the word

groups beginning from the closest,

while they walk it was fun for them

and each age group has easily completed

this group at a pace specific to that

group without the need of any warning.

At the end of the exhibition, the

novel itself was exhibited together with


113

the questionnaire. One of the questions

in the questionnaire was whether the

children would like to read the book

or not. Only two (2%) children have

responded negatively to this question.

All children except these two have given

answers indicating that they are eager

to read the book.

As it is understood from the reactions

of the children after the exhibition

and their comments in the survey,

it was a new and different experience

for most of the children. They were

very excited because they couldn’t see

inside at the entrance. All age groups

have stated that they would like to have

this experience again. They have left

the exhibition joyfully and happily.

4. Conclusions

In exhibition design, various factors

are effective such as plan layouts,

speculation of space, properties of the

exhibited content, concept, information

that is planned to be represented

to the visitors, time that the visitor will

spend, and so on. Design of the exhibitions

has to include all the requirements

in an optimum balance and also

in a flexible way to provide each visitor

different experiences in their point of

view. As a summary of this research,

some important clues are revealed that

might be crucial for the design of exhibition

spaces for children in the light of

experiences and evaluations that were

exposed in scope of the study:

• It was seen that children of different

age groups react differently to interactive

constructs in exhibition spaces

and these constructs had different

effects on children.

• “Spatial repetition and sequency”

are important during the visits, it

helps children to learn the language of

the space so they learn the space and

interact with the exhibition easier progressively.

• Parts where “sensual transmission”

is provided were more effective and

memorable for children.

• Parts that included activities which

provided “social interaction”, were

amusing and memorable for children.

• Transmission style of the information

and its understandability was important

with respect to be understood

by the visitor and memorability. Accordingly,

when the behaviors and experiences

of the students are evaluated,

it was seen that audio and visual narratives

were more understandable by

younger age groups than inscriptions

and followed without boring them.

• However, it was understood that

arrangements where the students are

guided by guides or effective directory

methods in interactive constructs is of

prime importance.

Acknowledgement

Research project presented in this

article was supported by Istanbul Technical

University, Master Degree Scientific

Research Projects Support Programme.

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From rigidity to ephemerality:

Architecture as a socio-spatial

assemblage of heterogeneous

components

Ferro YUDISTIRA 1 , Yandi Andri YATMO 2 , Paramita ATMODIWIRJO 3

1

ferroplace@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,

Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

2

yandiay@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,


3

mitayandi@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,


Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.14890

Abstract

This study discusses the idea of ephemeral architecture as an alternative

approach to overcoming the rigidity issue of the built environment. Ephemeral

architecture is an architectural space that appears and disappears in a short period

of time. The ephemerality of such a space indicates that there are components that

are not permanently available in the built environment. The question then arises

as to what these components are, in what way they are present or available, and

how they relate to each other to temporarily form a certain architectural space in

the built environment. Using assemblage as the theoretical approach, the study

investigates these questions through the case of trader space in the courtyard of

the Sunda Kelapa mosque in Jakarta. The research makes three main findings

regarding: (1) the heterogeneity of entities that act as architectural components,

including everyday items such as clothes, socks and plastic rugs; (2) the process

of spatial assemblage in which these entities relate and interact; and (3) social

assemblage as the non-physical structure that frames this spatial process.

Keywords

Assemblage, Ephemeral, Rigidity, Everyday items.

116

1. Introduction

There is growing awareness of the

importance of time in architecture,

specifically related to the rigidity of the

built environment in responding to the

“unprecedented population growth,

urbanization, social and technological

change” (Lifschutz, 2017, p.8). Therefore,

instead of a being a rigid and

timeless object, it seems necessary to

see the built environment as a “mutable

subjects much affected by [the] everyday

uses and intentional intervention”

of its users (Frank, 2016. p.8).

Various approaches have been developed

to overcome this rigidity issue.

However, they tend to focus on the

physical structure of the built environment,

either by making the elements

moveable/changeable, or by making it

suitable for reuse after a structure has

been dismantled. Some of these efforts

originated many years ago. For instance,

in 1961, Cedric Price proposed

a design called the fun palace, based

on an idea about time and uncertainty.

Price argued that a built environment

should be “enabled rather than determined

human activities” (Lifschutz,

2017, p.8). In Japan, “major corporations

are pursuing research and development

to create systems for moveable

partitions, bathrooms, and kitchens to

underpin flexible homes” (Lifschutz,

2017, p.12). The approach of Price and

the Japanese corporations can be categorized

as an example of ‘architecture

as a system’, which can respond to the

changing demands of users (Murray &

Brand, 2017). Another approach considers

“what happens to architecture

when its time is up”; how its elements

can be dismantled, and then reused by

a community (Armborst, D’Orca, &

Theodore, 2016, p.110).

The idea of ephemeral architecture

offers an alternative approach in response

to this rigidity issue by extending

the range of components that form

the architectural space. Ephemerality

indicates the importance of components

which are not part of the physical

structure of the built environment;

non-static components that are only

present or available within a particular

time-frame. The question subsequently

arises as to what these components

are. In addition, in what way they are

present or available in the built environment,

and what the process is that

temporarily assembles these components

into a particular form of architectural

space.

This study investigates these questions

through the case of trader spaces

that appear and disappear in the

Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard, in

central Jakarta, Indonesia. This kind

of occurrence, a cluster of trader space

inside or near a mosque area, is a common

phenomenon in societies that are

dominated by Muslims, such as that of

Jakarta. However, there is a disjunctive

relationship (Tschumi, 1994) between

the trader space and the mosque

courtyard, because the courtyard does

not have any specific features to accommodate

the trader space. However,

the cluster of trader spaces still appears

in the courtyard, albeit only for a

short period. In other words, this case

demonstrates the capability of the built

environment to accommodate different,

or even incompatible, everyday

uses.

Using an approach based on assemblage

theory (DeLanda, 2006; Deleuze

& Guattari, 1980/1987), this study aims

to explain the ephemerality of trader

space as a process of socio-spatial assemblage.

Specifically, it investigates

the entities that are involved as components

of the space, the process of relation-interaction

between these entities,

and the layer of non-physical structure

that frames this process. Understanding

this socio-spatial assemblage process,

and the wide range of entities involved

as resources in this process, can

contribute to developing an alternative

design approach that can reduce the rigidity

of the built environment.

2. Theoretical discussion

2.1. Ephemeral architecture: Event,

materiality and compatibility

The basic idea of ephemeral architecture

is architecture that appears and

disappears in a short period of time.

The term ‘ephemeral’ is derived from

the Greek epi (on) and hemerai (a day),

which means ‘lasting only a day’ (Partridge,

1966). To date, there have been

two points of view in the discourse on

ephemeral architecture: first, the architecture

that is related to special events;

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • F. Yudistira, Y. A. Yatmo, P. Atmodiwirjo

117

and second, that which is seen through

the fleeting materiality of its components.

From the first point of view, ephemeral

architecture is an architectural

space that appears along with special

or planned event, and then disappears

when the event ends. A special event

is an event held or created to achieve

specific objectives or to satisfy specific

needs (Getz, 2007; Matthews, 2008).

These objectives vary, from simple entertainment,

urban rituals or festivals

(Macy & Bonnemaison, 2008; Monin,

2003); to cultural and state celebrations

(Vinsentini, 2008); pilgrimage/religious

rituals (Mehrotra & Vera, 2014);

and expressions of ideas or political

propaganda (Delbeke, 2008). The components

that form the architectural

space, for instance stages, backdrops,

lighting etc., are specifically created to

support these objectives.

From the second point of view, the

ephemerality of architecture is seen

through the fleeting characteristics of

its components. The focus of related

discussion explores the possibility of

an architecture formed by non-visual

and immaterial elements, such as

sound, smell or even electromagnetic

waves (Haque, 2004; Karandinou 2013;

Pallasmaa, 2014). This exploration

aims to increase the utilization of all

the human senses, instead of just the

senses of vision, in the experience of

architecture.

Both points of view suggest the involvement

of ‘other’ components that

affect the ephemerality of an architectural

space. In other words, the idea

of ephemeral architecture extends

the range of components involved in

the formation of architecture. However,

neither point of view discusses

the importance of these other components

in relation to the contextuality of

ephemeral architecture; the relationship

between the ephemerality of the

architectural space and the specific circumstances

of the built environment,

in which ephemerality indicates the

importance of components that are not

part of its physical structure. This contextual

frame is important with regard

to the effort to increase the flexibility of

the built environment, making it able

to respond to changes in everyday use.

Within this contextual frame, this

study aims to investigate these ‘other’

components involved in the formation

of certain architectural space, and how

their availability affects the ephemerality

of such space. The following section

discusses assemblage theory as an approach

to identifying and analyzing the

entities that act as the components of

architectural space, the peculiar characteristics

of the relationship between

them, and the phases of the process in

which the components relate and interact.

2.2. Architecture as spatial

assemblage

Assemblage is an idea about a

‘whole’ formed by heterogenous components

(Anderson, Kearnes, McFarlane,

and Swanton, 2012; DeLanda,

2006; Harris, 2016; Müller, 2015). The

idea of assemblage could be considered

as a noun (object) or as a verb (process)

(Anderson et al., 2012; Dovey &

Woods, 2014; McFarlane, 2011). As

a noun, assemblage is an entity that

emerges through a ‘relation of exteriority’

between its components. This

relation means that various entities

which act as the assemblage components

do not merge into one seamless

unity or organism. Instead, they “may

be detached from it and then plugged

into a different assemblage in which its

interactions are different” (DeLanda,

2006. p.10). In this study, this idea is

used to analyze architecture as a spatial

assemblage that temporarily emerges

through the relation between heterogeneous

components, rather than as a

single seamless entity with permanent

characteristics.

As a verb, the relation that forms

the assemblage is not seen as a static

state. Instead, it is a dynamic process

with specific phases. It is important to

note that the assemblage theory does

not specifically mention the phases of

the assemblage process. However, we

argue that there are two concepts in

the theory that can be considered as

phases: territorialization and deterritorialization.

Territorialization is the

phase in which diverse components

are temporarily related or connected to

each other to define the boundary and

identity of the assemblage, while de-

From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial assemblage of heterogeneous

components

118

territorialization is the phase in which

the relation-interaction between components

destabilizes the boundary and

identity of an assemblage, and at some

point completely dismantles it (DeLanda,

2006; Deleuze & Guattari, 2004;

Kennedy, Bruce, McCann & Zapasnik,

2013; Muller, 2015).

This process of ‘appearing and disappearing’

through territorialization-deterritorialization

is the link that

connects the idea of the assemblage

process with the idea of ephemerality

in architecture. Therefore, this study

uses the idea to analyze the ephemerality

of architectural space as a process

of appearing and disappearing, involving

heterogeneous components and

through a particular series of phases.

However, we do not use territorialization-deterritorialization

as rigid conceptual

categories, to which any findings

should be confined. Instead, we

use both concepts as starting points or

guidance to analyze and understand

the overall appearing-disappearing

process of trader space in the Sunda

Kelapa mosque courtyard. Besides

territorialization-deterritorialization,

other concepts from assemblage theory

that we use as guidance in the analysis

process are capacities and properties.

The role of these concepts will be further

discussed in the following section.

3. Research methods

3.1. Data collection

This study is a qualitative and employed

both field observations and interviews

to collect the data. The data

from the observations were used to develop

semi-structured questions for the

interviews (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006),

which were held with different parties

involved, both directly and indirectly,

with the research case phenomenon.

This combination of multiple methods

and sources of information aims

to achieve a “more valid, reliable and

diverse construction of realities” (Golafshani,

2003, p.604).

The field observation consisted of

two stages. The first stage aimed to obtain

an overall picture of the presence

of clusters of trader space inside the

Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard. The

main information obtained from this

stage was: 1) the configuration of the

physical structure of the courtyard; 2)

the overall time-frame of the market/

bazaar events; 3) the overall variety of

entities (particularly goods) involved

in the formation of the trader space;

and 4) the configuration of the spatial

position of the traders’ space in the

courtyard. These data then were used

as the basis for conducting the second

stage of the field observation.

In the second stage, more specific

observations were made to identify all

the entities involved as components of

the trader space, and how the relations

and interaction between them made

the trader space appear or disappear in

the courtyard. This stage involved three

trader spaces (figure 1), which were selected

based on their level of complexity,

specifically regarding the quantity

and variety of the components that

formed the space. The first trader sold

men’s clothes, representing a low-complexity

space. The second trader sold

socks, employing a medium-complexity

space, while the third trader sold

men’s accessories (for example, wallets

and belts) in a high-complexity space.

In both stages, the data were recorded

using photographs. In the second

stage, the photos were taken sequentially

in the same position to fully capture

the whole appearing-disappearing

process of the selected trader space

(figure 2). For each selected trader,

this photo-taking process was conducted

several times, so that the data

from each process could be compared

to check the consistency of the information.

If there were photos from a

certain part of the process that were

missing, incomplete or seemed to be

inadequate (for example, because the

image of the process was blocked by a

mosque visitor), individual data could

complement each other.

Figure 1. From left to right: men’s clothes trader, socks trader,

accessories trader.


119

Figure 2. Example of data from sequential photos.

The main aims of the interviews were

to gather information that could not be

obtained from the field observations.

For example, from the observations,

we can see that every trader will

occupy a specific position inside the

courtyard as a base to form their space.

However, we are unable to ascertain

the reasoning behind this action

merely through field observation. How

is a certain trader able to occupy that

specific spatial position? Are there any

specific rules or regulations? This kind

of information needed to be collected

through the interviews. TThe interview

is semi-structured, with primary pieces

of information collected using an

‘interview-guide’, while still open to

new ways of seeing and understanding

issues relevant to the topic (Cohen &

Crabtree, 2006).

The interviews were conducted with

various different parties. First, they

were held with administrative staff

of the official mosque management

institution (called Pengelola Masjid

Agung Sunda Kelapa or PMASK).

One of the most important pieces of

information from these interviews was

the existence of a paguyuban pedagang

(trader community). The second

party was the leader of the traders’

community. The third party was the

traders. The final party was the porters,

who support the traders in managing

the additional resources used in the

formation of trader space.

The interviews took place on-site(the

Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard), specifically

in the time-frame of the bazaar

events, namely on Fridays, from approximately

07:00 to 15:30. This decision

was based on consideration of the

importance of the sites to the research

questions and the data possibly generated

from the interviews (Edwards

& Holland, 2013). For instance, it was

easier for the traders to provide information

about specific entities (for example,

physical features of the built environment,

tools and goods) involved

in the formation process of the trader

space while the event was taking place.

The only interviews not conducted on

site were those with the administrative

staff, which took place in the mosque

administrative office.

3.2. Analysis

The study used coding as the

method to analyze the data. Several

concepts from assemblage theory

were used as the theoretical lens in

the coding process. However, this

methodological approach did not

intend to deliberately confine the

categorization in the coding process

to the various theoretical concepts

(based on assemblage theory). These

theoretical concepts were intended as

guidance or a starting point of view

to sharpen the focus when analyzing

the data. Instead of being restricted to

a pre-established theoretical concept,

this method opens up the possibility

for adjustment when developing a new

framework of conceptual categories to

explain the research findings.

The paper discusses the results of

the analysis in three sections: (1) social

assemblage as the framework of

the spatial process; (2) trader space as a

spatial assemblage; and (3) the phases

in the appearing-disappearing process

of trader space. Each section contains

several conceptual categories as a base

to develop understanding from the

findings. Three concepts from assemblage

theory underlie the analysis in

the first and second sections, namely


components

120

(1) heterogenous components; (2) capacities;

and (3) properties (Anderson

et al., 2012; DeLanda, 2006; Harris,

2016).

The concept of heterogenous components

suggests analysis of the wide

range of entities that are possibly involved

as components of the assemblage,

while the concept of capacities

and properties is necessary to analyze

the relationship and interaction between

these components (McFarlane,

2011). Capacities are related to the capabilities

of certain entities that emerge

when they form a relationship and interaction

with others (DeLanda, 2006).

Property can be seen as a peculiarity

(for example shape, quality or social

position) or characteristic that is possessed

by a certain entity (Partridge,

1966), which can affect its capacities

(DeLanda, 2006).

The third section aims to explain

the ephemerality of trader space as a

spatial assemblage process with specific

phases. Territorialization and

deterritorialization are concepts that

represent a phase in the assemblage

process. The concept of territorialization

suggests analysis of the phase in

which the relation-interaction between

entities temporarily defines and stabilizes

the boundaries and identity of the

architectural space (DeLanda, 2006;

Kennedy et al., 2013; Müller, 2015). On

the other hand, the concept of deterritorialization

suggests analysis of the

phase in which the relation-interaction

between entities destabilizes the identity

and blurs (and then disassembles)

the boundaries of the space (DeLanda,

2006; Kennedy et al., 2013; Muller,

2015).

4. Brief description of the research

case

The case examined in this study is

trader spaces at a weekly event called

pasar (market or bazaar) that take places

inside a mosque called Sunda Kelapa

in central Jakarta, Indonesia. It occurs

every Friday, along with the routine

religious gathering called Shalat Jumat

(Friday prayer). Most of the traders

that participate in the event sell commodities

such as clothes, shoes, accessories

(belts, wallets, small sling bags)

and electronics.

Figure 3. Courtyard position as a transition area.

This trader space occupies the

courtyard of the mosque. In terms of

physical features, the courtyard does

not have any specific feature to support

or accommodate the presence of this

space; for example, no dedicated kiosks

or stalls for the traders. The courtyard

has no specific element or area to

properly display (and store) the goods.

Hence, each trader needs to bring additional

objects and utilize them as resources

to form their own space during

the bazaar.

However, albeit physically simple,

the courtyard is a transition area that is

passed through by many mosque visitors

(when they arrive and leave the

mosque area) (Figure 3). This fact plays

Figure 4. Difference between empty (top image)

and peak time (bottom image) of the courtyard.


121

a crucial role during the peak times of

the bazaar, which occur directly after

the Friday prayers end (around 12:30

– 13:30), when there is a large stream

of visitors, most of whom have just

finished their Friday rituals, who walk

through the courtyard and observe the

goods sold by the traders.

Figure 4 show the different condition

of the courtyard when it is empty

and during the peak time of the bazaar.

Even though this time only exists for

approximately 45 minutes to an hour,

preparations to assemble each trader’s

space starts early in the morning (at

around 06:00 – 10:30). After the peak

time has ended, the traders need to disassemble

their spaces, which happens

around 13:30 – 14:30.

5. Results and discussion

5.1. Social assemblage: Framework of

the spatial process

The findings reveal the existence

of social-assemblage in the form

of paguyuban pedagang (trader

community), as a layer of non-physical

structure that frames the spatial

assemblage process of the trader

space. The component of this social

assemblage is human actors with

particular social positions. In this case

there are three social positions, namely

permanent trader (PT), additional

trader (AT) and porter (Pr). A PT is

a member of the trader community,

while an AT is not a member of the

community, but is still occasionally

involved in the bazaar. A Pr plays a

supporting role that helps the traders

in the spatial assemblage process.

Social position is a non-physical

property of the actors that affects three

capacities that play a crucial role in the

spatial assemblage process (Figure 5),

namely: 1) the right to occupy a particular

spatial position inside the courtyard;

2) the right to bring and use objects

as (additional) resources that are

required to form the trader space; and

3) the capability to utilize the resources

and develop a set of relation-interactions

to form the trader space.

Each actor is only able to actualize

these capacities in a specific timeframe,

which is during the bazaar that

takes place along with the Friday prayer

ritual in the mosque. For example, regarding

the first capacity, PTs have the

right to ‘own’ a particular spatial position,

which they can use to form a trader

space inside the courtyard. However,

they can only occupy this position

during the bazaar on Fridays. They

cannot randomly come (for instance in

a Monday morning) and then occupy a

certain position to form a trader space

inside the courtyard.

The first capacity is crucial because it

allows certain actors to occupy a spatial

position that acts as a base to form the

trader space. Actors need to follow two

‘goods-based’ rules to acquire a social

position as a PT who owns a specific

Figure 5. Relation between social and spatial assemblage.


components

122

spatial position in the courtyard. First,

the trader community has a regulation

regarding a limit on the number of

similar goods that can be sold. ‘Common

goods’, such as clothes, are limited

to five traders, while ‘rare goods’, such

as traditional medicine, are limited

to three traders. Second, traders with

similar goods are strongly suggested

not to form their space in adjacent positions.

There is usually a gap of around

two or three traders between traders of

similar goods.

ATs do not own a specific spatial

position in the courtyard, so they need

to search for an ‘empty position’ every

time they want to form their space.

There are two types of empty position

in the courtyard. First, one that is not

owned by any PT. Second, the position

is empty because the PT who owns it

is absent. When the AT finds an empty

position, they cannot directly occupy

it, but need to ask for permission from

the PTs in the area surrounding the

empty position.

The first capacity is closely related to

the other two. When traders are able to

occupy a position inside the courtyard,

then they are also allowed to bring

(and utilize) various objects as resources

to form a certain set of relations-interactions

that are required to form the

trader space.

5.2. Spatial assemblage: The

importance of everyday items and

the idea of the spatial role

This study argues that the ephemerality

of architectural space is affected

by the heterogeneity of its components.

The findings show that there is

wide range of entities that are involved

as components that form the trader

space, including everyday items such

as clothes, socks, plastic rugs and umbrellas.

The availability of these everyday

items plays an important role in

the ephemerality of the trader space.

This importance is based on two factors.

First, the traders have limited time

to actualize their capacities, specifically

those that allowed them to bring

and utilize these everyday items in the

courtyard. Second, the traders can easily

move or mobilize these items to another

location, even though the variety

and number of these can increase the

difficulty of this process.

However, the importance of these

everyday items does not reside in the

items themselves; instead, it should be

seen through their spatial role when

they form a relation-interaction with

other entities. Based on the concept of

capacities from assemblage theory, this

study develops the idea of the spatial

role to fully explain the relation-interaction

between the components of

spatial assemblage. This role can be

divided into three parts: the role itself,

the function of the role, and the actual

realization of the role.

The idea was developed to demonstrates

the variety of entities that act

as components of architectural space.

Different entities can act as components

with the same spatial role, even

though the realization of the role is different

(which also affects the qualities

provided by the entities). For example,

in trader space, there is a component

with a spatial role as a ‘boundary’. The

function of a ‘boundary’ in trader

space is to mark out the courtyard area

that can be used by traders, especially

to display their goods. In Case 1 (men’s

clothes trader), the entity that acts as

a ‘boundary’ is a plastic rug, which

actualizes the role by directly covering

the surface of the courtyard floor. In

Case 2 (sock trader), beside a plastic

rug, the entity which also does this is

an umbrella, which actualizes the role

by forming a shaded area that indirectly

covers the courtyard floor. The plastic

rug and umbrella therefore play the

same spatial role (as a boundary), even

though the properties of each lead to

different actualizations of the role. The

spatial role is also specifically related

to the components involved in the (de)

territorialization phase, which is when

the architectural space appears and disappears

(the phase will be explained in

the following section). In other phases,

the role of each assemblage component

Table 1. List of abbreviation for the sub-phases (each sub-phase

will be explained in the following section).


123

will be explained with the concept of

capacities and properties.

5.3. Spatial assemblage: The

appearing and disappearing process

with specific phases

This section explains how trader

space appears and disappears in the

courtyard through a spatial assemblage

process with three phases: preparation,

(de)territorialization, and withdrawal.

Each phase is divided into several subphases

to further specify their significance

in the appearing-disappearing

process of trader space. Tables 2 show

information about the overall phases

(and sub-phases) of the spatial assemblage

for each selected case, along with

the entities that are involved, and the

time-frame of the process.

In the time-frame bar, there is a specific

block labeled ‘FPB’ (Friday Prayer

Break). This is the time when the main

part of the Friday Prayer ritual takes

Table 2. Overall phases of the spatial assemblage process.


components

124

place. In this specific time-frame, none

of the bazaar activities is allowed to

be performed in the courtyard. This

stipulation perfectly demonstrates the

importance of rules as a part of social

assemblage in limiting the formation

of architectural space in a built environment.

Even though all the resources

are available and ready to use, they are

useless if the actors are unable to utilize

them.

In each phase, there are entities with

significant and insignificant roles. Significant

means that the entities play an

important role in forming the required

relation-interaction related to the peculiarity

of each phase in the spatial assemblage

process. Insignificant means

that the entities are merely present and

involved in the process, but have yet to

make any meaningful contribution to

it.

For example, in the men’s clothes’

trader space, the entities with a significant

role in the ‘defining boundary’

sub-phase are ‘trader’, ‘plastic rug’ and

‘courtyard’. The relation between these

entities defines the boundaries that

specify the trader space area. Meanwhile,

the role of ‘clothes’ in this subphase

is insignificant, because they are

merely involved as a resource (which

will have a significant role in the next

sub-phase).

The following sections will further

discuss the role and importance of

each phase and sub-phase in the appearing-disappearing

process of trader

space in the mosque courtyard.

5.3.1. Preparation: Setting-up

process

The aim of the preparation phase is

to set up two basic requirements that

are crucial to executing the following

phase ((de)territorialization), namely

(1) the availability of resources, and (2)

the availability of spatial position. This

phase is then divided into two subphases,

supplying resources and occupying

a position.

The aim of the ‘supplying resources’

sub-phase is to condition the availability

of a certain set of entities as

(additional) resources to form the

trader space. This sub-phase can be

performed by the traders themselves,

or with help of a porter. If the traders

execute this sub-phase by themselves,

then they also simultaneously occupy

a specific spatial position. If they utilize

the support of a porter, then the

resources that are placed by the porter

in a specific location will act as tags or

placeholders that prevent other traders

from occupying the position (figure

6-top image).

‘Occupying a position’ is the subphase

in which the trader occupies a

particular spatial position as a base to

form the trader space inside the court-

Figure 6. Supplying resources (top image) and occupying a

position (bottom image) sub-phases of socks trader.


125

yard. This sub-phase, as previously

stated, can be performed simultaneously

with the process of supplying

resources. However, if in the previous

sub-phase trader utilizes the support

of a porter to tag or put a placeholder

down for his/her spatial-position, then

that trader will occupy the tagged-position

in this sub-phase (figure 6-bottom

image).

5.3.2. (De)Territorialization: The

appearing-disappearing process

(De)territorialization is the phase

in which the trader space appears

through the process of territorialization,

and then disappears through the

Figure 7. Defining boundaries sub-phase of men’s clothes trader

(top image) and socks trader (bottom image).

process of deterritorialization. This

phase is divided into four sub-phases:

defining boundaries, the emergence of

identity, the disappearance of identity,

and disassembling boundaries.

The ‘defining boundaries’ sub-phase

aims to form a relation between supporting

components, which differentiate

the area of trader space from the

others. The supporting component

is one that defines the quality of the

space (figure 7). For instance, a component

with a spatial role as a ‘boundary’

provides quality in the form of ‘clarity’

regarding the area of the trader space.

Different entities can act as supporting

components with the same spatial

role, albeit with different levels of

quality (depending on the properties

of the entities). Beside components

with spatial roles as ‘boundaries’, there

are also components with other spatial

roles such as ‘place to display’ or ‘sitting

place’, but all play a role in ‘defining’ the

trader space and differentiating it from

its surroundings.

‘Emergence of identity’ is a subphase

in which the identity of space

(as a trader space) emerges through

relation-interaction between the main

components of the space. The main

component is one whose presence,

and relation-interaction with other

main components, plays a crucial role

in the emergence of the identity of

certain architectural space. This space

can temporarily appear, even in an incompatible

built environment, if the

relation-interaction between the main

components can be formed in the environment.

For instance, trader space

can appear in the courtyard through

the relation-interaction between ‘seller’,

‘goods’, and ‘(potential) buyer’ (figure

8). However, unlike supporting

components, these main components

require specific entities that cannot be

easily replaced. For example, all traders

has specific entities that they can use as

goods to sell. These entities cannot be

easily replaced by others because they

are tied to the social and spatial position

of the trader.

‘Disappearance of identity’ is a subphase

in which the identity of the space

disappears because there is a change

in the relation-interaction between

the main components. For example,


components

126

when the peak time of the bazaar is

over, the traders need to disassemble

their space. This disassembling process

starts by dismantling the arrangement

of the goods and then storing them in

a certain place or parcel/package. In

other words, there is a change in the

relation-interaction that involves particular

entities changing from ‘being

displayed’ (as goods) to ‘being stored’

(as resources in a parcel/package).

Traders disassemble their space by

dismantling the relation between the

goods and the place of display, and

then gathering and storing the goods

in a certain package.

The process that takes place in the

‘disassembling boundaries’ sub-phase

is similar to the ‘disappearance of identity’

sub-phase, in the sense that there

is a change that leads to a relation-interaction

that accumulates a group of

items/entities into the form of package.

This relation between entities in the

form of a package makes them easier

for the actors to move or mobilize from

the courtyard.

5.3.3. Withdrawal: Cleaning-up

process

The withdrawal phase is the opposite

of the preparation phase. The main

aim of this phase is to ‘clean up’ the

built environment and return it to its

default condition. Therefore, this phase

strengthens the argument about the

temporal availability of resources that

are required to form the architectural

space. The withdrawal phase is divided

into two sub-phases, positional withdrawal

and resources withdrawal.

‘Positional withdrawal’ is the subphase

in which the traders, who initiate

the formation of trader space in the

courtyard, leave their spatial position.

Some traders perform the positional

and resources withdrawal simultaneously,

which means that they take all

the resources with them when they

leave their position. Other traders,

who utilize the support of a porter in

the preparation phase, only take some

of the resources and leave the rest in

the built environment. ‘Resources

withdrawal’, on the other hand, is the

sub-phase in which the porters move/

mobilize the remaining resources to

another location (inside the mosque

Figure 8. Emergence of identity sub-phase of men’s clothes trader

(top image) and accessories trader (bottom image).

area), to return the built environment

completely to its default condition.

6. Conclusion and recommendation

This study has addressed the heterogeneity

of entities involved as components

of architectural space, and how

they affect the ephemerality of the

space. An architectural space becomes

ephemeral when some of the entities

that act as its components are only, and

should be, available/present in a particular

time-frame. This means it is necessary

to extend the recognition of the

components that form an architectural

space beyond the permanent physical


127

structure of the built environment.

This recognition indeed suggests a limitation

of this physical structure, but it

also provides an idea about the variety

and wider range of entities that could

act as architectural components.

The findings of the study reveal the

importance of everyday items, such as

clothes, plastic carpets and umbrellas,

in the formation of architectural space.

This argument does not try to negate

or eliminate the importance of permanent

physical structures in the built environment.

Instead, both types of entity

(the physical structure of the built

environment and everyday items) are

resources that are required to form certain

architectural space. The difference

is that physical structure is permanently

available, while everyday items are

only available temporarily, and there

is process that involves a certain group

of actors that needs to be performed to

condition the availability of these items.

However, the importance of these entities

cannot be seen through their being

separate individual entities. Instead,

it needs to be seen through their spatial

role as architectural components,

whether as a main component (which

determines the identity of the space) or

supporting component (which determines

the quality of the space).

A combination of the ideas of resources,

main components and supporting

components can be used to

develop an alternative approach to

overcoming the rigidity issue of the

built environment. This issue is primarily

related to the inability or limitation

of the built environment to respond

to change in everyday uses. This

limitation is related to the fact that the

features or elements of the built environment

are only part of the resources

that are required to form the architectural

space. It is therefore necessary

to fully recognize this limitation and

open it up to an alternative approach,

one that suggests that architects act

more as ‘resources managers’ than as

‘form makers’.

As a resources manager, an architect

can explore the resources that need to

be permanently available, and those

that are only available in a specific

condition (in which their availability

depends on other parties). This exploration

should be based on the contextual

situation of the design, specifically

related to: (1) the variety of everyday

uses or activities (that require a certain

set of main components); and (2) the

level of spatial quality to support these

activities (which is affected by the supporting

components). This approach

opens the possibility to simplify the

physical structure of the built environment,

without reducing the complexity

of architectural space. The physical

structure of the built environment can

be simpler because the availability of

other resources has been ‘distributed’

to other parties.

However, the availability of these

resources is useless if the actors are

unable to utilize them through a process

of spatial assemblage. The findings

reveal the importance of social assemblage

as non-physical structure that

frames this spatial assemblage process.

Therefore, social assemblage plays a

crucial role in the ephemerality of an

architectural space, because it frames

the actualization of actors’ capacities

that are required to perform the spatial

assemblage process, but only in a

specific time-frame. This social assemblage

adds a non-physical layer that

can affect the flexibility/rigidity of the

built environment without changing its

physical features. This finding therefore

suggests the necessity for architects to

become involved in the formulation of

rules and regulations (as the elements

of this social assemblage). Similar to

the previous argument about the recognition

of the importance of everyday

items, this involvement opens up wider

options in the design approach of architects,

rather than a mere focus on

the physical structure of the built environment.

This research is limited to the context

of a certain event in a particular

type of public area, specifically a market/bazaar

event in the courtyard of

Sunda Kelapa mosque. Investigation

in different cases is needed to further

explore and develop the conceptual arguments

that have been made in this

study. Research in different contexts

with a more diverse set of activities is

required to develop a framework to

understand the ephemerality of architectural

space in everyday life. Such


components

128

knowledge will be valuable to further

develop an alternative design approach

to overcoming the rigidity issue of the

built environment.

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components


With nature in mind: ‘Green

metaphors’ as an approach to

reflect environmental concerns and

awareness in landscape design

Sema MUMCU 1 , Serap YILMAZ 2 , Duygu AKYOL 3

1

semamumcu@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of

Forestry, Karadeniz Technical Universiy, Trabzon, Turkey

2

serapyilmaz@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of


3

duyguakyol@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of


Received: December 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2019

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.00236

Abstract

The human-environment relationship forms the philosophical foundation

of landscape architecture. To move beyond the common dualistic humanenvironment

thinking in environmental design education, exploring and

highlighting new ideas is important and necessary. A caring sensitivity and a change

in awareness of our responsibilities are preconditions to creating these new ideas

that will result in deeply responsive environmental designs. Here, responsibility

includes ecological awareness and understanding interconnectedness. “Green

metaphors” are results of such an awareness and understanding. Green metaphors

in environmental design are accepted as an approach for reflecting environmental

concern.

This study aims to understand how green metaphors are being used by

landscape architecture students in design studio. One hundred and three poster

presentations of senior students that explain the metaphorical thinking behind

their design concept for a residential landscape design were analyzed in order to

determine the frequency of green metaphors. Twenty-seven projects with green

metaphors were analyzed in depth to understand the most emphasized issues in

their approaches to the human-environment relationship.

Keywords

Environmental awareness, Green metaphors, Human-environment relationship,

Landscape architecture, Landscape design.

132

1. Introduction

The human-environment relationship

forms the philosophical foundation

of landscape architecture. As

a profession intervening in the environment,

shaping and modifying it in

order to create more affordable environments

that satisfy users’ needs and

enhance human experience, where do

we place nature in the spectrum of our

professional responsibilities?

Since design always affects ecological

processes, it has a necessary relationship

with ecological science (Nassauer,

2002). Wenk (2002) criticizes design

and planning professions for ignoring

the possibility of creating landscapes as

living instruments that address urban

environmental issues. Landscape architects

must understand nature and environmental

issues, but the topics and

the methods for how they should learn

these topics is much less clear (Nassauer,

2002). Another issue is the common

dualistic human-environment thinking

in environmental design education:

there remains a need to move beyond

this dualistic thinking by exploring

and highlighting new ideas. There is a

tendency in environmental education

to insist that every institution of higher

education should make the cultivation

of ecological intelligence an essential

part of every student’s learning experience

(Heffernan, 2012).

Our era, in which the demand for

solutions to environmental problems

is increasing, witnesses the endeavors

of humans who strive to develop alternative

views and approaches that

will alleviate, rather than compound,

the environmental crisis. Along with

many other professional disciplines,

landscape architecture has a part in

meeting these demands and joining

these endeavors. Users are in demand

of highly responsive environments,

but are landscape architecture students

being educated and instilled with the

needed responsibility and knowledge

to meet these demands? This paper

aims to investigate, through design

studio outcomes, what students learn

in terms of knowledge, awareness, and

applicability regarding the human-nature

relationship and environmental

issues during their education.

Design studio is accepted as one

of the most important learning areas

where environmental issues such as

awareness, sustainability, conservation,

eco-design, etc., can be discussed and

practiced. For example, sustainability is

a common environmental term that is

used in design studios (Keumala et al.,

2016; Kjøllesdal et al., 2014). However,

this is a limited term that is considered

with limited approaches in design studios;

are design studios really qualified

to create and develop essential awareness

and sensitivity in students? Are

there any alternative approaches? In

this study, we focused on using metaphors

in design studio and providing a

new way for designers to gain a deep

understand of environmental issues.

Metaphors are common means for

environmental designers to provide

meaningful grounding for complex design

undertakings. They are especially

invaluable when the designer confronts

novel situations and strives to

share unfamiliar ideas. Metaphors can

help designers displace old meanings,

generate new patterns of enunciation,

and bridge ideas that were formerly

unrelated (Muller and Knudson, 2009).

Muller (2006, p. 186) asks: “How might

an architect’s articulation of the design

task evolve by borrowing from ecological

understandings? What new sorts

of architectural ecologies -of benefit

to humans and non-humans- might

result?” Casakin (2012) defines metaphorical

reasoning as an educational

approach that can play an important

role in the design studio; metaphors

are valuable problem-solving strategies

and are suitable for improving design

education. In this study with a similar

approach, we analyzed landscape

architecture students’ ecology and

nature-grounded metaphors that is

“green metaphors” and, through these

metaphors, we sought to understand

students’ approaches to environmental

problems and their level of awareness.

The concept of metaphors was used in

a broader sense in the study in order

to include design concepts with weak

metaphorical thinking in the evaluation

process in order to create a deeper

understanding of the ecological approaches

used by the students. Instead

of design concepts, the emphasis on

metaphor aims to highlight the inno-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol

133

vative and creative contributions of

metaphors to design studios and to encourage

their use in design education.

2. Landscape architecture design

studio

The design studio is defined by Casakin

(2012) as an educational environment

where students are expected

to acquire and integrate theoretical and

practical knowledge; enhance their level

of expertise and competence; grasp,

present, and defend design ideas; acquire

new techniques and skills; and

form their own ideas and judgments

through being exposed to a variety of

views from their instructors, mostly in

the form of the master-apprentice system.

Classes such as environmental/

landscape/architectural design project

based on design studio practice have

been accepted as the most important

part of the educational curriculum in

schools of design (Casakin, 2004) and

design studio has been seen as essential

for design education (Johnson and

Hill, 2002). The studio is based upon

the educational philosophy of “learning

by doing” and has developed both

as a venue and as a pedagogical medium

(Alon-Mozes, 2006). It is a dynamic

and generative framework, in

which faculty members guide students

through the processes of discovery,

analysis, idea generation, and proposal

development (Johnson and Hill, 2002).

Project classes are mainly based on

and conducted as design studios; in

this context, landscape architecture

curricula do not significantly differ

from architectural studios, and therefore

both disciplines share the same

design methodologies (Gazvoda, 2002;

Alon-Mozes, 2006). In most schools,

as the student moves through the studio

curriculum, the project types and

scope increase in complexity. The

level of performance in the studio is

accepted as an indicator of mastery

of specific skills, competencies, and

domain knowledge at certain stages

of the students’ development (Curry,

2014). Within the scope of (Karadeniz

Technical) University‘s Landscape

Architecture Department curricula,

the same approach (increases in complexity)

mentioned above has been effective

in structuring the design studio

classes. In this context, first-semester

design studio classes begin with the

Basic Design Principles and Project

class and the curriculum includes the

Environmental Design Project (EDP)

I, II, III, IV, V, and VI classes in the

following semesters. The studio classes

proceed from the abstract to the concrete,

from less complexity to greater

complexity in terms of the design subject,

area, and user types. The studio

classes are preconditioned, that is, if

a student fails any of the EDP classes,

they will not be able to take the next

EDP class. Students receive one-onone

criticism from the project tutors in

the studio environment for two days a

week. Students can also criticize each

other during presentations and discussions

in which the whole class participates.

With the increased complexity

in the scope of projects, students are

confronted with the task of transferring

the knowledge gained from service

classes to their projects. Thus,

students are expected to reflect their

studio experiences in the next project

class and synthesize their theoretical

knowledge from other classes in their

projects (Mumcu et al., 2018).

3. Combining ecology and design:

Green metaphors

Design studio, according to Johnson

and Hill (2002), is a prime vehicle for

students to strategically engage ecological

knowledge within the context

of a cultural problem. Nassauer (2002)

advises that a landscape architecture

curriculum that builds a clearer relationship

with ecology should sharpen

– not blur – students’ understanding of

design as cultural action. Johnson and

Hill (2002) state that established design

professions have increasingly recognized

the need for ecological awareness

and responsibility, and have begun to

adopt ecological guidelines for professional

practice. Since design excellence

must be judged by both aesthetic and

ecological criteria, concerning design

with art but not ecological criteria is

ethically unacceptable in the fields of

design. The decision to pursue ecological

sustainability without art is also

flawed, because art may be uniquely

capable to reach human hearts and

With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and


134

minds (Johnson and Hill, 2002). In

this context, the place of ecological approaches

in design studio is important

in terms of instilling these priorities in

students. But are ecological approaches

being applied relevantly, and how

much are they being understood? For

example, do ecological approaches in

professional practices really reflect a

deep respect for the beauty of life as

Orr’s work put forth who calls for responsible

design in space and time,

and in human and nonhuman terms

(Johnson and Hill, 2002)? Referring

to a transformation that is needed to

move from design with nature to a design

that includes humans in nature,

Johnson and Hill (2002) ask: “How

can we envision new relationships between

science and art and ecology and

design?” Based on the idea that metaphors

are essential to imagining a future

in which design and ecology enjoy

a closer relationship, Johnson and Hill

(2002) accept the role of metaphors in

the language of landscape architecture.

According to Muller and Knudson

(2009), in efforts to make projects that

address ecology effectively and that

help to “improve our relationship with

nature,” architects must recognize the

inherent predisposition toward metaphors

in ecology. With such an approach,

the efforts of designers can be

viewed as both conceptualizing architecture

in a more ecologically-oriented

way and opportunistically thinking

about ecological systems as an important

part of the palette out of which designers

construct and reconstruct the

world. Architectures and ecologies become

co-creative, overlapping, and enmeshed

(Muller and Knudson, 2009).

In this sense, metaphors can be useful

tools at establishing innovative ideas

for invoking responsibility and gaining

awareness. They can assist in formulating

problems afresh, allowing designers

to solve them with greater sensitivity,

intensity and effectiveness (Muller

and Knudson, 2009). Kopnina (2016)

defines metaphors as one of the crucial

dimensions of environmental education

and education for sustainable development.

Also, Casakin (2006) suggests

that training students in the use

of metaphors can be considered particularly

helpful in the design studio, as

they will contribute to an enhancement

of design thinking capabilities and will

yield a better understanding of the design

process.

Metaphors are defined as cognitive

strategies that are used to deal with

design problems in order to define, restructure,

and resolve them (Casakin,

2004; Hey et al., 2008). Using metaphors

facilitates the generation of innovative

solutions (Casakin, 2012) by

allowing the designer to think unconventionally

and encourage the application

of novel ideas to design problems

(Casakin, 2007). By juxtaposing the

known with the unknown in an unusual

way and creating comparisons with

another concept or situation, metaphors

help in understanding a design

situation in terms of a remote concept

not normally associated with design,

and so enables the understanding of

the design problem from different perspectives

(Goncalves et al., 2014) and

enhances design problem-solving (Casakin,

2012). Generally speaking, it can

be said that the use of metaphors played

a more significant role in the definition

of a concept, (Casakin, 2004), they provide

the designer with a starting point

in the earlier stages of the design process,

in which initial decisions are often

difficult to make (Casakin, 2006).

Metaphors have a powerful effect on

changing and transforming a design

ethos into a more ecologically sensitive

one. This happens, Casakin (2004)

explains, because when a metaphor

becomes a part of a conceptual system

it may modify it, change the designer’s

perception of a particular situation,

and trigger new insights.

Muller (2009) states that as environmental

design develops new metaphors,

it also modifies its own culture;

the emerging identity formation of

architectural culture results in new designs.

According to Muller (2009), in

order to meet the need for the development

of life-enhancing and ecologically

sustainable living spaces, the idea

of developing better-performing, less

wasteful, and less toxic building assemblies

is insufficient. Instead, designers

must engage in a more fundamental

reflection as to how design problems

are to be expressed and to what extent

the potential for environmental change


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can be molded to new design expressions

(Muller, 2009). In the contemporary

world, which is characterized by

daily reminders of the degradation of

our natural surroundings, such awareness

of metaphors as productive agents

of change would seem to encourage the

seeking of notions that lead to greater

environmental atonement (Muller,

2009). Similarly, Nerlich (2012) defines

metaphors as some of the most

potent framing devices available in human

language with reference to environmental

discourse and politics. Since

metaphors carry with them values,

assumptions, visions and ideologies

which shape thinking and acting, one

has to be aware of their implications

for social and economic policy (Nerlich,

2012).

A caring sensitivity and a change

in awareness of our responsibilities

are preconditions for creating these

new ideas that will result in deeply

responsive environmental designs.

Here, responsibility includes ecological

awareness and understanding interconnectedness.

“Green metaphors” are

results of such an awareness and understanding.

Green metaphors in environmental

design are accepted as an

approach for reflecting environmental

concern and believed to be productive

agents of change in contemporary environmental

design culture that encourage

the seeking of notions that lead to

greater human-environment harmony

(Muller, 2009). As a kind of green

metaphor, landscape-oriented metaphors

reflect a larger cultural paradigm

shift from human-centeredness to human-situatedness

and can address the

degradation of natural systems and the

effacing of singular ecologies that characterize

current development practices

(Muller and Knudson, 2009). Successful

landscape metaphors invoke environmental

qualities and the goals of

design undertakings, sensitize designers

to their work and to the world, and

prompt a manner of thought that seeks

solutions to architectural problems in

environmental settings and solutions

to environmental problems in architectural

configurations (Muller and Knudson,

2009). In particular, certain kinds

of landscape metaphors are believed to

be more likely to result in projects that

are truly sustainable and ecologically

responsive and enable “deeply green”

architectural innovations to occur.

“Dynamically emulative” and “specifically

interactive” landscape metaphors

are of this kind, which will lead designers

to a path of deeply green design

thinking. While “dynamically emulative”

landscape metaphors refer to the

“infinitely variable and non-static” attributes

of the landscape that inform

design, a metaphor that depends upon

an understanding of the ecological and

climatic subtleties of a given place to

engage a building with the landscape

can be called “specifically interactive.”

Built landscapes that emulate those

found in nature might be event-laden,

dynamic yet supportive, and characterized

by coherent complexity and luminous,

ambient, and thermal richness

(Muller and Knudson, 2009).

According to Dobrin (2010), the

metaphor “green” has been adopted

as a way of indicating environmentally

conscious political positions. To

“go green” implies active participation

in environmentally or ecologically

sound practices—it is to advocate environmental

protection, to be attuned

to nature. Green has been naturalized

as a metaphoric representation of nature

and environment (Dobrin, 2010).

Examples of green metaphors can be

found in literature: as the metaphor

of ecologist G. E. Hutchinson for the

landscape as an “ecological theatre, the

living stage” (Johnson and Hill, 2002);

environmental problems as “ozone

hole” and “acid rain”; biodiversity as

“the library of life”; forests as “the lungs

of the Earth” (Väliverronen and Hellsten,

2002); architecture as “ecological

niche”, “organism” (Muller, 2009), minimal

output of greenhouse gas emissions

as “low carbon” or “clean energy”

(Nerlich, 2012). Most environmental

problems are not immediately apparent

to the human observer—for example,

the detection of ozone depletion or

global climate change requires highly

sensitive and sophisticated technical

machinery, scientific theories, and

mathematical models. Green metaphors

help to make these terms become

more imaginable and also evoke strong

emotions (Väliverronen and Hellsten,

2002). For example, in the context of



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climate change, the metaphor “low carbon

diet” opens up the frame of losing

weight and counting calories, and then

transfers its connotations, values and

expectations onto the issue of reducing

carbon dioxide emissions. As in

this example green metaphors can be

used to shape expectations and visions

of the future in an effort to affect social

and political actions in the present

(Nerlich, 2012).

In environmental design, by using

green metaphors, architecture becomes

a dynamic process rather than

a fixed object, responsive to the environment,

and an event to be activated

(Muller, 2009). The IBN (Dutch) Institute

for Nature Research in Wageningen,

designed by the German firm

Behnisch & Partner, is conceptualized

as a complex organism and can be given

as an example of a green metaphor.

The building’s design was aimed at

creating a functional, user-friendly research

facility that worked in harmony

with nature, i.e., versatile and ecologically

sound. The design does not dominate

its rural setting, but embraces the

landscape; all the workplaces are in direct

contact with indoor and outdoor

gardens. Two indoor gardens provide

the focus for daily activities and function

as informal meeting areas. Beyond

this, they are an integral component of

the building’s energy concept in that

they improve the performance of the

external envelope (URL1). Each of the

three office wings is situated between

two of the gardens and is said to “grow

between the gardens.” The atria that are

created serve as the offices’ “lungs,” providing

warmth in winter and coolness

in summer, thus enabling a dramatic

downsizing of the heating system and

obviating the need for air conditioning

altogether. Because the greenhouse

roofs provide a first layer of protection

against the elements, the office facades

become light and “porous” centers of

sensation, a skin that actively and selectively

absorbs and transmits (the wanted)

and refracts and transforms (the

unwanted). With offices that are facing

and open to gardens, the atria become

the Institute’s social “heart,” where scientists

gather, conduct research, and

confer (Fig. 1) (Muller, 2006). Through

its incomplete, “weak formed” spatial

configuration, the IBN is ever-adaptable

to changing needs, to the disquiet

of persistent animation within. Therefore,

the IBN reflects a contemporary

understanding of both “the unity of the

organism, and the dynamic, interactive

relationship that organisms have with

their environments.”

The goal of this essay is to provide

an explanation for green metaphors in

use by landscape architecture students

in design studio, and relate this to the

question of our relationship to nature

that is at the heart of professional

practice of landscape architecture. We

ask whether using green metaphors is

likely to result in projects that are truly

sustainable and ecologically responsive.

With a goal toward environmental

sensitivity and awareness, landscape

architecture students’ use of green metaphors

would seem inherently advantageous.

4. A case study: Green metaphors

in students’ residential landscape

design projects

This study aims to understand how

green metaphors are being used by

landscape architecture students in

Figure 1. IBN Nature Research Institute, Wageningen, the

Netherlands (Behnisch & Partner, 1996) (URL1).


137

design studio. Through these metaphors

a deep insight into students’

human-environment relationship

conceptualizations can be gained and

new approaches to strengthen their

conceptualizations can be developed.

One hundred and three poster presentations

of landscape architecture senior

students that explain the metaphorical

thinking of their design concepts for a

residential landscape design were analyzed

in order to determine the frequency

of green metaphors.

The study was conducted in (Karadeniz

Technical) University, Landscape

Architecture Department. The student

projects were all housing estate environmental

designs from three different

years and five different sites. The students’

projects belonged to the EDP-VI

class in the 7th semester, that is, the last

of the design studios that are accompanied

by a tutor within the scope of

the curriculum. Although the design

sites in the projects are from different

locations, they are all gated communities

that include 7-9 high-rise residential

buildings and all are located in the

Trabzon city centre. Therefore, they

exhibit similar physical, ecological,

and social characteristics. The projects

included in this study were all conducted

with the same studio approach,

each of which consisted of 6-7 groups

Figure 2. The phases and results of content analyses; students’

conceptual approaches and green metaphors.

of different tutors with 9-11 students

in each group. While giving the design

subject and the site, the students were

not limited to adopting an ecological

approach and the tutors also did not

limit the conceptual approaches to a

specific area. The students determined

their conceptual approaches based on

various findings as a result of their research

and analysis within the scope of

the design site and subject. In this latest

project, students are expected to develop

an advanced, creative, and powerful

conceptual approach to the design

problem. Advanced analysis of the site

and users (with techniques such as

GIS, SWOT, etc.), synthesis presentation,

original scenario design, concept

presentation, land use, sketches, plans,

sections, views, planting design, general

and technical detail solutions, CAD

presentations, 3D modeling, models,

and technical report stages are carried

out in a 15-week period. However, in

this study, the materials submitted in

the project class were not used; instead,

the poster presentations, which

contained written and visual narratives

prepared by the students as part of

their homework, about their projects

were used (Mumcu et al., 2018).

In context of Spatial Behavior class

students were asked to prepare homework

about their environmental design

studio project (EDP-VI) of that term.

The students were requested to explain

their approaches in conceptual, formal

and pragmatic dimensions and informed

that the score from homework

will comprise 50% of their final score

thus encouraged to pay strict attention.

There was no restriction that the students

use written and visual materials

related to their projects. They were free

to prepare their projects as they wished

in line with the titles given. They were

not informed about the content of this

research in order to prevent any influence

on their representation. By doing

so the number of students who considered

and discussed environmental

issues without prejudice was determined.

Content analysis method was adopted

in the study. The written texts in the

poster presentation that explained the

conceptual approaches were analyzed

in this context. Content analysis is a



138

technique for systematically describing

the form and content of a written

or spoken material. This technique is

described as suitable for any kind of

material including publications, recorded

interviews, and reports and so

on. Content refers to the specific topic

or themes in the material and quantification

(expressing data in numbers)

of these forms the basis of a content

analysis (Sommer and Sommer, 2002).

The explanations in presentations were

evaluated and 27 of them that reflect

a concern for environment were categorized

in terms of their problem definition

and approaches to landscape

design. The others who used concepts

unrelated to environmental issues or

did not make any clear problem statements

were excluded. The classification

was carried out by a team of 5 landscape

architects, all of whom were experienced

in landscape design education,

including the authors of this study. As

a preliminary study, the authors read

all the texts in the conceptual approach

presentations and made preliminary

assessments and identified the main

conceptual topics. In the next stage,

all the landscape architects in the team

evaluated the same texts and classified

them into predetermined groups. Each

student’s approach was separated into

a specific group based on the majority

vote of the evaluators. Then, for those

who had an environmental approach,

the first two stages were repeated; the

authors determined the sub-conceptual

topics and, through the evaluations

of the team, the conceptual approaches

with environmental concerns were

classified (Fig. 2).

Table 1.Classification and frequencies of students’ design concepts.

5. Results

Twenty-seven projects with green

metaphors were analyzed in depth

to understand the most emphasized

issues in their approaches to the human-environment

relationship. The

categorization of 103 projects revealed

five groups: (psychological-physical)

well-being of users (35.9%), green

metaphors (26.2%), landscape design

principles (16.5%), natural attributes

(12.6%), and cultural activities (8.7%)

(χ2=25,010, 4 df, p<0.00) (Table 1).

The statistical significance of the distribution

indicated that the students’ conceptual

approaches were not random;

especially reflects the priority given to

the health of users and environmental

problems by students. Green/ecological

approaches are common in student

works, which reveals the significance

level of such approaches for students.

Furthermore, despite the fact that the

natural attributes group reflects the attribution

of the physical features (e.g.,

the sound of water, a leaf pattern, a

rainbow) to spatial components, which

are therefore treated as different from

green metaphors, the frequency of

natural attributes can also reflect the

importance of nature with respect to

students. Twenty-seven green metaphors

found in this study were listed in

Figure 2. These metaphors can be dealt

with as two groups; metaphors that

emphasize harmony with nature and

Figure 3. Sustainability grounded design concepts and poster

presentation samples.


139

metaphors that emphasize the need for

change. These two groups, which complete

each other in essence, show parallelism

with the discussions of current

environmental issues. The most cited

metaphors (green, nature, and sustainability)

were discussed in detail.

5.1 Sustainability grounded

metaphors

One of the most frequent concepts

among the green metaphors was sustainability

(N=11). The written explanations

in the students’ presentations

that focused on this concept were generally

more extensive than other groups

Table 2. Sustainability grounded metaphors; students’ explanations

of conceptual approaches presented in Figure 3.

and tended to include ecology-related

terminology, such as relationships

and cycles in the ecosystem. This may

be an indication that the students are

transferring information from their

other classes on this subject. Sustainability

grounded metaphors heavily

emphasized environmental problems,

depicting a humanity that recedes

from natural life day by day, and set

goals such as environmental restoration,

conservation, and improving

the quality of life. In addition, the approaches

underlying the environmental

problems, such as modernism and

positivism, and alternative approaches,

such as post-modernism, can be mentioned.

Some students highlighted the

social pillar of the sustainability term

with an emphasis on neighborhood

relations. Although the emphasis was

on the degradation of nature, students

used the term “sustainability” mainly

in terms of nature’s instrumental value

and a force for humanity’s good. These

human-centred approaches have led

students to explain the functional benefits

that are often directed to users in

residential design solutions (Fig. 3).

5.2. Green grounded metaphors

In this group, decreasing green areas,

the peace that green and nature

provide to humans and harmony with

nature were heavily mentioned (N=5).

Green is sometimes considered as a

color and sometimes as nature itself;

in particular, the peace effect of green

color was emphasized. The problems

caused by decreasing green spaces in

human beings (and parallel to this, the

need for more green spaces and peace)

and the necessity of increasing green

spaces were frequently mentioned.

However, in general, the use of the

green and nature concepts, alternately

and equivalent with each other, is salient.

Therefore, it can be said that students

accepted “green” as referring to

nature and used them interchangeably

(Fig. 4). While the approaches focusing

on the physical and spatial features

such as the increase or predominance

of green spaces in their designs were

classified as green, design approaches

that state human-nature relationship /

harmony, the contribution of nature /

natural features to human health were



140

classified into the title of nature.

5.3. Nature grounded metaphors

In this conceptual approach group,

various features of current human-nature

relationships, such as humanity

distanced from natural life, disturbed

human-nature harmony, new lifestyles

away from a relationship with nature,

or positive features of nature, such as

renewal, metamorphosis, and flexibility,

are discussed (N=11). The term “nature”

was used in varied approaches;

in some cases, feelings such as peace,

comfort, and joy that nature provides

to humans were mentioned, while others

mentioned harmony, education, or

natural forms such as valleys that point

to the human-nature relationship. As

in the case with green metaphors, the

term “green” was frequently used with

the term “nature”; green and nature

were used alternately. Mainly, the instrumental

value of nature was mentioned

(Fig. 5). And design decisions

about using color, smell, natural forms,

different textures, using natural elements

such as water, rock, creating topography

in a natural way or mimicking

morphological formations such as

valleys in nature are discussed. In this

context, the conceptual approaches in

this group are generally distinguished

from the green approaches mainly

dealing with green spaces with their

emphasis on natural characteristics

(perceptual, emotional or physical).

6. Discussion

This study aims to understand the

awareness and sensitivity levels of landscape

architecture students that used

green metaphors in their environmental

design projects. In total, 27 housing

estate landscape designs were analyzed

in detail. The terms/words mainly used

for naming metaphors were “green”,

“nature”, and “sustainability”. Especially,

students used green and nature

terms alternately and frequently; this

reflects the fact that they accept these

terms as interchangeable. Furthermore,

green and sustainability terms more

frequently dealt with their relationship

with ecosystems and ecology. The analyses

showed that the green metaphors

were used with an anthropocentric approach

that privileges users’ needs and

Figure 4. Green grounded design concepts and poster presentation

samples.

benefits, and focuses on improving life

quality for them. The same tendency

of university students was also found

by Kopnina (2016), who determined

that before taking an environmental

ethics class, students discussed nature

in economic terms, supporting the instrumental

view of the environment. In

this study, we found that even though

students mentioned the wholeness of

ecosystems and humans’ harmony with

Figure 5. Nature grounded design concepts and poster presentation

samples.


141

Table 3. Green grounded metaphors; students’ explanations of

conceptual approaches presented in Figure 4.

nature, they did not consider the processes

and cycles in nature, and they

did not consider ecosystems as webs

of interactions between animate-inanimate

and human-nonhuman beings.

In fact, human cultures and ecosystems

exist in a reciprocal relationship.

To ignore this reciprocal relationship

of human culture and ecosystems – or

to ignore the fact that every landscape

place, no matter how large or small,

includes multiple species and biophysical

processes that will be affected by

human actions – turns away from a

fundamental reality of the landscapes

we share with other people and other

species (Johnson and Hill, 2002).

Unfortunately, no design metaphors

were found that were grounded in ecological

analyses of the site and mentioned

the benefits to nonhuman beings.

This finding reveals the difficulty

that students have, while reflecting the

knowledge they gain in ecology and

related classes onto design studio practices.

Also, the need for interventions

in design studio emerges. Johnson and

Hill (2002) believe that landscape architects

must collaborate more deeply

with applied ecologists and find ways

to interpret and apply new understandings

from ecological science in physical

planning and landscape design. Moreover,

we must understand the implications

of our work in order to consider

both social equity and ecological sustainability.

Briefly, while the definitions and

emphases of green metaphors referred

to environmental problems, the suggested

solutions and determined goals

were shallow in terms of environmental

responsibility, awareness, or sensitivity.

The need for students to learn

and think more deeply about environmental

ethics is apparent. This finding

encouraged researchers to analyze the

proportion of environmental ethics-related

classes in the curriculum. The curriculum

of the department consists of

33 compulsory and 15 elective courses

(URL-2). It was determined that there

were no classes under the name of “environmental

ethics” or simply “ethics.”

The content of the classes was also controlled

based on the idea that the classes

could indirectly indicate the subject.

In the Landscape Ecology (2nd semester,

compulsory) class, the relationship

between landscape and ecology

is taught; in the Spatial Behavior (4th

semester, compulsory) class, changes

in the human-environment (nature)

relationship in the historical process,

the Enlightenment Era, the effect of

modernism-positivism, and alternative

approaches (such as post-modernism

and romanticism) are taught. The

Sustainable Recreational Use Planning

(5th semester, elective) class includes

sustainability and the relationship between

conservation and use, the Greenways

(6th semester, elective) class

teaches the concept of a greenway, why

such a concept has emerged, and a



142

greenway’s functions, whereas the National

Park Management (7th semester,

elective) class describes protected area

management and planning.

There is no class on the concepts of

environmental ethics and the role of

landscape architects in the context of

environmental ethics, and the information

given is quite fragmented, unrelated,

and incomplete. This demonstrates

the reason why the students

had such a fragmented understanding

of environmental ethics in the context

of the design studio, their human-centered

understanding, and their lack of

theoretical knowledge. Furthermore,

a need is also revealed for innovative

approaches in design studios that teach

ways to reflect this knowledge in design

decisions. Hough (2002) declares

that the time has come for a shift in

the definition of design: from an academic

discipline that teaches students

to impose their ideologies on the rest

of society to the idea of the interdependence

of life processes. However, most

important is not teaching students

how to consider ecological knowledge

in the design process, providing students

awareness and responsibility in

terms of the environment and nature.

It’s especially important that they don’t

see humans as superior to nonhuman

beings in nature, that they don’t privilege

humans in environmental design,

and that they accept the intrinsic value

of nonhuman beings and processes in

nature prior to more deeply reflecting

ecological knowledge in landscape design.

As Paul et al. (2014, p.376) state,

“Arguably perhaps, green sells well. But

just by adding more green colors in an

urban development master plan may

not necessarily guarantee in achieving

a sustainable green outcome”.

Table 4. Nature grounded metaphors; students’ explanations

of conceptual approaches presented in Figure 5.

7. Conclusion

As a profession intervening in the

environment, shaping and modifying it

in order to create more affordable environments

that satisfy users’ needs and

enhance human experience, where do

we place nature in the spectrum of our

professional responsibilities? A caring

sensitivity and a change in awareness of

our responsibilities are preconditions

to create new ideas, which will result

in deeply responsive environmental


143

designs. Here, responsibility includes

ecological awareness and understanding

interconnectedness. “Green metaphors”

are results of such an awareness

and understanding. This study, which

aimed to understand ecological awareness

and interconnectedness through

green metaphors used by students,

revealed that student approaches are

shallow and need to be improved.

This situation may result from both

the lack of reflecting ecological knowledge

in the design process (since the

methods for this are not well defined

and this kind of knowledge is generally

accepted as limiting design creativity)

and lack of an environmental ethics

class in the curriculum. Classes on environmental

ethics are needed in the

landscape architecture curriculum to

provide a deep understanding of the

intrinsic value of nonhuman beings

and the place of humans as not superior

to other beings in nature, to make

students question themselves and their

professional practices, and to challenge

the privileged situation of humans in

landscape design practices. Furthermore,

the integration of these new

insights into design classes is needed,

and students must be encouraged to

question their approaches in terms

of reflecting their responsibilities. Introducing

design examples based on

green metaphors, discussing the design

process in light of the approach that

green metaphors guide design, and describing

the spatial features that come

about as a result of applying green

metaphors will help students to understand

how to structure metaphorical

relations between a design concept and

solution and encourage them to use

this in their design approaches. Design

studio practices and homework based

on metaphorical thinking, especially

that focused on green metaphors, will

promote the students’ design experiences.

Also, additional field practices

about ecological features / processes /

relations that include both the design

site of environmental design project

classes and specific ecological areas

will help to teach students how to include

ecological cycles and dynamics

in their design decisions and how to be

sensitive to them.

Acknowledgement

This paper is presented at International

U.A.B-B.EN.A Conference ‘Environmental

Engineering & Sustainable

Development’ and printed in abstract

book.

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Contributors

Duygu AKYOL

Received her B.LA in Landscape

Architecture from Ege University

Faculty of Agriculture and MSc. in

City and Regional Planning from

Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of

Architecture. She is currently a PhD

student and works as a Research

Assistant at Karadeniz Technical

University. Her major research interests

are urban planning and design,

landscape planning, environmental

management.

Paramita ATMODIWIRJO

Paramita Atmodiwirjo is a professor of

architecture at Universitas Indonesia.

She obtained her PhD and Master’s

degrees from the School of Architecture,

University of Sheffield. Her research

interest is on the relationship between

architecture, interior and well-being.

Beyza Nur BATI

Received her B. Arch in Interior

Architecture and Environmental

Design from Bilkent University,

Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture

(2015). Earned her MSc. degree in

Architecture from TOBB University

(2017). Currently studies as a PhD.

student at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts

University, Faculty of Architecture.

Olivier BOUET

Doctor of Physics, university Lecturer,

Co-Director of the EVCAU laboratory,

Head of the Master 2 Research course

“City, Architecture and Heritage”

Paris7/École d’Architecture de Paris

Val de Seine. My research involves

the acquisition of 2D and 3D data and

their processing in order to obtain

structured 3D models as an aid to

the diagnosis, analysis, restitution,

understanding and presentation of

heritage ensembles.

Gökçe EVREN

Gökçe Evren is graduated (2013)

from Industrial and Product Design

Department, METU and, she got her

masters degree (2003) in “Interior

Architectural Design” from ITU

IMIAD Program. She studied (2014)

at Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart,

University of Applied Sciences,

Department of Interior Architecture.

Yüksel DEMİR

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yüksel DEMIR Faculty

at ITU Department of Architecture,

Served as a guest professor in

Politecnico Di Milano, Anadolu

University, Auburn University. Founder

director of ITU MardINT R&D Center.

Working on Architectural Design, ICT

in Design, Art [theory & practice].

Coordinates Turkish Antarctic

Research Station Working Group.

S. Banu GARİP

S. Banu Garip got her B.Sc degree in

“Architecture” (2000), M.Sc degree

(2003) and PhD degree (2010) in

“Architectural Design” from Istanbul

Technical University. She studied at

NC State University College of Design,

USA (2009). Her studies focuse

on interior design, urban design,

exhibition design, environmental

psychology and housing studies.

Sinem GÜREVIN

Achieved Bachelor Degree of

Landscape Architecture from Yeditepe

University at 2004. Graduated

from Istanbul Technical University

with M.Sc. Degree in Landscape

Architecture at 2012. Still a student at

Istanbul Technical University for Ph.D.

Degree in Landscape Architecture.

Have been working as a landscape

architect for 15 years.

Sema MUMCU

Received her B.LA, MSc. and PhD.

in Landscape Architecture from

Karadeniz Technical University

Faculty of Forestry. Currently works

as an Assistant Professor at Karadeniz

Technical University. Her major

research interests are environmentbehavior

relationship, spatial behavior

in urban open spaces, landscape design

and design education.

Veniamin Aleksandrovcih NORIN

PhD Eng., Associated Professor of

the Department of Technology of

Building Materials and Metrology at

Saint-Petersburg State University of

Architecture and Civil Engineering.

Author of more than 100 research

papers and learning guides, 5

inventions. Research interests:

architectural education, engineering

education, 3D technologies, metrology.

Natalia Vladimirovna NORINA

PhD Eng., Associated Professor

of the Department of Mechanics



Author of more than 40 research papers

and learning guides, 2 inventions.

Research interests: architectural

education, engineering education.

Gulden Demet ORUÇ

Assist.Prof.Dr. Gulden Demet Oruç is

currently working at Istanbul Technical

University, Faculty of Architecture,

Urban and Regional Planning

Department. Her research topics mainly

focus on urban design and planning.

Mohammed Nabil OUISSI

Doctor of mechanical engineering, I am

currently a professor in the Department

of Architecture in Tlemcen, but also at

the National School of Engineers of the

City of Tlemcen. I am also a member

of the MECACOMP laboratory and

continue my research and publications

in this field.

Gökçen ÖZKAYA

Received her bachelor’s degree

in architecture from Middle East

Technical University, Faculty of

Architecture (2003) and M.Sc. degree

in architecture from Suleyman Demirel

University, Faculty of Architecture

and Engineering (2006). Earned her

PhD. degree from History and Theory

of Architecture Programme at Yıldız

Technical University in 2011. Major

research interests include history of

Ottoman architecture and Ottoman

houses.

Yury Vladimirovich PUKHARENKO

D.Sc. in Eng., Professor of the

Department of Technology of

Building Materials and Metrology at



Author of more than 200 research

papers and learning guides, 22

inventions. Research interests:

continuously reinforced (fibrous)

concrete study, engineering education.

Haniye RAZAVIVAND FARD

Dr. Haniye Razavivand Fard, a

Researcher, Lecturer, and Architect

with more than 10 years of crossfunctional

work experience in

international contexts of Italy, Turkey

and Iran. The holder of a Double-

Degree PhD in “Architectural Design”

Program at Istanbul Technical

University and in “Architecture.

History and Project” Program at

Politecnico di Torino. The current

researches focus on architectural

design, socio-spatial aspects of urban

design, sustainability, morphology and

university-city interaction.

Mehmet RONAEL

Mehmet Ronael graduated from

the Urban and Regional Planning

Department of Istanbul Technical

University in 2016, and he studied his

master in Urban Design Program. He

is currently doctorate student in Urban

and Regional Planning. His research

topics are generally creative economy,

quality of place, site selection models,

and gentrification.

Yasin Çağatay SEÇKİN

Achieved Bachelor Degree of

Architecture from Mimar Sinan

University at 1998. Graduated

from Istanbul Technical University

with M.Sc. Degree in History of

Architecture at 2000 and Ph.D. Degree

in Urban Design at 2005. Working

as a professor and administrator

at Istanbul Technical University.

Chihab SELKA

Chihab Selka, an architect by

training, teacher and doctor in

the Department of Architecture

in Tlemcen. Having worked in a

design office, I have acquired a lot of

experience in the field of construction

in general but also in heritage. As

a researcher, I am now pursuing

my career in the university field.

Imene SELKA OUSSADIT

Having worked in many heritage sites

in my hometown “Tlemcen”, I have

always been passionate about the

subject. Trained as an architect, I had my

magister in 2010 on caravanserais. I am

currently teaching in the Department

of Architecture in Tlemcen where I am

pursuing my doctorate on the theme of

baths.

Murat SÖNMEZ

Received his B. Arch in Architecture

from ESOGU, Faculty of Architecture

(1998). Earned his MSc. and PhD.

degree in Architecture from Gazi

University (2003-2011). Currently

working as an Associate Professor

at TOBB University. Major research

interests include design theories in

contemporary architecture: surface

architecture and construction theories

Marco TRISCIUOGLIO

Prof. Dr. Marco TRISCIUOGLIO,

architect, is the Director of the PhD

Program “Architecture. History and

Project” at Politecnico di Torino -

Department of Architecture and

Design, where he is Contact Person

for International Relationships with

Asia and Oceania. He is Member of the

Scientific Committee of the European

network EURAU and Guest Professor

at Southeast University Nanjing (School

of Architecture). The main topics of

his books and papers are architectural

theories, urban morphologies and

landscape and urban design.

Yandi Andri YATMO

Yandi Andri Yatmo is a professor of

architecture at Universitas Indonesia.

He obtained his PhD, Master’s and

Postgraduate Diploma from the

School of Architecture, University of

Sheffield. His research interest is on the

development of design theories and

methods and their relevance to design

practice.

Serap YILMAZ

Received her B.LA, MSc. and PhD.

in Landscape Architecture from

Karadeniz Technical University

Faculty of Forestry. Currently works

as an Associate Professor at Karadeniz

Technical University. Her major

research interests are perception of

urban green spaces, planting design,

zoo design, and landscape design.

Ferro YUDISTIRA

Ferro Yudistira is a PhD student at

the Department of Architecture,

Universitas Indonesia. He obtained his

undergraduate degree from Universitas

Sriwijaya, and Master of Architecture

from Universitas Indonesia. His

research interest is on the temporality

of architecture and its elements.

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