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84 Praxis – International farm would produce. 4 With the business of urban farming still in its infancy, it has yet to be determined whether these businesses are financially sustainable, the key to more widely adopting urban farming to serve a city’s residents. In the U.S., planning for the majority of smart city initiatives has taken place at the municipal level. Some federal or state support may be involved in the form of funding or participation by a particular agency, but in general, the catalysts and drivers of initiatives such as those in San Francisco and Austin are members of the municipality, commercial entities, and academic and research institutions based in the area. Those cities with resources readily available to them in the form of technology companies or technology-oriented academic institutions and a large budget for such projects will be more apt to develop and implement new technologies. This may be why certain cities are more likely to engage in making their cities more intelligent than others. In addition to previously named key stakeholders, independent, non-profit organizations, such as the New York-based Natural Resources Defense Council spearhead efforts to make improvements to the living environments of their citizens. Smart Cities in Europe In Europe, the approach to the development of smart cities has been distinctively different. The attempt to unify the smart city efforts of European countries has taken place through the European Commission. The European Commission Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET Plan) was designed to support the development and implementation of low carbon energy technologies. 5 The SET Plan embodies the European Initiative on Smart Cities established in 2010, which aims to secure a 40% decrease of greenhouse gas emissions through energy production and usage efficiencies. The Initiative calls for local governments to take the lead in identifying methods and techniques to achieve this goal by making changes to three particular areas of city life: buildings, energy networks (heating, cooling and electricity) and transport. The initiative currently encompasses seven different projects including the cloud-based European Platform for Intelligent Cities (EPIC), designed to serve as a robust platform for delivering e-government service applications in a scalable, flexible and accessible manner. A Holistic Smart City Approach: Amsterdam In 2009, Amsterdam launched an initiative called Amsterdam Smart City (ASC), a series of sixteen projects designed to improve the sustainability of the city’s infrastructure within the areas of working, living, mobility and public space. 6 One such project was the online monitoring of municipal buildings for energy consumption, which has put the Amsterdam municipality one step closer towards achieving its goal of being carbon neutral by 2015. In ten local government buildings, building managers monitored energy consumption several times a week with an online energy dashboard. This provided them with information about the low and peak times for consumption, enabling them to adjust lighting and ventilation systems to more efficiently address the variability in activity. These projects were deployed over the course of a two-year period and designed to test a wide variety of smart technologies and approaches with the eventual goal of identifying the most effective and efficient combinations of technologies and approaches that could be deployed on a larger scale. In Amsterdam, citizenry engagement is a priority. In another project which involved the installation of in-home energy feedback devices in Geuzenveld, a user participation program was developed to enable residents to openly discuss sustainability topics with each other and with project partners. What may be one of the most important aspects of ASC is the post-project evaluation that has been developed to measure the effectiveness of the projects independently and in comparison to one another. The Future of Cities Supporters of the concept of the smart city in the media, industry and government sectors have been quick to espouse the benefits of such efforts to the everyday life of citizens in cities around the world. But proponents of smart cities must consider the impact that such initiatives will have on its residents. There are two smart city models in existence today. The first model is embraced by existing cities which are being “retrofitted” with new technology to improve the coordination of their activities. The second model involves brand new cities, which are being built from scratch. These cities have complete network infrastructures fully integrated into their plans and look to the commercial sector to provide the enabling technology. Following a comprehensive public-private partnership model, cities like Songdo in South Korea are being fully ‘outfitted’ by software and hardware providers in an effort to interconnect the city’s systems and provide businesses and residents with a state-of-the art communications infrastructure. The size of the smart city information technology market is estimated to be $34 billion annually with a growth rate of over 18%. 7 The risk inherent in providing corporations with such a significant role in the development of a city’s infrastructure is that the smart city agenda may evolve to serve the bottom line of the commercial sector rather than benefit residents. In the U.S. and Europe, income disparity between socio-economic classes is large – not only between urban and rural areas, but also within and among cities. 8 One question that remains to be answered is whether the continued growth of cities will reinforce this gap or if there will be ways to mitigate this issue in the future. Technological advances which seek to make the lives of residents better may only initially be accessible to certain parts of the population due to cost constraints. By collaborating with residents and commercial partners, public administrations will ensure the development of an economically sound strategy that meets the needs of their citizens. It is often the residents on the ground who are the first to identify problems. Residents can prove to be a rich source of information in discussions about how these issues might be solved. City residents should rest assured that the dystopian images of urban life portrayed on the big screen will not become reality, as long as they can remain an active part of making their cities smarter. 1 United Nations, World Population to 2300. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2004. 2 E.G. Ravenstein, The Laws of Migration. J. of the Statistical Society of London, 48(2), 1885. 3 J. Kotkin, Dense Urban Thinking Down Under. http:// www.forbes.com (October 18, 2011). 4 New York Times (May 19, 2011). Cash crops under glass and up on the roof. 5 European Initiative on Smart Cities. http://setis. ec.europa.eu. 6 Amsterdam Smart City. http://www.amsterdamsmartcity.nl. 7 Pike Research (2011). Smart Cities. http://www. pikeresearch.com. 8 Next American City (September 15, 2010). How Income Inequality Helps Explain Contemporary Urban America. http://americancity.org. «31 Präsenz» 1/12
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