Durian from Thailand Datasheets - Biosecurity New Zealand

Importation into New Zealand of 

Durian (Durio zibethinus) Fresh Fruit 

From 

Thailand 

Datasheets 

Datasheets have been prepared to provide technical information and reference 

sources for the risk assessment of the regulated organisms on the Thailand 

durian fresh fruit pest list, and are intended for New Zealand MAF (Ministry of 

Agriculture and Forestry) Biosecurity purposes. 

Datasheets should be read in conjunction with and in support of the associated 

Pest Risk Assessment Spreadsheet. 

Biosecurity New Zealand 1 August 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Aspidiotus destructor ...................................................................................................... 3 

Coccus sp. ....................................................................................................................... 8 

Conogethes punctiferalis............................................................................................... 10 

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta ............................................................................................ 15 

Eublemma versicolor .................................................................................................... 19 

Hemicentrus attenuatus................................................................................................. 21 

Icerya spp...................................................................................................................... 23 

Mudaria luteileprosa ..................................................................................................... 26 

Mudaria magniplaga ..................................................................................................... 28 

Nodostoma spp.............................................................................................................. 30 

Oecophylla smaragdina................................................................................................. 32 

Orgyia postica ............................................................................................................... 35 

Planococcus citri ........................................................................................................... 38 

Planococcus lilacinus.................................................................................................... 43 

Planococcus minor........................................................................................................ 46 

Pseudococcus sp............................................................................................................ 50 

Remelana jangala ravata ............................................................................................... 53 

Saissetia sp.................................................................................................................... 55 

Thrips hawaiiensis ........................................................................................................ 57 

Tirathaba ruptilinea....................................................................................................... 61 

Achatina fulica.............................................................................................................. 63 

Eutetranychus africanus................................................................................................ 68 

Cochliobolus eragrostidis.............................................................................................. 71 

Meliola durionis............................................................................................................ 75 

Phomopsis sp. ............................................................................................................... 77 

Phytophthora palmivora................................................................................................ 79 


MAF Plants 

Biosecurity 

Prepared by FV 

on 2004 Dec 02 

Formatted by JT 

on 8-May-2006 

This data sheet has been prepared to provide technical information and reference 

sources for the risk assessment of the named organism for MAF (Ministry of 

Agriculture and Forestry) Biosecurity purposes. Risk assessments are conducted for 

organisms associated with plants and plant products imported into New Zealand. 

Aspidiotus destructor 

IDENTITY 

Name: Aspidiotus destructor Signoret 1869 

Synonyms: Temnaspidiotus destructor 

Organism type: insect 

Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Diaspididae 

Common names: coconut scale, transparent scale 

SUMMARY 

This organism is a pest of plants of interest to MAF Plants Biosecurity. 

A. destructor is a polyphagous pest that prefers a climatic range that is limited to the 

tropics and subtropics. Although the major hosts (coconut, mango and banana) are 

not grown commercially in New Zealand (except for the fledgling banana industry), 

A. destructor could impact on commercial crops such as kiwifruit, avocado and 

citrus as well as have some environmental consequences in the north of the North 

Island. 

Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, fruit, growing points, branches (CPCI 2005); stems and 

rhizomes, if exposed to soil surfaces (Stout 1982); leaf, stem (Thailand ginger 

October 2004). 

New Zealand status: 

Regulated 

Coconut, mango, African oil palm and banana are major hosts worldwide and it is a 

major pest of all these. Kiwifruit is potentially an important host in New Zealand. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

A. destructor is a highly polyphagous species. It has been recorded from hosts 

belonging to 75 genera in 44 plant families, but its host range is probably wider than 

this. Its hosts are typically perennial species and include many species of fruit trees, 

such as avocado, breadfruit, mango, guava and papaya. Coconut is its favourite host; 

the undersurface of the leaves is mainly attacked, but frond stalks, flower clusters 

and young fruit can also be affected. Older trees (over 4 years) or trees on welldrained 

soil are seldom seriously infested (CPCI 2005). 

Hosts: Major hosts: Cocos nucifera (coconut), Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm), 

Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana) (CPCI 2005) 

Minor hosts: Aleurites, Allamanda, Alpinia, Annona, Annona muricata (soursop), 

Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Carica papaya (papaw), Cassia (sennas), Ceiba 


pentandra (kapok), Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon), Colocasia esculenta (taro), 

Dioscorea (yam), Eucalyptus deglupta (kamarere), Eugenia, Euphorbia (spurges), 

Ficus, Ficus carica (fig), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Hibiscus (rosemallows), 

Jasminum (jasmine), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Pandanus, Passiflora, Phoenix 

dactylifera (date-palm), Physalis (groundcherry), Piper (pepper), Piper nigrum (black 

pepper), Plumeria (frangipani), Raphanus (radish), Rhizophora, Saccharum 

officinarum (sugarcane), Spondias purpurea, Syzygium aromaticum (clove), 

Tamarindus indica (Indian tamarind), Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Xanthosoma 

sagittifolium (yautia (yellow)), Zingiber officinale (ginger) (CPCI 2005) 

Solanum melongena (eggplant) (Fiji Eggplant Pest List Dec 1996); mangosteen 

(AFFA - mangosteen from Australia March 2002); Durio zibethinus (durian) 

(Thailand Durian July 2003); Actinidia (Zhou et al. 1993) 

Significant hosts in New Zealand 

Minor hosts: Capsicum annuum (capsicum), Solanum tuberosum (potato), Cucurbita 

maxima (squash) (CAB Abstracts); Brassica, Camellia, Camellia sinensis (tea), 

Capsicum (peppers), Citrus, Cucumis (melons, cucumbers, gherkins), 

Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Persea americana (avocado), Prunus persica 

(peach), Psidium guajava (guava), Solanum (nightshade), Vigna unguiculata 

(cowpea), Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (CPCI 2005); Actinidia (Zhou et al. 1993). 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 

A. destructor apparently originated in the Pacific islands but is now recorded in tropical 

and subtropical regions worldwide. It is present in nearly all countries where 

coconuts are grown. In the northern parts of its range, it is found only under glass. It 

has been recorded under glass at a few botanic gardens in the UK (CPCI 2005). 

Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Bonin Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, 

Ponape Island, Truk Islands, Yap, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaiian Islands, New 

Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Western Samoa 

(ScaleNet 2005), Tonga (BNI March 1999 online 27/6/2005),. 

Asia: Philippines, Taiwan (CPCI 2004), Thailand (CPCI 2005). 

Africa: Egypt (CPCI 2004), Ivory Coast, Sao Tome, Surinam, Mozambique (CAB 

Abstracts). 

North America: USA (CPCI 2004). 

Central America and Caribbean: Puerto Rico (CAB Abstracts). 

South America: Guyana (CAB Abstracts). 

Europe: Madeira, Canary Islands (CPCI 2004). 

Distribution: climatic range, parts of NZ in range Recorded in tropical and 

subtropical regions worldwide (CPCI 2006). New Zealand has a temperate climate. 

New Zealand: Not recorded as present. 

Sources that do not record presence: PPIN 27 Apr 2005; ESNZ 1977; Spiller & 

Wise 1982; Scott & Emberson 1999; MAF Country Freedom Report (Aspidiotus 

destructor) 2000 [Absent from NZ; partial]; Charles & Henderson 2002. 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: A. destructor reproduces sexually. Males locate unmated females by 

following pheromones released by them. The life cycle of A. destructor typically 


lasts for 32-34 days. In one study the life cycle was found to be 32 days for females 

and 27 days for males (CPCI 2005). 

Each female deposits 20-50 eggs under her scale cover over a few days. In China on 

Actinidia, the average number of eggs laid by one female was 32-42. At room 

temperature (26-28°C), the egg stage lasted for 5 days, the larval stage lasted 17 

days, the pre-oviposition stage in adult females lasted 25 days, the female generation 

lasted 44 days and the male generation lasted 38 days. In the Philippines, on 

coconut, the egg stage lasted for 8 days in both sexes. After hatching, the nymphs 

crawl under the scale edge out into the open and colonize the undersides of leaves 

and tender shoots. They drop off the leaves easily, so mortality is high during heavy 

rain (CPCI 2005). 

In China, A. destructor produced three generations annually, with the fertilized 

females overwintering on the stems of Actinidia trees. In Japan on tea plants, A. 

destructor had only one generation per year. However, in tropical conditions in 

Trinidad reproduction is continuous (CPCI 2005). 

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 

Symptoms: A. destructor develops scales on leaves, and yellow spots develop where 

the larvae and adults settle. Entire leaves may turn yellow to brown and fall. The 

bright yellow colour of affected coconut palms is clearly visible from a great 

distance. In extreme cases, the leaves dry out, entire fronds drop off and the crown 

dies (CPCI 2004). 

MEANS OF MOVEMENT AND DISPERSAL 

The dispersal phase of A. destructor is the first instar, or crawler. Crawlers can walk up 

to perhaps 1 m, but can be distributed across much greater distances by wind, flying 

insects and birds and transport of infested plant material by man (CPCI 2005). 

PEST SIGNIFICANCE 

A. destructor is potentially the most destructive pest species on coconut, wherever it 

occurs in the world. Neglected coconut plantations are particularly susceptible to 

damage by A. destructor. A. destructor is also an important economic pest of mango 

in Asia, Africa, the Philippines, India and Brazil; and of banana in Asia, the Pacific 

Islands, West Indies, Africa, Madagascar and South America. It attacks the leaves 

and fruits of oil palms, reducing the quality of the fruits. The species is also a pest of 

bananas worldwide. However, natural controls appear to keep A. destructor in check 

in most regions, and few major outbreaks have been recorded in recent years (CPCI 

2005). 

Before the introduction of successful biological control in 1955, copra production in 

Principe (Western Africa) fell from 1400 to 500 tons per year owing to an invasion 

of A. destructor. After a heavy attack by A. destructor on coconuts in Côte d'Ivoire 

(Africa), yield was reduced by at least 25% over the next 2-3 years, although some 

heavily infested trees were able to catch up production in the 2 years after 

elimination of the infestation. 

A. destructor is a cosmetic pest on a wide range of fruits, causing blemishes and 

other marks that reduce quality. On mango, A. destructor prefers grafted varieties; its 


economic impact is caused by feeding on tender shoots in nursery plants and because 

it adversely affects fruit setting in older plants. On oil palm, A. destructor is found 

feeding on leaves and fruit. It occasionally causes severe damage to guava in India 

(CPCI 2005). 

>It is more of a problem on younger coconut trees - older trees (over 4 years) or 

trees on well-drained soil are seldom seriously infested (CPCI 2006). 

International agreements: International Plant Protection Convention 

Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on the current distribution of A. destructor, 

it is assumed that this pest prefers a warm climate. Therefore, this scale is likely to 

be able to establish in warmer regions of New Zealand wherever host plants are 

present. Its major hosts are not widely grown in New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: This scale could have some consequences for the 

kiwifruit, citrus and avocado industries in NZ. The climate in peach-growing areas is 

likely to limit the effect of the pest on this crop. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: This scale is likely to cause problems for some 

export crops e.g. kiwifruit, citrus. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: This pest is likely to have some effect in 

the warmer regions because of the wide host range. Native Solanum and Euphorbia 

species, genera known to be a host to A. destructor, would be at risk. Native plants 

include the threatened species Euphorbia glauca. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: Medium, because although 

scale insects are external they can be small and inconspicuous: ginger, squash, 

breadfruit, papaya, banana, mango, citrus, eggplant. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: mangosteen (High, mangosteen have large sepals which could 

easily obscure scale insects); durian (high, due to the rough surface of the fruit). 

Nursery stock: All stages found on leaves; crawlers also on stems. Nursery stock: 

Avocado. 

Intercepted at the New Zealand border numerous times on bananas, coconut and 

Chrysalidocarpus (class: fresh produce) from Ecuador, Panama, Phillipines, Samoa 

and Singapore 2000-2002 (QuanCargo 12 May 2005). 

INFORMATION SOURCES CHECKED and OTHER REFERENCES 

AFFA (March 2002) Technical access submission for Australian mangosteen (Garcinia 

mangostana) to New Zealand. Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Forestry. 

Application for Market Access of Durian from Thailand to the New Zealand. 

Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand July 

2003 64pp 

Biocontrol and information (March 1999) Volume 20 (1) Pest CAB web Online 

http://pest.cabweb.org/Journals/BNI/Bni20-1/gennews.htm 

Charles, J G; Henderson, R C (2002) Catalogue of the exotic armoured scale insects 

(Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Diaspididae) in New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of 

New Zealand 32: 4, 587-615. 

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux Abstracts Database. Search date indicated. 

Crop Protection Compendium on Internet, accessed in 2005. Wallingford, UK: CAB 

INTERNATIONAL 


Data sheet, Korean citrus insect pests, National Plant Quarantine Service, March 2000 

Dugdale JS (1988) Lepidoptera (Insecta: Lepidoptera). Fauna of New Zealand No. 14. 

262 pp. 

Landcare Research New Zealand Limited databases. Available at: 

http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/databases/index.asp (date of search indicated). 

MAF Quancargo database. MAF Interceptions, interception dates specified 

PPIN: Plant Pest Information Network, MAF database. (date of search indicated) 

ScaleNet database. Available at: http://198.77.169.79/scalenet/scalenet.htm. Accessed in 

2005. 

Scott RR; Emberson RM (1999) Handbook of New Zealand Insect Names. Common and 

Scientific Names for Insects and Allied Organisms. 1999 Bulletin of the Entomological 

Society of New Zealand 

Smith, I M; McNamara, D G; Scott, P R; Holderness, M (1997) Quarantine Pests for 

Europe (2nd Edition). CABI and EPPO; France. 

Spiller, D M; Wise, K A J (1982) A catalogue (1860 - 1960) of New Zealand insects and 

their host plants. DSIR; Wellington; 260 pp. 

Standard names for common insects of New Zealand. (1977) Bulletin 4. The 

Entomological Society of New Zealand. 42pp. 

Stout, OO (1982) Plant quarantine guidelines for movement of selected commodities in 

the Pacific. UNDP/FAO - SPEC survey of agricultural pests and diseases in the South 

Pacific. Agricultural Bureaux; Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. 656pp. 

Thailand ginger (October 2004) Pest list of ginger in Thailand. Thailand Department of 

Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 


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Coccus sp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Coccus sp. 


Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Coccidae 

Common names: soft scale 

SUMMARY 


The quarantine status of Coccus species depends on the species in question. Coccus 

hesperidum, C. longulus are present in New Zealand (Scott & Emberson 1999; 

Spiller & Wise 1982) and are Non-Regulated. 

Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, stems, fruits (CPCI 2005). 


Undetermined Quarantine Status 

Unknown, impact will depend on the individual species. 

HOSTS 

Coccus species may have a large and diverse host range (CPCI 2005). Various species 

are known to attack citrus e.g. Coccus hesperidum (ScaleNet 2006) and Camellia 

sinensis (tea), Coffea (coffee), Mangifera indica (mango) e.g. Coccus viridis (CPCI 

2006). 

Hosts: Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003) - Coccus species known to occur in 

Thailand include Coccus hesperidum hesperidum, C. longulus and C. viridis 

(ScaleNet 2006). 

New Zealand: 

Sources that record presence: Scott & Emberson 1999 (2 species listed), Spiller & 

Wise 1982 (3 species listed); PPIN (several species listed) (23/8/2005). 


Scales in the genus Coccus range from minor pests to being serious plant pests. 



Potential for establishment in NZ: New Zealand has a broad range of climates. This, 

combined with the usually polyphagous nature of scales, would allow many Coccus 

species to establish here. 

Potential impact within NZ: Scales can be a significant pests. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Unknown, depends on species. However, 

scale insects can reduce yields and quality of produce. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The polyphagous nature of scales is of 

concern. 

Control measures: Controls for export from NZ: Coccus viridis USA, EU 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: Medium because although 

the scales are on the fruit surface they may be small, inconspicuous, and difficult to 

detect. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian (high, due to the rough surface of the fruit) 



INTERNATIONAL 










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Conogethes punctiferalis 

IDENTITY 

Name: Conogethes punctiferalis Guenée 

Synonyms: Astura punctiferalis, Dichocrocis punctiferalis 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae 

Common names: yellow peach moth, Queensland bollworm, pyralid moth, shoot 

borer, smaller maize borer, maize moth 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, growing points, leaves and stems (CPCI 2005); shoot and 

root boring (Waterhouse 1993); flowers (Thailand longan October 2004; Waterhouse 

1993). 


Regulated 

Potential high impact organism. 

A polyphagous species that has the potential to become an important pest in New 

Zealand. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

C. punctiferalis is a polyphagous insect that has a wide host range. Its primary hosts are 

peaches, sorghum, sunflowers and masson pine. In China, C. punctiferalis mainly 

feeds on fruits and maize (CPCI 2005). It is known to feed on over 20 fruit and 

Pinaceae plants (Korean Citrus Insect Pests March 2000). 

Hosts: Major hosts: Averrhoa carambola (carambola), Carica papaya (papaw), 

Gossypium (cotton), Morus alba (mora), Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan), Psidium 

guajava (guava), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) (CPCI 2005) 

Minor hosts: Castanea mollissima (hairy chestnut), Citrus nobilis (tangor), 

Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese cedar), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Diospyros 

(malabar ebony), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom), Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), 

Ficus carica (fig), Gossypium herbaceum (short staple cotton), Piper nigrum (black 

pepper), Prunus japonica (Japanese bush cherry tree), Punica granatum 

(pomegranate), Ricinus communis (castor bean), Zingiber officinale (ginger) (CPCI 

2005) 

Mangifera indica (mango) (AFFA Australia Mangoes 2002); Dimocarpus longan 


(Huang et al. 2000); Litchi chinensis (Storey & Rogers 1980); Pyrus bretschneideri 

(AQIS Ya Pear Review 2003); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 

2003) 


Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Macadamia ternifolia (Queensland nut), Malus 

domestica (apple), Pinus (masson pine), Prunus persica (peach), Vitis vinifera 

(grapevine), Zea mays (maize) (CPCI 2005). 


Widespread in Asia and the western Pacific (Korean Citrus Insect Pests March 2000). 

Oceania: Australia, Papua New Guinea (CPCI 2005), 

Asia: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, 

Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, 

Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 2005),. 


Sources that do not record presence: PPIN 23/8/2005; ESNZ 1977; Spiller & 

Wise 1982; Scott & Emberson 1999; Dugdale 1988; MAF Country Freedom 

Report (Conogethes punctiferalis) 2001 [Absent from NZ; full]; Charles 1998; 

Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Most C. punctiferalis adults emerge at night, particularly between 20.00 

and 22.00 h. They are active until about 0.500 h, when they hide and remain still on 

the back of host leaves during the day. The longevity of C. punctiferalis adults varies 

between different generations with the longest-lived recorded in the first generation 

with an average lifespan of 10.4 days for the female and 6.1 days for the male in 

China. Both female and male adult C. punctiferalis feed on the nectar of the host and 

surrounding plants. The ratio of females to males is generally more than 1:1. 

Females release sex pheromones to attract males and mate a day after emerging. 

Two to three days after mating, females start to lay eggs on the surface of fruits, 

maize ear silk and tassels. Each female lays 20-30 eggs. Eggs hatch in the early 

morning, 5-8 days after oviposition. The hatching rate may reach 100%. Newly 

hatched larvae crawl rapidly on the fruit surface and bore into the fruit within several 

hours. On maize, first-instar larvae feed on pollen and ear silk and bore into the stem 

and ear. The duration of the larval stage is about 15-18 days (CPCI 2005). 

C. punctiferalis overwinters as mature (fifth-instar) larvae in host stems or fruit or 

under the bark of fruit trees. They form cocoons and pupate during the following 

June and show about 10% lower mortality in winter. In southern China, C. 

punctiferalis was found to have five generations per year (CPCI 2005). 


Symptoms: C. punctiferalis larvae bore into corn ears to feed on seeds. An early 

symptom of C. punctiferalis attacks on the whorls of maize and sorghum seedlings is 

the appearance of a pattern of small, irregularly spaced holes, which are different 

from the orderly raw holes in whorls attacked by Ostrinia furnacalis. Larvae newly 

hatched from eggs laid in corn tassels feed on the pollen in the flowers, resulting in a 


decreased number of flowers and the postponement of flowering. In the later stages 

of an attack, larvae bore in the growing points and kill them, producing characteristic 

dead hearts (CPCI 2005). 

Yellow peach moth is also known to attack ginger roots (Waterhouse 1993). There is 

reference to the larvae boring into tumeric rhizomes (ikisan online 17/10/2005) and 

ginger rhizomes (CAB Abstract 19270501362). However, there is very little 

documentation of this insect attacking rhizomes and further study is required to 

confirm this association. 


Adult flight 


C. punctiferalis is one of the most important insect pests on peaches in southern China 

and an important pest on apples in northern China, and infestations result in the 

stunting, scorching and falling of fruit. C. punctiferalis excretions, which cover the 

fruit surface and have a high sugar content, attract other insect pests and diseases 

which damage fruit. In maize and sorghum, pollination is reduced because of 

damage done to the plant by C. punctiferalis feeding on tassels and maize ear silk. 

Stems bored by C. punctiferalis are easily broken, resulting in a decrease in yield. It 

has been estimated that over 5% maize loss was caused by C. punctiferalis and 

Ostrinia furnacalis in Zhejiang, China (CPCI 2005). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Its distribution in China suggests that C. 

punctiferalis could establish in some regions of New Zealand where host plants are 

grown. Overwintering as cocoons allows the pest to survive in the cooler areas. 

Potential impact within NZ: Is likely to have some effect on the pip and stonefruit 

industries, maize, grapes and sunflowers due to reduction in yield. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Likely to result in a yield reduction to the 

major crop hosts e.g. sunflower, Vitis vinifera (grapes) and Zea mays (maize). 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Although the host range is relatively 

wide, the major hosts appear to be fruit crops. 

Control measures: Cultural Control: Some cultural methods may reduce borer 

damage efficiently. Clearing previously damaged orchards and fields of debris, 

scraping off the fruit tree bark in which C. punctiferalis larvae overwinter, and 

burning crop stems after harvest are methods which may reduce the overwintering C. 

punctiferalis population. Care in the transportation of possible host planting material 

and fruit between countries and continents may help to limit further spread. 

Physical Control: Setting light traps (some fumigant on a piece of cotton placed 

under a 60 W black light) and sugar-vinegar traps (containing a mixture of sugar, 

vinegar water and insecticide) in orchards and fields may assist in the control of C. 

punctiferalis adults. 

Pheromonal Control: Sex pheromones which attract C. punctiferalis males have been 

applied as a control. In Korea the best attraction of males to various synthetic sex 


pheromone blends was obtained at the 7:3 ratio of E10-hexadecenal and Z10hexadecenal 

and at the 80:20 ratio for the flying upwind response. In field trials in 

Karnataka, India, in cardamon plantations male moths the best ratio of these 

compounds was 9:1 

Chemical Control: C. punctiferalis is not easily controlled with the application of 

insecticides in orchards when the borers have already bored into fruits. Application 

of insecticides may increase the risk of environmental pollution and other side 

effects unless treatments are applied before eggs hatch. Studies in Shaanxi, China, 

showed that fumigation using aluminium phosphide killed 94.4% of C. punctiferalis 

bored into chestnuts and showed no residual toxicity. On Fortunella trees in China, 

spraying with fenitrothion, omethoate or dichlorvos at fruit colouring, after summer 

pruning and 3 weeks before flowering gave adequate pest control. Of tested 

biopesticides spraying Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (five sprays at 21-day 

intervals during July-October) was the most effective treatment resulting in a 

significantly lower percentage of infested shoots on the crop. In maize and sorghum 

fields, insecticides may be applied during the whorl stage (CPCI 2006). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: High because the larvae 

bore into fruit and seed: mango, apple, peach, durian, longan, lychee. 

Fresh ginger rhizomes: Low, because there is little evidence to support the 

association with ginger rhizomes 

Seeds for sowing: larvae damage seed 

Intercepted at the New Zealand border on capsicum fruit from Australia in 2004. 


AQIS (1997) Summary paper of Pest Risk Analysis of the importation of Ya pear fruit 

from the People's Republic of China into Australia. Australian Quarantine and 

Inspection Service. 25pp. 

Charles, J G (1998) The settlement of fruit crop arthropod pests and their natural enemies 

in New Zealand: an historical guide to the future. Biocontrol News and Information 19 

(2): 47-57. 


INTERNATIONAL 


INTERNATIONAL 



262 pp. 

Huang M, Koh CY, Koh CYDJ, Weng LJ, Chang ML, Yap YK, Zhang L and Wong SM, 

2000. Complete nucleotide sequence and genome organization of Hibiscus chlorotic 

ringspot virus, a new member of the genus Carmovirus: evidence for the presence and 

expression of two novel open reading frames. Journal of Virology 74 (7): 3149-3155. 














Storey RI; Rogers DJ (1980) Lepidopterous pests of the litchi in North Queensland. 

Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences. 37: 207-212. 

Thailand longan (October 2004) Pest list of longan in Thailand. Thailand Department of 


Waterhouse DF (1993) The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast 

Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. 141pp 

Zhang, Bin-Cheng (1994) Index of economically important Lepidoptera. CAB 

International; Wallingford; 599 pp. 


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Cryptophlebia ombrodelta 

IDENTITY 

Name: Cryptophlebia ombrodelta Lower 

Synonyms: Arctiophora ombrodelta, Arotrophora ombrodelta, Cryptophlebia 

carpophaga 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Tortricidae 

Common names: macadamia nut borer, litchi fruit moth 

SUMMARY 


A seed and pod feeding pest. Detection can be difficult as it enters the seed via the 

micropyle, leaving the seed coat intact. 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, seed (Waite 2004 online); fruit (Thailand Durian July 

2003; Rogers & Blair 1983, Lingappa & Siddappaji 1981). 


Regulated 

Polyphagous, attacks several crops grown commercially in New Zealand 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Hosts are mainly in the Fabaceae family, but also include many other nut and seedpod 

plants. It has been recorded on 33 food crops in Australia and elsewhere (Ironside 

1974). 

Hosts: Averrhoa carambola (carambola), Bauhinia, Cassia (sennas), Lablab purpureus 

(hyacinth bean), Litchi chinensis (lychee), Macadamia integrifolia (macadamia), 

Parkia, Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean), Tamarindus indica (Indian tamarind), Vigna 

unguiculata (cowpea) (CPCI 2005); Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan) (McQuate et 

al. 2000); Dimocarpus longan (Waite 2004 online); Cassia (Zhang 1994); Durio 

zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Acacia, Macadamia (Zhang 1994); Glycine max (soyabean), Phaseolus vulgaris 

(common bean) (CPCI 2005); Persea americana (avocado) (Ho 1985); Vigna 

unguiculata (cow pea) (Chang & Chen 1989). 



Oceania: Australia, Northern Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, 

Vanuatu (CPCI 2005),. 

Asia: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, 

Phillipines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 2005),. 

North America: USA (Hill 1975), 


Sources that do not record presence: PPIN 23/8/2005; Scott & Emberson 1999; 

Spiller & Wise 1982; Charles 1998. 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: The creamy white eggs of these species are oval and flat with a reticulate 

surface, and are about 1.0 x 0.8 mm. They are laid singly or in groups of up to 15 on 

the fruit surface. The newly hatched larva feeds on the fruit skin and then tunnels 

towards the seed. In immature fruit, the young larva bores directly into the seed, 

which is completely eaten. A single larva may damage two or three fruit, if the fruit 

are small. However, they prefer mature, colouring fruit with larger seeds (Menzel 

2002 5/11/04). 


Adult flight; movement of infested fruit. 


Cryptophlebia ombrodelta, an important pest of macadamia in Queensland, is difficult 

to control with insecticidal sprays, and losses of more than 60% of the crop can 

occur as a result of the larvae tunnelling into the nuts (Ironside 1982). It is one of the 

two most important pests of macadamia in China (Zhan 1998) and can devastate 

crops in Australia. Larvae develop mainly in green lychee fruit with significant seed 

development but before there is a large amount of flesh (AFFA - lychee from 

Australia March 2002). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Potential and known hosts are grown widely in 

the warmer regions of New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: Is likely to have a major effect on the macadamia 

industry, as well on the production of legume fruit and seed crops. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Export yields of legume seeds are likely to be 

reduced. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Members of Fabaceae, e.g. Sophora spp. 

(kowhai), Clianthus sp. (kaka beak), are potential hosts of this pest. 

Control measures: In South Africa, the insect growth regulator triflumuron as a 

single, full cover spray 40 days before harvest, or two sprays of teflubenzuron a 

fortnight apart commencing when lychee fruit are 10 mm in diameter, are 

recommended. Alternatively, the panicles can be covered with paper bags. The bags 

also improve fruit colour and overall quality. In Queensland, carbaryl and azinphosmethyl 

have been used with varying success. Several sprays commencing at fruit 

colouring are applied on a calendar basis, with monitoring for the presence of eggs 

less common. Newer insecticides including the insect growth regulator, 


tebufenozide, provide better control, with less disruption to natural enemies (Menzel 

2002 5/11/04). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: High because larvae bore 

into fruit. Longan, lychee, durian: high 


AFFA (March 2002) Technical Market Access Submission for Australian Lychee (Litchi 

chinensis) to New Zealand. Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Forestry. 

Application for Market Access of Durian From Thailand to the New Zealand. 


2003 64pp 

Chang, TC; Chen, CC (1989) Observation of three lepidopterous pests attacking 

leguminous vegetables in Taiwan. Bulletin of Taichung District Agricultural 

Improvement Station. (24): 21-29 

Charles, J G (1998) The settlement of fruit crop arthropod pests and their natural enemies 

in New Zealand: an historical guide to the future. Biocontrol News and Information 19 

(2): 47-57. 



INTERNATIONAL 

CSIRO (1991) The Insects of Australia. (2nd Edition) Melbourne University Press, 

Australia. 

Geoff Waite (2004) Macadamia nutborer in lychees. updated 04 February 2004 

Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland Government 

http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5442.html 

Hill D (1975) Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and their Control. Cambridge 

University Press; Cambridge, UK 

Ironside, DA (1974) Biology of macadamia nut borer (Cryptophlebia ombrodelta 

(Lower)). Entomology Branch, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, 

Nambour, Australia. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences. 31(3): 

201-212 

Ironside, DA (1982) Macadamia nutborer and the new macadamia orchard. Queensland 

Agricultural Journal. 108(5): 263-265 

Lingappa S; Siddappaji C (1981) Note on the biology of tamarind fruit-borer, 

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta (Lower) (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae). Indian Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences 51(6): 467-470 

McQuate, GT; Follett, PA; Yoshimoto, JM (2000) Field infestation of rambutan fruits by 

internal-feeding pests in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology. 93(3): 846-851 

Menzel, Christopher (2002) The lychee crop in Asia and the Pacific. Food and 

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Regional Office for Asia and the 

Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand, June 2002 

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC681E/ac681e 

09.htm 



Preliminary report on the carambola fruit borers and their control. AU: Ho,-K-Y SO: 

Plant-Protection-Bulletin,-Taiwan. 1985; 27(1): 53-62 CAB AN: 19850527511 

Rogers DJ; Blair AD (1983) Assessment of insect damage to litchi fruit in northern 

Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences 38(2): 191-194 






Zhan-RuLin (1998) The main diseases and pests of macadamia in China and in the world 

and its control. South-China-Fruits. 1998; 27(5): 23-28 




MAF Plants 


Prepared by JT 

on 2005 Jan 19 

Formatted by 

JB on 31-Jul- 

2007 





Eublemma versicolor 

IDENTITY 

Name: Eublemma versicolor Walker 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae 

Common names: noctuid moth, flower caterpillar 

SUMMARY 

This organism is a pest of plants 

Almost no information is available on this insect. 

Plant Parts Affected: Flowers, fruit (Storey & Rogers 1980; Thailand longan October 

2004); flowers (Waterhouse 1993). 


Regulated 

This moth is unlikely to establish in New Zealand as few of its known host species 

are present and there are very few host plants. There is a very low likelihood of a 

significant impact should it establish. 

HOSTS 

Monophagous. 

Hosts: Litchi chinensis (Storey & Rogers 1980); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand 

Durian July 2003) 


Asia: Thailand (AFFA - longan & lychee February 2004),. 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982; Scott & 

Emberson 1999; PPIN 21 Dec 2004; Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 


Adult flight 



Potential for establishment in NZ: E. versicolor is currently only recorded in 

Thailand, and only on durian and lychee. These plants are not grown commercially 


in New Zealand. Therefore there is a very low likelihood that this moth could 

establish in New Zealand as there are very few host plants present and the climate is 

less suitable as it is cooler. 

Potential impact within NZ: The economic significance would be low if it established 

in New Zealand as there are few host plants present. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Very low, lychee and durian are not 

commercially produced in New Zealand. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: It has only been recorded on Litchi 

chinensis and Durio zibethinus (durian), so the environmental consequences are 

likely to be low. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: lychee, durian. Low, 

Noctuid moths tend to be large, not internal feeders and easily detectable. 


AFFA (February 2004) Longan and lychee fruit from the People's Republic of China and 

Thailand: Final Import Risk Analysis Report. Australian Government, Department of 

Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. 


Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Coopertives, Thailand July 

2003 64pp 











Storey RI; Rogers DJ (1980) Lepidopterous pests of the litchi in North Queensland. 

Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences. 37: 207-212. 

Thailand longan (October 2004) Pest list of longan in Thailand. Thailand Department of 


Waterhouse DF (1993) The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast 

Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. 141pp. 


MAF Plants 



on 2005 Aug 24 

Formatted by 

JB on 31-Jul- 

2007 





Hemicentrus attenuatus 

IDENTITY 

Name: Hemicentrus attenuatus 


Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Membracidae 

Common names: horned treehopper 

SUMMARY 


There is very little information available on this genus. 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit (Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Regulated 

Hemicentrus attenuatus has a low likelihood of establishment in New Zealand due to 

the limited number of known hosts and it would have a low impact should it 

establish. 

HOSTS 

Monophagous. 



Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003),. 


Sources that do not record presence: Spiller & Wise 1982; Scott & Emberson 

1999; PPIN (23/8/2005); Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 


Morphology: The life cycle of Membracids usually consists of one or more 

generations per year. Eggs are laid individually or in groups, and are either placed in 

slits cut into the living tissue of the plant, or deposited on the surface. Oviposition in 

to the tissue of the plant can cause the tip of the twig, beyond the eggs, to die. In 

temperate areas, most species overwinter as eggs, emerging at the same time as the 

buds of the host plant. Nymphs pass through 5 instars before reaching adulthood. 

Courtship calls are used to locate mates, but are only audible to humans with 


amplification equipment. Eggs are usually laid soon after mating, but in some 

species the female overwinters before ovipositing (Harvard Field Guides online). 


Only a few species in the Membracidae are considered pests and this is because of their 

egg-laying habit, which kills the terminal ends of twigs (Harvard Field Guides online 

30/8/2005). H. attentuatus is considered a minor pest in Thailand (AQIS Durian 

1999). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: H. attenuatus is currently only recorded on durian 

(only a few plants are present in New Zealand - none are grown on a commercial 

scale), and only in Thailand. Therefore there is a very low likelihood that this 

treehopper could establish in New Zealand due to the limited number of host plants 

present and the cooler climate. 

Potential impact within NZ: The economic significance would be low as there are 

very few host plants in New Zealand. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Very few durian plants are grown in New 

Zealand and there is no export trade. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: It has only been recorded on Durio 

zibethinus (durian) and there is a very low likelihood of environmental consequences 

if it established. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: low because detectable on 

fruit surface. Durian (low) 




2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 

Field Guides to Major Insect Families. Caribbean Insects at Harvard Entomology 

http://mcz-28168.oeb.harvard.edu/Caribbean/FieldGuides.htm 

Final Import Risk Analysis of Fresh Durian Fruit (Durio zibethinus Murray) from the 

Kingdom of Thailand. November 1999 Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, 

Canberra Australia 40pp. 







Search using Internet search engine (Date indicated) 




MAF Plants 



on 24-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Icerya spp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Icerya spp. 


Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Margarodidae 

Common names: scale 

SUMMARY 


The quarantine status of Icerya species depends on the species in question. Icerya 

purchasi is present in New Zealand (Scott & Emberson 1999; Spiller & Wise 1982) 

and is Non-Regulated. 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, branches (Thailand Durian July 2003); branches (AFFA - 

longan & lychee February 2004). 



Impact will depend on the individual species, which can range from minor to serious 

pests. 

HOSTS 

Icerya species have a very wide host range. For example: Icerya aegyptiaca attacks 

Annona muricata (soursop), Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Artocarpus heterophyllus 

(jackfruit), Citrus, Mangifera indica (mango), Manilkara zapota (sapodilla), Morus 

alba (mora) and Psidium guajava (guava) (CPCI 2006); Icerya purchasi is recorded 

on Acacia (wattles), Acalypha (Copperleaf), Citrus, Cytisus (Broom), Glycine soja, 

Indigofera (indigo), Mangifera indica (mango), Morus alba (mora), Psidium guajava 

(guava), Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean), Rosa (roses), Ulex europaeus 

(gorse), amongst others (CPCI 2006); and Icerya seychellarum is known from 

Acacia (wattles), Albizia, Annona, Artocarpus (breadfruit trees), Artocarpus integer, 

Casuarina equisetifolia (casuarina), Citrus, Cocos nucifera (coconut), Ficus, 

Grevillea robusta (silky oak), Magnolia, Persea americana (avocado), Psidium, 

Psidium guajava (guava), Pyrus (pears), Rosa (roses) and more (CPCI 2006). 

Hosts: Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 2003); Dimocarpus longan 

(longan), Litchi chinensis (lychee) (AFFA - longan & lychee February 2004) 



Asia: Malaysia; Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2005) - Icerya species in Thailand 

include Icerya aegyptiaca, I. seychellarum seychellarum and I. zimmermanni 

(ScaleNet 2006). 


Sources that record presence: Scott & Emberson 1999 (1 species); Spiller & Wise 

1982 (Icerya purchasi); PPIN (2 species listed) (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Icerya species have three immature stages. Development from egg to adult 

usually takes about 3 months. In Japan, there is only one generation and the winter is 

passed as a mature female. As with all scale insects, the females are wingless and 

look similar to the immature stages. Males are rare and are not required for 

reproduction (CPCI 2006). 


Sap depletion may lead to leaf drop and stunted growth. As with most sap-sucking 

insects, the production of honeydew leads to growth of sooty mould which in turn 

reduces plant respiration and photosynthesis (CPCI 2006). The degree of damage 

will depend on the species as Icerya species range from minor pests to being serious 

plant pests. 


Potential for establishment in NZ: New Zealand has a broad range of climates. This, 

combined with the usually polyphagous nature of scales, would allow many Icerya 

species to establish here. 

Potential impact within NZ: Scales can be a significant pests. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Scales can reduce yields and quality of 

produce. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The polyphagous nature of scales is of 

concern. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: Medium because although 

the scales are on the fruit surface they may be difficult to detect. Durian (medium) 







2003 64pp 


INTERNATIONAL 











MAF Plants 



on 25-Aug-2005 

Formatted by JB 

on 31-Jul-2007 





Mudaria luteileprosa 

IDENTITY 

Name: Mudaria luteileprosa 



Common names: durian seed borer 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, seed (Thailand durian July 2003). 


Regulated 

This moth has a low likelihood of establishment in New Zealand due to the one 

recorded host species and low number of host plants. If it did establish it would 

not have a significant impact. 

HOSTS 

Monophagous. 



Asia: Malaysia; Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Sources that do not record presence: Scott & Emberson 1999; Spiller & Wise 


BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Eggs are laid on a durian fruit spine. After hatching, the larva bores through 

the husk and feeds inside the fruit without any noticeable external damage. Then it 

moves in to the seed until the completion of the larval stage. There is commonly 

only one grub per infested fruit, though more than one borer per fruit can be found. 

The fully grown larva bores out of the fruit and pupates in cool damp soil. The pupal 

stage is 1-9 months long, or it might last longer under favourable climatic conditions 

(Thailand durian July 2003). 


Infested fruit cannot be sold for fresh consumption (Thailand durian July 2003). 



Potential for establishment in NZ: Low likelihood of establishment due to the limited 

number of the durian host plants and this organism having a restricted tropical 

distribution. 

Potential impact within NZ: Low likelihood of economic impact in New Zealand 

because durian is the only recorded host. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Very low likelihood of any impact on the 

environment as its only recorded host is durian. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian. High because there 

is little indication on the fruit that larvae are inside it. 




2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 













MAF Plants 



on 25-Aug-2005 


on 31-Jul-2007 





Mudaria magniplaga 

IDENTITY 

Name: Mudaria magniplaga 

Synonyms: Mudaria magniplage, Plagideicta magniplaga 



Common names: mudaria fruit borer 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, seed (Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Regulated 

This moth has a low likelihood of establishment in New Zealand due to the one 

recorded host species and low number of host plants. If it did establish it would 

not have a significant impact. 

HOSTS 

Monophagous. 

Hosts: Durio zibethinus (durian) (CPCI 2005) 


Asia: Malaysia, Thailand (CPCI 2005). 




BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Adult moths lay eggs in young to mature fruit. Larva feed in the arial and 

seed before boring out of the fruit to pupate (Agri-food BDC online 25/8/2005). 


A pest of durian (Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Low likelihood of establishment due to the limited 

number of durian host plants and this organism having a restricted tropical 

distribution. 


Potential impact within NZ: Low likelihood of economic impact in New Zealand 

because durian is the only recorded host. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Very low likelihood of any impact on the 

environment as its only recorded host is durian. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian high because larvae 

feed inside the fruit. Unclear if there would be any external indications of 

infestation. 


Agri-food Business Development Centre online, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia 

http://agribdc.com/index.php?ch=8&pg=5&ac=185 



2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 













MAF Plants 



on 30-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Nodostoma spp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Nodostoma spp. 


Taxonomic position: Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae 

Common names: leaf beetles 

SUMMARY 


There is little information available on this genus. Species include Nodostoma 

bituberculatum, Nodostoma viridipenne and Nodostoma subcostatum. 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, leaves (Hill 1983). 


Regulated 

A genus of unknown impact potential. 

HOSTS 



Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2005), 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982; PPIN 

23/8/2005; Scott & Emberson 1999; Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Leaf and fruit scarring beetles. 


Damage will vary with the Nodostoma species and the host plant. 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Potential for establishment will vary with the 

species. 

Potential impact within NZ: Impact will vary with species. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Impact will vary with species. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Impact will vary with species. 


Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian. Low risk because 

this genus is not often associated with mature fruit. In addition the beetle is external 

and easily detected. 




2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 

Hill DS (1983) Agricultural insect pests of the tropics and their control. Cambridge 

University Press Cambridge (2nd edition). 











MAF Plants 


Prepared by JT 

on 20-Jan-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Oecophylla smaragdina 

IDENTITY 

Name: Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius 


Taxonomic position: Hymenoptera: Formicidae 

Common names: red tree ant 

SUMMARY 

This organism is a household (or other) nuisance pest of interest to MAF Animals 

Biosecurity and MAF Plants Biosecurity. 

A species that is known to nurture colonies of mealybugs (Planococcus citri) which can 

cause damage to developing flowers and young and developing fruit (Diczbalis 

2004). Weaver ants eat any small creatures that they can find, but they are 

particularly attracted to nectar. The weaver ants do not have a stinger, but inflict a 

painful bite which is aggravated by irritating chemicals secreted from their abdomen 

(Tan 2001 online 20/1/05). 

This ant is a pest that is indirectly associated with plants. It is a carnivorous ant that 

may become important when it attacks field workers (Hill 1983). 


Regulated 

An indirect pest of plants. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Red tree ants can infest any orchard or plantation crop (Hill 1983). 

Hosts: Theobroma cacao (cocoa) (CPCI 2005); Litchi chinensis (Hill 1983); cashew 

(Peng et al. 2001); mangosteen (Chay-Prove et al. 2004 online 25/1/05); Durio 

zibethinus (durian) (Astridge 2001) 


Oceania: Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Is. (CPCI 2005). 

Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, 

Vietnam (CPCI 2005), Taiwan (Tan 2001 online 8/10/2003). 


Sources that do not record presence: PPIN (23/8/2005); Scott & Emberson 1999; 

Spiller & Wise 1982; Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 


BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: An arboreal ant, seldom seen on the ground, living in aerial nests. There 

may be several thousand ants in one nest system (Hill 1983). 


Workers are very mobile. Long distance movement probably by human transport of 

colony fragments with produce. 


Nests are constructed by sewing leaves together using silken threads so that the nest is 

a mixture of silk, living and dead leaves (Hill 1983). 


Potential impact within NZ: These ants are indirect pests on plants, and do not 

damage crops. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: As these ants are polyphagous 

carnivores, they may have some effect on smaller New Zealand insect species. 

Control measures: In some [overseas] situations the predation of crop pests by these 

ants outweighs their pest value, but occasionally they have to be controlled. 

Sometimes the nest branch can be cut and the entire nest removed, otherwise sprays 

of dieldrin or malathion at a two-week interval can be effective (Hill 1983). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: lychee. Low as external on 

fruit. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: mangosteen: Medium, external and highly mobile, but may be 

obscured by sepals of the fruit; Durian, medium due to being easily obscured by the 

rough surface of the fruit. 


Astridge D (2001) Insect fauna surveys on rambutan, durian and mangosteen in North 

Queensland. Proceedings of the 6th workshop for tropical agricultural entomology. 

Technical Bulletin - Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory 

of Australia, No. 288: 75-79. 

CAB INTERNATIONAL, 2000 Edition. Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, 

UK: CAB INTERNATIONAL. 

Chay-Prove, Patricia; Astridge, David; Vawdrey, Lynton (2004) Mangosteen: insect pest 

and disease management. Department of Primary Industries Agency for Food and Fibre 

Sciences, Horticulture, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland 

Government, Australia. http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5451.html 


INTERNATIONAL 

Diczbalis, Yan (2004) Durian chapter in The New Crop Industries Handbook 2004, 

RIRDC Australia. Pp166-173 http://www.rirdc.gov.au/NewCrops/4%20- 

%20New%20Crops%20Fruits%20and%20Berries.pdf 

Hill DS (1983) Agricultural insect pests of the tropics and their control. Cambridge 

University Press Cambridge (2nd edition). 


Lim, TK (1997) Durian. The New Rural Industries: A handbook for Farmers and 

Investors. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. pp279-284. Last 

updated: 29 December 1997 http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/handbook/durian.html 

Peng, Ren Kang; Christian, K; Gibb, K (2001) Potential of using colonies of the green 

ant, Oecophylla smaragdina (F.), to control cashew insect pests. Technical Bulletin 

Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory of Australia. 2001; 

(288): 81-93 









Tan, Ria (2001) Weaver Ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) 

http://www.naturia.per.sg/buloh/inverts/weaver_ants.htm 


MAF Plants 



on 4-Feb-2004 


on 8-May-2006 





Orgyia postica 

IDENTITY 

Name: Orgyia postica Walker 1855 

Synonyms: Notolophus posticus, Notolophus australis posticus, Orgyia australis 

posticus 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae 

Common names: cocoa tussock moth, small tussock caterpillar 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, fruit (CPCI 2004); leaves (Thailand lychee October 

2004). 


Regulated 


An important pest that has adapted its host range to include several economic crops. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

O. postica is a species of forests and forest-steppe which has adapted well to orchards 

and forest plantations. A survey carried out in Tamil Nadu, India, on alternative host 

plants of O. postica found it for the first time on Tamarix plumosus, Lablab 

purpureus and Malpighia punicifera (CPCI 2004). 

Hosts: Major hosts: Camellia sinensis (tea), Cinnamomum, Coffea (coffee), Glycine 

max (soyabean), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Lablab purpureus (hyacinth bean), 

Mangifera indica (mango), Pyrus communis (European pear), Syzygium cumini 

(black plum), Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Vigna radiata (mung bean), Vitis vinifera 

(grapevine) (CPCI 2005) 

Minor hosts: Amherstia nobilis, Cinchona, Durio zibethinus (durian), Erythrina spp., 

Euphorbia longana (longan), Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen), Leucaena 

leucocephala (leucaena), Litchi chinensis (lychee), Malpighia glabra (acerola), 

Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan), Orchidaceae (orchids), Populus deltoides 

(poplar), Ricinus communis (castor bean), Rosa (roses), Ziziphus jujuba (common 

jujube) (CPCI 2005) 

Tamarix, Morus (Zhang 1994) 



Glycine max (soyabean), Orchidaceae (orchids), Pyrus communis (European pear), 

Rosa (roses), Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (CPCI 2004); Malus (apple), Prunus 

(stonefruit) (Zhang 1994). 


Present in several Asian countries. CPCI 2005 states that the overlap of O. postica with 

O. australis needs further investigation in Australia. However, Zhang (1994) states 

that Orgyia australis is the species found in Australia. 

Oceania: Papua New Guinea (CPCI 2004). 

Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, 

Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 

2004),. 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982, Dugdale 

1988; Scott & Emberson 1999; Dugdale 1988; PPIN (23/8/2005); Landcare 

Database (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: In Sumatra, the diurnal males are on the wing from January until July; in 

Taiwan they are found in April and May. The flightless females cling to the exterior 

of their cocoons and call males to them. Oviposition is generally on the cocoon, with 

up to 60% of eggs producing larvae. The eggs hatch after about 5-6 days, and the 

resulting male larvae take 15-26 days to become fully grown; the larger, female 

larvae take 15-28 days. Pupation takes place in a flimsy cocoon on either leaves or 

stems. The female and male pupal stages last 4-5 and 6-7 days, respectively. Rates of 

metamorphosis in O. postica appear to be sexually dimorphic. Females, which 

undergo four moults during their larval periods, have one instar more than males; 

female development is, therefore, comparatively retarded. In contrast, female pupal 

development is accelerated when compared with that of males. Therefore, although 

male and female larvae pupate at different times, the adults appear together (CPCI 

2004). 


Adult flight 


The larvae cause serious damage to the young leaves of cacao in the Philippines, both 

in nurseries and plantations. When very numerous they can cause total defoliation, 

killing or stunting the tree. The larvae also attack fruits, especially mango, rendering 

them unsuitable for sale (CPCI 2004). 

Large-scale defoliation of mango by larvae of O. postica was noticed in orchards of 

the Behat area of Uttar Pradesh, India, in June-July 1987; light infestation also 

occurred in Lucknow. In some cases the fruits were also attacked and rendered 

unmarketable. Larvae also fed on Syzygium cumini and pear. Larvae were also 

recorded from mango trees in the same area during June-August 1987 by other 

observers. These fed on the stalk, skin and pulp of fruits and on new flushes of 


leaves. During the third week of June and the first week of July, 0.25-30% of trees 

were infested. Cocoons can also be found amongst stored fruit. In Taiwan it is a 

major pest of cultivated grapevines and roses (CPCI 2004). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Could establish in the warmer regions. 

Potential impact within NZ: Could cause damage to crops such as soyabean, grapes, 

roses, and pip and stone fruit, particularly when grown in warmer regions. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Could cause damage to export apples, 

stonefruit, roses and grapes. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Concern here is that this species is known 

to have extended its host range from forest plants. However, its current distribution 

is the tropics, which would suggest that impact is likely to be minor and limited to 

the warmest regions of New Zealand. Consequently northern indigenous plant 

species are potentially at risk. 

Control measures: Most insecticides used to control other orchard pests will also 

control this species (CPCI 2004). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: mango, lychee, 

mangosteen, durian. Low due to attacked fruit showing damage. 



INTERNATIONAL 


262 pp. 











Thailand lychee (October 2004) Pest list of lychee in Thailand. Thailand Department of 





MAF Plants 



on 6-Dec-2004 


on 8-May-2006 





Planococcus citri 

IDENTITY 

Name: Planococcus citri Risso 


Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Pseudococcidae 

Common names: citrus mealybug, grape mealybug 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, stems, roots, growing points, inflorescence, fruit, pods 

(CPCI 2005). 


Regulated 


A serious pest of several crops including citrus and grapes. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

P. citri is polyphagous and occurs on a wide range of flowering plants, but Citrus is the 

main host. In the tropics, it occurs mainly on the aerial parts of crops such as cocoa, 

bananas, tobacco and coffee and on wild trees. In the South Pacific region, P. citri 

has been recorded on 20 host plants, including Brassica, Ceiba, Citrus, cocoa, 

Cyrtosperma, Cucurbita, Gardenia, Inocarpus, Ipomoea, Leucaena, Morinda, 

Ocimum, Psidium, Pueraria and Solanum species. In temperate regions, it mainly 

occurs on greenhouse plants such as Coleus, ferns and gardenias, but also occurs 

outdoors under summer conditions on Citrus, grapes, figs, taro, date palms and 

potatoes (CPCI 2004). 

Hosts: Secondary hosts: Ananas comosus (pineapple), Annona, Annona muricata 

(bullock's heart), Annona squamosa (sugarapple), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Carica 

papaya (papaw), Codiaeum variegatum (croton), Coffea (arabica coffee), Coleus, 

Dioscorea (yam), Eugenia, Gossypium (Bourbon cotton), Mangifera indica (mango), 

Manihot esculenta (cassava), Musa (banana), Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), Psidium 

guajava (strawberry guava), Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane), Solanum 

(nightshade), Theobroma cacao (cupuassu), Xanthium strumarium (common 

cocklebur) (CPCI 2004) 

Hosts where status is unknown: Alpinia purpurata (gingerlily) (CPCI 2004) 

Dimocarpus longan (AFFA - longan & lychee February 2004); Solanum melongena 


(eggplant) (Fiji Eggplant Pest List Dec 1996); Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) 

(Chay-Prove et al. 2004 online 25/1/05); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Astridge 2001) 


Citrus, Cucurbita (pumpkin), Ipomoea (sweet potato), Lycopersicon esculentum 

(tomato), Persea americana (avocado), Macadamia integrifolia (macadamia), 

Solanum tuberosum (potato), Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (CPCI 2004). 


Widespread throughout temperate and tropical countries. 

The status of P. citri in New Zealand has been under investigation recently. As a 

result, although recorded from New Zealand in 1978/1979 it appears that 

Planococcus citri was successfully eradicated and therefore failed to establish 

(Planococcus citri MAF Report November 2003). PPIN refutes all records of P. citri 

being in New Zealand (9/2/2005). 

Oceania: Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Tonga, Samoa (CPCI 2004), 

Vanuatu (Lime Pest List from Vanuatu NPPO, Feb 2002. (Present, Bule Oct. 2000), 

New Caledonia (New Caledonia Pest List 2004). 

Asia: Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Jordan, Korea, Laos, 

Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 2005). 

Africa: Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sudan 

(CPCI 2005). 

North America: Bermuda, Mexico, USA (CPCI 2005). 

Central America and Caribbean: Bahamas, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala (CPCI 

2005). 

South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, 

Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela (CPCI 2005). 

Europe: France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russian 

Federation, Spain, United Kingdom (CPCI 2005). 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982; Fauna of 

New Zealand, No. 11 Pseudococcidae, 1987, p. 74. (one record in 1979 and it does 

not appear to have established in New Zealand); CAB Abstracts; PPIN (all records 

refuted) (June 2005); Planococcus citri MAF Report November 2003; Landcare 

Database (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Vector of: Grapevine leafroll (Regulated and Non-Regulated strains), corky bark 

(Regulated pest), Kober stem grooving (Regulated pest) and LN33 stem grooving 

viruses; Dioscorea alata bacilliform virus (DaBV), cocoa swollen shoot badnavirus 

disease (CPCI 2005). 

Indian isolate of citrus mosaic badnavirus could be experimentally transmitted with 

Planococcus citri to sweet orange seedlings (AgNIC online 23-04-2002). P. citri was 

identified as a vector of the Dioscorea alata bacilliform virus (DaBV) on Dioscorea 

alata from Barbados and West Africa, and on other Dioscorea spp. from West 

African, Caribbean, Asian and South American countries (CPCI 2003). 

In West Africa, P. citri is a vector of many cocoa viruses and is the second most 


important vector of the cocoa swollen shoot badnavirus disease in Ghana. In North 

Sumatra, it is a vector of a disease which causes leaf symptoms ranging from 

clearing of the major veins to a more complex mosaic pattern that is similar to 

symptoms of cocoa swollen shoot badnavirus (CPCI 2005). 

Life cycle: The citrus mealybug or short tailed mealybug is the most common species 

found on ornamental plants. It has an extensive host range and prefers soft-stemmed 

and succulent plants such as croton, gardenia, begonia, oleander, Coleus, Fuchsia, 

and cactus. Other hosts include citrus, geranium, orchids, poinsettias, ivy, dracaena, 

and chrysanthemums. Adult female mealybugs lay up to 300 - 600 eggs in a 

compact, cottony, waxy sack beneath the rear end of their body. Egg laying 

continues for 1 - 2 weeks with the female dying as soon as egg laying ceases. The 

egg sacks are found primarily in the axils of stems and leaves, but may be on other 

parts of the plant. Egg hatch occurs in about 10 days and the nymphs or crawlers 

begin actively searching feeding sites. Female crawlers progress through 3 stages 

with a generation taking about a month or up to a year depending on temperature. 

Under normal greenhouse conditions the lifecycle is 1 - 2 months. Shortly after the 

crawlers begin feeding they secrete a white waxy material which covers their body. 

The crawlers move about the plant, but are usually very sluggish in their activity. 

The citrus mealybug prefers humid conditions, but has shown its adaptability by 

being successful on cacti under semi-arid conditions (IPM Illinois mealybugs online 

5/9/2005). 


Symptoms: P. citri feeding leads to general wilting of the plants due to sap depletion. 

On cocoa, flower stalks, buds and young pods are attacked to the extent of wilting. 

In Taiwan, infested immature coffee berries become deformed and drop to the 

ground. P. citri infestation also causes indirect physical damage because of the sooty 

moulds that develop on the honeydew secreted by the mealybug (CPCI 2005). 

Another indirect effect is its ability to vector viruses and transmit them from 

diseased plants to healthy ones. 

Although generally cryptic in nature, P. citri can be easily detected on fruits and 

inflorescences. On cocoa, it can be readily detected on the surface of pods, where it 

usually occurs in large colonies. Colonies in terminal buds, bases of leaf petioles, 

points of attachment of suckers, fruits and pods, and the bark of trees can be detected 

using hand lenses or, in the case of terminal buds, by teasing them apart and 

inspecting them under a dissecting microscope. On Citrus, the area underneath the 

calyx and the peduncle of the fruit provides a good hiding place. P. citri can also be 

detected in the field by the presence of sooty moulds that develop on excreted 

honeydew and by wilt of plant parts such as leaves, inflorescences and fruits or 

berries (CPCI 2004). 

Morphology: The citrus mealybug is a soft-bodied, oval, and pink insect 

approximately 1/8 inch long when mature. The body after the first growth stage is 

covered by white, waxy material, with short filaments radiating from the margins of 

the body. Adult male mealybugs are tiny two-winged fly-like insects. The nymphs 

resemble the adult female except they are smaller (IPM Illinois mealybugs online 

5/9/2005). 



The main dispersal stage is the crawler although movement is relatively minimal. 

Crawlers can be carried between plants and sites by wind, and all life cycle stages 

can be transported on plant material. Although generally cryptic in nature, P. citri 

can be easily detected on fruits and inflorescences (CPCI 2004). 


P. citri is reported as a serious pest, causing damage to various crops such as Citrus, 

grapes and mangoes, although crop loss is usually difficult to assess. It is the most 

injurious of the mealybugs on Citrus in the Mediterranean region. In South Africa, it 

is one of the six most important pests of deciduous fruits. P. citri was reported as 

causing more than 75% damage to bunches of grapes (variety Black Champa) at 

Hessaraghatta, India. Damage to leaves, shoots and main stems of grapes lead 

eventually to plant death in Trans Caucasus, North Caucasus, Krasnodar region, 

Crimea, Central Asia and Dagestan in the former USSR. The appearance of cork 

scars was directly related to the level of P. citri infestation in fruits of Citrus variety 

'Sweetie' (Citrus paradisi x C. maxima) in orchards in Israel. The majority of injuries 

became evident during the first and second generations of P. citri. Only medium to 

high population densities of P. citri caused a significant reduction in production, both 

in terms of fruit weight and fruit size, in orange groves in Portugal; low numbers of 

P. citri caused fruit discoloration, fruit splitting and chlorotic spots (CPCI 2004). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: The citrus mealybug could easily establish in New 

Zealand due to favourable climate and the availability of host species. 

Potential impact within NZ: P. citri could have important impact on several crops 

including citrus, grape, avocado, tomato and potato. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: P. citri is likely to have an important impact 

on exports due to the yield reductions of export quality fruit, such as citrus and 

grapes. Note, however, that it is widely distributed in the world, except that it 

appears to be absent from some South Pacific Islands (CPCI 2004). 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: It could have significant impact due to 

the favourable climate and wide host range. Solanum species, ferns and nikau palm 

are some of the indigenous plants that could be particularly susceptible to attack by 

this mealybug. 

Control measures: In several countries, P. citri has been successfully controlled with 

chemicals and natural enemies or a combination of the two. Attempts have also been 

made to control the pest using semiochemicals, cultural methods and resistant plant 

material. (CPCI 2004). 

P. citri was able to survive on flowers of Alpinia purpurata even after the flowers 

were subjected to hot air treatment followed by hot water immersion. Mealybug 

survival increased by 0.4% after 2 h hot air plus hot water treatment and 40% after 4 

h hot air plus hot water treatment. (CPCI 2004) 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: breadfruit, papaya, mango, 

eggplant, longan, citrus, squash: Medium, because although a surface-feeder, it is 

small and often inconspicuous 


Fresh fruit/vegetables: mangosteen, durian: High, because mangosteen has very 

large sepals which could hide mealybugs, and the rough fruit surface of durian could 

make detection difficult. 





Astridge D (2001) Insect fauna surveys on rambutan, durian and mangosteen in North 

Queensland. Proceedings of the 6th workshop for tropical agricultural entomology. 

Technical Bulletin - Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory 

of Australia, No. 288: 75-79. 

Chay-Prove, Patricia; Astridge, David; Vawdrey, Lynton (2004) Mangosteen: insect pest 

and disease management. Department of Primary Industries Agency for Food and Fibre 

Sciences, Horticulture, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland 

Government, Australia. http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5451.html 



INTERNATIONAL 


INTERNATIONAL 


Fauna of New Zealand 

Investigation into The Country Freedom Status in New Zealand of: Planococcus citri 

(Citrus mealybug); Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera Internal Report to MAF BA. 28 

November 2003 

IPM Illinois (online) Mealybugs: Citrus Mealybug Planococcus citri, Long-tailed 

Mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus. Integrated Pest Management University of 

Illinois, Extension http://www.ipm.uiuc.edu/greenhouse/insects/mealybugs/ 












The Agriculture Network Information Center Alliance 

http://www.agnic.org/agnic/index_html 


MAF Plants 



on 30-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Planococcus lilacinus 

IDENTITY 

Name: Planococcus lilacinus 

Synonyms: Pseudococcus lilacinus 



Common names: citrus mealybug, lilac mealybug 

SUMMARY 


An important pest with a wide host range and expanding distribution. 

Plant Parts Affected: Whole plant, leaves, stems, growing points, inflorescence, 

fruits, pods (CPCI 2005). 


Regulated 


An important pest of several tropical fruit crops, and a species that is expanding its 

distribution. Could cause serious damage to citrus. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

The host range of P. lilacinus is extremely wide. P. lilacinus attacks cocoa, guavas, 

coffee and other tropical and sub-tropical fruits and shade trees. It is the dominant 

cocoa mealybug in Java and Sri Lanka and its chief hosts, apart from cocoa, appear 

to be Annona muricata, Psidium guajava, Ceiba pentandra and species of Bauhinia, 

Spondias and Erythrina. It is known as the coffee mealybug throughout southern 

Asia (CPCI 2005). 

Hosts: Major hosts: Annona muricata (soursop), Bauhinia, Ceiba pentandra (kapok), 

Coffea (coffee), Coffea arabica (arabica coffee), Coffea canephora (robusta coffee), 

Psidium guajava (guava), Theobroma cacao (cocoa). Minor hosts: Annona squamosa 

(sugarapple), Bambusa vulgaris (common bamboo), Cocos nucifera (coconut), 

Dioscorea (yam), Mangifera indica (mango), Punica granatum (pomegranate), 

Tamarindus indica (Indian tamarind) (CPCI 2005); Durio zibethinus (durian) 

(Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Citrus, Vitis (grape) (CPCI 2005). 



P. lilacinus occurs mainly in the Palaearctic, Malaysian, Oriental Australian and 

Neotropical regions and is the dominant cocoa mealybug in Sri Lanka and Java. Up 

to the 1970s there were no records of it in Africa, but it has been recorded from the 

Comoros Islands, Kenya and Madagascar. The species does not occur above 1000 m 

(CPCI 2005). 

Oceania: Caroline Islands, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea 

(CPCI 2005). 

Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Taiwan, Cocos Islands, India, 

Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, 

Thailand, Vietnam, Yemen (CPCI 2005),. 

Africa: Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles (CPCI 2005). 

Central America and Caribbean: Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti (CPCI 

2005). 

South America: Guyana (CPCI 2005). 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982, PPIN 

23/8/2005, Cox 1987, Scott & Emberson 1999; Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 


Symptoms: Symptoms on coconuts and cocoa are described as button nut shedding 

and drying up of inflorescences and the death of tips of branches. Dense colonies 

form conspicuous patches on fruits; copious honeydew excretion may result in sooty 

mould development near colonies and the attraction of attendant ants (CPCI 2005). 


P. lilacinus is a pest of cocoa throughout the Oriental Region and South Pacific area, 

causing severe damage to young trees by killing the tips of branches. It also occurs 

on and causes damage to a wide variety of economically important crops such as 

coffee, tamarinds, custard apples, coconuts, citrus, grapes, guavas and mangoes. It 

has increased and spread to most coffee-growing areas, attacking roots and shoots 

and causing serious damage to the plant. The importance of the species has 

warranted its control using chemicals and biological control agents in several parts 

of India, mainly on coffee, cocoa, custard apples and mandarins (CPCI 2005). 


Potential impact within NZ: P. lilacinus is likely to cause moderate to serious damage 

to citrus and grapes, particularly in the warmest regions. However, climate is likely 

to limit its impact. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: P. lilacinus is likely to reduce export yields of 

citrus and grapes. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The impact of this pest is likely to be 

limited to damage in the warmest regions. Of particular concern is the diverse host 

range which could potentially put many northern indigenous plant species at risk of 

attack from this mealybug. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: medium, because although 

they are found on the surface of the fruit, mealybugs can be difficult to detect: 


mango. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: Durian. High, because the rough fruit surface of durian could 

make detection difficult. 




2003 64pp 


Cox JM (1987) Pseudococcidae (Insecta: Hemiptera). Fauna of New Zealand No. 11. 

140pp. 


INTERNATIONAL 











MAF Plants 



on 6-Dec-2004 


on 8-May-2006 





Planococcus minor 

IDENTITY 

Name: Planococcus minor (Maskell) 

Synonyms: Planococcus pacificus, Pseudococcus minor 



Common names: passionvine mealybug, citrus mealybug, Pacific mealybug 

SUMMARY 


Pseudococcus calceolariae var. minor, previously regarded as a synonym of P. citri, is 

now known as Planococcus minor, and P. pacificus is synonymised with it (CAB 

Abstracts Cox 1989). 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit (Shukla & Tandon 1984; MAF Interception Records on 

citrus fruit 2002-2004); Fruit, inflorescence, stem (Thailand mangosteen October 

2004). 


Regulated 


The host list indicates that there are many crops and ornamentals in New Zealand 

that would be at risk if this mealybug were to establish. Its establishment would 

have serious economic consequences for exporters of these crops. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Hosts: Primary hosts: Colocasia esculenta (taro), Theobroma cacao (cocoa). Hosts 

where status is unknown: Citrus deliciosa (mediterranean mandarin), Citrus 

reticulata (mandarin), Coffea (coffee), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana), 

Psidium guajava (common guava), Ziziphus (CPCI 2004) 

Solanum melongena (eggplant), Coffea (coffee), Musa (banana) (CAB Abstracts); 

Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit) (Samoa Breadfruit Pest List 11 June 2002); Annona 

squamosa (custard apple) (Shukla & Tandon 1984); mangosteen (Thailand 

mangosteen October 2004); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Citrus spp., Solanum tuberosum (potato), Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (CPCI 2004). 



Oceania: Australia, Solomon Islands, Tokelau Islands (CPCI 2004), Samoa (Samoa 

Breadfruit Pest List 11 June 2002), Vanuatu (letter from VQIS 13 March 1998). 

Asia: Unconfirmed records for Bangladesh, Japan (CAB), India (Shukla & Tandon 

1984), Philippines (CAB), Thailand (Thailand mangosteen October 2004; Thailand 

Durian July 2003),. 


Sources that do not record presence: PPIN (23/8/2005); Scott & Emberson 1999; 

ESNZ 1977; Spiller & Wise 1982; Cox 1987; Landcare Database (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: P. minor completes 10 generations a year in India. The life cycle is 

completed in 28 to 45 days. Optimum temperature range found experimentally: 25- 

31C (CAB Abstracts Sahoo et al. 1999). 

Eggs are deposited in egg masses containing 100-200 eggs. One female can lay 600- 

800 eggs. The females die after laying eggs. Eggs hatch in about 6-10 days. Females 

moult 3 times and are wingless. After the 3rd moulting they start laying eggs. Males 

moult 4 times; they are smaller than females and have wings. The mealybugs 

multiply rapidly and may have 2 or 3 generations per year. They feed on a variety of 

host plants. During periods of food shortage mealybugs will hide in the soil at the 

roots of plants (e.g. grasses). (IPM Thailand online 7/12/2004) 


Symptoms: Infestations by nymphs and adults of Planococcus minor occur around the 

fruit peduncle of custard apple in India (Shukla & Tandon 1984). 


The main dispersal stage is the crawler although movement is relatively minimal. 

Crawlers can be carried between plants and sites by wind, and all life cycle stages 

can be transported on plant material. 


Mealybugs suck juices from flower branches, young and mature fruit. If several 

mealybugs feed close together on a durian fruit, the fruit will be slow to develop and 

will remain small. Honeydew reduces fruit quality and economic value, and reduces 

photosynthesis of leaves (http://www.ipmthailand.org/en/Pests/Mealybugs.htm 

7/12/2004) 

P. minor is an important pest of coffee in India (Reddy et al. 1997). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: This mealybug could establish in the warmer 

regions of New Zealand wherever hosts are grown. 

Potential impact within NZ: According to the full PRA prepared for this species, 

there are many crops here that would be at risk from attack if this mealybug were to 

establish in New Zealand. Hosts of economic importance in New Zealand include 

avocado, citrus, grapevine, cucurbits, tomato, potato, eggplant, kumara, Brassica 

spp., Phaseolus spp., maize and macadamia (MAF 2001 PRA (Planococcus minor)). 


Potential impact on exports from NZ: Establishment of the pest could have serious 

economic consequences for exporters of citrus crops. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: This mealybug could have an important 

impact on the environment. Genera of many known hosts are widely grown in New 

Zealand. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: medium, because it feeds 

on the outside of fruit, but is often inconspicuous and difficult to detect: lime, 

eggplant, citrus. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: mangosteen, durian: High, because mangosteen has very 

large sepals which could hide mealybugs, and the rough fruit surface of durian fruit 

could make detection very difficult. 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: Breadfruit, low because it is not a major host. 

MAF Interception data on lime (2002) 




2003 64pp 



140pp. 

Cox JM (1989) The mealybug genus Planococcus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Bulletin 

of the British Museum Natural History, Entomology 58(1): 1-78 


INTERNATIONAL 



MAF 2001 Pest Risk Assessment (Planococcus minor) MAF Plants Biosecurity. Ministry 

of Agriculture and Forestry Biosecurity Authority, Wellington, New Zealand. 

MAF Quancargo database. MAF Interceptions, interception dates specified 


Reddy, KB; Bhat, PK; Naidu, R (1999) Suppression of mealybugs and green scale 

infesting coffee with natural enemies in Karnataka. Pest-Management-and-Economic- 

Zoology. 1997 publ. 1999; 5(2): 119-121 

Sahoo, AK; Ghosh, AB; Mandal, SK; Maiti, DK (1999) Study on the biology of the 

mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera. Journal of 

Interacademicia. 1999; 3(1): 41-48 

Samoa Breadfruit Pest List 11 June 2002 




Shukla, RP; Tandon, PL (1984) India-insect pests on custard apple. Plant-Protection- 

Bulletin,-FAO. 1984; 32(1): 31 CAB AN: 19850521113 








Thailand mangosteen (October 2004) Pest list of mangosteen in Thailand. Thailand 

Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 


MAF Plants 



on 30-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Pseudococcus sp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Pseudococcus sp. 



Common names: mealybug 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Stems, leaves, fruit, whole plant (CPCI 2005). 



The seriousness of the mealybug will depend on the species of Pseudococcus. Some 

species are present in New Zealand, e.g. Pseudococcus calceolariae and P. 

longispinus. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Pseudococcus species can have extremely wide host ranges. For example 

Pseudococcus calceolariae is a highly polyphagous species that has been recorded 

from hosts in 40 plant families. Major hosts include: Abutilon (Indian mallow), 

Arachis hypogaea (groundnut), Brachychiton, Brassica, Ceanothus, Chenopodium 

(Goosefoot), Citrus medica (citron), Conium maculatum (Poison hemlock), 

Crataegus (hawthorns), Cydonia oblonga (quince), Daucus carota (carrot), Dodonaea 

viscosa (switch sorrel), Eugenia, Ficus, Fragaria, Geranium (cranesbill), Hedera 

helix (ivy), Helianthus, Heliotropium arborescens (cherry-pie), Hibiscus 

(rosemallows), Juglans regia (walnut), Laburnum anagyroides (laburnum), 

Ligustrum, Lolium (ryegrass), Malus domestica (apple), Malus sylvestris (crab-apple 

tree), Malva (mallow), Musa x paradisiaca (plantain), Nerium oleander (oleander), 

Pelargonium (pelargoniums), Pinus radiata (radiata pine), Pisum sativum (pea), 

Pittosporum tobira (Japanese pittosporum), Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporum), 

Polyscias, Prunus (stone fruit), Pyrus communis (European pear), Rheum hybridum 

(rhubarb), Rhododendron (Azalea), Ribes sanguineum (Flowering currant), Rosa 

(roses), Rubus (blackberry, raspberry), Schinus molle (false pepper tree), Sechium 

edule, Solanum tuberosum (potato), Theobroma cacao (cocoa) and Vitis vinifera 

(grapevine) (CPCI 2006). 


Hosts: Annona spp., Coffea (coffee), Durio zibethinus (durian), Hibiscus (Thailand 



Pseudococcus species are found in a wide range of climates from tropical through to 

cool-temperate (CPCI 2005). 

Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003) - species recorded in Thailand include 

Pseudococcus citri, P. lilacinus and P. elisae (CAB abstracts search 7 May 2006). 


Sources that record presence: Scott & Emberson 1999 (3 species listed), Spiller & 

Wise 1982 (15 species listed), PPIN (23/8/2005) (over 20 species listed), Cox 

1987. 

BIOLOGY 

Vector of: Some Pseudococcus species are known vectors of plant pathogens, e.g. P. 

brevipes is a vector of mealybug pineapple wilt disease (CPCI 2005). 

Life cycle: The eggs are incubated in a sac on the underside of females. A single 

female can lay 600-800 eggs. Newly hatched nymphs (crawlers) crawl to find a 

suitable place to live and eat. In Thailand there can be 2-3 generations per year 

(Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Damage will vary with the Pseudococcus species and the host plant. Mealybugs cause 

stunting of infested growth. Although only the fruit surface is attacked, infested fruit 

is considered of low quality and unmarketable (Thailand Durian July 2003). 



species. 




Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian. Medium, because 

although they are found on the surface of the fruit, they can be difficult to detect. 

Pseudococcus has been intercepted on California fresh grapefruit fruit (MAF 

Interception data 2002). 




2003 64pp 


140pp. 


INTERNATIONAL 









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on 26-Aug-2005 


on 6-Aug-2007 





Remelana jangala ravata 

IDENTITY 

Name: Remelana jangala ravata 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae 

Common names: fruit eating moth 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, flowers (Thailand Durian July 2005). 


Regulated 

This moth has a low likelihood of establishing in New Zealand as there are few host 

plants present, and even if it did establish its impact is likely to be very low. 

HOSTS 

Oligophagous. 

Hosts: Durio zibethinus (durian), Eurya jarponica (Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Asia: Nepal, Sikkim to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos (Inayoshi online 8 May 2006),. 




BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: Larvae feed on the epidermis of very young leaves, except on Eurya 

jarponica, where it will also feed on the flower buds as an alternative food source. 

The larvae tend to stay on the underside of the leaves and do not wander far to feed. 

Larvae grow up to 2.5cm long. Pupation occurs on the upper side of mature leaves 

and lasts about 14 days, but as little as 7 days in summer. Pupae measure 1.3 to 1.5 

cm long. Moths feed on the fruit. The complete cycle from egg to adult lasts for 54 

days (Thailand Durian July 2005). Durian is an infrequent host (AQIS Durian 1999). 




Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on present distribution and known host 

range, Remelana jangala ravata is unlikely to establish in New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: The only known hosts are not grown in New Zealand 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: R. jangala ravata is unlikely to have any 

impact on the environment due to the very limited known host range and our 

temperate climate. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian. Low because it is 

an external pest and is found infrequently on fruit. 




2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 

Final Import Risk Analysis of Fresh Durian Fruit (Durio zibethinus Murray) from the 

Kingdom of Thailand. November 1999 Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, 

Canberra Australia 40pp. 

Inayoshi, Yutaka (online) A Check List of Butterflies in Indo-China Chiefly from 

Thailand, Laos, & Vietnam http://yutaka.it-n.jp/index.html 

Integrated Pest Management in Thailand online http://www.ipmthailand.org/en/index.htm 











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on 30-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Saissetia sp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Saissetia sp. 


Taxonomic position: Homoptera: Coccidae 

Common names: armoured scale 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, branches, fruit (Thailand Durian July 2003). 



The impact of the scale will depend on the species of Saissetia. Some species are 

present in New Zealand, e.g. Saissetia oleae and S. coffeae. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Species of Saissetia may have several hosts (CPCI 2005). For example S. coffeae is a 

polyphagous species and has been recorded feeding on 178 host-plant species from 

80 families. It can be a pest on coffee, tea, citrus and guava, and ornamental plants, 

especially evergreens, cycads and ferns (CPCI 2006). 



Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003) - species recorded in Thailand include 

Saissetia coffeae and S. oleae (ScaleNet 2006). 


Sources that record presence: Scott & Emberson 1999 (2 species); Spiller & Wise 

1982 (6 species listed); PPIN (7 species listed) (23/8/2005). 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: In some Saissetia species, reproduction is parthenogenetic and males are 

unknown. A female may lay 500-2500 eggs in a cavity under her body, where they 

are protected for the short time they take to hatch. The first instar (crawler) walks 

about actively to locate a feeding site. Honeydew production may attract ants, and 

the ants may deter natural enemies from attacking the scales. The main dispersal 

stage of Saissetia is the crawler. Dispersal by crawlers may be limited to one plant or 


adjacent plants if they are touching. However, crawlers can be carried between 

plants and sites on larger animals including man, and all life cycle stages can be 

transported on ornamental plants, propagation material or produce (CPCI 2005). 


Damage will vary with the Saissetia species and the host plant. 



species. 





although they are found on the fruit surface scales can be small and difficult to 

detect. 




2003 64pp 


INTERNATIONAL 










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on 26-Aug-2005 


on 8-May-2006 





Thrips hawaiiensis 

IDENTITY 

Name: Thrips hawaiiensis Morgan 1913 


Taxonomic position: Thysanoptera: Thripidae 

Common names: Hawaiian flower thrips 

SUMMARY 


A minor pest of fruit trees, vegetables and flower crops in predominantly tropical 

regions. 

Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, inflorescence, fruit (CPCI 2005). 


Regulated 

A minor tropical pest likely to have minimal impact in New Zealand. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

T. hawaiiensis is highly polyphagous. In Taiwan it has been recorded from 141 species 

of plants, although not necessarily breeding on all of these. At least 25 different 

crops have been recorded as being attacked by this thrips (CPCI 2005). 

Hosts: Major hosts: Abelmoschus esculentus (okra), Chrysanthemum vestitum, 

Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana), Musa x paradisiaca (plantain), Rosa 

rugosa (Rugosa rose), Syzygium samarangense (water apple) (CPCI 2005) 

Minor hosts: Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut), Areca catechu (betelnut palm), 

Benincasa hispida (wax gourd), Brassica juncea var. juncea (Indian mustard), 

Brassica rapa ssp. oleifera (turnip rape), Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Chinese 

cabbage), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Camellia sinensis (tea), Cicer arietinum 

(chickpea), Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) (CPCI 2005) 

Ficus (rubber), Gardenia florida and Polianthes tuberosa (Syed 1981); Litchi 

chinensis (Thailand lychee October 2004); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand 



Capsicum annuum (bell pepper), Citrus sp., Gladiolus hybrids (sword lily), 

Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Vitis vinifera (grapevine), Zea mays (maize) 

(CPCI 2005). 



Oceania: Australia, Fiji, Guam, Midway Islands (USA), Norfolk Island, Papua New 

Guinea, Samoa (CPCI 2005), Vanuatu (IHS Vanuatu FF Lime 2004),. 

Asia: Bangladesh, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of 

Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, 

Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 2005), Thailand (Thailand lychee October 2004),. 

Africa: Angola, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda (CPCI 2005),. 

North America: Mexico, USA (CPCI 2005),. 

Central America and Caribbean: Jamaica (CPCI 2005),. 


Sources that record presence: T. hawaiiensis is particularly common throughout 

the tropical countries between Pakistan and northern Australia and the Pacific 

Islands. Although it has been found in various countries in the Western 

Hemisphere, it does not appear to be common anywhere in the Americas (CPCI 

2005). 

This thrips was recorded once from Campbell Island (uninhabited) in 1961 and the 

monograph states, "seemingly represents hawaiiensis" which casts some doubt on 

the identification. The species is unlikely to survive in New Zealand, and 

particularly not in the subantarctic islands, but is widespread and abundant in 

tropical regions from India to Queensland (Mound & Walker 1982). 

Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977, Spiller & Wise 1982, PPIN 

(23/8/2005), Scott & Emberson 1999, CAB Abstracts (no records for NZ), Mound 

& Walker 1982. 

BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: T. hawaiiensis is closely associated with flowers in its biology, and it will 

continue to breed as long as flowers are available and the temperature is sufficiently 

high (20-25°C). In southern Taiwan the species has more than 20 generations each 

year, with considerable overlap in these generations. Egg to adult development 

requires about 30 days, but considerably longer at lower temperatures. The low 

threshold for development in Taiwan is 15°C (CPCI 2005). 

T. hawaiiensis can reproduce both sexually and asexually, and peak populations are 

found when a suitable host plant, such as citrus, is in flower. When this host ceases 

to flower, the thrips disperse and continue to breed on other flowers nearby. The 

species is attracted to bananas in Taiwan only during the flowering period, and 

feeding by adults on the surface of fruits has been disputed. In northern Australia, 

this thrips is active through the summer months (January to April). Adults and 

nymphs are found on the young fruits whilst these are still covered by a bract. The 

population progressively moves down the bunch, until most thrips are found on the 

male flowers of the 'bell' (CPCI 2005). 

T. hawaiiensis is also important as a pollinator of some flowers, particularly on oil 

palm trees. About 800 to 1000 nymphs of this species can be found in the male 

inflorescences of oil palms, and pollen grains can be seen adhering to their bodies. 

Adult thrips also visit the female flowers, and thus effect pollination. If thrips are 

killed with insecticides the number of fruit set, the bunch weight and the oil yield are 

all markedly reduced (CPCI 2005). 



Symptoms: On banana crops, T. hawaiiensis causes losses due to feeding damage on 

the developing fruit, such that the outer surface of the fingers, particularly near the 

base, show scarring and eventually corky scabs. The oviposition marks can often be 

distinguished as minute raised pimples that can be felt with the fingers, but these 

marks commonly disappear as the fruit matures. Citrus is damaged in Taiwan, due to 

this thrips feeding in the flowers at the base of the anthers and on the developing 

ovules, thus leading to flowers dropping and failure to set fruit. Similar damage 

occurs on citrus in India (CPCI 2005). 

Flower crops can be damaged by T. hawaiiensis in Taiwan, due to feeding damage in 

the flowers (CPCI 2005). 


Movement of infested plant material is the main means of dispersal. 


T. hawaiiensis is a very common insect, and as such it is commonly said to be both 

harmful, as a pest of some crops, and beneficial, as a pollinator of other crops. 

However, despite the published lists of 'crops attacked', evidence for crop losses are 

by no means clear, apart from bananas where corky scab induced by thrips feeding 

can reduce quality. After 4 years' study, Ho (1987) was unable to demonstrate crop 

loss due to attacks by this species on citrus in Taiwan. Similarly, although mango 

inflorescences commonly contain large numbers of this thrips, there is no clear 

evidence of crop loss. In contrast, the presence of this thrips on floricultural crops 

not only reduces the quality of flowers by producing feeding lesions on the petals, 

but can lead to crops being less acceptable to customers. Cut flowers from Taiwan 

can be refused entry to Japan if thrips are found to be present during quarantine 

inspection (CPCI 2005). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: This thrips is likely to establish in the warmer 

regions, but is likely to have difficulty establishing where temperatures are below 

20°C. 

Potential impact within NZ: Impact is likely to be minor due to our temperate 

climate. It is likely to have a minor effect on crops grown in the warmer regions, 

such as capsicum, citrus, sunflower, corn and possibly roses and gladioli. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: This thrips is likely to have a minor effect in 

warmer regions on export crops, particularly cut flowers, e.g. roses. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The polyphagous nature of this thrips is 

of concern for indigenous flora and fauna, particularly in the warmer regions. As 

well as reducing the aesthetic quality of a host plant, the thrips is likely to damage 

flowers, leading to possible flower drop and a reduction of seeds, and consequently 

to a reduction in food for birds that feed on pollen, nectar and seeds. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: mango (low); lime (low as 

mostly feeds on very young fruit); citrus (low). Fresh fruit/vegetables: lychee, 

durian. Low, as this insect is generally found associated with flowers. 





2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 



Mound LA & Walker AK (1982) Terebrantia (Insecta: Thysanoptera). Fauna of New 

Zealand No. 1. 113 pp. 










Syed, RA (1981) Pollinating thrips of oil palm in West Malaysia. Planter-. 1981; 57(659): 

62-81 




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on 30-Aug-2005 


on 31-Jul-2007 





Tirathaba ruptilinea 

IDENTITY 

Name: Tirathaba ruptilinea 


Taxonomic position: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae 

Common names: fruit boring caterpillar 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit (Thailand Durian July 2003). 


Regulated 

This moth has a low likelihood of establishment here due to the low number of 

known host plants, and it would not have a significant impact should it establish. 

HOSTS 

Oligophagous. 

Hosts: Coffea (coffee) (CPCI 2005); Durio zibethinus (durian), Sorghum, Ricinus 

communis (castor), Achras sapota (sapodilla) (Franssen 1936). 


Found in South-East Asia (CPCI 2005) 

Asia: Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003), Indonesia (Java), (Franssen 1936),. 




BIOLOGY 

Life cycle: The young larvae of T. ruptilinea live on the outside of durian fruit, feeding 

on the thorns. Later on they bore in, either between or in the thorns. Up to 15 larvae 

have been found in one fruit. The larval stage probably lasts about 3 weeks and the 

pupal stage lasted 6-12 days. Pupation takes place between the thorns on the fruit. 

Infested durian fruits are often secondarily attacked by the larvae of Drosophila 

punctipennis (Franssen 1936). 


Larvae damage the fruit (Franssen 1936). 



Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on present distribution and known host 

range there is a low likelihood that it would establish in New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: The known hosts, except Sorghum, are not grown 

commercially in New Zealand. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: T. ruptilinea is likely to have only a 

minor impact on the environment due to the very limited known host range and lack 

of related plants in New Zealand flora. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian. Medium because 

the larvae bore into the fruit. 




INTERNATIONAL 

Franssen, CJH (1936) Two Borers in Durian-Fruits (Lep., Noctuidae and Pyralidae). Ent 

Meded Ned Indie. 1936 June 1st; 2(2): 30-32 

Kalshoven, LGE (1937) Insects in fresh and stored Illipe Nuts. Landbouw-. 1935 October 

1937 June; 11(4): 146-154 











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on 2004 Nov 24 


on 8-May-2006 





Achatina fulica 

IDENTITY 

Name: Achatina fulica Bowdich 1822 

Synonyms: Lissachatina fulica 

Organism type: mollusc 

Taxonomic position: Gastropoda: Achatinidae 

Common names: giant African snail 

SUMMARY 

This organism is a human health pest and a pest of plants of interest to Ministry of 

Health and MAF Plants Biosecurity. 

Although tropical in origin it has the potential to establish in the warmest regions of 

New Zealand. 

Plant Parts Affected: Leaves (Stout 1982); Whole plant, leaves, stems, bark, roots, 

growing points, fruit (CPCI 2005). 


Regulated 


A major pest that is highly polyphagous, multiplies rapidly and has an everincreasing 

distribution. The consequences for New Zealand would be 

considerable. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

A. fulica is a polyphagous pest. Its preferred food is decayed vegetation and animal 

matter, lichens, algae and fungi. However, the potential of the snail as a pest only 

became apparent after having been introduced around the world into new 

environments. It has been recorded on a large number of plants including most 

ornamentals, and vegetables and leguminous cover crops may also suffer 

extensively. The bark of relatively large trees such as citrus, papaya, rubber and 

cocoa is subject to attack. Poaceous crops (sugarcane, maize, rice) suffer little or no 

damage from this species. There are reports of A. fulica feeding on hundreds of 

species of plants. Vegetables of the genus Brassica are the most preferred food item 

from a range of various food plants tested (CPCI 2003). Some of the hosts are listed 

here. 

Hosts: Zingiber officinale (Stout 1982); Arachis hypogaea (groundnut), Artocarpus 

(breadfruit), Carica papaya (papaya), Cucurbita pepo (ornamental gourd), Dioscorea 


alata (white yam), Musa (banana), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Theobroma cacao 

(cocoa) (CPCI 2004); Durio zibethinus (durian) (Thailand Durian July 2003); 

Solanum melongena (eggplant) 


Citrus, Brassica, Carica papaya (papaya), Cucumis melo (melon), Daucus carota 

(carrot) (CPCI 2004). 


A. fulica was originally a native of East African coastal regions though, apart from 

Tanzania, there is no recent literature on its distribution and abundance in these 

countries. Its dispersal from Kenya and Tanzania has probably been checked by 

natural enemies, though it has most likely been long established in the several 

African countries (CPCI 2003). 

A. fulica owes most of its current wide distribution to human activity. It is now 

present everywhere in the Indo-Pacific except Banaba Island, Cook Islands, Lord 

Howe Island, Nauru, Norfolk Island, Pitcairn Island, Tokelau, Australia and New 

Zealand. In 1989 it was recorded on both Martinique and Guadeloupe in the 

Caribbean. It has a widespread distribution across eastern Brazilian states (in 

quantity in Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Parana and Santa Catarina). It is 

now present in the Marshall Islands and Western Samoa. It is also likely to have 

become an established part of the snail fauna of West Africa following reports from 

Côte d'Ivoire, and a shell has been identified in Morocco, the first discovery of this 

species from anywhere in the Palaearctic (CPCI 2003). 

Oceania: Hawaii, American Samoa, Belau, Federated states of Micronesia, Fiji, 

French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Northern 

Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, 

Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna (CPCI 2005),. 

Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, 

Christmas Island, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, 

Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam (CPCI 2005),. 

Africa: Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Morocco, Réunion, Seychelles, 

Tanzania (CPC 2001), Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Burundi, 

Rwanda, Congo Democratic Republic, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa 

and Madagascar (CPCI 2003),. 

North America: USA (CPC 2001),. 

Central America and Caribbean: Barbados, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia 

(CPC 2001),. 

South America: Brazil (CPC2001),. 


Sources that do not record presence: ESNZ 1977; CPCI 2005; PPIN 27/4/2005; 

Fauna of NZ No. 38; CAB abstracts search 27/4/2005. 

BIOLOGY 

Vector of: L. fulica can act as a vector of the human disease, eosinophilic meningitis, 

which is caused by the rat lungworm parasite, Angiostrongylus cantonensis. The 

parasite is passed to humans through eating raw or improperly cooked snails or 


freshwater prawns. It is therefore advisable to wash one's hands after handling the 

snail. However, Cowie (2000) states that many other introduced snails in the tropics 

are vectors of this parasite and the spread of the disease has not definitively been 

related to the spread of L. fulica. L. fulica has also been implicated in transmitting 

Phytophthora palmivora and related plant diseases (CPCI 2006). 

Life cycle: Although A. fulica is a tropical snail, it can survive cold conditions, even 

snow, by aestivating, though it is unable to establish itself in temperate regions. It is 

normally nocturnal and crepuscular in its habits, though it will become active in the 

daytime during rainy or overcast periods. This indicates that light, in addition to 

temperature, moisture and food, are all vital factors in snail activity. While the adult 

has an average lifespan of 5 to 6 years it may live for as long as 9 years. It will 

readily enter a state of aestivation and can survive for years in this state (CPCI 

2003). 

Like most snails, A. fulica is hermaphroditic and, after a single mating, can produce 

a number of batches of fertile eggs over a period of months. Early reports of selffertilization 

have since been discounted. It lays eggs in batches of 100 to 400 with up 

to 1200 being laid in a year. These hatch after about 8-21 days under tropical 

conditions. They are laid on the ground, often in the base of plants. The prodigality 

of A. fulica is renowned and the literature contains many anecdotes and astonishing 

estimates of the potential number of progeny if all were to survive. For example, 20 

tonnes of snails were collected on one day in Fiji just 4 years after its introduction 

(CPCI 2005). 


Like other snails assisted by human activity, A. fulica spreads as a hitchhiker on 

virtually anything it can crawl on to, particularly vehicles, in plant material or on 

goods that have been stored on the ground. The attractive shell is also sought by the 

collector. It has become well established in most of the countries to which it has 

been introduced, principally as a result of its rapid and prodigious reproductive rate 

and lack of natural enemies (CPCI 2003). 


It is considered by most authorities to be the most damaging land snail in the world. It 

has a voracious appetite and has been recorded as attacking over 50 different kinds 

of plants although it has a preference for breadfruit, cassava, cocoa, papaya, 

groundnut, rubber and most species of legumes and cucurbits. The economic impact 

of A. fulica was considered to be so profound that the new discipline of economic 

malacology was formulated by zoologist Albert Mead (1961, 1979) to take account 

of a pest species which appeared to be threatening the already inadequate food 

supplies in poor regions of the world. Mead devoted his book to the economic 

impact of A. fulica. There had been reports that the species would devour virtually 

anything found in the garden and Mead evaluated A. fulica as a major horticultural 

and agricultural pest (CPC 2001). 

However, many reports of widespread damage by A. fulica have been anecdotal and 

more recently Civeyrel and Simberloff (1996) suggest that the lasting impact of this 

species on agriculture may not be severe, and the human health risk is probably 


minor. They believe that the damage done to endemic species of snail by ill-judged 

biological control programmes outweighs the impact of the pest species. The 

dramatic population crashes commonly observed in populations of A. fulica, which 

had increased rapidly in size following introduction into new environments, may 

well lessen the deleterious long-term economic impact of the species, though it 

remains a serious pest in many areas (CPCI 2003). 

In garden plants and ornamentals of a number of varieties, and vegetables, all stages 

of development are eaten, leading to severe damage in those species that are most 

often attacked. Cuttings and seedlings, however, are the preferred food items, even 

of plants such as Artocarpus, which are not attacked in the mature state. In these 

plants damage is caused by complete consumption or removal of bark. Young snails 

up to about 4 months feed almost exclusively on young shoots and succulent leaves. 

The papaya appears to be the only fruit that is seriously damaged by A. fulica, 

largely as a result of its preference for fallen and decaying fruit. In plants such as 

rice, which are not targets of A. fulica, sheer weight of numbers can sometimes 

result in broken stems. In general, physical destruction to the cover crop results in 

secondary damage to the main crop, which relies on the cover crop for manure, 

shade, soil and moisture retention and/or nitrogen restoration. This in turn can result 

in a reduction in the available nitrogen in the soil and consequently marked erosion 

in steeper areas (CPCI 2003). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: A. fulica is likely to establish in the warmest 

regions. 

Potential impact within NZ: Should it establish in the warmest regions of New 

Zealand it could devastate vegetable, fruit and nursery crops. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: It is likely to have major impact on subtropical 

crops such as citrus, mango, kiwifruit and tamarillo. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Should it become established, it is likely 

to have a major effect in the warmest regions (Northland) as it could consume or 

damage virtually every type of plant. It could be particularly damaging to 

ecosystems reliant on seedlings for regeneration, and to those comprised 

predominantly of herbaceous plants. It is known to have displaced native snail 

populations where it has been introduced. Therefore, it could have a serious impact 

on indigenous flora and fauna. 

Human health: A. fulica can act as a vector of eosinophilic meningitis. 

Social impact: The biggest impact is its nuisance value as large numbers of snails 

build up. They are unsightly and the cadavers smell, especially where they are run 

over by traffic, which invariably happens during rapid population growth (CPCI 

2006) 

Control measures: The tendency for a number of aestivating snails to be present in an 

area at any time, particularly when conditions are optimum for activity, can make 

control measures difficult. Physical control can be efficient by making a strip of 1.5 

m-wide bare soil around nurseries. Barriers or screens can be constructed using 

corrugated tin, or security wire mesh, and ditches dug around fields. Snails can be 

collected each day and destroyed by crushing or drowning. The public can be 

involved in such collections by using organized campaigns (CPCI 2003). 


Ultimately, if control against A. fulica is to be effective it will have to involve some 

form of integration of other control methods. Srivastava et al. (1985) reviewed the 

biology and management of A. fulica in India with sections on its cultural, chemical 

and biological control. They noted the ineffectiveness of predatory molluscs or their 

susceptibility to molluscicides used against the pest species. An integrated approach 

was recommended using an aqueous extract of diseased A. fulica sprayed onto the 

snails and their food plants, in conjunction with non-molluscan snail predators such 

as the millipede, Orthomorha sp., and hermit crabs, Coenobita sp. An integrated 

approach is also recommended by the South Pacific Commission using chemical 

control by metaldehyde, and physical control using barriers of bare land around 

crops and collection after rain. The commission does not recommend the use of 

predatory snails as a control agent of A. fulica (CPCI 2003). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: breadfruit, papaya, 

eggplant, citrus, durian, ginger, squash. Low, due to juvenile and adults being on the 

surface of fruit; eggs are laid on the ground, usually at the base of the plant. 




INTERNATIONAL 

Fauna of New Zealand 38 








Stout, OO (1982) Plant quarantine guidelines for movement of selected commodities in 

the Pacific . UNDP/FAO - SPEC survey of agricultural pests and diseases in the South 

Pacific. Agricultural Bureaux; Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. 656pp. 


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Eutetranychus africanus 

IDENTITY 

Name: Eutetranychus africanus 

Synonyms: Eutetranychus sambiranensis 

Organism type: mite 

Taxonomic position: Acarina: Tetranychidae 

Common names: African red spider mite, tetranychid mite 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Leaves (Jeppson et al. 1975); Leaves, stems, fruit (Plant Health 

Australia 2004). 


Regulated 

E. africanus is likely to have a minor impact as it prefers warmer, dryer climates than 

that of New Zealand. In its current distribution it is a relatively minor plant pest. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

Hosts: Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), Plumeria spp. (frangipani) (Jeppson et al. 1975); 

Durio zibethinus (durian) (CPCI 2005); Ziziphus mauritiana (jujube) (Charanasri & 

Kongchuensin 2001); Gossypium (cotton) (Gutierrez & Etienne 1986) 


Citrus (CPCI 2005); Prunus persica (peach) (Jeppson et al. 1975); Eucalyptus spp. 

(IAPSC online 18/8/2005); Rosa (roses) (Gutierrez & Etienne 1986). 


Heavy rain is a limiting factor in the distribution of this species (Jeppson et al. 1975). 

Oceania: Papua New Guinea (unconfirmed) (CPCI 2005); New Caledonia (New 

Caledonia Pest List 12 March 2001),. 

Asia: Thailand (CPCI 2005), India, Mauritius (Jeppson et al. 1975),. 

Africa: Reunion (unconfirmed) (CPCI 2005); Egypt (Atalla & El Atrouzy 1987); 

South Africa (Jeppson et al. 1975),. 


Sources that do not record presence: Manson 1987; Ramsay 1980; PPIN 

(12/8/2005); Landcare databases (12/8/2005). 



Symptoms: Heavy infestations produce fine stippling on the leaves causing them to 

drop prematurely without turning brown (Jeppson et al. 1975). 


African red mite is considered of economic importance on citrus (Plant Health 

Australia 2004). It is an important pest of durian in Thailand, especially during the 

cool season (late October to early March). It sucks leaf juice at the upper surface of 

leaves. The pest multiplies rapidly during hot and dry weather conditions (IPM 

Thailand online 2/9/2005). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on its current distribution and host range, 

E. africanus is likely to establish in the warmer citrus-growing regions of New 

Zealand e.g. Bay of Islands, Northland. 

Potential impact within NZ: E. africanus is likely to have a minor effect on citrus 

crops grown in the dry, warmer regions. It may also have some effect on glasshouse 

roses, for example. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: The citrus and rose flower export industries 

are likely to be affected by reduced yields and possible extra measures required for 

the control of this mite. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The diverse range of known hosts is 

cause for concern with regard to indigenous plant species being potential hosts for 

this mite. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian, citrus. Mediumhigh, 

due to being small and likely to escape detection particularly on fruit with 

rough surfaces. 


Atalla, EAR; El Atrouzy, N (1971) Survey of mites associated with vegetable crops in 

U.A.R. Agricultural-Research-Review. 1971; 49(1): 116-117 

Charanasri, V; Kongchuensin, M (2001) Species and population densities of mites on 

jujube. Acarology: Proceedings of the 10th International Congress 2001; 419-422. 

Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. 



INTERNATIONAL 

Gutierrez, J; Etienne, J (1986) Tetranychidae of Reunion Island and some of their 

predators. Agronomie Tropicale 41(1): 84-91. 

Integrated Pest Management in Thailand online http://www.ipmthailand.org/en/index.htm 

Jeppson, L R; Keifer, H H; Baker, E W (1975) Mites injurious to economic plants. 

University of California Press; Los Angeles. 



Manson, D C M (1987) A list of New Zealand mites and their host plants. Science 

Information Publishing Centre; Wellington, New Zealand; DSIR Bulletin No. 240. 


Pests of Quarantine Importance in Africa List A2: Pests of Limited Distribution in Africa. 

IAPSC Plant Quarantine and Import Guidelines 68pp http://www.auappo.org/fr/IMG/pdf/pestslda.pdf 

Plant Health Australia (2004) National Citrus Industry Biosecurity Plan Version 1 April 

2004: Threat Identification, Pest Risk Analysis, and Incursion Management Funding 

Arrangements. 36pp. 

http://www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/citrus/threat_id/threat_id_pdfs/threat_id.pdf 






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Cochliobolus eragrostidis (anamorph 

Curvularia eragrostidis) 

IDENTITY 

Name: Cochliobolus eragrostidis (anamorph Curvularia eragrostidis) (Tsuda & 

Ueyama) Sivan. 1987 

Synonyms: Cochliobus eragrostidis, Pseudocochliobolis eragrostidis, Brachysporium 

eragrostidis, Spondylocladium maculans, Curvularia eragrostidis, Curvularia 

maculans 

Organism type: fungus 

Taxonomic position: Ascomycota: Dothideales: Pleosporaceae 

Common names: leaf spot, blossom blight 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Fruit (Lim et al. 2003); foliage (Dasgupta et al. 2005; ASPnet 

1/9/2005); seeds (Bailey & Muchovej 2001). 


Regulated 

Taxonomy: the anamorph/teleomorph combination [Cochliobolus eragrostidis, 

anamorph Curvularia eragrostidis] was given in Landcare database 9 May 2006. 

A seed-borne tropical pathogen with a wide host range. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

C. eragrostidis has a large host range, including trees, grasses, vegetables, and other 

herbaceous perennials (SBML database 19/8/2005). 

Hosts: Cocos nucifera (coconut), Dioscorea (yam), Elaeis, Elaeis guineensis (African 

oil palm), Oryza sativa (rice) (CPCI 2005); Cymbopogon, Digitaria, Eragrostis, 

Oryza, Panicum, Pennisetum, Rottboellia, Saccharum, Sporobolus (Sivanesan 1987); 

Durio zibethinus (durian) (Lim et al. 2003); Alysicarpus, Gossypium, Opuntia, 

Oryza (rice), Pennisetum, Tradescantia (Farr et al. 1989); Ananas comosus 

(pineapple), Codiaeum variegatum (croton) (ASPnet 1/9/2005); Bactris gasipaes 

(peach palm) (Benchimol & Albuquerque 1998) 


Asparagus officinalis (asparagus), Gladiolus hybrids (sword lily) (CPCI 2005); Zea 

(Farr et al. 1989); Allium cepa (onion), Capsicum annuum (green pepper), 


Dioscorea alata (sweet potato), Pinus (pine), Sorghum (SBML database); 

Sorghum, Triticum, Zea (Sivanesan 1987); orchids (Duff & Daly 2002); Camellia 

sinensis (tea) (Dasgupta et al. 2005). 


C. eragrostidis occurs in subtropical and tropical regions (Farr et al. 1989). C. 

eragrostidis has previously been reported as being present in New Zealand, based on 

a specimen from New Zealand identified by Sivanesan 1987. However, the 

specimen was an intercept from Australia (pers. com. Pennycook 2005), and cannot 

be used as evidence of this species being present in New Zealand. 

Oceania: Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands (Sivanesan 1987), 

Vanuatu (Vanuatu MAQFF August 2002), Australia (NT), (unconfirmed), (CPCI 

2005),. 

Asia: Bangladesh (unconfirmed), India (unconfirmed), Malaysia (CPCI 2005), 

Thailand (Niyom et al. 1999), Burma, Brunei, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Sri 

Lanka (Sivanesan 1987),. 

Africa: Nigeria (CPCI 2005), Zaire (Sivanesan 1987),. 

North America: USA (Sivanesan 1987),. 


Sources that do not record presence: Pennycook 1989; PPIN 12/8/2005; Landcare 

database 7/9/2005; CAB Abstracts (19/8/2005). 


Symptoms: C. eragrostidis causes tan leaf spot of croton, curvularia leaf spot of maize 

and curvularia blight on turf grasses (ASPnet 1/9/2005). It causes petal blight of 

orchids in Australia (NT) (Duff & Daly 2002), and firm, superficial lesions on 

durian fruit (Lim et al 2003). It causes brown needle disease of Pinus caribaea and 

Pinus oocarpa (Chin 1996). 


C. eragrostidis is seed-borne in grasses (Bailey & Muchovej 2001). 


In Brazil, C. eragrostidis is a main pathogen of yams (Ritzinger et al. 2003) and causes 

a severe leaf and petiole disease on peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) (Benchimol & 

Albuquerque 1998). It is also recorded as reducing seed germination by up to 48% in 

Striga hermonthica in Nigeria (Czerwenka et al. 1997). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on current distribution, it is likely that C. 

eragrostidis could establish in warmer regions of New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: C. eragrostidis is likely to have a minor impact on crops 

such as wheat and maize, and mostly in the warmer regions. Pasture grasses, 

asparagus, onion, green pepper and gladiolus are also likely to be affected. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Grain crops, such as wheat and maize are 

likely to be affected, also cut flowers such as gladiolus and orchids. 


Potential effect on the environment in NZ: The wide host range of this pathogen is 

cause for concern in that many indigenous plant species could be potential hosts, in 

particular native grasses and orchids. Infection of grass seeds is likely to affect 

natural pastureland, and also reduce food sources for seed-eating birds. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: durian (medium-high) as it 

may not be noticeable until post-harvest. 


Bailey, CC; Muchovej, J (2001) Seed pathology of native scrub grasses. Proceedings of 

the Florida State Horticultural Society. 2001; 114: 236-237 

Benchimol, RL; Albuquerque, FC de (1998) Report on Curvularia eragrostidis in peach 

palm (Bactris gasipaes) seedlings in the State of Para, Brazil. Fitopatologia-Brasileira. 

1998; 23(1): 80 

Chin, Fook Ho (1996) Brown needle disease of 2 pine species in Sarawak. Leaflet Forest 

Pathology Information Kuching. 1996; (5/96): 4 



INTERNATIONAL 

Czerwenka Wenkstetten, I M; Berner, D K; Schilder, A; Gretzmacher, R (1997) First 

report and pathogenicity of Myrothecium roridum, Curvularia eragrostidis, and C. 

lunata on seeds of Striga hermonthica in Nigeria. Plant Disease. 1997; 81(7): 832 CAB 

AN: 19981001627 

Dasgupta, S; Saha, D; Saha, A (2005) Levels of common antigens in determining 

pathogenicity of Curvularia eragrostidis in different tea varieties. Journal of Applied 

Microbiology. 2005; 98(5): 1084-1092 

Duff, J; Daly, A (2002) Orchid diseases in the Northern Territory. Agnote Northern 

Territory of Australia. 2002; (I3): 5 

Farr DF; Bills GF; Chamuris GP; Rossman AY (1989) Fungi on plants and plant products 

in the United States. American Phytopathological Society; St Paul. 

Farr, D.F., Rossman, A.Y., Palm, M.E., & McCray, E.B. (n.d.) Fungal Databases, 

Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. Retrieved on date stated, 

from http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ 



Lim TK; Sangchote S; Ploetz RC (ed.) (2003) Diseases of durian. Diseases of tropical 

fruit crops, p241-251. CABI Publishing; Wallingford; UK 

Niyom S; Leka M; Ubol K; Poonpilai S; Apirusht S; Ed: Oates CG (1999) Oomycetes, 

Deuteromycetes and Ascomycetes from agricultural soils in Sakolnakorn province. The 

37th Kasetsart University Annual Conference, 3-5 February, 1999; 248-255 

Pennycook SR (1989) Plant Diseases Recorded in New Zealand. Plant Diseases Division, 

DSIR, Auckland. 


Ritzinger, CHSP; Santos Filho, HP; Abreu, KCL de M; Fancelli, M; Ritzinger, R (2003) 

Phytosanitary aspects of yam cultivation. Documentos Embrapa Mandioca e 

Fruticultura. 2003; (105): 34 



Sivanesan, A (1987) Graminicolous species of Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, 

Exserohilum and their teleomorphs. Mycological Papers 158; 261 pp. 


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Meliola durionis 

IDENTITY 

Name: Meliola durionis Hansf. 1957 


Taxonomic position: Ascomycota: Meliolales: Meliolaceae 

Common names: sooty mould 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Leaves, flowers, fruit (Lim et al. 2003; Thailand Durian July 

2003). 


Regulated 

A minor pest of its only host, durian, a plant not grown in New Zealand.. 

HOSTS 

Monophagous. 

Durian is the only documented host (CAB Abstracts, internet search). 

Hosts: Durio zibethinus (durian) (Lim et al. 2003; Thailand Durian July 2003) 


Asia: Malaysia (Malaysia durian 2004), Thailand (Thailand Durian July 2003),. 


Sources that do not record presence: Pennycook 1989, PPIN (22/8/2005), 

Landcare database (22/8/2005). 


This is the only black mildew known on durian (Lim et al. 2003). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Not likely to establish because the host plant is 

not grown in New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: M. durionis is not likely to have any impact because 

durian is not grown in New Zealand. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: No impact likely. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: No impact likely. 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fresh fruit/vegetables: Durian: medium due to 

pathogen being on the fruit surface but might be difficult to see. 





2003 64pp 



INTERNATIONAL 





Lim TK; Sangchote S; Ploetz RC (ed.) (2003) Diseases of durian. Diseases of tropical 

fruit crops, p241-251. CABI Publishing; Wallingford; UK 






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Phomopsis sp. 

IDENTITY 

Name: Phomopsis sp. 


Taxonomic position: mitosporic fungi (Coelomycetes): Sphaeropsidales: 

Sphaerioidaceae 

Common names: rot, dieback, leaf spot, petiole rot, postharvest rot, phomopsis petiole 

rot, stem gall 

SUMMARY 


There are more than 800 species of Phomopsis recorded worldwide, many with 

Diaporthe teleomorphs. There is still much confusion about the taxonomy of 

Phomopsis and the genus needs reviewing. 

Plant Parts Affected: Fruit, twigs, branches (Lim & Sangchote 2003); fruit (Thailand 

mangosteen October 2004). 



The seriousness of Phomopsis will depend on the particular species. 

HOSTS 

Individual Phomopsis species may be monophagous or polyphagous. For example 

Phomopsis citri (teleomorph = Diaporthe citri) is only found on Citrus species and 

Phomopsis vaccinii (Diaporthe vaccinii) is only recorded on Vaccinium (blueberry) 

species. The major host of Phomopsis longicolla is Glycine max (soyabean), but it is 

also found on numerous other hosts such as Allium spp., Arachis hypogaea 

(groundnut), Capsicum frutescens (chilli), Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Lupinus 

(lupins), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Phaseolus spp. (beans) and Pisum 

sativum (pea). 

Hosts: Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) (Lim & Sangchote 2003); Durio zibethinus 

(durian) (Salakpetch 2000) 


The distribution range of Phomopsis species varies. Phomopsis citri (Diaporthe citri) is 

found wherever citrus are grown, whereas Phomopsis vaccinii (Diaporthe vaccinii) 

is largely restricted to North America. 

Asia: Thailand (Lim & Sangchote 2003),. 



Sources that record presence: Phomopsis species present in New Zealand include 

Phomopsis castanea, P. (Diaporthe) citri, P. obscurans, P. sclerotioides and 

Phomopsis viticola (Landcare database 9 May 2006). 



Potential for establishment in NZ: Establishment will depend on the particular 

species. It is likely that many species would be able to establish in many parts of 

New Zealand. 

Potential impact within NZ: Impact would be dependant on the particular Phomopsis 

species. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Impact would be dependant on the particular 

Phomopsis species. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: Impact would be dependant on the 

particular Phomopsis species. 


fruit rots may not be evident until after harvest. 


CAB INTERNATIONAL, 2000 Edition. Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, 

UK: CAB INTERNATIONAL. 




Lim TK; Sangchote S (2003) Diseases of mangosteen. In: Ploetz RC (Ed.) Diseases of 

tropical fruit crops p365-372 




Salakpetch, Surmsuk (2000) Durian Production in Thailand. A paper delivered to the 

Hawaii Tropical Fruit Growers Tenth Annual Tropical Fruit Conference Hilo, Hawaii. 

21 October 2000 


Thailand mangosteen (October 2004) Pest list of mangosteen in Thailand. Thailand 

Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 


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Phytophthora palmivora 

IDENTITY 

Name: Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) Butler 1919 

Synonyms: Kawakamia carica, Phytophthora carica 


Taxonomic position: Oomycota: Pythiales: Pythiaceae 

Common names: black rot, phytophthora fruit rot, phytophthora leaf spot, 

phytophthora rot, root and stem rot 

SUMMARY 


Plant Parts Affected: Whole plant, leaves, stems, roots, inflorescence, fruits, pods, 

growing points (CPCI 2005); primarily pods, but can also attack leaves, stems, buds 

and roots (MacKenzie et al. 1983). 


Regulated 


A serious tropical and subtropical pest. 

HOSTS 

Polyphagous. 

P. palmivora infects more than 200 species of economic, ornamental, shade and hedge 

plants. In cool temperate countries, it is occasionally recorded on material imported 

from the tropics. All palms are potentially affected; Cocos nucifera and Areca 

catechu are most commonly infected (CPCI 2005). 

Hosts: Primary hosts: Areca catechu (betelnut palm), Carica papaya (papaw), Cocos 

nucifera (coconut), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Theobroma cacao (cocoa) 

Secondary hosts: Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut), Ananas comosus 

(pineapple), Annona, Areca, Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Citrus, Citrus x paradisi 

(grapefruit), Durio zibethinus (durian), Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm), Ficus 

carica (common fig), Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton), Manihot esculenta 

(cassava), Manilkara zapota (sapodilla), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Palmae (plants 

of the palm family), Piper nigrum (black pepper) (CPCI 2005). Also found on 

Mangifera indica (mango) (ASPnet 2/9/2005); Dimocarpus longan (Coates et al. 

2003); Litchi chinensis (Thailand lychee October 2004); mangosteen (SBML 2005) 



Citrus x paradisi (grapefruit) (CPCI 2005); Allium spp. (Farr et al. 1989); Avocado 

(CAB). 


P. palmivora is typically found in tropical (warm) and subtropical (temperate) countries 

with high rainfall and occurs widely throughout the world (CPCI 2005). 

Oceania: Australia, American Samoa, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, 

Northern Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, 

Vanuatu (CPCI 2005),. 

Asia: Afghanistan, Brunei Darussalam, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Jordan, 

Lebanon, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand 

(CPCI 2005),. 

Africa: Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Congo Democratic 

Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, Madagascar, 

Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, Nigeria, Réunion, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, 

Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe (CPCI 

2005),. 

North America: Mexico, USA (CPCI 2005),. 

South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Colombia, Ecuador, 

Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela (CPCI 2005),. 

Europe: France, Greece, Italy, Spain (CPCI 2005),. 


Sources that do not record presence: Pennycook 1989, PPIN (16/12/2004), 

Landcare Database (listed as absent) 16 Dec 2004. 

BIOLOGY 

Strains, biotypes, pathovars, subspecies, etc.: There is evidence of differential 

pathogenicity to cocoa and coconut as well as variation in the levels of 

aggressiveness of different isolates, but the presence of formae speciales adapted to 

each host has yet to be proven conclusively (CPCI 2005). 

Life cycle: Phytophthora palmivora survives dry periods as dormant chlamydospores, 

oospores (when produced) or dormant mycelium in the soil, in root infections, in 

plant debris or in stem and branch cankers. All of these can produce sporangia and 

zoospores when the rains return. Chlamydospores are also formed in diseased cocoa 

pods, and in coconut and papaya fruit tissues, and are the most important of the 

survival structures produced (CPCI 2005). 

Low initial inoculum builds up rapidly by repeated cycles of sporangia and zoospore 

production due to very short regeneration time. For example, the first visible 

symptoms of black pod disease develop within 7 hours of P. palmivora zoospores 

contacting a cocoa pod (CPCI 2005). 


Symptoms: The top portion of the fruit-bearing region of the papaya stem is very 

susceptible to infection during rainy periods. Stem cankers in this area causes many 

young fruit and leaves to fall prematurely and renders the tree top susceptible to 

wind damage. Older portions of stems also become infected after an extended rainy 


period and develop horizontal water-soaked lesions along old leaf scars. The infected 

area may enlarge and weaken the stem, causing the plant to break off in a strong 

wind. In poorly drained areas, P. palmivora initially attacks lateral roots of papaya. 

The disease later extends to the tap root and the whole root system becomes brown, 

soft, and shredded. Trees become stunted, leaves turn yellow and hang limply 

around the stem, leaving only a few small leaves at the apex of the tree. The infected 

tree eventually dies. Papaya roots are especially susceptible to P. palmivora in the 

first 3 months after planting of seeds. During this period, root infection results in 

yellowing of leaves, premature defoliation and eventual death of the seedlings. 

Occasionally, the fungus destroys only a portion of the roots before the plant 

becomes somewhat resistant with age. Under dry conditions, the disease may cease 

to develop and the plant resumes normal growth. Trees with a heavy load of fruit are 

often easily blown over by winds because of damage to the root system (Crop 

Knowledge Master (online) 07-01-2002). 


P. palmivora can be transported internally in most plant parts including fruit, flowers, 

leaves, seeds, bulbs, and bark (CPCI 2005). Rain and wind are the two major factors 

in the epidemiology of Phytophthora fruit rot of papaya. Rain splash is needed for 

liberation of sporangia of P. palmivora from the surface of infected fruit into the 

atmosphere and for projection of the soil inoculum into air. Wind is required for 

dispersal of the inoculum once it reaches the air. Therefore, wind-blown rain is 

essential for initiation of the primary infection and the development of epidemics in 

papaya orchards (Crop Knowledge Master (online) 07-01-2002). 


In 1985, worldwide losses of cocoa due to black pod and stem canker were estimated at 

£1.54 billion and recent estimate attributes 44% of the total global crop loss to black 

pod disease. P. palmivora is a serious pathogen in West Africa where over 60% of 

global cocoa is produced. Pod rot and stem canker caused cocoa pod losses of up to 

63% and the death of up to 10% of trees annually on Kar Kar Island, Papua New 

Guinea. Black stripe is a serious disease in China, Côte d'Ivoire and Sri Lanka, but is 

less severe in India, Malaysia and Thailand and only sporadic and controllable in 

Brazil, Nigeria and the Philippines, although occasional severe outbreaks occur in 

Brazil (CPCI 2005). 

Budrot disease is found in 22 countries and it is economically important in 

Indonesia, the Philippines, India, the Pacific Islands and Jamaica and often causes 

severe losses due to loss of entire trees. Budrot disease is a serious disease in 

Indonesia, the Philippines, Oceania, India and the Caribbean. Premature nutfall 

disease is moderately important in Jamaica and West Africa, where it is principally 

caused by Phytophthora katsurae (CPCI 2005). 

Losses due to papaya root rot in south-eastern Queensland exceeded 8000 plants in 

1955/56 and more than 20% of plants were destroyed in one papaya plantation in 

central Taiwan in 1975. Pineapple heart rot is a problem in Australia, the 

Philippines, South Africa and Thailand, but worldwide losses are highly variable 

(CPCI 2005). 


Injured papaya fruits are prone to fungal rotting caused by R. stolonifer and 

Phytophthora palmivora (Morton 1987 online 12/8/2003). 


Potential for establishment in NZ: Based on current distribution, P. palmivora is 

likely to be able to establish in warmer parts of New Zealand, such as Auckland and 

Northland. 

Potential impact within NZ: Likely to have an important impact on citrus, avocado 

and onion production. 

Potential impact on exports from NZ: Exports yields are likely to be reduced by 

lower fruit yields and poor fruit quality. 

Potential effect on the environment in NZ: This fungus is known to cause damage to 

palms, and is therefore likely to be a threat to the native palm, Rhopalostylis sapida, 

should the fungus establish in New Zealand. 

Control measures: The soilborne nature of this disease makes it particularly difficult 

to control in areas where it becomes established, as contact fungicides are ineffective 

and resistance may develop to systemic fungicides. Soil fumigation with methyl 

bromide or aerated steaming of soil is effective in nursery operations, but may allow 

a rapid build-up of a pathogen, if introduced subsequently, due to the absence of 

competitors (CPCI 2005). 

Entry potential into New Zealand: Fruit infected shortly before harvest may not 

show symptoms until after they have been held in storage for a few days (Timmer et 

al. 2000). Fresh fruit/vegetables breadfruit, citrus, durian, papaya, mango, high 

Fresh fruit/vegetables: longan, mangosteen: Medium because fruit rots may not be 

evident until after harvest. 


Coates LM; Sangchote S; Johnson GI; Sittigul C (2003) Diseases of longan, lychee and 

rambutan. In: Ploetz RC (ed.) (2003) Diseases of tropical fruit crops, p307-325. CABI 

Publishing; Wallingford; UK 

Common Names of Plant Diseases. The American Phytopathological Society online 

http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/top.asp 


Crop Knowledge Master (http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crop.htm) 


INTERNATIONAL 



Farr, D.F., Rossman, A.Y., Palm, M.E., & McCray, E.B. (n.d.) Fungal Databases, 

Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. Accessed in 2005, from 

http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ 



MacKenzie DR; Elliott VJ; Kidney BA; King Ed; Royer MH; Theberge RL (1983) 

Application of modern approaches to the study of the epidemiology of diseases caused 

by Phytophthora. In: Erwin DC; Bartnicki-Garcia S; Tsao PH, editors (1983) 


Phytophthora: Its biology, taxonomy, ecology and pathology. APS Press, The 

American Phytopathological Society. 392p. 

Morton, J. 1987. Papaya. p. 336–346. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, 

Miami, FL. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/papaya_ars.html 









Timmer, L W; Garnsey S M; Graham J H (2000) Compendium of Citrus Diseases. 

Second Edition. American Phytopathological Society Press; 92 pp.

Durian from Thailand Datasheets - Biosecurity New Zealand

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