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1th<br />

<strong>International</strong> Congres<br />

on Eng<strong>in</strong>er<strong>in</strong>g and Fod<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> a Chang<strong>in</strong>g W orld<br />

Congress Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

Volume III

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 i

FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING<br />

IN A CHANGING WORLD<br />

Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the<br />

11 th <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

and <strong>Food</strong> (ICEF11)<br />

VOLUME III<br />

Editors<br />

Petros S. Taoukis<br />

Nikolaos G. Stoforos<br />

Vaios T. Karathanos<br />

George D. Saravacos<br />

ATHENS, GREECE<br />

2011<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 iii

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> a Chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>World</strong><br />

Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the 11 th <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong>,<br />

May 22-26, 2011, Athens, Greece.<br />

ICEF 11 Secretariat:<br />

Professor Petros Taoukis<br />

School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

National Technical University of Athens<br />

Athens 15780 Greece<br />

e-mail: icef11@chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

Technical & Scientific ICEF11 Editorial Team:<br />

Dr. Efimia Dermesonluoglu, Dr. Eleni Gogou, Dr. Virg<strong>in</strong>ia Giannou, John<br />

Tzigounakis<br />

National Technical University of Athens<br />

Published by:<br />

Cosmosware, Ag. Ioannou 53, Athens, Greece, 0030 2106013922<br />

cosmosware@ath.forthnet.gr<br />

All papers appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ICEF11 Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs were Peer Reviewed for acceptance by at least<br />

two <strong>in</strong>dependent reviewers from the Scientific Committees.<br />

Copyright © NTUA, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Athens 2011<br />

SET ISBN: 978-960-89789-6-6<br />

ISBN: 978-960-89789-5-9<br />

iv

ICEF11 ORGANIZERS<br />

Organizer:<br />

National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

Co-Organizers:<br />

- Agricultural University of Athens<br />

- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki<br />

- Harokopion University of Athens<br />

- Technical Chamber of Greece<br />

Executive Committee:<br />

President Prof. George Saravacos,<br />

President of the <strong>International</strong> Association for <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong><br />

Secretary Prof. Petros Taoukis, National Technical University of Athens<br />

Treasurer Prof. Magda Krokida, National Technical University of Athens<br />

Members Prof. Vaios Karathanos, Harokopion University of Athens<br />

Prof. Harris Lazarides, Agricultural University of Thessaloniki<br />

Prof. Nikolaos Stoforos, Agricultural University of Athens<br />

Prof. Constant<strong>in</strong>a Tzia, National Technical University of Athens<br />

-Technical Chamber of Greece<br />

Prof. Stavros Yanniotis, Agricultural University of Athens<br />

<strong>International</strong> Honorary Committee:<br />

J. Aguilera (Chile)<br />

G.V. Barbosa-Canovas (USA)<br />

Z. Berk (Israel)<br />

J.J. Bimbenet (France)<br />

D. Farkas (USA)<br />

D.R. Heldman (USA)<br />

B. Hallstrom (Sweden)<br />

R. Jowitt (UK)<br />

M. Karel (USA)<br />

D. Knorr (Germany)<br />

T.P. Labuza (USA)<br />

P. L<strong>in</strong>ko (F<strong>in</strong>land)<br />

D. Lund (USA)<br />

B. McKenna (Ireland)<br />

A. Mujumdar (S<strong>in</strong>gapore)<br />

H. Schubert (Germany)<br />

H. Schwartzberg (USA)<br />

R.P. S<strong>in</strong>gh (USA)<br />

W.E.L. Spiess (Germany)<br />

J. Welti-Chanes (Mexico)<br />

T. Yano (Japan)<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 v

ICEF11 SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEES<br />

<strong>International</strong> Scientific Committee:<br />

Abram, Veronika<br />

Afoakwa, Emmanuel Ohene<br />

Aguilera, Jose, Miguel<br />

Ahrne, Lilia<br />

Akterian, Stepan, G.<br />

Alvarez, Graciela<br />

Alzamora, Stella<br />

Bakalis, Serafim<br />

Balaban, Murat<br />

Balasubramaniam, V.M. (Bala)<br />

Balla, Csaba<br />

Barbosa-Canovas, Gustavo<br />

Becker, Thomas<br />

Blahovec, Jiri<br />

Boom, Remko Marcel<br />

Boudrant, Joseph<br />

Buckow, Roman<br />

Buera, Maria del Pilar<br />

Chen, Hongda<br />

Chernukha, Ir<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Chirife, Jorge<br />

Choi, Yong-Hee<br />

Ciprovica, Inga<br />

Clark, J. Peter<br />

Cleland, Don<br />

Costa, Rui<br />

Cunha, Luis Miguel<br />

Cullen, Patrick J.<br />

Dalla Rosa, Marco<br />

Datta, Ashim<br />

Davidson, Valerie J.<br />

De Carvalho, Rosemary Aparecida<br />

De P<strong>in</strong>ho, Samantha Crist<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Dejmek, Petr<br />

Del Valle, Jose Manuel<br />

Devahast<strong>in</strong>, Sakamon<br />

Dumoul<strong>in</strong>, Elisabeth<br />

Efremov, German Ivanovich<br />

Erdogdu, Ferruh<br />

Evans, Judith<br />

Farkas, Brian E.<br />

Fekete, Andras<br />

Feng, Hao<br />

Fiki<strong>in</strong>, Kostad<strong>in</strong><br />

Fito, Pedro J.<br />

Floros, John D.<br />

Frias, Jesus M.<br />

Fryer, Peter<br />

Furuta, Takeshi<br />

Gekas, Vassilis<br />

Gonzalez-Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, Chelo<br />

Gutierrez-Lopez, Gustavo F.<br />

Havet, Michel<br />

He<strong>in</strong>z, Volker<br />

Heldman, Dennis R.<br />

Hendrickx, Marc E.G.<br />

Houska, Milan<br />

Hub<strong>in</strong>ger, Miriam Dupas<br />

Hung, Yen-Con<br />

Ives, Don<br />

Karwe, Mukund<br />

Kaufmann, Stefan F.M.<br />

Kaymak-Ertek<strong>in</strong>, Figen<br />

Knorr, Dietrich<br />

Kok<strong>in</strong>i, Jozef<br />

Krijgsman, Ardjan<br />

Kristbergsson, Kristberg<br />

Labuza, Theodore<br />

Laur<strong>in</strong>do, Joao Borges<br />

Lebovka N.I., Nikolai<br />

Lewicki, Piotr P.<br />

Li, Shu-Jun<br />

Liao, Xiaojun<br />

Liapis, Athanasios<br />

Lillford, Peter<br />

Lo, Mart<strong>in</strong> Y.<br />

Lund, Daryl<br />

Marcotte, Michele<br />

Mascheroni, Rodolfo H.<br />

Masi, Paolo<br />

McCarthy, Michael<br />

McElhatton, Anna<br />

McKenna, Brian<br />

Miyawaki, Osato<br />

Moresi, Mauro<br />

Mujumdar, Arun Sadashiv<br />

Mulet, Antonio<br />

Murray, Andrew<br />

Nakanishi, Kazuhiro<br />

Nedovic, Viktor<br />

Nguyen, M<strong>in</strong>h<br />

Nicolai, Bart<br />

Niranjan, Keshavan<br />

O’Donnell, Colm<br />

Okos, Mart<strong>in</strong><br />

Omobuwajo, Taiwo<br />

Ortega-Rivas, Enrique<br />

Ozilgen, Mustafa<br />

Ozkan, Necati<br />

Payne, Fred<br />

Pedreschi, Franco<br />

Pham, Tuan<br />

Pittia, Paola<br />

Popa, Mona Elena<br />

Poutanen, Kaisa<br />

Purwadaria, Hadi<br />

Rahman, Shafiur<br />

Ramaswamy, Hosahalli S.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 vii

Rao, Anandha (Andy)<br />

Raspor, Peter<br />

Razavi, Seyed M.A.<br />

Reid, David<br />

Roos, Yrjo<br />

Sablani, Shyam<br />

Saguy, Sam<br />

Sastry, Sudhir K.<br />

Schubert, Helmar<br />

Shimoni, Eyal<br />

Silva, Crist<strong>in</strong>a L.M.<br />

Simpson, Ricardo<br />

National Scientific Committee:<br />

Adamopoulos, Konstant<strong>in</strong>os G.<br />

Bezirtzoglou, Eugenia<br />

Biliaderis, Costas G.<br />

Christakopoulos, Paul<br />

Giannakourou, Maria<br />

Goula, Athanasia<br />

Karapantsios, Thodoris D.<br />

Karathanos, Vaios<br />

Kekos, Dimitris<br />

Kiranoudis, Chris<br />

Kolisis, Fragiskos<br />

Kontom<strong>in</strong>as, Michael<br />

Kostaropoulos, Athanasios<br />

viii<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gh, R. Paul<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gh, R.R.B.<br />

Sobral, Paulo Jose do Amaral<br />

Spiess, Walter E.L.<br />

Sun, Da-Wen<br />

Suzuki, Kanichi<br />

Teixeira, Arthur A.<br />

Tiwari, Brijesh<br />

Torreggiani, Danila<br />

Trystram, Gilles<br />

Tsotsas, Evangelos<br />

Tuzhilk<strong>in</strong>, Vyacheslav Ivanovitch<br />

Koulouris, Alexandros<br />

Kout<strong>in</strong>as, Apostolis<br />

Koutsoumanis, Kostas<br />

Krokida, Magda<br />

Lambr<strong>in</strong>os, Grigoris<br />

Lambropoulos, Athanasios<br />

Lazarides, Harris<br />

Lazos, Evangelos<br />

Mallidis, Constant<strong>in</strong>os<br />

Mandala, Ioanna<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>os-Kouris, Dimitrios<br />

Maroulis, Zacharias<br />

Marousis, Stratis<br />

Van de Voort, Frederick<br />

Van der L<strong>in</strong>den, Erik<br />

Van Impe, Jan<br />

Venskutonis, Rimantas<br />

Voilley, Andree<br />

Vorobiev, Eugene<br />

Welti-Chanes, Jorge<br />

W<strong>in</strong>dhab, Erich J.<br />

Wu, James Swi-Bea<br />

Zhou, Weibiao<br />

Zwieter<strong>in</strong>g, Marcel<br />

Nychas, George-John<br />

Oreopoulou, Vassiliki<br />

Papadakis, Spyridon<br />

Raphaelides, Stylianos N.<br />

Skandamis, Panagiotis<br />

Stoforos, Nikolaos<br />

Taoukis, Petros<br />

Tzia, Constant<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Valdramidis, Vassilis<br />

Xanthopoulos, George<br />

Xenakis, Aristotelis<br />

Yanniotis, Stavros<br />

Zogzas, Nikolaos

ICEF11 is organized under the auspices of the<br />

<strong>International</strong> Association for <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong><br />

(IAEF).<br />

ICEF 11 Institutional Supporters<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The 11 th <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> has been supported by<br />

the follow<strong>in</strong>g companies and <strong>in</strong>stitutions:<br />

Golden Sponsor<br />

Delta<br />

Silver Sponsors<br />

Technical Chamber of Greece<br />

Nestlé<br />

Sponsors<br />

Federation of Hellenic <strong>Food</strong> Industries (SEVT)<br />

Coca-Cola 3E<br />

Creta Farm<br />

D. Nomikos<br />

Papadopoulos<br />

Elsevier<br />

Hellenic Association of Chemical Eng<strong>in</strong>eers<br />

M<strong>in</strong>erva S.A.<br />

Sara Lee<br />

Unilever<br />

Agricultural Cooperatives Union Aeghion-Greece<br />

Diversey Hellas<br />

Gaea<br />

INO<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xi

xii

PREFACE<br />

The present book is part of the three volume Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the 11 th<br />

<strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> (ICEF11) which took place <strong>in</strong><br />

Athens, Greece, May 22-26, 2011. The Congress was under the auspices of the<br />

<strong>International</strong> Association for <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> (IAEF). It was organized by<br />

the School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> of the National Technical University of<br />

Athens and the Agricultural University of Athens, the Aristotle University of<br />

Thessaloniki, the Harokopion University of Athens and the Technical Chamber<br />

of Greece.<br />

Participation <strong>in</strong> ICEF 11 exceeded 1100 scientific papers presented by<br />

colleagues from 70 countries. All papers were reviewed by at least two<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent members of an extended <strong>International</strong> Scientific Committee.<br />

All submitted papers were assigned to 11 Scientific Topics: <strong>Food</strong> Materials<br />

Science, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Properties of <strong>Food</strong>s, Advances <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> Technology,<br />

Novel <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong>es, <strong>Food</strong> Product <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> & Functional <strong>Food</strong>s, <strong>Food</strong><br />

Waste <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Hygienic Design and Operation of <strong>Food</strong> Plants, Model<strong>in</strong>g &<br />

Control of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong>es, <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> Design & Economics, Model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Food</strong><br />

Safety & Quality, and Innovation Management.<br />

The 1 st Volume conta<strong>in</strong>s the papers of the 415 Oral Presentations, while the 2 nd<br />

and 3 rd Volumes conta<strong>in</strong> the papers of the Poster Presentations. An<br />

accompany<strong>in</strong>g CD conta<strong>in</strong>s the extended electronic version of all papers <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />

<strong>in</strong> the three Volumes.<br />

The Editors wish to thank the members of the Organiz<strong>in</strong>g and Scientific<br />

Committees; their valuable contribution and help is greatly appreciated.<br />

Petros Taoukis<br />

Nikolaos Stoforos<br />

Vaios Karathanos<br />

George Saravacos<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xiii

xiv

Emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies<br />

CONTENTS-VOLUME III<br />

NOVEL FOOD PROCCESSES<br />

Mass transfer of fruit slices <strong>in</strong> hypertonic solution<br />

F. A. Fazli, N. A. Fazli<br />

Nanofiltration treatment of waste br<strong>in</strong>e obta<strong>in</strong>ed from sugar decoloriz<strong>in</strong>g res<strong>in</strong><br />

regeneration<br />

F. Salehi, S.M.A. Razavi<br />

<strong>Process</strong> development of ready-to-eat custard cream filled ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun<br />

S. Chaiwanichsiri, N. Poonnakasem, K. Laohasongkram<br />

Decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of spices by us<strong>in</strong>g a pulsed light treatment<br />

M. Moreau, I. Nicorescu, A.S. Turp<strong>in</strong>, A. Agoulon, S. Chevalier, N. Orange<br />

Acceleration of precipitation formation <strong>in</strong> peach juice <strong>in</strong>duced by high-pressure<br />

carbon dioxide<br />

L. Zhou, Y. Zhang, X. Liaor, X. Hu<br />

Effect of the electric field on the vitam<strong>in</strong>s A, C and E alone and added to<br />

avocado paste<br />

R.R.R. de la Torre, M.G.M. Ramos, Ma.R.R. López, J.A.A. Ortega, F.J.M. Montes<br />

Effect of vacuum impregnation treatments to improve quality and texture of<br />

Zucch<strong>in</strong>i (Cucurbita pepo, L.)<br />

E. Occh<strong>in</strong>o, I. Hernando, P. Pittia<br />

Qualitative characteristics of sugar beet juices obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> pilot extractor with<br />

pulsed electric field (PEF) pre-treatment<br />

K. Log<strong>in</strong>ova, E. Vorobiev, N. Lebovka<br />

Modell<strong>in</strong>g microbial load reduction <strong>in</strong> foods due to ozone impact<br />

E.M.C. Alexandre, T.R.S. Brandão, C.L.M. Silva<br />

Use of organic acids on their own and <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation for decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

fresh vegetables and herbs as an alternative to chlor<strong>in</strong>e<br />

S. Bulut, E. Ograsc<br />

Use of a Weibullian model to characterize microbial <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> apple juice<br />

processed with ultraviolet light<br />

E. Mytil<strong>in</strong>aki, S. Guerrero, S.M. Alzamora<br />

Detection of pork freshness us<strong>in</strong>g NIR hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

D.F. Barb<strong>in</strong>, G. ElMasry, D.-W. Sun, P. Allen<br />

Impact of non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma on quality relevant food<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients<br />

B. Surowsky, F. Zülicke, O. Schlüter, D. Knorr<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xv<br />

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1611<br />

1613<br />

1615<br />

1617<br />

1619<br />

1621<br />

1623<br />

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Effect of pulsed light and ascorbic acid/CaCl2 dipp<strong>in</strong>g on rheological properties<br />

of fresh-cut apples<br />

P.L. Gómez, D.M. Salvatori, S.M. Alzamora<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g a pasteurization process of clarified apple juice based on pulsed<br />

ultraviolet light<br />

I. Kasahara, P. Grogg, L. Aguilar<br />

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus paracasei us<strong>in</strong>g Spray Gun technology<br />

M. Jiménez, E. Jiménez, E. Azuara, G. Luna, C.I. Berista<strong>in</strong><br />

Concentration of a vegetal enzymatic extract by microfiltration<br />

A.S.C. Teles, S.C. Terzi, L.F.M. Silva, F.S. Gomes, I.V.M. Moraes, A.S. Egito, L.M.C.<br />

Cabral, V.M. Matta<br />

Fresh produce decontam<strong>in</strong>ation by an atmospheric pressure plasma-jet<br />

M. Baier, M. Görgen, A. Fröhl<strong>in</strong>g, M. Geyer, W.B. Herppich, J. Ehlbeck, D. Knorr,<br />

O. Schlüter<br />

Intensification of process of water-thermal treatment of wheat gra<strong>in</strong> before<br />

bread flour mill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

O. Safonova, O. Razborskaya, V. Yuferov, O. Ozerov<br />

The effect of abiotic stress pre-treatments on quality attributes of fresh-cut<br />

carrot cv. Nantes<br />

C. Alegria, J. P<strong>in</strong>heiro, M. Duthoit, E.M. Gonçalves, M.T. Coelho, M. Moldão-Mart<strong>in</strong>s,<br />

M. Abreu<br />

Yogurt from ultrasound treated milk: monitor<strong>in</strong>g of fermentation process and<br />

evaluation of product quality characteristics<br />

P. Sfakianakis, C. Tzia<br />

Effect of sonication on malt<strong>in</strong>g behaviour of barley<br />

E. Dutheil, B. Tiwari, M. Gupta, P.J. Cullen, C. Brennan, C. O'Donnell<br />

High pressure process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

A mathematical approach for us<strong>in</strong>g multiple enzyme based pressuretemperature-time<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrators (PTTIs) for high pressure process evaluation<br />

E. Gogou, P.Taoukis<br />

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatments on physicochemical properties,<br />

microbial quality and sensory attributes of beef carpaccio<br />

N. Szerman, Y. Barrio, B. Schroeder, P. Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, A. Sancho, C. Sanow, S.R. Vaudagna<br />

Rheological properties of high pressure milk cream<br />

G. Donsì, G. Ferrari, P. Maresca<br />

Effects of HHP comb<strong>in</strong>ed with blanch<strong>in</strong>g on microorganisms and qualities of<br />

cloudy and clear strawberry juices<br />

X. Cao, Y. Zhang, X. Liao, X. Hu<br />

Effect of high pressure homogenization process on Bacillus stearothermophilus<br />

and Clostridium sporogenes spores <strong>in</strong> skim milk<br />

C.R.G. P<strong>in</strong>ho, M.A. Franchi, A.A.L. Tribst, M. Cristian<strong>in</strong>i<br />

xvi<br />

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1639<br />

1641<br />

1643<br />

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1647<br />

1649<br />

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1653<br />

1655<br />

1657<br />

1659<br />

1661

Effect of ultra high pressure homogenization on alkal<strong>in</strong>e phosphatase and<br />

lactoperoxidase activity <strong>in</strong> raw skim milk<br />

C.R. G. P<strong>in</strong>ho, M.A. Franchi, A.A.L. Tribst, M. Cristian<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> texture, structure and pect<strong>in</strong> of peach dur<strong>in</strong>g pressurization, heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

or process<strong>in</strong>g of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced jam<br />

H. Kuwada, Y. Jibu, K. Nakamura, M. Tabuchi, Ai. Teramoto, K. Ishii, Y. Kimura, M.<br />

Fuchigami<br />

Effects of high pressure with the addition of sugar-alcohol on the improvement<br />

<strong>in</strong> texture and structure of frozen egg custard gel<br />

A. Teramoto, Y. Jibu, H. Kuwada, Y. Kimura, K. Ishii, M. Fuchigami<br />

<strong>Process</strong> variables study on supercritical CO2 extraction of Brazilian cherry seeds<br />

(Eugenia uniflora L.) rich <strong>in</strong> bioactive volatile<br />

D. Nascimento e Santos, L.L. de Souza, N.J. Ferreira, A.L. de Oliveira<br />

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) microbial k<strong>in</strong>etics <strong>in</strong> orange comm<strong>in</strong>uted<br />

V. Serment-Moreno, Z. Escobedo-Avellaneda, J. Welti-Chanes<br />

Research development of ultra-high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g on fruit juice<br />

W. Han, Z. Yunchuan, H. Q<strong>in</strong>ghua, Z. Youb<strong>in</strong><br />

Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on antioxidant activity, m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch<br />

content and bioaccessibility, <strong>in</strong> apple (Granny smith)<br />

V. Briones-Labarca, G. Venegas-Cubillos, S. Ortiz-Portilla, M. Chacana-Ojeda, H.<br />

Maureira<br />

Microbiological stabilization of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) gel by high<br />

hydrostatic pressure treatments<br />

J.E. Reyes, G. Tabilo-Munizaga, M. Guanoquiza, A. Vega-Galvez, M. Miranda, M.<br />

Pérez-Won<br />

Establishment of a process<strong>in</strong>g method for tofu us<strong>in</strong>g high pressure compared to<br />

the heat <strong>in</strong>duced method<br />

Y. Jibu, K. Nakamura, A. Teramoto, H. Kuwada, M. Fuchigami<br />

Enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion under High Pressure: New <strong>in</strong>sights<br />

S. Mahadevan, M.V. Karwe<br />

Structural changes of pect<strong>in</strong> methylesterase from orange peel subjected to<br />

thermal and high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Z. Alexandrakis, T. Papadopoulos, F. Stavros, G. Katsaros, P. Katapodis, G. Nounesis,<br />

P. Taoukis<br />

Innovative value propositions for the food <strong>in</strong>dustry through non-thermal<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g techniques<br />

F. Purroy, C. Tonello<br />

<br />

Separation and purification processes<br />

Fractionation of liquid egg yolk: Influence of chemical and structural<br />

characteristics of egg yolk granular and plasma fraction on the cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

centrifugal separation process<br />

T. Strixner, M. Betz, U. Kulozik<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xvii<br />

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1683<br />

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xviii

Bioprocess<strong>in</strong>g eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Characterization of novel cholesterol esterase from Trichoderma sp. AS59 with<br />

high ability to synthesize steryl esters<br />

A. Maeda, N. Hashitani, T. Mizuno, M. Bunya<br />

Recovery of an antibacterial peptide fraction from snow crab by-products<br />

hydrolysate by electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes<br />

A. Doyen, L. Saucier, L. Beaulieu, Y. Pouliot, M. Araya-Farias, L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et<br />

Prospection of bacterial endophytes isolated from Baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.)<br />

as a potential source of bioactive compounds<br />

G. Mol<strong>in</strong>a, A.P. Dionísio, M.R. Pimentel, G.T. Makita, R.C. dos Reis, G.M. Pastore<br />

Biotransformation of R-(+)- and S-()-limonene by Fusarium oxysporum<br />

G. Mol<strong>in</strong>a, R.L. da Costa, A.P. Dionísio, J.L. Bicas, G.M. Pastore<br />

Novel food processes<br />

Pulsed light decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of vegetables and fruits<br />

G. Pataro, G. Donsì, G. Ferrari<br />

Shelf life extension of fresh-cut fruit by UV-light exposure<br />

L. Manzocco, S. Da Pieve, I. Bartolomeoli, M. Maifreni<br />

Effect of ozonation on the sensory characteristics and past<strong>in</strong>g properties of<br />

cassava starch<br />

E.O.C. Amorim, V.C. Doval, M. Cristian<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Production of antioxidant enriched cranberry juice by electrodialysis with<br />

filtration membrane: impact of process on juice composition<br />

L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et, S. Brianceau, M. Araya-Farias, Y. Desjard<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Effect of sunflower oil applied by vacuum impregnation to refrigerated atlantic<br />

salmo<br />

L. Puente, J. Ortiz, M. Leiva, S. Aubourg<br />

Production of Mucor griceocyanus protease us<strong>in</strong>g different carbon sources <strong>in</strong><br />

submerged fermentation<br />

A. Ramírez, J. Sánchez, A. Il<strong>in</strong>á, J.C. Dusted Mendoza, J. Rodríguez, J.L. Martínez<br />

Evaluation of MAP design parameters on quality of fresh-cut produce<br />

F. Oliveira, M. Sousa-Gallagher, P. Mahajan, J. Teixeira<br />

Rational method for design<strong>in</strong>g efficient food separation processes by<br />

chromatography. “Polyphenol-ethanol/water system with polymer-res<strong>in</strong>s”<br />

M. Hosono, R. Maeda, N. Yoshimoto, S. Yamamoto<br />

<strong>Food</strong>-grade emulsions prepared by membrane emulsification techniques<br />

F. Spyropoulos, R.D. Hancocks, I.T. Norton<br />

Use of supercritical CO2 for the <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus niger <strong>in</strong>oculated on<br />

sta<strong>in</strong>less steel plates surface<br />

M.A. da Silva, J. de Souza Ferreira, B.T. Iamanaka, F.S. Kihara, R.S. Cutolo, T.G.<br />

Kieckbusch<br />

1721<br />

1723<br />

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1731<br />

1733<br />

1735<br />

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1741<br />

1743<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xix<br />

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Non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of foods<br />

R. Steele, C. Kerjean<br />

MODELING FOOD SAFETY & QUALITY<br />

New technologies for the evaluation of quality and safety<br />

Estimation of peroxidase activity <strong>in</strong> red cabbage by artificial neural network<br />

(ANN)<br />

I. Shahabi Ghahfarrokhi, A. Daraei Garmakhany, S.M. Mousavi<br />

Quality classification of corn tortillas by means of cross validation between<br />

sensorial evaluation and computer vision system<br />

J.J. Chanona-Pérez, D. Mery, A. Soto, J.M. Aguilera, A. Cipriano, N. Veléz-Rivera, I.<br />

Arzate-Vázquez, G.F. Gutiérrez-López<br />

Effect of microwave blanch<strong>in</strong>g on acrylamide content and quality attributes of<br />

french fries<br />

S. Tuta, K. Palazoglu, V. Gökmen<br />

Effects of application of tranglutam<strong>in</strong>ase <strong>in</strong> wheat prote<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

production of bread<br />

E.Ap. Guastaferro Seravalli, A. Miwa Iguti, I.Ap. Santana, F. F<strong>in</strong>ardi Filho<br />

Agrophysical methods to determ<strong>in</strong>e bioenergetic status of agricultural<br />

products<br />

J. Horabik, P. Baranowski, J. Tys<br />

Separation between high and low quality coffees by FTIR-ATR<br />

A.S. Franca, A.P. Craig, L.S. Oliveira<br />

Effect of temperature on biospeckle activity <strong>in</strong> apples<br />

A. Kurenda, A. Adamiak, A. Zdunek<br />

Implementation of DNA technology <strong>in</strong> a Greek dairy company: An overview<br />

E. Beletsiotis, D. Ghikas, K. Kalantzi<br />

Sensorial characteristics of goat milk cheeses made from ultra high-pressure<br />

homogenization-treated milk<br />

B. Juan, J.M. Quevedo, B. Guamis, V. Ferragut, A.J. Trujillo<br />

User-friendly software predict<strong>in</strong>g the microbial spoilage of emulsified acid<br />

foods<br />

S.G. Manios, A. Psomas, P.N. Skandamis<br />

Detection of fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on leafy greens by hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

S. Kang, K. Lee, J.-G. Lim, M.S. Kim<br />

Detection of mushroom Virus X (MVX) <strong>in</strong>fection <strong>in</strong> asymptomatic<br />

mushrooms us<strong>in</strong>g FTIR microscopic imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

L. Alvarez-Jubete, F. Bonnier, H. Byrne, H. Grogan, J.M. Frias<br />

Design and validation of sensory focused processes of foods<br />

C. Tzia, V. Giannou, D. Lebesi, D. Sabanis, V. Polychniatou, P. Sfakianakis, C.<br />

Chranioti, P. Moutsatsou<br />

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1751<br />

1753<br />

1755<br />

1757<br />

1759<br />

1761<br />

1763<br />

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1767<br />

1769<br />

1771<br />

1773<br />

1775

Rapid HPTLC-based method for quality control: simultaneous chemical<br />

analysis and antioxidant activity determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> herbal, nutraceutical and<br />

functional foods<br />

K. Muñoz, J. Calderón, E. Osorio, D. Castro, R. Serna, J. Díaz, J. Londoño<br />

Nondestructive evaluation of watermelon ripeness us<strong>in</strong>g LDV<br />

R. Abbaszadeh, A. Rajabipour, H. Ahmadi, M. Mahjoob, M. Delshad<br />

Effect of pasteurization on bioactive am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> human milk<br />

F.F. Silva, M.B.A. Gloria<br />

Integration of new/rapid methods and ICTs to improve food safety and<br />

quality<br />

D. Lebesi, A. Bilbao, A.I. Díaz, I. Papadaki, V. Oreopoulou<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g of quality and safety and predictive microbiology<br />

Commercial characterization of Madalenas: Relationship between physical<br />

and sensory parameters<br />

M.M. Ureta, D.F. Olivera, V.O. Salvadori<br />

Integrat<strong>in</strong>g stra<strong>in</strong> variability <strong>in</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g Salmonella enterica growth<br />

A. Lianou, K. Koutsoumanis<br />

A study on germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and mycelium growth k<strong>in</strong>etics of s<strong>in</strong>gle fungal<br />

spores<br />

M. Gougouli, K. Koutsoumanis<br />

Quantify<strong>in</strong>g the comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of salt and temperature on the growth of<br />

Listeria stra<strong>in</strong>s isolated from salmon and salmon process<strong>in</strong>g environments<br />

T. Skåra, A.M Cappuyns, E. Van Derl<strong>in</strong>den, J.T. Rosnes, V.P. Valdramidis, J.F.M.<br />

Van Impe<br />

Modell<strong>in</strong>g thermosonication <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus flavus comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

natural antimicrobial at different pH<br />

C.P. Coronel, M.T. Jiménez, A. López-Malo, E. Palou<br />

Survival of Bifidobacterium longum <strong>in</strong> model solutions and fruit juices<br />

S. Nualkaekul, I. Salmeron, D. Charalampopoulos<br />

Inactivation k<strong>in</strong>etics of attached Escherichia coli cells on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel and<br />

fresh-cut apples by hydrogen peroxide dis<strong>in</strong>fection treatments<br />

S. Raffell<strong>in</strong>i, S. Ortiz, S.N. Guerrero, S.M. Alzamora<br />

Bi-phasic growth of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A <strong>in</strong> Modified<br />

Welshimer’s broth at 7, 10 and 14°C<br />

N.A. Tyrovouzis, A.S. Angelidis, N.G. Stoforos<br />

Reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic of white chocolate color loss<br />

D.C.P. Jardim, AG. Orse, P. Efraim, S.C.S.R. de Moura<br />

Available lys<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> powdered <strong>in</strong>fant formula as described by reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics<br />

I. Schmitz, A. Gianfrancesco, U. Kulozik, P. Foerst<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxi<br />

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1781<br />

1783<br />

1785<br />

1787<br />

1788<br />

1789<br />

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1795<br />

1797<br />

1799<br />

1801

K<strong>in</strong>etic modell<strong>in</strong>g of colour changes dur<strong>in</strong>g beef roast<strong>in</strong>g<br />

S.M. Goñi, V.O. Salvadori<br />

Instrumentation of a semi-<strong>in</strong>dustrial oven to monitor non-enzymatic<br />

brown<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

M. Courel, B. Rega, S. Fehaili, P. Giampaoli, C. Bonazzi<br />

Degradation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural <strong>in</strong> malt dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation of beer<br />

G. Akllolu, B. Ataç Mogol, V. Gökmen<br />

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e<br />

P. Prokopiou, A.M. Goula, N.G. Stoforos<br />

Quality degradation of butterhead lettuce: the performance of General<br />

Stability Index (GSI) modified methodology<br />

M.V. Agüero, S.I. Roura<br />

A MALST method comparison over univariate k<strong>in</strong>etic modell<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Shelf life <strong>in</strong> cereal snack of dried apples<br />

J. Saavedra, A. Córdova, C. Quezada<br />

Modulation of thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of protease dur<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic hydrolysis<br />

of salmon muscle<br />

P. Valencia, N. Bustos, S. Almonacid<br />

Risk assessment and safety assurance<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk by HPLC marker as evidence of<br />

cattle-food storage conditions from the herd suppliers of a dairy company <strong>in</strong><br />

the city of Valledupar<br />

E. Fragoso, T. David, S. Romero, H. Osp<strong>in</strong>o<br />

Use of a Poisson-gamma regression model to assess the process hygiene<br />

criterion for Enterobacteriaceae on Irish sheep carcasses<br />

U. Gonzales-Barron, F. Butler<br />

Improvement of harvest<strong>in</strong>g and process<strong>in</strong>g of cultivated fresh water prawn<br />

(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)<br />

T.C.A. Silva, L.S. Arrieche<br />

Assess<strong>in</strong>g the conditions of milk production on farms based on family farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

M. da Penha Piccolo Ramos, F.C.N.N.Silva, L. Oliveira de Fariña, C. L. de Oliveira<br />

P<strong>in</strong>to<br />

Regeneration of fry<strong>in</strong>g oils by us<strong>in</strong>g adsorbent res<strong>in</strong>s<br />

N. Göncüolu, B.Atac Mogol, V. Gökmen<br />

Extend<strong>in</strong>g shelf life of watercress by means of alternative sanitizers and<br />

modified atmosphere packag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

C. Char, P. Villena, A. H<strong>in</strong>ojosa, V. Escalona<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g the effect of acid and osmotic shifts above and across the growth<br />

boundaries on the adaptation and growth of Listeria monocytogenes<br />

C.-I. A. Belessi, S.I. Merkouri, A.S. Gounadaki, S. Schvartzman, K. Jordan, E.H.<br />

Dros<strong>in</strong>os, P.N. Skandamis<br />

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Effect of contam<strong>in</strong>ation stage and <strong>in</strong>oculum history on the survival and<br />

growth of Listeria monocytogenes <strong>in</strong> semi-hard and hard cheese<br />

C.-I.A. Belessi, S. Arapaki, A.S. Gounadaki, P.N. Skandamis<br />

Inoculated pack study of an <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg patty<br />

M. Richardson, A. Sikes, C. Lee, S. Walker<br />

HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> public hospitals: a survey <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece<br />

E. Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis, A. Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki, G. Kyriakidis, A. Markaki, G.A. Fragkiadakis<br />

HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> local food <strong>in</strong>dustry: a survey <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece<br />

E. Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis, A. Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki, G. Kyriakidis, A. Markaki, G.A. Fragkiadakis<br />

Management and optimization of the food cha<strong>in</strong>-from production to<br />

consumption<br />

A simplified method for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the sour cassava starch expansion<br />

property<br />

M. Janete Angeloni Marcon, D. Jacob Kurtz, M. Marasch<strong>in</strong>, V. Reg<strong>in</strong>atto, I. Mott<strong>in</strong><br />

Demiate, E.R. Amante<br />

Influence of room temperature on food safety <strong>in</strong> refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et<br />

O. Laguerre, M. Hoang, G. Alvarez, D. Flick<br />

Antemortem and postmortem biochemistry, drip loss and lipid oxidation of<br />

European sea bass muscle tissue<br />

C. Nathanailides, S. Panopoulos, F. Kakali, C. Karipoglou, D. Lenas<br />

Impact of <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g and subsequent storage conditions on the safety<br />

and keep<strong>in</strong>g quality of sard<strong>in</strong>es<br />

K. Chatzikyriakidou, E. Katsanidis<br />

Survival of Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

thaw<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g of ground beef patties, simulat<strong>in</strong>g common household<br />

practises<br />

S.G. Manios, T. Giovanis, A. Lalechou, P.N. Skandamis<br />

European food, technology and nutrition declaration (EFTN Declaration)<br />

P. Raspor, L. Baša<br />

Optimization of shelf life distribution of frozen fish products based on<br />

modell<strong>in</strong>g and TTI monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />

M.N. Giannoglou , M. Loukianou, K. Tsatsaragou, T. Tsironi, P.S. Taoukis<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g food safety and quality<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g of Greek coffee aroma loss dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at different temperatures<br />

and water activities<br />

E. Makri, D. Tsimogiannis, E. Dermesonluoglu, P. Taoukis<br />

Comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of meat composition and heat<strong>in</strong>g parameters on the<br />

physicochemical state of prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

A. Promeyrat, L. Le Louët, A. Kondjoyan, T. Astruc, V. Santé-Lhoutellier, P. Gatellier,<br />

J.D. Daud<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxiii<br />

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1839<br />

1841<br />

1843<br />

1845<br />

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1851<br />

1853<br />

1855

Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e levels <strong>in</strong> dry fermented sausages produced and sold <strong>in</strong> Greece<br />

E.J. Papavergou<br />

Spore <strong>in</strong>activation by ultraviolet irradiation comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with different preheat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

treatment<br />

D. Hamanaka, H. Yamada, T. Kadoyanagi, V. Tryvittayasil, F. Tanaka, T. Uch<strong>in</strong>o<br />

Aroma profile of different salted dried codfishes<br />

M. Costa Silva, L.R. Silva, P. Guedes-de-P<strong>in</strong>ho, P. Andrade, P. Valentão, R. Costa<br />

Influences of pH and temperature on <strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopic features of brewed<br />

coffee<br />

A. Hashimoto, Y. Sugimoto, K.-I. Suehara, T. Kameoka<br />

Comparison of wild and farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L) lipid quality<br />

D. Lenas, S. Chatziantoniou, C. Nathanailides, D. Triantafillou<br />

Coupl<strong>in</strong>g between heat and mass transfer and stoechio-k<strong>in</strong>etic models to br<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to maillard reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g of sponge-cake products<br />

C. Pénicaud, B. Broyart, D. Goujot, M. Courel, X.-M. Meyer, C. Bonazzi<br />

A methodology for the certification of food-serv<strong>in</strong>g services accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

Mediterranean dietary model<br />

E. Grigoroudis, A. Psaroudaki<br />

Bactericidal effect of electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g (EO) water on E. coli O157:H7-<br />

and Salmonella-<strong>in</strong>oculated beef, chicken, and shrimp<br />

J. Weese, T.-S. Huang<br />

Predict<strong>in</strong>g persimmon puree colour as a result of puree strength manipulation<br />

A.R. East, X.H. Tan, J. Suntudprom<br />

Occurrence of furan <strong>in</strong> commercial samples of roasted coffee <strong>in</strong> Brazil<br />

A.P. Arisseto, E. Vicente, M.S. Ueno, M.C.F. Toledo<br />

Potential of furan formation <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee as <strong>in</strong>fluenced by species and roast<br />

degree<br />

A.P. Arisseto, E. Vicente, M.S. Ueno, S.A.V. Tfouni, M.C.F. Toledo<br />

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Byssochlamys nivea <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

prelim<strong>in</strong>ary high pressure treatments<br />

E.H. da Rocha Ferreira, A. Rosenthal, V. Calado, J. Saraiva, S. Mendo, P. Rodrigues<br />

De Massaguer<br />

Role of spices on acrylamide formation <strong>in</strong> buckwheat g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes<br />

L. Marková, Z. Ciesarová, K. Kukurová, H. Zieliski, D. Zieliska, A. Bednáriková<br />

Detection of deoxynivalenol <strong>in</strong> wheat flour us<strong>in</strong>g fluorescence f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t<br />

J. Sugiyama, K. Fujita, M. Tsuta, M. Kushiro<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g of growth and ochratox<strong>in</strong> A production of Aspergillus carbonarius<br />

and evaluation <strong>in</strong> food matrices: effect of (gel) microstructure, water activity,<br />

and temperature<br />

A.E. Kapetanakou, A. Abavi, S. Yanniotis, E.H. Dros<strong>in</strong>os, P.N. Skandamis<br />

Modell<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>-mouth perception the case of sodium<br />

B.J.D. Le Révérend, I.T. Norton, S. Bakalis<br />

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1877<br />

1879<br />

1881<br />

1883<br />

1885<br />

1887

Furan derivatives dynamic <strong>in</strong> rye bread process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

V. Ozol<strong>in</strong>a, D. Kunkulberga, B. Cieslak, M. Obiedz<strong>in</strong>ski<br />

The effects of eracleum platytaenium boiss essential oil on the growth of<br />

ochratoxigenic penicillium verrucosum (D-99756) isolated from kashar cheese<br />

S. Ozcakmak, M. Dervisoglu, A. Akgun, A. Akc<strong>in</strong>, T. Ayta Akc<strong>in</strong>, F. Seyis<br />

The <strong>in</strong>hibition of contam<strong>in</strong>ated molds by some essential oils <strong>in</strong> cheeses<br />

S. Ozcakmak, A. Akgun, M. Dervisoglu<br />

Fungicidal aga<strong>in</strong>st Aspergillus flavus and decontam<strong>in</strong>ate Aflatox<strong>in</strong> B1 with<br />

Neutralized and Acidic electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g water<br />

Li Lite, Xiong Ke<br />

<br />

<br />

ADVANCES IN FOOD PROCESS TECHNOLOGY<br />

<br />

Cool<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Influence of different <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> types on bread quality <strong>in</strong> the process of freez<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

thaw<strong>in</strong>g<br />

J.S. Filipovi, .B. Psodorov, N.K. Filipovi, V.S. Filipovi<br />

Thermal analysis of strawberry preservation by cool<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

A.-G. Ghiaus, C. Vasilescu<br />

Effects on Xe hydrate formation for texture <strong>in</strong> vegetable tissue<br />

H. Ando, T. Suzuki, K. Kajiwara, Y. Kawagoe, Y. Mak<strong>in</strong>o, S. Oshita<br />

The potential of ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g systems for reduc<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration loads and<br />

sav<strong>in</strong>g energy<br />

S.J. James, C. James<br />

Industrial superchill<strong>in</strong>g, a practical approach<br />

A.M. Stevik, I.C. Claussen<br />

<br />

Thermal process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Evaluation of thermal resistance and efficiency of palm ole<strong>in</strong> and canola oils <strong>in</strong><br />

fry<strong>in</strong>g of potato chips<br />

A. Rafe, S. Bolourian, G. Goli Movahhed, M. Afshari<br />

Assessment of furfurol derivatives: food risk factors <strong>in</strong> natural apricot and peach<br />

juice<br />

C. Jianu, I. Cocan, I. Jianu<br />

Numerical evaluation of liquid food heat sterilization <strong>in</strong> a brick-shaped package<br />

P.E.D. Augusto, M. Cristian<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Effect of steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g on the destruction of corn starches<br />

L.H. Ferng, S.H. Chen, Y.A. L<strong>in</strong><br />

Experimental studies and <strong>in</strong>terpretation of pistachio nut roast<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

G. Trystram, R. Yeganeh<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxv<br />

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1891<br />

1893<br />

1895<br />

1897<br />

1899<br />

1901<br />

1903<br />

1905<br />

1907<br />

1909<br />

1911<br />

1913<br />

1915

Heat transfer analysis-based prediction of prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and umami<br />

component of meat dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

N. Ishiwatari, M. Fukuoka, N. Hamada, N. Sakai<br />

Effect of steam cook<strong>in</strong>g of food on mass transfer<br />

E. Descours, E. Ferret, N. Valance, A. Voilley, A.-M. Seuvre<br />

Development of experimental devices <strong>in</strong> order to study the <strong>in</strong>teractions between<br />

heat and mass phenomena and thermal degradation reactions of lipids dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

domestic reheat<strong>in</strong>g of pre-fried food products<br />

J. Cernela, . Heyd, . Broyart<br />

The effect of UHT and VAT thermal process<strong>in</strong>g systems on whey prote<strong>in</strong><br />

denaturation and gel strength of yoghurt<br />

A. Labropoulos, T. Varzakas, S. Anestis<br />

Application of ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g to whole egg<br />

T. Nakai, M. Fukuoka, N. Sakai<br />

Transient mass and heat transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g potato deep fat fry<strong>in</strong>g - The effect of<br />

the oil type, fry<strong>in</strong>g load and <strong>in</strong>itial fry<strong>in</strong>g temperature<br />

J.S. Lioumbas, M. Kostoglou, T.D. Karapantsios<br />

<br />

<br />

Innovation <strong>in</strong> traditional process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Acceptance of Iron Fortified Rice (I-Rice) <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es to Combat Iron<br />

Deficiency Anemia (IDA)<br />

E.M. San Juan, N.O. Camitan, A.C. Natividad, M.U. Gochangco, L.D. Alku<strong>in</strong>o, A.R.<br />

Cariso, Jr., A.O. Lustre, A.W. Tejada<br />

Quality characteristics and dry<strong>in</strong>g behaviour of muff<strong>in</strong>s baked <strong>in</strong> steam assisted<br />

and convectional ovens<br />

M. Sak<strong>in</strong> Yilmazer, H. Isleroglu, T. Kemerli, O. Ozdestan, G. Guven, F. Kaymak-<br />

Ertek<strong>in</strong>, A. Uren, B. Ozyurt<br />

Study of an <strong>in</strong>novative comb<strong>in</strong>ation between microwaves and enzymes applied to<br />

bakery products<br />

T. De Pilli, A. Derossi, R. Giuliani, C. Sever<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Effective removal of heavy metal <strong>in</strong> some fish sauce products by tann<strong>in</strong> treatment<br />

T. Sasaki, T. Michihata, S. Nakamura, T. Enomoto, T. Koyanagi, H. Taniguchi, M.<br />

Aburatani, M Koudou, K. Tokuda<br />

Crispy air-dried p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs: optimization of process<strong>in</strong>g parameters<br />

G. Cortell<strong>in</strong>o, P. Pani, D. Torreggiani<br />

Extraction of polyphenols from grape seeds by unconventional methods and<br />

extract concentration through polymeric membrane<br />

D. Liu, E. Vorobiev, R. Savoire, J.-L. Lanoisellé<br />

Performance of bov<strong>in</strong>e and ov<strong>in</strong>e liquid whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate on functional<br />

properties of set yoghurts<br />

M. Henriques, D. Gomes, D. Rodrigues, C. Pereira, M. Gil<br />

xxvi<br />

1917<br />

1919<br />

1921<br />

1923<br />

1925<br />

1927<br />

1929<br />

1931<br />

1933<br />

1935<br />

1937<br />

1939<br />

1941

Manufacture of gelat<strong>in</strong>-based films us<strong>in</strong>g extrusion: Assessment of extrusion<br />

parameters on film properties<br />

Z.A. Nur Hanani, E. Beatty, Y.H. Roos, J.P. Kerry<br />

Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g microwave and jet-imp<strong>in</strong>gement <strong>in</strong> a oven prototype<br />

G. Ruocco, M.V. De Bonis, F. Marra<br />

The sequential ventilation of cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g rooms: an eco-design approach?<br />

P.-S. Mirade, B. Perret, H. Guillem<strong>in</strong>, D. Picque, C. Callon, M.-C. Montel, G. Corrieu<br />

Influence of additives on white t<strong>in</strong> loaf alveolloli formation<br />

C. Dom<strong>in</strong>gues, P. Prazeres, P. Correia<br />

Textural properties of vegetables: a key parameter on ultrasonic assisted<br />

convective dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

C. Ozuna, J.A. Cárcel, J.V. Santacatal<strong>in</strong>a, A. Mulet, J.V. García-Pérez<br />

The <strong>in</strong>fluence of palm oil quality on the ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

K.A. Sampaio, J.V. Ayalla, S.M. Silva, R. Ceriani, R. Verhé, A.J.A. Meirelles<br />

Challenges and solutions of a novel muscle-food process<strong>in</strong>g technology: acid and<br />

alkal<strong>in</strong>e solubilization<br />

P.K. Vareltzis, K.G. Adamopoulos, H.O. Hult<strong>in</strong> †<br />

Effect of various prote<strong>in</strong>s on characteristics and synerisis of tzatziki<br />

A.G. Stefanakis, E.K. Stavrakakis, K.G. Adamopoulos, P.K. Vareltzis, A.M. Goula<br />

High-power ultrasound-assisted pasteurisation of honey<br />

D. Kabbani, F. Sepulcre, J. Wedek<strong>in</strong>d, E. Gaston<br />

Fourier transform <strong>in</strong>frared (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis of biodegradable<br />

gelat<strong>in</strong> films immersed <strong>in</strong> water<br />

Z.A. Nur Hanani, Y.H. Roos, J.P. Kerry<br />

Effects of edible chitosan- l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage coat<strong>in</strong>g on quality and shelf life of<br />

fresh-cut strawberry<br />

L.E. Pérez Cabrera, G.C. Díaz Narváez, A. Tecante Coronel, C. González Martínez<br />

How to apply acrylamide mitigation tools <strong>in</strong> food technology<br />

Z. Ciesarová, K. Kukurova, L. Markova, J. Sadecka<br />

Coconut water process<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g ultrafiltration and pasteurization<br />

L.A. Nakano, W.F. Leal Jr., D.G.C. Freitas, L.M.C. Cabral, E.M. Penha, A.L. Penteado,<br />

V.M. Matta<br />

<br />

Concentration and dehydration processes<br />

Progressive freeze-concentration: Improvement and applications<br />

O. Miyawaki<br />

Study of color and shr<strong>in</strong>kage of Physalis peruviana dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g by<br />

computer vision<br />

L. Puente, C. P<strong>in</strong>to, E. Echegaray, E. Castro, M. Cortés<br />

Optimization of osmotic dehydration process coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

granny smith apples<br />

A. Sepúlveda, S. Sastry, J. Moreno, H. Nuñez, S. Almonacid, R. Simpson<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxvii<br />

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1945<br />

1947<br />

1949<br />

1951<br />

1953<br />

1955<br />

1957<br />

1959<br />

1961<br />

1963<br />

1965<br />

1967<br />

1969<br />

1971<br />

1973

Analysis of the quality attributes of osmotically dehydrated mango<br />

M.A. Khan, L. Ahrné, J. Oliveira<br />

Osmotic dehydration process coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g granny smith<br />

apples and its effects on product quality<br />

R. Simpson, C. Farias, V. Med<strong>in</strong>a, S. Almonacid, H. Nuñez<br />

Physico-chemical, rheological and sensory properties of shamia date sheets<br />

K. Youssef, A. Shatta, T. Moussa-Ayoub, S. El-Samahy<br />

Colour stability of sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves dur<strong>in</strong>g freeze process<strong>in</strong>g steps<br />

K. Youssef, A. Shatta, A, Al-Sanabani, S, El-Samahy<br />

Study on comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g for scallion<br />

Y. Li, S. Li, B. Yang, Q. Han, J. Ma, D. Zhao<br />

Experimental study of vacuum discharge <strong>in</strong> microwave freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

Y. Cao, S. Li, B. Yang, F. Zhao, D. Su, Q. Zhao<br />

Ultrasound application as pre-treatment for dry<strong>in</strong>g of fruits<br />

F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues<br />

A basic <strong>in</strong>vestigation on <strong>in</strong>stant coffee production by vacuum belt dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

K. Burmester, A. Pietsch, R. Eggers<br />

Shr<strong>in</strong>kage of papaya (Carica papaya L.) dur<strong>in</strong>g convctive dry<strong>in</strong>g: Influence of<br />

glass transition phenomenon<br />

L.E. Kurozawa, M.D. Hub<strong>in</strong>ger, K.J. Park<br />

Influence of sucrose replacement on colour and texture of kiwi jam<br />

E. Rosa, I. Pe<strong>in</strong>ado, A. Heredia, A. Andrés<br />

Influence of dry and wet osmotic dehydration on colour and texture of a spread<br />

kiwi product<br />

I. Pe<strong>in</strong>ado, E. Rosa, A. Heredia, A. Andrés<br />

Quality assessment of dried eggplant us<strong>in</strong>g different dry<strong>in</strong>g methods: hot air<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g, vacuum freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g and atmospheric freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

J.V. Santacatal<strong>in</strong>a, C. Ozuna, J.A. Cárcel, J.V. García-Pérez, A. Mulet<br />

Effect of Fluidized-bed dry<strong>in</strong>g on the microstructure of higuerilla seeds (Ric<strong>in</strong>us<br />

communis). An alternative source of prote<strong>in</strong> and biofuel<br />

J.J. Chanona Pérez, E. Terrés Rojas, J.A. Mendoza Pérez, H.M. Hernández, G.F.<br />

Gutiérrez López, V. Garibay Febles, M. de Jesús Perea Flores<br />

A simple mathematical model proposed to predict k<strong>in</strong>etics of mass transfer <strong>in</strong><br />

osmotic dehydration of muskmelon<br />

J. Lucena Barbosa, D.G. Correa Moreira Rocha, M.I. Mart<strong>in</strong>s Jac<strong>in</strong>tho Barbosa, M.<br />

Cordeiro Manc<strong>in</strong>i, M. Dupas Hub<strong>in</strong>ger<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g characteristics of Açaí (Euterpe oleracea)<br />

A.M. Barbosa Neto, L.G. Marques, M.M. Prado<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong> C content of freeze-dried tropical fruits<br />

L.G. Marques, M.M. Prado, J.T. Freire<br />

Rehydration characteristics of freeze-dried avocado (Persea americana)<br />

D.S. Souza, J.D.R. Pimentel, M.M. Prado, L.G. Marques, N. Nara<strong>in</strong><br />

<br />

xxviii<br />

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1977<br />

1979<br />

1981<br />

1983<br />

1985<br />

1987<br />

1989<br />

1991<br />

1993<br />

1995<br />

1997<br />

1999<br />

2001<br />

2003<br />

2005<br />

2007

Mechanical process<strong>in</strong>g of foods<br />

Studies on the cook<strong>in</strong>g conditions and mechanical koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g of black beans<br />

C.-L. Jao, W.-C. Ko, K.-C. Hsu<br />

The use of xylanase to improve physicochemical characteristics of<br />

nixtamalized corn flour and tortilla texture obta<strong>in</strong>ed by extrusion<br />

B. Ramírez-Wong, L.C. Platt-Lucero, P.I. Torres-Chávez, J. López-Cervantes, D.I.<br />

Sánchez-Machado, E. Carvajal-Millán, F. Martínez-Bustos, A. Qu<strong>in</strong>tero-Ramos, I.<br />

Morales Rosas<br />

The design of non-contact automatic shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e of chestnut and the<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation of its effect by means of chestnut shell<strong>in</strong>g experiment<br />

H.-W. Xiao, Z.-L. Du, Z. Lou, L.-H. Wang, J.-W. Bai, Z.-J. Gao<br />

Relationship between chromatographic profil<strong>in</strong>g by HS-SPME and sensory<br />

quality of mandar<strong>in</strong> juices: effect of squeeze technology<br />

R. Alvarez Qu<strong>in</strong>tero, C. Passaro Carvalho, O. Lara Guzmán, J. Londono Londoño<br />

Advances <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Technologies<br />

Effect of magnetic fields and ultrasound on aerobic mesophiles and histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />

beef lo<strong>in</strong> tuna lo<strong>in</strong> tuna (Thunnus albacares)<br />

V.M. Gélvez Ordóñez, L. Fuentes Berrio<br />

Relationship between pectic substances and strand separation of cooked<br />

spaghetti squash<br />

K. Ishii, A. Teramoto, H. Kuwada, Y. Jibu, M. Tabuchi, Y. Kimura, M. Fuchigami<br />

Improvement of an enzymatic process to elaborate orange segments <strong>in</strong> syrup<br />

R. Robles-López, A. Dorantes-Nieto, D. Díaz-Carvajal, R.R. Robles-De la Torre, M.D.<br />

Bibb<strong>in</strong>s-Martínez<br />

The technology of butters’ enrich<strong>in</strong>g with carrots’ powder<br />

.. Rashevska, .. Vasheka<br />

Production of ewe’s milk cheese us<strong>in</strong>g calf rennet and a plant coagulant from<br />

flowers of cardoon Cynara cardunculus: Proteolysis dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

J. Fernández-Salguero, A. P<strong>in</strong>o, E. Galán<br />

Production of ewe’s milk cheese us<strong>in</strong>g calf rennet and a plant coagulant from<br />

flowers of cardoon Cynara cardunculus: Sensory characteristics dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

E. Galán, R. González, J. Fernández-Salguero<br />

Functional dr<strong>in</strong>k production through pomegranate juice fermentation<br />

S. Plessas, M. Koulis, A. Alexopoulos, E. Bezirtzoglou<br />

<br />

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<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxix<br />

2009<br />

2011<br />

2013<br />

2015<br />

2017<br />

2019<br />

2021<br />

2023<br />

2025<br />

2027<br />

2029

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<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxxi

Functional foods enriched <strong>in</strong> aloe vera. Effects of vacuum impregnation and<br />

temperature on the respiration rate and the respiratory quotient of some<br />

vegetables<br />

S. Sanzana, M.L. Gras, D. Vidal-Brotóns<br />

Production of 4th range Iceberg lettuce enriched with calcium. Evaluation of<br />

some quality parameters<br />

M. L. Gras, D. Vidal-Brotóns, F.A. Vásquez-Forttes<br />

Microencapsulation of probiotic bacteria with alg<strong>in</strong>ate and prebiotic and<br />

evaluation of survival <strong>in</strong> ice cream<br />

C. Jurkiewicz, M.P.M. Boscarioli, R.G. Ferreira, E.P. Ribeiro, L. Kunigk<br />

The <strong>in</strong>fluence of operational parameters <strong>in</strong> the pect<strong>in</strong> agglomeration<br />

T.A. Medeiros Hirata, V. Goulart Machado, G. César Dacanal, F.C. Menegalli<br />

Antioxidant activity of microcapsules of Rubus sp. juice us<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

M. Jimenez, E. Azuara, J. Vernon-Carter, G. Luna-Solano, C.I. Berista<strong>in</strong><br />

Novel ways to control enzymatic hydrolysis as a tool to produce functional<br />

peptides<br />

E. Leeb, U. Kulozik, S. Cheison<br />

Influence of the structure and composition of the País grape proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s<br />

on the <strong>in</strong>hibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme<br />

S. Godoy, M. Roeckel, E. Aspé, K. Fernández<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic characterization of <strong>in</strong>hibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme by<br />

proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s extracted from vitis v<strong>in</strong>ífera L. cv. País<br />

K. Álvarez, M. Roeckel, E. Aspé, K. Fernández<br />

Enzymatic depolymerisation of oat -glucan<br />

A.-I. N<strong>in</strong>ios, J. Sibakov, I. Mandala, K. Fasseas, K. Poutanen, E. Nordlund, P. Leht<strong>in</strong>en<br />

Parameters evaluation of fructooligosaccharides production by sucrose<br />

biotransformation us<strong>in</strong>g an osmophilic Aureobasium pullulans stra<strong>in</strong><br />

J. Bueno da Silva, A.E. Cavalcante Fai, R. dos Santos, L.C. Basso, G.M. Pastore<br />

Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and characterization of mango peel powder and its use as a source of<br />

fiber and a functional <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> natural yogurt<br />

C. Ruiz, C. Ramírez, C. Gutiérrez de Piñeresc, M. Ángulo, J. Hedreira<br />

Influence of gamma radiation on sprout<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>hibition of the rhizomes and<br />

on the quality of turmeric<br />

L. Peret-Almeida, M.B.A. Gloria<br />

<strong>Food</strong> product development<br />

Antioxidant dyes and pigment extraction us<strong>in</strong>g a home-made pressurized<br />

solvent extraction system<br />

D.T. Santos, C.L.C. Albuquerque, M.A.A. Meireles<br />

Comparative study of the physicochemical characteristics of an economic<br />

Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) meat product and an economic beef (Bos <strong>in</strong>dicus)<br />

meat product with <strong>in</strong>corporation of bov<strong>in</strong>e hemoglob<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> powder <strong>in</strong> both<br />

formulations<br />

J.F. Rey, C.L. Martínez, A. Urrea<br />

xxxii<br />

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2099<br />

2101<br />

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2105<br />

2107<br />

2109<br />

2111<br />

2113<br />

2115

Production of Turkish delight (lokum) with its additives and quality<br />

A. Batu<br />

Effect of fermented okara (bean curd lees) <strong>in</strong>take on TNCB (2, 4, 6tr<strong>in</strong>itrochlorobenzene)-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />

chronic dermatitis <strong>in</strong> NC/Nga mice<br />

T. Enomoto, M. Nishi, F. Barla, N. Murata, H. Matsui, H. Kumagai, H. Take, T.<br />

Michihata, S. Nakamura, M. Kawashima, E. Fujihara<br />

Development of a dehydrated and lam<strong>in</strong>ated probiotic product with B.<br />

<strong>in</strong>fantis and L. acidophilus us<strong>in</strong>g goat sweet whey<br />

G. Trujillo de Santiago, C. Sáenz Coll<strong>in</strong>s, C. Rojas de Gante<br />

Lentil-based snacks: Structural and textural evaluation<br />

A. Lazou, M. Krokida, N. Zogzas, V. Karathanos<br />

The study on SFLAB GanedenBC30 viability on bak<strong>in</strong>g products dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage<br />

C.-L. Jao, S.-L. Huang, S.-C. Wu, Hsu Kuo-Chiang<br />

Formulation and characterization of biocompatible microemulsions as<br />

nutraceutics<br />

A. Xenakis, V. Papadimitriou, T.G. Sotiroudis<br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and technological characterization of extruded breakfast cereal<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed with a mix of broken rice and common bean flour<br />

A.V. Carvalho, P.Z. Bass<strong>in</strong>ello, A. de O. Rios<br />

Cereal bar development us<strong>in</strong>g exotic fruit<br />

E. Rabelo Torres, E. Santana Castro, R. Felix de Santana, J. Cordeiro Cardoso, C.M.<br />

Faria Soares, Á.S. Lima<br />

Substitution of <strong>in</strong>gredients by green coconut (Cocos nucifera L) pulp <strong>in</strong> ice<br />

cream formulation<br />

A.M. Iguti, A.C.I. Pereira, L. Fabiano, R.A. F. Silva, E.P. Ribiero<br />

Evaluation of dry<strong>in</strong>g green coconut pulp for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a snack-like product<br />

W.H. Prieto, E.A.G. Seravalli, A.M. Iguti, M. Nitz<br />

Physical-chemistry and microbiological analysis of probiotic dairy beverage<br />

fermented with kefir<br />

L.R. Ito Morioka, M. de Fátima Fonseca, L. Avallone Bueno, D. Marques, G. Cruz<br />

Ximenes, C. Souza, M. Antônio de Morais Jr<br />

Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange (Citrus<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ensis L.)<br />

Z. Escobedo-Avellaneda, V. Serment-Moreno, A. Valdez-Fragoso, H. Mujica-Paz, J.<br />

Welti-Chanes<br />

Possibility of us<strong>in</strong>g durum wheat flour as an improvement agent <strong>in</strong> bread<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

A. Torbica, M. Hadnaev, T. Dapevi Hadnaev<br />

Sensory and antioxidant properties of beer with Juniperus communis L.<br />

M. Veljovic, S. Despotovic, R. Djordjevic, S. Pecic, A. Kalusevic, I. Leskosek-<br />

Cukalovic, V. Nedovic<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxxiii<br />

2117<br />

2119<br />

2121<br />

2123<br />

2125<br />

2127<br />

2129<br />

2131<br />

2133<br />

2135<br />

2137<br />

2139<br />

2141<br />

2143

Influence of phytosterols addition <strong>in</strong> the rheology and sensory attributes of<br />

dark chocolate<br />

P. Efraim, G.C. Marson, D.C.P. Jardim, A.O. Garcia, K. Yotsuynagi<br />

Address<strong>in</strong>g new functional fillo products through nutrition and healthy<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients: Hi omega-3 fatty acids and phytosterol esters<br />

T. Varzakas, A. Labropoulos, S. Anestis<br />

The non–starch polysaccharides quantity changes <strong>in</strong> pastry products where<br />

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) added<br />

I. Gedrovica, D. Karkl<strong>in</strong>a, A. Fras, O. Jablonka, D. Boros<br />

Characterization of cookies formulated with rice and black bean extruded<br />

flours<br />

P.Z. Bass<strong>in</strong>ello, D.De G.C. Freitas, J.L.R. Ascheri, C.Y. Takeiti, R.N. Carvalho, S.N.<br />

Koakuzu, A.V. Carvalho<br />

Isolation of lactic acid bacteria <strong>in</strong> Marajoara cheese, Amazon, Brazil<br />

H. Mendes de Figueiredo, C. Gonçalves e Gonçalves, P.C. de Moura Guimarães, A.<br />

Mendes de Figueiredo Jr<br />

The physico-chemical and microbiological aspects <strong>in</strong> ice-cream of buffalo<br />

milk added for fiber food<br />

G.C. B. Ch<strong>in</strong>elate, D.F. Pontes, R.R. de A. Bezerra<br />

<strong>Process</strong> optimisation of egg replacer <strong>in</strong> sponge cake bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

L. Mai, T. Norton, W. Li, B. Tiwari, C. Brennan<br />

Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g functional fermented beverages by us<strong>in</strong>g the kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s<br />

T. Balabanova, P. Panayotov<br />

Effect of synthesis conditions of short-cha<strong>in</strong> fructooligosaccharides to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

high yield and volumetric productivity<br />

R. Vega, M.E. Zúniga-Hansen<br />

Effect of pH culture on growth and fatty acid profile of Lactobacillus<br />

plantarum bacteria<br />

C. Soto<br />

<br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> of delivery systems of bioactive foods<br />

Quality decay and viability of Lactobacillus acidophilus free and<br />

encapsulated <strong>in</strong> buffalo milk yogurt<br />

A.S. Shoji, A.C. Oliveira, M.A. Tr<strong>in</strong>dade, O. Freitas, M. Thomaz<strong>in</strong>i, R.J.B.<br />

He<strong>in</strong>emann, C.S. Favaro-Tr<strong>in</strong>dade<br />

Supercritical fluid extraction with modifier of antioxidant compounds from<br />

jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) by-product: economic viability<br />

R.N. Cavalcanti, P.C. Veggi, M.A.A. Meireles<br />

Microencapsulation of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil with ze<strong>in</strong><br />

S. Quispe-Condori, M.D.A. Saldaña<br />

Encapsulation of curcum<strong>in</strong> loaded oil droplets by cryotropic gel formation<br />

from o/w emulsion<br />

K. Nakagawa, N. Sowasod, T. Char<strong>in</strong>panitkul, A. Soottitantawat, W.<br />

Tanthapanichakoon<br />

xxxiv<br />

2145<br />

2147<br />

2149<br />

2151<br />

2153<br />

2155<br />

2157<br />

2159<br />

2161<br />

2163<br />

2165<br />

2167<br />

2169<br />

2171

Effect of different ratios of maltodextr<strong>in</strong>/gelat<strong>in</strong> and ultrasound <strong>in</strong> the<br />

microencapsulation efficiency of turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong><br />

C.R. Malacrida, V.R. Nicoletti Telis<br />

Encapsulation of Melissa Offic<strong>in</strong>alis leaf’s active compounds <strong>in</strong> cyclodextr<strong>in</strong><br />

and modified starch<br />

I. Mourtz<strong>in</strong>os, S.E. Papadakis, P. Igoumenidis, V.T. Karathanos<br />

Deployment of response surface methodology to optimize recovery of<br />

grape (Vitis v<strong>in</strong>ifera) stem and seed polyphenols<br />

E. Karvela, D.P. Makris, N. Kalogeropoulos, V.T. Karathanos<br />

Production of 1-octen-3-ol by Neurospora species isolated from beiju <strong>in</strong><br />

different culture medium<br />

D.S. de Carvalho, A.P. Dionísio, R. dos Santos, S. Boguzs Jr, H.T. Godoy , G.M.<br />

Pastore<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Product <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Functional <strong>Food</strong>s<br />

Characterisation of a non-alcoholic beverage made of residues from k<strong>in</strong>g<br />

palm (Archontophoenix alexandrae) <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

K. Cardoso Tramonte, J.G. Provesi, I. Moreira Dutra Albuquerque E Silva, A.<br />

Nairne Negrão Murakami, M. Marasch<strong>in</strong>, R. Dias De Mello Castanho Amboni,<br />

E.R. Amante<br />

Composition of aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> fermented apple juice: effect of apple<br />

variety, fermentation temperature and <strong>in</strong>oculated yeast concentration<br />

R. Riekst<strong>in</strong>a-Dolge, Z. Kruma, D. Karkl<strong>in</strong>a, D. Segl<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Mode of <strong>in</strong>hibition of -glucosidase and -amylase by polyphenol-enriched<br />

extracts of maqui (Aristotelia chilensis)<br />

F. Acevedo, M. Rubilar, B. Palma, C. Shene<br />

Influence of pH variation dur<strong>in</strong>g propolis extraction with the use of water as<br />

solvent<br />

B.C.B.S.Mello, P.M. Kakuda, M.D. Hub<strong>in</strong>ger<br />

Modifier effects on supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of some Brazilian<br />

plants: Antioxidant activity and economical evaluation<br />

P.C. Veggi, R.N. Cavalcanti, M.A.A. Meireles<br />

Anthocyan<strong>in</strong> extraction from jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) sk<strong>in</strong>s by<br />

different techniques: Economical evaluation<br />

P.C. Veggi, D.T. Santos, M.A.A. Meireles<br />

Study of clean<strong>in</strong>g efficiency of organic microfiltration membranes by<br />

attenuated total reflectance <strong>in</strong>frared microspectroscopy<br />

T.K. Gelaw, A. Trent<strong>in</strong>, C. Güell, M. Ferrando, S. de Lamo-Castellví<br />

Comparative study on quality evaluation of buffalo meat slices <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />

with f<strong>in</strong>ger millet, oats and chickpea<br />

M. Siddiqui, M.A. Khan<br />

Microencapsulation of tocopherols <strong>in</strong> lipid matrix by spray chill<strong>in</strong>g method<br />

O.Diaz Gamboa, A. Lireny Guaraldo Gonçalves, R.C. Grosso<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxxv<br />

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2175<br />

2177<br />

2179<br />

2181<br />

2183<br />

2185<br />

2187<br />

2189<br />

2191<br />

2193<br />

2195<br />

2197

Am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile of Sous vide cooked poultry breast meat products<br />

K. Ramane, R. Galoburda, V. Kreicbergs, I. Vanaga<br />

Antioxidant activity and porphyran content <strong>in</strong> hydrothermal extracts of<br />

Porphyra Yezoensis (Susab<strong>in</strong>ori)<br />

C. Goto, S. Machmudah, M. Sasaki, M. Goto, K. Okai, Y. Okai, S. Kondo<br />

Effect of frozen storage on the quality of camu camu (Myrciaria dubia (H.<br />

B.K.) McVaugh,) pulp<br />

A.L.R. Souza, M.M Pagani, F.S. Gomes, L.M.C. Cabral<br />

Effect of semol<strong>in</strong>a particle size on the cook<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and quality of<br />

spaghetti<br />

G. Sacchetti, G. Cocco, D. Cocco, L. Neri, D. Mastrocola<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etics of heterogeneous amylolysis <strong>in</strong> oat flour and characterization of<br />

hydrolyzates<br />

A. Patsioura, V. Gekas, A. Lazaridou, C. Biliaderis<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etics of Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304 lipase-mediated<br />

synthesis of isoamyl acetate <strong>in</strong> n-hexane<br />

D.S. Dheeman, J.M. Frías, G.T.M. Henehan<br />

PROBIOLIVES: Table olive fermentation with selected stra<strong>in</strong>s of probiotic<br />

lactic acid bacteria. Towards a new functional food (FP7-SME-2008- 2<br />

project)<br />

C.C. Tassou, E.Z. Panagou, A. Garrido-Fernandez, C. Peres, L. Cocol<strong>in</strong>, N.<br />

Chammem<br />

Effect of vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g on blackcurrant’s antioxidant components<br />

M. Stéger-Máté, B. Nót<strong>in</strong>, R. Juhász, B. Verasztó, D. Jakab, J. Monspart-Sényi, J.<br />

Barta<br />

Production of bioactive metabolites with pharmaceutical and nutraceutical<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest by submerged fermentation of pleurotus ostreatus <strong>in</strong> a batch stirred<br />

tank bioreactor<br />

L.-M. Papaspyridi, N. Aligiannis, P. Christakopoulos, A.-L. Skaltsounis, N.<br />

Fokialakis<br />

NOVEL FOOD PROCCESSES<br />

Effects of High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields or Thermal Treatments on<br />

Carotenoid Profile of a Fruit Juice-Soymilk Beverage along Chilled Storage<br />

Laura Salvia-Trujillo, Mariana Morales-de la Peña, Ma. Alejandra Rojas-Graü, Olga<br />

Martín-Belloso<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>o Acid Composition of a Fruit Juice-Soymilk Beverage as Affected by<br />

High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields or Thermal Treatments dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Storage<br />

Mariana Morales-de la Peña, Laura Salvia-Trujillo, Teresa Garde-Cerdán, Ma.<br />

Alejandra Rojas-Graü, Olga Martín-Belloso<br />

xxxvi<br />

2199<br />

2201<br />

2203<br />

2205<br />

2207<br />

2209<br />

2211<br />

2213<br />

2215<br />

2217<br />

2219

HIGHTECH EUROPE PROJECT WORKSHOP<br />

OPEN INNOVATION IN FOOD PROCESSING<br />

Challenges and essentials for re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D <strong>in</strong> an open <strong>in</strong>novation<br />

ecosystem<br />

I.S. Saguy<br />

Philosophy of an open R&D system<br />

K. Chida<br />

Creat<strong>in</strong>g value for SMEs <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry through open <strong>in</strong>novation -<br />

Examples from Norway<br />

Ø. Fyll<strong>in</strong>g-Jensen<br />

Open Innovation at Mars: Jo<strong>in</strong>-up, speed-up, scale-up<br />

O. Fleurot<br />

Innovation shar<strong>in</strong>g by cooperative R&D<br />

D. Albers<br />

HighTech Europe Interactive Technology Portal – New tool for <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong><br />

food process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

K. Lienemann, N. Ay, R. Groeneveld, D. Willems, I. Van der Plancken<br />

INSIDEFOOD PROJECT WORKSHOP<br />

NOVEL TECHNOLOGIES TO EXPLORE FOOD<br />

MICROSTRUCTURE<br />

<strong>Food</strong> microstructure: a 3-D experience<br />

B. Nicolaï<br />

Possibilities of X-ray nano-CT for <strong>in</strong>ternal quality assessment of food products<br />

E. Herremans, S. Chassagne-Berces, H. Chanvrier, A. Atoniuk, R. Kusztal, E.<br />

Bongaers, B.E. Verl<strong>in</strong>den, E. Jakubczyk, P. Estrade, P. Verboven, B. Nicolaï<br />

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) for quality control and microstructure<br />

analysis <strong>in</strong> food<br />

M. Leitner, G. Hannesschläger, A. Saghy, A. Nemeth, S. Chassagne-Berces, H.<br />

Chanvrier, E. Herremans, B.E. Verl<strong>in</strong>den<br />

Effect of fibres and whole gra<strong>in</strong> content on quality attributes of extruded<br />

cereals<br />

S. Chassagne-Berces, M. Leitner, A. Melado, P. Barreiro, E. Crost<strong>in</strong>a Correa, I. Blank,<br />

J.-C. Gumy, H. Chanvrier<br />

NMR microscopy and NMR HR-MAS on apples of different qualities after<br />

different storage conditions<br />

D. Gross, M. Spraul, E. Humpfer, H. Schaefer, A. Melado, T. Defraeye, P. Verboven<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxxvii<br />

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2223<br />

2223<br />

2223<br />

2224<br />

2225<br />

2227<br />

2227<br />

2229<br />

2231<br />

2233

A Digital Laboratory for visual analysis of materials microstructure<br />

P. Estrade<br />

Cryo scann<strong>in</strong>g electron microscopy: enabl<strong>in</strong>g nano-imag<strong>in</strong>g of food products<br />

F. Depypere, D. Van de Walle, K. Dewett<strong>in</strong>ck<br />

The application of acoustic emission to measure texture of food foams<br />

E. Jakubczyk, E. Gondek<br />

Non destructive detection of brown heart <strong>in</strong> ‘Braeburn’ apples by timeresolved<br />

reflectance spectroscopy (TRS)<br />

M. Vanoli, A. Rizzolo, M. Grassi, A. Far<strong>in</strong>a, A. Pifferi, L. Sp<strong>in</strong>elli, B.E. Verl<strong>in</strong>dend,<br />

A. Torricelli<br />

Non-destructive characterization of food microstructure and composition by<br />

spatially resolved spectroscopy (SRS)<br />

N. Nguyen Do Trong, M. Tsuta, E. Herremans, R. Watté, C. Erk<strong>in</strong>baev, E.<br />

Verhoelst, P. Verboven, B. M. Nicolaï, W. Saeys<br />

FRISBEE PROJECT WORKSHOP<br />

REFRIGERATION INNOVATIONS AND COLD CHAIN<br />

MANAGEMENT<br />

New tools, concepts and solutions for improv<strong>in</strong>g technologies along the<br />

European food cold cha<strong>in</strong>: the FRISBEE project<br />

G. Alvarez, A. Geeraerd, D. Leducq, J.Evans, E. Wiss<strong>in</strong>k, E. Indergård, C. Cotillon,<br />

P. Taoukis<br />

Management and optimization of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> and the development of cold<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> data base<br />

P. Taoukis, G. Katsaros, T. Tsironi, E. Dermesonluoglu, E. Gogou<br />

Towards a framework for evaluation of energy consumption, susta<strong>in</strong>ability<br />

and associated food quality <strong>in</strong> the European cold cha<strong>in</strong><br />

S.G. Gwanpua, B. Verl<strong>in</strong>den, S. van der Sluis, E. Wess<strong>in</strong>k, J. Evans, T. Brown, D.<br />

Leducq, G. Alvarez, P. Taoukis, G. Katsaros, V. Stahl, D. Thuault, I. Claussen, E.<br />

Indergård, P. Verboven, B. Nicolaï, A. Geeraerd<br />

Influence of room temperature on food safety <strong>in</strong> refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et<br />

O. Laguerre, M. Hoang, G. Alvarez, D. Flick<br />

Improvement of exist<strong>in</strong>g concepts and refrigeration technologies: advanced<br />

control and thermal energy storage applied to food refrigeration<br />

D. Leducq, P. Shalbart, F. Tr<strong>in</strong>quet, A. Graciela, B. Verl<strong>in</strong>den, S. van der Sluis, E.<br />

Wess<strong>in</strong>k, J. Evans, T. Brown, B. Nicolaï, A. Geeraerd, P. Verboven, J. M Lagaron, F.<br />

Jay, M. Pirani, E. Indergård<br />

Emerg<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies at laboratory scale to improve food<br />

quality and reduce environmental impact and energy consumption<br />

J. Evans, T. Brown, D. Leducq, G. Alvarez, P. Verboven, B. Nicolaï, A. Geeraerd, E.<br />

Wess<strong>in</strong>k, I. Claussen, E. Indergård, J.M. Lagarón, R. Pérez Masiá, S. Mousset, A.<br />

Soysal, M.-C. Zelem, N. Wilson<br />

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2233<br />

2235<br />

2237<br />

2239<br />

2241<br />

2243<br />

2245<br />

2247<br />

2249<br />

2251

The potential for superchill<strong>in</strong>g to enable safe, high quality and long term<br />

storage of foods<br />

I.C. Claussen<br />

CAFÉ : Computer-Aided <strong>Food</strong> processes for control <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, European<br />

project CAFÉ<br />

D. Docha<strong>in</strong>, A. Antonio<br />

Design and development of REAlistic food Models with well-characterised<br />

micro- and macro-structure and composition: European project DREAM<br />

M. Axelos<br />

PROSPARE PROJECT WORKSHOP<br />

INNOVATIVE FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS FROM<br />

POULTRY LEFTOVERS<br />

Innovative technologies from Animal-by Products bioconversion European<br />

project PROSPARE<br />

A. Dossena, V. Popov<br />

The Animal by Product (AB-P): challeng<strong>in</strong>g problem and resource<br />

W. De Roover<br />

Approach and objectives of the PROSPARE project<br />

O. Koroleva<br />

Innovative methodology and process technologies<br />

O. Koroleva<br />

Molecular composition and functional properties of poultry hydrolyzates<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the PROSPARE Project<br />

A. Dossena<br />

<strong>Food</strong> & feed market exploitation and nutrition<br />

V. Guardiani<br />

Authors Index<br />

<strong>International</strong> Association for <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong><br />

List of country delegates<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 xxxix<br />

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2263<br />

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Mass Transfer of Fruit Slices <strong>in</strong> Hypertonic Solution<br />

Farid Amidi Fazli a , Neda Amidi Fazli b<br />

a<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology Department of Islamic Azad University, Soofian Branch, Iran<br />

(amidi_f@yahoo.com)<br />

b<br />

B.Sc student of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tabriz, Iran<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Emerg<strong>in</strong>g of fruits <strong>in</strong> concentrated solutions cause counter current flow between fruit and<br />

syrup, the water flow from food material to surround<strong>in</strong>g syrup and solutes from syrup to food.<br />

The result of this process is semi dehydrated food with higher dry matter content <strong>in</strong> compare<br />

with untreated food; the other aspect of this process is self formulation of food staff or<br />

enrichment of it by add<strong>in</strong>g especial and desirable osmosis agents like antioxidants or m<strong>in</strong>erals.<br />

The healthy foods are demanded by consumers <strong>in</strong> recent years; enriched fruits by m<strong>in</strong>erals are<br />

a k<strong>in</strong>d of these products. They provide m<strong>in</strong>erals which are needed to human body; the m<strong>in</strong>erals<br />

are used by body cells for daily activities as well as cell ma<strong>in</strong>tenance, m<strong>in</strong>erals have important<br />

role <strong>in</strong> precise periods of life like growth and mature ages. By osmosis process it is possible to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> natural enriched food materials with any type of m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> desirable content.<br />

The effect of calcium lactate on osmotic dehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics and on the respiration rate,<br />

mechanical properties and shelf-life of fresh, vacuum impregnated (VI) and pulsed vacuum<br />

osmodehydrated (PVOD) grapefruit has studied by moraga et al. [1]. Apple cyl<strong>in</strong>ders were<br />

vacuum impregnated, osmodehydrated and rehydrated us<strong>in</strong>g solutions of glucose, sucrose and<br />

trehalose. The k<strong>in</strong>d of solute affected mass transfer rate and the glucose solution showed the<br />

lowest k<strong>in</strong>etics [2].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

This paper <strong>in</strong>dicates the result of osmotic dehydration of kiwi fruit and banana slices <strong>in</strong> 55%<br />

sucrose syrup <strong>in</strong> presence of calcium and phosphorus ions. Osmosis agent (55% (w/w)) was<br />

prepared by solv<strong>in</strong>g sucrose <strong>in</strong> deionized water and add<strong>in</strong>g calcium or phosphorus <strong>in</strong> 1 and 2%<br />

concentration. 1 centimeter <strong>in</strong> thickness sliced fruits emerged <strong>in</strong> above syrup and process<br />

completed <strong>in</strong> 30 and 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Dry matter was determ<strong>in</strong>ate for untreated and treated samples<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g 100 C oven. Osmosis parameters as solid ga<strong>in</strong> (SG), water loss (WL) and weight<br />

reduction (WR) were calculated us<strong>in</strong>g below equations [3], where W0, W, S0 and S are <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

and f<strong>in</strong>al sample weight and <strong>in</strong>itial and f<strong>in</strong>al sample dry matter respectively.<br />

WR= (W0-W)/W0<br />

SG= (S-S0)/W0<br />

WL= WR+SG<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Results (table 1) showed that highest mass transfer <strong>in</strong> kiwi fruit occurs when 1% calcium<br />

solution applied for 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes, values obta<strong>in</strong>ed for solid ga<strong>in</strong>, water loss and weight reduction<br />

were 42.60, 51.97 and 9.37 respectively <strong>in</strong> kiwi fruit where highest values for solid ga<strong>in</strong> and<br />

water loss were 35.25 and 41.07 respectively.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1609

Table 1. mass transfer results for kiwi fruit and banana <strong>in</strong> different osmotic solutions<br />

M<strong>in</strong>eral Concentration<br />

(%)<br />

Ca<br />

P<br />

Time SG (%) WL (%) WR (%)<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>) Kiwi fruit Banana Kiwi fruit Banana Kiwi fruit Banana<br />

1<br />

30 22.83 3.541 29.53 7.636 6.701 4.095<br />

60 42.6 8.729 51.97 13.25 9.369 4.523<br />

2<br />

30 30.25 2.5 37.71 6.498 7.464 3.998<br />

60 27.51 6.584 36.44 11.31 8.927 4.725<br />

1<br />

30 35.25 12.62 41.07 15.86 5.822 3.24<br />

60 33.14 10.75 40.35 15.47 7.207 4.724<br />

2 30 25.25 8.509 30.99 12.79 5.737 4.28<br />

60 23.36 21 30.59 25.84 7.23 4.835<br />

when 1% phosphorus applied for 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes, highest weight reduction <strong>in</strong> kiwi fruit was 7.23<br />

when 2% phosphorus for 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes was used as osmosis agent. Higher mass transfer <strong>in</strong> the<br />

case of calcium may be due to small ion size of calcium. Add<strong>in</strong>g calcium to solution can<br />

provide higher molarity to phosphorus and consequently higher osmosis pressure can be<br />

reached <strong>in</strong> solutions, higher osmosis pressure can lead to <strong>in</strong>creased mass transfer as seen <strong>in</strong><br />

kiwi fruit dehydration by osmosis treatment us<strong>in</strong>g different m<strong>in</strong>erals as osmosis agent.<br />

Results of osmosis treatment of banana slices have showed <strong>in</strong> table 1. When 2% phosphorus<br />

concentration was applied as osmosis agent for 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes highest values for solid ga<strong>in</strong>, water<br />

loss and weight reduction obta<strong>in</strong>ed as 21, 25.84 and 4.84 respectively. When calcium was used<br />

as osmosis agent mass transfer parameters were lower than mass transfer parameters when<br />

phosphorus was used as osmosis agent. Solid ga<strong>in</strong>, water loss and weight reduction reached to<br />

8.73, 13.25 and 4.72 respectively when calcium was osmosis agent. Regard<strong>in</strong>g table 1 and 2<br />

can be lead to this fact that osmosis parameters <strong>in</strong> banana were lower than kiwi fruit osmosis<br />

parameters <strong>in</strong> both calcium and phosphorus as applied as osmotic dehydration agent, this may<br />

be due to different textural properties of mentioned fruits.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It seems this process is an appropriate way to produce enriched fruits by m<strong>in</strong>erals and ensure<br />

that body obta<strong>in</strong>s enough and required quantity of m<strong>in</strong>erals. Further research are recommended<br />

on different m<strong>in</strong>erals and any other micro nutrients; also <strong>in</strong> vivo studies are necessary to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>take amount of such nutrients. More studies need to <strong>in</strong>vestigate different fruit<br />

physicochemical properties of fruits which affect mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration<br />

process <strong>in</strong> plant tissues.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] M.J. Moraga, G. Moraga, P.J. Fito, N. Martínez-Navarrete, 2009. Effect of vacuum impregnation with<br />

calcium lactate on the osmotic dehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics and quality of osmodehydrated grapefruit. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 90, 372–379. [2] L. Atarés, A. Chiralt, C. González-Martínez, 2008. Effect of solute<br />

on osmotic dehydration and rehydration of vacuum impregnated apple cyl<strong>in</strong>ders (cv. Granny Smith).<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 89, 49–56. [3] Mavroudis, N. M., Gekas, V. Sjoholm, I. 1998. Osmotic<br />

dehydration of apples: effect of agitation and row material characteristics. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>,<br />

35, 191-209.<br />

1610

Nanofiltration treatment of waste br<strong>in</strong>e obta<strong>in</strong>ed from sugar decoloriz<strong>in</strong>g res<strong>in</strong><br />

regeneration<br />

Fakhredd<strong>in</strong> Salehi, Seyed M.A. Razavi<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad,<br />

Khorasan, Mashhad, Iran (FS1446@Yahoo.com, S.Razavi@um.ac.ir)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In the sugar <strong>in</strong>dustry, anion exchange res<strong>in</strong>s are ma<strong>in</strong>ly used to remove high molecular weight<br />

colorants like melan<strong>in</strong>s, melanoid<strong>in</strong>es, caramels and polyphenols with typical molar mass of<br />

colorant ranges from 500 to 20000 D from cane sugar liquor. The colorant are at first adsorbed<br />

onto the res<strong>in</strong>s, and f<strong>in</strong>ally res<strong>in</strong>s is regenerated by pass<strong>in</strong>g an alkal<strong>in</strong>e br<strong>in</strong>e solution [1, 2].<br />

The waste br<strong>in</strong>e stream aris<strong>in</strong>g from the regeneration of the res<strong>in</strong>s usually imposes a serious<br />

problem of disposal and significant environmental costs s<strong>in</strong>ce the effluent conta<strong>in</strong>s a high<br />

amounts of sodium chloride (50-100g/1), organic matter (5g/l as total carbon) and chemical<br />

oxygen demand (COD, about 13000 mg/l) [1-3]. To counter these problems, nanofiltration<br />

process has been successfully applied to recycle spent caustic CIP clean<strong>in</strong>g fluids and spent<br />

anion exchange [4]. The aim of this paper was to study the performance of polyamide NF<br />

membrane for the purify<strong>in</strong>g of waste br<strong>in</strong>e from res<strong>in</strong> regeneration to (i) <strong>in</strong>vestigate the<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence of feed concentration <strong>in</strong> a wide range as well as operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions (temperature<br />

and transmembrane pressure) on permeate flux and rejections of NaCl and dyes, (ii) recover<br />

br<strong>in</strong>e for reuse, reduction <strong>in</strong> water consumption and effluent volume.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The polymeric tubular AFC80 membrane was supplied by PCI membrane systems, USA, made<br />

from of polyamide film, was used <strong>in</strong> this study. The operat<strong>in</strong>g pressure of each run was at the<br />

range of 1.0–2.0 MPa (at five levels). The temperature was varied from 30°C-50°C (at three<br />

levels) and controlled by a tubular heat exchanger. In order to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of feed<br />

concentration on the permeate flux and rejection; feeds were prepared at four concentration<br />

levels (40, 60, 80 and 100 g/l). Optical density (OD) was chosen as a measure for the colorant<br />

concentration <strong>in</strong> the permeate and retentate samples [1]. The OD was measured at 420 nm and<br />

25 o C us<strong>in</strong>g a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Jenway 6105, Bibby Scientific Limited, UK).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Result showed the permeate rate <strong>in</strong>creases with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure and temperature and<br />

decreases with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g feed concentration. Hong et al (2006) [5] found the solution flux<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>e with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g NaCl concentration because of an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g osmotic pressure drop<br />

across the membrane. The sodium chloride rejection was decreased by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g feed<br />

concentration and temperature, whereas it <strong>in</strong>creased with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> transmembrane<br />

pressure. Fig. 1 shows the effect of temperature at different feed concentrations on the salt<br />

rejection. The results show that the rejection of NaCl was greatly decreased from 37% to 19%<br />

with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> feed concentration from 40 to 100 g/l at 1.5MPa and 30°C. In the present<br />

work, the highest rejection of salt for nanofiltration process<strong>in</strong>g of waste br<strong>in</strong>e was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1611

as 37% at 40g/l, 2.0MPa TMP and 30°C. The polyamide NF membrane had not a serious<br />

problem of foul<strong>in</strong>g and the flux was approximately constant dur<strong>in</strong>g whole membrane process<br />

of waste br<strong>in</strong>e. Dye rejection values were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by measur<strong>in</strong>g the dye concentration <strong>in</strong> the<br />

samples by UV-Visible spectroscopy. Uniformly, complete colorant removal (>99.9%) was<br />

achieved <strong>in</strong> this study, whereas about 77% of the salt was recovered at 1.0MPa TMP, 50°C,<br />

100g/l and the feed was concentrated up to VCF9.<br />

NaCl rejection (%)<br />

40<br />

35<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

40g/l 60g/l 80g/l 100g/l<br />

20 30 40 50 60<br />

Temperature (°C)<br />

Figure 1. Effect of feed concentration and temperature of nanofiltration process on NaCl rejection of<br />

regeneration waste br<strong>in</strong>e (P=1.5MPa)<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The trials display satisfactory qualitative performance for the removal of colorant from the<br />

res<strong>in</strong> regeneration waste and recovery of salts for reuse. The NF membranes allowed the<br />

achievement of a 77% reduction <strong>in</strong> salt consumption and an 90% reduction <strong>in</strong> water<br />

consumption and removed of >99% of colorant components. Totally, the permeate flux<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased almost 0.538 kg/m 2 .h and 0.204 kg/m 2 .h as the pressure and temperature <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

0.1MPa and 1 o C, respectively, however it decreased approximately 0.456 kg/m 2 .h when the<br />

feed concentration <strong>in</strong>creased by 10g/l. On the other hand, the rejection of salt by polyamide NF<br />

membrane was decl<strong>in</strong>ed about by 0.505% and 1.42% with 1 o C and 10g/l <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

temperature and concentration, respectively, whereas it <strong>in</strong>creased averagely 0.65% as the<br />

transmembrane pressure <strong>in</strong>creased as 0.1MPa. The stable flux, high rejection of colorant and<br />

high NaCl recovery show that polyamide NF membrane is a very promis<strong>in</strong>g method of<br />

treatment for this type of waste br<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Cartier S., Theoleyre M.A. & Decloux M. 1997.Treatment of sugar decoloriz<strong>in</strong>g regeneration waste us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

nanofiltration. Desal<strong>in</strong>ation, 113, 7–17.<br />

[2] H<strong>in</strong>kova A., Bubnk Z., Kadlec P. & Pridal J. 2002. Potentials of separation membranes <strong>in</strong> the sugar <strong>in</strong>dustry. Sep.<br />

Purif. Technol., 26, 101–110.<br />

[3] Wadley S., Brouckaert C.J., Baddock L.A.D. & Buckley C.A. 1995.Modell<strong>in</strong>g of nanofiltration applied to the<br />

recovery of salt from waste br<strong>in</strong>e at a sugar decolorisation plant. J. Membr. Sci., 102, 163–175.<br />

[4] Durham R.J., Sleigh R.W. & Hourigan J.A. 2003. Nanofiltration for recovery of spent ion exchange br<strong>in</strong>es,<br />

IMSTEC’03, 5 th <strong>International</strong> membrane science and technology conference, Sydney.<br />

[5] Hong S., Miller M.D. & Bruen<strong>in</strong>g M.L. 2006. Removal of Dyes, Sugars, and Am<strong>in</strong>o Acids from NaCl Solutions<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g Multilayer Polyelectrolyte Nanofiltration Membranes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 45, 6284-6288.<br />

1612

<strong>Process</strong> Development of Ready-to-eat Custard Cream Filled Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Steamed Bun<br />

Chaiwanichsiri, S. a , Poonnakasem, N. a,b , and Laohasongkram, K. a,c<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand<br />

(saiwarun.c @chula.ac.th)<br />

b<br />

(pomac116@hotmail.com)<br />

c<br />

(kalaya.l@chula.ac.th)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun is a popular food <strong>in</strong> Asia. However, its storage life is short as it has high<br />

moisture content. Freez<strong>in</strong>g is sometimes used to prolong its shelf life but the energy<br />

consumption is high. Hurdle technology is a comb<strong>in</strong>ed preservation method by apply<strong>in</strong>g<br />

different means such as adjust<strong>in</strong>g water activity (aw), pH, temperature, redox potential,<br />

modified atmosphere. Therefore, this study aimed to develop Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun with<br />

custard cream filled (CCSB) that can be kept at room temperature for about 10 days by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

hurdle technique.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The hurdle parameters used were aw, pH, and modified atmosphere packag<strong>in</strong>g (MAP).<br />

Glycerol and fructose were added <strong>in</strong>to the custard cream fill<strong>in</strong>g at 3-9% of total weight and aw,<br />

and sensory qualities were evaluated. A 3x3 factorial design experiment was used and the<br />

optimum conditions of the additives were determ<strong>in</strong>ed from the response surface methodology<br />

(RSM) on sweetness, texture, and overall acceptance (OAA). For the steamed bun, glycerol<br />

(0-5%) and lactic acid (0-5%) were added to the dough dur<strong>in</strong>g a two-step dough preparation.<br />

The aw, pH, and sensory qualities (appearance, flavour, texture and overall acceptability) of the<br />

buns were monitored. The effect of preservative, calcium propionate (CaP), on aw, pH, and<br />

microorganism (aerobic bacteria, yeast and mold) was studied <strong>in</strong> the bun. Lastly, the shelf-life<br />

of the custard cream Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun (CCSB) packaged with and without oxygen<br />

absorber (OA) was <strong>in</strong>vestigated at room temperature (30 + 2 o C). The aerobic plate count (AC),<br />

aw, pH, texture and sensory quality were determ<strong>in</strong>ed every 2 days until the CCSB spoiled or<br />

was not accepted.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

It was found that water activity (aw) of the custard cream decreased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g glycerol<br />

and fructose while the sensory scores <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g glycerol and fructose up to 6%<br />

and then decreased after that. From RSM it was found that the optimum condition for custard<br />

cream fill<strong>in</strong>g was the addition of 6% glycerol and fructose each, which could reduce aw to<br />

0.915. For the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that there was<br />

no <strong>in</strong>teraction effect of glycerol and lactic acid so each effect was analyzed separately. When<br />

we consider the effect of glycerol it was found that aw of the bun decreased significantly as<br />

glycerol <strong>in</strong>creased from 0 to 5% (p < 0.05) presumably due to the lower<strong>in</strong>g free water <strong>in</strong> the<br />

dough. The pH and all sensory scores except appearance were not affected by the glycerol and<br />

lactic acid (p > 0.05). When we consider the effect of lactic acid it was found that pH, flavour<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1613

and OAA of the bun decreased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g lactic acid (p0.05). S<strong>in</strong>ce the bun with 0.25% lactic acid had<br />

sensory score on flavour and OAA <strong>in</strong>significantly different from control (0% glycerol and<br />

lactic acid). Therefore, buns hav<strong>in</strong>g 2.5% glycerol and 0.25% lactic acid were prepared with<br />

calcium propionate (CaP). The result showed that CaP did not affect the properties and shelflife<br />

of the bun. The aerobic plate count of the bun after storage for 16 days was less than 4 log<br />

CFU/g which was lower than the acceptable limit of 5 log CFU/g. Therefore, the custard<br />

cream hav<strong>in</strong>g 6% glycerol and 6% fructose was filled <strong>in</strong>to the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun which had<br />

2.5% glycerol and 0.25% lactic acid. The CCSB was <strong>in</strong>dividually packaged <strong>in</strong> a PVDC bag<br />

with and without oxygen absorber (OA). The results showed that OA significantly slowed<br />

down the growth of aerobic microorganism and there was no yeast and mold detected. The<br />

CCSB packaged with OA could extend up to 10 days. However, from the textural<br />

measurement the acceptable level of the sample was only 8 days. Thus the shelf-life of the<br />

hurdle-treated CCSB without CaP packed with OA was 8 days.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The CCSB process was developed to produce the shelf-stable product us<strong>in</strong>g hurdle technology.<br />

The optimum levels for custard cream fill<strong>in</strong>g were 6% of glycerol and fructose each. Addition<br />

of 2.5% glycerol and 0.25% lactic acid reduced aw and pH of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese steamed bun to 0.912<br />

and 5.78, respectively, and the sensory qualities were not significantly different from the<br />

control. Based on microbiological test, this hurdle-treated bun could be stored for 16 days at<br />

room temperature without preservative. The hurdle-treated CCSB with oxygen absorber <strong>in</strong><br />

PVDC packag<strong>in</strong>g could be stored for at least 10 days at room temperature without microbial<br />

spoilage. But the texture of the product was unacceptable. From the microbiological and<br />

textural viewpo<strong>in</strong>ts, the shelf-life of the developed CCSB was extended to at least 8 days at<br />

room temperature (30 ± 2 O C).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Peng Q., Shun-he C., & Chuan M. 2007. Effect of Waxy Wheat Four Blends on the Quality of<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Steamed Bread. Agricultural Sciences <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, 6, 1275-1282.<br />

[2] Leistner L. & Gorris L.G.M. 1995. <strong>Food</strong> Preservation by Hurdle Technology. Trend <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science and Technology, 6, 41-46.<br />

[3] Das H. & Radhakrishna K. 2001. Preservation of Mutton as Ready-to Eat Curry by Hurdle<br />

Technology. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 38, 287–289.<br />

[4] Lombard G. E., We<strong>in</strong>ert I. A. G., M<strong>in</strong>naar A., & Taylor J. R. N. 2000. Preservation of South African<br />

Steamed Bread Us<strong>in</strong>g Hurdle Technology. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft Und Technologie <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science and Technology, 33, 138-143.<br />

1614

Decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of spices by us<strong>in</strong>g a pulsed light treatment<br />

M. Moreau a , I. Nicorescu a , A. S. Turp<strong>in</strong> a , A. Agoulon b , S. Chevalier a , N. Orange a<br />

a Laboratoire de Microbiologie du Froid-Signaux et Micro-environnement EA 4123, 55 rue Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />

Germa<strong>in</strong>, 27000, Evreux, France (ir<strong>in</strong>a.nicorescu@univ-rouen.fr)<br />

b AgroHall, 55 rue Sa<strong>in</strong>t Germa<strong>in</strong>, 27000, Evreux, France (adrien.agoulon@agrohall.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

For pasteuris<strong>in</strong>g dried food products, the most often employed decontam<strong>in</strong>ation techniques are<br />

high temperature short time treatments, UV light irradiation, dry heat, steam, microwave and<br />

IR heat<strong>in</strong>g. However, microbial reduction by us<strong>in</strong>g pulsed light (PL) is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g researcher’s<br />

attention because of the request of less of energy compared to thermal processes. PL<br />

technology relies on a series of very short, high-power pulses of broad-spectrum light, typically<br />

emitted by xenon lamps, to destroy bacteria (both vegetative cells and spores), yeasts, moulds<br />

and even viruses. Pulsed light treatment is effective for the <strong>in</strong>activation of bacteria (vegetative<br />

cells and spores) on surfaces, packag<strong>in</strong>g and recently <strong>in</strong> food products (meat, bread, vegetables,<br />

and fruits). Indeed, Ozer and Demirci (2006) have reported a 1.09 log reduction for Listeria<br />

monocytogenes on raw salmon filets after 180 pulses of light and, Sauer and Moraru (2009)<br />

achieved a 7.15 log CFU reduction of Escherichia coli <strong>in</strong> apple juice. However, <strong>in</strong> the<br />

literature, there is still a lack of knowledge concern<strong>in</strong>g the decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

powdered/granular foods by us<strong>in</strong>g pulsed light. Consequently, the ma<strong>in</strong> aim of our work was to<br />

evaluate the effectiveness of a PL treatment on the <strong>in</strong>activation of B. subtilis <strong>in</strong> spices.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Stra<strong>in</strong> and cultivation conditions<br />

B. subtilis spores supplied by INRA Dijon were dispersed <strong>in</strong> trypton salt medium (TS) <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> a 10 9 spores/mL concentration. Glass marbles (10g) and black peppercorn (25g) were<br />

<strong>in</strong>oculated with spore suspension conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 10 8 spores/mL of B. subtilis, dried by us<strong>in</strong>g a hair<br />

dryer and then, pulsed light treatment was carried out. The control and flashed samples (2, 4, 6,<br />

8 and 10 flashes of light) were resuspended <strong>in</strong> TS medium and shaked dur<strong>in</strong>g 15 m<strong>in</strong>. to<br />

reconstitute the cellular suspension. Decimal dilutions were spread on Colombia-agar medium.<br />

Viability was evaluated by count<strong>in</strong>g bacteria colonies (CFUs) and compar<strong>in</strong>g with control<br />

samples, which were prepared <strong>in</strong> the same conditions but not exposed to light flashes.<br />

Pulsed light treatment<br />

The PL experimental set-up (Claranor, France) is composed of a power supply unit and a flash<br />

lamp. The treatment chamber conta<strong>in</strong>s four cyl<strong>in</strong>drical xenon lamps. Samples were treated at<br />

3000V and with 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10 pulses of light. For each pulse the duration was of 300 s and<br />

the energy level measured by us<strong>in</strong>g a calorimeter Solo-2 (Gentec-EO, Canada) was found to be<br />

of 1.06 J.cm -2 . After exposure to PL, treated and untreated samples were analysed immediately.<br />

Measurement of temperature profile<br />

Control and flashed samples were taken <strong>in</strong> picture by us<strong>in</strong>g an IR camera FLIR T360 (FLIR<br />

Systems France, France) <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e the radiation power and consequently, the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1615

temperature profile when apply<strong>in</strong>g a pulsed light treatment <strong>in</strong> our experimental conditions.<br />

Images were then analysed by us<strong>in</strong>g a ThermaCAM Reporter software.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Temperature profile<br />

Experimental results obta<strong>in</strong>ed on the glass marbles allowed us to verify the hypothesis that the<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation effect produced by pulsed light treatment was not given by the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

temperature but only by the action of UV rays. Indeed, this study allowed us to notice that<br />

glass marbles were not heated dur<strong>in</strong>g the PL treatment, s<strong>in</strong>ce no significant temperature rise<br />

was registered after 10 pulses of light at 3000 V. However, when an identical PL treatment was<br />

applied to black peppercorn samples, a significant <strong>in</strong>crease (13.5 °C) <strong>in</strong> the temperature profile<br />

was observed, especially for a 10 pulses of light treatment. Concern<strong>in</strong>g the 6 pulses of light<br />

treatment applied on black peppercorn sample, the temperature rise recorded was of around 9<br />

°C, these experimental data suggest that <strong>in</strong> the future, it will be wiser to choose this last<br />

treatment and thus limit<strong>in</strong>g the impact of the temperature rise on the food matrix.<br />

Impact of Pulsed light treatment<br />

Concern<strong>in</strong>g the decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of glass marbles by pulsed light, experimental data found can<br />

be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as follows:<br />

2 pulses of light leads to a decimal reduction of about 0.9 – 1.1 log CFU<br />

a reduction between 1.7 and 2.1 log CFU was obta<strong>in</strong>ed for a treatment of 4 pulses<br />

for a treatment superior to 6 pulses of light, decontam<strong>in</strong>ation is almost identical and<br />

stabilizes around 2.6 log CFU for the glass marbles of 2 mm <strong>in</strong> diameter and around<br />

2.8 log CFU for those of 4 mm <strong>in</strong> diameter.<br />

Pulsed light treatment effects were greater <strong>in</strong> glass marbles than peppercorn decontam<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

Indeed, the destruction level rema<strong>in</strong>ed below 1 log even when a treatment of 10 pulses was<br />

carried out on the peppercorn samples. However, a slight improvement (> 0.4 log CFU) <strong>in</strong><br />

spice microbial reduction with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pulse number <strong>in</strong>dicated that this parameter could be<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Experimental results showed that it is possible to f<strong>in</strong>d conditions that lead to an optimal<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> the case of glass marbles (2.7 log CFU). Similar results were found when<br />

the pulsed light treatment was carried out on black peppercorn, only that the decimal reduction<br />

achieved was less important compar<strong>in</strong>g to glass marbles (0.8 log CFU). However, our results<br />

suggest that PL technology should be also efficient onto naturally <strong>in</strong>fected spices.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ozer, N.P., & Demirci, A. 2006. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria<br />

monocytogenes <strong>in</strong>oculated on raw salmon filets by pulsed UV-light treatment. <strong>International</strong> Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 41, 354-360.<br />

[2] Sauer, A., & Moraru, C.I. 2009. Inactivation of E. coli ATCC 25922 and E. coli O157:H7 <strong>in</strong> apple<br />

juice and apple cider, us<strong>in</strong>g pulsed light treatment. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Protection, 72, 937-944.<br />

1616

Acceleration of precipitation formation <strong>in</strong> peach juice<br />

<strong>in</strong>duced by high-pressure carbon dioxide<br />

L<strong>in</strong>yan Zhou a , Yan Zhang a , Xiaojun Liaor a , Xiaosong Hu a<br />

aCollege<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutritional <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(Liaoxjun@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The destabilization of cloudy juices by High pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) has been<br />

known [1] , which could reduce appearance quality of the juice. In order to better understand the<br />

acceleration of the precipitation formation and the role of the HPCD, the focus of the present<br />

work is to analyze factors <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g particle size distribution, pH and -potential, contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to the precipitation formation, and to compare the effects of HPCD and heat on the stability of<br />

the peach juice.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Peaches (Cultivar No.24 Beij<strong>in</strong>g) were purchased from Beij<strong>in</strong>g Guangyuan Yanwei<br />

Agricultural Science and Technology Co., Ltd. The halves of peaches were pitted and slices by<br />

hand, juiced with a screw juice extractor (GT6G7, Zhejiang Light Industry Mach<strong>in</strong>ery Plant,<br />

Zhejiang, Ch<strong>in</strong>a), and filtrated with 4 layers of cheese cloth.<br />

A 400 mL sample of peach juice was treated by HPCD and heat treatment. The treatment<br />

parameters applied <strong>in</strong> this study were as bellows: the pressure was 30 MPa, the temperature<br />

was 55 , and the treatment time was 30 s, 10, 40, and 60 m<strong>in</strong>. The time of precipitation<br />

formation was estimated immediately after HPCD or heat. Parameters contributed to<br />

precipitation formation was analysed after HPCD and heat.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Volume (%)<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

1 10 100 1000<br />

Particle diameter m<br />

Figure 1. The PSD patterns of peach juices treated by HPCD at 30 MPa and 55 and heat at 90 for 1<br />

m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

untreated; 30 s; 10 m<strong>in</strong>; 40 m<strong>in</strong>; 60m<strong>in</strong>; heat treatment<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1617

Figure 1 compared the PSD patterns of peach juices after HPCD and heat. As shown <strong>in</strong> Figure<br />

1, the PSD patterns were significantly changed after HPCD. All the HPCD-treated juices<br />

showed the widest PSD patterns from 0.3 to 600 m with three volume peaks, and the highest<br />

volume peak was shifted to 18~21 m. The particle size of the HPCD-treated juices<br />

significantly <strong>in</strong>creased as compared with the untreated and heat-treated juices. The volume<br />

value of the HPCD-treated juices all showed a noticeable decrease for the smaller particles and<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease for the larger particles. With <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the treatment time, the volume peak values<br />

showed an <strong>in</strong>crease for the smaller particles and a decrease for the larger particles, meanwhile<br />

the particle sizes of the highest volume peak showed a left shift. Table 1 showed that d43 and<br />

d32 of the HPCD-treated juices were both significantly larger than those of the untreated and<br />

heat-treated juices, and exhibited a decrease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the treatment time.<br />

Table 1. Characteristics of peach juice treated by HPCD<br />

precipitation d43<br />

d32<br />

pH -potential Ca<br />

formation<br />

time (h)<br />

(m)<br />

(m)<br />

(mV)<br />

(mg/L)<br />

Untreated 60 ± 3 2.15 ± 0.01d 1.24 ± 0.01d 3.82 ± 0.02a -6.76 ± 0.36a 31.8<br />

30 s 6 ± 1 28.28 ± 0.45a 6.80 ± 0.14a 3.83 ± 0.01a -6.68 ± 0.25a 28.7<br />

10 m<strong>in</strong> 5 ± 1 22.31 ± 0.51b 4.53 ± 0.08b 3.83 ± 0.02a -6.56 ± 0.34a 31.6<br />

40 m<strong>in</strong> 5 ± 1 19.31 ± 1.35bc 3.41 ± 0.01c 3.78 ± 0.03a -6.29 ± 0.25a 34.65<br />

60 m<strong>in</strong> 7 ± 1 17.65 ± 1.53c 3.19 ± 0.37c 3.80 ± 0.03a -6.92 ± 0.26a 31.8<br />

Heat(90<br />

,1 m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

60 ± 2 3.66 ± 0.24d 1.19 ± 0.03d 3.82 ± 0.02a -6.54 ± 0.20a 34.25<br />

peach juices treated by HPCD at 30 MPa and 55 for 30 s, 10 m<strong>in</strong>, 40 m<strong>in</strong>, 60 m<strong>in</strong>, and heat at 90 for 1 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

In the present work, no effects of HPCD and heat could be found on pH and -potential of<br />

peach juices (Table 1). The values of the -potential were negative, and kept constant around -<br />

6.7 mV. It should be noted that the above -potential and pH were measured after<br />

decompression. In fact, the pH of the system could be significantly reduced by the carbonic<br />

acid from the dissolved CO2 dur<strong>in</strong>g the HPCD process<strong>in</strong>g [2] . Therefore, it was reasonable to<br />

believe that the pH and the absolute value of -potential <strong>in</strong> the peach juice could be lower than<br />

3.8 and 6.7 dur<strong>in</strong>g HPCD, respectively, and these decl<strong>in</strong>es possibly <strong>in</strong>duced the coagulation of<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the juices, responsible for the alteration of the PSD patterns and the acceleration of<br />

the precipitation formation <strong>in</strong> the HPCD-treated juices.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

These results suggested that pH and the absolute value of -potential decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>duced the<br />

coagulation of prote<strong>in</strong> and decrease of particle charge, responsible for the acceleration of the<br />

precipitation formation.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Zhou L. Y., Wang Y. Y., Hu X. S., Wu J. H., & Liao X. J. 2009. Effect of high pressure carbon<br />

dioxide on the quality of carrot juice. Innov. <strong>Food</strong> Sci. Emerg. Technol. 10, 321-327.<br />

[2] Calix T. F., Ferrent<strong>in</strong>o G., & Balaban, M. O. 2008. Measurement of high-pressure carbon dioxide<br />

solubility <strong>in</strong> orange juice, apple juice, and model liquid foods. J. <strong>Food</strong>. Sci. 73, E439-445.<br />

1618

Effect of the electric field on the vitam<strong>in</strong>s A, C and E alone and added to avocado paste.<br />

Raúl René Robles de la Torre a , María Guadalupe Méndez Ramos a , Ma. Reyna Robles López a , José<br />

Alberto Ariza Ortega a , Francisco Javier Martínez Montes a .<br />

a Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicada-IPN. Ex–Hacienda San Juan Mol<strong>in</strong>o, Km. 1.5.<br />

Carretera Tepetitla-Tecuexcomac, Tepetitla, Tlaxcala. C.P. 90700. México. (rrenerdlt@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

For many decades, methods to preserve avocado pulp have been sought; any method must<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibit the activity of the polyphenol-oxidase enzyme and at the same time reta<strong>in</strong> the sensory<br />

and nutritional characteristics of the fresh product. Thermal treatments are not recommended<br />

because they reduce the excellent sensory characteristics and <strong>in</strong>crease the nutritional losses of<br />

the fruit. The use of chemical preservatives has also been banned by several <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

regulations. Due to that, the use of emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies have been proposed, these<br />

technologies do not use thermal energy or use it more efficiently, they are usually applied for<br />

short times, and, it has been observed, they can preserve the fresh product characteristics.<br />

Among the emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies are the high hydrostatic pressure, the pulsed electromagnetic<br />

fields, the ultrasound and more recently the electric fields, (EF). In a previous work it was<br />

demonstrated the effective use of the electric field to <strong>in</strong>hibit the polyphenol-oxidase (PPO)<br />

enzyme <strong>in</strong> avocado pulp. Therefore the objective of this work was to study the effect of the<br />

electric field on standards of -carotene, -tocopherol and ascorbic acid, and on these same<br />

vitam<strong>in</strong>s added to avocado paste as <strong>in</strong>ternal standards.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In this study a generator of electric field device was used, it was designed and built by the<br />

group of the CIBA-IPN, a unit of the National Polytechnic Institute, located <strong>in</strong> Tlaxcala,<br />

México. This equipment has the four key elements to generate the EF: a source of high voltage,<br />

a frequency modulator, a solid state relay or switch, and the treatment chamber. Samples were<br />

treated us<strong>in</strong>g 9 kV/cm, 720 Hz and different times; the response variable was the residual<br />

vitam<strong>in</strong> concentration, <strong>in</strong> general all samples were analyzed by HPLC, additionally, samples<br />

with -carotene were also analyzed by UV/vis spectroscopy and samples with -tocopherol<br />

with IR spectroscopy [1-4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

It was found, that with 3, 5, 10 and 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes of treatment there were 57%, 52%, 46% and<br />

33% of residual -carotene, respectively (p0.05). With L-Ascorbic acid the<br />

EF caused degradation of the vitam<strong>in</strong> at 0.188 m<strong>in</strong> -1 and left 1.5% of residual vitam<strong>in</strong> after 20<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes of treatment; while with<strong>in</strong> avocado pulp no observed effect on the ascorbic acid.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally, the EF had no significant effect on standard of -tocopherol alone and with<strong>in</strong> avocado<br />

paste (p > 0.05). These results are resumed <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1619

Table 1. Results of the EF treatment (9 kV/cm and 720 Hz) on three vitam<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

-carotene L-Ascorbic acid -tocopherol<br />

t(m<strong>in</strong>) -carotene<br />

residual (%)<br />

3 57<br />

5 52<br />

10 46<br />

15 33<br />

Degradation/ m<strong>in</strong> =<br />

0.188<br />

L-Ascorbic acid residual<br />

/20 m<strong>in</strong> = 1.5%<br />

while with<strong>in</strong> avocado pulp no observed effect on<br />

the ascorbic acid (p>0.05).<br />

EF had no significant<br />

effect on standard of<br />

-tocopherol alone<br />

and with<strong>in</strong> avocado<br />

paste (p > 0.05).<br />

It was also observed that -carotene degraded itself even without EF treatment; samples left <strong>in</strong><br />

the equipment while it was set off for 5 and 15 m<strong>in</strong>, had the vitam<strong>in</strong> degraded for ca 30 and<br />

50% respectively, these observations confirm the labiality of this vitam<strong>in</strong>. Standard of ascorbic<br />

acid is exponentially degraded (0.188 m<strong>in</strong> -1 ) with time of EF treatment but <strong>in</strong> avocado paste<br />

this vitam<strong>in</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>s after the EF treatment. The HPLC chromatograms of EF treated ascorbic<br />

acid showed two more peaks <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the degradation of vitam<strong>in</strong> C as a result of the EF<br />

treatment. -tocopherol was not affected by the electric field as standard or as added to the<br />

avocado paste.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Electric field strongly degrades, as a function of treatment time, both -carotene and ascorbic<br />

acid when they are treated as pure compounds, the degradations follows well a k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

exponential decay, be<strong>in</strong>g faster the degradation of ascorbic acid. However when they are added<br />

to the avocado paste both vitam<strong>in</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong>s after treatment, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that all others<br />

components of avocado paste apparently protect labile compounds, by absorb<strong>in</strong>g the effect or<br />

dilut<strong>in</strong>g it. -tocopherol is not degraded as standard nor as added to the avocado paste,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that this vitam<strong>in</strong> is stronger and better additive <strong>in</strong>to foods as antioxidant.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Azevedo M.C., Rodriguez A.D., (2004). Conrmation of the identity of the carotenoids of tropical<br />

fruits by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Composition and Analysis 17, 385–396.<br />

[2] Che Man, Y.B., Ammawath, W., Mirghani, M.E.S. (2005). Determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g -tocopherol <strong>in</strong> rened<br />

bleached and deodorized palm ole<strong>in</strong> by Fourier transform <strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopy. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 90:<br />

323 –327.<br />

[3] Elez-Martínez, P., Martín-Belloso, O. (2007). Effects of high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric eld process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

conditions on vitam<strong>in</strong> C and antioxidant capacity of orange juice and gazpacho, a cold vegetable<br />

soup. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 102, 201–209.<br />

[4] Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B., and Kimura, M. (2004). HarvestPlus Handbook for Carotenoid Analysis.<br />

HarvestPlus Technical Monograph 2. United States of America.<br />

[5] Torregrosa, F., Cortés, C., Esteve M., and Frígola, A. (2005). Effect of High-Intensity Pulsed Electric<br />

Fields <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Conventional Heat Treatment on OrangeCarrot Juice Carotenoids. J. Agric.<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Chem. 53: 95199525<br />

1620

Effect of Vacuum Impregnation Treatments to Improve Quality and Texture of Zucch<strong>in</strong>i<br />

(Cucurbita pepo, L.)<br />

Elisabetta Occh<strong>in</strong>o a , Isabel Hernando b , Paola Pittia a,b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, University of Teramo Mosciano S.Angelo (TE), Italy (ppittia@unite.it)<br />

b Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos. Universitad Politecnica de Valencia Valenvia (Spa<strong>in</strong>)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Vacuum Impregnation (VI) is a non-destructive technology, used to <strong>in</strong>troduce external liquids,<br />

<strong>in</strong> the porous structures of food matrices favoured by the action of hydrodynamic mechanism<br />

as promoted by pressure changes. The substitution of <strong>in</strong>ternal gases by a liquid phase of<br />

adjustable composition allows formulation of a food by expeditious compositional<br />

modifications of the solid matrix. Thus, while a change <strong>in</strong> the product composition occur, the<br />

VI impregnated product could exert different quality (nutritional, sensory, textural, health)<br />

properties depend<strong>in</strong>g on the functionality of the components of the VI solution. Widely<br />

explored is the use of VI solutions made with sugars alone or <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ations with salt; <strong>in</strong><br />

recent times the addition of biologically active compounds is under study [1].<br />

Zucch<strong>in</strong>i (Cucurbita pepo, L.) is a wide known vegetable <strong>in</strong> the Mediterranean area at low<br />

solute content, with a mild flavour. Its texture is typically soft but firm and changes<br />

mean<strong>in</strong>gfully dur<strong>in</strong>g storage or when the vegetable undergoes to heat<strong>in</strong>g for dishes preparation.<br />

Previous studies evidenced the potentiality to apply VI to zucch<strong>in</strong>i [2] but no systematic<br />

studies have been carried out yet. Aim of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of VI by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mixed solutions conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g structur<strong>in</strong>g ability components (maltodextr<strong>in</strong>s, salt and CaCl2) with<br />

on quality and microstructural properties of zucch<strong>in</strong>i.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Slices of zucch<strong>in</strong>i (0.5-cm thick) (Cucurbita pepo, L.) were subjected to VI treatments by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a rotavapor equipment and the follow<strong>in</strong>g constant process conditions: P: 50 mbar, vacuum time<br />

(tv): 10 m<strong>in</strong>; post-vacuum or relaxation time (tpv): 30 m<strong>in</strong>; the ratio product:solution was equal<br />

to 1:3.3. VI solutions with different solutes composition were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. In particular<br />

maltodextr<strong>in</strong>es (MD, DE 7.5-9, 10%), NaCl (0-5%) and CaCl2 (0-1000 mM) were used to<br />

prepare simple (1 solute) or mixed (2 and 3 solutes) VI solutions After 2 m<strong>in</strong> dra<strong>in</strong>age,<br />

samples were analysed for total solids, soluble solids, salt and [Ca] content, textural properties<br />

(shear force, relaxation test), sensory and microstructure (Cryo-SEM). Mass balance (Solute<br />

Ga<strong>in</strong>/Loss, Water Ga<strong>in</strong>/Loss) was also computed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The composition of the VI solution affected mass transfer In particular the use of VI solutions<br />

with NaCl (alone or <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with MD and CaCl2) caused a significant water loss while<br />

it did not occur when solutions prepared with MD and CaCl2, simple or mixed were used<br />

(Table 1). A significant change <strong>in</strong> the textural properties (shear force and energy) was observed<br />

<strong>in</strong> zucch<strong>in</strong>i processed with VI solutions conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g NaCl and MD; the presence of CaCl2 <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1621

VI solution <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with the other solutes, due to its structur<strong>in</strong>g effect was able limit the<br />

hardness loss and when alone even to determ<strong>in</strong>e an harden<strong>in</strong>g effect (Figure 1).<br />

Table 1. Water Ga<strong>in</strong>/Loss (WG/L, g/g), Solid Ga<strong>in</strong>/Loss ( SG/L, g/g), dry matter variation (% <strong>in</strong> respect<br />

to the fresh no-VI product) of VI zucch<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Category WG/L (g/g) SG/L (g/g) Dry matter<br />

(D%)<br />

10% MD 0.144 0.018 10,86<br />

2.5% NaCl -0.107 0.004 18,12<br />

100 mM CaCl2 0.176 0.019 8,88<br />

10% MD+2.5% NaCl -0.169 0.018 52,91<br />

10% MD+2.5% NaCl<br />

+ 100 mM CaCl2<br />

-0.210 0.033 87,95<br />

Cryo-SEM analysis carried out on the zucch<strong>in</strong>i processed with VI solutions with different<br />

compositions was able to highlight a marked damage on the vegetable tissue due to a<br />

dehydration effect when NaCl was used alone and on the contrary a structur<strong>in</strong>g effect of the<br />

CaCl2 with more thick cell walls and turgid cells. In the mixed solutions the presence of MD,<br />

limited the damages <strong>in</strong>duced by NaCl and CaCl2; <strong>in</strong>tercellular spaces rich of solutes, turgid<br />

cells and thick walls were <strong>in</strong> this case observed.<br />

(%)<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

-10<br />

-20<br />

-30<br />

-40<br />

-50<br />

Shear Force<br />

Shear Energy<br />

10% MD 2.5% NaCl 100 mM CaCl2 10%MD+2.5%<br />

NaCl<br />

10%MD+2.5%<br />

NaCl+100 mM<br />

CaCl2<br />

Figure 1. Shear Force and Energy variation (%, <strong>in</strong> respect to the fresh no-VI product) of zucch<strong>in</strong>i<br />

processed by us<strong>in</strong>g VI solutions with different solutes composition<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The use of VI mixed solutions made with MD, NaCl and CaCl2 to process zucch<strong>in</strong>i allows to<br />

favour solute and water ga<strong>in</strong> while limit<strong>in</strong>g textural and microstructural changes.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Zao Y., Xie J. 2004. Practical applications of vacuum impregnation <strong>in</strong> fruit and vegetable process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 15, 434-451.<br />

[2] Gras M., Vidal-Brotons D., Betoret N., Chiralt A., Fito P. 2002.The response of some vegetables to<br />

vacuum impregnation Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science & Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies 3, 263_269.<br />

1622

Qualitative characteristics of sugar beet juices obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> pilot extractor with pulsed<br />

electric field (PEF) pre-treatment.<br />

Kseniia Log<strong>in</strong>ova a,b , Eugène Vorobiev a , Nikolai Lebovka b<br />

a<br />

Département de Génie Chimique, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, Centre de Recherche de<br />

Royallieu, Compiègne, France, kseniia.log<strong>in</strong>ova@utc.fr, eugene.vorobiev@utc.fr<br />

b<br />

Institute of Biocolloidal Chemistry named after F. D. Ovcharenko, NAS of Ukra<strong>in</strong>e, Kyiv, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

lebovka@gmail.com<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The conventional technology of sugar extraction from beetroot consists of a thermal<br />

denaturation of sliced beetroot tissue followed by aqueous diffusion <strong>in</strong> hot water at 70–75 °C<br />

[1]. However, thermally <strong>in</strong>duced degradation of beet tissue, extraction of non-sucrose cell<br />

components and formation of colorants decrease the juice purity and requires its further<br />

purification. Recently, the alternative studies have shown the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal possibility of PEFassisted<br />

sugar extraction by cold or moderately heated water [2]; it was reported that the purest<br />

juice was obta<strong>in</strong>ed after the cold diffusion. However, the confirmation of the encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

results obta<strong>in</strong>ed with PEF-treatment <strong>in</strong> batch extraction chambers is still needed to predict the<br />

PEF efficiency on the <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale. This work is aimed at approach of the study of sugar<br />

diffusion from sugar beets treated by PEF to the <strong>in</strong>dustrial conditions us<strong>in</strong>g special<br />

countercurrent extractor. The parametric study is carried out for <strong>in</strong>vestigation of the effect of<br />

electrical (<strong>in</strong>tensity of PEF) and ma<strong>in</strong> extraction parameters (temperature, draft) on the sugar<br />

diffusion k<strong>in</strong>etics, as well as on the juice and pulp characteristics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The field-grown sugar beet roots (Beta vulgaris) were used throughout this study. Extraction<br />

was carried out <strong>in</strong> a specially developed pilot countercurrent extractor. Construction and<br />

detailed pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of this extractor were reported [3]. The total time of extraction was 70 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

The temperature of diffusion varied <strong>in</strong> different experiments from 30 to 70 °C. In some<br />

experiments, the draft value (diffusion juice to cossettes ratio) was varied between 120 and<br />

90%, but typically it was fixed at 120%. Exhausted cossettes (pulp) after extraction were<br />

pressed. The portions of extracted juice were regularly taken to measure the soluble solids<br />

(°Brix), sucrose content, coloration, turbidity and colloids, as well as contents of prote<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>s. The portions of pulp were sampled for measur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>soluble solids, °Brix and<br />

sucrose content. Juice purity was calculated as: P = (Sucrose content/Soluble solids<br />

content) ·100%. The <strong>in</strong>tensity of electric field was typically fixed at E = 600 V/cm. One tra<strong>in</strong><br />

of pulses was used for PEF treatment. The tra<strong>in</strong> consisted of n pulses (n = 500) with pulse<br />

duration ti = 100 s and pulse repetition time t = 5 ms. The total time of PEF treatment was<br />

tPEF = 50 ms. In some experiments with higher diffusion temperature (60 °C), the value of E<br />

varied between 600 and 100 V/cm.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1623

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Fig. 1 presents the sucrose content and the purity of f<strong>in</strong>al juices obta<strong>in</strong>ed by diffusion of<br />

untreated and PEF-treated cossettes. For the PEF-treated cossettes, the sucrose content <strong>in</strong> a<br />

cold diffusion juice (30 °C) was slightly lower than <strong>in</strong> a hot diffusion juice (70 °C). However,<br />

the purity of a cold diffusion juice obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the PEF-treated cossettes was not lower than<br />

the purity of a hot juice (Fig. 1).<br />

Sucrose content, °S<br />

Figure 1. Sucrose content and purity of juices extracted from non-treated and PEF treated cossettes<br />

versus diffusion temperature.<br />

The concentration of colloidal impurities was significantly higher <strong>in</strong> a “hot” juice than <strong>in</strong> a<br />

“cold” juice. The measured concentrations of prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the extracted juices did not depend on<br />

the temperature of extraction. From the other side, the <strong>in</strong>crease of temperature above 50 °C<br />

resulted <strong>in</strong> solubilization of pect<strong>in</strong>s. Increase of extraction temperature from 30 to 70 °C<br />

resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease of turbidity by 10% (± 5%) and juice coloration by 27% (± 5%).<br />

The pulp dryness was lower for cossettes exhausted at higher temperatures.<br />

The sucrose content <strong>in</strong> diffusion juice was <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with draft decrease for both studied<br />

temperatures. However, the draft decrease resulted also <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease of sucrose losses <strong>in</strong> the<br />

pulp. The optimal value of electric field <strong>in</strong>tensity E was 257 V/cm for the diffusion at 60 °C.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The purity of diffusion juice obta<strong>in</strong>ed by cold extraction (at 30 °C) was not lower than the<br />

purity of juice obta<strong>in</strong>ed by hot water diffusion at 70 °C; such juice had lower concentration of<br />

colloidal impurities (especially, pect<strong>in</strong>s) and lower coloration. Decreas<strong>in</strong>g of draft permitted<br />

better concentration of the extracted juice, but the cossettes were worse exhausted. Increase of<br />

the temperature of the extract<strong>in</strong>g liquid up to 50 or 60 °C permitted treatment of cossettes by<br />

PEF with lower <strong>in</strong>tensity. The pulp obta<strong>in</strong>ed by cold extraction of PEF treated cossettes had<br />

noticeably higher dryness than the pulp obta<strong>in</strong>ed by conventional hot water extraction.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Purity, %<br />

[1] Poel, van der, P. W., Schiweck, H., Schwartz, T. 1998. Sugar Technology. Beet and Cane Sugar<br />

Manufacture. Verlag Dr. Albert Bartens KG, Berl<strong>in</strong>.<br />

[2] Jemai, A. B., Vorobiev, E. 2003. Enhanced Leach<strong>in</strong>g from Sugar Beet Cossettes by Pulsed Electric<br />

Field. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 59, 405–412.<br />

[3] Log<strong>in</strong>ova, K. V., Vorobiev, E., Bals, O., Lebovka, N. I. 2011. Pilot Study of Countercurrent Cold<br />

and Mild Heat Extraction of Sugar from Sugar Beets, Assisted by Pulsed Electric Fields. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 102, 340–347.<br />

1624<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

non-treated PEF treated<br />

70 60 50 30<br />

Temperature, °C<br />

92<br />

88<br />

84<br />

80<br />

76<br />

70 60 50 30<br />

Temperature, °C

Modell<strong>in</strong>g Microbial Load Reduction <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s due to Ozone Impact<br />

Elisabete M.C. Alexandre, Teresa R.S. Brandão, Crist<strong>in</strong>a L.M. Silva<br />

Centro de Biotecnologia e Química F<strong>in</strong>a - Escola Superior de Biotecnologia - Universidade Católica<br />

Portuguesa, Rua Dr. António Bernard<strong>in</strong>o de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal (clsilva@esb.ucp.pt)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ozone, due to its powerful oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g effect, is one of the most potent dis<strong>in</strong>fectant agents. In 1997 it<br />

was recognised by U.S. <strong>Food</strong> and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration as a GRAS substance (i.e. Generally<br />

Recognised as Safe) for use as a dis<strong>in</strong>fectant or sanitizer <strong>in</strong> foods and food process<strong>in</strong>g. The use of<br />

ozone as a sanitizer is a challeng<strong>in</strong>g technology with potential application <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

When dissolved <strong>in</strong> water, ozone has been applied as a convenient wash<strong>in</strong>g treatment of fruits and<br />

vegetables, promot<strong>in</strong>g shelf life extension of food products [1]. Besides several studies assess the<br />

ozone impact at microbial loads [2], scarce <strong>in</strong>formation is available on modell<strong>in</strong>g the k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

behaviour of food contam<strong>in</strong>ants. Such models may contribute to determ<strong>in</strong>e the extent to which the<br />

process should be applied <strong>in</strong> order to improve safe standards and process design.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this work was to study the impact of ozone <strong>in</strong> aqueous solution on the<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g microbial loads: Listeria <strong>in</strong>nocua <strong>in</strong> red bell peppers, total mesophiles <strong>in</strong> strawberries and<br />

total coliforms <strong>in</strong> watercress. Modell<strong>in</strong>g of microbial load reduction throughout treatment time and<br />

due to ozone effect were also targets.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Strawberries (Fragaria ananassa D.), watercress (Naturtium offic<strong>in</strong>ale R.Br.) and red bell peppers<br />

(Capsicum annuum L.) were purchased <strong>in</strong> a local market. Red bell peppers were pre-washed <strong>in</strong><br />

deionised water and cut <strong>in</strong> portions of 20 g. Each sample was artificially <strong>in</strong>oculated with 250 μL of<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua with a contact time of 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Strawberries and watercress were not washed and did not suffer artificial contam<strong>in</strong>ation. Native<br />

total mesophiles were evaluated <strong>in</strong> strawberry samples and total coliforms <strong>in</strong> watercress samples.<br />

Ozone treatments were performed <strong>in</strong> a pilot plant. The gas was cont<strong>in</strong>uously <strong>in</strong>corporated by<br />

bubbl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the water (at ~ 15 ºC) and the aqueous ozone concentration was 0.3 ppm. Samples were<br />

immersed <strong>in</strong> ozonated water (80g / 30L) and were removed after different contact times. Simple<br />

deionized water-wash<strong>in</strong>gs (without ozone) were performed under identical conditions. L. <strong>in</strong>nocua,<br />

total mesophiles and coliforms enumerations were assessed us<strong>in</strong>g Palcam agar conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g selective<br />

supplement, Plate Count Agar and Violet Red Bile Agar, respectively.<br />

A Weibull-based model was assumed for microbial load reduction throughout time [3]:<br />

<br />

t <br />

N <br />

<br />

log <br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

1 e<br />

(1)<br />

N0<br />

<br />

where N is the microbial load (the <strong>in</strong>dex 0 <strong>in</strong>dicates <strong>in</strong>itial values) at time t; is a scale parameter<br />

(the reciprocal of the rate constant) and is a shape <strong>in</strong>dex. The experimental data were fitted to the<br />

previous equation, us<strong>in</strong>g SPSS 17.0 software.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1625

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The impact of deionized-water and ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs on L. <strong>in</strong>nocua/red bell peppers<br />

(N 0=1.9x10 7 cfu/g), total mesophiles/strawberries (N 0=5.6x10 7 cfu/g) and total coliforms/watercress<br />

(N 0=3.9 x10 8 cfu/g) can be observed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. The effect of ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs on<br />

microbial loads reduction was higher than the one observed when a simple water-wash<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

carried out, for all cases and treatment times considered. However, a substantial portion of the<br />

microbial populations were reduced by water wash<strong>in</strong>g alone, and the presence of ozone generally<br />

added an additional reduction of approximately 0.4 log-cycles for all times considered, and for the<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ations L. <strong>in</strong>nocua/red bell peppers and total coliforms/watercress. The difference between<br />

water and ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs was particularly evident for total mesophiles/strawberries, and<br />

for short contact times. As an example, for 1 m<strong>in</strong>ute of dipp<strong>in</strong>g, water-wash<strong>in</strong>gs allowed 0.3 logcycles<br />

reduction and the presence of ozone added an additional reduction of 1.2 log-cycles.<br />

The Weibull-based model was satisfactorily used <strong>in</strong> data fitt<strong>in</strong>g. Quality of regressions was assessed<br />

by residual analysis (randomness and normality of residuals were verified) and on the coefficient of<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation, which varied from 0.71 to 0.96.<br />

Log(N/N0)<br />

0.0<br />

-0.5<br />

-1.0<br />

-1.5<br />

-2.0<br />

-2.5<br />

Log(N/N0)<br />

0.0<br />

-0.5<br />

-1.0<br />

-1.5<br />

-2.0<br />

-2.5<br />

a) b) c)<br />

-3.0<br />

0 1 2 3 4<br />

-3.0<br />

0 1 2 3 4<br />

-3.0<br />

0 1 2 3 4<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 1. Effect of water and ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs on log-reductions of: (a) L. <strong>in</strong>nocua/peppers, (b)<br />

total coliforms/watercress and (c) total mesophiles/strawberries. L<strong>in</strong>es are model fits ( water; - - ozone).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs are more effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g microbial loads of the fruits and vegetables<br />

studied, when compared to simple water dipp<strong>in</strong>g. Total coliforms <strong>in</strong> watercress are less sensitive to<br />

both deionized-water and ozonated-water wash<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

A Weibull-based model was adequate <strong>in</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g the reduction of microbial loads and may<br />

contribute to design more effective sanitiz<strong>in</strong>g processes.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ölmez H. & Akbas M.Y. 2009. Optimization of Ozone Treatment of Fresh-cut Green Leaf Lettuce.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 90(4), 487-494.<br />

[2] Akbas M.Y. & Olmez H. 2007. Effectiveness of Organic Acids, Ozonated Water and Chlor<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Dipp<strong>in</strong>gs on Microbial Reduction and Storage Quality of Fresh-cut Iceberg Lettuce. Journal of the<br />

Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 87(14), 2609-2616.<br />

[3] Mafart P., Couvert O., Gaillard S. & Leguer<strong>in</strong>el I. 2002. On Calculat<strong>in</strong>g Sterility <strong>in</strong> Thermal<br />

Preservation Methods: Application of the Weibull Frequency Distribution Model. <strong>International</strong><br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 72, 107-112.<br />

1626<br />

a)<br />

b)<br />

Log(N/N0)<br />

0.0<br />

-0.5<br />

-1.0<br />

-1.5<br />

-2.0<br />

-2.5<br />

c)

Use of organic acids on their own and <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation for decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of fresh<br />

vegetables and herbs as an alternative to chlor<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Sami Bulut a , Emel Ograsc b<br />

a Trakya University <strong>Food</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g department, Edirne, Turkey, samibulut@trakya.edu.tr<br />

b Trakya University <strong>Food</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g department, Edirne, Turkey, emelograsici@gmail.com<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Demand for fresh m<strong>in</strong>imally processed fruits and vegetables <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. However, fresh<br />

produce poses a risk of food-borne outbreaks as pathogenic bacteria can contam<strong>in</strong>ate raw<br />

agricultural commodities through various pathways. Therefore, there is a need for effective<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of fresh produce. Currently, chlor<strong>in</strong>ated water is the most commonly used<br />

wash agent to reduce the number of microorganisms on fresh produce. However, there has<br />

been an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concern over the potential for formation of harmful by-products such as<br />

organochlor<strong>in</strong>e when fresh produce is washed <strong>in</strong> chlor<strong>in</strong>e-based wash waters. In search of a<br />

better and safer decontam<strong>in</strong>ation system, <strong>in</strong> this study, various organic acids were used on their<br />

own and <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation to decontam<strong>in</strong>ate some fresh vegetables and herbs. By study<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

wider range of organic acids, optimis<strong>in</strong>g the various parameters of wash<strong>in</strong>g or f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

optimum comb<strong>in</strong>ation for a mixture of organic acids could lead to a potential wash system that<br />

is more efficient as an alternative to chlor<strong>in</strong>e and could be used for organic produce<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation. Here, <strong>in</strong>itial results for wash<strong>in</strong>g of parsley <strong>in</strong> spirit v<strong>in</strong>egar would be<br />

presented.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Whole fresh parsley samples were purchased from local market and visibly soiled, spoiled or<br />

yellow leaves were separated by hand (gloved). Spirit v<strong>in</strong>egar solutions were prepared by<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g calculated amount of spirit v<strong>in</strong>egar conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 20% acetic acid to sterile tap water. The<br />

pH of the solution was monitored and recorded by a handheld pH meter. The temperature of<br />

the solution was adjusted by us<strong>in</strong>g boiled water or submerg<strong>in</strong>g the solution bottles <strong>in</strong>to an ice<br />

water. Small plastic conta<strong>in</strong>ers of 3 Litre capacity were used to soak the samples <strong>in</strong> solutions.<br />

About 50 g of parsley samples were soaked <strong>in</strong>to the solutions for set periods of time before<br />

they were removed from the solution and placed <strong>in</strong>to salad sp<strong>in</strong>ner to remove excess moisture.<br />

The samples were then placed <strong>in</strong>to stomacher bags and stored <strong>in</strong> the fridge (2-5ºC) until the<br />

time of microbial analysis. Number of microorganisms on parsley before and after v<strong>in</strong>egar<br />

wash was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by total aerobic count (TAC) on Plate Count Agar (PCA) and results<br />

expressed as logarithmic reduction. The effect of three ma<strong>in</strong> variables v<strong>in</strong>egar concentration<br />

(2.0-7.0%), soak<strong>in</strong>g time (0.5-7.5 m<strong>in</strong>) and temperature (2.5-50°C) and their <strong>in</strong>teractions were<br />

studied by the surface response methodology employ<strong>in</strong>g Design-Expert V8 Software (Stat-<br />

Ease, Inc. M<strong>in</strong>neapolis, USA) us<strong>in</strong>g central composite design.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Results showed that the solution temperature does not play significant role on reduction of<br />

TVC. Temperatures that are optimum for growth of most microorganisms around (30ºC)<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1627

seemed to be less effective on TVC whereas lower (12ºC) or higher temperatures (40ºC) results<br />

<strong>in</strong> slightly better results. As shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1, <strong>in</strong>creased concentration of v<strong>in</strong>egar resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creased reduction <strong>in</strong> TVC. Increased contact time contributed to log reduction significantly at<br />

higher v<strong>in</strong>egar concentrations whereas, at low concentrations <strong>in</strong>creased contact time did not<br />

contribute to log reduction <strong>in</strong> TVC. Results on effectiveness of v<strong>in</strong>egar (acetic acid) wash on<br />

fresh produce and herbs are various [1-3]. These variations may be due to differences <strong>in</strong> the<br />

types and quantities of test microorganisms, acid concentrations of treatment solutions and the<br />

types of produce used.<br />

Log Reduction<br />

1.4<br />

1.2<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

0.4<br />

0.2<br />

6.0<br />

5.0<br />

B: Time<br />

4.0<br />

3.0<br />

2.0<br />

3.0<br />

3.6<br />

4.2<br />

4.8<br />

5.4<br />

6.0<br />

A: Concentration<br />

Figure 1. Experimental and simulated time temperature profile.<br />

Response surface between acetic acid concentration, time of soak<strong>in</strong>g and log reduction <strong>in</strong> parsley.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results suggest that v<strong>in</strong>egar solutions at about 1% acetic acid concentration (5.0% v<strong>in</strong>egar)<br />

results <strong>in</strong> similar reductions obta<strong>in</strong>ed by commercial chlor<strong>in</strong>ation wash (usually 50 ppm free<br />

chlor<strong>in</strong>e). More study is needed to understand the sanitis<strong>in</strong>g power of different organic acids on<br />

their own and <strong>in</strong> various comb<strong>in</strong>ations.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Escudero, M. E., Velazquez, L., Di Genaro, M. S. & de Guzman, A. M. S. (1999). Effectiveness of<br />

various dis<strong>in</strong>fectants <strong>in</strong> the elim<strong>in</strong>ation of Yers<strong>in</strong>ia enterocolitica on fresh lettuce. J <strong>Food</strong> Prot 62,<br />

665-669.<br />

[2] Sengun, I. Y. & Karap<strong>in</strong>ar, M. (2005). Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of Yers<strong>in</strong>ia enterocolitica on carrots (Daucus<br />

carota L.) by us<strong>in</strong>g household sanitisers. <strong>Food</strong> Control 16, 845.<br />

[3] Ruiz-Cruz, S. l., E. Acedo-Felix, M. D az-C<strong>in</strong>co, M. A. Islas-Osuna, and G. A. Gonzalez-Aguilar.<br />

2007. Efficacy of sanitizers <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and Listeria<br />

monocytogenes populations on fresh-cut carrots. <strong>Food</strong> Control 18:1383-1390..<br />

1628

Use of a Weibullian model to characterize microbial <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> apple juice processed<br />

with ultraviolet light<br />

Mytil<strong>in</strong>aki Elisavet a , Guerrero Sandra a, b a, b<br />

and Alzamora Stella. M<br />

a Departamento de Industrias. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Universidad de Buenos Aires.<br />

Ciudad Universitaria (1428) C.A.B.A., Argent<strong>in</strong>a.e-mail: sguerrero@di.fcen.uba.ar<br />

b Member of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Thermal treatment constitutes the most extensively available method for the <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

microorganisms <strong>in</strong> fruit juices to achieve the required 5-log reduction <strong>in</strong> number of the most<br />

resistant pathogens but causes substantial changes <strong>in</strong> their flavor and nutritional quality. M<strong>in</strong>imal<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g of fruits may <strong>in</strong>clude many novel technologies aimed to m<strong>in</strong>imize these changes and to<br />

improve shelf life. The objective of this work was to evaluate and characterize the effect of UV-C<br />

light on the survival of E. coli ATCC 35218 and a mixture of four E. coli stra<strong>in</strong>s (cocktail 1)<br />

(ATCC 35218; 8738; 11229 and 25922); L.<strong>in</strong>nocua ATCC 33090; S. cerevisiae KE 162 and a<br />

mixture of five yeast stra<strong>in</strong>s (cocktail 2) (S. cerevisiae KE 162; C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019;<br />

Z.bailii NRRL 7256; Z. rouxii ATCC 52519 and P.anomala NRRL 3668) <strong>in</strong> apple juice processed<br />

<strong>in</strong> a cont<strong>in</strong>uous flow system.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Evaluated systems were filtered natural apple juice (FJ) (pH 3.5; 13.6°Brix) obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

laboratory and a commercial type clarified apple juice (CJ) (pH 3.5; 13.4 ºBrix). Acidified peptone<br />

water (PW) (pH 3.5) was used as control system. The UV-C device consisted of a 0.87 m-long glass<br />

tube with a UV-C lamp (TUV-100W , 253.7 nm) leav<strong>in</strong>g a annular flow space (equivalent<br />

diameter, D e= 0.01604m; transversal section for flow, S=0,00030m; volume=0.22 L). UV-C light<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity was 14 kJ/m 2 as determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the iodure/iodate chemical act<strong>in</strong>ometer [1]. Five hundred<br />

(500) mL- <strong>in</strong>oculated systems were recirculated with a peristaltic pump (1 L/m<strong>in</strong>; 28°C). Samples<br />

were taken at preset time <strong>in</strong>tervals dur<strong>in</strong>g 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Microbial populations were monitored by<br />

plate count technique. Survival curves were generated from experimental data by plott<strong>in</strong>g Log N/N 0.<br />

Weibullian type distribution of resistances model was fitted to experimental data [2].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

S. cerevisiae KE 162; E.coli ATCC 35218 and L. <strong>in</strong>nocua ATCC 33090 were successfully<br />

<strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g non thermal UV-C irradiation . The extent of microbial <strong>in</strong>activation was<br />

dependent on the microorganism and the treated media. E. coli was the most sensitive to the UV-C<br />

irradiation treatment while S. cerevisiae, the least. A considerable level of <strong>in</strong>activation of these<br />

microorganisms (almost 5 log cycle reduction or greater) was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> commercial apple juice<br />

(CJ) and <strong>in</strong> peptone water (PW) after 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes of UV-C treatment. The profiles of <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

curves <strong>in</strong> PW were similar for all the studied microorganisms reach<strong>in</strong>g between 4.3 (L.<strong>in</strong>nocua) and<br />

5.2 (E. coli) log reductions after 15 m<strong>in</strong>ute treatment. In CJ, the total <strong>in</strong>activation ranged between<br />

4.2 (S. cerevisiae) and 6.4 (E.coli) log reductions. However, there was a markedly lower efficiency<br />

of UV-C dis<strong>in</strong>fection (~ 3.1- 4.3 log red.) <strong>in</strong> filtered natural apple juice (FJ), probably due to the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1629

presence of colored compounds and pulp particles which caused poor UV-C light transmission. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation curves exhibited <strong>in</strong> all cases upward concavity, be<strong>in</strong>g almost biphasic. Experiments<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g mixtures of stra<strong>in</strong>s were also carried out to analyze the change <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation response due<br />

to the presence of other stra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Figure 1. a) Effect of UV-C irradiation on s<strong>in</strong>gle and mixed stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> commercial apple juice. Experimental (po<strong>in</strong>ts)<br />

and fitted values derived from the Weibullian model (l<strong>in</strong>es); standard deviation (I). ()E. coli ATCC 35218; ()<br />

cocktail 1; ()S.cerevisiae KE 162; ( ) cocktail 2. Weibull frequency distributions of resistances correspond<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

survival curves. b) () E.coli ATCC 35218; (- -) cocktail 1. c) () S.cerevisiae KE 162; (- -) cocktail 2.<br />

The cocktails of stra<strong>in</strong>s showed survival curves similar <strong>in</strong> shape (n < 1) to the <strong>in</strong>dividual stra<strong>in</strong>s. The<br />

cocktail 1 was a little more sensible to the UV-C treatment than the s<strong>in</strong>gle stra<strong>in</strong>, E.coli ATCC<br />

35218 but when the UV-C dose <strong>in</strong>creased the <strong>in</strong>activation of the cocktail decelerated rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />

greater fraction of resistant population (Figure 1a). This change <strong>in</strong> the survival profile was<br />

evidenced by its correspondent frequency distribution of resistances, which was more skewed to the<br />

right, without mode and with higher spread of data (similar mean value and higher variance) (Figure<br />

1b). S. cerevisiae and the cocktail 2 showed similar behaviour be<strong>in</strong>g more resistant than E.coli and<br />

its cocktail. Their frequency distributions exhibited higher mean and variance values. Also, at doses<br />

9.5 kJ/m 2 (~10 m<strong>in</strong>.), the cocktail 2 was more sensitive than the <strong>in</strong>dividual stra<strong>in</strong>, S. cerevisiae KE<br />

162 (Figure 1a,c).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

This work contributed to address some limitations of novel technologies when applied to food<br />

systems. UV-C radiation <strong>in</strong> a cont<strong>in</strong>uous flow arrangement was effective <strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g E. coli ATCC<br />

35218; an E. coli cocktail; S. cerevisiae KE 162 and a yeast cocktail <strong>in</strong> peptone water and clarified<br />

apple juice but had less <strong>in</strong>activation effect <strong>in</strong> the filtrated natural apple juice. The Weibull type<br />

distribution model evidenced differences between survival curves that did not surge by apply<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etic model. Further <strong>in</strong>vestigation is needed to elucidate the way UV-C treatments may be<br />

performed to <strong>in</strong>crease their efficiency and <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the efficacy of the treatment <strong>in</strong> other<br />

media or with other microorganisms of relevance.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Rhan R .1997. Potassium iodide as a chemical act<strong>in</strong>ometer of 254 nm radiation: use of iodate as an<br />

electron scavenger. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 66, 450- 455.<br />

[2] Peleg M & Cole MB .1998. Re<strong>in</strong>terpretation of microbial survival curves. Critical Reviews <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science, 38, 353-380.<br />

1630

Detection of pork freshness us<strong>in</strong>g NIR hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Douglas F. Barb<strong>in</strong> a ; Gamal ElMasry a ; Da-Wen Sun a ; and Paul Allen b<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Refrigeration and Computerised <strong>Food</strong> Technology (FRCFT), School of Agriculture, <strong>Food</strong> Science<br />

& Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e, University College Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland (dawen-sun@ucd.ie).<br />

b Ashtown <strong>Food</strong> Research Centre, Teagasc, Dubl<strong>in</strong> 15, Ireland.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Freez<strong>in</strong>g is recognized as a safe way to preserve meat for longer periods. However, meat shows<br />

a gradual deterioration <strong>in</strong> quality attributes with frozen storage such as <strong>in</strong>creased drip losses<br />

and decreased prote<strong>in</strong> extractability. When frozen pork is thawed, juices and micro nutrients of<br />

the meat run out together with the ice water so the pork becomes dry and less tasty when<br />

cooked. This drip loss also causes the loss of thiam<strong>in</strong>e and folates amongst others, and<br />

significantly downgrades appearance of meat. In order to prevent meat retailers from offer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

thawed, imported frozen meat as fresh domestic ones, various methods have been proposed <strong>in</strong><br />

the past for identification of frozen and thawed meat [1]. The suitability of spectroscopic<br />

methods for identification of frozen and thawed beef <strong>in</strong> the NIR and visible range has been<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated [2-4]. It is advantageous to use near-<strong>in</strong>frared to provide more detailed spectral<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation, s<strong>in</strong>ce hyperspectral systems operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the visible region (400-800 nm) have<br />

considerably weaker band <strong>in</strong>tensities when compared to the NIR range (900-1800 nm). In this<br />

study, the overall objective was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the ability of NIR hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

technique for accurate and objective classification of pork samples accord<strong>in</strong>g to its freshness.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A set of 15 pork chops (one <strong>in</strong>ch <strong>in</strong> thickness) from the longissumus dorsi muscle (2 days postmortem)<br />

were imaged <strong>in</strong> the hyperspectral system. After imag<strong>in</strong>g, the samples were vacuumpacked<br />

and frozen <strong>in</strong> a commercial freezer. After 6 months, the samples were thawed for two<br />

hours at room temperature and imaged aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />

A pushbroom hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g system was used to take images from each sample before<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g and after thaw<strong>in</strong>g. A region of <strong>in</strong>terest (ROI) was selected compris<strong>in</strong>g only the lo<strong>in</strong><br />

eye area. The lo<strong>in</strong> eye average spectral <strong>in</strong>formation was used for comparison between fresh and<br />

frozen-thawed samples. For each image, a mean reflectance spectrum of the ROI was<br />

calculated by averag<strong>in</strong>g the spectral responses of all pixels <strong>in</strong> the ROI. In total, 30 mean<br />

reflectance spectra were obta<strong>in</strong>ed, one for each sample fresh and after thaw<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Second derivative was performed for the extracted spectral data of the two conditions to<br />

identify the ma<strong>in</strong> wavelengths that could expla<strong>in</strong> the difference among samples. Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />

component analyses (PCA) were performed on the spectral data of pork samples and the<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g load<strong>in</strong>gs were then used to extract the useful <strong>in</strong>formation attributed to difference <strong>in</strong><br />

pork freshness.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The derivatives show the location of maximum spectral variance, where more important<br />

features at 961, 1071, 1124 and 1147 were identified. These wavelengths were used to build a<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1631

PCA model to identify fresh and frozen-thawed pork meat with reduced data process<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />

first three pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components were responsible for 99.98% of variability of the data; the first,<br />

second and third pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components variability were 99.22%, 0.61% and 0.15%,<br />

respectively. The pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components method is able to differentiate pork samples based on<br />

the reflectance values obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a reduced number of wavelengths.<br />

Figure 1. (a) Second derivative spectra of fresh and frozen-thawed samples; (b) Score plot of first two<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components for spectral data extracted from lo<strong>in</strong> eye region of fresh and frozen-thawed samples.<br />

The first three PCs obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the spectral data of pork samples were used for generation of<br />

PC score images, as they accounted for more than 99.9% of the variance <strong>in</strong> the spectral data.<br />

Visualization of pseudo-colour images allows for the further classification of samples based<br />

either on their spectral <strong>in</strong>formation, as shown by the PC scores plot, or by the number of pixels<br />

from the images. The model can be further enhanced by <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a larger amount of samples.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The study demonstrated the potential of NIR hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g coupled with pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />

components analysis for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g freshness of pork. The fresh and frozen-thawed pork<br />

samples could be dist<strong>in</strong>guished by the respective spectral attributes. Few selected wavelengths<br />

could be potentially utilized by a multispectral imag<strong>in</strong>g system for identify<strong>in</strong>g fresh pork meat<br />

<strong>in</strong> real time. Customers could benefit from a fast and non-<strong>in</strong>vasive system to guarantee meat<br />

freshness.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ball<strong>in</strong>, N. Z.; Lametsch, R. 2008. Analytical methods for authentication of fresh vs. thawed meat - A<br />

review. Meat Science, 80, (2), 151-158.<br />

[2] Thyholt, K., Isaksson, T. 1997. Differentiation of frozen and unfrozen beef us<strong>in</strong>g near-<strong>in</strong>frared<br />

spectroscopy. Journal of the Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 73 (4), 525-532.<br />

[3] Downey, G.; Dom<strong>in</strong>ique Beauchêne, D. 1997a. Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation between fresh and frozen-then-thawed<br />

beef m. longissimus dorsi by comb<strong>in</strong>ed visible-near <strong>in</strong>frared reflectance spectroscopy: A feasibility<br />

study. Meat Science, 45, (3), 353-363.<br />

[4] Downey, G.; Beauchêne, D. 1997b. Authentication of Fresh vs. Frozen-then-thawed Beef by Near<br />

Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy of Dried Drip Juice. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie,<br />

30, (7), 721-726.<br />

1632

Impact of non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma on quality relevant food <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />

Björn Surowsky a , Falk Zülicke a , Oliver Schlüter b , Dietrich Knorr a<br />

Björn Surowsky, Berl<strong>in</strong> University of Technology, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Germany, bjoern.surowsky@tu-berl<strong>in</strong>.de<br />

Falk Zülicke, Berl<strong>in</strong> University of Technology, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Germany, falk_zuelicke@web.de<br />

Oliver Schlüter, Leibniz-Institute for Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Potsdam-Bornim, Germany,<br />

oschlueter@atb-potsdam.de<br />

Dietrich Knorr, Berl<strong>in</strong> University of Technology, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Germany, dietrich.knorr@tu-berl<strong>in</strong>.de<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In the food <strong>in</strong>dustry, decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of fresh cut products is commonly achieved by the use of<br />

chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide or hypochlorite. Chemical treatments are usually<br />

attended by a loss of sensorial and nutritional quality and do still not achieve sufficient<br />

microbial <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> some cases. New preservation methods are required to provide food<br />

safety on the one hand and nutritional and sensorial quality on the other hand.<br />

Non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma processes might fulfil the demand for a gentle<br />

treatment which provides food safety as well as nutritional and sensorial quality. Such plasmas<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>e several antimicrobial effects which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly based on the generation of UV photons<br />

and reactive species like radicals [1]. In this study, the impact of cold argon plasma on model<br />

solutions and fresh non-pasteurized apple juice has been exam<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Model solutions (vitam<strong>in</strong> C, catech<strong>in</strong>, polyphenoloxidase (PPO)) as well as fresh apple juice<br />

were treated by a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma jet.<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong> C was dissolved <strong>in</strong> meta-phosphoric acid, catech<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a methanold/H2O mixture and<br />

PPO <strong>in</strong> a pH 6.5 buffer solution. The amounts were based on their occurrence <strong>in</strong> apple juice.<br />

Royal Gala apples were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a local supermarket (Kaisers-Tengelmann, Berl<strong>in</strong>,<br />

Germany). After the extraction (Gastroback Design Juicer Advanced 800), the juice was<br />

centrifuged, filtered, filled <strong>in</strong>to PE bottles and put <strong>in</strong>to a freezer (-18 °C).<br />

After thaw<strong>in</strong>g the samples, 2 ml of each were filled <strong>in</strong>to small glass bottles and treated with the<br />

plasma jet. The plasma was generated by expos<strong>in</strong>g the feed<strong>in</strong>g gas (argon 5.0) to a 1.1 MHz<br />

electric field at the <strong>in</strong>ner needle electrode of the jet. The gas composition (pure argon, argon +<br />

0.1 % O2, argon + 0.01 % O2) and the treatment time (0 to 120 s) were varied. Immediately<br />

after each treatment, the samples were filled <strong>in</strong>to ice-cooled micro-centrifuge tubes.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1633

The concentration of vitam<strong>in</strong> C was observed by HPLC, equipped with a UV detector (Knauer,<br />

Germany) and a 250 x 4 mm Hypersil ODS column (Knauer, Germany), us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate/dH2O/methanol mixture as eluent [2].<br />

The total amount of phenolics was determ<strong>in</strong>ed spectrometrically accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method of<br />

Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteu [3].<br />

By add<strong>in</strong>g catechol to PPO conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g samples, an oxidation to catech<strong>in</strong> takes place. The<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g change <strong>in</strong> absorption was spectrometrically observed at a wavelength of 420 nm for<br />

60 s [4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of the treatment of fructose free model solutions showed a relatively uniform<br />

image. Pure argon plasma showed the strongest effects: PPO as well as vitam<strong>in</strong> C and phenolic<br />

compounds were harmed. After a treatment time of 120 s, the contents of vitam<strong>in</strong> C and<br />

phenolic compounds decreased up to 45 % and 10 %, respectively. With a reduction up to 95<br />

%, the PPO activity was the most affected property.<br />

In general, the deterioration of these compounds was reduced by addition of fructose prior to<br />

the plasma treatment. Neither the contents of vitam<strong>in</strong> C and phenolics nor the fructose itself<br />

were affected, whereas the reduction of PPO activity dropped from 95 to 50 %. In the case of<br />

PPO, it was possible to <strong>in</strong>crease the <strong>in</strong>activation from 50 to 70 % by add<strong>in</strong>g 0.01 % oxygen to<br />

the feed<strong>in</strong>g gas.<br />

After treat<strong>in</strong>g the complex apple juice matrix, the contents of vitam<strong>in</strong> C as well as the phenolic<br />

compounds did not show significant differences compared to the control samples. The PPO<br />

activity was reduced up to 20 % after treat<strong>in</strong>g the samples for 120 s regardless of the used gas<br />

composition.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It can be concluded, that the complex food matrix has a protective effect on <strong>in</strong>gredients like<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong> C, phenolics and PPO. By means of the model solutions, it has been revealed that<br />

carbohydrates like fructose are jo<strong>in</strong>tly responsible for this. Based on successful experiments<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g the bactericidal effects of non-thermal atmospheric plasmas, these first promis<strong>in</strong>g<br />

results demonstrate that cold plasmas could be suitable for enhanc<strong>in</strong>g the safety of perishable<br />

foodstuff without affect<strong>in</strong>g their nutritional quality too much.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Moisan, M.; Barbeau, J.; Moreau, S.; Pelletier, J.; Tabrizian, M.; Yahia, L’H. (2001): Lowtemperature<br />

sterilization us<strong>in</strong>g gas plasmas: a review of the experiments and an analysis of the<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation mechanisms. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Pharmaceutics 226, 1–21.<br />

[2] Rückemann, H. (1980): "Methoden zur Bestimmung von L-Ascorb<strong>in</strong>säure mittels Hochleistungs-<br />

Flüssigkeitschromatographie (HPLC)." Zeitschrift f. Lebensmitteluntersuchung u. Forschung A,<br />

171, 357-359.<br />

[3] S<strong>in</strong>gleton, V. L.; Rossi, J. A. (1965): Colorimetry of Total Phenolics with Phosphomolybdic-<br />

Phosphotungstic Acid Reagents. In: Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 16, Nr. 3, S. 144-158.<br />

[4] Siriphanich, J; Kader, A. A. (1985): "Effects of CO2 on total phenolics, phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e ammonia<br />

lyase and polyphenoloxidase <strong>in</strong> lettuce tissue." Journal of the American Society of Horticultural<br />

Science, 110(2), 249-253.<br />

1634

Effect of pulsed light and ascorbic acid/CaCl2 dipp<strong>in</strong>g on rheological properties of fresh-<br />

cut apples<br />

Paula L. Gómez 1,3 , Daniela M. Salvatori 2,3 and Stella M. Alzamora 1,3<br />

1<br />

Departamento de Industrias. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires,<br />

Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a. (e-mail: alzamora@di.fcen.uba.ar )<br />

2<br />

Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Neuquén, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

3<br />

CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Pulsed light (PL) treatment has emerged <strong>in</strong> recent years as an alternative to thermal treatment<br />

for <strong>in</strong>activation of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. It <strong>in</strong>volves the use of <strong>in</strong>tense and<br />

short-duration (1 μs to 0.1 s) pulses of broad spectrum light of wavelength rang<strong>in</strong>g from UV to<br />

near-<strong>in</strong>frared (200 to 1,100 nm) [1, 2]. Its use has been approved by the FDA for the<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of food and food surfaces [3]. The significant microbial reduction <strong>in</strong> very<br />

short treatment times, the limited energy cost, the lack of residual compounds, and its great<br />

flexibility are some of the major benefits claimed for this technique [4].<br />

The literature on the application of pulsed light <strong>in</strong> foods is still scarce, especially regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imally processed fruits and vegetables. The potential application of this technology <strong>in</strong><br />

m<strong>in</strong>imal process<strong>in</strong>g of fruits should not be only evaluated on its ability to contribute to food<br />

safety but also on its <strong>in</strong>fluence on produce quality (color, texture, taste and aroma). In previous<br />

works it has been reported that irradiation at higher doses produce an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the surface<br />

brown<strong>in</strong>g, which can be prevented by application of a suitable antibrown<strong>in</strong>g agent prior to<br />

irradiation. The aim of this work was to evaluate the changes on l<strong>in</strong>ear viscoelastic properties<br />

of fresh-cut apples irradiated with pulsed light (PL) subjected or not to an antibrown<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pretreatment.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Apple slices (3 cm diameter and 0.6 cm thickness) were dipped <strong>in</strong>to a 1% (w/v) ascorbic acid +<br />

0.1 % (w/v) calcium chloride solution for 5 m<strong>in</strong> at 4ºC. The PL treatments were performed<br />

with a RS-3000B Steripulse-XL system, which produced polychromatic radiation (200 to 1100<br />

nm) and generated high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed light. Samples were exposed to irradiation for 60 s at<br />

10 cm from the lamp (fluence: 72 J/cm 2 ). Slices irradiated with and without the antibrown<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pretreatment were compared to a control throughout a week of storage at 4-5ºC. Dynamic<br />

oscillatory shear and creep/recovery tests were performed at 0 and 7 days. Creep behavior was<br />

fitted with a mechanical model (a spr<strong>in</strong>g, two Kelv<strong>in</strong>-Voigt elements and a dashpot). Light<br />

microscopy observations were made after process<strong>in</strong>g and storage.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Storage moduli (G’) of apples exposed to PL were lower than those of the fresh fruit, both at 0<br />

and 7 day. The decrease was more pronounced when apples were pretreated with the<br />

antibrown<strong>in</strong>g solution (data not shown). The <strong>in</strong>stantaneous compliance (J0) and the retarded<br />

compliance (J2) <strong>in</strong>creased after 7 day storage <strong>in</strong> samples irradiated (with and without AD),<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1635

denot<strong>in</strong>g that these tissues became more deformed. Rheological response of apple tissue was<br />

correlated with microstructure and ultrastructure features.<br />

Table 1. Viscoelastic parameters* for fresh and treated apple tissues stored at 5ºC. PL: pulsed light; AD:<br />

antibrown<strong>in</strong>g dipp<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Time<br />

(day) Treatment<br />

0<br />

7<br />

J0<br />

(1/Pa)<br />

(x 10 6 )<br />

J 1<br />

(1/Pa)<br />

(x 10 6 )<br />

J 2<br />

(1/Pa)<br />

(x 10 6 )<br />

1 (s) 2 (s)<br />

Control 3.1(0.9) 1.4(0.7) 0.7(0.3) 26.4(3.9) 2.6(0.5)<br />

N<br />

(Pa.s)<br />

(x 10 -8 )<br />

0.7(0.5) A<br />

AD 3.1(0.8) 4.3(3.2) 0.5(0.2) 32.9(12.2) 3.1(1.1) 1.9(1.2) B<br />

PL 4.9(1.1)<br />

AD + PL 3.5(0.5)<br />

1.2<br />

(0.5)<br />

Control 4.1(0.9)<br />

1.1<br />

(0.4)<br />

AD<br />

PL<br />

AD + PL<br />

5.2(1.4)<br />

8.2(4.4)<br />

13(5.2)<br />

1.4(0.3) 0.9(0.2) 26.2(8.1) 2.4(0.6) 0.8(0.3) CDA<br />

1.4<br />

(0.7)<br />

0.6(0.1) 35.0(19.1) 2.1(0.6) 1.5(0.8) DA<br />

1.9(1.8) 30.3(13.4)<br />

2.6(0.6) 1.7(0.8) D<br />

0.9(0.3) 19.1(5.7) 1.9(0.7) 0.8(0.6) CDA<br />

2 (1) 2(1) 22.8(3.8) 2.1(0.6) 0.6(0.2) E<br />

3.1<br />

(1.8)<br />

2.2<br />

(0.9)<br />

21.3(3.9) 2.6(0.9) 0.4(0.2) E<br />

Results were expressed as mean followed by the standard deviation <strong>in</strong>to brackets.*Parameters derived by fitt<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

average compliance data from the creep phase. Different uppercase letters <strong>in</strong>dicates significant differences between<br />

treatments (p

Model<strong>in</strong>g a pasteurization process of clarified apple juice based on pulsed ultraviolet<br />

light<br />

I. Kasahara a , P. Grogg a , L. Aguilar b<br />

a<br />

Escuela de Alimentos, Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile<br />

(ikasahar@ucv.cl)<br />

b<br />

Laboratorio de Fotofísica y Espectroscopía Molecular, Universidad Católica de Valparaíso,<br />

Chile (luis.aguilar@ucv.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Nowaday there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand on more natural and m<strong>in</strong>imally processed food.<br />

Nevertheless this may result <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease of consumer health risks due to a raw condition of<br />

such foods and this has called attention from health authorities CFSAN-FDA [3]. Pulsed<br />

ultraviolet (PUV) light seems to be a promis<strong>in</strong>g alternative to process food s<strong>in</strong>ce it represents a<br />

non thermal technology and does not leave chemical residues <strong>in</strong> the product Barbosa-Canovas<br />

[1], Bialka [2], Demirci [4]. Extensive research have been carried out to determ<strong>in</strong>e relationship<br />

exist<strong>in</strong>g between process parameters and the effect on microorganisms lethality and k<strong>in</strong>etics on<br />

traditional thermal processes, such as sterilization or pasteurization, whereas only few works<br />

have been published related to food process<strong>in</strong>g based on PUV.<br />

The aim of this work was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the lethality of microorganisms <strong>in</strong> clarified apple juice<br />

when subjected to a pasteurization process based on a pulsed ultraviolet light treatment at<br />

different conditions and establish relationship between <strong>in</strong>activation and process parameters.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The elim<strong>in</strong>ation of E. coli and A. acidoterrestris microorganisms on clarified apple juice by<br />

mean a pasteurization process based on a pulsed ultraviolet (PUV) light treatment was studied.<br />

PUV light was generated <strong>in</strong> an excimer laser source (Lambda Physik Compex 110). Survival<br />

microorganisms before and after expos<strong>in</strong>g juice samples to PUV light at different doses were<br />

counted as colonies form<strong>in</strong>g units. In order to establish the effectiveness of different levels of<br />

energy, experimental data were adjusted to a Weibull model, accord<strong>in</strong>g to equation proposed<br />

by van Boekel (2002).<br />

Samples of apple juice were <strong>in</strong>oculated separately with both microorganisms, and then exposed<br />

to PUV light <strong>in</strong>to quartz cells under static regimen and <strong>in</strong>to a flow cell for a dynamic regimen.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figures 1 present results related to the elim<strong>in</strong>ation of E. coli after PUV light pasteurization<br />

process under a static and a dynamic regimen, respectively. Figure 1 shows that Weibull model<br />

fit adequately experimental data. Besides, Figure 1(a) that represent a static condition, shows a<br />

concave curve shape which <strong>in</strong> turn relates to Weibull model factor ß < 1, which <strong>in</strong>dicates that<br />

under a static regimen surviv<strong>in</strong>g cells have less probability to be <strong>in</strong>activated while PUV light<br />

dose is <strong>in</strong>creased. On the contrary, Figure 2(b) which represents results obta<strong>in</strong>ed on a dynamic<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1637

egime, presents a concave curve shape and so factor ß > 1, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that microbial cells seem<br />

to be more susceptible to be destroyed as PUV light dose is <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

On the other hand, results obta<strong>in</strong>ed on elim<strong>in</strong>ation of vegetative cells and spores of A.<br />

acidoterrestris, <strong>in</strong>dicate that both forms show curves with ß < 1, therefore it could be assumed<br />

that vegetative and latent forms have less probability to be <strong>in</strong>activated while PUV light dose is<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

(a) (b)<br />

Figure 1. Inactivation of E. coli <strong>in</strong> clarified apple juice after pulsed ultraviolet light pasteurization<br />

process at different energy doses. Experimental data adjusted accord<strong>in</strong>g Weibull model. (a) Static<br />

regime, (b) flow regime<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is concluded that microorganisms’ destruction <strong>in</strong> clarified apple juice by mean a pulsed<br />

ultraviolet pasteurization process essentially depends on energy dose. Besides, microbial<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation seems to depend also on apple juice clearness and soluble content. Experimental<br />

data fit satisfactory well curves produced by Weibull model, either for <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

vegetative cells of A. acidoterrestris and E. coli or spores form <strong>in</strong> the case of A. acidoterrestris.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Barbosa-Canovas G., Palou E., Pothakamury U. and Swanson B. 1998. Nonthermal Preservation of<br />

<strong>Food</strong>s. 3 rd Edition. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, USA.<br />

[2] Bialka K. & Demirci, A. 2008. Efficacy of pulsed UV-Light for decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of Escherichia coli<br />

O157:H7 and Salmonella spp on raspberries and strawberries. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science 73(5), 201-207.<br />

[3] CFSSAN-FDA 2000 K<strong>in</strong>etics of microbial <strong>in</strong>activation for alternative food process<strong>in</strong>g technologies:<br />

pulsed light technology. Center for <strong>Food</strong> Safety and Applied Nutrition, <strong>Food</strong> and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration.<br />

http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/comm/ift-puls.html<br />

[4] Demirci A. 2002 Novel process<strong>in</strong>g technologies for food safety. J. Assoc. <strong>Food</strong> Drug Officials 66(4),<br />

1-8.<br />

1638

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus paracasei us<strong>in</strong>g Spray Gun technology<br />

Maribel Jiménez a , Esmeralda Jiménez a , Ebner Azuara a , Guadalupe Luna b , Cesar I. Berista<strong>in</strong> a<br />

a<br />

Instituto de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Veracruzana Xalapa ,Veracruz, México<br />

(maribjimenez@uv.mx).<br />

b<br />

DEPI, Instituto Tecnológico de Orizaba, Orizaba, Veracruz, México<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Probiotic bacteria are def<strong>in</strong>es as “live microorganisms which, when adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> adequate<br />

amounts, confer a health on the host”. The ability of microorganisms to survive and multiply <strong>in</strong><br />

the host strongly <strong>in</strong>fluences their probiotic benefits. However the growth activity of probiotic is<br />

affected by conditions such as pH, temperature, oxygen and the other factors [1]. A promis<strong>in</strong>g<br />

solution to this problem is the encapsulation; the encapsulation is a process <strong>in</strong> which the cells<br />

are reta<strong>in</strong>ed with<strong>in</strong> an encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g matrix [2]. The spay gun is a technique novel <strong>in</strong> the<br />

pharmaceutical <strong>in</strong>dustry, this technique is cheap, uses room temperature is beneficial to<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the viability. On the other hand too keep the viability and extend their storage shelf<br />

life is convenient to convert the capsules <strong>in</strong>to dry<strong>in</strong>g employ<strong>in</strong>g techniques such as fluidized<br />

bed dry<strong>in</strong>g [3]. The ma<strong>in</strong> objective if this study is to evaluate the application a novel technique<br />

spray gun to encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g as well as the application of fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g to produce dry<br />

capsules of long shelf life, highly viable probiotic from Lactobacillus paracasei.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A lyophilized culture of Lactobacillus paracasei was cultured for 12 h at 37º C.<br />

encapsulation procedure. Beads were a produced us<strong>in</strong>g a modified encapsulation method<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>ally by Sheu and Marshall [4] and Sultana et al. [5]. A 2 % alg<strong>in</strong>ate mixture was<br />

prepared conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 2 % maize starch and 0.1 % culture. The mixture was added <strong>in</strong>to 10 %<br />

canola oil. The operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions of spray gun were as follows; spray pressure, 30 PSI,<br />

nozzle diameter, 1.7 mm. Then the solution was sprayed on the 3% CaCl2 solution. For<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed dry capsules used fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g were as follows; fluidization velocity, 99 m 3 /s,<br />

<strong>in</strong>let temperature 30 ºC , the viable cells were counted accord<strong>in</strong>g to the standard plate method.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>itial physical properties of capsules prepared and obta<strong>in</strong>ed by spray gun had a <strong>in</strong>itial bulk<br />

density was 0.458 g/cm3, compact density was 0.67 g/cm3, and particle density was 0.76<br />

g/cm3. This important because, physical properties are directly related to the quality and<br />

utilization of food products, caus<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> their structure and porosity. The physical<br />

characteristics of the <strong>in</strong>dividual particles are ma<strong>in</strong>ly determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g material<br />

and physical properties and <strong>in</strong>directly, these properties can provide predictions about storage<br />

stability. The <strong>in</strong>itial moisture was 86 % and after 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes of dry<strong>in</strong>g the moisture was 2.3 %.<br />

The physical characteristics on the <strong>in</strong>dividual particles are ma<strong>in</strong>ly determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the material<br />

from which are encapsulated.<br />

Powder property measurement is important because these properties <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sically affect powder<br />

behavior dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, handl<strong>in</strong>g and process<strong>in</strong>g such as transportation, mix<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

packag<strong>in</strong>g. The viability of the solution before encapsulation was 7.10 X 10 9 cfu, and after<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1639

encapsulation by Spray Gun was 2.40 X 108 CFU, which represent 3.38 % of the viability with<br />

respect to the <strong>in</strong>itial solution.<br />

These results were similar to report by Semyonov et al. [6], when they used coacervation. The<br />

vialibility of microorganism decreases with <strong>in</strong>creased dry<strong>in</strong>g time, reach<strong>in</strong>g values of 53 x10 5<br />

correspond<strong>in</strong>g to 2.2 % from <strong>in</strong>itial viability (Figure 1).<br />

% Viability<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>) Figure 1.Viability of Lactobacillus paracasei encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g by spray gun and by fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

One pr<strong>in</strong>cipal criterion for the stability of capsules is the moisture content. The higher viability<br />

was when the capsules had moisture 36 %. When the capsules was dry the viability decreases<br />

obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a major viability when the moisture content of capsules was high, the viability after<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong>utes of dry<strong>in</strong>g was 5.40x10 5 , this viability was similar to reported by Semyonov et al [6]<br />

when they used spray freeze to dry<strong>in</strong>g method and coacervation method of encapsulation<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present study demonstrate that fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g is an appropriate process to generate<br />

dried capsules of def<strong>in</strong>ed dimensions conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g probiotic bacteria L. Paracasei, that reta<strong>in</strong><br />

viability dur<strong>in</strong>g the encapsulation by spray gun. We conclude that encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g by spray gun<br />

and dry<strong>in</strong>g by fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g are a good option to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> viable L. paracasei to<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporate new food systems.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35<br />

[1] Annan N.T., Borza N.T. & Trueistrup Hansen L. 2007. Encapsulation <strong>in</strong> alg<strong>in</strong>ate-coated gelat<strong>in</strong>e microspheres<br />

improves survival of the probiotic Bifidobacterium adolescentis 15703T dur<strong>in</strong>g exposure to simulated<br />

gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al conditions. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 41, 184-193<br />

[2] Homayouni A., Azizi A., Ehsani M.R., Yarmand M.S. & Razavi S.H. 2008. Effect of microencapsulation and<br />

resistant starch on the probiotic survival and sensory properties of symbiotic ice cream. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 111, 50-<br />

55<br />

[3] Anal A. & S<strong>in</strong>gh KY. 2007. Recent advances <strong>in</strong> microencapsulation of probiotics for <strong>in</strong>dustrial applications and<br />

targeted delivery. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 5, 240-251.<br />

[4] Sheu T. Y. & Marshall, R.T., 1993. Improv<strong>in</strong>g survival of culture bacteria <strong>in</strong> frozen desserts by microentrapment.<br />

Journal of Dairy Science, 76(7), 1902-1907<br />

[5] Sultana K., Goodward, G., Reynolds N., Arumugaswamy R., Peiris P. & Kailasapathy K, (2000). Encapsulation<br />

of probiotic bacteria with alg<strong>in</strong>ate-starch and evaluation of survival <strong>in</strong> simulated gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al conditions and <strong>in</strong><br />

yoghurt. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 62, 47-55.<br />

[6] Semyonov D., Ramon O., Kaplun Z., Lev<strong>in</strong>-Brener L., Gurevich N. & Shimoni E. 2010. Microencapsulation of<br />

Lactobacillus paracasei by spray freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 43, 193-202.<br />

1640

Concentration of a vegetal enzymatic extract by microfiltration<br />

Teles, A.S.C. a , Terzi, S.C. b , Silva, L. F. M. b , Gomes, F.S. b ; Moraes, I.V.M. c ; Egito, A.S. d ; Cabral,<br />

L.M.C. b ; Matta, V.M. b<br />

a Central State University of West Zone, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (al<strong>in</strong>e_cascaes@yahoo.com.br)<br />

b Embrapa <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (vmatta@ctaa.embrapa.br)<br />

c Embrapa Tropical Agro<strong>in</strong>dustry, Fortaleza, Brazil (<strong>in</strong>grid@cnpat.embrapa.br)<br />

d Embrapa Goats and Sheep, Sobral, Brazil (egito@cnpc.embrapa.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Milk clott<strong>in</strong>g for cheese produc<strong>in</strong>g is usually performed us<strong>in</strong>g enzymes from animal sources,<br />

and the most common is chymos<strong>in</strong>. However, its low availability and the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> cheese<br />

production have contributed to the lack of chymos<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> world market, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the search for<br />

new sources, like the vegetal ones [1, 2]. An example of such application is the use of proteases<br />

from vegetal that will also attend people with some religious or philosophical demands. Egito<br />

et al. [2] have shown that sunflower extracts can be used for cheese production without<br />

un<strong>in</strong>tended flavor and that they have the same site of hydrolysis of chymos<strong>in</strong> when <strong>in</strong> presence<br />

of case<strong>in</strong>. The objective of this study was to evaluate the concentration by membrane processes<br />

of a vegetal proteolytic enzymatic extract obta<strong>in</strong>ed from sunflower seed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The enzymatic raw extract was obta<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to the follow<strong>in</strong>g steps: dis<strong>in</strong>tegration of<br />

sunflower seed <strong>in</strong> a pilot plant mill, homogenization <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dustrial blender, aqueous<br />

extraction <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>e solution conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 1% (w/v) NaCl dur<strong>in</strong>g 18 hours under refrigeration and<br />

centrifugation <strong>in</strong> a basket centrifuge (Bell<strong>in</strong>ox, Brazil) at 35g, us<strong>in</strong>g a 150μm nylon screen<br />

filter medium. The raw extract was microfiltered us<strong>in</strong>g ceramic membranes with 1.0 μm pore<br />

size at 25 o C and 2 bar of transmembrane pressure. Permeate flux was determ<strong>in</strong>ed along the<br />

process and samples were collected from feed (raw extract), permeate and retentate<br />

(concentrated extract), for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of total prote<strong>in</strong>s, proteolytic activity and coagulation<br />

unit.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The permeate flux behavior of microfiltration process is showed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 where it is<br />

possible to observe its stability along more than 200 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The average flux value was 33<br />

L/hm 2 and a volumetric concentration factor equal to 5.0 was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />

The results of total prote<strong>in</strong>, proteolytic activity and coagulation unit are presented at Table 1.<br />

As expected the coagulation unit was lower <strong>in</strong> the retentate fraction (4.72 CU/mL) than <strong>in</strong> the<br />

feed (10.93 CU/mL) and no milk coagulation was verified with the permeate sample. No<br />

proteolytic activity was detected <strong>in</strong> the permeate fraction and the total prote<strong>in</strong> content was 0.29<br />

mg/mL. Proteolytic activity has <strong>in</strong>creased 1.5 times while total prote<strong>in</strong> content has <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

about four fold. Both total prote<strong>in</strong> (3.7 times) and enzymatic activity (1.5 times) were<br />

concentrated <strong>in</strong> retentate fraction although they were not <strong>in</strong> the same range of the concentration<br />

factor, probably due to the prote<strong>in</strong> denatur<strong>in</strong>g and enzyme <strong>in</strong>activation. Neves et al. [3], when<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1641

study<strong>in</strong>g the squid prote<strong>in</strong> concentration by ultrafiltration, has atta<strong>in</strong>ed a lower concentration<br />

factor (1.8) although they have gotten to concentrate total prote<strong>in</strong>s at the same range.<br />

Figure 1. Permeate flux behaviour of sunflower extract microfiltration.<br />

Table 1. Total prote<strong>in</strong>, proteolytic activity and coagulation unit of the three fractions dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

microfiltration of sunflower enzymatic extract<br />

Parameter Total prote<strong>in</strong><br />

(mg/mL)<br />

Proteolytic activity<br />

(U/mL)<br />

Coagulation unit<br />

(CU/mL)<br />

Feed (raw extract) 1.69 ± 0.17 1.43 ± 0.07 10.93 ± 0.09<br />

Permeate 0.29 ± 0.02 0 nc<br />

Retentate<br />

nc – no coagulation<br />

6.21 ± 0.24 2.18 ± 0.20 4.72 ± 0.01<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results suggest a potentiality for the concentration of the sunflower seed protease<br />

by microfiltration, although this process needs further studies to reduce enzymatic activity<br />

losses.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Cavalcanti M.T.H., Teixeira, M.F.S., Lima Filho, J.L. & Porto, A.L.F. 2004. Partial purification of<br />

new milk-clott<strong>in</strong>g enzyme produced by Nocardiopsis sp. Bioresource Technology, 93, 29–35.<br />

[2] Egito A.S., Girardet J.M., Laguna L.E., Poirson C., Mollé D., Miclo L., Humbert G. & Gallard J.L.<br />

2007. Milk-Clott<strong>in</strong>g Activity of Enzyme Extracts from Sunflower and Albizia Seeds and Specific<br />

Hydrolysis of Bov<strong>in</strong>e k-case<strong>in</strong>. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 17, 816-825.<br />

[3] Neves L.C, Cabral L.M.C, Stephan M.P., Leite S.G.F. & Matta V.M. 2006. Recovery of prote<strong>in</strong>s from<br />

residual br<strong>in</strong>e of squid process<strong>in</strong>g. Alimentaria, 119-123.<br />

Acknowledgments: Embrapa and FUNCAP, for project fund<strong>in</strong>g, and Huberto Paschoalick for the seeds<br />

supply<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

1642

Fresh produce decontam<strong>in</strong>ation by an atmospheric pressure plasma-jet<br />

a Baier, M.; a Görgen, M.; a Fröhl<strong>in</strong>g, A.; a Geyer, M.; a Herppich, W.B.; b Ehlbeck, J.; c Knorr, D.;<br />

a Schlüter, O.<br />

a<br />

Leibniz-Institute for Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Potsdam, Germany (mbaier@atb-potsdam.de)<br />

b<br />

Leibniz-Institute for Plasma Science and Technology, Greifswald, Germany (ehlbeck@<strong>in</strong>pgreifswald.de)<br />

c<br />

Technische Universität Berl<strong>in</strong>, Berl<strong>in</strong>, Germany (dietrich.knorr@tu-berl<strong>in</strong>.de)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Developments of new atmospheric pressure plasma sources which allow generation of nonthermal<br />

plasma at less and less temperatures approach<strong>in</strong>g room temperature appear suitable to<br />

treat heat-sensitive food surfaces. Over the last decade first attempts were conducted. The<br />

antibacterial efficiency of a needle-to-plate-system was tested on apple juice and resulted <strong>in</strong> a<br />

7 log units reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 [1]. Correspond<strong>in</strong>g to a 2 log units<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation a helium-oxygen plasma could be applied on bell pepper without significant<br />

effects of discoloration [2]. Us<strong>in</strong>g one atmosphere uniform glow discharge plasma samples<br />

were treated <strong>in</strong> a remote exposure chamber. Stra<strong>in</strong>s of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella and<br />

Listeria monocytogenes on apples, cantaloupe, and lettuce, respectively, were reduced by at<br />

least 2 log units [3]. A glid<strong>in</strong>g arc plasma <strong>in</strong>activated E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Stanley<br />

on the surface of apples by 3 log units [4]. The efficacy of a plasma-jet on a pathogenic stra<strong>in</strong><br />

and different spoilage microorganisms was exam<strong>in</strong>ed on the pericarps of mango and melon [5].<br />

The aim of this study was an alignment of antibacterial efficiency and quality assurance.<br />

Different process parameters were varied to ga<strong>in</strong> enhanced <strong>in</strong>activation. Successful parameter<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ations were applied on Lambs lettuce and their suitability was monitored us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Chlorophyllfluorescence-Image-Analysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The used plasma device was an atmospheric pressure plasma-jet with argon as process gas and<br />

a gas flow of 3 – 7 slm (standard liters per m<strong>in</strong>ute). The distance between sample and tip of the<br />

plasma-jet was set at 18 mm. At 230 V and 50 Hz the jets power <strong>in</strong>take was at 8 W.<br />

Escherichia coli was prepared us<strong>in</strong>g a two steps cultivation (pre-culture 24 h, 37 °C, ma<strong>in</strong><br />

culture 18 h, 37 °C, shak<strong>in</strong>g at 125 rpm). 5*10 6 E. coli cells were placed on polysaccharide gel<br />

discs (A=1 cm 2 ), dried, and plasma-treated with varied parameters. Bacteria were resuspended<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1 ml phosphate buffered sal<strong>in</strong>e, serially diluted and plated on ST-I agar plates.<br />

Leaves of Lambs Lettuce were harvested and placed <strong>in</strong>to sample holders, stored <strong>in</strong> a dark place<br />

for 5 m<strong>in</strong> to stop its photosynthetical activity. The chlorophyllfluorescence of the leaves was<br />

measured before and immediately after treatment to assess the plasma´s impact on the tissue.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics show the impact of varied process parameters on the antibacterial<br />

efficiency. The highest voltage applied resulted <strong>in</strong> highest <strong>in</strong>activation of 3 log cycles.<br />

However, with<strong>in</strong> the first m<strong>in</strong>ute, treatment at 45 V rema<strong>in</strong>ed about 1 log cycle less effective<br />

than 35 V. Consequently, no direct relation of applied power and efficiency could be derived.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1643

S<strong>in</strong>ce treatment at maximum voltage of 65 V resulted <strong>in</strong> highest <strong>in</strong>activation after 90 s and<br />

120 s, this sett<strong>in</strong>g was chosen for further experiments. Alter<strong>in</strong>g the flow rate, the lowest value<br />

of 3 slm showed 0.5 log cycles less <strong>in</strong>activation after 2 m<strong>in</strong>. The high gas flow of 7 slm<br />

showed less effectiveness with<strong>in</strong> the first 90 s and evened up with the medium gas flow with<strong>in</strong><br />

the last 30 s. Achiev<strong>in</strong>g 3 log cycles <strong>in</strong>activation the medium gas flow rate of 5 slm turned out<br />

to be the most efficient sett<strong>in</strong>g. A considerable improvement was achieved when modify<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

gas composition. Small additions of 0.01 % and 0.05 % O2 to argon did not <strong>in</strong>crease or even<br />

decrease the efficacy. The addition of 0.1 % O2 resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>activation of 3 log cycles after 1<br />

m<strong>in</strong> and 5 log cycles after 2 m<strong>in</strong> treatment time.<br />

As the average temperature (Tavg) did not exceed 15 °C, thermal effects <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

process can be excluded.<br />

Follow<strong>in</strong>g the microbiological tests, the most efficient parameter comb<strong>in</strong>ation of 65.0 V,<br />

5.0 slm flow rate, and a 0.1 % O2-addition was chosen to treat the lamb´s lettuce. The<br />

measured variable Fv/Fm shows the maximum photosynthetic activity (exciton transfer<br />

efficiency) which corresponds to the <strong>in</strong>tegrity of the photosynthesis apparatus. At a distance<br />

between sample surface and tip of the plasma-device of 11 mm, all treatments from 20 s to 60 s<br />

resulted <strong>in</strong> severe loss of up to 50 % Fv/Fm. Select<strong>in</strong>g a distance of 13 mm the <strong>in</strong>itial decrease<br />

has been reduced by almost 50 % and the impact of treatment duration appears more clearly. A<br />

further <strong>in</strong>crease to a distance of 18 mm between lettuce leaves and the tip of the plasma-device<br />

did not lead to any effects after 20 s, 30 s, and 40 s. After 60 s treatment time Fv/Fm did not fall<br />

below the characteristic level of 0.65 where alterations can be regarded as reversible. Until the<br />

end of 72 h of observation the samples entirely recovered to the <strong>in</strong>itial level before plasma<br />

treatment.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>vestigated plasma treatment resulted <strong>in</strong> a 5 log cycle <strong>in</strong>activation of E. coli 147 after 2<br />

m<strong>in</strong> treatment time. The lamb´s lettuce rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>tact after 60 s treatment time apply<strong>in</strong>g<br />

optimised process parameters, which corresponds to a 3.0 log cycle <strong>in</strong>activation. Further<br />

experiments will be conducted to allow extended treatment times <strong>in</strong> plasma application for<br />

fresh produce.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Montenegro RR (2002) Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 us<strong>in</strong>g a pulsed nonthermal plasma system.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 67(2), 646-648.<br />

[2] Vleugels M., Shama G., Deng X.T., Greenacre E., Brocklehurst T., Kong M.G. (2005). Atmospheric<br />

plasma<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation of biofilm-form<strong>in</strong>g bacteria for food safety control. IEEE Transactions on Plasma<br />

Science 33, 824-<br />

828.<br />

[3] Critzer, F.J., Kelly-W<strong>in</strong>terberg, K., South, S.L., Golden, D.A., 2007. Atmospheric plasma <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

of foodborne pathogens on fresh produce surfaces. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Protection 70 (10), 2290–2296.<br />

[4] Niemira B.A. and Sites J., 2008. Cold plasma <strong>in</strong>activates Salmonella Stanley and Escherichia coli<br />

O157:H7 <strong>in</strong>oculated on golden delicious apples, J. <strong>Food</strong> Prot. 71, pp. 1357–1365.<br />

[5] Perni, S., Liu, D.W., Shama, G., Kong, M., 2008. Cold Atmospheric plasma decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of the<br />

pericarps of fruit. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Protection 71 (2), 302–308.<br />

1644

Intensification of process of water-thermal treatment of wheat gra<strong>in</strong> before bread flour<br />

mill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

O. Safonova a , O. Razborskaya b , V. Yuferov c , O. Ozerov d<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong>stuffs <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Technology, Petro Vasilenko Kharkiv National Technical<br />

University of Agriculture, Kharkiv, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (avgust23@ukr.net)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong>stuffs <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Technology, Petro Vasilenko Kharkiv National Technical<br />

University of Agriculture, Kharkiv, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (neona84@ukr.net)<br />

c Institute of plasma electronics and new methods of acceleration, National Science Center “Kharkov<br />

Institute of Physics and Technology” (v.yuferov@kipt.kharkov.ua)<br />

d Institute of plasma electronics and new methods of acceleration, National Science Center “Kharkov<br />

Institute of Physics and Technology” (ozerov at @kipt.kharkov.ua)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

There is a new method of water-thermal treatment of wheat gra<strong>in</strong> [1] <strong>in</strong> pneumopuls<strong>in</strong>g device<br />

by a wide range of acoustic waves at low pressure. This treatment can significantly reduce the<br />

length of a given technological operation for several m<strong>in</strong>utes. Application of this method is<br />

more appropriate if wet process<strong>in</strong>g of gra<strong>in</strong> is used or for a small power plant, either for the<br />

companies that are be<strong>in</strong>g built.<br />

The aim of research is to exam<strong>in</strong>e the impact of the <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT on technological properties<br />

of wheat, which was processed by acoustic oscillations at low pressure before bak<strong>in</strong>g varietal<br />

gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The objects of <strong>in</strong>vestigated were wheat, flour, non yeast dough and yeast dough. Wheat was<br />

characterized by the follow<strong>in</strong>g quality: humidity - 12,7%, vitreousness - 50%, wet gluten<br />

content - 18,0%. The gra<strong>in</strong> of the wheat subjected to WTT <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g modes: 1 sample -<br />

up to 15,5-16,0% humidity for 20 hours at a temperature of 18-20 o C (a traditional two-stage<br />

cold WTT), 2 sample - were treated <strong>in</strong> pneumopuls<strong>in</strong>g device pulsed power fluctuations - 3<br />

units of device, pressure - 0,8 × 10 4 Pa, the number of oscillations - 120 impulses, 3 sample - 3<br />

units of device, 2,4 × 10 4 Pa, 180 impulses, respectively.<br />

The flour was produced from the gra<strong>in</strong> at the laboratory mill MLU-202 Buhler. The hardness<br />

of the gra<strong>in</strong> was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g the experimental laboratory equipment. The degree of<br />

swell<strong>in</strong>g of the gra<strong>in</strong> was measured by the change of its volume, flour whiteness was measured<br />

with a device VBB-2m. To evaluate the strength of flour quantity and quality of gluten was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the standard way, the sedimentation <strong>in</strong>dex of flour – a modified method of<br />

Zeleny, to evaluate the physical properties of dough - far<strong>in</strong>ograph Brabender, alveograph<br />

Chop<strong>in</strong>. Amylolytic transformations were studied us<strong>in</strong>g amylograph and «Fall<strong>in</strong>g Number»<br />

device.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Study<strong>in</strong>g the changes of flour-mill<strong>in</strong>g properties of the gra<strong>in</strong> after <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT showed that<br />

the effect of acoustic waves at low pressure on the hardness of the gra<strong>in</strong> at axial compression is<br />

reduced by 24,5%, the volume of the gra<strong>in</strong> is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g to 17,0-18,5%, yield of flour is ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />

by 2,5-2,6%, and whiteness of flour - at 7-7,5 units. Unit energy consumption for gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1645

educed to 22,5% <strong>in</strong> comparison to untreated gra<strong>in</strong>. After <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT the quantity of gluten<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased by 2,0-2,5%. To evaluate the strength of flour the sedimentation <strong>in</strong>dex of flour was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed, which characterizes the quality of flour [2]. In this study the sedimentation <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

of flour is the lowest <strong>in</strong> sample 1, which was prepared by the traditional cold WTT, and the<br />

highest - <strong>in</strong> sample 2 (6,5%) which was subjected to impulsive treatment under less pressure.<br />

Sample 3 has less sedimentation <strong>in</strong>dex compared to sample 2, but it is higher compared to<br />

sample 1 (4,3%). Therefore, samples, subjected to impulsive process<strong>in</strong>g, are characterized by a<br />

higher sedimentation <strong>in</strong>dex, and thus the strength of flour is higher compared to the traditional<br />

cold WTT. Study<strong>in</strong>g the physical properties of non yeast dough <strong>in</strong> far<strong>in</strong>ograph for 2 hours<br />

showed that the flour subjected to traditional cold WTT (sample 1)is characterized by a higher<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex of the rarefaction of the dough (220 units of far<strong>in</strong>ograph (un. f.)) compared with the<br />

experimental samples (170-210 un. f.). Samples processed by impulses (samples 2, 3) have<br />

similar elasticity of dough, which exceeds the <strong>in</strong>dex of sample 1, on average, 10-20 un.f.<br />

Similar changes are <strong>in</strong> the yeast dough: the samples processed by impulses are more elastic and<br />

the <strong>in</strong>dex of the rarefaction is significantly lower (especially <strong>in</strong> sample 2) than <strong>in</strong> traditional<br />

cold WTT. There is some improvement of bak<strong>in</strong>g properties of flour (strengthen<strong>in</strong>g of flour<br />

and improv<strong>in</strong>g the physical characteristics of the dough) after <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT of the wheat<br />

gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the pneumopuls<strong>in</strong>g device before bak<strong>in</strong>g varietal gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g. Study<strong>in</strong>g the physical<br />

properties of the dough by us<strong>in</strong>g amylograph showed that after <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT of the gra<strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex of the elasticity of the flour <strong>in</strong>creased to 12,7-14,3%, the strength of the flour <strong>in</strong>creases<br />

by 40-60 units of alveograph compared to the traditional cold WTT. Study<strong>in</strong>g the amylolytic<br />

properties of flour on amylograph shows that the maximum viscosity of the <strong>in</strong>tensively treated<br />

samples is higher by 30-40% compared to the traditional cold WTT. Higher <strong>in</strong>dexes <strong>in</strong> these<br />

samples were also got on «Fall<strong>in</strong>g Number» device. These facts <strong>in</strong>dicate some amylolytic<br />

transformations <strong>in</strong> the flour. Trial laboratory bak<strong>in</strong>g showed that <strong>in</strong>tensive WTT of the gra<strong>in</strong><br />

before a bak<strong>in</strong>g varietal gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g does not worsen the quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al products.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Study<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the new WTT on the gra<strong>in</strong> showed that under the conditions of<br />

certa<strong>in</strong> parameters of <strong>in</strong>tensive treatment (power of the impulses, pressure and number of<br />

impulses) the same technological properties of the gra<strong>in</strong> can be achieved after the traditional<br />

cold WTT. The duration of the WTT is considerably reduced and the gra<strong>in</strong> is prepared for<br />

gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g much quicker.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Utility patent 50 802. Ukra<strong>in</strong>e. B02B1/00. Method of water-thermal treatment of the gra<strong>in</strong> of the<br />

wheat before bak<strong>in</strong>g varietal gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g. Safonova O. N., Razborska O. O., Domnich M. I., Yuferov V.,<br />

Ozerov O. M., Ponomaryev O.N. Applicants and patentees: Safonova O. N., Razborska O. O. –<br />

u 2009 13204; Publ. 12/18/2009 City; publ. 06/25/2010, Bull. Number 12.<br />

[2] Vasilenko I. N. & Komarov V. I. 1987. Evaluation of gra<strong>in</strong> quality: a reference. - Moscow:<br />

Agropromyzdat, USSR.<br />

1646

The effect of abiotic stress pre-treatments on quality attributes of fresh-cut carrot cv.<br />

Nantes<br />

Carla Alegria a,c , Joaqu<strong>in</strong>a P<strong>in</strong>heiro a , Margarida Duthoit a , Elsa M. Gonçalves a , Maria Teresa Coelho b ,<br />

Margarida Moldão-Mart<strong>in</strong>s c , Marta Abreu a<br />

a UITA/INRB, Lisbon, Portugal (marta.abreu@<strong>in</strong>rb.pt)<br />

b Escola Superior Agrária de Castelo Branco, Castelo Branco, Portugal (mteresacoelho@ipcb.pt)<br />

c SCTA/DAIAT. ISA. Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal (mmoldao@isa.utl.pt )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Abiotic stresses, such as heat shock and UV-C radiation, can be used to <strong>in</strong>duce the synthesis of<br />

bioactive compounds and prevent decay <strong>in</strong> fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Among the<br />

preservation techniques that are currently <strong>in</strong> use by the fresh-cut <strong>in</strong>dustry, e.g. antioxidants,<br />

chlor<strong>in</strong>es and modified atmosphere packag<strong>in</strong>g, the use of heat shock and ultraviolet-C<br />

treatments, alone or <strong>in</strong> different comb<strong>in</strong>ations have proved useful to control microbial growth<br />

while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g quality dur<strong>in</strong>g storage of fresh-cut produce [1].<br />

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of heat shock and UV-C radiation stress<br />

treatments, applied <strong>in</strong> whole carrots, on the overall quality of fresh-cut carrot cv. Nantes dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage (5 ºC).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Raw whole carrots (Daucus carota L. cv. Nantes) without treatment (Ctr_samples) and<br />

submitted to heat and UV pre-treatments (HS_ and UV_samples, respectively) were<br />

subsequently m<strong>in</strong>imal processed. M<strong>in</strong>imal process<strong>in</strong>g (MP) <strong>in</strong>cluded peel<strong>in</strong>g, shredd<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation process (chlor<strong>in</strong>ated water, 200 ppm /1 m<strong>in</strong>), r<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>g, dry<strong>in</strong>g and packag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operations. Heat shock was performed by immersion of whole peeled carrots <strong>in</strong> hot-water at<br />

100 ºC for 45 s and paper dried. UV-C pre-treatment were prepared <strong>in</strong> a UV-C apparatus and<br />

the whole peeled carrots were placed <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle layer for 2 m<strong>in</strong> (0.78±0.36 kJ.m -2 ). After HS<br />

and UV-C pre-treatments, the whole carrots were held at 5 ºC for 24h until m<strong>in</strong>imal process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operations without the decontam<strong>in</strong>ation step. Analytical procedures were carried out <strong>in</strong><br />

triplicate on five sampl<strong>in</strong>g dates, i.e. days 0, 3, 5, 7 and 10. Total mesophilic aerobic count<br />

(TAPC) [2], headspace gas (O2/CO2, %) analysis (Abisspr<strong>in</strong>t), total phenolic content [3], total<br />

carotenoid [4], peroxidase (POD) [5] were determ<strong>in</strong>ed and colour whiten<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dex (WI) was<br />

2 2 2<br />

WI 100 100 L * a * b<br />

*<br />

calculated by the expression:<br />

. Statistically significant<br />

differences (P

material (unprocessed carrot). Nonetheless, UV samples registered a three-fold <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

carotenoid content <strong>in</strong> subsequent storage. Colour of fresh-cut carrot showed a cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> WI values dur<strong>in</strong>g storage regardless of treatment without impair<strong>in</strong>g quality<br />

acceptance. Respiratory metabolism was affected by both abiotic stress treatments s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

reduced O2/CO2 rates were found, more significant <strong>in</strong> HS samples. The decontam<strong>in</strong>ation effect<br />

of the tested stresses was more expressive <strong>in</strong> HS samples, where a 2 Log10cfu.g -1 reduction <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>itial microbial load was achieved and also provided reduced microbial development rate<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. Both stress treatments show beneficial effects on the overall quality of fresh-cut<br />

carrot and proved to be more efficient than the <strong>in</strong>dustrial practice for fresh-cut carrot.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Both stress pre-treatments showed beneficial effects on the quality of fresh-cut shredded carrot,<br />

namely <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> phenolic and carotenoid contents and also reduced POD activity dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage. Moreover, heat shock pre-treatment promotes an effective decontam<strong>in</strong>ation effect and<br />

reduced respiratory levels.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Allende A., Tomás-Barberán F.A. & Gil M.I. 2006. M<strong>in</strong>imal process<strong>in</strong>g for healthy traditional foods.<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology, 17, 513-19.<br />

[2] EN ISO 4833: 2003. “Microbiology of food and animal feed<strong>in</strong>g stuffs - Horizontal method for the<br />

enumeration of microorganisms - Colony-count technique at 30ºC”.<br />

[3] S<strong>in</strong>gleton V.L. & Rossi J.A. 1965. Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdicphosphotungstic<br />

acid reagents. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 16(3), 144-158.<br />

[4] Biehler E., Mayer F., Hoffman L., Krause E. & Bohn T. 2010. Comparision of 3 Spectrophotometric<br />

Methods for Carotenoid Determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> Frequently Consumed Fruits and Vegetables. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science, 75(1), C55-C61.<br />

1648

Yogurt from ultrasound treated milk: monitor<strong>in</strong>g of fermentation process and evaluation<br />

of product quality characteristics.<br />

Panagiotis Sfakianakis a & Constant<strong>in</strong>a Tzia b<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechnioy St.,15780 Athens, Greece<br />

a psfakian@central.ntua.gr, b tzia@chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Milk and milk products, <strong>in</strong> order to become safe and palatable for consumption, undergo a<br />

series of processes <strong>in</strong> the dairy <strong>in</strong>dustry, i.e. pasteurization, standardization (SNFC and fat<br />

content) and homogenization. Homogenization is an important step that aims at reduction of<br />

the milk fat globules size from about 10-12 m to 1-2 m and therefore at prevention of their<br />

separation from the ma<strong>in</strong> volume of the milk. The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of homogenization is the<br />

application of extreme conditions to the milk fat globules, so they disperse and reform <strong>in</strong>to<br />

smaller. The most commonly used method <strong>in</strong> dairy <strong>in</strong>dustry is pressure homogenization.[3] An<br />

alternative method efficient for milk homogenization is ultrasound treatment. High <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

ultrasound causes vibrations and cavitation phenomena and thus the membrane that surrounds<br />

the milk fat globules dissipates and reforms creat<strong>in</strong>g smaller globules [1]. Several studies have<br />

applied ultrasound <strong>in</strong> milk homogenization and have shown that the milk fat globules (MFG)<br />

reduce drastically <strong>in</strong> size the more <strong>in</strong>tensive the ultrasound treatment <strong>in</strong>. Furthermore the use of<br />

ultrasound treated milk has effect on yoghurt production and on yoghurt itself. The<br />

fermentation process was longer, but the f<strong>in</strong>al product had superior rheological properties,<br />

strong gel structure, high water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity and low syneresis [4]. The present study will<br />

apply ultrasound on raw bov<strong>in</strong>e milk and afterwards, us<strong>in</strong>g the ultrasound homogenized milk,<br />

produce yogurt.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Raw bov<strong>in</strong>e milk (3,5% fat, 3,3% SNFC), after be<strong>in</strong>g heated at 60 o C, was treated by<br />

ultrasound for 10m<strong>in</strong> at amplitudes 150, 267,5, 375, 562,5 and 750 W, then pasteurized at<br />

85 o C for 20m<strong>in</strong>, cooled at 46 o C and <strong>in</strong>oculated with the started culture (<strong>in</strong>dustrial symbiotic<br />

culture of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus) and<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> 45 o C until the pH value of 4,7. After that the samples were stored to 4 o C for 24h.<br />

After the ultrasound treatment MFG were pictured at an optical microscope. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fermentation pH was monitored as well as viscosity. At the f<strong>in</strong>al product, viscosity and texture<br />

properties, hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness and gumm<strong>in</strong>ess, were measured.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Ultrasound homogenization led to decrease of MFG size. Low amplitude (150W) had not a<br />

satisfactory homogenization effect; the MFG size and distribution were similar to untreated<br />

milk. Medium amplitude ultrasound (267.5, 375 W) had a good homogenization effect; MFG<br />

average diameter was 2m. Higher amplitude ultrasound reduced the MFG size a lot, mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1649

them barely visible at the optical microscope (100x magnification); their average diameter size<br />

was 0,3m. Dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation process the pH decrease rate of each milk sample,<br />

homogenized by ultrasound, was slower compared with the respective described <strong>in</strong> the<br />

literature. Instead of 3 to 4h, the fermentation of ultrasound treated milk lasted 4-5h. However<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation the viscosity <strong>in</strong>crease was rapid and the f<strong>in</strong>al viscosity values were high,<br />

ranged from 1,4 to2 Pas*s for medium and high amplitude ultrasound (375, 562.5, 750 W) of<br />

milk treatment. Both pH decrease and viscosity evolution for all samples followed the<br />

sigmoidal course described by the modified Gompertz model [4]. The figure presents the pH<br />

and viscosity change dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation of a milk sample homogenized by 375W ultrasound.<br />

Figure 1. pH decrease and Viscosity evolution dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation of milk sample homogenized<br />

by 375 W ultrasound.<br />

The yoghurt produced from ultrasound homogenized milk had strong coagulum present<strong>in</strong>g<br />

high viscosity values, ranged from 1-2 Pa*s. Also the texture characteristics (hardness<br />

cohesiveness, adhesiveness and gumm<strong>in</strong>ess) were improved, The higher the <strong>in</strong>tensity of the<br />

ultrasound treatment, the higher viscosity and improved texture characteristics values were.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Conclud<strong>in</strong>g, high <strong>in</strong>tensity ultrasound had a good homogenization effect, but leads to longer<br />

fermentation process duration. The yogurt produced from ultrasound treated milk had higher<br />

viscosity, stronger coagulum and superior texture characteristics.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Z.J. Dolatowski, J. Stadnik, D. Stasiak. Applications of Utrasound <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Acta Sci.<br />

Pol. Technol. Alimemnt. 2007, 6(3): 89-99<br />

[2] H. Wu, G.J.Hulbers, J.R.Mount. Effect of Ultrasound on Milk Homogenization and Fermentation<br />

with Yoghurt Starter, Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science & Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 2001, 1: 211-218<br />

[3] P. Walstra, J.T. WWouters, T.J. Geurts. Dairy Science and Technology, CRC Press Taylor &<br />

Francis Group 2006<br />

[4] C. Soukoulis, P. Panagiotidis, R. Koureli, and C. Tzia. Industrial yogurt manufacture: Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

fermentation process and improvement of f<strong>in</strong>al product quality, J. of Dairy Science, 2007, 90:<br />

2641-2654.<br />

1650

Effect of Sonication on Malt<strong>in</strong>g Behaviour of Barley<br />

Emmanuel Dutheil a , Brijesh Tiwari b , Mahesh Gupta c , PJ Cullen d , Charles Brennan b , Colm O'Donnell a<br />

a Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University College Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong>, Manchester Metropolitan University, Holl<strong>in</strong>gs Faculty, Manchester, UK<br />

c <strong>Food</strong> and Environmental Health, Dubl<strong>in</strong> Institute of Technology, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Germ<strong>in</strong>ation capacity of barley gra<strong>in</strong>s plays a significant role <strong>in</strong> the brew<strong>in</strong>g process of barley.<br />

Germ<strong>in</strong>ation capacity of barley gra<strong>in</strong> is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by both pre-harvest and post harvest stages<br />

[1]. Steep<strong>in</strong>g time and temperature is one of the critical process <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the modification<br />

of endosperm materials of barley malt [2]. Several researchers exam<strong>in</strong>ed various techniques to<br />

reduce water usage dur<strong>in</strong>g steep<strong>in</strong>g for improv<strong>in</strong>g process efficiency and cost. Power<br />

ultrasound as a novel process<strong>in</strong>g method f<strong>in</strong>ds wide application <strong>in</strong> various food process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operations <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fruit juice preservation [3], enhanc<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g rate [4] and extraction of<br />

bioactive compounds [5]. The objective of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of sonication<br />

on the malt<strong>in</strong>g behaviour of barley gra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Malt<strong>in</strong>g barley cultivar gra<strong>in</strong>s were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a brewery (Gu<strong>in</strong>ess, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland), sieved<br />

and cleaned. One kg of cleaned barley gra<strong>in</strong>s were sonicated <strong>in</strong> 3 L of distilled water us<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

ultrasonic bath (Bransonic® 5210E DTH). Sonication treatment was performed for 20, 40 and<br />

60 m<strong>in</strong> at a constant frequency of 47 kHz ± 6% at a set temperature of 25 o C. Sonicated and<br />

control barley gra<strong>in</strong>s were steeped for 24 h by immersion <strong>in</strong> water at 16 °C and subsequently<br />

germ<strong>in</strong>ated for 96 h. Samples were kilned at 50 °C for 16 h before manually derooted to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

malt. Past<strong>in</strong>g properties of sonicated barley gra<strong>in</strong> and control samples obta<strong>in</strong>ed after mill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

samples to flour were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a Rapid Visco Analyser. The tetrazolium chloride (TZ)<br />

test was employed to determ<strong>in</strong>e seed potential viability and vigour. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the glucan<br />

content of the two isolates was carried us<strong>in</strong>g a Megazyme® mixed l<strong>in</strong>kage -glucan<br />

assay.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The effect of sonication on acrospire length (mm) dur<strong>in</strong>g germ<strong>in</strong>ation is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. A<br />

significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the length was observed with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> sonication time. The length<br />

of acrospire was higher compared to control at any given sonication treatment dur<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

germ<strong>in</strong>ation period of 96 h, clearly demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g that sonication enhances the germ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

rate. The TZ test also <strong>in</strong>dicated a 100 % gra<strong>in</strong> germ<strong>in</strong>ation rate for samples sonicated for 60<br />

m<strong>in</strong> compared to a rate of 95 % for samples sonicated for 20 and 40 m<strong>in</strong> and an 80% rate for<br />

control samples. Germ<strong>in</strong>ation tests showed that sonication enhances both seed viability and<br />

vigour. The sonication effect on germ<strong>in</strong>ation is ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to sonochemical reactions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

physical i.e. acoustic cavitations and chemical reactions [5]. The cavitations dur<strong>in</strong>g sonication<br />

may also <strong>in</strong>duce microfissures on the gra<strong>in</strong> surface and improve imbibition of moisture for<br />

enhanced germ<strong>in</strong>ation rate. The RVA profile of sonicated barley gra<strong>in</strong>s is shown an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1651

peak viscosity over control was observed at 20 and 40 m<strong>in</strong>s, PV was found to decrease at 60<br />

m<strong>in</strong> treatment time. A significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al viscosity was observed <strong>in</strong> sonicated samples.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>consistent changes <strong>in</strong> past<strong>in</strong>g profile of sonicated gra<strong>in</strong>s might also be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />

thermal effect <strong>in</strong>duced by sonication. An <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the temperature dur<strong>in</strong>g the sonication from<br />

25 °C to 33 °C for 20 m<strong>in</strong>, 35.8 °C for 40 m<strong>in</strong> and 43.9 °C for 60 m<strong>in</strong> was observed.<br />

Figure 1. Changes <strong>in</strong> length of acrospire dur<strong>in</strong>g germ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

No significant difference was observed for the -Glucan content of both sonicated (0.55 – 0.86<br />

mg/100gm) and control (0.97mg/100g) samples. However a significant decrease was observed<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g malt<strong>in</strong>g. A significant decrease of about 42.9 – 46.7% for sonicated and about 39.9 %<br />

for control samples was observed dur<strong>in</strong>g malt<strong>in</strong>g. A decrease <strong>in</strong> -glucan content dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sonication process and subsequent germ<strong>in</strong>ation might be due to several reasons <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

solublisation of soluble -glucan dur<strong>in</strong>g sonication process and enzymatic degradation of glucan<br />

due to -glucanase. It has been reported that low power sonication enhances enzymatic<br />

activity.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study shows that sonication improves the germ<strong>in</strong>ation capacity of barley gra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Ultrasound as a pre-treatment dur<strong>in</strong>g barley steep<strong>in</strong>g process can help <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

germ<strong>in</strong>ation by reduc<strong>in</strong>g germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and improv<strong>in</strong>g process efficiency.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Lengthofacrospire (mm)<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

0 24 48 72 96<br />

Germ<strong>in</strong>ationtime(h)<br />

[1] Tiwari, U & Cumm<strong>in</strong>s, E., (2009). Factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g -glucan levels and molecular weight <strong>in</strong> cereal-based<br />

products, Cereal Chemistry, 86, 290–301. [2] Bryce, J. H., Goodfellow, V., Agu, R. C., Brosnan, J. M., Br<strong>in</strong>ghurst, T.<br />

A., & Jack, F. R. (2010). Effect of Different Steep<strong>in</strong>g Conditions on Endosperm Modification and Quality of Distill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Malt. Journal of the Institute of Brew<strong>in</strong>g, 116(2), 125-133. [3] Goussous, S. J., Samarah, N. H., Alqudah, A. M., &<br />

Othman, M. O. (2010). Enhanc<strong>in</strong>g seed germ<strong>in</strong>ation of four crop species us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasonic technique. Experimental<br />

Agriculture, 46(02), 231-242. [4] O'Donnell, C. P., Tiwari, B. K., Bourke, P., & Cullen, P. J. (2010). Effect of<br />

ultrasonic process<strong>in</strong>g on food enzymes of <strong>in</strong>dustrial importance. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology, 21(7), 358-<br />

367. [5] Mason, T. J., Chemat, F., & V<strong>in</strong>atoru, M. (2011). The Extraction of Natural Products us<strong>in</strong>g Ultrasound or<br />

Microwaves. Current Organic Chemistry, 15(2), 237-247.<br />

1652

A mathematical approach for us<strong>in</strong>g multiple enzyme based pressure-temperature-time<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrators (PTTIs) for high pressure process evaluation<br />

Eleni Gogou, Petros Taoukis<br />

School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical University of Athens, Greece<br />

(egogou@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In order to ensure the optimization and control of high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g, evaluation of the<br />

process impact on both safety and quality attributes of foods is essential. Enzymes can serve as<br />

effective tools <strong>in</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the impact of high pressure processes of foods [1, 2]. Pressure-<br />

Temperature Time Integrators (PTTIs) show <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle response (i.e. the measurement of<br />

activity change after HP treatment) the <strong>in</strong>tegral effect of process temperature and pressure (i.e<br />

F-value) on the target <strong>in</strong>dex (a microorganism or an enzyme of the processed food). The<br />

objective of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the comb<strong>in</strong>ed use of enzyme systems as PTTIs <strong>in</strong><br />

quantify<strong>in</strong>g the F-value of typical HP processes of food products.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The effect of high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

the activity of selected enzymes was<br />

formerly studied [2, 3, 4]. High pressure<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g was performed under several<br />

isobaric conditions (100, 200, 300, 450<br />

and 600 MPa) comb<strong>in</strong>ed with temperature<br />

rang<strong>in</strong>g from 25 to 70 °C. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics of enzymes such as<br />

xylanases, tyros<strong>in</strong>ase, lipase and<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterases were used <strong>in</strong><br />

simulated pressure-temperature-time<br />

profiles typical of HP process<strong>in</strong>g (Figure<br />

1). These simulations were used <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the use of PTTIs for the<br />

evaluation of HP processes.<br />

(°C)<br />

Temperature (°C)<br />

0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>) (m<strong>in</strong> )<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The application of the enzyme based PTTIs was evaluated <strong>in</strong> simulated HP processes of<br />

different target <strong>in</strong>dices at different pressure- temperature conditions designed to achieve the<br />

targeted F-values. The effectiveness of each of these processes could be evaluated by the PTTI<br />

response i.e. the value of enzyme rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activity. The PTTI responses that would be<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the HP processes were calculated from the <strong>in</strong>tegration of the developed k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

(3)<br />

(2)<br />

(1)<br />

<br />

<br />

Figure 1. Typical simulated pressure-temperature<br />

profiles of HP processes.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1653<br />

800<br />

600<br />

400<br />

200<br />

0<br />

(MPa)<br />

Pressure (MPa)

model of enzymes <strong>in</strong>activation. The enzyme <strong>in</strong>activation of enzymatic PTTIs was translated to<br />

F-values and compared to the F-value of the processes for different target <strong>in</strong>dices.<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gle PTTI response allowed reliable calculation of the process F-value process when both the<br />

values of activation energy, Ea, and activation volume, Va, of PTTI and target <strong>in</strong>dex are <strong>in</strong> the<br />

same range and show similar dependency on pressure and temperature respectively. This is a<br />

very strict requirement.<br />

Pressure (MPa)<br />

700<br />

600<br />

500<br />

400<br />

300<br />

200<br />

100<br />

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90<br />

Alternatively a double/multiple<br />

PTTI system can be used. The<br />

responses after a certa<strong>in</strong> process of<br />

a double PTTI system (based on<br />

two different enzymes e.g. a<br />

xylanase and a tyros<strong>in</strong>ase) can be<br />

translated to F-values us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

PTTI k<strong>in</strong>etics and corresponded to<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>ct isorate contour l<strong>in</strong>es<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g equivalent comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />

of pressure and temperature<br />

(Figure 2). The contours’ <strong>in</strong>tercept<br />

(shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 2) def<strong>in</strong>es the<br />

process effective pressure and<br />

temperature. These effective<br />

process conditions are used for<br />

calculation of the actual F-value of<br />

the HP process. The results for a<br />

large number of simulated HP pressure-temperature-time profiles, showed difference of less<br />

than 18% between the PTTI calculated F-value based on double or triple enzyme systems, and<br />

the F value of the food.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was demonstrated that the comb<strong>in</strong>ed use of multiple enzyme PTTIs allows a satisfactory<br />

mathematical evaluation of HP processes for different target <strong>in</strong>dices.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Temperature (°C)<br />

(3)<br />

Figure 2. Contour plots of pressure and temperature<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ations result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the same equivalent HP process<br />

impact (F value) for four different enzyme based PTTIs<br />

(tyros<strong>in</strong>ase, xylanase, lipase, pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterase).<br />

[1] Van der Plancken I, Grauwet T, Oey I, Van Loey A, Hendrickx M. 2008. Impact evaluation of high<br />

pressure treatment on foods: considerations on the development of pressure temperature-time<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrators (pTTIs). Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology 19(6):337-348.<br />

[2] Gogou E., Katapodis P., Taoukis P.S. (2010). High Pressure Inactivation K<strong>in</strong>etics of a Thermomyces<br />

lanug<strong>in</strong>osus Xylanase Evaluated as a <strong>Process</strong> Indicator. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 75: E379–E386.<br />

[3] Gogou E. & Taoukis P.S. (2009). K<strong>in</strong>etic study of the <strong>in</strong>activation of lipase under high hydrostatic<br />

pressure treatment and the development of a pressure temperature time <strong>in</strong>tegrator (PTTI). Institute of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Technologists (IFT) Annual Meet<strong>in</strong>g, Anaheim, OC CA, USA, June 06-09, 2009. Book of<br />

abstracts p.215.<br />

[4] Gogou E., Katsaros G., Boulekou S. & Taoukis P.S. (2008). Use of enzymes of different <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etic characteristics as high pressure temperature time <strong>in</strong>tegrators (PTTIs). Institute of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Technologists (IFT) Annual Meet<strong>in</strong>g, N. Orleans, Louisiana, USA June 28- July 01, 2008. Book of<br />

abstracts p.182.<br />

1654

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatments on physicochemical properties, microbial<br />

quality and sensory attributes of beef carpaccio<br />

N. Szerman a,b , Y. Barrio b,c , B. Schroeder c , P. Mart<strong>in</strong>ez c , A. Sancho a , C. Sanow a , S.R. Vaudagna a,b,c,d<br />

a Instituto Tecnología de Alimentos, CIA, INTA,CC77, Morón CP:B1708WAB, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

b CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a (e-mail: yan<strong>in</strong>a.barrio@conicet.gov.ar)<br />

c Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Exactas, UADE, Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

d Facultad de Agronomía y Ciencias Agroalimentarias, Universidad de Morón, Morón, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology has been successfully applied for the process<strong>in</strong>g of cured<br />

meat products -cooked or dried- and cooked ready-to-eat meats. In the case of ready-to-eat cured fresh<br />

meat (i.e. carpaccio), the HHP technology can be an alternative for product pasteurization, assur<strong>in</strong>g food<br />

safety and extend<strong>in</strong>g shelf-life [1]. However, the application of HHP on fresh pigmented meats causes an<br />

important discoloration, particularly at pressure levels above 300MPa, which are required for vegetative<br />

cells <strong>in</strong>activation [2]. HHP at refrigeration temperatures applied to previously frozen samples could<br />

improve the appearance of beef carpaccio <strong>in</strong> comparison to HHP treatments at moderate (room)<br />

temperature. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of sample condition<strong>in</strong>g (frozen or thawed)<br />

and HHP treatments (different pressure levels at refrigeration or moderate temperature) on<br />

physicochemical properties, microbial quality and sensory attributes of beef carpaccio.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For each carpaccio condition<strong>in</strong>g (frozen or thawed), a factorial randomized block (2) design was applied<br />

with temperature (two levels: 0°C and 5ºC -frozen samples-; 5°C and 20ºC -thawed samples-) and<br />

pressure (four levels: 0, 400, 500, 600MPa) as ma<strong>in</strong> factors. Hold<strong>in</strong>g time at work<strong>in</strong>g pressure was 5 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Control samples were fresh carpaccio non-submitted to HHP treatments (0MPa). Semitend<strong>in</strong>osus beef<br />

muscles (21) were <strong>in</strong>termittently tumbled for 60m<strong>in</strong> (5rpm-2m<strong>in</strong> on / 8m<strong>in</strong> off) with sodium chloride<br />

(12g/kg), sodium tripolyphosphate (1g/kg), sodium citrate (0.5g/kg), sodium nitrite (0.15g/kg) and<br />

sodium isoascorbate (0.5g/kg). Then, muscles were packed under vacuum and stored at 1ºC for 12 days.<br />

After chill storage, cured muscles were frozen (-40ºC), sliced (slice thickness: 1.5-2mm), packed under<br />

vacuum and stored at -40ºC. Frozen or thawed (4°C) samples were submitted to different HHP treatments<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the experimental design. After HHP treatment, samples were stored at -40°C until further<br />

test<strong>in</strong>g. Analysis performed <strong>in</strong> all samples (previously thawed) were: expressible moisture (EM) by<br />

centrifugation method, pH on meat slurries, shear force (SF) and work of shear<strong>in</strong>g (WS) measured us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

10 blade Kramer shear cell, chromatic parameters (CIELab), sensory appearance (triangular test), and<br />

aerobic total count (ATC) at 30ºC.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Frozen or thawed carpaccio treated by HHP presented EM values (Table 1) significantly higher (p0.05). Regard<strong>in</strong>g WS, all frozen<br />

samples treated by HHP and thawed ones treated at 600MPa presented significantly higher (p

values than controls. A significant <strong>in</strong>crease (p

Rheological properties of high pressure milk cream<br />

Donsì G. a,b Ferrari G. a,b, Maresca P. b<br />

a Department of Industrial <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Salerno,<br />

via ponte don melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy<br />

b ProdAl Scarl, University of Salerno,<br />

via ponte don melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy (<strong>in</strong>fo@prodalricerche.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Several studies reported <strong>in</strong> the literature demonstrated the pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced modifications of<br />

the ma<strong>in</strong> milk constituents [1,2,3]. The observed denaturation of milk macromolecules depends<br />

on the applied pressure level, treatment time and temperature level. As a result of the prote<strong>in</strong><br />

denaturation and micelles solubilisation, the prote<strong>in</strong>s conglomerate with milk fat globules,<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the viscosity, viscoelasticity and cream<strong>in</strong>ess and, <strong>in</strong> particular cases, caus<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

gelation of the HP treated milk and allow<strong>in</strong>g the application of HP milk <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>novative dairy<br />

productions. The aim of this paper was to setup the process cycles to produce a milk cream<br />

under pressure. Several experiments were carried out to evaluate and model its rheological<br />

behaviour. A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary concentration of the milk was carried out with the aim to enhance the<br />

cream<strong>in</strong>ess of the high pressure milk cream. F<strong>in</strong>ally the experimental data atta<strong>in</strong>ed were<br />

analyzed <strong>in</strong> order to characterize the rheological behaviour of the HP milk cream.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Pasteurized and homogenized whole milk, kept on the local market, was concentrated (50%,<br />

60%, 70%) by means of a rotary evaporator. The samples were stored under refrigerated<br />

conditions until the High Pressure(HP) treatments carried out <strong>in</strong> a pilot plant MINI FOODLAB<br />

FPG5620 (SFP Ltd, UK). Samples were prelim<strong>in</strong>ary treated at variable process<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

(pressure= 400-500 MPa, time= 5-10 m<strong>in</strong>, temperature = 25 °C) to setup the process cycle.<br />

Samples were, then, processed under the optimized process<strong>in</strong>g conditions and the rheological<br />

behaviour analyzed. Shear flow and stress sweep measurements were carried out on the fresh,<br />

pre-concentrated and HP treated milk samples.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The experimental campaign was aimed to choose the optimal formulation and the process<br />

conditions (pressure-temperature-time levels) to obta<strong>in</strong> a product with the cream<strong>in</strong>ess and the<br />

texture of a dairy cream. Firstly to setup the process cycle, the HP experiments were carried out<br />

on pre-concentrated milk samples (50%) and the oscillatory rheological tests performed on the<br />

fresh, concentrated and HP treated samples. The milk coagulation occurs apply<strong>in</strong>g a m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />

pressure level of 500 MPa and operat<strong>in</strong>g time of 10 m<strong>in</strong>. Three milk formulations (50%, 60%;<br />

70% pre-concentration), were treated under the optimized conditions and the rheological<br />

behaviour analyzed. The results of the stress sweep measurements are shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. The<br />

fresh and pre-concentrated milk show a prevalent viscous behaviour, be<strong>in</strong>g the values of the<br />

elastic modulus round down to zero. The milk pre-concentration <strong>in</strong>creases the values of the<br />

viscous modulus without modify<strong>in</strong>g the rheological behaviour of the samples.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1657

G'(Pa)<br />

100<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

50%HP 60%HP<br />

70%HP yogurth0.1%<br />

yogurth3,7% yogurth4,1%<br />

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>(Pa)<br />

The HP treated samples, <strong>in</strong>deed, clearly show an evident viscoelastic behaviour. In this study<br />

the elastic and the viscous moduli were used to estimate the cream<strong>in</strong>ess of the pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />

cream and the yogurt samples. In the case of yogurt samples, a higher cream<strong>in</strong>ess perception is<br />

associated with a higher fat content. The trends observed for the 50%-HP and 60%-HP dairy<br />

cream overlap with the ones of the light and full-fat yogurt respectively. The 70%-HP dairy<br />

cream shows higher values of the G’ and G” parameters, by far exceed<strong>in</strong>g the values measured<br />

for the other analyzed samples and demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g a higher compactness. HP samples may<br />

ensure a cream<strong>in</strong>ess and a texture perception similar to the commercial dairy products.<br />

Moreover the fresh milk shows a typical Newtonian behaviour. Even if the same model holds<br />

for the 50% and 60 % pre-concentrated milk, the more concentrated milk as well as the HP<br />

treated samples shows a typical shear th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g behaviour, decreas<strong>in</strong>g the apparent viscosity<br />

upon <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the shear rate. This result demonstrates that the pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced dairy cream<br />

is stabilized by weak <strong>in</strong>teractions, which can be destroyed under stress conditions.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The experiments demonstrate that the milk coagulation occurs at a m<strong>in</strong>imum pressure level of<br />

500 MPa and a process<strong>in</strong>g time of 10 m<strong>in</strong> at ambient temperature. The milk pre-concentration<br />

allows the rheological properties of the pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced cream to be modified and improved.<br />

The fresh milk and pre-concentrated milk show a prevalent viscous behaviour, while the<br />

percentage of pre-concentration only <strong>in</strong>creases the values of the viscous modulus. The high<br />

pressure samples <strong>in</strong>deed, show an evident viscoelastic behaviour, due to the macromolecules,<br />

which conglomerate under pressure and tend to align and provide greater resistance to flow.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Anema S. G., Lowe E. K. & Stockmann R. 2005. Particle size changes and case<strong>in</strong> solubilisation <strong>in</strong><br />

high-pressure-treated skim milk. <strong>Food</strong> Hydrocolloids, 19, 257267.<br />

[2] H<strong>in</strong>richs J. & Rademacher B. 2005. K<strong>in</strong>etics of comb<strong>in</strong>ed thermal and pressure <strong>in</strong>duced whey prote<strong>in</strong><br />

denaturation <strong>in</strong> bov<strong>in</strong>e skim milk. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 15, 315323.<br />

[3] Huppertz T., Fox P. F. & Kelly A. L. 2004. High pressure treatment of bov<strong>in</strong>e milk: Effects on case<strong>in</strong><br />

micelles and whey prote<strong>in</strong>s. Journal of Dairy Research, 71, 97106.<br />

G"(Pa)<br />

100<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>(Pa)<br />

Figure 1 Elastic (G') and viscous (G") moduli measured for pre-concentrated (50%, 60%, 70%) high<br />

pressure treated (HP) milk samples and commercial yogurts with different fat content (0.1 %, 3.7 %, 4.1 %)<br />

<strong>in</strong> stress sweep tests (Pressure:500 MPa, temperature: 25°C, process<strong>in</strong>g time: 10 m<strong>in</strong>).<br />

1658

Effects of HHP comb<strong>in</strong>ed with blanch<strong>in</strong>g on microorganisms and qualities of cloudy and clear<br />

strawberry juices<br />

Xiam<strong>in</strong> Cao a , Yan Zhang a , Xiaojun Liao a , Xiaosong Hu a<br />

a<br />

College of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutritional <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(Liaoxjun@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The qualities of HHP-processed fruits and vegetables products changed dur<strong>in</strong>g storage due to coexist<strong>in</strong>g<br />

chemical reactions when endogenous enzymes are <strong>in</strong>completely <strong>in</strong>activated. thus it was dispensable for<br />

HHP-processed products to be refrigerated which <strong>in</strong>creases the production cost and does not benefit the<br />

commercialization. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the effects of HHP comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

blanch<strong>in</strong>g on microorganisms and qualities of strawberry cloudy and clear juices, and to provide support<br />

for design<strong>in</strong>g the parameters of HHP commercialization <strong>in</strong> strawberry juices.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Figure 1. Flow chart of cloudy and clear juice preparation<br />

To achieve microbiological safety, the parameters (600 MPa for 4 m<strong>in</strong>) of HHP were f<strong>in</strong>ally selected for<br />

qualities analysis.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The viscosity of HHP-treated cloudy juice was decreased by 12.40% (Fig. 2). In this study, blanch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

prior to HHP <strong>in</strong>activated PME, the viscosity of cloudy juice was not affected by <strong>in</strong>activated PME. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions between pect<strong>in</strong> molecules and other components <strong>in</strong> cloudy juice were produced by nocovalent<br />

bonds <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g hydrophobic bond<strong>in</strong>g, salt bridges, metalic bonds and <strong>in</strong>tra molecular forces.<br />

HHP can destroy these <strong>in</strong>teractions. As shown <strong>in</strong> Fig 3, smaller viscosity correspond<strong>in</strong>g to higher cloud <strong>in</strong><br />

HHP-treated cloudy juice and bigger viscosity correspond<strong>in</strong>g to lower cloud <strong>in</strong> untreated cloudy juice was<br />

manifested. On one hand, the gel formation of pect<strong>in</strong> catalyzed by PME <strong>in</strong> untreated cloudy juice caused<br />

higher viscosity, and the pect<strong>in</strong> gel was more easily removed by centrifugation and thus lower cloud was<br />

detected. On the other hand, the disruption of no-covalent <strong>in</strong>teractions between pect<strong>in</strong> molecules and<br />

other components <strong>in</strong> cloudy juice after HHP made the juice more stable dur<strong>in</strong>g centrifugation and lead to<br />

higher cloud.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1659

Viscosity (mPa.s)<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

2<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70<br />

Shear rate (1/s)<br />

A 660<br />

0.35<br />

0.30<br />

0.25<br />

0.20<br />

0.15<br />

0.10<br />

0.05<br />

0.00<br />

A660; Viscosity<br />

cloudy juice control<br />

cloudy juice HHP<br />

clear juice control<br />

clear juice HHP<br />

Figure 2. The flow behavior of cloudy and clear juice. Figure 3. Effect of HHP at 600 MPa/4 m<strong>in</strong>/ambient<br />

untreated cloudy juice; HHP cloudy juice; temperature on the cloud and viscosity of<br />

untreated clear juice; HHP clear juice cloudy and clear juices.<br />

Table 1. Effect of HHP on antioxidantive compounds and antioxidant capacity of cloudy and clear juices.<br />

Juices<br />

Ascorbic<br />

acid Cy-3-glu<br />

Anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Pg-3-glu Pg-3-rut<br />

Total<br />

phenols<br />

Antioxidant capacity<br />

DPPH FRAP<br />

Cloudy control 11.26±0.54 1.75±0.03 7.61±0.19 3.78±0.18 112.07±2.38 74.31±1.58 38.28±0.29<br />

juice HHP 10.38±0.68 1.75±0.02 7.53±0.02 3.55±0.03 116.31±3.42 77.11±2.37 38.45±0.09<br />

Clear control 6.43±0.23 1.44±0.01 7.38±0.11 2.39±0.03 86.45±2.18 50.34±1.22 26.31±0.22<br />

juice HHP 5.62±0.18 1.42±0.01 7.37±0.04 2.34±0.04 89.79±1.73 49.89±3.28 25.85±0.07<br />

Ascorbic acid and anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s: mg/100 mL.Total phenols : equal to mg GAE/100 mL. DPPH and FRAP: equal to mg Vc/100 mL<br />

In this study, there was 7.82% and 12.60% loss of ascorbic acid <strong>in</strong> HHP-treated cloudy and clear juices,<br />

respectively. Monomeric anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s exhibited no changes. HHP resulted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease trend of total<br />

phenols <strong>in</strong> cloudy juice, which could be related to an <strong>in</strong>creased solubilization of some antioxidant<br />

components such as anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s, am<strong>in</strong>o acids and prote<strong>in</strong> with phenolic hydroxyl group <strong>in</strong> cells <strong>in</strong>to the<br />

juice. No significant change of the antioxidant capacities <strong>in</strong> cloudy and clear juices was detected after<br />

HHP.<br />

Table 2. The effect of HHP on color of cloudy and clear juices<br />

Juices<br />

Color<br />

L * a * b * E<br />

Cloudy control 28.910.21 34.890.49 35.120.99<br />

juice HHP 29.810.84 33.460.5 35.140.48<br />

Clear control 47.361.22 37.960.83 50.230.88<br />

juice HHP 50.571.39 36.250.98 50.631.05<br />

The L * value of HHP-treated cloudy juice exhibited an <strong>in</strong>crease tendency and of HHP-treated clear juice a<br />

significant <strong>in</strong>crease. The a * and b * value of the HHP-treated juices exhibited no significant change. The<br />

E value of cloudy juice was lower than 2 while that of clear juice was greater than 2, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

there was a visible color difference <strong>in</strong> clear juice after HHP.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

HHP treatment (600 MPa/4 m<strong>in</strong>/ambient temperature) comb<strong>in</strong>ed with blanch<strong>in</strong>g could totally <strong>in</strong>activate<br />

natural microorganisms and well preserved the quality characteristics <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g cloud, anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

total phenols, antioxidant capacity and color, and it was an effective preservation method of strawberry<br />

juices.<br />

1660<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

Viscosity mPa S -1<br />

1.69<br />

3.64

Effect of high pressure homogenization process on Bacillus stearothermophilus and<br />

Clostridium sporogenes spores <strong>in</strong> skim milk<br />

Cláudia R. G. PINHO; Mark A. FRANCHI; All<strong>in</strong>e A. L. TRIBST; Marcelo CRISTIANINI a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (DTA), School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as<br />

(UNICAMP), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (olecram@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

High pressure homogenization (HPH) is an alternative food process<strong>in</strong>g technique. It preserves<br />

sensory and nutritional food characteristics due to low heat<strong>in</strong>g, be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to guarantee<br />

the safety of thermo-labile food [1]. Milk is a food that can be spoilage by many bacteria<br />

genera. The <strong>in</strong>activation of sporulated microorganisms as Bacilli and Clostridia, <strong>in</strong> milk is a<br />

challenge, s<strong>in</strong>ce they are thermoresistant and important for milk deterioration. The present<br />

work aimed to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>activation of B. stearothermophilus ATCC 7953 and C.<br />

sporogenes PA 3679 spores <strong>in</strong> skim milk by HPH.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For the tests, commercial UHT sk<strong>in</strong> milk was <strong>in</strong>oculated with 10 5 spores.mL -1 and then<br />

subjected to homogenization at pressures of 100, 200 and 300 MPa <strong>in</strong> a high pressure<br />

homogenizer Stansted, model FPG 7400H:350 . The heat resistance of spores at 110, 115 and<br />

121ºC were measure before and after HPH at 300MPa us<strong>in</strong>g Thermal Death Tube (TDT)<br />

method. The effect of previous heat shock (110 ºC/15’) on resistance to HPH was also<br />

evaluated by heat<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>in</strong>oculated milk prior to homogenization at 300 MPa. To measure<br />

the effect of <strong>in</strong>let temperature <strong>in</strong> the spore <strong>in</strong>activation, sk<strong>in</strong> milk <strong>in</strong>oculated was pre heated to<br />

45ºC and then subjected to 300MPa. Additionally, the effect of successive treatment of<br />

homogenization at 300MPa was evaluated by milk recirculation on the homogenizer until it<br />

reached the equivalent to 16 times. In all tests performed the count of spores suspension were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed before and after the treatment, <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the spores reduction (NDR),<br />

through equation 1. Data were statistically evaluated through variance analysis (ANOVA) and<br />

average test (Tuckey) us<strong>in</strong>g the software STATISTICA 5.0.<br />

NDR log <strong>in</strong>itial _ spores log spores _ after _ treatment<br />

Equation 1<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results showed no <strong>in</strong>activation of spores at 100, 200 and 300MPa, also the NDR<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed for B. stearothermophilus were negative, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a possible activation of the<br />

spores, as previously described us<strong>in</strong>g high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) [2]. Consider<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

HPH was not enough to <strong>in</strong>activate the spores <strong>in</strong> milk, it was tested if the HPH could sensitize<br />

the spores heat, due to its activation. This effect was previously observed by us<strong>in</strong>g HHP [3],<br />

however no changes <strong>in</strong> D-value and z-value were observed for microoganisms after<br />

homogenization at 300MPa. Therefore, the HPH was not able to promote sublethal <strong>in</strong>juries or<br />

activation <strong>in</strong> theses spores <strong>in</strong> milk, which is <strong>in</strong> accordance with others authors [4,5].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1661

The previous thermal germ<strong>in</strong>ation of spores were tested but, aga<strong>in</strong> no significant reductions of<br />

B. stearothermophilus and C. sporogenes were observed, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that HPH up to 300MPa<br />

was also not able to <strong>in</strong>activate germ<strong>in</strong>ated spores. The use of HPH at high temperatures (84ºC)<br />

also was not effective aga<strong>in</strong>st the tested spores. The last alternative to makes viable the use of<br />

HPH to <strong>in</strong>activate B. stearothermophilus (figure 1) and C. sporogenes spores was the multiple<br />

treatments at 300MPa (multiple passes). Aga<strong>in</strong>, low efficacy was observed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

of the spores.<br />

Spores counts / ML<br />

Figure 1. Effect of multiple passes at 300MPa on the <strong>in</strong>activation of B. stearothermophilus spores<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was concluded that HPH process was not able to reduce or the tested spores <strong>in</strong> skim milk at<br />

the pressure up to 300MPa, even when applied multiple treatment at high pressure of 300MPa,<br />

or associated with mild heat treatment. Therefore, this process is not suitable for commercial<br />

purposes aim<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>activate spores <strong>in</strong> milk.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The authors thank FAPESP for f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g project 2001/06872-2, 2004/07074-0, 2005/53668-2.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

1,00E+06<br />

1,00E+05<br />

1,00E+04<br />

0 5 10<br />

Number of Passes<br />

15 20<br />

[1] Feijoo, S.C.; Hayes, W.W.; Watson, C.E.; Mart<strong>in</strong>, J.H. (1997). Effects of Microfluidizer Technology<br />

on Bacillus licheniformis spore <strong>in</strong> ice cream mix. Journal of Dairy Science, 80: 2184 –2184<br />

[2] Gould, G. W.(1973). Inactivation of Spores <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> by Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Heat and Hydrostatic Pressure.<br />

Acta Alimentaria. 2 (4), 377-383.<br />

[3] Mills, G.; Earnshaw, R.; Patterson, M. F. (1998). Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on Clostridium<br />

sporogenes spores. Letters <strong>in</strong> Applied Microbiology,26, 3, 227-230.<br />

[4] Wuytack, E.Y; Diels, A.M.J; Michiels, C.W. (2002). Bacterial <strong>in</strong>activation by high-pressure<br />

homogenization and high hydrostatic pressure. Int. J. <strong>Food</strong> Microb., 77: 205-212.<br />

[5] Briñez, W.J.; Roig-Sagués, A.X.; Herrero, M.M.H.; López, B.G (2007). Inactivation of<br />

Staphylococcus ssp. stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> whole milk and orange juice us<strong>in</strong>g ultra high pressure homogenization<br />

at <strong>in</strong>let temperatures of 6 and 20ºC. <strong>Food</strong> Control, 18: 1282-1288.<br />

1662<br />

Spores counts/ mL NDR<br />

0,8<br />

0,6<br />

0,4<br />

0,2<br />

0<br />

-0,2<br />

-0,4<br />

-0,6<br />

NDR

Effect of ultra high pressure homogenization on alkal<strong>in</strong>e phosphatase and<br />

lactoperoxidase activity <strong>in</strong> raw skim milk<br />

Cláudia R. G. PINHO; Mark A. FRANCHI; All<strong>in</strong>e A. L. TRIBST; Marcelo CRISTIANINI a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (DTA), School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as<br />

(UNICAMP), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (olecram@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

High pressure homogenization (HPH) is an alternative food process<strong>in</strong>g technique. It preserves<br />

sensory and nutritional food characteristics due to low heat<strong>in</strong>g, be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to guarantee<br />

the safety of thermo-labile food [1]. The <strong>in</strong>activation of native biota and also of some<br />

microorganisms <strong>in</strong>tentionally added to milk [1, 2] suggested that HPH <strong>in</strong> milk promotes effect<br />

similar to thermal pasteurization, which is usually conduced at 72.5 o C/15seconds. Alkal<strong>in</strong>e<br />

phosphatase (AP) and lactoperoxidase (LP) are enzymes used as thermal pasteurization<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicator, s<strong>in</strong>ce AP is thermo-labile and <strong>in</strong>activated by pasteurization while LP is heat resistant.<br />

The present work aimed to evaluate the residual activity of AP and LP after treatment by HPH,<br />

to determ<strong>in</strong>e if these enzymes can be also used as HPH <strong>in</strong>dicator.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The assays were performed by treat<strong>in</strong>g raw milk <strong>in</strong> a high pressure homogenizer Stansted,<br />

model FPG 7400H:350 at pressures of 100, 150, 200, 250, 270 and 300 MPa. The tests were<br />

performed <strong>in</strong> triplicate. The activity of AP was determ<strong>in</strong>ed colorimetrically based on the<br />

phenol liberation and the activity of LP was determ<strong>in</strong>ed spectrophotometrically based on the<br />

oxygen liberation and reaction with guaiacol. Enzymatic activities were measured before and<br />

after each pressure treatment and the tests were performed <strong>in</strong> duplicate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The enzymes <strong>in</strong>activation can be associated to HPH effects or to the heat<strong>in</strong>g that occurred on<br />

milk due to the high shear that occurs dur<strong>in</strong>g the decompression. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the thermal<br />

effect, it was observed that at 270MPa and 300MPa the reached temperature were 74ºC and<br />

80,2ºC, respectively. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the D and z-values of both enzyme, <strong>in</strong> HPH above 270MPa it<br />

probably occurred thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of AP and, at 300MPa, partial <strong>in</strong>activation of LP.<br />

Figure 1 shows the residual activity of AP and LP. The <strong>in</strong>activation of AP is probably due to<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g effect associated to HPH, as previously observed by other authors [3]. Consider<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

the majority of HPH process to milk pasteurization suggests application of pressure above<br />

250MPa [2], the activity of AP can be used as an <strong>in</strong>dicative of <strong>in</strong>adequate HPH pasteurization.<br />

The results of LP <strong>in</strong>dicated that only treatment at 300MPa was able to partially reduce the<br />

enzymatic activity, mak<strong>in</strong>g possible the use of this enzyme as an <strong>in</strong>dicator of excessive<br />

treatment. It is not possible to determ<strong>in</strong>e if the partial <strong>in</strong>activation observed at 300MPa is<br />

consequence of the homogenization or the heat<strong>in</strong>g associated to the process, however, previous<br />

work had observed that the <strong>in</strong>activation of LP by HPH is higher than the obta<strong>in</strong>ed with the<br />

compatible heat treatment, suggest<strong>in</strong>g an additive effect of the HPH and the generated heat [3].<br />

Results obta<strong>in</strong>ed for LP at pressures of 100 and 250MPa showed <strong>in</strong>cease of the enzymatic<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1663

activity. Recent results have been <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that relative low pressures can be activate<br />

enzymes due to changes on the spatial configuration, with the enhancement of active sites<br />

exposure [4].<br />

Enzymatic Activity (%)<br />

160<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0 50 100 150<br />

Pressure (MPa)<br />

200 250 300<br />

Alkal<strong>in</strong>e Phosphatese Lactoperoxidase<br />

Figure 1. Residual activity of Lactoperoxidase and AP after high pressure homogenization<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was concluded that AP presented high sensitivity to homogenization process than LP,<br />

however, this sensitivity probably is associated to the heat generated dur<strong>in</strong>g the process, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

the AP is thermo-labile. Also, for the LP it was concluded that just 300MPa were able to<br />

promote some reduction on the enzymatic activity, which can be attributed to the sum of the<br />

effects of pressure and the temperature reached dur<strong>in</strong>g the treatment. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the results it<br />

was concluded that AP and LP activities can be used as an <strong>in</strong>dicative of pressure level reached<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g HPH.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The authors thank FAPESP for f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g project 2001/06872-2, 2004/07074-0, 2005/53668-2.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Lanciotti, R.; Patrignani, F.; Iucci, L.; Sarac<strong>in</strong>o, P.; Guerzoni, M.E. (2007). Potential of high pressure<br />

homogenization <strong>in</strong> the control and enhancement of proteolytic and fermentative activities of some<br />

Lactobacillus species. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 102: 542-550. [2] Thiebaud, M.; Dumay, E.; Picart, L.; Guiraud,<br />

J. P.; Cheftal, J. C. (2003). High-pressure homogenization of raw bov<strong>in</strong>e milk. Effects on fat globule size<br />

distribution and microbial <strong>in</strong>activation. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 13(6): 427-439. [3] Datta, N.; Hayes,<br />

M. G.; Deeth, H. C.; Kelly, A. L (2005). Significance of frictional heat<strong>in</strong>g for effects of high pressure<br />

homogenization on milk. Journal of Dairy Research, 72 (4): 393-399. [4] Liu, W.; Liu, J.; Liu, C.;<br />

Zhong, Y.; Liu, W.; Wan, J. Key, S. (2009). Activation and conformational changes of mushroom<br />

polyphenoloxidase by high pressure microfluidization treatment. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Technologies, v. 10, p. 142–147.<br />

1664

Changes <strong>in</strong> texture, structure and pect<strong>in</strong> of peach dur<strong>in</strong>g pressurization, heat<strong>in</strong>g or<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced jam<br />

Hiroko Kuwada a , Yuri Jibu b , Keiko Nakamura b , Mayumi Tabuchi b , Ai Teramoto c , Kayoko Ishii a , Yasumi<br />

Kimura a , Michiko Fuchigami a<br />

a<br />

Department of Nutrition and Life Science, Fukuyama University, Fukuyama, Japan<br />

(kuwada@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp; ishii@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp; kimura@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp;<br />

fuchigam@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Department of Nutritional Science, Okayama Prefectural University, Soja, Japan (yjibu@fhw.okapu.ac.jp;<br />

keikot<strong>in</strong>@yahoo.co.jp; tabuchi@fhw.oka-pu.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Department of Health and Nutrition, Kanto Gaku<strong>in</strong> University, Yokohama, Japan (teramoto@kantogaku<strong>in</strong>.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Jam is prepared by boil<strong>in</strong>g fruit with sugar. Dur<strong>in</strong>g boil<strong>in</strong>g, two processes, pect<strong>in</strong> extraction<br />

and jam manufacture, are performed. Heat-<strong>in</strong>duced-jam has some faults such as off-flavor and<br />

deterioration of food components, nutrients and especially color. However, high pressure can<br />

produce jam without heat<strong>in</strong>g because pressurization accelerates hydrogen bonds between<br />

pect<strong>in</strong> macromolecules. It does not greatly change food color dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g [1]. In<br />

previous research high-methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> was extracted by soak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 0.01N HCl solution (pH<br />

2.0) at 35C due to remove of Ca 2+ , the vegetables softened [2] [3]. This extraction method of<br />

pect<strong>in</strong> was used for soften<strong>in</strong>g the peel by us<strong>in</strong>g citric acid <strong>in</strong>stead of HCl for yuzu marmalade<br />

(Kuwada et al., 2010). Consequently, the peel softened. Although peach is softer than yuzu<br />

peel, soak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> citric acid solution may be useful for the extraction of pect<strong>in</strong> from peach. Thus,<br />

the objectives of this study are to research the relationship between pect<strong>in</strong> and the soften<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

peach by soak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> citric acid solution, pressuriz<strong>in</strong>g or heat<strong>in</strong>g, and to establish a process for<br />

HP-jam and compare it with H-jam.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Sample preparation<br />

Peach (Prunus persica L.) was diced <strong>in</strong>to 1 cm pieces. The vacuum-packed pieces were<br />

pressurized for 30 m<strong>in</strong> at 500 MPa at room temperature us<strong>in</strong>g a Dr. Chef high pressure food<br />

processor (Kobe Steel Ltd.) or boiled <strong>in</strong> hot water for 10 m<strong>in</strong>. Also, pieces were soaked <strong>in</strong><br />

citric acid solutions (pH 2.0, 2.2 or 2.5) for 24 hrs at 35C.<br />

Texture and structure measurements and extraction of pect<strong>in</strong><br />

Texture and histological structures were measured by a Rheoner (RE-33005) and a cryoscann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

electron microscope (S-4500). Pectic substances were extracted successively <strong>in</strong>to five<br />

reagents; distilled water, 0.01N HCl, 0.1M sodium acetate buffer, 2% sodium<br />

hexametaphosphate solution, and 0.05N HCl. These extracts were designated as WSP, PA, PB,<br />

PC and PD, respectively.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1665

Jam preparation and methods for the quality evaluation of jams<br />

Eight k<strong>in</strong>ds of peach jam (65% sugar, pH 2.0 or pH 2.2, and 50% or 60% sugar, pH 2.5) were<br />

produced. Peach dices were soaked <strong>in</strong> citric acid then sucrose was added. They were vacuumpacked,<br />

then pressurized for 30 m<strong>in</strong> at 500 MPa (HP-jam) or boiled for 10 m<strong>in</strong> (H-jam),<br />

respectively. The Color and rheology of jams were measured us<strong>in</strong>g a spectrophotometer (ZE-<br />

6000) and a Rheosol-G3000, respectively. Sensory evaluation of peach jam was performed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a five po<strong>in</strong>t scale. The color, transparency, flavor (smell), texture, sweetness, sourness,<br />

mouthfeel, total taste and preference of jam were compared.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> texture, structure and pect<strong>in</strong> composition of peach dur<strong>in</strong>g soak<strong>in</strong>g, pressuriz<strong>in</strong>g or<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Firmness of the peach decreased greatly when soaked at pH 2.0 > heated > soaked at pH 2.2 or<br />

2.5 > pressurized, respectively. Middle lamella of cell walls separated more from heat<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

10 m<strong>in</strong> than soak<strong>in</strong>g at pH 2.5. However, they did not separate when pressurized. About 88%<br />

of the peach pect<strong>in</strong> was water-soluble-pect<strong>in</strong> (WSP) of low molecular weight and highmethoxyl-pect<strong>in</strong><br />

(PA), while low-methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> (PB, PC and PD) was slight. The pect<strong>in</strong> did<br />

not change dur<strong>in</strong>g pressurization. However, pect<strong>in</strong> degraded dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g; consequently the<br />

middle lamella separated. The pH value of raw peach was 4.46. S<strong>in</strong>ce pect<strong>in</strong> does not degrade<br />

through -elim<strong>in</strong>ation by pressurization or by heat<strong>in</strong>g at pH 4, it might degrade through<br />

hydrolysis by enzyme.<br />

The quality of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced peach jams<br />

The steady-flow viscosity of H-jam was slightly higher than HP-jam. As the pH value of citric<br />

acid solution was higher and sugar content was lower, viscosity decreased. As pH values<br />

became lower, L-, a-, b-values of the jam became higher, and thus, jam became p<strong>in</strong>ker. L-, a-,<br />

b-values of HP-jam were higher than H-jam. This suggests that the amount of anthozyan<br />

(pigment of peach) was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by pressuriz<strong>in</strong>g but decreased by heat<strong>in</strong>g. Color and flavor<br />

of HP-jam were better than the H-jam. However, there was no significant difference <strong>in</strong> sensory<br />

evaluation between HP- and H-jams.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Raw peach conta<strong>in</strong>ed about 0.3~0.4% pect<strong>in</strong>, therefore an addition of 0.6% pect<strong>in</strong> was needed<br />

for pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced (HP) jam.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Hayashi, R. 1989. Use of high pressure <strong>in</strong> food (pp. 1-30), San’ei Press, Kyoto.<br />

[2] Fuchigami, M. & Okamoto, K. 1984. Fractionation of pectic substances <strong>in</strong> several vegetables by<br />

successive extraction with dilute hydrochloric acid and acetic buffer solutions. Journal of Japanese<br />

Society for Nutrition and <strong>Food</strong> Science, 37(1), 57-64.<br />

[3] Fuchigami, M. 1987. Relationship between pectic compositions and the soften<strong>in</strong>g of the texture of<br />

Japanese radish roots dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 52(5), 1317-1320.<br />

[4] Kuwada, H., Jibu, Y., Teramoto, A., &, Fuchigami, M. 2010. The quality of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />

and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced yuzu marmalade. High Pressure Research, 30(4), 547-554.<br />

1666

Effects of high pressure with the addition of sugar-alcohol on the improvement <strong>in</strong> texture<br />

and structure of frozen egg custard gel<br />

Ai. Teramoto a , Yuri Jibu b , Hiroko Kuwada c , Yasumi Kimura c , Kayoko Ishii c , Michiko Fuchigami c<br />

a<br />

Department of Health and Nutrition, Kanto Gaku<strong>in</strong> University, Yokohama, Japan (teramoto@kantogaku<strong>in</strong>.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Department of Nutritional Science, Okayama Prefectural University, Soja, Japan (yjibu@fhw.okapu.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutrition and Life Science, Fukuyama University, Fukuyama, Japan<br />

(kuwada@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp, kimura@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp, ishii@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp,<br />

fuchigam@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Egg custard gel is formed by heat-<strong>in</strong>duced aggregation of egg prote<strong>in</strong> molecules. A smooth<br />

taste is considered to be highly important <strong>in</strong> egg custard gel. However, the texture of egg<br />

custard gel when frozen at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) is unsuitable for consumption<br />

because it is spongy. A non-freez<strong>in</strong>g region (liquid phase) below 0C exists under high<br />

pressure [1]. When water is pressurized at 200 MPa at -20C, it does not freeze. However,<br />

when the pressure is released, water freezes quickly by pressure-shift-freez<strong>in</strong>g [2]. If this is<br />

done to a frozen gel with high water content, damage to the gel may be reduced. The objective<br />

is to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effects of pressure-shift freez<strong>in</strong>g with the addition of sorbitol or maltitol on<br />

the improvement <strong>in</strong> texture and structure of frozen egg custard gel.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Three packs of egg custard gel with 0% (sugar-free) and 5% sorbitol or maltitol were put <strong>in</strong>to a<br />

pressure vessel and immediately pressurized for 90 m<strong>in</strong> at -20C at 0.1 ~ 686 MPa us<strong>in</strong>g a high<br />

pressure food processor (Kobe Steel Ltd.) [3] [4] [5]. After decompression, gel was stored for 1<br />

day at -30C, then thawed at 20C. Changes <strong>in</strong> the temperature of samples dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g were<br />

compared. Also, the texture and structure of high-pressure-frozen gel were compared with<br />

untreated and frozen (<strong>in</strong> freezers at -20C, -30C or -80C) gels us<strong>in</strong>g a creepmeter (Rheoner,<br />

RE-33005, Yamaden Ltd.) and a cryo-scann<strong>in</strong>g electron microscope (S-4500, Hitachi Ltd.),<br />

respectively.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g pressurization at 100, 500, 600 and 686 MPa, the phase transition of liquid to ice<br />

occurred <strong>in</strong> sugar-free-gel. However, the sugar-free and 5% sugar-samples did not freeze at -<br />

20C at 200 ~ 400 MPa and 200 ~ 500 MPa, respectively, but phase transition occurred when<br />

the pressure was released. It was found that the amount of syneresis from gel pressure-shiftfrozen<br />

at 200 ~ 400 MPa was smaller than that frozen at other pressures.<br />

When gel was frozen at 100, 500, 600, or 686 MPa, rupture stress and stra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

However, that of pressure-shift-frozen gels did not change greatly. Furthermore, change <strong>in</strong> the<br />

rupture stress of gels was reduced with the addition of 5% sugar.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1667

The size of the ice crystals <strong>in</strong> gel pressure-shift-frozen at 200 ~ 400 MPa was smaller than that<br />

<strong>in</strong> the gel frozen at other pressures. A large number of small round ice crystals formed<br />

homogenously throughout the pressure-shift-frozen gel.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The gels with 0% and 5% sugar-alcohol (sorbitol or maltitol) did not freeze at about -20C<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g pressurization at 200 ~ 400 and 200 ~ 500 MPa, respectively. Thus, depression of the<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> 5% sugar-alcohol-gel was greater than the 0% sugar-alcohol-gel. When<br />

pressure was released, the supercooled gel froze quickly by pressure-shift-freez<strong>in</strong>g and small<br />

ice crystals of a granular shape were dispersed. Therefore, stress and stra<strong>in</strong> of pressure-shiftfrozen<br />

gel did not change greatly, while, the addition of sorbitol or maltitol decreased the size<br />

of ice crystals. Thus, pressure-shift-freez<strong>in</strong>g and the addition of sugar-alcohol appeared to be<br />

effective <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality of frozen egg custard gel.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fretcher, H. N. 1970. The Chemical Physics of Ice. (p. 271), Cambridge Univ. Press, Bristol.<br />

[2] Kanda, Y., Aoki, M. & Kosugi, T. 1992. Freez<strong>in</strong>g of Tofu (Soybean Curd) by Pressure-shift<br />

Freez<strong>in</strong>g and its Structure, Journal of the Japanese Society for <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 39(7),<br />

608-614.<br />

[3] Teramoto, A., Ogawa, N. & Fuchigami, M. 2001. Structural and Textural Quality of High-pressurefrozen<br />

Egg Custard Gel as Affected by Sucrose. In, Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the Eighth <strong>International</strong><br />

Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong>, Lancaster.<br />

[4] Teramoto, A. & Fuchigami, M. 2002. Effects of High Pressure and Salts on Frozen Egg Custard Gel.<br />

In Trends <strong>in</strong> High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology (Hayashi, R. ed., pp. 469-476), Elsevier<br />

Science B.V., Amsterdam.<br />

[5] Teramoto, A., Jibu, Y. & Fuchigami, M. 2006. Structural and Textural Quality of Pressure-shiftfrozen<br />

Egg custard Gel as Affected by Glucose, Trehalose or Sucrose. Journal of Cookery Science<br />

of Japan, 39(3), 194-202.<br />

Sugar-free<br />

5% Sorbitol<br />

5% Maltitol<br />

Figure 1. Effects of high pressure and sugar-alcohol on rupture stress of frozen-thawed egg custard gel.<br />

1668<br />

N/m 2<br />

)<br />

Ruptue stress (x10 4<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

Control0.1 100200 340 400 500 600 686<br />

Pressurized (MPa) at about -20<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

-20 -30 -80<br />

Frozen <strong>in</strong> freezers ( )

<strong>Process</strong> variables study on supercritical CO2 extraction of Brazilian cherry seeds<br />

(Eugenia uniflora L.) rich <strong>in</strong> bioactive volatile<br />

Débora Nascimento e Santos a , Larissa Lima de Souza a , Nilson José Ferreira a , Alessandra Lopes de<br />

Oliveira a*<br />

a College of Animal Science and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> ou Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de<br />

Alimentos, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil (alelopes@usp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The Brazilian cherry or Pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.) is a widely distributed plant <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong><br />

America, and it presents numerous benefits to human health. The Pitanga leaves and fruits are<br />

used <strong>in</strong> home medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> several country regions because they are considered stimulant,<br />

febrifuge, aromatic, antirheumatic, antidiarrheal and, the alcoholic extract is used <strong>in</strong> bronchitis,<br />

coughs, fevers, anxiety, hypertension, and worm diseases [1]. The Pitanga seed is currently a<br />

waste from fruit process and has no proper commercial but was found a high antioxidant<br />

potential, twice as large as various pulps [2]. The supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has been<br />

recognized as a promis<strong>in</strong>g process for application <strong>in</strong> food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries as hav<strong>in</strong>g high selectivity, low extraction times and for not us<strong>in</strong>g toxic organic<br />

solvents [3]. Our objectives were to obta<strong>in</strong> seeds extracts from Brazilian cherries us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

supercritical CO2, to quantify the total phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> these extracts and perform the<br />

composition analysis by GC/MS.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Brazilian cherries collected were selected, washed, dried and ground <strong>in</strong> mill hammer type. To<br />

characterize the sample, an analysis for moisture content, fat and particle size was performed.<br />

The extraction procedure is based on promot<strong>in</strong>g contact among the ground seeds with<br />

supercritical CO2 under set conditions of pressure (P) and temperature (T), def<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to CCD 2 2 with P and T as <strong>in</strong>dependent variables (Table 1). In extracts obta<strong>in</strong>ed were<br />

quantified the total phenolic compounds and the volatile composition of the extracts was<br />

analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The samples of crushed dry seeds showed moisture content of 12.73 ± 0.2%. The average value<br />

of ethereal extract was 0.52 ± 0.09% and the means of particle size was 0.48 mm. Table 1<br />

shows the results of yield and concentration of phenolics compounds for each essay based on<br />

the experimental design.<br />

Highest yields are obta<strong>in</strong>ed with higher P and therefore it is possible to use central values of T<br />

<strong>in</strong> the process that could ensure the <strong>in</strong>tegrity of thermosensitive substances. With respect to<br />

phenolic compounds (TPC) for the variables studied <strong>in</strong> their respective <strong>in</strong>tervals, no significant<br />

effect was observed. The range which has achieved the highest amounts of phenolic<br />

compounds is <strong>in</strong> middle ranges of T and P. The chromatographic analysis <strong>in</strong>dicated that major<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1669

volatile constituents are the sesquiterpenes, germacrone and germacrene B, which are also<br />

present <strong>in</strong> the Pitanga fruit and leaves essential oils [4].<br />

Table 1. Matrix of CCD 2 2 (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g three central po<strong>in</strong>ts) to study the effect of P and T on the yield and<br />

TPC.<br />

Coded Variables Variables<br />

Essay P (Kgf/cm 2 ) T ( o C) (P) (Kgf/cm 2 ) T ( o C)<br />

Yield<br />

(%)<br />

TPC<br />

(ppm)<br />

TPC<br />

(mg GAE×100 -1 g<br />

seeds)<br />

1 -1 -1 110 35 0.28 49.92 0.014<br />

2 +1 -1 240 35 0.46 42.76 0.019<br />

3 -1 +1 110 55 0.23 61.89 0.014<br />

4 +1 +1 240 55 0.47 17.95 0.008<br />

5 -1.41 0 83 45 0.16 39.88 0.006<br />

6 +1.41 0 267 45 0.42 48.93 0.021<br />

7 0 -1.41 175 31 0.39 23.28 0.009<br />

8 0 +1.41 175 59 0.46 67.09 0.031<br />

9 e 0 0 175 45 0.44 73.89 0.033<br />

10 e 0 0 175 45 0.40 44.54 0.018<br />

11 e 0 0 175 45 0.48 61.72 0.030<br />

e = central po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The study of operational conditions for SFE of Brazilian cherry seeds showed that the best<br />

yields can be obta<strong>in</strong>ed at high pressures and low temperatures. For the phenolic compounds it<br />

was noted that P and T did not <strong>in</strong>fluence this content when the CCD was applied. The major<br />

volatile compounds found were the sesquiterpenes germacrene B and germacrone, with<br />

biological action and potential application <strong>in</strong> pharmaceutical and cosmetic <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Consol<strong>in</strong>i A.E. & Sarubbio M.G. 2002. Pharmacological Effects of Eugenia uniflora (Myrtaceae)<br />

Aqueous Crude Extract on Rat’s Heart. Journal of Ethnopharmacology , 81, 57-63.<br />

[2] Bagetti, M., Facco, E.M.P., Rodrigues, D.B., Vizzotto, M. & Emanuelli, T. 2009. Antioxidant<br />

Capacity and Composition of Pitanga Seeds, Ciência Rural, 39(8), 2504-2510.<br />

[3] Serra, A.T., Seabra, I.J., Braga, M.E.M., Bronze, M.R., Sousa, H.C. & Duarte, C.M.M. 2010.<br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Cherries (Prunus avium) Us<strong>in</strong>g Supercritical Fluid Technology. Part 1: Recovery of<br />

Extract Fractions Rich <strong>in</strong> Bioactive Compounds. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 55, 184-191.<br />

[4] Costa, D.P., Alves Filho E.G., Silva, L.M.A., Santos, S.C., Passos, X.S., Silva, M.R.R., Seraph<strong>in</strong>, J.C.<br />

& Ferri, P.H. 2010. Influence of Fruit Biotypes on the Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity<br />

of the Essential Oils of Eugenia uniflora Leaves. J. Braz. Chem. Soc., 21(5), 851-858.<br />

1670

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) microbial k<strong>in</strong>etics <strong>in</strong> orange comm<strong>in</strong>uted<br />

V<strong>in</strong>icio Serment-Moreno a , Zamantha Escobedo-Avellaneda b , Jorge Welti-Chanes c<br />

a<br />

Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, México(vsermentm@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, México(zamantha17@yahoo.com.mx)<br />

c<br />

Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, México(jwelti@itesm.mx)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

An orange derived paste can be obta<strong>in</strong>ed by mix<strong>in</strong>g several of its components, where juice is the major<br />

contributor. This product, known as comm<strong>in</strong>uted, can be used as a refresh<strong>in</strong>g dr<strong>in</strong>k base to enhance nutritional<br />

and sensorial characteristics. However, as orange peel is used for comm<strong>in</strong>uted elaboration, microbial<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation may also be favoured. Orange fruit spoilage is frequently related to acidic fermentative<br />

microorganisms which can be readily <strong>in</strong>hibited by freez<strong>in</strong>g or apply<strong>in</strong>g heat treatment [1]. Nevertheless,<br />

orange peel is a great source of nutraceutic compounds [2] which can easily be degraded by extreme<br />

temperature exposure. The present study proposes a high hydrostatic pressure treatment (HHPT) to achieve<br />

microbial safety <strong>in</strong> orange comm<strong>in</strong>uted.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Orange comm<strong>in</strong>uted was prepared by gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g orange components <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g proportions: juice 71.6%<br />

(w/w), pericarp 12.4% (w/w) and outer layer 16.0% (w/w). Fifty grams of comm<strong>in</strong>uted were vacuum sealed <strong>in</strong><br />

polyethylene bags and processed with a Welch 2L <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong>or (Avure Technologies). Samples were<br />

pressurized from 100-414 MPa dur<strong>in</strong>g 1-4 m<strong>in</strong> at room temperature. Aerobic counts were performed by<br />

poured plate technique for both nontreated and processed samples. Treatment efficiency was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

the microbial logarithmic reduction.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange presented a moderate <strong>in</strong>itial microbial load (10 3 -10 5 CFU/g). Low pressures (100-200<br />

MPa) barely accounted to reduce 1.5 log cycles. Bacterial populations were stabilized as pressure and<br />

treatment duration levels <strong>in</strong>creased and a “tail effect” trend can be observed. Meawhile, treat<strong>in</strong>g comm<strong>in</strong>uted<br />

samples with 300 and 414 HHP resulted effctive to elim<strong>in</strong>ate microbial load (

at 300 and 400 MPa (D = 1.99 and 0.69 m<strong>in</strong>) were <strong>in</strong> accordance with those of [5] for native microflora <strong>in</strong><br />

Haml<strong>in</strong> orange juice treated at 350, 400 and 450 MPa (D = 1.32 m<strong>in</strong>, 0.47 m<strong>in</strong> and 0.18 m<strong>in</strong> respectively).<br />

Bacterial population shows moderate resistance toward pressure exposure as noted by z = 317 MPa. However,<br />

z value calculated diverted largely when compared with 85-103 MPa obta<strong>in</strong>ed by [3, 5] or 556 MPa [4]. Result<br />

variation may be due to orange variety, process<strong>in</strong>g conditions, peel addition or come up time consideration for<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etic calculations, s<strong>in</strong>ce D values are similar between them.<br />

Nonetheless, the first order k<strong>in</strong>etics was only followed at 100 MPa, s<strong>in</strong>ce all greater pressures exhibit a<br />

resistant rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g population. Weibull equation (1) was also applied to describe the experimental data<br />

generated. This model adequately described k<strong>in</strong>etics from 200-414 MPa, especially <strong>in</strong> the nonl<strong>in</strong>ear data<br />

range. All curves presented downward concavities as noted by n

Research Development of Ultra-High Pressure <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g on Fruit Juice<br />

Wu Han, Zhang Yunchuan, Han Q<strong>in</strong>ghua, Zhao Youb<strong>in</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agriculture Mechanization Sciences, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, ch<strong>in</strong>a (paley366@s<strong>in</strong>a.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ultra high pressure (UHP) technique subjects liquid and solid food to pressures between 100<br />

and 1000MPa with exposure times rang<strong>in</strong>g from a few seconds to over 30m<strong>in</strong>, which is on the<br />

aim of microbial <strong>in</strong>activation. As a non-thermal preservation technique UHP technology can<br />

ensure high quality food products. The use of UHP for food process<strong>in</strong>g has been developed<br />

extensively and has a broad application prospect. S<strong>in</strong>ce beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, the research about the UHP<br />

technique was ma<strong>in</strong>ly used for food preservation. And the sterilization is the primary <strong>in</strong>tention<br />

of research about the UHP technique all the time, where there are three primary factors of<br />

preservation treatment: sterilization, enzyme <strong>in</strong>activity and the quality. In addition the<br />

development of UHP technique research is based on the breakthrough of the UHP equipment<br />

technique.<br />

STERILIZATION OF UHPP ON FRUIT JUICE<br />

The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of sterilization about UHP technique is <strong>in</strong>activation of microorganism by<br />

pressure. Recently many researches about sterilization of the UHP were carried out. Their<br />

materials were as follow: orange juice, apple juice, tomato juice, watermelon juice, pear juice,<br />

Hami melon (Cucumis Melo L.) juice and so on. The researches <strong>in</strong>dicated that the sterilization<br />

effects of fruit juice by the UHPP concerned with the pressure size, the time pressed, the<br />

quantity of microorganism <strong>in</strong> fruit juice, the microorganism type, the material PH, the<br />

temperature of process<strong>in</strong>g and so on many factors. At present the prom<strong>in</strong>ent problem of the<br />

UHP technology is the resistance of pressure- resistant spore <strong>in</strong> sterilization. It is some<br />

bacterial spores that still could survive under the pressure of 1200MPa [1] . Therefore<br />

experiments were carried out on various materials by the cooperated process<strong>in</strong>g methods of<br />

sterilization, which are the UHPP and the temperature, the PH value or the ultrasonic wave<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g work together. And good effects have been obta<strong>in</strong>ed [2] . It is difficult to carry out the<br />

cooperated process<strong>in</strong>g methods outside, where the UHPP needs a strict pressuriz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

process<strong>in</strong>g tank. So f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g cooperated process<strong>in</strong>g methods is still the direction of research <strong>in</strong><br />

recent years.<br />

ENZYME INACTIVITY OF UHPP ON FRUIT JUICE<br />

The UHP treatment ma<strong>in</strong>ly takes effects on the tertiary structures of enzyme, which make the<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition of enzyme activities. Researches <strong>in</strong>dicate that the <strong>in</strong>activation of enzyme is the<br />

causation of secondary bonus’s breakage and prote<strong>in</strong> structure destroyed [3]. It is similar with<br />

the UHP sterilization which has many <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g factors, the enzyme <strong>in</strong>activity effects of fruit<br />

juice by the UHPP concerned with the pressure size, the time pressed, the quantity of enzyme<br />

<strong>in</strong> fruit juice, the enzyme type, the material PH, the temperature of process<strong>in</strong>g, the enzyme<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitory and so on many factors. The enzyme <strong>in</strong>hibitory by the UHPP has its particularity. It<br />

will activate some enzyme, when many enzyme activities were <strong>in</strong>hibited [4]. Some enzymes,<br />

such as pect<strong>in</strong> methyl esterase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, or lipoxygenase, are specially<br />

resistant to pressure. The peroxidase has the strongest resistance to pressure, which might<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> 90% activeness under the UHP treatment of 30m<strong>in</strong> at 600MPa and 60 o C [4]. In view<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1673

of the fact that some enzymes cannot <strong>in</strong>activated completely with simple high pressure, study of new<br />

technical coord<strong>in</strong>ation UHPP is still one of solution methods.<br />

QUALITY OF UHPP ON FRUIT JUICE<br />

In recent years, there are a lot of researches about process<strong>in</strong>g quality on fruit juice by the UHP treatment,<br />

which concern the colour, texture, flavor, nutrient of fruit juice. Many researches <strong>in</strong>dicate that the fruit<br />

juice treated by UHPP may have storage more than a half year, moreover it has much less change <strong>in</strong><br />

nutrient, flavor and colour compared with the heat-treatment method. This is the latent superiority of the<br />

UHPP <strong>in</strong> fruit juice process<strong>in</strong>g. a part of basement researches about the UHPP are studies about the<br />

changes of the colour, texture, flavor and nutrient on s<strong>in</strong>gle material juice by UHPP compared with the<br />

heat-treatment method.<br />

EQUIPMENT OF UHPP<br />

The UHP technique has been used <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g until Japan mad the first high pressure food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g test<strong>in</strong>g facility at the end of 1980s. At present, America and Japan, and the others have got<br />

achievement of research and development, standardization and mass production <strong>in</strong> high pressure<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g facility, such as the Flow<strong>in</strong>g Company and Wenger Company of America, Meidi-ya food<br />

Company of Japan, which all has its own characteristic productions.The process<strong>in</strong>g capacity of high<br />

pressure process<strong>in</strong>g of food facility has got 275mpa, 24.6kg/m<strong>in</strong> serialization production. In ch<strong>in</strong>a, the<br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g of food facility manufacture-----Baotou High Pressure Technique Co;<br />

LTD that the facility capacity <strong>in</strong> sold is only 15L at the maximum work<strong>in</strong>g pressure 800mpa; and the<br />

facility capacity is just 500L at the maximum work<strong>in</strong>g pressure 600mpa. Currently, <strong>in</strong> ch<strong>in</strong>a it is difficult<br />

<strong>in</strong> application and extension of the UHPP products of high pressure technique. But the <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

development of UHPP technique has unlimited potential after reduc<strong>in</strong>g the cost of equipment and<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>al Remarks: Ultra-high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g (UHPP) technique is a new technique <strong>in</strong> food cold<br />

sterilization, which has a broad application prospect. The ultra-high-pressure process<strong>in</strong>g technique has<br />

already used and applied <strong>in</strong> production on a large scale, as the good process<strong>in</strong>g quality makes<br />

destructiveness very small <strong>in</strong> the nature nutrient component, flavor, and the color which turns brown.<br />

However, the effect of UHPP <strong>in</strong> sterilization of bacterial spores and <strong>in</strong>activation of peroxidase is not<br />

good, and which cannot be improved simply by enhances the pressure. As the research of next step, we<br />

can carry on the work as follows. Some enhancement methods of Ultra-high-pressure process<strong>in</strong>g, such as<br />

magnetization and ultrasonic wave, are carried on fruit juice. Research of dynamics model about<br />

Sterilization and enzyme <strong>in</strong>activity of Ultra high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g on fruit juice are also needed. In<br />

shot, UHPP is a promis<strong>in</strong>g technology that could eventually replace many heat treatments <strong>in</strong> food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Zeng Q<strong>in</strong>meiPan JianXie Huim<strong>in</strong>et alStudy on ultra-high pressure treatment of microflora sterilization of<br />

strawberry juice [J]<strong>Food</strong> Science200425 (1)31~34. [2] Zhang YongDuan XuchangLi Shaofenget alInfluence<br />

factors of sterilization and deactivation enzyme of ultra-high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g [J] <strong>Food</strong> Research and<br />

Development200728 (7)140~143[3] Rastogi.N.K, Eshtiaghi.M.N, Knorr.DEffects of peroxide and high pressure<br />

treatment on the reduction of peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase activity un red grapes[J] <strong>Food</strong><br />

Biotechnology,1999,13(2)195~208[4] Murao, S, et alEnhancement of acitivities of cellulases under high<br />

hydrostatic pressure[J]Biosci. Biotech. Biochem.,1992,56(8)1366~1367<br />

1674

Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on antioxidant activity, m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch content<br />

and bioaccessibility, <strong>in</strong> apple (Granny smith)<br />

Vilbett Briones-Labarca a , Gabriela Venegas-Cubillos a , Susana Ortiz-Portilla a , Marcelo Chacana-Ojeda a ,<br />

Hector Maureira b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, CHILE, vbriones@userena.cl<br />

b Central Laboratory Analysis, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, CHILE.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The diet is important for human health because it is associated with the morbidity and mortality<br />

<strong>in</strong> the chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension and obesity. The<br />

effects of the food matrix on the bioavailability or bioaccessibility of antioxidant m<strong>in</strong>erals and<br />

starch have not been exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> much detail. Direct <strong>in</strong>teractions between this component and<br />

some components of food, such as b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to prote<strong>in</strong>s and polysaccharides, can occur, and<br />

these <strong>in</strong>teractions may affect digestion and absorption. The objective of this study was to study<br />

the effect of high pressure on the bioaccessibility of specific nutrients (antioxidant, m<strong>in</strong>erals<br />

and starch) <strong>in</strong> apple and to establish process<strong>in</strong>g conditions that maximize the health benefits.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Apple samples were pressurized at 500 MPa dur<strong>in</strong>g 2, 4, 8 and 10 m<strong>in</strong>. Free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g<br />

activity of the samples were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the 2,2,-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH)<br />

method (Brand-Williams, Cuvelier, & Berset, 1995). The m<strong>in</strong>eral elements (Ca, Fe and Zn)<br />

were measured us<strong>in</strong>g an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. In vitro digestion was<br />

performed by the method orig<strong>in</strong>ally developed by Miller, Schricker, Rasmussen & Van<br />

Campen (1981), was modified by Bosscher, Lu, Cauwenbergh, Van Caillie-Bertrand,<br />

Robberecht, & Deelstra (2001) and Jovaní, Viadel, Laparra, Barberá & Farré (2001). The<br />

digested apple sample was used to determ<strong>in</strong>e the bioaccessibility of antioxidant capacity, iron,<br />

z<strong>in</strong>c and calcium. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of resistant and digestible starch was used proposed by Goñi,<br />

Garcia-Diz, Matas & Saura-Calixto (1996).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The antioxidant activity, m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch content and bioaccessibility of apple samples were<br />

significantly affected by the process<strong>in</strong>g and digestion conditions. Therefore, these results<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated that <strong>in</strong>-vitro digestion has a noticeable effect on the antioxidant concentration, IC50,<br />

with much lower values (a smaller IC50 value corresponds to a higher antioxidant activity) of<br />

apple samples compared with those untreated and non-digestion. Apple has the highest calcium<br />

content (30.33±1.94 mg/100g), iron (14.46±3.49 mg/100g) and z<strong>in</strong>c (6.22±0.91 mg/100g).<br />

High hydrostatic pressure <strong>in</strong>creased the m<strong>in</strong>eral contents availability by 2.11-303.00% for<br />

calcium, 4.63-10.93% for iron and 8.68-28.93% for z<strong>in</strong>c. The dialyzability and solubility of<br />

calcium, iron and z<strong>in</strong>c with respect to the values for the untreated sample were reduced by this<br />

high pressure technique. Digestible starch content <strong>in</strong> the untreated sample was lowest than the<br />

samples treated with high hydrostatic pressure but opposite effect was observed with resistant<br />

starch.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1675

Table 1: Effect of high pressure hydrostatic on DPPH free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity (IC 50), m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />

elements and starch content <strong>in</strong> apple sample with non- and <strong>in</strong>-vitro digestion at treatment time different.<br />

IC50 (mg/mL)<br />

Different letters <strong>in</strong> the same row <strong>in</strong>dicate that the values are significantly different (p < 0.05).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In summary, the antioxidant capacity, m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch content of fruit may be<br />

underestimated <strong>in</strong> the literature because the extraction solvents usually used do not allow a<br />

complete release of antioxidant compounds. On the other hand, the analysis of <strong>in</strong>-vitro<br />

digestive enzymatic extracts suggests that the antioxidant activity of fruit <strong>in</strong> the human gut may<br />

be higher than what might be expected from literature data based on measurements of aqueousorganic<br />

extracts. It is possible that changes to the tissue matrix <strong>in</strong>duced by high hydrostatic<br />

pressures, for example disruption of plant cell walls, resulted <strong>in</strong> the release of compounds with<br />

antioxidant actions and <strong>in</strong>creased m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch content <strong>in</strong>to the extracellular environment.<br />

Consumption of apple under high hydrostatic pressure may supply substantial antioxidants,<br />

m<strong>in</strong>eral and starch which may provide health promot<strong>in</strong>g and disease prevent<strong>in</strong>g effects.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Untreated 500 MPa/2m<strong>in</strong><br />

Apple samples<br />

500 MPa/4m<strong>in</strong> 500 MPa/8m<strong>in</strong> 500 MPa/10m<strong>in</strong><br />

4.07±0.06 a<br />

IC50 <strong>in</strong>-vitro digestion (mg/mL 0.28±0.04 a<br />

Calcium solubility (%)<br />

Calcium dialysis (%)<br />

Iron solubility (%)<br />

Iron dialysis (%)<br />

Z<strong>in</strong>c solubility (%)<br />

Z<strong>in</strong>c dialysis (%)<br />

14.41±0,42 a<br />

79.06±5.26 b<br />

0.69±0.14 a<br />

0.67±0.27 a<br />

1.43±0.37 ab<br />

1.12±0.30 a<br />

Total starch (Holm`s method) 81.68±3.37 a<br />

Digestible starch (% D)<br />

Resistent starch (% R)<br />

Total starch (% (D+R))<br />

75.45±0.71 a<br />

19.53±1.89 a<br />

95.07±3.00 a<br />

4.81±0.42 b<br />

0.20±0.06 a<br />

1.03±0.12 b<br />

5.74±1.22 b<br />

0.59±0.04 a<br />

0.84±0.27 ab<br />

2.19±1.18 b<br />

0.37±0.25 b<br />

85.23±1.22 a<br />

76.58±1.73 a<br />

19.42±4.47 a<br />

96.05±6.20 a<br />

4.66±0.18 b<br />

0.04±0.03 b<br />

1.05±0.32 b<br />

5.74±0.91 b<br />

0.93±0.18 b<br />

0.38±0.09 c<br />

1.36±0.58 a<br />

4.58±0.02 b<br />

0.08±0.07 b<br />

1.09±0.11 b<br />

4.56±1.18 b<br />

0.56±0.06 a<br />

1.09±0.30 b<br />

0.89±0.21 a<br />

0.43±0.16b 6.38±0.99 c<br />

86.97±0.31 a<br />

83.78±7.72 a<br />

14.93±1.23 ab<br />

98.68±8.95 a<br />

97.18±1.91 b<br />

96.43±7.00 b<br />

4.41±0.48 c<br />

100.87±7.48 a<br />

4.47±0.01 bc<br />

0.09±0.06 b<br />

6.49±0.98 c<br />

15.60±3.84 c<br />

0.61±0.14 a<br />

0.70±0.09 a<br />

1.53±0.34 ab<br />

4.29±0.49 d<br />

99.77±7.34 b<br />

100.44±6.49 b<br />

3.12±0.51 c<br />

103.52±6.99 a<br />

[1] Brand-Williams W., Cuvelier, M. E. & Berset, C. 1995. Use of a free radical method to evaluate<br />

antioxidant activity. LWT- <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 28, 25–30.<br />

[2] Miller D. D., Schricker B. R., Rasmussen R. R., & Van Campen D. 1981. An <strong>in</strong> vitro method for<br />

estimation of iron availability from meals. American Journal of Cl<strong>in</strong>ical Nutrition, 34, 2248-2256.<br />

[3] Bosscher D., Lu Z., Cauwenbergh R.V., Van Caillie-Bertrand M., Robberecht H., & Deelstra H.<br />

2001. A method for <strong>in</strong> vitro determ<strong>in</strong>ation of calcium, iron and z<strong>in</strong>c availability from first-age <strong>in</strong>fant<br />

formula and human milk. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Sciences and Nutrition, 52, 173–182.<br />

[4] Jovaní M., Viadel B., Laparra M., Barberá R., & Farré R. 2004. Improvement of analytical conditions<br />

of m<strong>in</strong>eral caco-2 cells uptake assays. <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology <strong>International</strong>, 10, 197–201.<br />

[5] Goñi I., Garcia-Diz L., Matas E., & Saura-Calixto F. 1996. Analysis of resistant starch: a method for<br />

foods and food products. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 56 (4), 445-449.<br />

1676

Microbiological stabilization of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) gel by high<br />

hydrostatic pressure treatments<br />

J.E. Reyes a , G. Tabilo-Munizaga a , M. Guanoquiza a , A. Vega-Galvez b , M. Miranda b and M. Pérez-Won b<br />

a<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, University of Bio-Bio, PO Box 447, Chillán, Chile. (gtabilo@ubiobio.cl)<br />

b<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, University of la Serena, PO Box 559, La Serena, Chile.<br />

(avega@userena.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In recent years, the use of Aloe vera <strong>in</strong> the formulation of food products has assumed an<br />

important role, ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to recognition of their functional properties [1]. However, due to its<br />

highly perishable nature, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from the microbiology po<strong>in</strong>t of view, aloe gel should be<br />

processed <strong>in</strong> order to extend its shelf-life. For Aloe vera gel stabilization, it is often necessary<br />

to apply thermal process<strong>in</strong>g, which can produce irreversible modifications of the functional<br />

components. A non-thermal technology such as high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) can be a good<br />

alternative to conventionally thermal process<strong>in</strong>g for aloe gel, because it has the potential to<br />

<strong>in</strong>activate spoilage microorganisms without significantly affect<strong>in</strong>g the sensory, nutritional and<br />

functional properties, and so <strong>in</strong>crease the shelf-life [2]. Thus, the aim of this study was to<br />

evaluate the application of HHP on microbial behavior and the shelf-life extension of the Aloe<br />

vera gel dur<strong>in</strong>g cold storage at 4 ºC.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The gel was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from whole fresh leaves of Aloe vera, which was homogenized twice by<br />

a Warr<strong>in</strong>g-blender at high speed for 5 m<strong>in</strong>, and then settle down for 24 h at 4 o C. Gel samples<br />

were packed <strong>in</strong> polyethylene flexible pouches and subjected to 300, 400 and 500 MPa for 1, 3<br />

and 5 m<strong>in</strong> at room temperature. HHP treatments were performed <strong>in</strong> a 2 litter process<strong>in</strong>g system<br />

(Avure Inc., Kent, WA, USA). Unpressurized (control) and pressurized samples were stored at<br />

4°C for up to 90 days. All samples were analyzed at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals for numbers of aerobic<br />

mesophilic and psychrophilic microorganisms, Enterobacteriaceae and fungi by standard<br />

methods. A re-parameterized version of the modified Gompertz equation [3] was used to<br />

estimate the growth k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the shelf-life. Data were analyzed by oneway<br />

analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean separations were obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the LSD test;<br />

the level of significance was set a p < 0.05 level.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

All HHP-treatment applied were able to significantly reduced (p < 0.05) counts of microbial<br />

populations studied, except for mesophilic count <strong>in</strong> samples treated at 300 MPa/1 m<strong>in</strong>, to nondetectable<br />

levels (< 1.0 CFU/ml), reach<strong>in</strong>g a reduction of ca. 2 to 4 log cycle (data not shown).<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at 4°C, the aerobic mesophilic and psychrophilic counts followed a similar<br />

behavior (Figure 1A and 1B). In control samples, on the first day of storage showed mesophilic<br />

counts higher than 2.0 log CFU/ml, which is considered the upper acceptable limit for Aloe<br />

vera gel by WHO [4], and were found to be > 8.0 log UFC/ml at the end of storage period. In<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1677

contrast, <strong>in</strong> samples treated at 300 MPa (1, 3 and 5 m<strong>in</strong>) and 400 MPa (1 m<strong>in</strong>), this value was<br />

reached after 18, 24, 35 and 53 days, respectively. In samples pressurized at 400 MPa (3 and 5<br />

m<strong>in</strong>) and 500 MPa (1, 3 and 5 m<strong>in</strong>), the counts were kept below the detection limit dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

whole storage period. Enterobacteriaceae and fungi were not detected after any pressure<br />

treatment and the number of survivors was kept below the detection limit dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole<br />

storage.<br />

A<br />

B<br />

Microbial growth (logCFU/ml)<br />

Figure 1. Growth curve of (A) aerobic mesophilic and (B) psychrophilic on aloe gel storage at 4°C.<br />

Control (), 300 MPa/1 m<strong>in</strong> (), 300 MPA/3 m<strong>in</strong> (), 300 MPa/5 m<strong>in</strong> (), 400 MPa/1 m<strong>in</strong> (), 400<br />

MPa/3 m<strong>in</strong> (), 400 MPa/5 m<strong>in</strong> (), 500 MPa/1 m<strong>in</strong> (), 500 MPa/3 m<strong>in</strong> (), 500 MPa/5 m<strong>in</strong> ().<br />

Data were fitted by a re-parameterized version of the Gompertz equation. Bars denote standard deviation<br />

of the mean.<br />

On the other hand, the microbial shelf-life estimated for aloe stored a 4°C was between 18<br />

and 53 days for the samples treated at 300 MPa (1, 2, and 3) and 400 MPa (1 m<strong>in</strong>),<br />

respectively. However, for the samples treated over 400 MPa for 3 m<strong>in</strong> was > 90 days. The<br />

long shelf-life of aloe gel treated by HHP-treated was attributed to the high <strong>in</strong>itial microbial<br />

reduction, as well as to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the duration of the lag phase () and a decrease <strong>in</strong> the<br />

growth rate (μmax) of <strong>in</strong>jured microorganisms (data not shown).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this study, HHP-treatment at 400 MPa for 3 m<strong>in</strong> and above was sufficient to produce<br />

microbiology stable Aloe vera gel up to 90 days stored at 4°C.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This study was f<strong>in</strong>ancially supported by FONDECYT program<br />

(project 1090228).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90<br />

Storage time (days)<br />

10<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90<br />

Storage time (days)<br />

[1] Miranda, M., Maureira, H., Rodríguez, K. &Vega-Gálvez, A. 2009. Influence of temperature on the<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics, physicochemical properties, and antioxidant capacity of Aloe vera (Aloe<br />

Barbadensis Miller) gel. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 91(2), 297-304.<br />

[2] Patterson, M.F. 2005. Microbiology of pressure-treated foods: a review. Journal of Applied<br />

Microbiolgy. <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology <strong>International</strong>, 98, 1400–1409.<br />

[3] Corbo, M.R., Del Nobile, M.A. & S<strong>in</strong>igaglia, M. 2006. A novel approach for calculat<strong>in</strong>g shelf life of<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imally processed vegetables. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 106, 69-73.<br />

[4] WHO. 1999. Monographs on selected medic<strong>in</strong>al plants. Vol. 1., <strong>World</strong> Health Organization. Geneva,<br />

Switzerland.<br />

1678<br />

10<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

Microbial growth (log CFU/ml)

Establishment of a process<strong>in</strong>g method for tofu us<strong>in</strong>g high pressure compared to the heat-<br />

<strong>in</strong>duced method<br />

Yuri Jibu a , Keiko Nakamura a , Ai Teramoto b , Hiroko Kuwada c , Michiko Fuchigami c<br />

a<br />

Department of Nutritional Science, Okayama Prefectural University, Soja, Japan (yjibu@ fhw.okapu.ac.jp;<br />

keikot<strong>in</strong>@yahoo.co.jp)<br />

b<br />

Department of Health and Nutrition, Kanto Gaku<strong>in</strong> University, Yokohama, Japan (teramoto@kantogaku<strong>in</strong>.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutrition and Life Science, Fukuyama University, Fukuyama, Japan<br />

(kuwada@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp; fuchigam@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Currently, the production method used for packed tofu (soybean curd) needs a lot of energy for<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g and cool<strong>in</strong>g. The amount of added thermal energy is high and the environment of the<br />

factory for tofu production is bad due to steam from heat<strong>in</strong>g. At high hydrostatic pressure,<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s are denaturated and microorganisms are <strong>in</strong>activated [1]. Extensive conformational<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> are not caused below 300 ~ 400 MPa so denaturation only occurs at high<br />

pressures [2]. Thus, high pressure is more useful than heat<strong>in</strong>g for food production, not only<br />

food that conta<strong>in</strong>s prote<strong>in</strong> but also jam and fruit sauce. Therefore, us<strong>in</strong>g high pressure for tofu<br />

production to reduce thermal energy will be exam<strong>in</strong>ed. Also, quality of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />

(HP-tofu) and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced tofu (H-tofu) will be compared. The objectives of this study are to<br />

establish a process for HP-tofu and compare it with H-tofu and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced Market tofu (Mtofu).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A mixture of soymilk (300 g) and 4 g or 6 g of 14.5% coagulant (Enden Nigari, Ako Kasei<br />

Ltd.) solution was vacuum packed. Us<strong>in</strong>g a high pressure food processor (Kobe Steel Ltd.), it<br />

was pressurized at 400, 500 and 600 MPa and kept at 25°C or 50°C for 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60<br />

m<strong>in</strong> (HP-tofu) [3]. The mixture was also heated for 30, 40 and 60 m<strong>in</strong> at 88°C (H-tofu). The<br />

tofu was then sliced <strong>in</strong>to 1cm thick pieces us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasonic sample cutter (Yamaden Ltd.).<br />

After tak<strong>in</strong>g a photograph, the rupture stress and stra<strong>in</strong> were measured by a creepmeter<br />

(Rheoner, RE-33005, Yamaden Ltd.). The structure was observed with a cryo-scann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

electron microscope (S-4500, Hitachi Ltd.) and a sensory evaluation was done.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The rupture stress and stra<strong>in</strong> of HP-tofu with 4 g and 6 g coagulant were compared <strong>in</strong> Figure 1<br />

(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g H-tofu). When the sample was pressurized at 25C and 400 MPa for 60 m<strong>in</strong>, it did<br />

not coagulate. However, it coagulated above 500 MPa. As time of pressurization became<br />

longer, the HP-tofu became firmer. As both pressure (from 500 MPa to 600 MPa) and<br />

temperature (from 25C to 50C) <strong>in</strong>creased, HP-tofu became more firm. Thus us<strong>in</strong>g a sensory<br />

test, HP-tofu pressurized at 50C and 500 MPa for 60 m<strong>in</strong>, or at 50C and 600 MPa for 30 m<strong>in</strong><br />

was preferred as smoothest for mouthfeel and firmness and taste were preferred.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1679

It was found that HP-tofu, us<strong>in</strong>g the same amount of coagulant (4 g) as Market tofu, was softer<br />

than M-tofu, but HP-tofu with 6 g of coagulant became harder. This HP-tofu was evaluated as<br />

too hard and lacked smoothness. Also, H-tofu became spongy and the appearance became<br />

worse when heat<strong>in</strong>g time was <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

Coagulant 4g Coagulant 6g<br />

Rupture stress (x10 2<br />

N/m 2<br />

)<br />

Rupture stra<strong>in</strong> (%)<br />

High-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced tofu Heat-<strong>in</strong>duced tofu<br />

150<br />

400 MPa 500 MPa 600 MPa 0.1 MPa<br />

100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

60<br />

50C<br />

50C<br />

60<br />

Figure 1. Rupture stress and stra<strong>in</strong> of high-pressure-<strong>in</strong>duced tofu (HP-tofu) and heat-<strong>in</strong>duced tofu<br />

(H-tofu) made of coagulant (4g or 6g) and soymilk (300g).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Tofu with 4 g of coagulant pressurized at 50C for 60 m<strong>in</strong> at 500 MPa or for 30 m<strong>in</strong> at 600<br />

MPa was preferred by a sensory test. Although this tofu was softer than Market tofu, the taste<br />

was good due to smooth texture, because there were smaller air bubbles and the gel network of<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> was homogeneous.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

30 40 60<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

10 20 30<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

30 40 60 10 20 30<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

88C<br />

30 40 60<br />

88C<br />

30 40 60<br />

400 MPa<br />

150<br />

500 MPa<br />

20 30 40 60<br />

600 MPa<br />

10 20 30<br />

[1] Hayashi, R. 1989. Use of High Pressure <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>. San’ei Press, Kyoto.<br />

[2] Hayashi, R. & Balny, C. (1995). High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology. Elsevier, Amsterdam.<br />

[3] Kato, H.N., Teramoto, A., & Fuchigami, M. 1997. Pectic Substance Degradation and Texture of<br />

Carrots as Affected by Pressurization. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 62(2), 359-362, 398.<br />

1680<br />

Rupture stress (x10 2<br />

N/m 2<br />

)<br />

Rupture stra<strong>in</strong> (%)<br />

100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

60<br />

60<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

25C<br />

50C<br />

20 30 40 60<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

10 20 30

Enhanced Infusion under High Pressure: New Insights<br />

Swetha Mahadevan and Mukund V. Karwe*<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA<br />

*(karwe@aesop.rutgers.edu)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Osmotic dehydration has been traditionally used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry for <strong>in</strong>fusion of substances<br />

<strong>in</strong>to food materials. Diffusion, the underly<strong>in</strong>g phenomenon of osmotic dehydration, is<br />

<strong>in</strong>herently a slow process and there is a need for additional methods that can accelerate mass<br />

transport rates. High hydrostatic pressure process<strong>in</strong>g (HHPP) is one such alternative. Studies<br />

have shown that HHPP can enhance <strong>in</strong>fusion of substances, such as salt and sugar, <strong>in</strong>to fruits,<br />

vegetables and meat [1], [2], [3]. The commonly accepted explanation is that upon exposure to<br />

HHPP, the cell membranes of the food tissues rupture thereby decreas<strong>in</strong>g the resistance to<br />

<strong>in</strong>fusion [2]. This explanation, however, is only causal and other mechanisms that <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

driv<strong>in</strong>g force or reduce resistance to <strong>in</strong>fusion even without changes <strong>in</strong> the microstructure may<br />

be operative, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion. This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis<br />

that other possible mechanisms exist that can enhance <strong>in</strong>fusion under high pressure. The model<br />

system of study chosen was an antioxidant-fruit system of quercet<strong>in</strong>- frozen-thawed cranberries<br />

where quercet<strong>in</strong> was the <strong>in</strong>fusant and frozen-thawed cranberry was the fruit substrate. We f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

that enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to frozen-thawed cranberries occurred without any<br />

additional cell-membrane permeabilization under high pressure <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g other possible<br />

mechanisms at play dur<strong>in</strong>g high-pressure <strong>in</strong>duced <strong>in</strong>fusion.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Scarified-frozen-thawed cranberries were immersed <strong>in</strong> a solution of glycer<strong>in</strong>-ethanol (1:1)<br />

carry<strong>in</strong>g 0.5% quercet<strong>in</strong> and high-pressure processed <strong>in</strong> bags at pressures between 100 and 551<br />

MPa for 1-60 m<strong>in</strong>utes at room temperature; cranberries had to be scarified s<strong>in</strong>ce diffusion<br />

through <strong>in</strong>tact cranberry sk<strong>in</strong> is negligible even under high pressure. Amount of quercet<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>fused <strong>in</strong> the processed samples was measured by RP-HPLC. Cell-membrane<br />

permeabilization changes were quantified us<strong>in</strong>g an electrophysical measurement based on<br />

impedance spectroscopy [4]. The cell-membrane permeabilization changes were expressed <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of a permeabilization <strong>in</strong>dex, Zp. Fruit microstructure was analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g light<br />

microscopy. All measurements were made <strong>in</strong> triplicates.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary experiments had shown that diffusion through cranberry sk<strong>in</strong> was almost<br />

negligible even under high pressure. In order to reduce this mass transfer barrier, fruit surface<br />

was partially scarified by mak<strong>in</strong>g sub-millimeter p<strong>in</strong>holes.<br />

High pressure treated cranberries showed significantly higher levels of quercet<strong>in</strong> compared to<br />

control. The amount of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fused <strong>in</strong> cranberries processed under high pressure was<br />

found to be three times that <strong>in</strong> cranberries processed at ambient conditions (control). In<br />

addition, <strong>in</strong>fusion under high pressure was much faster than that at ambient conditions: the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1681

amount of quercet<strong>in</strong> that was <strong>in</strong>fused at ambient conditions <strong>in</strong> 3 hours was <strong>in</strong>fused <strong>in</strong> only 10<br />

m<strong>in</strong> under high pressure (Figure 1). Furthermore, the amount of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fused <strong>in</strong>to<br />

cranberries processed under high pressure was found to be <strong>in</strong>dependent of the applied pressure<br />

<strong>in</strong> the range <strong>in</strong>vestigated. This observation was unlike other studies, which have shown<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> diffusion with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> applied pressure [2,3].<br />

The cell-membrane permeabilization changes due to HHPP were recorded and expressed <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of Zp (permeabilization <strong>in</strong>dex). There was no significant difference <strong>in</strong> cell-membrane<br />

permeabilization between control and<br />

HHPP treated cranberries. Unlike other<br />

studies [1], however, we did not f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

additional cell permeabilization <strong>in</strong> frozenthawed<br />

cranberries after HHPP. These<br />

results were <strong>in</strong> agreement with our<br />

observations of fruit tissue microstructure<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed by light microscopy. Our results<br />

suggest that enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion <strong>in</strong> HHPP<br />

may be caused by factors other than cellmembrane<br />

permeabilization and that more<br />

studies are required to understand the<br />

fundamental mechanisms of <strong>in</strong>fusion under<br />

HHPP.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

In scarified-frozen-thawed cranberries, HHPP treated cranberries showed a significant <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

<strong>in</strong> the amount of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fused over that <strong>in</strong> those treated at ambient conditions. Under<br />

HHPP, mass transfer rates were enhanced and process<strong>in</strong>g time was shortened. Furthermore, the<br />

amount <strong>in</strong>fused <strong>in</strong>to cranberries under high pressure was found to be <strong>in</strong>dependent of the<br />

applied pressure <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Remarkably, HHPP had no additional effect on cellmembrane<br />

permeabilization <strong>in</strong> frozen-thawed cranberries. Our results of similar degree of<br />

permeabilization <strong>in</strong> all samples and observed enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion suggest that cell-membrane<br />

permeabilization may not be the only cause for high pressure <strong>in</strong>duced <strong>in</strong>fusion. Further studies<br />

to <strong>in</strong>vestigate other mechanisms operat<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g high pressure <strong>in</strong>duced <strong>in</strong>fusion are required.<br />

This work elucidates important aspects of the science of pressure-enhanced <strong>in</strong>fusion. In<br />

addition, this work demonstrates the potential of HHPP to develop nutraceutical-enriched food<br />

products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. Variation of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fused with applied<br />

pressure <strong>in</strong> frozen-scarified-thawed cranberries<br />

[1] Rastogi N.K., Angersbach A., Niranjan K., and Knorr D. 2000. Synergistic effect of high hydrostatic<br />

pressure pretreatment and osmotic stress on mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration. Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 45, 25-31. [2] Sopanangkul A., Ledward D.A., and Niranjan K. 2002. Mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sucrose <strong>in</strong>fusion <strong>in</strong>to potatoes under high pressure. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 67(6), 2217-2220. [3]<br />

Villacis M.F., Rastogi N.K., Balasubramanian V.M. 2008. Effect of high pressure on moisture and NaCl<br />

diffusion <strong>in</strong>to turkey breast. LWT, 41, 836-844. [4] Angersbach A., He<strong>in</strong>z V., and Knorr D. 1999.<br />

Electrophysical model of <strong>in</strong>tact and processed plant tissues: cell dis<strong>in</strong>tegration criteria. Biotechnology<br />

Progress. 15, 753-762.<br />

1682

Structural changes of pect<strong>in</strong> methylesterase from orange peel subjected to thermal and<br />

high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Z.Alexandrakis a , T. Papadopoulos b , Ph.Stavros b , G.Katsaros a , P.Katapodis a , G.Nounesis b , P.Taoukis a<br />

a<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>,National Technical<br />

University of Athens, Athens, Greece, taoukis@chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

b<br />

Biomolecular Physics Laboratory, IRRP, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos,Aghia<br />

Paraskevi, Greece, nounesis@rrp.demokritos.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterase (PME), an endogenous enzyme found <strong>in</strong> fruits and vegetables, affects the<br />

quality characteristics of f<strong>in</strong>al products (such as juices). In the literature there is a significant<br />

number of papers describ<strong>in</strong>g the effect of high pressure (HP) and temperature on PME activity<br />

from different fruits and vegetables, such as orange, tomato, peach, strawberry, green beans<br />

and papaya. The results found <strong>in</strong> literature and the obta<strong>in</strong>ed results from experiments<br />

conducted from our laboratory show that the <strong>in</strong>activation depends on the orig<strong>in</strong> of the enzyme<br />

[1,3]. Despite the extensively studied PME <strong>in</strong>activation us<strong>in</strong>g thermal and HP process<strong>in</strong>g, there<br />

is limited work done on the description of structural changes of this enzyme processed by HP.<br />

The objective of this research was to study the structural changes of PME before and after<br />

treatment of the enzyme at temperatures (40-80 o C), comb<strong>in</strong>ed with pressures (0.1-800 MPa).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The effect of high pressure (HP) <strong>in</strong> conjunction with mild temperature on the activity and the<br />

conformation of PME purified from orange peel (Valencia var.) by cation-exchange<br />

(UNOspere S, Biorad) and gel filtration (Biogel P-30, Biorad) chromatography was studied.<br />

High pressure treatments were achieved us<strong>in</strong>g a pilot scale HP equipment with a maximum<br />

operat<strong>in</strong>g pressure and temperature of 1000 MPa and 100°C respectively (<strong>Food</strong> Pressure Unit<br />

FPU 1.01, Resato <strong>International</strong> BV, Roden, Holland). The secondary and tertiary structure of<br />

HP treated and untreated purified PME was analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g a Jasco-715 spectropolarimeter <strong>in</strong><br />

the near and far ultraviolet regions. The assay for the measurement of PME activity<br />

spectrophotometrically at 620 nm was described by Cameron [2].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The far –UV CD characterization of HP treated and native PME is depicted <strong>in</strong> Fig.1. The far<br />

UV CD spectra of all samples were analyzed immediately after HP treatment. A characteristic<br />

for -structure (-sheets and turns) prote<strong>in</strong>s negative peak at ~ 218 nm was observed for PME.<br />

HP process<strong>in</strong>g resulted <strong>in</strong> simultaneous <strong>in</strong>activation of PME and decrease of the -structure<br />

fraction of their secondary structure.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1683

[]*10 -3 (deg.cm 2 .dmol -1 )<br />

10<br />

0<br />

-10<br />

-20<br />

-30<br />

PME_untreated<br />

PME_200 MPa_40 o C,40 m<strong>in</strong>, R.A. = 0,74<br />

PME_600 MPa_40 o C, 7 m<strong>in</strong>, R.A. = 0,39<br />

PME_ 0,1 MPa_60 o C, 5 m<strong>in</strong>, R.A. = 0,76<br />

200 220 240 260<br />

Wavelength (nm)<br />

Figure 1. Far-UV CD spectra of untreated and HP treated PME at 25 o C.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The secondary structure of PME treated by HP changed as evidenced by CD analysis. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity of negative peak <strong>in</strong> the CD spectra as well as the relative residual activity of PME<br />

decreased with the <strong>in</strong>crease of pressure and treatment time. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results expla<strong>in</strong> the<br />

reduced enzyme activity (<strong>in</strong>activation) of this enzyme after process<strong>in</strong>g at certa<strong>in</strong> conditions<br />

which is <strong>in</strong> close agreement with its conformation change.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This research has been co-f<strong>in</strong>anced by the European Union (European Social Fund – ESF) and<br />

Greek national funds through the Operational Program "Education and Lifelong Learn<strong>in</strong>g" of<br />

the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Fund<strong>in</strong>g Program: Heracleitus<br />

II. Invest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> knowledge society through the European Social Fund.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Balogh T., Smout C., Ly Nguyen B., Van Loey A.M., Hendrickx M.E. 2004. Thermal ana High-<br />

Pressure <strong>in</strong>activation of carrot pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterase : from model system to real foods, Innovative<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 5, 429-436.<br />

[2] Cameron, R. G.;,Buslig, B. S.,Shaw, P. E.1992. Adaptation of a spectrophotometric assay for<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterase to a k<strong>in</strong>etic microplate reader. J. <strong>Food</strong> Sci., 57, 1006-1008.<br />

[3] Nienaber U. and Shellhammer T.H.2001.High-pressure process<strong>in</strong>g of orange juice : k<strong>in</strong>etics of<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>methylesterase <strong>in</strong>activation, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 66 (2), 328-331.<br />

1684

Innovative value propositions for the food <strong>in</strong>dustry through non-thermal process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

techniques<br />

Francisco Purroy a , Carole Tonello a<br />

a NC Hyperbaric SA, Burgos, Spa<strong>in</strong> (f.purroy@nchyperbaric.es )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Emerg<strong>in</strong>g, Non-Thermal process<strong>in</strong>g technologies are becom<strong>in</strong>g widespread <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry, ma<strong>in</strong>ly as post-packag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions for food safety assurance and stabilisation of<br />

All-Natural, preservative-free propositions. Techniques such as High Pressure <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

(HPP) prove to be effective and economically feasible, show<strong>in</strong>g now consistent double-digit<br />

growths. Be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly implemented <strong>in</strong> the last decade, solutions like HPP are open<strong>in</strong>g<br />

other options to the food <strong>in</strong>dustry worldwide: developments <strong>in</strong> the last 24 months <strong>in</strong>clude both<br />

application or product <strong>in</strong>novations, and new value-added <strong>in</strong>dustrial process<strong>in</strong>g scenarios for the<br />

food sector. This paper reviews some of these advances <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g: substitution of traditional<br />

thermal techniques for novel product manufactur<strong>in</strong>g; development of new functional<br />

beverages; tenderisation of low value meat cuts; and the new value proposals be<strong>in</strong>g offered by<br />

copackers and refrigerated services suppliers.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

This paper reviews activities by various organisations <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g research bodies such as<br />

CSIRO-<strong>Food</strong> Science Australia and DIL (German Institute of food technologies) <strong>in</strong> Germany;<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions such as MLA (Meat&Livestock Commission) <strong>in</strong> Australia; and companies such as<br />

Fonterra Cooperative Group or New Image Natural Health <strong>in</strong> New Zealand, or Cargill and<br />

Hormel <strong>Food</strong>s, <strong>in</strong> the United States. Their work has resulted <strong>in</strong> published whitepapers (DIL,<br />

CSIRO), patents (Hormel <strong>Food</strong>s, Fonterra) and commercial potentialities through the use of<br />

high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g techniques (MLA, Cargill, Hormel <strong>Food</strong>s, New Image Natural<br />

Health).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Substitution of thermal treatments and development of new functional products<br />

Extensive research carried out <strong>in</strong> Germany, New Zealand and the US over the last years led to<br />

the creation of new opportunities that are be<strong>in</strong>g adopted by food <strong>in</strong>dustries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g: a)<br />

substitution of traditional thermal treatments <strong>in</strong> the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of spreadable sausages, liver<br />

sausages and cooked-cured lo<strong>in</strong> products. High pressure process<strong>in</strong>g techniques developed <strong>in</strong><br />

Germany are allow<strong>in</strong>g manufacturers to elim<strong>in</strong>ate heat steps <strong>in</strong> their process flow, <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

improve textures or achieve prote<strong>in</strong> gelification and firmness. The high isostatic pressure step<br />

also offers dietary and sensory advantages, as it reta<strong>in</strong>s valuable micro-molecules such as<br />

aroma components and vitam<strong>in</strong>s, which bonds can not be modified by HPP process. b) creation<br />

of new opportunites <strong>in</strong> the functional products space. Private company research from a major<br />

dairy mult<strong>in</strong>ational <strong>in</strong> New Zealand creates a market space for probiotic, functional juices <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1685

which no culture management is necessary and a extended shelf-life is achieved, too. HPP<br />

seems to offer a solution <strong>in</strong> probiotic propositions, <strong>in</strong> which a thermal pasteurisation is not an<br />

option as heat <strong>in</strong>activates the probiotic stra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Tenderisation of red meats<br />

Another research field show<strong>in</strong>g now strong commercial perspectives has been developed by<br />

scientists ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Australia and North America. By m<strong>in</strong>imally process<strong>in</strong>g low value red meat<br />

cuts with usage of high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, with parameters around 200MPa-<br />

2000bar for a few m<strong>in</strong>utes (<strong>in</strong> opposition to the usual 600MPa-6000bar used for postpackag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

high pressure pasteurisation) consistent results are shown <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g higher water<br />

b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> meat prote<strong>in</strong>s, improved tenderness, decreased collagen taste and better overall<br />

sensorial results. This is giv<strong>in</strong>g very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g possibilities to <strong>in</strong>dustries will<strong>in</strong>g to add value<br />

to low value beef and lamb cuts. MLA (Meat and Livestock Australia) is aim<strong>in</strong>g to take the<br />

project <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>dustrialisation phase.<br />

Hormel <strong>Food</strong>s, contemporaneously to the abovementioned research, has obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> 2010 a<br />

patent for <strong>in</strong>hibition of post-mortem glycolisis by the use of high pressure process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g meat cuts of pork, turkey, beef under pressures of a m<strong>in</strong>imum 175MPa and<br />

maximum 320MPa for a few seconds or m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong> a right-after slaughter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention,<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition of rigor mortis is achieved <strong>in</strong> the muscles, render<strong>in</strong>g improved juic<strong>in</strong>ess, texture and<br />

palatability of meats.<br />

Value-add<strong>in</strong>g refrigerated services and Co-pack<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Toll process<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>novative technologies is a scheme that has been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly utilised <strong>in</strong> the<br />

food <strong>in</strong>dustry over the last five years. At the turn of the decade, <strong>in</strong>novative value services<br />

appear, now not only offered by copackers but also by companies dedicated to serve food<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries as logistic platform and <strong>in</strong>tegral refrigerated services solution. Such companies are<br />

strategically mov<strong>in</strong>g towards add<strong>in</strong>g more value to their customers: now they target not only<br />

stock management, chilled supply cha<strong>in</strong> or JIT deliveries. In a new bus<strong>in</strong>ess case, organisations<br />

offer<strong>in</strong>g refrigerated services are currently add<strong>in</strong>g more value to their service, by offer<strong>in</strong>g new<br />

technological capabilities and grant<strong>in</strong>g customers the access to post-packag<strong>in</strong>g techniques for<br />

shelf life extension or pathogen destruction. Thus food&beverage <strong>in</strong>dustries who are shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />

their product to these cold storage facilities, can also benefit from other <strong>in</strong>novative process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

solutions they don’t have <strong>in</strong> their own facilities.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

High Pressure <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g (HPP) technology seems to keep on broaden<strong>in</strong>g its spectrum of<br />

potentialities and commercial value propositions for food <strong>in</strong>dustries, and proves that nonthermal<br />

technologies can prove beneficial and profitable <strong>in</strong> various fields and sectors of<br />

application.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Jung C, Tonello C et al,. 2011. High Pressure <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>Food</strong>s. Alternatives to conventional food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g, 6, 254-306<br />

[2] Sikes A et al, 2010. A proposed mechanism of tenderis<strong>in</strong>g post-rigor beef us<strong>in</strong>g high pressure<br />

treatment. Meat Science 8390-399.<br />

[3] Purroy F et al, 2011. Value add<strong>in</strong>g refrigerated services through nonthermal process<strong>in</strong>g techniques.<br />

<strong>International</strong> Meat Tech sessions, Chicago, USA. 13-16 April, 2011.<br />

1686

Fractionation of liquid egg yolk:<br />

Influence of chemical and structural characteristics of egg yolk granular and plasma<br />

fraction on the cont<strong>in</strong>uous centrifugal separation process<br />

Strixner Thomas, Michael Betz, Ulrich Kulozik<br />

Chair for <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Dairy Technology,<br />

ZIEL <strong>Food</strong> and Nutrition Research Center, Technische Universität München, Weihenstephaner Berg 1,<br />

85354 Freis<strong>in</strong>g-Weihenstephan, Germany<br />

thomas.Strixner@wzw.tum.de<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> stabilised emulsions play a major role <strong>in</strong> many areas of the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. One of the<br />

most complex prote<strong>in</strong>-based emulsifier systems is hen’s egg yolk. The emulsify<strong>in</strong>g properties<br />

of the two ma<strong>in</strong> egg yolk fractions, egg yolk granules (HDL) and plasma (LDL), are known to<br />

be completely different for each fraction. Plasma conta<strong>in</strong>s ma<strong>in</strong>ly low-density lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

(LDL) and globular glycoprote<strong>in</strong>s. LDL, whith apoprote<strong>in</strong>s called lipovitellen<strong>in</strong>s, is the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

constituent of egg yolk. Granules conta<strong>in</strong> phosvit<strong>in</strong>, a phosphoprote<strong>in</strong>, and high-density<br />

lipoprote<strong>in</strong> (HDL). In addition, small amounts of LDL can be found <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>soluble granule<br />

aggregates. The complex between HDL and phosvit<strong>in</strong> is held together by phosphocalcic<br />

bridges.<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> pH or salt concentration <strong>in</strong>fluence the chemical and structural characteristics for<br />

each fraction <strong>in</strong> a different way. Recent studies substantiate that a separate use of each fraction<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>novative food products will offer new ways <strong>in</strong> emulsification technology. However, so far<br />

no systematic study deals with the separation process as a function of physico-chemical factors.<br />

This study applies a wide range of environmental conditions and centrifugal separation<br />

parameters enabl<strong>in</strong>g the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the optimal operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions for the<br />

centrifugation of liquid egg yolk, which is a highly complex system. A pilot scale bowl<br />

centrifuge is used to evaluate the process parameters vary<strong>in</strong>g centrifugal acceleration and<br />

residence time. The <strong>in</strong>fluences of different pH and salt concentrations, where granules are <strong>in</strong><br />

their native and a dis<strong>in</strong>tegrated form, are <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Calcium is added <strong>in</strong> different<br />

concentrations to <strong>in</strong>fluence the phosphocalcic bridges with<strong>in</strong> the HDL complexes.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The maximum of deposit<strong>in</strong>g granula at physiological milieu conditions was assessed by a<br />

modified method of McBee and Cotterill [1]. The egg yolk was at first diluted (1:2, w/w) <strong>in</strong> an<br />

isotonic sodium chloride solution (0.15 M NaCl) and stirred gently for 1 h before<br />

centrifugation at 10.000g for 45 m<strong>in</strong> at 10 °C.<br />

The dry matter DM of the egg yolk solution, the plasma and granula fraction was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

by the sea sand method accord<strong>in</strong>g to handbook of analysis methods, volume 6 C, 35.3,<br />

VDLUFA, 1985.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1687

Rheological measurements were carried out with a controlled shear rate rheometer AR 1000<br />

from TA Instruments (Eschborn, Germany) equipped with cone plate geometry (d=6 cm;<br />

angle: 2°, gap width 400 μm)<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

It became evident that the granula fraction represents no homogeneous component, but consists<br />

of different subclasses with different size, density and structure. This <strong>in</strong>homogeneity leads to a<br />

subclass depend<strong>in</strong>g sedimentation behaviour of the whole granula fraction <strong>in</strong> egg yolk. A<br />

variation with<strong>in</strong> the egg yolk pH to acidic milieu conditions results <strong>in</strong> changes of each subclass<br />

constitution. Especially sub fractions with small particle size and high prote<strong>in</strong> content<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporate a higher amount of granular LDL. Therefore, the particle density is decreased,<br />

which leads to a much lower sedimentation velocity. Based on these f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs, the impact of<br />

variable rheological properties on the sedimentation behaviour of polydisperse colloidal<br />

suspensions with high particle concentrations is discussed. It was detected that if a limit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

particle concentration is reached all particles with<strong>in</strong> the polydisperse particle collective are<br />

sediment<strong>in</strong>g with the same velocity. At the so called zone-sedimentation the high fluid<br />

viscosity as well as strong particle-particle <strong>in</strong>teractions are result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> constra<strong>in</strong>ed separation<br />

effects.<br />

separation efficiency [%]<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

22% DM 50°C<br />

22% DM 4°C<br />

34% DM 4°C<br />

Granula<br />

0<br />

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000<br />

g-force<br />

Figure 1. Separation efficiency of the egg yolk granula fraction <strong>in</strong> dependency of the g-force for<br />

different dry matter concentrations <strong>in</strong> the egg yolk solution (22 % and 34 %) and product temperatures<br />

(4°C and 50°C).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The study offers a detailed description for the separation of egg yolk granula and plasma<br />

fraction under vary<strong>in</strong>g parameters <strong>in</strong> a laboratory scale. Additionally, the results allow a deeper<br />

<strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong> the structural complexity of the LDL and HDL egg yolk fraction and offer therefore<br />

new <strong>in</strong>formation for the techno-functional properties of egg yolk fractions.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] McBee, L. E., Cotterill, O. J (1979). Ion exchange chromatography and electrophoresis of egg yolk.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 44, 656–660.<br />

1688

Ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of crude canola oil us<strong>in</strong>g PSA ultrafilteration membrane<br />

Ali Rafe a , Seyed Mohammad Ali Razavi b , M. H. Haddad Khodaparast a,b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM),<br />

PO Box: 91775-1163, Mashhad, Iran (alirafe1400@yahoo.com)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM),<br />

PO Box: 91775-1163, Mashhad, Iran (s.m.a.razavi@um.ac.ir)<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

The aim of this paper was to study the behavior of spiral wound configuration of polysulfone<br />

amide (PSA) membrane with 20 kDa molecular weight cut off (MWCO) <strong>in</strong> pilot-plant scale<br />

equipment used for ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g micella canola oil under different operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions. Ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

process parameters <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g phospholipids (PLs), color and free fatty acids (FFAs) were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed to express retentions (R%) and ultrafiltration process performance parameters such<br />

as permeate flux, membrane foul<strong>in</strong>g and hydraulic resistances were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The results<br />

showed that the permeate flux was decreased considerably with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g process time,<br />

although it was <strong>in</strong>creased by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature from 30 to 50C and transmembrane<br />

pressure from 1.5 to 2 bar. The irreversible foul<strong>in</strong>g resistance (Rif) and percentage of foul<strong>in</strong>g<br />

were decreased as the temperature or transmembrane pressure <strong>in</strong>creased. The results showed<br />

that the concentration polarization resistance (Rrf) was much higher than other resistances;<br />

therefore reversible resistance had an important role <strong>in</strong> total hydraulic resistance. In this paper,<br />

the retention of PLs, FFAs and color was so <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g due to improv<strong>in</strong>g the efficiency of oil<br />

ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process. The percentage of retention of PLs and FFAs was <strong>in</strong>creased by temperature<br />

and decreased by transmembrane pressure and time; however, there was no significant<br />

difference <strong>in</strong> remov<strong>in</strong>g color under different operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study showed that membrane separation is effective <strong>in</strong> remov<strong>in</strong>g PLs, FFAs and<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g color quality particularly remov<strong>in</strong>g chlorophyll pigment <strong>in</strong> canola oil. Despite the<br />

promis<strong>in</strong>g results reported here, there is still a lot of work to be undertaken and phenomena<br />

responsible for the selectivity of the separation, ma<strong>in</strong>ly. For example these trials can be used<br />

for PES membrane which has the best efficiency for ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g canola oil.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1689

1690

Optimization of prote<strong>in</strong>s recovery process from cheese whey<br />

Cuellas Anahí a , Jagus Rosa b , Wagner Jorge R. a,c<br />

a<br />

Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(acuellas@unq.edu.ar, jwagner@unq.edu.ar)<br />

b<br />

Facultad de Ingeniería, U.B.A., Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a (rjagus@di.fcen.uba.ar)<br />

c<br />

Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Cheese whey, the ma<strong>in</strong> by-product <strong>in</strong> the manufacture of cheese, has a severe problem because of its<br />

high biological oxygen demand (35-60 g/l). Hence, there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g need to develop methods<br />

for mak<strong>in</strong>g use cheese whey, a nutritional by product, <strong>in</strong> order to avoid the negative environmental<br />

implications and to give a better economic return. The most important cost-effective utilizations of<br />

cheese whey are valorization technologies, such as recovery of prote<strong>in</strong> and lactose from whey [1].<br />

The aim of this work was to optimize the process to obta<strong>in</strong> a prote<strong>in</strong>-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gredient from the<br />

rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g whey of Argent<strong>in</strong>ean “Cuatriolo” cheese production. In order to optimize the prote<strong>in</strong><br />

recovery, physical and chemical treatments were <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fat removal from cheese whey was carried out by filtration and centrifugation. Two protocols were<br />

assayed, Protocol I: heat whey until boil<strong>in</strong>g, adjust<strong>in</strong>g to pH 4.6 with acetic acid and keep the<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g to 90 ºC for 30 m<strong>in</strong>. Protocol II: heat whey until boil<strong>in</strong>g, hold<strong>in</strong>g at 90 ºC for 30 m<strong>in</strong> and<br />

adjust<strong>in</strong>g to pH 4.6. Prote<strong>in</strong> aggregates and supernatant were separated by centrifugation (Samples I<br />

and II). The <strong>in</strong>fluence of fat presence and CaCl 2 addition were evaluated on protocol II. Sample II<br />

Ca: addition of CaCl 2 (200 mg/ml) <strong>in</strong> the acidification step. Sample II fat: idem sample II without<br />

fat elim<strong>in</strong>ation. Sample II Ca-fat: idem sample II Ca without fat elim<strong>in</strong>ation. Prote<strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

was performed by the Lowry method. Yield was determ<strong>in</strong>ed from the relationship between<br />

precipitated prote<strong>in</strong> and whey prote<strong>in</strong>. Water retention capacity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed from the ratio of<br />

precipitate wet weight and precipitated prote<strong>in</strong>s. Particle size distribution, expressed <strong>in</strong> % number,<br />

was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by laser scatter<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g a Malvern Mastersizer 2000E (Malvern Inst. Ltd, UK).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Comparison between samples I and II showed that a heat denaturation process previous to acetic<br />

acid addition (protocol II), allows to obta<strong>in</strong> a better prote<strong>in</strong> recovery (Figure 1a) with a higher<br />

water retention capacity of aggregates (Figure 1b). S<strong>in</strong>ce whey prote<strong>in</strong>s are relatively low<br />

molecular weight and soluble at its isoelectric po<strong>in</strong>t, a thermal treatment is necessary to precipitate<br />

them [2]. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this process, -lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> undergoes a structural change that exposes the S-S<br />

groups, which play a central role <strong>in</strong> the formation of covalent "bridges" with other prote<strong>in</strong>s. The<br />

presence of CaCl 2 and/or fat <strong>in</strong> protocol II did not enhance the prote<strong>in</strong> recovery (Figure 1a). The<br />

unfold<strong>in</strong>g of the native structure of prote<strong>in</strong>s, promotes the establishment of hydrophobic <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

and disulfide bonds with prote<strong>in</strong> molecules, carbohydrates and lipids. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results<br />

observed, the presence of fat <strong>in</strong>terferes with the formation of prote<strong>in</strong> aggregates, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a lower<br />

yield.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1691

Yield (%)<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

a<br />

I II II Ca II fat II Ca-fat<br />

Sample<br />

Water retention capacity (g/g)<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

b<br />

I II II Ca II fat II Ca-fat<br />

Sample<br />

Figure 1. Yield (a) and Water retention capacity (b) of prote<strong>in</strong> aggregates<br />

On the other hand, a decrease of water retention was observed <strong>in</strong> the presence of calcium (sample II<br />

Ca, Figure 1b). Calcium is not <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> denaturalization process, but it takes part <strong>in</strong> the<br />

aggregation of denatured prote<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>in</strong>terven<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the structure of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed aggregates. The<br />

simultaneous presence of fat and CaCl 2 (sample II Ca-fat) <strong>in</strong>crease the amount of water reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the aggregated prote<strong>in</strong> (47.62 g precipitate wet /g prote<strong>in</strong> precipitate), nevertheless the alone<br />

presence of fat does not modify the water retention. The yield of prote<strong>in</strong> recovery is related to the<br />

particle size of the aggregates. An <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the particle size produces an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the recovery<br />

of prote<strong>in</strong>s. Protocol I yields particles smaller than protocol II, therefore lower prote<strong>in</strong> recovery. A<br />

higher particle size could be a consequence of a higher hydration degree of particles, which was<br />

clearly observed <strong>in</strong> the water retention capacity of samples I and II (9.4 and 41.7 %, respectively).<br />

Electron micrographs of aggregates (data not shown) allow to see that sample I is composed of<br />

aggregates with enclosed structure. This spatial arrangement of aggregates could expla<strong>in</strong> the low<br />

water retention of the prote<strong>in</strong> precipitate with protocol I. On the other hand, the prote<strong>in</strong> aggregates<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed from protocol II have a net-like open structure, capable of occlud<strong>in</strong>g water. The presence<br />

of calcium and to a greater extent the presence of fat, show a lower yield of recovery (72.8 and 69.4<br />

%, respectively) and this correlates with a smaller particle size.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results showed that the highest yield of the process and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> water retention are<br />

achieved when the acid is added after whey prote<strong>in</strong> denaturalization at 90 ° C for 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The<br />

simultaneous presence of fat and CaCl 2 <strong>in</strong>crease the amount of water retention capacity Therefore,<br />

the process of aggregation <strong>in</strong> whey prote<strong>in</strong> should take <strong>in</strong>to account both the design of suitable<br />

protocol such as the presence of fat and additives. Hence, the optimization of the aggregation<br />

process allows to reduce the volume of effluent from the cheese <strong>in</strong>dustry and gett<strong>in</strong>g new prote<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients for use <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Smithers, G.W. 2008. Whey and whey prote<strong>in</strong>s – From ‘gutter - to – gold’. Int. Dairy Journal, 18:<br />

695-704.<br />

[2] Hill. A. R., Irv<strong>in</strong>e, D. M. & Bullock. D. H. 1982. “Precipitation and Recovery of Whey Prote<strong>in</strong>s: A<br />

Review”. Can. Inst. <strong>Food</strong> Sci. Technol. J. 15(3):155-160.<br />

1692

Production of adsorbents based on food waste (corn cobs) for removal of phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e<br />

and tyros<strong>in</strong>e from aqueous solutions<br />

Adriana S. Franca a,b , Cibele C. O. Alves b , Leandro S. Oliveira a,b<br />

aDepartamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Universidade Federal de M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais (UFMG), Av. Antônio<br />

Carlos 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil (adriana@demec.ufmg.br)<br />

b Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência de Alimentos, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Phenylketonuria (PKU) and tyros<strong>in</strong>emia (TYR) are hereditary disorders, <strong>in</strong> which the<br />

metabolisation of the correspond<strong>in</strong>g am<strong>in</strong>o acids phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e (Phe) and tyros<strong>in</strong>e (Tyr) is<br />

impaired due to the deficiency of the respective enzymes, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> several problems <strong>in</strong><br />

untreated patients. PKU and TYR nutritional therapies are accomplished by rigorous diets<br />

based on prote<strong>in</strong> substitutes, either mixtures of free am<strong>in</strong>o acids or prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates. In<br />

Brazil, such mixtures of free am<strong>in</strong>o acids are imported and available at high costs. One<br />

alternative to reduce costs is the use of residues from the food <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> the development of<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysate <strong>in</strong> association to the use of low-cost adsorbents for Phe removal. Thus, the<br />

objective of this work was to evaluate the performance of corn cobs <strong>in</strong> the production of<br />

adsorbents for Phe and Tyr removal from aqueous solutions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The adsorbent was prepared by thermo-chemical activation of corn cobs with H3PO4<br />

(impregnation ratio of 85 % - 3 m<strong>in</strong> at 25 °C followed by 1h carbonization at 400°C). Batch<br />

experiments of adsorption were performed and the effect of contact time was evaluated at time<br />

periods rang<strong>in</strong>g from 5 m<strong>in</strong> to 12 hours, for <strong>in</strong>itial solution pH of 6 and adsorbent<br />

concentration of 10 g L -1 . Phe and Tyr concentrations was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a UV-Vis<br />

spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-2010) at 257 and 273 nm, respectively. For evaluation of the<br />

b<strong>in</strong>ary systems, batch adsorption tests were conducted employ<strong>in</strong>g equal volumes of each<br />

am<strong>in</strong>oacid solution at the follow<strong>in</strong>g concentrations: a) Phe-Tyr: Phe 500 mg.L -1 ; Tyr rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from 20 to 150 mg.L -1 ; b) Tyr-Phe: Tyr 50 mg.L -1 ; Phe rang<strong>in</strong>g from 200 to 1500 mg.L -1 .<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The adsorption isotherms obta<strong>in</strong>ed for each am<strong>in</strong>oacid, <strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle and b<strong>in</strong>ary systems, are shown<br />

<strong>in</strong> Figure 1. The shapes of all curves <strong>in</strong>dicate favorable adsorption [1]. A comparison of the<br />

curves obta<strong>in</strong>ed for s<strong>in</strong>gle and b<strong>in</strong>ary adsorption of each am<strong>in</strong>oacid shows that, <strong>in</strong> the case of<br />

Phe, the presence of Tyr favoured faster adsorption whereas the opposite behavior was<br />

observed for Tyr. Such results <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>in</strong> the b<strong>in</strong>ary systems Phe will be adsorbed<br />

preferably <strong>in</strong> comparison to Tyr. The adsorption dynamics of the am<strong>in</strong>oacid mixture was also<br />

evaluated us<strong>in</strong>g qe'/qe ratios, were the prime denotes the presence of another am<strong>in</strong>oacid [2]. In<br />

general, three possible types of behavior are exhibited: qe'/qe > 1, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g synergism (the<br />

effect of the mixture is greater than that of the <strong>in</strong>dividual adsorbates <strong>in</strong> the mixture); qe'/qe < 1,<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1693

correspond<strong>in</strong>g to antagonism (the effect of the mixture is less than that of each of the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

adsorbates <strong>in</strong> the mixture); and qe'/qe = 1, non-<strong>in</strong>teraction (the mixture has no effect on the<br />

adsorption of each of the adsorbates <strong>in</strong> the mixture). The qe'/qe ratio was 1.14 for Phe<br />

adsorption <strong>in</strong> the presence of Tyr, suggest<strong>in</strong>g a slightly s<strong>in</strong>ergistic effect. However, the qe'/qe<br />

ratio for Tyr adsorption <strong>in</strong> the presence of Phe was 0.5, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that Tyr adsorption was<br />

depressed by Phe <strong>in</strong> the b<strong>in</strong>ary solution.<br />

q e (mg/g)<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

0 100 200 300 400 500<br />

C e (mg/L)<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20<br />

(a)<br />

(b)<br />

Figure 1. Adsorption isotherms for (a) phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e and (b) tyros<strong>in</strong>e removal at 25 °C ( pure; <br />

b<strong>in</strong>ary solution; solid l<strong>in</strong>es correspond to Langmuir and LCM fits for s<strong>in</strong>gle and b<strong>in</strong>ary systems,<br />

respectively)<br />

q e (mg/g)<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

C e (mg/L)<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The feasibility of employ<strong>in</strong>g corn cobs as raw material <strong>in</strong> the production of adsorbents<br />

for removal of phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e and tyros<strong>in</strong>e from aqueous solutions was <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results showed that Phe will be adsorbed preferably <strong>in</strong> comparison to<br />

Tyr <strong>in</strong> a b<strong>in</strong>ary system and <strong>in</strong>dicate that the produced adsorbent is a promis<strong>in</strong>g<br />

alternative for reduc<strong>in</strong>g costs <strong>in</strong> the production of Phe-depleted prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The authors acknowledge f<strong>in</strong>ancial support from the follow<strong>in</strong>g Brazilian Government<br />

Agencies: CNPq and FAPEMIG.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Do, D. D. 1998. Adsorption Analysis: Equilibria and K<strong>in</strong>etics. Series on Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>:<br />

Australia. 2, 913p.<br />

[2] Mahamadi, C.; Nhar<strong>in</strong>go, T. 2010. Competitive adsorption of Pb 2+ , Cd 2+ and Zn 2+ ions onto<br />

Eichhornia crassipes <strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>ary and ternary systems. Bioresource Technology, 101, 859–864.<br />

1694

The effect of applied conditions on whey separation and fractionation us<strong>in</strong>g ultra- and<br />

nanofiltration<br />

Petra Zidova, Andrea H<strong>in</strong>kova, Vladimir Pour, Zdenek Bubnik, Svatopluk Henke, Alena Salova and<br />

Pavel Kadlec<br />

Institute of Chemical Technology Prague, Department of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Technology,<br />

Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic (e-mail: petra.zidova@vscht.cz)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Membrane separation processes f<strong>in</strong>d their applications <strong>in</strong> dairy <strong>in</strong>dustry s<strong>in</strong>ce the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

1970s and their number and importance is still ris<strong>in</strong>g. Nowadays, membrane separations form the<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegral part of the dairy technology.<br />

Whey is a liquid part separated from the curd dur<strong>in</strong>g cheese production. Whey composition depends<br />

on milk properties and technology used. The dry matter varies between 5.5 and 6.5 % (lactose, whey<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s, m<strong>in</strong>erals, non-prote<strong>in</strong> nitrogen compounds, fats and acids) [1].<br />

Utilisation of m<strong>in</strong>or whey components represents a big challenge for whey process<strong>in</strong>g also <strong>in</strong> the<br />

future [2]. Membrane processes might be very effective <strong>in</strong> isolation of bioactive peptides, growth<br />

factors or oligosaccharides. Ultrafiltration together with nanofiltration can be used for peptide and<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acid fractionation, where not only the size of molecule but also its effective charge can<br />

improve the NF separation [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Ultrafiltration module used: TIA (Bollene, France) equipped with <strong>in</strong>organic tubular membranes<br />

Membralox (Pall, France). Nanofiltration module used: ARNO 600 (Mikropur, Czech Republic).<br />

NF membranes tested: Desal DL (GE Osmonics), NF-245 (Dow Chemicals) and TFC – SR100<br />

(Koch).<br />

Two types of solution were processed by UF followed by NF: dried sweet whey solution and fresh<br />

natural whey.<br />

All filtrations were performed <strong>in</strong> a retentate recycl<strong>in</strong>g mode at constant temperature and pressure.<br />

Ultrafiltrations were carried out for purify<strong>in</strong>g of solutions as s<strong>in</strong>gle or multiple stages. The pH of<br />

solutions was modified only before NF. Dur<strong>in</strong>g filtration the k<strong>in</strong>etics parameters were measured<br />

followed by the measurements of apparent rejection R i [%] of lactose, ions and whey prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The filtration k<strong>in</strong>etics and separation efficiency of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration<br />

It was carried out 5 series of ultrafiltrations experiments. Achieved mass concentration factors were<br />

between 2.3 to 7 prov<strong>in</strong>g sufficient concentration of <strong>in</strong>itial feed. The average permeate fluxes show<br />

big differences. The 5 kD ultrafiltration was the slowest UF giv<strong>in</strong>g the fluxes of 14 - 19 l/h.m 2 .bar<br />

for natural whey.<br />

Pure water fluxes before filtration were very variable and illustrate extensive membrane foul<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

unsatisfactory clean<strong>in</strong>g. Clean<strong>in</strong>g procedure used sodium hydroxide, nitric acid and f<strong>in</strong>ally sodium<br />

hypochlorite.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1695

Also the separation efficiency has been studied and expressed as Rejection. Results show that 100<br />

and 500nm UF membranes were highly permeable for lactose molecules and lactose rejection on<br />

5kDa membrane was only about 0.1 %, which documents m<strong>in</strong>imum losses of lactose <strong>in</strong> retentate.<br />

The rejection of whey prote<strong>in</strong>s were measured dur<strong>in</strong>g multiple step ultrafiltrations. The highest<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> rejection (84 – 100 %) was observed on 5 kDa membrane, 500nm membrane prote<strong>in</strong><br />

rejection varied between 60 and 100 % and the one on 100nm membrane was 63 – 90 %. Us<strong>in</strong>g 5<br />

kDa membrane will totally remove all prote<strong>in</strong> which can be further used for production of prote<strong>in</strong><br />

isolates or concentrates, however it reduces the velocity of whey purification due to the low<br />

permeate flux on this membrane.<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g NF tests especially the effect of pH on separation was observed. The average fluxes for<br />

natural whey were 34 - 50 l/h.m 2 on TFC-SR100, 63 – 68 l/h.m 2 on NF-245 and 15 – 40 l/h.m 2 on<br />

Desal DL membrane. MCF values varied between 1 and 1.9 which is not sufficient for <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

application. This was mostly caused by small membrane area and verification on larger module (e.g.<br />

spiral wound) will be necessary.<br />

The separation efficiency was significantly affected by pH of enter<strong>in</strong>g whey. The data confirm<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g rejection of monovalent ions on the membrane TFC-SR100 at pH 6 and 5.5 with m<strong>in</strong>imal<br />

rejection at pH 5. Similarly, the rejection on lactose on this membrane reached the maximum at pH<br />

6.5 and m<strong>in</strong>imum at pH 5.5, however the differences <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum and maximum lactose rejection<br />

were only 2.6 %. Membrane NF-245 showed low ion rejection at pH 5, whereas the lactose at this<br />

pH was nearly 99 %, that is why, this membrane is more able to separate lactose and monovalent<br />

ions. Rejections of bivalent ions (70 % for NF-245 and 86 % for TFC-STR100) were close to the<br />

lactose rejection which means, this method is not completely suitable for total whey desal<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The average fluxes dur<strong>in</strong>g natural whey ultrafiltration were 14 – 66 l.h -1 .m -2 . The <strong>in</strong>fluence of UF<br />

pre-treatment on the velocity of follow<strong>in</strong>g NF was m<strong>in</strong>imal. The rejection of lactose on UF<br />

membranes hav<strong>in</strong>g cut off 100 and 500 nm was zero, and on the 5kDa membrane was 0.1 % only.<br />

Three different types of flat polymeric membranes were compared (Desal DL (Osmonics), NF 245<br />

(Dow) a TFC SR100 (Koch)). The average flux varied between 16 and 183 l/h.m 2 . Regard<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics, the most convenient membrane is NF-245 membrane which gives stable permeate flux<br />

about 61 – 68 l.h -1 .m -2 only slightly affected by the pH. The membrane TFC-SR100 gives the<br />

highest permeate fluxes at pH 5.5 – 6, NF-245 at pH 5 – 6. Lactose rejection on all types<br />

membranes was between 93-100%. Rejections of bivalent ions (70-86%) were close to the lactose<br />

rejection which means, this method is not completely suitable for total whey desal<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Suková I. 2006. In: Syrovátka v potrav<strong>in</strong>áství: Informaní pehledy ÚZPI, Praha.<br />

[2] Horton B.S. 1995. Commercial Utilization of M<strong>in</strong>or Milk Components <strong>in</strong> the Health and <strong>Food</strong><br />

Industries. Journal of Dairy Science, 78(11), 2584 – 2589.<br />

[3] Groleau P.E., Lapo<strong>in</strong>te J.F., Gauthier S.F. and Pouliot Y. 2004. In: <strong>International</strong> Dairy Federation<br />

(Ed.). Advances <strong>in</strong> fractionat<strong>in</strong>g and separation: <strong>Process</strong> for novel dairy applications, Bullet<strong>in</strong> 389,<br />

Brussels, Belgium, 85 – 91.<br />

1696

Separation and Fractionation of Aquilaria Malaccensis Oil Us<strong>in</strong>g Supercritical Fluid<br />

Extraction and the Cytotoxic Properties of the Extracted Oil<br />

A. H. Ibrahim 1 , S. S. Al-Rawi 2 , A. M. S. Abdul Majid 1 , N. N. Ab. Rahman 3 , K. M. Abo- Salah 4 , M. O.<br />

Ab Kadir 2<br />

1<br />

Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sa<strong>in</strong>s Malaysia, Penang,<br />

Malaysia (am<strong>in</strong>malikshah@gmail.com), (abraihimi@yahoo.com)<br />

2<br />

Department of Environmental Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sa<strong>in</strong>s Malaysia,<br />

Penang, Malaysia (akmomar@usm.my), (swsanrawi@yahoo.com)<br />

3<br />

Department of Biology, School of Distance Education, Universiti Sa<strong>in</strong>s Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia<br />

(norula<strong>in</strong>@usm.my)<br />

4<br />

k<strong>in</strong>g Abdulla Institute for Nanotechnology, K<strong>in</strong>g Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia<br />

(abusalah@ksu.edu.sa)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Latest studies have started to be concerned <strong>in</strong> natural products from higher plants to isolate<br />

and detect new active medic<strong>in</strong>al compounds. The importance role of these compounds have<br />

expanded their widely applications to prevent and treat variety of human diseases. Aquilaria<br />

species is aromatic plants commonly known as Gaharu wood <strong>in</strong> South East Asia [1]. The<br />

essential oil of A. malaccensis is safe, simple and commonly used <strong>in</strong> traditional medic<strong>in</strong>e to<br />

relive pa<strong>in</strong>, fever, rheumatism and asthma. Dash [2] extracted many compound from A.<br />

malaccensis such as alkaloids, tann<strong>in</strong>s, phenols, terpenoids, Qu<strong>in</strong>ones and avoenoids. Sice<br />

there is no available study that <strong>in</strong>vestigates the cytotoxicity for A. malaccensis oil. Thus, the<br />

aims of this study is to extract and fraction Aquilaria Malaccensis oil us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical fluid<br />

extraction as a clean extraction method, and to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the cytotoxic properties of both the<br />

extracted and fractioned oil.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Supercritical carbon dioxide was used to extract the oil of A. Malaccensis at temperature of 40-<br />

50°C and set of pressure ranged 20.7, 27.6 and 34.5MPa, extraction dynamic time was 30 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

The highest extracted sample was then fractionated us<strong>in</strong>g the best operat<strong>in</strong>g condition for<br />

extract<strong>in</strong>g the highest oil yield. Both the samples and the fractioned were tested for it cytotoxic<br />

properties by employ<strong>in</strong>g MTT assay as an <strong>in</strong>vitro study on the colon cancer cell HCT-116.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The result of this study showed that extraction yield <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g both pressure<br />

and temperature, and the highest extraction yield was 3.66g oil / 100g sample, at 50 ºC,<br />

pressure 34.5 MPa, CO2 flow rate 1ml/ m<strong>in</strong>, and particle size 500μm, dynamic time 30<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes. [3] Reported that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature and pressure <strong>in</strong> supercritical can <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

the yield significantly. Moreover, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>creased extraction yield more than<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure while leav<strong>in</strong>g the other parameters constant. Cytotoxic property of the<br />

extracted oil of A. Malaccensis us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical was <strong>in</strong>vestigated by employ<strong>in</strong>g MTT assay<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1697

as an <strong>in</strong> vitro study on the colon cancer cell HCT-116. Result of this experiment showed that<br />

the extracted sample at 50 ºC, pressure 20.7MPa, <strong>in</strong>hibited 99% of the colon cancer cell growth<br />

at the concentration of 25μg/ml. However, temperature role was more crucial from pressure <strong>in</strong><br />

extract<strong>in</strong>g the sample with the most cytotoxic. Under the best condition that give the highest<br />

cytotoxic sample, the sample was fractioned <strong>in</strong>to three fractions, and the three fractions were<br />

tested for cytotoxicity us<strong>in</strong>g MTT assay. The result of this study showed that the first fraction<br />

extracted at the first 10 m<strong>in</strong> has the highest cytotoxicity property with 94% <strong>in</strong>hibition of colon<br />

cancer cell growth. The IC50 for this fraction was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g six concentrations rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25μg/ml by employ<strong>in</strong>g the MTT assay as shown <strong>in</strong> figure 1.<br />

The IC50 for this fraction was 3.5μg/ml which is represent<strong>in</strong>g the amount of drug that can kill<br />

50% of the cell.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of this study revealed that the the supercritical extraction yield of A. Malaccensis<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g both pressure and temperature. Moreover, the temperature is more<br />

crucial factor for the extraction yield as well as the property of the extracted sample as showed<br />

from the result of this study <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>creased the cytotoxic property of A.<br />

Malaccensis oil on the colon cancer cell HCT116. Yet other <strong>in</strong>vestigations are now <strong>in</strong> process<br />

to confirm its cytotoxicity and it use as an anticancer drug.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. The IC50 of A. Malaccensis oil extracted<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical on the colon cancer cell HCT116.<br />

[1] Takemoto, H., Ito, M., Shiraki, T., Yagura, T. and Honda, G. 2008. Sedative effects of vapor<br />

<strong>in</strong>halation of agarwood oil and spikenard extract and identification of their active components. J Nat<br />

Med, 62, 41–46.<br />

[2] Dash, M., Patra, J. K. and Panda P. P. 2008. Phytochemical and antimicrobial screen<strong>in</strong>g of extracts of<br />

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7 (20), 3531-3534.<br />

[3] Hassan, M. N., Norula<strong>in</strong>i, N. A. N., Omar, A. K. M., & Ibrahim, M. H. 2000. Simple fractionation<br />

through the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of palm kernel oil. Journal of Separation and<br />

Purification Technology, 19, 113–120.<br />

1698

Sugar<strong>in</strong>g Out for Separation of Acetonitrile and Extraction of Prote<strong>in</strong>s and Antibiotics<br />

Pradip B. Dhamole a,b , Prafulla Mahajan a , Hao Feng a,c<br />

a<br />

Energy Biosciences Institute, University of Ill<strong>in</strong>ois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA<br />

(haofeng@ill<strong>in</strong>ois.edu)<br />

b<br />

Department of Biotechnology, S<strong>in</strong>hgad College of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Pune, India<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Human Nutrition, University of Ill<strong>in</strong>ois at Urbana-Champaign,<br />

Urbana, IL, USA<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Liquid-liquid extraction, salt<strong>in</strong>g out, and reversed phase, high pressure liquid chromatography<br />

(RP-HPLC) are typical methods for the separation of biomolecules, especially prote<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

antibiotics. Acetonitrile (ACN) is widely used as a solvent or mobile phase. It is miscible <strong>in</strong> all<br />

proportions with water, which makes their separation a problem. Recent studies reported that<br />

the addition of a monomeric sugar or a disaccharide to an ACN-water mixture created two<br />

phases, one solvent-rich and the other aqueous, a phenomenon termed “sugar<strong>in</strong>g out” [1-2]. In<br />

this study, sugar<strong>in</strong>g out was used for the separation of ACN from an aqueous phase and for the<br />

extraction and recovery of selected biomolecules (BSA, tryps<strong>in</strong>, peps<strong>in</strong> erythromyc<strong>in</strong>,<br />

streptomyc<strong>in</strong>, and nalidixic acid). This method does not require a subzero temperature for the<br />

phase partition, nor does it alter environmental conditions such as pH. Our earlier studies<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated the phase separation at 1 o C for relatively low sugar concentrations (15-50 g/L). In<br />

the current work, the effects of different temperatures and glucose concentrations on sugar<strong>in</strong>g<br />

out were also studied.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Glucose at different concentrations was dissolved <strong>in</strong> DI water. The BSA, tryps<strong>in</strong>, peps<strong>in</strong>,<br />

streptomyc<strong>in</strong>, and nalidixic acid were dissolved <strong>in</strong> the above sugar solutions while the<br />

erythromyc<strong>in</strong> (10 mg/mL) was dissolved <strong>in</strong> ACN before add<strong>in</strong>g the sugar solutions. Sugar<br />

solutions conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the hydrophilic biomolecules were mixed with ACN <strong>in</strong> a ratio of 1:1 (v/v).<br />

The upper and lower phase volumes were recorded after phase separation. Samples were<br />

collected us<strong>in</strong>g a disposable syr<strong>in</strong>ge and analyzed for solute (prote<strong>in</strong>/antibiotic) concentration.<br />

The results were expressed <strong>in</strong> terms of phase ratio (PR) and extraction (%).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g the temperature from 6 to 18 o C was accompanied by a gradual reduction <strong>in</strong> the<br />

upper phase volume and hence a reduction <strong>in</strong> the phase ratio (Fig. 1a). When the temperature<br />

was fixed, the upper phase volume and phase ratio <strong>in</strong>creased with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the glucose<br />

concentration. Increas<strong>in</strong>g the temperature lowered the ACN extraction efficiency (Fig. 1b). As<br />

the sugar concentration was <strong>in</strong>creased, the amount of ACN <strong>in</strong> the upper phase <strong>in</strong>creased. The<br />

maximum ACN recovery from the upper phase was 62%, which was achieved at the conditions<br />

for the highest phase ratio. In the phase ratio vs. ACN plot (Fig. 1c), the ACN recovery<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases l<strong>in</strong>early with the phase ratio.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1699

BSA, tryps<strong>in</strong>, and peps<strong>in</strong> were selected as model prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> this study. All are hydrophilic <strong>in</strong><br />

nature. It was observed that more than 95% of the prote<strong>in</strong>s were reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the aqueous phase<br />

(data not shown). An <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the glucose concentration or temperature did not affect the<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> extraction. This shows that almost all of the prote<strong>in</strong>s were reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the aqueous<br />

phase and very few (less than 2 %) were lost dur<strong>in</strong>g the ACN separation process. Thus,<br />

sugar<strong>in</strong>g-out can be used for an effective recovery or purification of prote<strong>in</strong>s from the ACNconta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

effluent of an RP-HPLC process.<br />

The distributions of streptomyc<strong>in</strong>, erythromyc<strong>in</strong> and nalidixic acid were decided by their<br />

hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature. For erythromyc<strong>in</strong>, phase separation did not occur even with<br />

120 g/L glucose at 18 o C. 80-90% of the streptomyc<strong>in</strong> and 91-94% of the nalidixic acid were<br />

reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the aqueous phase. On the other hand, 48-65% of the erythromyc<strong>in</strong> was extracted<br />

from the ACN-rich phase.<br />

Figure 1. The effects of temperature and glucose concentration on sugar<strong>in</strong>g out (1a); The effects of<br />

temperature and glucose concentration on acetonitrile recovery (1b and 1c).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

More than 95% (w/w) of the prote<strong>in</strong>s were reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the aqueous phase after the sugar<strong>in</strong>g-out<br />

separation of the ACN. Hydrophobic erythromyc<strong>in</strong> (65% w/w) was extracted from the ACN–<br />

rich phase and streptomyc<strong>in</strong> (80-90% w/w) and nalidixic acid (91-94% w/w) were reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the aqueous phase.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Wang, B., Ezejias, T., Feng, H., Blaschek, H., 2008a. Sugar<strong>in</strong>g-out: A novel phase separation and<br />

extraction system. Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Science 63, 2595-2600.<br />

[2] Wang, B., Feng, H., Ezeji, T., Blaschek, H., 2008b. Sugar<strong>in</strong>g-out separation of acetonitrile from its<br />

aqueous solution, Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Technology 31, 1869-1874.<br />

1700

Gamma-oryzanol Solubility and Effect of Solvents Mixture<br />

Maitê S. Cuevas a , Regiane E. Sh<strong>in</strong>zato a , Mariana C. Costa a , Christianne E. C. Rodrigues b , Antonio J. A.<br />

Meirelles a<br />

a University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (tomze@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

b University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil (chrisrodrigues@usp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Gamma-oryzanol is a complex mixture of triterpenic alcohols and phytosterols esterified with<br />

ferulic acid. This compound has been reported as a powerful antioxidant and<br />

hypocholesterolemic agent <strong>in</strong> several scientific studies [1,2]. This nutraceutical compound can<br />

be extracted from rice bran oil through oil saponification followed by solvent extraction and<br />

crystallization [3]. Despite the functional importance of this compound, there are no studies<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g the gamma-oryzanol solubility <strong>in</strong> organic solvents that could allow the extraction or<br />

preservation of this substance <strong>in</strong> the rice bran oil.<br />

Hexane is commonly used as solvent for rice bran oil extraction and the knowledge of gammaoryzanol<br />

solubility <strong>in</strong> this solvent is an important step to preserve rich fractions of oil. In<br />

addition, mixture of solvents can <strong>in</strong>crease the gamma-oryzanol solubility as suggested by<br />

Scatchard-Hildebrand theory [4].<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> aim of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the gamma-oryzanol solubility <strong>in</strong> pure solvents<br />

(hexane and hexanol) as well as <strong>in</strong> two b<strong>in</strong>ary mixtures of these solvents with mass ratios of<br />

1:1 and 3:1, from 283.2 to 323.2 K. The solid-liquid equilibrium data were correlated us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

modified Apelblat equation.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Solvent and solute <strong>in</strong> excess were added to glass jacketed cells. The temperature <strong>in</strong> each cell<br />

was controlled by circulat<strong>in</strong>g thermostatic water <strong>in</strong> the jacket and was considered to be<br />

accurate with<strong>in</strong> ± 0.1 K. At a pre-set temperature the mixture was stirred for 30 m<strong>in</strong> and left to<br />

rest for at least 24 h. The composition of gamma-oryzanol <strong>in</strong> the liquid phase was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g gravimetric method. The sample was dried at 378.2 K until constant mass. After that, the<br />

solid-liquid equilibrium data of gamma-oryzanol was correlated us<strong>in</strong>g the Apelblat equation<br />

[5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1 shows the experimental data, obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the temperature range from 283.2 to 323.2<br />

K, and calculated data by modified Apelblat equation. It can be observed that the solubility of<br />

gamma-oryzanol <strong>in</strong>creases with the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of temperature.<br />

It is also possible to note that the compound studied presented lower solubility <strong>in</strong> hexane than<br />

<strong>in</strong> hexanol. In addition, it is observed that gamma-oryzanol has its solubility <strong>in</strong>creased when<br />

mixed solvents are used, especially <strong>in</strong> the 1:1 mass ratio of hexane: hexanol.<br />

Scatchard Hildebrand theory predicts that the solubility of a solid has a maximum value <strong>in</strong> that<br />

solvent whose solubility parameter is the same as that of the solute. In general, the equation<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1701

proposed by Apelblat can describe the temperature dependence of solubility of gammaoryzanol<br />

<strong>in</strong> the proposed solvents.<br />

Figure 1. Experimental and calculated solubilities of gamma-oryzanol <strong>in</strong> different organic solvents.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Solubility data of gamma-oryzanol <strong>in</strong> pure solvents (hexane and hexanol) and <strong>in</strong> two b<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

mixtures with mass ratios of 1:1 and 3:1 <strong>in</strong> the temperature range from 283.2 to 323.2 K were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed. It was observed that the solubility of nutraceutical compound <strong>in</strong>crease with ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature and <strong>in</strong> the alcohol solvent. It was also observed that the mixture of the two pure<br />

solvents presented a synergetic effect improv<strong>in</strong>g the solubility of the compound, be<strong>in</strong>g that this<br />

behavior can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the Scatchard Hildebrand theory. In general, the modified<br />

Apelblat model can describe the temperature dependence of solubility of gamma-oryzanol.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS; The authors wish to acknowledge FAPESP (09/17855-3,<br />

07/06170-4, 08/56258-8), and CNPq (140642/2010-2) for the f<strong>in</strong>ancial support.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

lnx 2<br />

-2<br />

-4<br />

-6 hexane<br />

hexanol<br />

hexane-hexanol 1:1<br />

hexane-hexanol 3:1<br />

Apelblat<br />

-8<br />

0.0030 0.0032 0.0034 0.0036<br />

1/T (K -1 )<br />

[1] Seetharamaiah G.S. & Chandrasekhara N. 1993. Comparative hypocholesterolemic activies of<br />

oryzanol, curcum<strong>in</strong> and ferulic acids <strong>in</strong> rats. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 30 (4), 249-<br />

252.<br />

[2] Deckere E.A.M. & Korver O. 1996. M<strong>in</strong>or constituents of Rice bran oil as functional foods. Nutrition<br />

Reviews Nutrition Reviews, 54 (11), 120S-126S.<br />

[3] Rao, K.V.S.A., Rao, B.V.S.K. & Thengumpillil, N.B.K. 2002. <strong>Process</strong> for the Isolation of Oryzanols<br />

from Rice Bran Oil Soap Stock. U.S. Patent 6410762.<br />

[4] Prausnitz, J.M., L<strong>in</strong>chtenthaler, R.N. & Azevedo E.G. 1999. Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-<br />

Phase Equilibria. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.<br />

[5] Liu C.W. & Fu A.W. 2004. Solubility of Niac<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 3-Picol<strong>in</strong> + Water from 287.65 K to 359.15 K.<br />

Journal of Chemical & <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Data, 49(1), 155-156.<br />

1702

Extraction of ascorbic acid us<strong>in</strong>g alcohol/phosphate potassium salt – based aqueous two-<br />

phase system<br />

Igor A. O. Reis a , Samuel B. dos Santos a , Ludimila A. S. Nascimento a , Naiana Oliveira a , Sónia P.M.<br />

Ventura b , João A.P. Cout<strong>in</strong>ho b , Cleide M.F. Soares a,c , Álvaro Silva Lima a,c,*<br />

a Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brasil<br />

b Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal<br />

b Instituto de Tecnologia e Pesquisa, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brasil, * E-mail: alvaro_lima@unit.br<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The extraction and partial purification of bioactive molecules is a field of great <strong>in</strong>terest to the<br />

pharmaceutical and bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g. To achieve these purposes, some solvents with different<br />

polarities such as ethanol, methanol, chloroform and acetone are used. However, the yield and<br />

purity of the <strong>in</strong>terest products is relatively low, therefore the solvent consumption is <strong>in</strong>evitably<br />

high, and therefore the process costs are also high. An effective and economically viable<br />

method for the separation and purification of biomolecules is the partition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> aqueous twophase<br />

system (ATPS). The system consists of two immiscible liquid phases above a critical<br />

concentration. The technique is widely used because of their low-coast, biocompatibility and<br />

easy scale up, allow<strong>in</strong>g a selective and rapid extraction process. Ascorbic acid is a powerful<br />

antioxidant found <strong>in</strong> citrus fruit, which presents as white crystall<strong>in</strong>e solid, odourless and water<br />

soluble. The goal of this work is to determ<strong>in</strong>e the application of aqueous two-phase system<br />

(alcohol/phosphate potassium salt) as a step to extract ascorbic acid.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The b<strong>in</strong>odal data was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for the studied system through the cloud po<strong>in</strong>t titration<br />

method at 298.15 us<strong>in</strong>g alcohols and phosphate salts. The ternary system compositions were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the weight quantification of all components added. The tie-l<strong>in</strong>es and the tie-l<strong>in</strong>e<br />

lengths were also represented for this system. The tie-l<strong>in</strong>es (TLs) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a<br />

gravimetric method adopted from Merchuck et al. [1]. Each <strong>in</strong>dividual TL was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

application of the lever arm rule. The concentration of ascorbic acid was measured us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

Tillmans method. The partition coefficient of L-ascorbic acid K, is def<strong>in</strong>ed here as the ratio of<br />

the concentration of ascorbic acid <strong>in</strong> the alcohol and salt-rich phases.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The b<strong>in</strong>odal curves <strong>in</strong>dicate that the alcohol with larger l<strong>in</strong>ear alkyl cha<strong>in</strong>, the greater is the<br />

ability for ATPS formation. It is well-know that the solubility of an aliphatic alcohol <strong>in</strong> water<br />

and the mutual miscibility depend on the cha<strong>in</strong> length, and decrease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of<br />

carbon atoms <strong>in</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> [2]. The relation between the l<strong>in</strong>ear alkyl cha<strong>in</strong> and alcohol’s<br />

hydrophobicity nature is directly proportional. The branched-cha<strong>in</strong> alkyl alcohol had a<br />

negatively effect on the formation of the ATPS, due to higher polarity of 2-propanol as<br />

compared with that of 1-propanol. The capability for creat<strong>in</strong>g the ATPS followed the<br />

Hofmeister series: K3PO4 > K2HPO4 > K2HPO4/KH2PO4 [3]. The aqueous solutions of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1703

potassium phosphate salts confer different pH values for each system, which are 13.7; 9.1 e 7.0<br />

for K3PO4, K2HPO4 and K2HPO4/KH2PO4, respectively. The b<strong>in</strong>odals curves were fitted us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the approach described by Merchuck et al. [1]. Almost all systems have R 2 values above 0.99,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g good model fit to experimental data. For all systems the top-rich phase is the<br />

alcohol-rich phase and the bottom phase is the potassium phosphate salts-rich phase.<br />

The L-ascorbic acid was preferentially partitioned to bottom phase (K

Partition of Amyloglucosidase <strong>in</strong> poly(ethyleneglycol) / sodium-poly(acrylate) Aqueous<br />

Two-Phase Systems<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

L.A.P. Alcântara a , L.A. M<strong>in</strong>im a* , C.A. Mourão a , V.P.R. M<strong>in</strong>im a<br />

a Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa,Brazil (*E-mail: lm<strong>in</strong>im@ufv.br)<br />

Amyloglucosidade (exo-1,4--glucosidadese, E.C. 3.2.1.3) is an amylolitic enzyme of high<br />

commercial value widely used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry as well as <strong>in</strong> the starch process<strong>in</strong>g, bak<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

brew<strong>in</strong>g and distill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry [1]. Reduc<strong>in</strong>g cost and enzyme losses <strong>in</strong> the purification<br />

process are of fundamental importance <strong>in</strong> the viability of the process [2]. Liquid-liquid<br />

extraction by aqueous two-phase systems (ATPS) has proved to be an important tool for<br />

separat<strong>in</strong>g and purify<strong>in</strong>g mixtures of biomolecules by extraction. The advantages of aqueous<br />

two-phase extraction compared to other purification methods lie <strong>in</strong> high selectivity, low cost<br />

and can be suitable for cont<strong>in</strong>uous operation <strong>in</strong> large scale, thus allow<strong>in</strong>g wider<br />

biotechnological applications [2]. These systems are suitable for purification of biological<br />

material as the phases conta<strong>in</strong> 70% to 90% water, thus reduc<strong>in</strong>g the denaturation of<br />

biomolecules [3]. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of pH and<br />

concentration of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and sodium polyacrylate (NaPA) on the partition<br />

of amyloglucosidase (AMG). In order of optimiz<strong>in</strong>g the partition of this enzyme <strong>in</strong> PEG/NaPA<br />

aqueous two-phase systems a response surface technique was employed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The experiments were performed us<strong>in</strong>g poly (ethylene glycol) (4000 g·mol -1 ) and sodium<br />

polyacrylate (15000 g·mol -1 ) at different conditions of pH (6.0-7.0), PEG concentration (11.0%<br />

-12.0% w/w) and NaPA concentration (10.4% - 11.4% w/w), at 298.15 K. The concentration of<br />

sodium chloride (NaCl) has been fixed at 0.2 mol·L -1 . The experiments were conducted<br />

employ<strong>in</strong>g a face-centered design (FCD), added of 4 central po<strong>in</strong>ts. The partition<strong>in</strong>g<br />

experiments were prepared <strong>in</strong> 10 mL centrifuge tubes us<strong>in</strong>g 2.0 mL of upper and lower phases<br />

of a pre-equilibrated ATPS. A volume of 100 L of enzyme solution (269.18 units·mL -1 of<br />

amyloglucosidase) were added <strong>in</strong> the tubes, which were thoroughly mixed, centrifuged at<br />

4000 × g for 15 m<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> a water bath of constant temperature for 6 hs. The<br />

enzymatic activity of amyloglucosidase <strong>in</strong> the top and bottom phases were determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Tanuja et al. [4]. Reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars released dur<strong>in</strong>g the enzymatic reaction were<br />

quantified by the method d<strong>in</strong>itrosalicylic acid [5]. The amyloglucosidase partition coefficient<br />

(KAMG) is def<strong>in</strong>ed as the ratio of the volumetric activity <strong>in</strong> the top phase (At) to that <strong>in</strong> the<br />

bottom phase (Ab), accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Eq.1.<br />

At<br />

K AMG <br />

(1)<br />

Ab<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

A FCD design was employed <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the effect of pH and NaPA concentration<br />

(CNaPA) on the partition behavior of the AMG. A detailed representation of the KAMG from the<br />

experimental results is presented as contour plot <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1705

Figure 1. Effect of pH and NaPA concentration on the partition coefficient of amyloglucosidade.<br />

The experimental results were submitted to analysis of variance and showed that partition of<br />

AMG was most suitably described us<strong>in</strong>g a quadratic polynomial model. KAMG was <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />

by the l<strong>in</strong>ear and quadratic contribution of pH and NaPA (p0.05). The model of AMG partition is described <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Eq.2.<br />

2<br />

2<br />

y 15 . 303 35 . 673 x1<br />

18 . 506 x 2 2 . 715 x1<br />

0 . 855 x 2<br />

(2)<br />

where y is the AMG partition coefficient (KAMG), x1 and x2 is the values for pH and<br />

concentration of NaPA (CNaPA), respectively. The value o the determ<strong>in</strong>ation coefficient (R 2 =<br />

0.916) confirmed the suitability of the model.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The feasibility of us<strong>in</strong>g ATPS constituted of PEG (molar mass of 4000 g·mol -1 ) and NaPA<br />

(molar mass of 15000 g·mol -1 ) for the AMG purification was shown <strong>in</strong> this work. The<br />

partition coefficient values was found <strong>in</strong> the range of 1.8 to 2.0 and it was verified that the<br />

AMG partition are ma<strong>in</strong>ly affected by pH and the concentration of NaPA.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Guzman-Maldonado, H., & Paredes-Lopez, O. 1995. Amylolytic enzymes and products derived from<br />

starch: a review. Critical Reviews <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutrition, 35, 373–403.<br />

[2] Diamond, A.D., & Hsu, J.T. 1992. Aqueous two-phase systems for biomolecule separation. Advances<br />

<strong>in</strong> Biochemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Biotechnology, 47, 89–135.<br />

[3] Albertsson, P.A. 1986. Partition of Cellular Particles and Macromolecules (3 rd ed.). Wiley<br />

Interscience, New York.<br />

[4] Tanuja, S., Scr<strong>in</strong>ivas, N.D., Rao, K.S.M.S.R., & Gowthman, M.K. 1997. Aqueous two phase<br />

extraction for downstream process<strong>in</strong>g of amyloglucosidase. <strong>Process</strong> Biochemistry, 32(8), 635-641.<br />

[5] Miller, G.L. 1959. Use of d<strong>in</strong>itrosalicylic acid reagent for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars. Analytic<br />

Chemistry, 31 426-428.<br />

1706

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1707

subsequently temperature ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed on 35.5 °C, 44.8 °C, 54.5 °C and 62.5 °C. The feed<br />

mixture has been <strong>in</strong>jected for 3 m<strong>in</strong>. The flow rate was 1.5 l.h -1 . The maximum mannose purity<br />

77.5 % was achieved 62.5 °C. On the base of graphs obta<strong>in</strong>ed there were evaluated parameters<br />

which are necessary to evaluate the HETP (height equivalent to theoretical plate). In exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

range of temperature the HETP was lowest at 62.5 °C, so here we can <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d the optimum<br />

separation conditions for glucose-mannose separation.<br />

Cont<strong>in</strong>uous separation<br />

The optimal temperature 62.5 °C for SMB separation was chosen accord<strong>in</strong>g discont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

measurements. The operational parameters were obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g special software [5] from<br />

chromatographic curves of discont<strong>in</strong>uous measurements at optimal temperature. The values of<br />

operational parameters were verified with simulation program [5]. The SMB system was<br />

started with predicted parameters and there were collected fractions <strong>in</strong> extract and raff<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the steady state. Purity <strong>in</strong> each stream was calculated accord<strong>in</strong>g the content of both<br />

substances <strong>in</strong> streams. The purity of mannose achieved <strong>in</strong> experiment 71.2 %, <strong>in</strong> simulation<br />

88.6 %. The sett<strong>in</strong>g and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of cont<strong>in</strong>uous mode demand very precious flow meters <strong>in</strong><br />

this case of near retention times of both separated compound. There could be the drop of<br />

maximum purity between discont<strong>in</strong>uous and cont<strong>in</strong>uous separation.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The mixture of mannose and glucose was separated us<strong>in</strong>g gel-type catex res<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Na form<br />

(Lewatit MDS 1368 Na). The discont<strong>in</strong>uous measurements on two serially connected columns<br />

were performed at four different temperatures 35.5 °C, 44.8 °C, 54.5 °C and 62.5 °C. The<br />

maximum purity 77.5 % and also lowest HETP were achieved at 62.5 °C <strong>in</strong> the case of<br />

discont<strong>in</strong>uous separation. The maximum purity achieved <strong>in</strong> the cont<strong>in</strong>uous measurement was<br />

71.2 %.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Koeckritz A., Kant M., Walter M. & Mart<strong>in</strong> A. 2008. Rearrangement of glucose to mannose catalysed<br />

by polymer-supported Mo catalysts <strong>in</strong> the liquid phase. Applied Catalysis A: General, 334(1-2), 112-<br />

118.<br />

[2] Thomas J. & Lobel L.H. 1976. Chromatographic separation of glucose and mannose on cationexchange<br />

res<strong>in</strong>. Analytical Biochemistry, 73(1), 222-226.<br />

[3] Sherman J.D. & Chao C.C. 1984. Separation of mannose by selective adsorption on zeolitic molecular<br />

sieves. US Patent 4 471 114.<br />

[4] Kulprathipanja S. 1989. <strong>Process</strong> for separat<strong>in</strong>g glucose and mannose with CA/NH4-exchanged ion<br />

exchange res<strong>in</strong>s. US Patent 4 837 315.<br />

[5] Henke S., Bubník Z. & Kubát M. 2006. Modell<strong>in</strong>g, simulation and design of SMB apparatus. 2nd<br />

Technical Symposium of CIGR Section VI future of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Warszawa, Poland, April 26-<br />

28, 2006. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs p.223.<br />

1708

Brewer’s spent gra<strong>in</strong> standardization and upstream processes for enzymatic hydrolysate<br />

production<br />

Catal<strong>in</strong>a E. Kotlar a, b , Mariela Belagardi a, c , María V. Agüero a, b a, b<br />

and Sara I. Roura<br />

a<br />

Grupo de Investigación en Ingeniería en Alimentos, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y en Alimentos, Facultad<br />

de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

b<br />

Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

c<br />

Licenciatura en Nutrición, Universidad F.A.S.T.A., Mar del Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A wide range of agro-<strong>in</strong>dustrial by-products are available <strong>in</strong> large quantities which have considerable<br />

nutritional potential. Brewery waste is a typical example of such unrealized potential. Value-added<br />

products are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g sought from brewer’s spent gra<strong>in</strong> (BSG), a prote<strong>in</strong> rich residue generally<br />

used as livestock diets. One hundred kilograms of barley produces 170 kg of wet BSG (hav<strong>in</strong>g 80–85%<br />

moisture). To determ<strong>in</strong>e the potential use of a substrate is necessary to realize its correct standardization.<br />

The lack of prote<strong>in</strong> solubility is one of the limitations for their extensive use <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g. In order<br />

to use the residue BSG as a substrate for growth and enzyme production of proteolytic bacteria, the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

objectives were to standardize the BSG used as raw material and to def<strong>in</strong>e the fermentation upstream<br />

processes for enzymatic hydrolysis by Bacillus cereus. This work is of usefulness to <strong>in</strong>crease the added<br />

value by generat<strong>in</strong>g prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolyzates with potential use <strong>in</strong> various <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The composition characterization, granulometry assay, size reduction analysis and the microbiological<br />

stability of different lots and varieties of BSG provided by a local company (Antares S.A., Argent<strong>in</strong>a)<br />

were carried out. Simple pre-treatments of the substrate: granulometry and gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g assays, polyphenols<br />

extraction (after alkali hydrolysis by Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteu reagent and us<strong>in</strong>g gallic acid as standard) and<br />

sterilization were def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to elim<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>terference and standardize the substrate accord<strong>in</strong>gly.<br />

After that the BSG was hydrolyzated <strong>in</strong> submerged fermentation with Bacillus cereus. Antagonistic and<br />

synergistic effects were evaluated by comb<strong>in</strong>ations of stra<strong>in</strong>s as <strong>in</strong>oculum.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The total bacteria count of dry BSG rema<strong>in</strong>ed almost constant dur<strong>in</strong>g the overall storage period. Wet BSG<br />

microorganism load achieved a f<strong>in</strong>al CFU value five orders higher than BSG previously dried. The <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

microflora was predom<strong>in</strong>antly termophilic aerobic bacteria. Dry<strong>in</strong>g was the better alternative for BSG<br />

preservation. BSG showed small variations <strong>in</strong> composition. The water, lipids and ash contents differed<br />

significatively with the BSG varieties (Table 1). The raw material was dried at 60ºC for 24-48 h and<br />

sieved. BSG reta<strong>in</strong>ed above mesh Nº10 was ground, then polyphenols were extracted with an alcohol:<br />

water solution 30:70 for 60 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> an orbital shaker at 50 rpm and f<strong>in</strong>ally BSG was added to M<strong>in</strong>eral salt<br />

Medium (MSM) and sterilized <strong>in</strong> autoclave for 15 m<strong>in</strong> at 121ºC. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed material was termed<br />

fermentation substrate (FS).<br />

Different fractions of FS (w/v) were fermented through B. cereus activity and the evolution of soluble<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> content (SPC) dur<strong>in</strong>g the fermentation period was analyzed. Firstly an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the SPC was<br />

observed as the FS concentration <strong>in</strong>creases dur<strong>in</strong>g the overall <strong>in</strong>cubation period (30 h), achiev<strong>in</strong>g at 36%<br />

w/v of FS the higher SPC. At higher FS concentration, the SPC decreased. Higher FS concentration<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1709

could <strong>in</strong>crease the viscosity of the medium which possible resulted <strong>in</strong> oxygen limitation for bacterial<br />

growth, restrict<strong>in</strong>g the production of protease by B. cereus and then decreased the soluble prote<strong>in</strong> content.<br />

Fermentation of FS was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g microbial culture or crude enzymatic extract and SPC was<br />

measured dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>cubation time. The higher SPC was achieved by <strong>in</strong>oculat<strong>in</strong>g 5% v/v of crude<br />

enzyme; approximately a 20% lower SPC was found when the same concentration of fresh culture was<br />

used, support<strong>in</strong>g the advantage of us<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic extract vs. Microbial culture.<br />

Assays<br />

Table 1. Proximate composition of BSG varieties<br />

BSG variety<br />

100 % Pilsner 93% Pilsner 78% Pilsner<br />

Moisture (%w/)<br />

77,40 ± 0.28 b 77,69 ± 0.30 b 79,70 ± 1.18 a<br />

Total Ash (%w/w) DB 1<br />

2,58 ± 0.128 a 2,21 ± 0.49 a 2,11 ± 0.38 a<br />

Crude Prote<strong>in</strong> (%w/w) DB<br />

29,97 ± 0.93 a 30,52 ± 0.43 a 34,55 ± 0.49 a<br />

Fat (%w/w) DB<br />

5,82 ± 0.93 b 5,67 ± 0.79 b 6,74 ± 2.74 a<br />

Carbohydrates (%w/w) DB<br />

61,55 ± 1.12 a 60,97 ± 0.79 a 56,29 ± 2.748 b<br />

1<br />

DW: dry weight<br />

The number marked with different superscript letters <strong>in</strong> the same row meant statistic difference at significant level 5%.<br />

Look<strong>in</strong>g for synergistic effects of B. cereus with other proteolytic microorganisms, a notorious synergistic<br />

effect was observed when B. cereus was <strong>in</strong>oculated either with Pseudomonas pútida or Pseudomonas not<br />

classified (Table 1).<br />

Additionally, the proteolytic activity displayed a similar trend to prote<strong>in</strong> solubility, confirm<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

presumption of Chen et al. that protease was <strong>in</strong>duced to breakdown the BSG <strong>in</strong>to soluble prote<strong>in</strong> to<br />

support the microorganism growth.<br />

Table 1. Proteolytic activity measured at 24 h from FS fermentation medium (36 %w/v) with mixed <strong>in</strong>oculum at 32ºC<br />

<strong>in</strong> an orbital shaker at 60 rpm.<br />

Inoculum Proteolytic activity (Abs 420 nm)<br />

2.5% v/v B. cereus + 2.5% v/v Pseudomonas not classified 0,254 ± 0.027 a<br />

2.5% v/v B. cereus + 2.5% v/v Pseudomonas pútida 0,264 ± 0.011 a<br />

2.5% v/v B. cereus + 2.5% v/v Enterococcus hirae (a) 0,128 ± 0.005 c<br />

2.5% v/v B. cereus + 2.5% v/v Enterococcus hirae(b) 0,125 ± 0.006 c<br />

2.5% v/v B cereus + 2.5% v/v Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis 0,098 ± 0.009 d<br />

5% v/v Pseudomonas not classified 0,102 ± 0.005 d<br />

5% v/v Pseudomonas pútida 0,095 ± 0.002 d<br />

5% v/v Enterococcus hirae (a) 0,206 ± 0.012 b<br />

5% v/v Enterococcus hirae (b) 0,134 ± 0.006 c<br />

5% v/v Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis 0,121 ± 0.008 c<br />

5% v/v B. cereus 0,131 ± 0.009 c<br />

The number marked with different superscript letters <strong>in</strong> the same row meant statistic difference at significant level 5%.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study provides a fundamental work for the production of hydrolyzates and the conversion of BSG to<br />

soluble prote<strong>in</strong> through submerged fermentation process by Bacillus cereus. This methodology could be<br />

applied on a large scale and extended to other agro <strong>in</strong>dustrial wastes.<br />

1710

Treatment of passion fruit juice by membrane process technology<br />

Rui Dom<strong>in</strong>gues a , Grasiele Madrona b Vicelma Luiz Cardoso a , Miria H. M. Reis a<br />

a Federal University Of Uberlandia, Chemical Engeneer<strong>in</strong>g Faculty, Uberlândia-MG, Brazil (miria@feq.ufu.br)<br />

b State University of Mar<strong>in</strong>ga, <strong>Food</strong> Engeneer<strong>in</strong>g School, Mar<strong>in</strong>gá-PR, Brazil (grasiele@yahoo.com.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Traditional stabilization methods, such as thermal pasteurization, are generally applied for fruit juice<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g. However, heat process<strong>in</strong>g for yellow passion fruit results <strong>in</strong> change of its aroma and flavor.<br />

Membrane processes have been studied for clarification and concentration of fruit juices. However,<br />

foul<strong>in</strong>g is the major constra<strong>in</strong>t dur<strong>in</strong>g separation us<strong>in</strong>g membranes. Its occurrence leads to a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />

membrane permeability. Matta et al. <strong>in</strong>dicated that the use of enzymatic pretreatment <strong>in</strong> fruit juice may<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease membrane fluxes, s<strong>in</strong>ce the presence of cell-wall polysaccharide compounds is the ma<strong>in</strong> cause of<br />

foul<strong>in</strong>g occurrences <strong>in</strong> juice filtration. Vaillant et al. studied the crossflow microfiltration of passion fruit<br />

juice us<strong>in</strong>g ceramic membranes with 0,2 μm average pore size. The scope of the present work was to<br />

evaluate different conditions of enzyme pretreatments for yellow passion fruit juice, aim<strong>in</strong>g to m<strong>in</strong>imize<br />

the juice viscosity for further membrane filtrations. After that, membrane filtrations were carried out <strong>in</strong><br />

order to observe the applicability of this process for juice clarification.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The pulp of passion fruit was purchased from a local pulp <strong>in</strong>dustry (M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais – Brazil). It was stored<br />

at -16ºC and defrosted to room temperature before use. Enzymatic treatments proposed <strong>in</strong> this word<br />

applied different available commercial enzymes with different activities. Bacterial Amylase, Celluclast,<br />

and Pect<strong>in</strong>ex 3X L were purchased from Novozymes, and Pect<strong>in</strong>ase from Aspergillus niger was<br />

purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Two enzymatic mixtures were also evaluated, by mix<strong>in</strong>g equal quantities<br />

of different enzymes: Amylase + Celluclast + Pect<strong>in</strong>ex (mixture 1) and Pect<strong>in</strong>ase + Amilase (mixture 2).<br />

In order to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the action of each one of these enzymes, prelim<strong>in</strong>ary tests were conducted with<br />

these enzymes (pure and mixed) for 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong> a 250 mL conic flasks at constant agitation and<br />

temperature (200 rpm and 50ºC, respectively), us<strong>in</strong>g a concentration of 5 mL/L of each enzymatic<br />

preparations. Us<strong>in</strong>g the most promis<strong>in</strong>g enzyme observed <strong>in</strong> prelim<strong>in</strong>ary tests, a factorial plann<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

carried out <strong>in</strong> order to observe which variables most <strong>in</strong>fluence the process. These analyses were done<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the software STATISTICA 7.0. The microfiltration unit used <strong>in</strong> this work was purchased from<br />

PAM (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). It works with polyetherimide (PEI) hollow fibber membranes, with total<br />

effective filtration area of 0,056 m 2 and 0,4 μm average pore diameter. Microfiltrations were carried out<br />

with 3L batches of passion fruit at room temperature and at 1, 2, and 3 bar. The fruit pulp was previously<br />

centrifuged at 12000 rpm dur<strong>in</strong>g 4 m<strong>in</strong>utes. After that, the centrifuged juice was treated at the best<br />

condition of the enzymatic treatment.Color analyses were carried out by collect<strong>in</strong>g the absorbance at 540<br />

nm us<strong>in</strong>g a Shimadzu UV 1240 spectrophotometer. Soluble solids were measured with a calibrated hand<br />

refratometer and turbidity was measured with a Nova Organica HD 144 turbidimeter. Viscosities were<br />

measured by us<strong>in</strong>g a Brookfield LVDV-III digital rheometer at 25º at a 303 s -1 shear rate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Enzymatic Treatment<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results with the different proposed enzymes for passion fruit juice treatment showed that the<br />

enzymatic preparations of Pect<strong>in</strong>ex 3X L, Mixture 1, and Mixture 2 resulted <strong>in</strong> higher viscosity<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1711

eductions. Tak<strong>in</strong>g availability and economic reasons <strong>in</strong>to account, Pect<strong>in</strong>ex 3X L, which conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>olityc, cellulase, and amylase activities, was chosen for use <strong>in</strong> subsequent experiments <strong>in</strong> this work.<br />

The effect of enzyme concentration was evaluated by treat<strong>in</strong>g the samples with different<br />

concentrations of Pect<strong>in</strong>ex 3X L at 50ºC for 60 m<strong>in</strong>. The results have shown that viscosity<br />

removal is function of the concentration. However, runs with enzyme concentrations higher<br />

than 1 mL/L did not show <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> viscosity reduction. Similar results were observed by<br />

Vaillant et al.. The effect of temperature was evaluated by test<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic reactions on<br />

several temperatures, us<strong>in</strong>g an enzymatic concentration of 1 mL/L at 60 m<strong>in</strong> of <strong>in</strong>cubation<br />

time. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results showed that 50°C is the best temperature for enzymatic treatment of<br />

passion fruit juice. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results with the factorial plann<strong>in</strong>g 2 3 showed that an <strong>in</strong>crease on<br />

viscosity reduction is observed with the temperature <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. The enzyme concentration is also a<br />

significant variable, as the viscosity is also reduced with enzyme concentration <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. Temperature<br />

and enzyme concentration have positive effects on viscosity reduction, and are significant at p

Honey & Honey Adulteration Detection: A Review<br />

Laleh Mehryar a , Mohsen Esmaiili b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, University of Urmia, Iran (laleh.mehryar@gmail.com)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, University of Urmia, Iran (m.esmaiili@urmia.ac.ir)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Honey is an ancient valuable food and <strong>in</strong> most cases has enchanted its consumers by its medic<br />

characteristics. It consists ma<strong>in</strong>ly of sugars. Honey composition accord<strong>in</strong>g to the studied<br />

literature is ma<strong>in</strong>ly dependant on its floral source and differs <strong>in</strong> various honeys. The dietary<br />

frauds <strong>in</strong> particular the adulteration are practices <strong>in</strong> constant progress. Adulteration consists of<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g external chemical substance(s) <strong>in</strong>to a food product that conta<strong>in</strong>s naturally similar<br />

substance(s). Honey adulteration appeared on the world market <strong>in</strong> the 1970s when highfructose<br />

corn syrup was <strong>in</strong>troduced by the <strong>in</strong>dustry. Many foods have the potential to be<br />

deliberately adulterated, but those that are expensive and are produced under wide fluctuations<br />

<strong>in</strong> weather and harvest<strong>in</strong>g conditions are particularly susceptible; honey is one of such<br />

material. Although the adulteration of honey is not <strong>in</strong>jurious to health, problems of honey fraud<br />

negatively <strong>in</strong>fluence market growth by damag<strong>in</strong>g consumer confidence. It seems quite<br />

necessary that prepar<strong>in</strong>g an overall review of the applied procedures by researchers <strong>in</strong> detect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

honey adulteration would be useful and serve as a good source <strong>in</strong> oncom<strong>in</strong>g works.<br />

HONEY ADULTERATION<br />

Analysis methods<br />

Gas Chromatography (GC) and Liquid Chromatography (LC) analysis: This method may<br />

be considered as a replacement of isotopic analysis, which has some limitations.<br />

Near Infrared Transflectance Spectroscopy (NIR): It is a rapid, non-destructive and<br />

relatively <strong>in</strong>expensive method which may be suitable for use as a screen<strong>in</strong>g technique <strong>in</strong> the<br />

quality control of honey [1].<br />

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with Attenuated Total Reflectance<br />

(ATR): In contrast to the time-consum<strong>in</strong>g carbon isotope ratio analysis techniques, these FTIR<br />

spectroscopic procedures can be performed <strong>in</strong> very short time [2].<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> characterization: The major prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> honey have different molecular weights<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g upon the honeybee species. Therefore, the measurement of major prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> honey<br />

is a useful method to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate the honey that produced from different honeybee species.<br />

High-Performance Anion-Exchange Chromatography with Pulsed Amperometric<br />

Detection (HPAEC-PAD): It is an efficient tool for the characterization of the honey floral<br />

species. This method is less time consum<strong>in</strong>g and less expensive than other methods [3].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1713

Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-IRMS):<br />

The new procedure has advantages over exist<strong>in</strong>g methods <strong>in</strong> terms of analysis time, sensitivity,<br />

lack of sample preparation, reduced consumption of reagents, and simplicity of the operative<br />

procedure. In addition, it is the first isotopic method developed that allows beet sugar addition<br />

detection [4].<br />

Calorimetric methods (Application of DSC): Application of DSC showed the possibility of<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the glass transition temperature to dist<strong>in</strong>guish between honeys and syrups and is a<br />

powerful technique for characteriz<strong>in</strong>g the thermal behavior of honeys and for detect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

effect of adulteration on physicochemical and structural properties of samples.<br />

Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio Analysis (SCIRA): It is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the 13 C/ 12 C isotope ratio,<br />

which is different <strong>in</strong> C4 or CAM plants, when compared to C3 plants [2].<br />

Fourier Transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy: FT-Raman spectroscopy is successfully<br />

applicable to detect beet and cane <strong>in</strong>vert syrups. This method can also be used to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

between the types of adulterants irrespective of its floral orig<strong>in</strong> [5].<br />

Microscopic detection: Microscopic analysis of adulterated honeys with cane sugar exhibited<br />

parenchyma cells, s<strong>in</strong>gle r<strong>in</strong>g vessels and epidermal cells. Overall the microscopic procedure is<br />

a good screen<strong>in</strong>g method for the detection of adulteration of honey with cane sugar products.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

To sum up, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the obta<strong>in</strong>ed data from studied literature it is to some extent obvious<br />

that nearly the majority of physicochemical characteristics of honey depend on floral source.<br />

Honey adulteration is a critical problem which is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by various techniques to get<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation from each aspect of it. Based on the type of adulterants each applied method seems<br />

to be beneficiary by itself.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kelly J.D., Petisco C. & Downey G. 2006. Potential of near <strong>in</strong>frared transflectance spectroscopy to<br />

detect adulteration of Irish honey by beet <strong>in</strong>vert syrup and high fructose corn syrup. J. Near Infrared<br />

Spectrosc. 14, 139-146.<br />

[2] Gallardo-Velázquez T., Osorio-Revilla G., Zuñiga-de Loa M. & Rivera-Esp<strong>in</strong>oza Y. 2009.<br />

Application of FTIR-HATR spectroscopy and multivariate analysis to the quantification of<br />

adulterants <strong>in</strong> Mexican honeys. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong> 42, 313–318.<br />

[3] Morales V., Corzo N. & Sanz M.L. 2008. HPAEC-PAD oligosaccharide analysis to detect<br />

adulterations of honey with sugar syrups. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 107, 922–928.<br />

[4] Cabañero A.I., Recio J.L. & Rupérez M. 2006. Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Isotope Ratio<br />

Mass Spectrometry: A New Perspective on Honey Adulteration Detection. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem. 54,<br />

9719-9727.<br />

[5] Paradkar M.M. & Irudayaraj J. 2001. Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and classification of beet and cane <strong>in</strong>verts <strong>in</strong><br />

honey by FT-Raman spectroscopy. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 76, 231–239.<br />

1714

Scal<strong>in</strong>g-up effects on supercritical CO2 extraction k<strong>in</strong>etics of pelletized tomato<br />

Gonzalo A. Núñez a , Lorena I. Möd<strong>in</strong>ger a , José M. del Valle a,* , & Rudolf Eggers b<br />

a<br />

Dept. Chemical & Bioprocesses <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile<br />

(*email: delvalle@<strong>in</strong>g.puc.cl)<br />

b<br />

Inst. Thermal Separation <strong>Process</strong>es, Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg, Hamburg, Germany<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Carotenoids are natural pigments that give yellow, orange, or red colour to fruits, vegetables<br />

and plants, and helps prevent<strong>in</strong>g cardiovascular diseases and cancer [1]. Among carotenoids,<br />

lycopene from tomato is of special <strong>in</strong>terest because of its particular functional properties. In<br />

literature there are reports on SCFE of tomato us<strong>in</strong>g SC CO2 as solvent at a laboratory scale<br />

[2,4], but none at pilot-plant or larger scale. Most works use tomato process<strong>in</strong>g by-products as<br />

raw materials, and gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g and dry<strong>in</strong>g as pre-treatments.<br />

The objective of this work was to study the scal<strong>in</strong>g-up of SCFE of tomato pellets us<strong>in</strong>g SC CO2<br />

at high pressure, consider<strong>in</strong>g a one-pass, screen<strong>in</strong>g unit and three pilot plants with solventrecycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capabilities and different sizes.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

We extracted dehydrated commercial tomato flakes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 6% water. These flakes were<br />

pelletized <strong>in</strong> two different samples (MP1 and MP2). Moisture of tomato pellets was measured<br />

gravimetrically by dry<strong>in</strong>g samples <strong>in</strong> a convection oven at 105 °C to constant weight (12-17 h).<br />

Oleores<strong>in</strong> content was measured by Sohxlet extraction (24 h) us<strong>in</strong>g hexane. Lycopene content<br />

<strong>in</strong> acetone-extracted and saponified pellet samples was measured by HPCL. Screen<strong>in</strong>g studies<br />

were done <strong>in</strong> a computer controlled one-pass laboratory unit (LU) extract<strong>in</strong>g 40-g samples of<br />

MP1 with 12 g/m<strong>in</strong> of CO2 at 40 or 60 °C and 30 or 50 MPa. Pilot plant extractions were all<br />

carried out at 60 °C and 50 MPa (best conditions <strong>in</strong> screen<strong>in</strong>g extractions) <strong>in</strong> three different<br />

sizes plants. Pilot plant PP1 (Chile) extracted 380-g samples of MP1 (b = 760 kg/m 3 ) <strong>in</strong> 500cm<br />

3 extraction vessel us<strong>in</strong>g 90 g/m<strong>in</strong> of CO2. Pilot plant PP2 (Germany) extracted 340-g of<br />

samples of MP1 (b = 708 kg/m 3 ) placed <strong>in</strong> a 480-cm 3 basket of a 1.3-dm 3 pilot plant (PP2)<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g 288 g/m<strong>in</strong> of CO2. Pilot plant PP3 extracted 1260-g samples of MP2 (b = 553 kg/m 3 )<br />

placed <strong>in</strong> the 2.28-dm 3 basket of a 4-dm 3 us<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g 156 g/m<strong>in</strong> of CO2. Extraction yield was<br />

expressed as percent oleores<strong>in</strong> recovered of total available <strong>in</strong> the substrate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Tomato pellets MP1 and MP2 had 3.4-4.0 mm <strong>in</strong> diameter and 5.0-5.5 mm <strong>in</strong> length.<br />

Pelletization of tomato flakes (b = 196 kg/m 3 ) <strong>in</strong>creased bulk density of the substrate from<br />

2.4-fold <strong>in</strong> the case of MP2 to 4.1-fold for MP1. Oleores<strong>in</strong> contents were 1.16 <strong>in</strong> MP1 and<br />

1.47% <strong>in</strong> MP2. Ma<strong>in</strong> difference between pellet samples was <strong>in</strong> moisture, which was 18%<br />

(w.b.) <strong>in</strong> sample MP1, and 3.7% (w.b.) <strong>in</strong> sample MP2. In screen<strong>in</strong>g studies, extraction yields<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased with both temperature and pressure. Indeed extraction yield was 2.4% (40 °C and 30<br />

MPa), 8.3% (60 °C and 30 MPa), 17.8% (40 °C and 50 MPa), and 25.1% (60 °C and 50 MPa),<br />

mean<strong>in</strong>g an average improvement of 2.4 times when <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature from 40 to 60 °C,<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1715

and a 5.2-fold improvement (average) when <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure from 30 to 50 MPa. Figure 1<br />

shows a comparison among cumulative extraction curve at 60 ºC and 50 MPa for LU, PP1,<br />

PP2, and PP3. Results were unexpected <strong>in</strong> that the <strong>in</strong>itial slopes of the curves varied widely<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the extraction plant, be<strong>in</strong>g the same (and highest) <strong>in</strong> PP1 and PP3, and lowest <strong>in</strong><br />

PP2. When cumulative extraction curves plotted as oleores<strong>in</strong> yield versus specific CO2<br />

consumption do not co<strong>in</strong>cide for different superficial CO2 velocities, it can be claimed that the<br />

process is not controlled by solubility phenomena but rather by <strong>in</strong>ner mass transfer phenomena.<br />

Figure 1. K<strong>in</strong>etics of the SCFE of tomato pellets at 60 °C and 50 MPa. Comparison of the extraction<br />

yield <strong>in</strong> function of time for three different-sized pilot plants and laboratory scale.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In screen<strong>in</strong>g studies, oleores<strong>in</strong> yield <strong>in</strong>creased more than twice when <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature<br />

from 40 to 60 °C, and more than five times when <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure from 30 to 50 MPa. The<br />

highest yield <strong>in</strong> LU was 25.1% at 60 °C and 50 MPa. Scal<strong>in</strong>g-up experiments under these<br />

conditions produced unexpected results. Extraction yield <strong>in</strong> a 500-cm 3 pilot plant decreased to<br />

17.6% but <strong>in</strong>creased to 30.7% <strong>in</strong> 4-dm 3 pilot plant. These experiments used two different<br />

substrates, and we believe differences were due to changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial moisture and bulk density<br />

between them. Pack<strong>in</strong>g high-moisture pellets densely possible resulted <strong>in</strong> agglomeration of the<br />

substrate and undesirable channell<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the packed bed.<br />

Acknowledgements. This work was funded by Fondecyt (project 108-0211) from Chile.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Perera, C. O. & Yen, G. M. 2007. Functional properties of carotenoids <strong>in</strong> human health. <strong>International</strong><br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Properties, 10(2), 201-230. [2] Sabio, E., Lozano, M., de Esp<strong>in</strong>osa, V. M., Mendes, R. L.,<br />

Pereira, A. P., Palavra, A. F. & Coelho, J.A. 2003. Lycopene and beta-carotene extraction from tomato<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g waste us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical CO 2. Industrial & <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Chemistry Research, 42(25), 6641-<br />

6646. [3] Topal, U., Sasaki, M., Goto, M. & Hayakawa, K. 2006. Extraction of lycopene from tomato<br />

sk<strong>in</strong> with supercritical carbon dioxide: Effect of operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions and solubility analysis. Journal of<br />

Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 54(15), 5604-5610. [4] Rozzi, N. L., S<strong>in</strong>gh, R. K., Vierl<strong>in</strong>g, R. A. &<br />

Watk<strong>in</strong>s, B. A. 2002. Supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato process<strong>in</strong>g byproducts.<br />

Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 50(9), 2638-2643.<br />

1716

Supercritical extraction of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> from H. pluvialis us<strong>in</strong>g ethanol-modified CO2.<br />

Experiments and modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

A. Bustamante, P. Roberts, 1 R. Aravena, J.M. del Valle 2<br />

1<br />

Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Química de los Alimentos, Facultad Ciencias Químicas y<br />

Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. (proberts@uchile.cl)<br />

2<br />

Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Bioprocesos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile,<br />

Santiago, Chile.(delvalle@<strong>in</strong>g.puc.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Haematococcus pluvialis is an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g alterative for obta<strong>in</strong> astaxanth<strong>in</strong> from a natural<br />

source. Astaxanth<strong>in</strong> can be extracted from H. pluvialis us<strong>in</strong>g SuperCritical (SC) carbon dioxide<br />

(CO2). Several researchers studied SC CO2 extraction of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> from H. pluvialis<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g high yield, and high concentrations of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> extracts depend<strong>in</strong>g on operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

conditions [1, 2]. With the objective of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g an astaxanth<strong>in</strong> rich extract, we used response<br />

surface (RS) analysis to evaluate the effect of extraction temperature, extraction pressure and<br />

ethanol concentration on astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery <strong>in</strong> 5-h SC CO2 extraction experiments. Results<br />

were not as expected. We speculated that anomalies were due to k<strong>in</strong>etic effects dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

extraction. Thus, the ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this work was measur<strong>in</strong>g and modell<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etic curves<br />

of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> extraction under selected conditions to evaluate the effect of extraction time on<br />

astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Treatments. H. pluvialis were extracted <strong>in</strong> a one-pass laboratory SCE device. Extractions were<br />

carried out at 313, 328, or 343 K, and 30, 42.5, or 55 MPa, us<strong>in</strong>g 4.5 g/m<strong>in</strong> of pure or ethanolmodified<br />

(4 or 8% v/v) CO2 dur<strong>in</strong>g 5 h.<br />

Experimental design. RS analysis was used to evaluate the effects of three <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

variables on astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery.<br />

Model<strong>in</strong>g. Extraction curves were modeled us<strong>in</strong>g the model of Sovova [3]. This model<br />

considers a tissue conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a fraction of broken cells and a rema<strong>in</strong>der of <strong>in</strong>tact cells. The<br />

mass transfer occurs from <strong>in</strong>tact to broken cells and from broken cells to SC CO2.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Response Surface Analysis. Depend<strong>in</strong>g on extraction conditions and ethanol added,<br />

astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recoveries ranged 43-82.8%. Results <strong>in</strong>dicate no <strong>in</strong>teractions between <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

variables on astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> pressure had a large positive effect <strong>in</strong> the<br />

astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery, but it was lower that reported by others [1, 2]. On the other hand, the<br />

astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery decrease as a result of an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature is opposite observation<br />

of others [1, 2]. Besides, the use of ethanol as co-solvent improves astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery, as<br />

expected.<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic curves of extraction and modell<strong>in</strong>g. The k<strong>in</strong>etics curves (Figure 1) shows that<br />

extraction rate is very slow after 2 h (180 g CO2/g microalga), which <strong>in</strong>dicates that longer<br />

extraction times do not contribute to astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery to a great extent.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1717

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the solubility of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> pure CO2, model shows an <strong>in</strong>crease with density, as<br />

expected. However, the solubility of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> blend of CO2 and ethanol is slightly lower<br />

that <strong>in</strong> pure CO2, which was not expected. On the other hand, the others parameters that<br />

characterize the sorcion isotherm were effected for use ethanol.<br />

With respect to mass transfer parameters, the fraction of broken cells (58%) was considered<br />

constant because it depends only of the raw material. On the other hand, <strong>in</strong> all cases external<br />

mass transfer coefficient is much larger than external mass transfer coefficient as reported by<br />

Sovová [3]. Besides, added ethanol improved the <strong>in</strong>ternal mass transfer, be<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ternal mass<br />

transfer coefficient with co-solvent 10 times higher than pure CO2.<br />

Consider<strong>in</strong>g all results of k<strong>in</strong>etic studies, it seems that the improvement <strong>in</strong> astaxanth<strong>in</strong> recovery<br />

when add<strong>in</strong>g ethanol is due to its large positive effect over the mass transfer process rather than<br />

its effect <strong>in</strong> equilibrium.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The results show that <strong>in</strong> the experimental region the pressure and add ethanol has a positive,<br />

and temperature has a negative effect. Besides, model of Sovova [3] fitted well astaxanth<strong>in</strong><br />

extraction curves us<strong>in</strong>g both pure and ethanol-modified CO2. Model parameters suggest that<br />

the positive effect of added ethanol is due to enhancement of the mass transfer from unbroken<br />

cells.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. K<strong>in</strong>etic curves of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> extraction from H. Pluvialis<br />

[1] Machmudah S., Shotipruk A., Goto M., Sasaki M. & Hirose T. 2006. Extraction of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> from<br />

Haematococcus pluvialis us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical CO2 and ethanol as entra<strong>in</strong>er. Industrial <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

Chemistry Research, 45, 3652-3657.<br />

[2] Thana P., Machmudah S., Goto M., Sasaki M., Pavasant P. & Shotipruk A. 2008. Response surface<br />

methodology to supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> from Haematococcus pluvialis.<br />

Bioresource Technology, 99(8), 3110-3115.<br />

[3]Sovova H. 2005. Mathematical model for supercritical fluid extraction of natural products and<br />

extraction curve evaluation. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 33, 35-52.<br />

1718

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and fractionation of rapeseed cake oil<br />

Edgar Uquiche a , Kather<strong>in</strong>e Salazar a , Ximena Fica a , José Manuel del Valle b<br />

a Universidad de La Frontera (UFRO), Temuco, Chile, (euquiche@ufro.cl)<br />

b Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile, (delvalle@<strong>in</strong>g.puc.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Rapeseed (Brassica napus) press cake rich <strong>in</strong> lipids and m<strong>in</strong>or lipids such as phytosterols,<br />

tocopherols, and carotenoids of great functional value as natural antioxidants. Fractionation<br />

effects dur<strong>in</strong>g extraction that may <strong>in</strong>crease the concentration of these m<strong>in</strong>or lipids <strong>in</strong> the oil are<br />

desirable, and this work explored the possibility of us<strong>in</strong>g SuperCritical carbon dioxide (SC-<br />

CO2) to achieve fractionation of press cake rapeseed oil. The objective of this study was to<br />

identify the effects of various comb<strong>in</strong>ations of medium to high pressures and temperatures and<br />

short times on the yield of oil and the concentration of m<strong>in</strong>or lipid <strong>in</strong> fractions of SC-CO2extracted<br />

cold-pressed rapeseed cake, with the aim of separat<strong>in</strong>g fraction enriched <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>or<br />

lipids.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Supercritical extraction was carried out <strong>in</strong> a Spe-ed SFE unit (Applied Separations, Allentown,<br />

PA). Milled cold-pressed rapeseed cake samples were placed <strong>in</strong> a 50 cm 3 vessel and extracted<br />

with CO2. Extractions were carried out at 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 MPa and at 40 or 80 ºC, at<br />

solvent flow correspond<strong>in</strong>g to superficial velocity of 1 mm/s. Recovered oil was assessed<br />

gravimetrically by difference with cleaned and dried vials, and cumulative oil yields were<br />

calculated. Oil <strong>in</strong> vials was dissolved <strong>in</strong> chloroform p.a. and flashed to 50 cm 3 <strong>in</strong> volumetric<br />

flask prior quantification of sterols, tocopherols, and carotenoids by UV spectrophotometry.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Cumulative oil yield <strong>in</strong>creased with extraction pressure, and with extraction temperature at 40<br />

MPa, but was lower at 80 than 40 ºC at 35 MPa, which is consistent with a solubilitycontrolled<br />

process and a crossover pressure between 35 and 40 MPa. Figure 1 plots cumulative<br />

oil yield versus specific solvent consumption to unveil the relationship between extraction rate<br />

and oil solubility based on the correlation proposed by del Valle et al. (submitted) for the<br />

solubility of vegetable oils <strong>in</strong> SC-CO2. In Figure 1, the 45º l<strong>in</strong>e by the orig<strong>in</strong> represents<br />

extractions carried out under the solubility-controlled conditions hypothesized for the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

stages of the SC-CO2 extraction process. It appear as if extractions are solubility-controlled as<br />

long as the total amount of oil extracted is limited to ca. 25-40% of the total (40-60 g oil/kg dry<br />

substrate), and that the correlation of del Valle et al. (submitted) provides good estimates of<br />

rapeseed oil solubility with<strong>in</strong> the experimental region. Besides a solubility-controlled <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

period, SC-CO2 extraction curves consider subsequent periods where extraction rate is<br />

controlled by external mass transfer mechanisms, <strong>in</strong>ner mass transfer mechanisms, and<br />

desorption mechanisms that are markedly dependent on the substrate pretreatment and particle<br />

size (Güçlü-Üstündag & Temelli, 2004).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1719

Figure 1. Cumulative oil yield versus specific solvent consumption at ( , ) 30 MPa, ( , ) 35 MPa,<br />

( , ) 40 MPa, ( , ) 45 MPa, or ( , ) 50 MPa, ( , , , , ); 40 ºC or ( , , , , ) 80 ºC.<br />

The weight and concentration of m<strong>in</strong>or lipids (sterols, tocopherols, carotenoids) <strong>in</strong> oil fractions<br />

collected dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 60 m<strong>in</strong> of extraction were recorded and analyzed. Differences <strong>in</strong><br />

solubility between the oil and m<strong>in</strong>or lipids expla<strong>in</strong>ed fractionation effects that were small for<br />

tocopherols. Unlike tocopherols, that are more soluble <strong>in</strong> SC-CO2 than the oil, sterols and<br />

carotenoids are less soluble than the oil, and their concentration <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the later stages of<br />

the extraction process, particularly at 40 MPa, when there was no enough oil to saturate the<br />

CO2 phase. Consequently, this study suggests that SC-CO2 extraction can be used to isolate<br />

vegetable oil fractions hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creased functional value.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

SC-CO2 extraction of rapeseed oil appears to be a solubility-controlled partially dependent on<br />

residual oil concentration <strong>in</strong> the prepressed seeds. Differences <strong>in</strong> solubility between the oil and<br />

m<strong>in</strong>or lipids (sterols, tocopherols, carotenoids) also expla<strong>in</strong> fractionation effects. These<br />

fractionation effects are small for tocopherols that are more soluble <strong>in</strong> SC-CO2 than the oil. On<br />

the other hand, there is an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> concentration of sterols and carotenoids <strong>in</strong> the later<br />

stages of the extraction process, when there is no enough oil to saturate the CO2 phase, because<br />

these two components are less soluble <strong>in</strong> SC-CO2 than the oil.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] del Valle, J.M., Uquiche, E.L. & de la Fuente J.C. A ref<strong>in</strong>ed equation for predict<strong>in</strong>g the solubility of<br />

vegetable oils <strong>in</strong> high-pressure CO 2. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids (submitted).<br />

[2] Güçlü-Üstünda, Ö. & Temelli, F. 2004. Correlat<strong>in</strong>g the solubility behavior of m<strong>in</strong>or lipid<br />

components <strong>in</strong> supercritical carbon dioxide. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 31, 235–253.<br />

1720

Characterization of Novel Cholesterol Esterase from Trichoderma sp. AS59 with High<br />

Ability to Synthesize Steryl Esters<br />

Atsushi Maeda a , Norihumi Hashitani a , Takayuki Mizuno a , Masanori Bunya a<br />

a Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Tokushima Bunri University, 1314-1 Shido, Sanuki 769-2193, Japan<br />

(maeda@fe.bunri-u.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The structures of phytosterols that are naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> plants are very similar to that of<br />

cholesterol, and they are effective <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g the absorption of cholesterol <strong>in</strong> the small<br />

<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>e. Thus, phytosterols have promise as a functional food material. However, they have<br />

not been actively used as material for low solubility <strong>in</strong> both oil and water.<br />

We found a novel cholesterol esterase to synthesize steryl ester from the culture filtrate of a<br />

fungal stra<strong>in</strong> Trichoderma sp. AS59 isolated from soil [1]. In this study, we exam<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />

ability of the enzyme to synthesize steryl esters from sterol and free fatty acids of vary<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong><br />

lengths.<br />

If the ability of the synthesis of steryl ester is similar to that of the hydrolysis, it is possible to<br />

synthesis the useful sterol esters as a functional food material. This leads to further widen the<br />

application of plant sterol to food, and it is still challeng<strong>in</strong>g work.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Cholesterol esterase from Trichoderma sp. AS59 was purified from a 3-day liquid culture<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method already reported [5]. The substrate solution 30 mL of hexane<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 100 mmol/L of free fatty acids and saturated sterol. Then, the esterification was<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>ed by mix<strong>in</strong>g 30 mL of the substrate solution with lyophilized enzyme and a certa<strong>in</strong><br />

amount of water <strong>in</strong> 50 mL glass vial. A mixture was shaken at 120 rpm <strong>in</strong> a 27 o C water bath<br />

for 120 h. The products and the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g reactants were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by gas chromatography.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

We measured the saturated concentration of cholesterol <strong>in</strong> hexane by GC, and it was about 25<br />

mmol/L. Figure 1 shows the effect of cha<strong>in</strong> length of fatty acid on cholesterol esterification.<br />

Yield [%]<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18<br />

Cha<strong>in</strong> length of saturated fatty acid<br />

Figure 1. Effect of cha<strong>in</strong> length of FFAs on cholesterol esterification.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1721

This <strong>in</strong>dicates that all the medium- and long-cha<strong>in</strong> FFAs used were successfully employed <strong>in</strong><br />

ester synthesis, whereas the short-cha<strong>in</strong> FFAs were unavailable for this reaction. In the<br />

previous study [1], the short cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acid cholesteryl esters (especially cholesteryl butyrate)<br />

were available for hydrolysis. It is clear that the fatty acid specificity <strong>in</strong> ester synthesis is<br />

entirely different from that <strong>in</strong> hydrolysis.<br />

Figure 2. Time course of esterification of stigmasterol with palmitic acid. A substrate mixture<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 100 mmol/L of palmitic acid and 7.0 mmol/L of stigmasterol was comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

100 U of the enzyme dissolved <strong>in</strong> 20 L of 0.2M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) at 27 o C.<br />

Figure 2 shows the time course of the esterification of stigmasterol with palmitic acid. The<br />

yield of stigmasteryl palmitate was reached to 7%. However, extend<strong>in</strong>g the reaction time even<br />

further didn’t also improve the yield. Because the saturated concentration of stigmasterol <strong>in</strong><br />

hexane measured by GC was about 5.6 mmol/L, the chemical equilibrium was established at<br />

the time of synthesis of some stigmasteryl palmitate. In these conditions, the enzyme turned<br />

<strong>in</strong>to paste and clung to the <strong>in</strong>side of the vial. It is easy to separate the enzyme and the solvent,<br />

then the reaction rate may be recovered and the mass of steryl ester may <strong>in</strong>crease by replac<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the substrate solution.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

All the medium- and long-cha<strong>in</strong> FFAs used are successfully employed <strong>in</strong> cholesterol ester<br />

synthesis <strong>in</strong> large scale such as 30 mL of solvent. We were also able to synthesize stigmasterol<br />

palmitate as the plant sterol ester. These results could pave the way large-scale synthesis of<br />

sterol ester and <strong>in</strong>dicate the potential utility of the enzyme <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Yield [%]<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140<br />

Time [h]<br />

[1] Maeda A., Mizuno T., Bunya M., Sugihara S., Nakayama D., & Tsunasawa S. 2008. Characterization<br />

of novel cholesterol esterase from Trichoderma sp. AS59 with high ability to synthesize steryl esters.<br />

J Biosci Bioeng, 105, 341-349.<br />

1722

Recovery of an antibacterial peptide fraction from snow crab by-products hydrolysate by<br />

electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes<br />

Ala<strong>in</strong> Doyen a,b , L<strong>in</strong>da Saucier a,c , Lucie Beaulieu a,d , Yves Pouliot a,b , Monica Araya-Farias a,b , Laurent<br />

Baz<strong>in</strong>et a,b<br />

a<br />

Institute of Nutraceutical and Functional <strong>Food</strong>s (INAF), Université Laval, Québec, Canada.<br />

laurent.baz<strong>in</strong>et@fsaa.ulaval.ca<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutrition, Université Laval, Québec, Canada<br />

c<br />

Department of Animal Sciences, Université Laval, Québec, Canada<br />

d<br />

Department of Biology, Chemistry and Geography, Université du Québec à Rimouski (UQAR),<br />

Rimouski, Canada<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

By-products and surpluses from food <strong>in</strong>dustries could generate peptides with great <strong>in</strong>terest for<br />

food formulation. Hence, the separation and concentration of bioactive peptides from natural<br />

sources becomes <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly attractive to the food <strong>in</strong>dustry [1]. Recently, a snow crab byproducts<br />

hydrolysate showed antibacterial activity [2]. This activity was due to an antibacterial<br />

peptide of about 800 Da [2]. However, the antibacterial activity was only detected at high<br />

peptide concentration. Consequently, peptide hydrolysate has to be fractionated to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

peptides <strong>in</strong> a more purified form. Electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes (EDUF),<br />

developed and patented <strong>in</strong> 2005 [3], allowed separation of molecules from a complex mixture<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to their charge and their molecular weights. EDUF had already successfully<br />

demonstrated the recovery of <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g peptide fractions [4, 5]. Hence, the aim of this work<br />

was to recover and concentrate the active antibacterial fraction.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The electrodialysis cell used for this experiment was a MP type cell with one cation exchange<br />

membrane (CEM) membrane, one anion exchange membrane (AEM) and two UFM with<br />

MWCO of 50 kDa or 20 kDa. The electrodialysis configuration was divided <strong>in</strong>to four<br />

compartments. Two of them conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 1.5L of KCl solution for the recovery and<br />

concentration of peptides (compartments KCl1 and KCl2 for the recovery of anionic and<br />

cationic peptides respectively) . One compartment conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the electrode r<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>g solution and<br />

another one for the feed solution (snow crab by-products hydrolysate). Electroseparation was<br />

performed <strong>in</strong> batch process us<strong>in</strong>g electrical field strengths of 2 V/cm or 14 V/cm dur<strong>in</strong>g six<br />

hours. Afterwards, the evolution of peptide concentration <strong>in</strong> the KCl compartments were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by BCA prote<strong>in</strong> assays and peptide molecular weight and distribution <strong>in</strong> the KCl<br />

compartment was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by LC-MS and the KCl fractions were tested on Escherichia coli<br />

ATCC 25922 and Listeria <strong>in</strong>nocua HPB 13.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1723

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In the KCl1 compartment, the highest peptide transport rate was obta<strong>in</strong>ed at 14 V/cm with<br />

UFM MWCO of 50 kDa with a value of 32.4 g/m 2 .h. At 2 V/cm and whatever the UFM<br />

MWCO, similar values of peptide transport rates were calculated. For the KCl2 compartment<br />

and contrary to KCl1 compartment, the peptide transport rate and peptide percentages <strong>in</strong> KCl<br />

powders rema<strong>in</strong>ed low dur<strong>in</strong>g the electroseparation. As observed for the KCl1 compartment,<br />

the important electrical field strength applied <strong>in</strong> the system (14 V/cm) comb<strong>in</strong>ed to a large<br />

UFM MWCO (50 kDa) allowed the highest peptide migration. With respect to the peptide<br />

molecular weight and distribution, <strong>in</strong> the KCl1 and KCl2 compartments after EDUF, whatever<br />

the electric field strength and UFM MWCO, the 300-600 Da molecular weights fraction was<br />

the most abundant with an average of about 94% and was also the one with the highest<br />

migration rate. The 800-900 Da molecular weight range peptide (peptide which demonstrated<br />

antibacterial properties <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itial snow crab by-products hydrolysate) was only detected <strong>in</strong><br />

the KCl1 compartment after electroseparation performed at 14V/cm with UFM MWCO of 50<br />

kDa; this molecular weight range represented a migration rate of about 30%. With respect to<br />

the antibacterial activities, only the KCl1 fraction at 50g of peptide/L and recovered after<br />

EDUF separation at 14 V/cm with UFM MWCO of 50 kDa showed antibacterial activity on<br />

Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Listeria <strong>in</strong>nocua HPB 13with <strong>in</strong>hibition diameter of 4.0<br />

mm. The <strong>in</strong>itial snow crab by-product hydrolysate at the same concentration (50 g of<br />

peptide/L) did not exhibit antibacterial activity.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

These results demonstrated the selectivity of the EDUF process concern<strong>in</strong>g the migration and<br />

the concentration of specific peptide fractions depend<strong>in</strong>g on the process parameters (electrical<br />

field strength and UFM MWCO). F<strong>in</strong>ally, different experiments to determ<strong>in</strong>e am<strong>in</strong>o acid<br />

sequence of the antibacterial peptide <strong>in</strong> the EDUF antibacterial fraction (KCl1 recovered after<br />

EDUF separation performed at 14V/cm with UFM MWCO of 50 kDa) will be carried-out <strong>in</strong><br />

the near future.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] H. Korhonen, A. Pihlanto. 2003. <strong>Food</strong>-derived Bioactive Peptides – Opportunities for Design<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Future <strong>Food</strong>s. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 9 (16), 1297-1308.<br />

[2] L. Beaulieu, J. Thibodeau, M. Desbiens, R. Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Louis, C. Zatylny-Gaud<strong>in</strong>, S. Thibault. 2010.<br />

Evidence of Antibacterial Activities <strong>in</strong> Peptide Fractions Orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from Snow Crab (Chionoecetes<br />

opilio) By-Products. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Prote<strong>in</strong>s, 2 (3), 1-13.<br />

[3] L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et, J. Amiot, J.F. Poul<strong>in</strong>, A. Tremblay, D. Labbé. 2005. <strong>Process</strong> and system for separation of<br />

organic charged compounds. Brevet PCT/CA2005/000337.<br />

[4] J.F. Poul<strong>in</strong>, J. Amiot, L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et. 2006. Simultaneous separation of acid and basic bioactive peptides<br />

by electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membrane. Journal of Biotechnology, 123 (3), 314-328<br />

[5] L. Firdaous, P. Dhulster, J. Amiot, A. Doyen, F. Lut<strong>in</strong>, L.P. Véz<strong>in</strong>a, L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et. 2010. Investigation of<br />

the large-scale bioseparation of an antihypertensive peptide from alfalfa white prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysate by<br />

an electromembrane process. Journal of Membrane Science, 355 (1-2), 175-181.<br />

1724

Prospection of bacterial endophytes isolated from Baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.) as a<br />

potential source of bioactive compounds<br />

Gustavo Mol<strong>in</strong>a a , Ana Paula Dionísio a , Mariana Recco Pimentel a , Gisele Tokie Makita a , Renato Correia<br />

dos Reis a , Gláucia Maria Pastore a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as (UNICAMP).<br />

Camp<strong>in</strong>as, São Paulo, Brazil (gustavomol<strong>in</strong>agm@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The term “endophytes” <strong>in</strong>cludes a suite of microorganisms that grow <strong>in</strong>tra and/or<br />

<strong>in</strong>tercelullarly <strong>in</strong> the tissues of higher plants without caus<strong>in</strong>g over symptoms on the plants <strong>in</strong><br />

which they live. These micro-organisms represents a potential source of novel natural products<br />

for medic<strong>in</strong>al, agricultural and <strong>in</strong>dustrial uses, such as antibiotics, anticancer agents, biological<br />

control agents, and other bioactive compounds [1, 2].<br />

Endophytes provide a broad variety of bioactive secondary metabolites with unique structure,<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g alkaloids, benzopyranones, ch<strong>in</strong>ones, flavonoids, phenolic acids, qu<strong>in</strong>ones, steroids,<br />

terpenoids, tetralones, xanthones, and others [3]. Such bioactive metabolites f<strong>in</strong>d wide-rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

application as agrochemicals, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, antiparasitics, antioxidants, and<br />

anticancer agents [4].<br />

The aim of the present work was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the biotechnological potential of bacterial<br />

endophytes isolated from Baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the antimicrobial activity,<br />

the enzymatic profile and the biotransformation of -p<strong>in</strong>ene were evaluated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In the biotransformation process, the bacterial culture was grown and the concentrated biomass<br />

was placed <strong>in</strong> a 250 mL conical flask conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL of m<strong>in</strong>eral medium. Biotransformation<br />

was started by add<strong>in</strong>g 0,5% (v/v) of -p<strong>in</strong>ene, and the flasks were <strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> rotary shaker at<br />

30 ºC and 150 rpm, and samples were monitored by gas chromatography until 96h. To access<br />

antimicrobial activity, one full loop of the 24h old culture was transferred to a 50 mL<br />

Erlenmeyer flask conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 10 mL of liquid YM medium. After 8 days of <strong>in</strong>cubation at 30 °C<br />

and 150 rpm, the biomass was recovered by vacuum filtration with membrane 0.22 m<br />

(Millex® - Millipore) to obta<strong>in</strong> the bacterial extract, which was tested aga<strong>in</strong>st pathogenic<br />

cultures by the disc diffusion method. The isolated stra<strong>in</strong>s were also tested for their ability to<br />

produce extracellular enzymes that degrade culture medium conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g starch, prote<strong>in</strong> and<br />

olive oil, for a screen<strong>in</strong>g of amylase, protease and lipase enzymes production, respectively.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

A total of 17 bacteria stra<strong>in</strong>s were isolated from Baru and identified <strong>in</strong> the present work.<br />

Screen<strong>in</strong>g of the antimicrobial activity of endophytic extracts revealed a considerable activity<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st the pathogenic cultures tested. Most of the extracts <strong>in</strong>hibited the growth of Candida<br />

albicans, Escherichia coli and Sthaphylococcus aureus.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1725

Furthermore, it was observed that the vast majority of bacteria showed a high level protease<br />

activity, the lipase and amylase profile was detected <strong>in</strong> most isolates but with less <strong>in</strong>tensity.<br />

The prelim<strong>in</strong>ary results obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the biotransformation process showed that 2 bacterial<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>s bioconverted -p<strong>in</strong>ene <strong>in</strong>to verbenol (85% similarity <strong>in</strong> MS results). The bioconversion<br />

occurred based on the biochemical reaction of hydroxylation of -p<strong>in</strong>ene, and this reaction was<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> some articles [5, 6].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This paper represents the use of bacterial endophytes isolated from the Cerrado brazilian biome<br />

and demonstrates a partial use of these microorganisms <strong>in</strong> biotechnological processes and their<br />

potential as source of bioactive compounds.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Li J., Zhao G.Z., Chen H.H., Wang H.B., Q<strong>in</strong> S., Zhu W.Y., Xu L.H., Jiang C.L. & Li W.J. 2008.<br />

Antitumour and Antimicrobial Activities of Endophytic Streptomycetes from Pharmaceutical Plants<br />

<strong>in</strong> Ra<strong>in</strong>forest. Letters <strong>in</strong> Applied Microbiology, 47, 574–580.<br />

[2] Tan R.X. & Zou W.X. 2001. Endophytes: a Rich Source of Functional Metabolites. Natural Product<br />

Reports, 18, 448–459.<br />

[3] Kogel K.H., Franken P. & Huckelhoven R. 2006. Endophyte or Parasite — What Decides? Current<br />

Op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>in</strong> Plant Biology, 9, 358–363.<br />

[4] Strobel G.A. 2003. Endophytes as Sources of Bioactive Products. Microbes and Infection, 5, 535–<br />

544.<br />

[5] Maróstica Jr M.R., Mota N.O., Baudet N. & Pastore G.M. 2007. Fungal Biotransformation of<br />

Monoterpenes Found <strong>in</strong> Agro-Industrial Residues from Orange and Pulp Industries <strong>in</strong>to Aroma<br />

Compounds: Screen<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g Solid Phase Microextraction. <strong>Food</strong> Science Biotechnology, 16.<br />

[6] Agrawal R., Deepika N.U.A. & Joseph R. 1999. Stra<strong>in</strong> Improvement of Aspergillus sp. and<br />

Penicillium sp. by Induced Mutation for Biotransformaiton of -p<strong>in</strong>ene to Verbenol. Biotechnology<br />

and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 63, 249-252.<br />

1726

Biotransformation of R-(+)- and S-()-limonene by Fusarium oxysporum<br />

Gustavo Mol<strong>in</strong>a a , Renata L<strong>in</strong>o da Costa a , Ana Paula Dionísio a , Juliano Lemos Bicas b , Gláucia Maria<br />

Pastore a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as (UNICAMP).<br />

Camp<strong>in</strong>as, São Paulo, Brazil (gustavomol<strong>in</strong>agm@gmail.com)<br />

b Cap, Federal University of São João Del Rey. Ouro Branco, M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In the past few years much work has been done on the biotransformation of limonene, an<br />

<strong>in</strong>expensive hydrocarbon monoterpene, which is one of the most widely distributed terpene <strong>in</strong><br />

nature. As its chemical structure is similar to that of many oxygenated monoterpenoids<br />

present<strong>in</strong>g a pleasant fragrance, e.g. perillyl alcohol, carveol, carvone, menthol and -terp<strong>in</strong>eol,<br />

it may be used as a precursor <strong>in</strong> the synthesis of these flavor compounds [1].<br />

Recently, the stra<strong>in</strong> F. oxysporum 152b has been selected based on its high production of<br />

extracellular alkal<strong>in</strong>e lipase [2]. Simultaneously, other publications have also described the<br />

biotransformation of R-(+)-limonene <strong>in</strong>to R-(+)--terp<strong>in</strong>eol catalysed by the same stra<strong>in</strong> [3,4].<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> characteristics of this conversion were described <strong>in</strong> recent papers [5] but no<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation deals with the bioconversion of its isomer, S-()-limonene.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A 72 h culture grown on agar <strong>in</strong> a Petri dish was divided amongst 250 mL conical flasks<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL of YM medium (10 g.L-1 glucose, 5 g.L-1 peptone, 3 g.L-1 yeast extract, 3<br />

g.L-1 malt extract, pH 6.7) and homogenized under sterile conditions us<strong>in</strong>g an Ultra-Turrax®<br />

T18 (Ika, Wilm<strong>in</strong>gton, NC, USA) until complete disruption of the solid matter. After 72 h<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubation at 30 °C/150 rpm, the cell mass was concentrated by vacuum filtration us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

Buchner funnel with Whatman n° 1 filter paper. The concentrated biomass was placed <strong>in</strong> a 250<br />

mL conical flask conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50mL of m<strong>in</strong>eral medium. Biotransformation was started by<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g 0,5% (v/v) of S-()-limonene, the flasks were <strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> rotary shaker at 30 ºC and<br />

150 rpm and samples were monitored by gas chromatography until 96h.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In former studies, Bicas et al [3] optimised the medium composition and the culture conditions<br />

<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the biotransformation of R-(+)-limonene by Fusarium oxysporum. In sequence,<br />

Bicas et al [5] described the production of almost 4 g.L -1 of -terp<strong>in</strong>eol after 48 h of<br />

fermentation, which rema<strong>in</strong>ed stable until reach<strong>in</strong>g 96 h.<br />

However, the biotransformation of S-(-)-limonene led to the production of 1.2 g.L -1 limonene-<br />

1,2-diol, under non optimised conditions. This is a result from the r<strong>in</strong>g double bond<br />

epoxidation of limonene, followed by the correspond<strong>in</strong>g diol formation. However, the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1727

production of the <strong>in</strong>termediate limonene-1,2-epoxide was not detected, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the<br />

reaction proceeds ma<strong>in</strong>ly for the diol production.<br />

It was proven that the enzyme responsible for the production of -terp<strong>in</strong>eol by the<br />

biotransformation of R-(+)-limonene was enantioselective and enantiospecific, has an<br />

<strong>in</strong>tracellular nature and acts <strong>in</strong> anaerobic conditions. In the present study, it was observed that<br />

the production of limonene-1,2-diol from S-()-limonene has also an <strong>in</strong>tracellular nature but it<br />

was highly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by an aerobic system and seemed to be cofactor dependent, consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that the product was not detected with an anaerobic biotransformation.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results collected encourage further studies with this biocatalyst and the characterization of<br />

its enzyme system, <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the biotransformation of S-()-limonene, consider<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

concentration of limonene-1,2-diol achieved. Moreover, the optimization of culture conditions<br />

could enhance its production and the application of other terpenes as substrate is of great<br />

importance and could be source of novel aroma compounds with <strong>in</strong>dustrial <strong>in</strong>terest.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Bicas J.L., Dionísio A.P. & Pastore G.M. 2009. Bio-oxidation of Terpenes: An Approach for the<br />

Flavor Industry. Chemical Reviews, 109, 4518-4531.<br />

[2] Prazeres J.N., Cruz J.A.B. & Pastore G.M. 2006. Characterization of Alkal<strong>in</strong>e Lipase from Fusarium<br />

oxysporum and the Effect of Different Surfactants and Detergents on the Enzyme Activity. Brazilian<br />

Journal of Microbiology, 37, 505–509.<br />

[3] Bicas J.L., Barros F.F.C., Wagner R., Godoy H.T. & Pastore G.M. 2008. Optimization of R-(+)--<br />

terp<strong>in</strong>eol Production by the Biotransformation of R-(+)-Limonene. Journal of Industrial Microbiology<br />

and Biotechnology, 35, 1061-1070.<br />

[4] Maróstica Jr M.R. & Pastore G.M. 2007. Production of R-(+)--Terp<strong>in</strong>eol by the Biotransformation of<br />

Limonene from Orange Essential Oil, us<strong>in</strong>g Cassava Waste Water as Medium. <strong>Food</strong> Science, 101,<br />

345-350.<br />

[5] Bicas J.L., Quadros C.P., Neri-Numa I.A. & Pastore G.M. 2010. Integrated process for co-production<br />

of alkal<strong>in</strong>e lipase and R-(+)-a-terp<strong>in</strong>eol by Fusarium oxysporum. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 120, 452–456.<br />

1728

Pulsed Light Decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of Vegetables and Fruits<br />

Gianpiero Pataro a* , Giorgio Donsì a,b , Giovanna Ferrari a,b<br />

a Department of Industrial <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy (gpataro@unisa.it)<br />

b ProdAl scarl, Fisciano, Italy (<strong>in</strong>fo@prodalricerche.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Pulsed light (PL) is an emerg<strong>in</strong>g technology which has considerable potential as an alternative<br />

to thermal and chemical methods for rapid and effective <strong>in</strong>activation of microorganisms on<br />

food surfaces. The technique <strong>in</strong>volves the use of <strong>in</strong>tense short duration light pulses of a wide<br />

broad spectrum light (100-1100 nm) [1]. A significant number of publications on the subject<br />

have documented the ability of PL to <strong>in</strong>activate microbial species spread on agar surfaces [2],<br />

while only few publications are deal<strong>in</strong>g with the PL decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of food products [3].<br />

In this work the ability of PL treatments for surface decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of vegetables and fruits<br />

by kill<strong>in</strong>g native microflora was <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples of three varieties of tomatoes (Micron, BNC8015 and AA7033) and two varieties of<br />

peaches (Lucia and Duceur) were exposed to PL treatments at different energy doses (35-250<br />

J/cm 2 /side). PL flashes (3 pulses/s, pulse width 360 s, 0.39 J/cm 2 /pulse) were generated by<br />

SteriPulse®-XL 3000 Pulsed light Sterilization System (Xenon Corp., Wilm<strong>in</strong>gton, Mass.,<br />

USA). The lethality of PL treatments was assessed by the total aerobic mesophilic count and<br />

yeast and mould population.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results reported <strong>in</strong> Table 1 show that the reduction of the native microflora is progressively<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the energy <strong>in</strong>cident on the surface of each product. However, no<br />

complete <strong>in</strong>activation was detected even when the higher energy dose was applied.<br />

At fixed energy dose applied the effectiveness of the treatment depended on the PL sensitivity<br />

of the microbial population liv<strong>in</strong>g on the surface of each variety of product. The native<br />

microflora present on the surface of tomatoes of the variety Micron highlighted the greater<br />

sensitivity to light pulses followed by the one liv<strong>in</strong>g on the surface of the tomatoes of the<br />

variety BNC8015 and AA7033. Between the two variety of peaches tested microbial population<br />

liv<strong>in</strong>g on the surface of Lucia variety showed the higher sensitivity to light pulses.<br />

Thermal damages were visible especially on the surface of the peaches when treatments of<br />

higher energy dose were applied. Therefore, multi-step treatment <strong>in</strong> which each side of the<br />

product was exposed several times to light pulses of low energy dose (31.4 J/cm 2 /side) per step<br />

made it possible to achieve the same lethal effect along with the m<strong>in</strong>imum thermal damage<br />

(data not shown).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1729

Table 1. Microbial counts of total plate counts and yeast and mould <strong>in</strong> fresh and PL treated tomatoes and<br />

peaches.<br />

Product Product Variety Energy dose*<br />

J/cm 2 /side<br />

Tomato Micron 0<br />

6<br />

18<br />

35<br />

BNC8015 0<br />

6<br />

18<br />

35<br />

AA7033 0<br />

6<br />

18<br />

35<br />

Peaches Lucia 0<br />

21<br />

31<br />

63<br />

126<br />

252<br />

Duceur 0<br />

21<br />

31<br />

63<br />

126<br />

252<br />

* Two sides per fruit were considered<br />

Aerobic mesophilic count<br />

Log-CFU/mL<br />

3.16<br />

2.70<br />

1.51<br />

0.78<br />

2.48<br />

2.49<br />

1.62<br />

0.85<br />

2.00<br />

1.95<br />

1.95<br />

1.00<br />

3,42<br />

3,22<br />

2,22<br />

1,91<br />

1,51<br />

0,92<br />

3,98<br />

3,68<br />

2,88<br />

2,23<br />

1,59<br />

0,82<br />

Yeast and Mould<br />

Log-CFU/mL<br />

2.48<br />

1.89<br />

0.90<br />

0.30<br />

2.42<br />

2.17<br />

1.93<br />

1.57<br />

2.54<br />

2.50<br />

2.45<br />

1.36<br />

2,89<br />

2,81<br />

2,35<br />

1,80<br />

1,10<br />

0,69<br />

3,22<br />

3,01<br />

2,55<br />

2,44<br />

1,39<br />

0,69<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Our results suggest that PL treatment operated under optimal conditions may constitute an<br />

effective method for the surface decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of fruit and vegetable products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Krishnamurthy K., Tewari J.C., Irudayaraj J. & Demirci A. 2008. Microscopic and spectroscopic<br />

evaluation of <strong>in</strong>activation of Staphylococcus aureus by pulsed UV light and <strong>in</strong>frared heat<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>Food</strong><br />

and Bioprocess Technology. doi:10.1007/s11947-008-0084-8.<br />

[2] Elmnasser N., Guillou S., Leroi F., Orange N., Bakhrouf A. & Federighi M. 2007. Pulsed-light system<br />

as a novel food decontam<strong>in</strong>ation technology: A review. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 53, 813–<br />

821.<br />

[3] Gómez-López, V.M., Devlieghere, F., Bonduelle, V. & Debevere, J. 2005. Intense light pulses<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed vegetables and their shelf-life. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Microbiology, 103, 79-89.<br />

1730

Shelf life extension of fresh-cut fruit by UV-light exposure<br />

Lara Manzocco, Sara Da Pieve, Ingrid Bartolomeoli, Michela Maifreni<br />

Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti Università degli Studi di Ud<strong>in</strong>e, Ud<strong>in</strong>e, Italy<br />

(lara.manzocco@uniud.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fresh-cut fruit and vegetables are tremendously grow<strong>in</strong>g segments <strong>in</strong> retail establishments due<br />

to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g consumer demand for fresh, healthy and convenient foods. Fresh-cut process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

is well known to promote a faster degradation. For this reason, new technologies for<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g quality while <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g undesired microbial growth are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) treatment from 200 to 280 nm is a powerful non-thermal germicidal<br />

method which has raised a large attention due to easy use and favourable costs of equipments,<br />

energy and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance [1]. Moreover, such technology has been reported to promote<br />

enzymatic <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> vegetable tissues without form<strong>in</strong>g known toxic or significant nontoxic<br />

by products. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of UV-C light on safety and<br />

quality of fresh-cut fruit.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fruits were cut <strong>in</strong> cubes, slices or sticks, irradiated with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g UV-C light doses up to<br />

12000 J/m 2 (maximum emission 253.7 nm) and packed. Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at 6 °C up to 10 days,<br />

samples were analysed for colour, firmness, juice leakage and microbial population.<br />

Microscopic analyses of plant tissues as well as tra<strong>in</strong>ed sensory panel analysis and preference<br />

analysis were also performed dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Microbial populations of fresh-cut samples were significantly reduced by light exposure. UV-C<br />

light treatment leaded to a number of log reductions higher than 2 for total viable count,<br />

enterobacteria and yeasts and moulds. In particular, Table 1 shows the effect of UV-C light<br />

exposure on total viable count of different fresh-cut fruits.<br />

Table 1. Log reductions <strong>in</strong> total viable count of fresh-cut fruit exposed to 1200J/m 2 UV-C light.<br />

Fresh-cut fruit Total viable count Log reductions<br />

Apple slices 3.1 ± 0.3<br />

Melon cubes 2.2 ± 0.2<br />

P<strong>in</strong>eapple sticks<br />

n=15<br />

2.0 ± 0.4<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1731

Total viable counts rema<strong>in</strong>ed about 2 Log cycles lower than that of the untreated fruit dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the entire storage time at 6 °C.<br />

The decontam<strong>in</strong>ation effect of UV-C light is strictly dependent on the fruit matrix considered.<br />

Fruits present<strong>in</strong>g a flat and smooth surface are generally associated to higher decontam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

efficiency of UV-C radiation. To this regard, <strong>in</strong>tense surface roughness, typical of p<strong>in</strong>eapple<br />

sticks (table 1) is expected to shadow eventual microbial cells, thus impair<strong>in</strong>g the germicidal<br />

effect.<br />

UV-C light treated samples showed not significantly different colour and firmness as compared<br />

to the control. In the case of apple derivatives, this was attributed to complet <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

polyphenoloxidase on cut surface [2] By contrast, leakage of <strong>in</strong>tracellular liquids from UV-C<br />

treated samples was significantly lower, possibly due to the dehydration of a th<strong>in</strong> surface layer<br />

of fruit tissue upon light exposure [3]. It can be hypothesized that UV-C exposure promotes the<br />

modification of fruit cell structure lead<strong>in</strong>g to the rupture of membranes of cells and thus<br />

favour<strong>in</strong>g the progressive dehydration of the sample. The hypothesis of the loss of cell <strong>in</strong>tegrity<br />

upon light exposure was also supported by optical microscopy observations performed to<br />

assess the structure changes produced, at a cellular level.<br />

In order to verify the potential effects of UV-C light exposure on the sensory properties of<br />

fresh-cut fruit, samples were submitted to sensory analysis us<strong>in</strong>g both tra<strong>in</strong>ed panel and<br />

consumers. Results <strong>in</strong>dicated UV-C treated samples to have better flavour than the untreated<br />

fruit while no differences were detected <strong>in</strong> the other sensory descriptors. In addition, UV-C<br />

light treated samples were associated to an off-flavour perception lower than that of the control<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the entire storage, possibly due to lower microbial growth dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. As suggested<br />

by the specific microbiological criteria for m<strong>in</strong>imally processed fruits and vegetables, a total<br />

viable count of 7 log CFU/g was taken as acceptability limit to estimate shelf life. UV-light<br />

exposure caused a 40 % extension <strong>in</strong> shelf life.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results <strong>in</strong>dicate that UV-C treatment represents an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g technology to non-thermally<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ate the surface of fresh-cut products, thus extend<strong>in</strong>g their shelf life. These effect<br />

can be attributed to: death of spoilage microorganisms physically exposed to the radiation;<br />

prevention of off-flavour formation dur<strong>in</strong>g storage; formation of a dried protective edible film<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g microbial growth and juice leakage.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] B<strong>in</strong>tsis, T., Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E. & Rob<strong>in</strong>son, R. K. 2000. Exist<strong>in</strong>g and potential applications of<br />

ultraviolet light <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong>dustry – a critical review. Journal of the Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture,<br />

80, 637-645.<br />

[2] Manzocco L., Quarta B. & Dri A. 2009. Polyphenoloxidase <strong>in</strong>activation by light exposure <strong>in</strong> model<br />

systems and apple derivatives. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 10, 4, 506-511.<br />

[3] Manzocco L., Da Pieve S. & Maifreni M. 2011. Impact of UV-C light on safety and quality of freshcut<br />

melon. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technology, <strong>in</strong> press.<br />

1732

Effect of ozonation on the sensory characteristics and past<strong>in</strong>g properties of cassava starch<br />

Emanuele O. C. AMORIM, Vanessa C. DOVAL, Marcelo CRISTIANINI<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (DTA), School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as<br />

(UNICAMP), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (olecram@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The ozone is a strong antimicrobial agent with high reactivity and spontaneous decomposition<br />

to non-toxic products [1]. Ozone has potential applications <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry and it can be<br />

applied to food <strong>in</strong> liquid and gaseous forms [2]. Starch has been largely used <strong>in</strong> the food and<br />

cosmetics <strong>in</strong>dustry due to its functional properties and its low cost. Be<strong>in</strong>g one of the most used<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients, starch imparts structure, texture, consistency and appeal to many food systems [3].<br />

Previous works have shown that ozone is effective to decrease starch microbial contam<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

The objective of this study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effect of different ozone treatments on the<br />

sensory characteristics and past<strong>in</strong>g properties of cassava starch.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Cassava starch (11% moisture) was humidified to obta<strong>in</strong> a f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content of<br />

approximately 30%. The product was exposed to ozone <strong>in</strong> gas form (14 m 3 /h) pumped <strong>in</strong>to a<br />

horizontal dry mixer at approximate concentrations of 40 ppm for 30, 60, 90 and 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes<br />

and 118 ppm for 30 and 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes. As a control, an experiment was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g only air<br />

at the same flow rate. The samples were dried at 45°C for 24 h and their sensory characteristics<br />

and past<strong>in</strong>g properties were evaluated.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

On the past<strong>in</strong>g properties, the effect of ozone was more evident on the peak viscosity and<br />

breakdown. The peak viscosity of the ozonized samples, with the exception of the sample<br />

treated at 40 ppm for 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes, was significantly higher than of the control and standard<br />

samples. The ozonized samples presented lower cook<strong>in</strong>g stability under agitation than the<br />

untreated and control samples. The treatments that affected the greatest number of viscographic<br />

characteristics were at 40 ppm/90 m<strong>in</strong>. and 118 ppm/60 m<strong>in</strong>. On the other hand, the sample<br />

treated at 40 ppm/30 m<strong>in</strong>. did not present any significant change on its past<strong>in</strong>g properties. The<br />

difference between the two ozone concentrations employed was very discrete, and it was<br />

noticeable only on the parameters breakdown, f<strong>in</strong>al viscosity and setback and basically <strong>in</strong> one<br />

exposure time (60 m<strong>in</strong>utes). The effect of <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> exposure time was observed only for the<br />

parameters peak viscosity and breakdown, when the 40 ppm concentration was used, and for<br />

the setback, when the 118 ppm concentration was employed.<br />

Table 1 shows the mean notes for the color and odor attributes of the samples evaluated. The<br />

results <strong>in</strong>dicated that there was no significant difference among ozonized and standard samples<br />

regard<strong>in</strong>g the color, with the exception of the samples treated at 40 and 118 ppm dur<strong>in</strong>g 30<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes that were scored as higher (brighter) than the untreated sample.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1733

Table 1. Mean values of the notes attributed to samples for the color and odor attributes<br />

Attribute Exposure time<br />

40 ppm<br />

Samples<br />

118 ppm Control Standard<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong>utes 1,42 a 1,00 a 1,42 a 0,32 b<br />

60 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,64 b 0,70 b 1,04 a 0,39 b<br />

90 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,67 b - 0,77 a 0,40 b<br />

Cor<br />

120 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,67 a - 0,93 a 0,57 a<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,89 a<br />

1,07 a<br />

0,87 a<br />

0,39 b<br />

60 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,67 a<br />

0,70 a<br />

0,54 a<br />

0,54 a<br />

90 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,95 a<br />

- 0,37 b<br />

0,27 b<br />

Odor<br />

120 m<strong>in</strong>utes 0,99 a<br />

- 0,47 a<br />

0,67 a<br />

In the same row, treated samples (ozonized and control) codified with different letters from the<br />

standard sample differed significantly from this.<br />

The effect of ozone on the odor attribute was more pronounced than on the color. The samples<br />

treated at 40 ppm for 30 and 90 m<strong>in</strong>utes and 118 ppm for 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes were scored as different<br />

from the untreated sample regard<strong>in</strong>g the odor.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Previous work showed that ozone can be efficient to decrease starch microbial contam<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

However, the ozone treatment changed partially the past<strong>in</strong>g properties and sensory<br />

characteristics of the product.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kim J.G., Yousef A.E. & Dave S. 1999. Application of ozone for enhanc<strong>in</strong>g the microbiological<br />

safety and quality of foods: a review. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Protection, 62(9), 1071-1087.<br />

[2] Dhillon B., Wiesenborn D., Wolf-Hall C. & Manthey F. 2009. Development and evaluation of an<br />

ozonated water system for antimicrobial treatment of durum wheat. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 74(7),<br />

396-403.<br />

[3] Bhat R. & Karim A.A. 2009. Impact of radiation process<strong>in</strong>g on starch. Comprehensive reviews <strong>in</strong><br />

food science and food safety, 8, 44-58.<br />

1734

Production of antioxidant enriched cranberry juice by electrodialysis with filtration<br />

membrane: impact of process on juice composition<br />

L. Baz<strong>in</strong>et 1 , S. Brianceau 1 , M. Araya-Farias 1 , Y. Desjard<strong>in</strong>s 2<br />

1 Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional <strong>Food</strong>s (INAF), Université Laval, Department of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Sciences and Nutrition, Laval University, Sa<strong>in</strong>te-Foy (QC), Canada, G1V 0A6.<br />

Laurent.Baz<strong>in</strong>et@fsaa.ulaval.ca<br />

2 Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional <strong>Food</strong>s (INAF), Université Laval, Department of Phytology,<br />

Laval University, Sa<strong>in</strong>te-Foy (QC), Canada, G1V 0A6<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Cranberry is recognized for its high antioxidant potential. So, the enrichment of a cranberry<br />

juice with polyphenols, such as anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s and proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s, would be particularly<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g for the ever grow<strong>in</strong>g nutrition-health market. To answer the consumer demands for<br />

healthy products, the food <strong>in</strong>dustry is look<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>novative technologies for their<br />

manufacture. Baz<strong>in</strong>et et al. [1] demonstrated that it is possible to enrich a cranberry juice <strong>in</strong><br />

antioxidants from another cranberry juice by electrodialysis with filtration membrane (EDFM).<br />

This process is <strong>in</strong>expensive, easy to use and environmently friendly. Nevertheless, <strong>in</strong> this first<br />

prelim<strong>in</strong>ary work on the subject, it was demonstrated that if used as is this technology has the<br />

disadvantage to generate a raw juice impoverished <strong>in</strong> antioxidants with an unsatisfactory color<br />

and taste. In order to transpose this technology at an <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale for the production of an<br />

antioxidant enriched cranberry juice, Baz<strong>in</strong>et et al.[1] proposed the <strong>in</strong>tegration of EDFM to the<br />

conventional process used for cranberry juice production, <strong>in</strong> a way avoid<strong>in</strong>g the generation of a<br />

source juice impoverished <strong>in</strong> polyphenols. However, the effectiveness of such a process was<br />

not demonstrated.<br />

In this context, the objectives of this work were 1) to validate the feasibility of the <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />

proposed process, 2) to study the composition evolution of source and enriched cranberry<br />

juices dur<strong>in</strong>g consecutive EDFM treatments 3) to study the EDFM parameters evolution.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

EDFM treatments were performed <strong>in</strong> batch process us<strong>in</strong>g a constant voltage difference of 30 V.<br />

In order to evaluate the feasibility of EDFM treatments for the production of a polyphenolenriched<br />

cranberry juice 300 mL of cranberry juice were circulated <strong>in</strong> the compartment on the<br />

cathode side and 3L of cranberry juice <strong>in</strong> the compartment on the anode side. The cranberry<br />

juices were circulated three times (3 cycles). The duration of the treatment was 2 h.<br />

Conductivity and pH of cranberry juices were recorded throughout the process as well as the<br />

global system resistance. Anthocyan<strong>in</strong>, proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>, organic acid, m<strong>in</strong>eral contents (Na,<br />

K, P, Ca, Mg, Cu) juice color parameters (L*, a* and b*) and °Brix were determ<strong>in</strong>ed before<br />

treatments and follow<strong>in</strong>g each cycle on the cranberry juices and on a control.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1735

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The general trends <strong>in</strong> the different juices were that the anthocyan<strong>in</strong> contents <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the<br />

enriched juice all along the treatment, while at the same time the concentration of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s<br />

were constant whatever the cycle. Total anthocyan<strong>in</strong> concentration <strong>in</strong> the enriched juice<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased from 136.4 ± 7.1 to 162.9 ± 8.0 g/L dur<strong>in</strong>g treatments correspond<strong>in</strong>g to a 19.4%<br />

enrichment value. However, total concentration <strong>in</strong> the raw juice rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant at 125.9 ±<br />

6.3 g/L throughout the treatment. Organic acid concentrations rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant and were<br />

preserved <strong>in</strong> treated cranberry juices except for citric acid concentration. EDFM treatments did<br />

not have a significant effect on the pH of the enriched and raw cranberry juices. The mean pH<br />

of enriched and raw juices was 2.6 ± 0.1 and 2.9 ± 0.1 respectively. Soluble sugars (Brix) <strong>in</strong><br />

juices rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant at 6.9 ± 0.5 throughout treatments. Color parameters for the enriched<br />

juices rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant dur<strong>in</strong>g all cycles of EDFM. The mean global system resistance<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased from 50.3 ±1.5 to 83.0 ± 4.0 dur<strong>in</strong>g the first cycle and from 65.3 ± 2.4 to 87.3<br />

± 10.3 dur<strong>in</strong>g the second and third cycle. The decrease <strong>in</strong> the global system resistance at the<br />

beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of each cycle might also be due to a foul<strong>in</strong>g of the membranes. Dur<strong>in</strong>g each cycle,<br />

the decrease <strong>in</strong> the electrical conductivity of ion-exchange membranes resulted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

of the system resistance.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this study showed the effectiveness of the process to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />

antioxidant capacity and polyphenol content of a cranberry juice and confirmed the possibility<br />

to use EDFM process for the production of an antioxidant-enriched cranberry juice fraction<br />

from a large juice source. The model proposed for the <strong>in</strong>tegration of an EDFM system to the<br />

process used for the production of cranberry juices can be transposed at an <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale.<br />

However, prior to the development of an <strong>in</strong>dustrial process, it will be essential to carry-out a<br />

study on the foul<strong>in</strong>g of the membranes and determ<strong>in</strong>e the evolution of membrane parameters<br />

such as the stream<strong>in</strong>g potential determ<strong>in</strong>ation and the identification of the molecules <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g<br />

with the different types of membranes.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Baz<strong>in</strong>et L., Cossec C., Gaudreau H. and Desjard<strong>in</strong>s Y. (2009). Production of a phenolic antioxydant<br />

enriched cranberry juice by electrodialysis with filtration membrane, J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem. 57(21) :<br />

10245-10251.<br />

1736

Effect of sunflower oil applied by vacuum impregnation to refrigerated atlantic salmon<br />

Puente, L. a , Ortiz, J. a , Leiva, M. a , Aubourg, S. b<br />

a Universidad de Chile, <strong>Food</strong> Science And Chemical Technology, Santiago, Chile (lpuente@ciq.uchile.cl)<br />

b IIM-CSIC, Biotechnology and Acuiculture, Vigo, España (saubourg@iim.csic.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Salmon can be considered as a natural functional food, highly consumed due to their p<strong>in</strong>k meat<br />

and a high content of poli<strong>in</strong>saturated fatty acids omega-3 (acid eicosapentaenoic (C20:5, EPA)<br />

and acid docosahexaenoic (C22:6, DHA). These functional properties can be <strong>in</strong>creased by<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g some antioxidant compounds to improve their stability aga<strong>in</strong>st oxidative deterioration.<br />

One of the novel technologies to obta<strong>in</strong> new functional foods are vacuum impregnation,<br />

technique based on the addition of physiologically active compounds to food matrix by means<br />

of the hydrodynamic mechanism.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In this work we used the vacuum impregnation <strong>in</strong> two different matrices, fillets and gels of<br />

Atlantic salmon, we studied the effect us<strong>in</strong>g two impregnat<strong>in</strong>g solutions, sunflower oil as a<br />

source of alpha-tocopherol and a mixture of this oil with rosemary extract . The effects on the<br />

development of oxidative rancidity (peroxide value and p-anisid<strong>in</strong>e value) and the content of<br />

alpha-tocopherol were measured <strong>in</strong> both arrays <strong>in</strong> cool<strong>in</strong>g additionally measured astaxanth<strong>in</strong><br />

content and microbiological growth (RAM).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The effects on the development of oxidative rancidity (peroxide value and p-anisid<strong>in</strong>e value)<br />

and the content of alpha-tocopherol were measured <strong>in</strong> both arrays <strong>in</strong> cool<strong>in</strong>g additionally<br />

measured astaxanth<strong>in</strong> content and microbiological growth (RAM) . The results <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />

differences <strong>in</strong> the penetration of substrate and the protective effect of rancidity dur<strong>in</strong>g storage<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the type of matrices, gel fillet salmon lipoperoxidation parameters <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />

higher levels of primary and secondary oxidation <strong>in</strong> the gel, possibly associated the<br />

characteristics of the vehicle through impregnation and tocopherols, also existed but<br />

astaxanth<strong>in</strong> degradation caused by the impregnation process of the fillets and the effect of the<br />

gelation temperature, affect<strong>in</strong>g the color. On the other hand, the impregnation of sunflower oil<br />

and rosemary extract showed some antimicrobial activity<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1737

a) b)<br />

meq oxígeno/Kg<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />

Tiempo [días]<br />

Impregnación aceite Impregnación aceite + extracto Romero Control<br />

Figure 1. Peroxide value for salmon fillets and gel.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

After the results we can conclude that the impregnation of sunflower oil and rosemary extract<br />

may reduce rancidity and <strong>in</strong>hibit microbial growth <strong>in</strong> chilled Atlantic salmon.<br />

1738<br />

meq Oxígeno/Kg<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />

Tiempo [días]<br />

Impregnacióna aceite impregnación aceite + extracto Romero Control

Production of Mucor griceocyanus protease us<strong>in</strong>g different carbon sources <strong>in</strong> submerged<br />

fermentation<br />

a a a b a a<br />

Alejandro Ramírez, Jose Sánchez , Anna Il<strong>in</strong>á, Julio C. Dusted Mendoza, J. Rodríguez, José L.<br />

Martínez<br />

aDpto. de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila. Saltillo,<br />

Coahuila, México. b Grupo de Biotecnologia, Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Instituto Superior<br />

Politécnico José A. Echeverría. Habana Cuba. (jose-mart<strong>in</strong>ez@uadec.edu.mx)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

At present, the enzymes are the bigger market cover<strong>in</strong>g 60% of this <strong>in</strong>dustry are proteases,<br />

enzymes that break peptide bonds [1,3,4]. These enzymes are found naturally <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

organisms, plants, animals and microorganisms (fungi, bacteria and yeast). The applications of<br />

proteases are various as production of cheese and elaboration of detergents. The biotechnology<br />

and bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g have enabled the collection and production of proteases of microbial orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Some Mucorales species have been reported as protease producers but few papers have been<br />

published about the variables that control the production of protease from Mucor species [1,3].<br />

In this study we evaluated the ability to synthesize Mucor griseocyanus proteases <strong>in</strong> submerged<br />

culture us<strong>in</strong>g different carbon sources (glucose, lactose and whey).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Enzyme activities were compared by test<strong>in</strong>g the synthetic media glucose and lactose<br />

concentrations of 40, 60 and 80 g/L, <strong>in</strong> the case of whey was tested without modification. It<br />

also assessed the effect of <strong>in</strong>itial pH over the protease production. F<strong>in</strong>ally, we carried out a<br />

fermentation bioreactor scale (4L) under optimal conditions [2]. The optimal pH and<br />

temperature of protease of Mucor griseocyanus was evaluated.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

This study allowed to demostrate the ability of M. griseocyanus to produce extracellular<br />

protease enzyme <strong>in</strong> submerged fermentation us<strong>in</strong>g different carbon sources at different<br />

concentrations.<br />

Figure 1. Maximum levels of protease activity recorded us<strong>in</strong>g glucose, lactose and whey as carbon<br />

source.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1739

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Figure 1, <strong>in</strong> glucose medium at concentration of 40 g/L the protease activity level<br />

<strong>in</strong> tyros<strong>in</strong>e units (TU) was 29574 U/L at 24 h. Subsequently presented a second peak of 20090<br />

UT / L at 48 h. A similar profile was observed when us<strong>in</strong>g lactose, show<strong>in</strong>g a level of<br />

maximum protease activity 16200 U/ L at 24 h, and 25038 U/L at 48 h, be<strong>in</strong>g the highest level<br />

of activity registered. This behavior suggests the presence of isoenzymes or different types of<br />

protease that is synthesized at different times of growth. At concentration of 60 and 80 g / L is<br />

observed the same profile, however, low protease activity was detected (Fig. 1). Is possible<br />

catabolic repression.<br />

It was determ<strong>in</strong>ed that the best medium for protease production with small-scale Mucor<br />

griseocyanus was whey, as it presented a volumetric productivity of 648 U/L * h. The best<br />

conditions of pH and temperature for protease activity of M. griseocyanus were: 4-5 and 30 °C,<br />

respectively. The maximum level of protease activity produced by M. griseocyanus the 48 h of<br />

fermentation <strong>in</strong> a 4 L fermentor (Fig. 2), by us<strong>in</strong>g whey as the sole source of nutrients enriched<br />

with trace salts, was 27,400 U/L.<br />

Figure 2. Protease production by M. griseocyanus us<strong>in</strong>g whey as a source of nutrients <strong>in</strong> 4-liter reactor.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was found that M. griseocyanus synthesized proteases when used <strong>in</strong> submerged fermentation<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g as carbon sources: glucose, lactose and whey. Concentrations evaluated permit highest<br />

levels of enzyme activity us<strong>in</strong>g a carbohydrate concentration of 40 g / L, however, levels <strong>in</strong> the<br />

whey were slightly higher. The whey permit to obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g higher levels of enzyme protease,<br />

therefore, favor the development of economic growth media, because it is a byproduct of the<br />

dairy <strong>in</strong>dustry and generates high costs <strong>in</strong> its treatment to reduce environmental impacts.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Alves H. M., de Campos-Takaki M. G., Okada K., Ferreira H. I. and Milanez A. I. 2005. Detection of<br />

extracelular protease <strong>in</strong> Mucor species. Rev. Iberoam. Micol., 22: 114-117.<br />

[2] Coca, J. & Dustet J. 2006. Expression and characterization of lipase produced by Mucor griseocyanus.<br />

La Habana, Cuba. En: Biotecnología Aplicada, 23:224-228.<br />

[3] Haq, I., Mukhtar H. and N. Riaz, 2004. Protease biosynthesis by mutant stra<strong>in</strong> of Penicillium<br />

griseoroseum and cheese formation. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci., 7: 1473 – 6.<br />

[4 ] Haq, I., Mukhtar H., Umber H. 2005. Production of Protease by Penicillium chrysogenum Through<br />

Optimization of Environmental Conditions. Journal of agriculture & social sciences, 2(1): 23-25.<br />

1740

Evaluation of MAP design parameters on quality of fresh-cut produce<br />

F. Oliveira 12 , M. Sousa-Gallagher 1 , P. Mahajan 1 , J. Teixeira 2<br />

1<br />

Department of <strong>Process</strong> & Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University College Cork, Ireland<br />

(feliz.oliveira@hotmail.com, m.desousagallagher@ucc.ie, p.majahan@ucc.ie)<br />

2<br />

IBB - Institute for Biotechnology and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, Centre of Biological <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of<br />

M<strong>in</strong>ho, Portugal (jateixeira@deb.um<strong>in</strong>ho.pt)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

MAP design depends of the characteristics of the product, its recommended gas composition<br />

and its respiration rate as affected by temperature and headspace gas composition; and the<br />

permeability of the packag<strong>in</strong>g materials (perforated or non-perforated polymeric film) and its<br />

dependence on temperature. An <strong>in</strong>appropriately designed MAP system may be <strong>in</strong>effective or<br />

even shorten the storage life of a product: if the desired atmosphere is not established rapidly,<br />

the package draws no benefit; if O2 and O2/CO2 levels are not with<strong>in</strong> the recommended range,<br />

the product may experience serious alterations and its storage life may be shortened. The<br />

objectives of this work were to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effect of the MAP design parameters (number of<br />

perforations, weight of CO2 scavenger and amount of product) on fresh sliced mushrooms,<br />

based on headspace gas composition and quality parameters changes; and to determ<strong>in</strong>e number<br />

of perforations, weight of CO2 scavenger and amount of mushrooms to be packed, to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

optimum MAP conditions for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the shelf life of the product.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce mushrooms have high respiration rate, equilibrium modified atmosphere was achieved<br />

with<strong>in</strong> one day. The number of perforations, amount of CO2 scavenger and weight of sliced<br />

mushrooms showed a significant effect on headspace gas composition, as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1a.<br />

Pareto chart shows that the presence of CO2 scavenger had no significant effect on package O2<br />

concentration; on the contrary, it had a significant effect on package CO2 concentration (Figure<br />

1b).<br />

All factors studied had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on weight loss of mushrooms. Number of<br />

perforations and amount of CO2 scavenger had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on pH, whereas,<br />

the weight of mushrooms with<strong>in</strong> the package did not have a significant effect on pH. The<br />

number of perforations had a significant effect on firmness and colour of mushrooms.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1741

Figure 1. a) Surface plots with effects of number of perforations (N),weight of CO2 scavenger (S) and amount of<br />

mushrooms (W) on 1) headspace O2 composition and 2) headspace CO2 composition, after 3 days at 10 ºC. b) Pareto<br />

charts of standardized effects for number of perforations, weight of CO2 scavenger and amount of product on 1)<br />

headspace O2 composition and 2) headspace CO2 composition, at 95 % significance level, <strong>in</strong>dicated as a vertical<br />

dashed l<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Figure 2. Quality parameters of sliced mushrooms at time 0 and after 3 days <strong>in</strong> the package with 3 perforations <strong>in</strong><br />

the film, 1 g of CO2 scavenger and 100 g of sliced mushrooms.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Optimisation of MAP design <strong>in</strong>terplays for the best headspace gas composition and<br />

consequently lower changes <strong>in</strong> quality parameters of the product. This work showed that at<br />

lower O2 <strong>in</strong> the headspace composition, obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> packages with 1 perforation, the quality<br />

changes were smaller. Add<strong>in</strong>g CO2 scavenger <strong>in</strong> the package <strong>in</strong>creased the deterioration of<br />

mushrooms. Good MAP design requires consideration of weight of mushrooms to be packed<br />

and number of perforations <strong>in</strong> the film (i.e., 110 g of sliced mushrooms, 2 perforations) <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to achieve the best headspace gas composition (3.6 % of O2 and 11.5 % of CO2, after 3 days at<br />

10 ºC) and to extend the shelf life of fresh sliced mushrooms.<br />

1742

Rational method for design<strong>in</strong>g efficient food separation processes by chromatography.<br />

“Polyphenol-ethanol/water system with polymer-res<strong>in</strong>s”<br />

Mareto Hosono, Ryo Maeda, Noriko Yoshimoto, Shuichi Yamamoto*<br />

Bio-<strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Laboratory, School of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> & Graduate School of Medic<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Yamaguchi University, Ube 755-8611, Japan (shuichi@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A method for predict<strong>in</strong>g efficient conditions for polyphenol separations by<br />

polymer-res<strong>in</strong>-based chromatography. Our concept “iso-resolution curve” orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

developed for l<strong>in</strong>ear gradient elution (LGE) chromatography of prote<strong>in</strong>s[1], which is useful for<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g the relationship between separation time and solvent consumption was extended<br />

to stepwise (isocratic) elution chromatography. For the iso-resolution curve calculations the<br />

distribution coefficient K as a function of ethanol concentration I was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g our<br />

LGE model[1]. The HETP was measured as a function of mobile phase velocity, u for different<br />

I. From the HETP-u curves the pore diffusivity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed as a function of I. The<br />

iso-resolution curves calculated with these parameters were exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to understand<br />

the separation process and optimize the process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The experimental setups and protocols were essentially the same as <strong>in</strong> our previous study[2].<br />

Polystyrene-div<strong>in</strong>yl benzene (PS-DVB) res<strong>in</strong> particles (Diaion HP20SS, Mitsubishi Chemicals)<br />

were packed <strong>in</strong>to a column (diameter dc=1.1 cm, packed bed height Z = 15-20 cm). The particle<br />

diameter dp was measured microscopically as a function of I; dp = 62 m at I =0.2, dp =<br />

67 m at I=0.3 and dp = 72m at I=0.4. The model polyphenol samples were catech<strong>in</strong><br />

(C15H14O6 mol.wt. 290) and epigallocatech<strong>in</strong> gallate (C22H18O11, mol.wt. 458) abbreviated as<br />

EGCG. The mobile phase was an ethanol-water mixture and the ethanol concentration is given<br />

by I [ethanol volume/(ethanol volume + water volume)]. The temperature was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at<br />

2982K.<br />

Isocratic elution experiments were carried out as a function of u, and the peak retention time tR<br />

(or retention volume VR ) and the peak width (standard deviation) were measured. Then,<br />

HETP and K were calculated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the follow<strong>in</strong>g equations.<br />

HETP = Z(/t R) 2 (1) V R=F vt R=V o+(V t-V o)K = V o(1+HK) (2)<br />

Fv=volumetric flow-rate, Vo = void volume, Vt = bed volume. H=(Vt-Vo)/Vo=(1-)/ is the<br />

volumetric phase ratio. u is given by Fv/(Acwhere Ac=column bed cross sectional area.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1 shows typical elution curves of catech<strong>in</strong> and EGCG. Although decreas<strong>in</strong>g I resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

better separations, the peak became wider and the elution volume <strong>in</strong>creased. The elution curve<br />

became also wider with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g u while the peak retention volume rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant. HETP<br />

was expressed as a function of u by the follow<strong>in</strong>g equation.<br />

HETP = A o +C o u = A o 2<br />

+ HKdp u/[30DS(1+HK) 2 ] = A o + HK 2 2<br />

dp u/[30Dm(1+HK) 2 ] (3)<br />

A o is the axial dispersion term (=0.04 cm). The pore diffusion coefficient DS was found to be<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1743

expressed by the molecular diffusion coefficient<br />

Dm and K as D S = D m/K = 0.07 D m/K (4)<br />

The iso-resolution curve for a given column<br />

length Z can be calculated by Eq.(5).<br />

Rs=(tR2-tR1)/[0.5(W1+W2)] where W is the basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />

peak width W=4<br />

Z<br />

H ( K 2 K1)<br />

Rs<br />

1 <br />

2<br />

o o<br />

o o<br />

( 1 HK1)<br />

A1<br />

C1<br />

u ( 1 HK 2 ) A2<br />

C2<br />

u<br />

The subscript 1 and 2 imply the component 1 and<br />

2 respectively (The component 1 elutes first).<br />

The separation volume (solvent consumption)<br />

VSEP and the separation time tSEP are given by<br />

VSEP V<br />

SEP<br />

V0<br />

( 1 HK 2 ) ( F W2<br />

) / 2<br />

V 1 HK ) 2V<br />

( 1 HK )<br />

o o<br />

( A C u)<br />

/ Z (6)<br />

0 ( 2 0 2 2 2<br />

t V / F<br />

(7)<br />

SEP<br />

v<br />

The calculated iso-resolution curves for different<br />

column lengths are shown <strong>in</strong> Fig.2. It is shown<br />

that there is a region where both VSEP and tSEP are<br />

small. In order to verify the iso-resolution curve,<br />

experimental elution curves are compared with the<br />

calculated ones (Fig.3). The agreement between<br />

the experimental and calculated curves is<br />

reasonable when we consider the errors <strong>in</strong>volved<br />

<strong>in</strong> the correlation equations for K and HETP. Our<br />

proposed method is easy to use and allows to<br />

design an economically feasible food separation<br />

process by polymer res<strong>in</strong> adsorption<br />

chromatography.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A method for calculat<strong>in</strong>g the iso-resolution curve<br />

was developed and verified experimentally for the<br />

polyphenol-ethanol/water system with poly<br />

styrene div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene (PS-DVB) res<strong>in</strong><br />

chromatography. The iso-resolution curve was<br />

found to be useful for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g suitable<br />

(economically feasible) separation conditions.<br />

REFERENCE<br />

(5)<br />

[1] Yamamoto S. & Kita A. 2005. Theoretical background of short chromatographic layers: Optimization of gradient<br />

elution <strong>in</strong> short columns. Journal of Chromatography A, 1065, 45-50. [2] Yamamoto S., Hakoda M., Oda T. & Hosono<br />

M. 2007. Rational method for design<strong>in</strong>g efficient separations by chromato- graphy on polystyrene-div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene<br />

res<strong>in</strong>s eluted with aqueous ethanol. Journal of Chromatography A, 1162, 50-55<br />

1744

<strong>Food</strong>-grade emulsions prepared by membrane emulsification techniques<br />

F. Spyropoulos, R.D. Hancocks, I.T. Norton<br />

School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Birm<strong>in</strong>gham, UK ( F.Spyropoulos@bham.ac.uk)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Membrane emulsification is a relatively new technique which attempts to improve on<br />

traditional emulsification methods by produc<strong>in</strong>g each droplet s<strong>in</strong>gly, as required (1, 2). The aim<br />

of this study was to explore the full potential of membrane emulsification <strong>in</strong> the production of<br />

food emulsions. The effect of both the process and the material parameters on the structure of<br />

oil-<strong>in</strong>-water (o/w) emulsions was <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In all produced oil-<strong>in</strong>-water (o/w) emulsions, the oil phase was commercially available<br />

sunflower oil and the water phase was passed through a reverse osmosis unit and a milli-Q<br />

water system. Tween 20 and 80, used to stabilise the emulsions, were all purchased from<br />

Sigma Aldrich (Dorset, UK). The SPG and ceramic membranes used were purchased from<br />

SPG Technologies (Japan) and TAMI <strong>in</strong>dustries (France), respectively. Droplet sizes (D4,3) of<br />

all emulsions were measured us<strong>in</strong>g a Malvern Mastersizer (UK).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of trans-membrane pressure<br />

The data obta<strong>in</strong>ed show that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the trans-membrane pressure (PTM) results <strong>in</strong> an<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the droplet size of produced emulsions but also their droplet size distribution. PTM<br />

must be above a critical pressure before any droplets are produced. At low PTM (just above<br />

critical) the smallest droplets are produced, but the flux is generally very low. Increas<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

PTM <strong>in</strong>creases flux, but also droplet size and size distribution. The observed behaviour was<br />

found to be membrane type dependant.<br />

Effect of cross-flow velocity<br />

In general, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the cross-flow velocity results <strong>in</strong> “earlier” droplet detachment and thus<br />

smaller droplet size. The size of droplets prepared with SPG membranes appear to be more<br />

“responsive” to changes <strong>in</strong> cross-flow velocity. At higher cross-flow velocities the mean<br />

droplet size/mean pore size ratio is less than 2:1, compared to the generally achievable ratio of<br />

around 5:1(3).<br />

Effect of emulsifier type and concentration<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g the concentration of Tween 20 and 80 emulsifiers has a similar effect on the o/w<br />

droplet size reduction (Table 1). In both cases, an equilibrium droplet size is produced with<br />

about 0.2% emulsifier.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1745

Effect of dispersed phase volume fraction<br />

The effect of dispersed phase volume fraction (up to 70%) on the droplet sizes of emulsions<br />

stabilised us<strong>in</strong>g vary<strong>in</strong>g concentrations of Tween 20, was <strong>in</strong>vestigated. It was shown that for<br />

volume fractions of up to 50% there was only a small <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> droplet size with further<br />

volume fraction <strong>in</strong>creases giv<strong>in</strong>g higher droplet sizes. The latter is suggested to be due the<br />

strong tendency of the system, at such high dispersed phase volume fractions, to phase <strong>in</strong>vert.<br />

Comparison between membrane emulsification and high shear mix<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Equilibrium droplet size us<strong>in</strong>g membrane emulsification is achieved for a 0.2% emulsifier<br />

rather than about a 1% when process<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g a high shear mixer (Table 1). This suggests the<br />

membrane emulsification is more “efficient” <strong>in</strong> its use of emulsifier, i.e. the same droplet size<br />

can be achieved us<strong>in</strong>g less emulsifier than what is required <strong>in</strong> conventional processes. This is<br />

likely due to the lower rate of <strong>in</strong>terfacial area generation <strong>in</strong>duced when process<strong>in</strong>g by<br />

membrane emulsification <strong>in</strong> comparison to the more “explosive” rate of <strong>in</strong>terfacial area<br />

generation associated with systems processed by droplet break-up equipment.<br />

Table 1. Average droplet size of emulsions produced with different emulsifiers us<strong>in</strong>g either membrane<br />

emulsification or high shear mixer (Silverson).<br />

Membrane Emulsification High shear mixer<br />

Tween 20 Tween 80 Tween 20<br />

Emulsifier concentration [wt. %] D4,3 [m] D4,3 [m] D4,3 [m]<br />

0.01 26.12 6.41 26.51 7.02 29.08 8.35<br />

0.1 11.81 3.24 12.91 3.85 20.34 4.29<br />

0.2 7.44 2.11 8.14 2.25 14.46 3.12<br />

0.6 6.26 1.88 6.46 1.85 8.73 2.34<br />

1 5.91 1.85 6.22 1.83 7.42 2.28<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Membrane emulsification can produce food emulsions with a wide range of droplet sizes,<br />

droplet size distributions and dispersed phase volume fractions. Both process (e.g. cross-flow<br />

velocity) and material (e.g. emulsifier concentration) parameters can be carefully chosen to<br />

control the emulsion microstructure produced. Several advantages of the studied process over<br />

conventional comm<strong>in</strong>ution techniques were demonstrated <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the ability to produce<br />

stable emulsions with lower (up to 80%) emulsifier concentration.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Charcosset C., Limayem I. & Fessi H. 2004. The membrane emulsification process - a review. Journal<br />

of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 79(3), 209-218.<br />

[2] Joscelyne S.M. & Trägårdh G. 2000. Membrane emulsification - a literature review. Journal of<br />

Membrane Science, 169(1), 107-117.<br />

[3] Schadler V. & W<strong>in</strong>dhab E.J. 2006. Cont<strong>in</strong>uous membrane emulsification by us<strong>in</strong>g a membrane system<br />

with controlled pore distance. Desal<strong>in</strong>ation, 189(1-3), 130-135.<br />

1746

Use of supercritical CO2 for the <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus niger <strong>in</strong>oculated on sta<strong>in</strong>less<br />

steel plates surface<br />

Mariana Altenhofen da Silva a , Juliana de Souza Ferreira b , Beatriz Thie Iamanaka c , Fabiana Sayuri<br />

Kihara a , Ricardo Soares Cutolo a , Theo Guenter Kieckbusch a<br />

a School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (theo@feq.unicamp.br)<br />

b Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil<br />

c Laboratory of Microbiology, Institute of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (ITAL), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The use of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) for the <strong>in</strong>activation of microorganisms<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ues to attract attention as an alternative non-thermal technique for pasteurization and<br />

sterilization of food products and packag<strong>in</strong>g materials. SC-CO2 is expected to <strong>in</strong>duce only<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imal thermal degradation and change <strong>in</strong> product quality because the process is performed<br />

under relatively low pressure and temperature [1].<br />

In high pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) process<strong>in</strong>g, the products are contacted with either subor<br />

supercritical CO2 for a designated time <strong>in</strong> a batch, semi-batch or cont<strong>in</strong>uous manner.<br />

Supercritical CO2 is CO2 at a temperature and pressure above its critical po<strong>in</strong>t values (Tc<br />

=31.1°C, Pc =7.38 MPa), while for subcritical (gaseous or liquid) CO2 the temperature or<br />

pressure are below its thermodynamic critical po<strong>in</strong>t values [2].<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g CO2 as a steriliz<strong>in</strong>g agent has several potential benefits. Carbon dioxide is a non-toxic<br />

and <strong>in</strong>expensive gas and has been considered <strong>in</strong> the sterilization of a variety of heat sensitive<br />

products[3].<br />

In the present study, prelim<strong>in</strong>ary tests to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the steriliz<strong>in</strong>g potential of SC-CO2<br />

treatment aga<strong>in</strong>st Aspergillus niger <strong>in</strong>oculated on the surface of sta<strong>in</strong>less steel plates were<br />

conducted. This was done with the purpose to adapt the experimental apparatus and validate<br />

the methodology for SC-CO2 treatment, as an alternative steriliz<strong>in</strong>g method, ma<strong>in</strong>ly for<br />

materials that need less aggressive treatments.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The use of high pressure CO2 as a microbial <strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g agent less aggressive to a widespread<br />

of goods is considered. A semi-cont<strong>in</strong>uous flow apparatus, operated <strong>in</strong> a batch mode with<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent control of temperature and pressure was used <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation experiments.<br />

Several operational changes were necessary <strong>in</strong> order to adapt the SC-CO2 experimental set-up<br />

for sterilization process. Sta<strong>in</strong>less steel plates (1 cm x 1cm) <strong>in</strong>oculated with Aspergillus niger<br />

(» 10 5 CFU/mL) were transferred to a sterile support and carefully put <strong>in</strong>side the sterilization<br />

chamber. At the end of each experiment the pressure vessel was opened under aseptic<br />

conditions and the metal plates were collected and submitted to viable surviv<strong>in</strong>g spores<br />

count<strong>in</strong>g by the standard plat<strong>in</strong>g technique on DG18 agar plates. Results of SC-CO2 treatments<br />

to atta<strong>in</strong> sterilization of Aspergillus niger at a temperature of 30ºC, one pressure cycle up to 10,<br />

7.5 and 6 MPa without retention time us<strong>in</strong>g an adapted pressure vessel are reported.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1747

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1. Experimental set-up of the SC-CO 2 sterilization system before (a) and after (b) the operational<br />

changes.<br />

Table 1. Efficiency of the CO 2 treatment (6, 7.5 and 10 MPa/30°C/time for system pressurization and<br />

depressurization) <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus niger <strong>in</strong>oculated on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel plates surface<br />

Pressure<br />

(MPa)<br />

Treatment time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Pressurization Depressurization<br />

Count before Count after treatment<br />

treatment<br />

(CFU/mL)<br />

(CFU/mL) After test After 4 weeks<br />

10.0 15 5 2.13·10 5 ND* ND<br />

7.5 6 2 2.68·10 5<br />

ND ND<br />

6.0 0.5 0.3 7.50·10 3 2.25·10 2 NC **<br />

*ND: not detected; **NC: not concluded<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Results confirm the ability of SC-CO2 to <strong>in</strong>activate Aspergillus niger <strong>in</strong>oculated on metal<br />

plates’ surface under mild conditions (10 and 7.5 MPa and 30°C). A reduction of 1.5 log cycles<br />

was atta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g an experimental pressure of 6 MPa (subcritical condition for CO2). Further<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigations are under way <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the effect of subcritical CO2 pressures with<br />

different treatment times <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus niger.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

(a) (b)<br />

[1] Zhang J., Davis T.A., Matthews M.A., Drews M., Laberge M. & An Y.H. 2006. Steriliz<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

high-pressure carbon dioxide. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 38, 354-372.<br />

[2] Garcia-Gonzalez L., Geeraerd A.H., Elst K., Van G<strong>in</strong>neken L., Van Impe J.F. & Devlieghere F. 2009.<br />

Influence of type of microorganism, food <strong>in</strong>gredients and food properties on high-pressure carbon<br />

dioxide <strong>in</strong>activation of microorganisms. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 129, 253–263.<br />

[3] Ballestra P. & Cuq J. 1998. Influence of pressurized carbon dioxide on the thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

bacterial and fungal spores. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 31 (1), 84-88.<br />

1748

Non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of foods<br />

Robert Steele a and Clemence Kerjean a<br />

a CSIRO <strong>Food</strong> and Nutritional Sciences, North Ryde, Australia (Bob.Steele@csiro.au)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Water has been conventionally used as the heat transfer medium for both heat<strong>in</strong>g and cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

because of its excellent heat transfer properties, low cost and easy disposal. Its cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g use<br />

should be questioned because of the predicted shortage of water <strong>in</strong> some countries. The<br />

purpose of this <strong>in</strong>vestigation was to exam<strong>in</strong>e the potential of non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to deliver safe, wholesome food. No commercially available air-based retorts were available<br />

for this study so measurements were made at T< 75°C<br />

The follow<strong>in</strong>g goals were addressed:<br />

To compare fan-forced air and water as heat<strong>in</strong>g media.<br />

Does non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g affect the properties of the plastic conta<strong>in</strong>ers?<br />

Is the quality of food more adversely affected by heat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> hot air than <strong>in</strong> water?<br />

Plastic packag<strong>in</strong>g often <strong>in</strong>cludes a barrier layer of ethylene v<strong>in</strong>yl alcohol copolymer film<br />

between polypropylene layers. The barrier properties of this layer are known to be<br />

compromised by the <strong>in</strong>evitable hydration that accompanies aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g offers an environmentally friendlier way to process foods<br />

which may reduce costs and may prevent compromis<strong>in</strong>g the barrier.<br />

Most attempts at develop<strong>in</strong>g non-aqueous thermal process<strong>in</strong>g were aimed at develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />

processes for improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality of the food. Concerns with respect to the extensive use and<br />

cost of process water were not the serious environmental issue they are today.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Three conta<strong>in</strong>er structures were studied:<br />

Pack 1. A rectangular parallelepiped alum<strong>in</strong>ium pack with dimensions 73.5 X 73.5 X 25 mm,<br />

average thickness = 0.13 mm.<br />

Pack 2. A rectangular parallelepiped plastic pack 64.4 X 64.4 X 23.4 mm, average thickness<br />

0.44 mm, with PP/NY MXD6 /PP layers.<br />

Pack 3. A plastic truncated cone h = 47.6 mm diam = 69.2 mm, average thickness 0.50 mm<br />

with PP/EVOH/PP layers.<br />

The packs were filled with cream style corn. Temperatures were measured at six po<strong>in</strong>ts of<br />

each of the conta<strong>in</strong>ers, three <strong>in</strong> the middle and three near the <strong>in</strong>ner wall.<br />

Aqueous process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Packages were immersed <strong>in</strong> a water bath with a metal grid to ensure full immersion.<br />

Non-aqueous process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Packages were placed <strong>in</strong> a fan-forced hot air oven and centre temperatures measured at two<br />

velocities : 0.2m.s-1 and 1.6m.s-1.<br />

Cool<strong>in</strong>g was not studied <strong>in</strong> this project.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1749

Oxygen rate transmission (OTR) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a Mocon (OX-TRAN® Model 2/21<br />

oxygen permeability) by ASTM F1307 at 21°C after two hours and repeated at approximately<br />

24 h <strong>in</strong>tervals for 5 days. In this study the OTR is reported as ml 02.day -1 .pkg -1 .atm -1 .<br />

Product quality the colour change of the corn was measured us<strong>in</strong>g a colorimeter (M<strong>in</strong>olta<br />

chroma meter CR-400/410) <strong>in</strong> triplicate before and after heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Air heat<strong>in</strong>g took longer than water for the unaccomplished temperature differential to reach<br />

with<strong>in</strong> 0.01 K of the heat<strong>in</strong>g medium (Tm) consistent with the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of Ekelund et al 1 .<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g the velocity of heated air from 0.2 to 1.5 m.s -1 decreased the fh of pack 3 from 100<br />

to 50 m<strong>in</strong>. Plastic conta<strong>in</strong>ers, with a low thermal conductivity (0.45 W.m -1 .K -1 ) and are<br />

comparatively thick, approach Tm more slowly than the alum<strong>in</strong>ium conta<strong>in</strong>ers, irrespective of<br />

which heat<strong>in</strong>g medium is used. Despite alum<strong>in</strong>ium’s high thermal conductivity (237 W.m -1 .K -<br />

1<br />

) the advantage of us<strong>in</strong>g alum<strong>in</strong>ium is dim<strong>in</strong>ished when us<strong>in</strong>g a low heat transfer fluid such as<br />

air. The fh of the plastic packs was about 16% greater than alum<strong>in</strong>ium packs when heated <strong>in</strong><br />

water however <strong>in</strong> air shows that the thermal advantage of us<strong>in</strong>g alum<strong>in</strong>ium was slightly<br />

dim<strong>in</strong>ished to 13%.The colour change was more marked for air-heated plastic packs than for<br />

water-heated packs.<br />

After heat<strong>in</strong>g, water-heated packs had about twenty times the OTR of the untreated packs.<br />

While the 0TR decreased with the time it did not return to its <strong>in</strong>itial value, consistent with the<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of Tsai & Jenk<strong>in</strong>s (1988). On the other hand after air heat<strong>in</strong>g, the OTR rema<strong>in</strong>ed low<br />

~ 0.02 as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />

Figure 1. OTR of plastic packs heated at 60 C <strong>in</strong> air and water<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Hot air is a cheap, simple and safe heat<strong>in</strong>g medium than has some advantages over water or<br />

steam especially the retention of barrier properties of EVOH barriers. The expected<br />

environmental ga<strong>in</strong> may allow this process to replace conventional steam and water retorts<br />

however further studies at temperatures >100ºC are needed.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ekelund, E.A., Frisk, P., and Berglund, S.D.T..1961. New methods of steriliz<strong>in</strong>g heat on hot air<br />

sterilization and heat transfer. Int. Congr. Cann. Fds 4th, 125.<br />

1750

Estimation of Peroxidase Activity <strong>in</strong> red cabbage by Artificial Neural Network (ANN)<br />

Iman Shahabi Ghahfarrokhi a , Amir Daraei Garmakhany b , Seied Mohamad Mousavi c<br />

a<br />

Islamic Azad University- Shahrekord Branch, <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Dept, Shahrekord, Iran<br />

(shahabi_62@yahoo.com )<br />

b<br />

Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

Dept, Gorgan, Iran (amirdaraey@yahoo.com )<br />

c<br />

University of Tehran, <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Dept, Tehran, Iran (mousavi@ut.ac.ir)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Peroxidase (POD) is an enzyme commonly found <strong>in</strong> vegetables which cause off-flavors and<br />

colors <strong>in</strong> raw and un-blanched frozen vegetables [1]. Inhibition of the enzyme activity <strong>in</strong> fruits<br />

and vegetables is generally achieved us<strong>in</strong>g physical or chemical treatments such as heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(blanch<strong>in</strong>g), lower<strong>in</strong>g pH and/or aw or add<strong>in</strong>g chemical additives. Due to the consumer market<br />

demands which is concerned about the use of chemicals <strong>in</strong> such products, more attention has<br />

been given to the search for alternative anti brown<strong>in</strong>g compounds [2]. Mathematical model is<br />

sometimes difficult to realize s<strong>in</strong>ce created models, based on microbial or enzyme k<strong>in</strong>etics, are<br />

very often highly complex. Artificial Neural network (ANN) are universal approximators<br />

which require relatively little time to construct and do not require any prior knowledge [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Ten grams of each vegetable and water (30ml) were homogenized for 3 m<strong>in</strong>. The slurry was<br />

filtered and centrifuged. The supernatant was used as the enzyme source. Peroxidase activity<br />

was determ<strong>in</strong>ed spectrophotometrically at 470nm us<strong>in</strong>g guaiacol and H2O2 [2] One unit of<br />

activity is def<strong>in</strong>ed as a change <strong>in</strong> absorbance of 0.001 m<strong>in</strong> -1 . In total, 240 data were collected<br />

for the three different essential oils (Cum<strong>in</strong>, Fennel and Clove), four antioxidant concentrations<br />

(50, 75, 100 and 200 l / 100ml<br />

) and 20 durations of enzyme activation (0, 20, 40… 400<br />

seconds) as <strong>in</strong>put neuron and enzyme activity as output neuron. the data order was randomized<br />

and divided to tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g data (40% of data), crossvalidation data (30% of data), test<strong>in</strong>g data<br />

(30% of data) for. Dur<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, momentum value was fixed at 0.7, and learn<strong>in</strong>g rate was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed at level 1 on the hidden layer and 0.1 at the output layer. The tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process was<br />

carried on for 65000 epochs or until the cross-validation data’s MSE, did not improve for 100<br />

epochs to avoid over-fitt<strong>in</strong>g of the network.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The ANN parameters used for prediction of POD activity <strong>in</strong> red cabbage are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

The optimal number of hidden layers and number of neurons <strong>in</strong> the hidden layers were selected<br />

by us<strong>in</strong>g a trial and error method based on m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g the difference between estimated ANN<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1751

outputs and experimental values. It was found that ANN with one hidden and 21 hidden<br />

6<br />

neurons had the m<strong>in</strong>imum MSE for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and cross validation 7.<br />

9815 10<br />

5<br />

and 2.<br />

9123 10 , respectively. POD activity was shown the highest sensitivity to time. It is<br />

clear; all chemical reaction is dependent to time. Between 3 essential oils, cum<strong>in</strong> was shown<br />

the highest effect on POD activity due to high antioxidant properties<br />

Table 1. The best structure and optimum values of the ANN produced <strong>in</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g stage<br />

ANN<br />

structure<br />

ANN<br />

model`<br />

Step size Momentum Transfer function Test<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Hidden Output<br />

layer layer<br />

Hidden Output<br />

layer layer<br />

Hidden Output<br />

layer layer<br />

Epoch<br />

MSE NMSE MAE<br />

2<br />

R<br />

3-21-1 MLP 1 0.1 0.7 0.7 Tanh<br />

L<strong>in</strong>ear<br />

Sigmoid<br />

65,000 0.0002629 0.0026579 0.0102657 0.9974<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The POD activity of vegetable and fruits is a l<strong>in</strong>ear phenomenon which depends on several<br />

factors. ANNs are mathematical models whose architecture has been <strong>in</strong>spired by biological<br />

neural networks. ANNs are very appropriate for the modell<strong>in</strong>g of l<strong>in</strong>ear and non-l<strong>in</strong>ear<br />

processes. The advantage of ANNs over conventional method like regression test is time and<br />

cost sav<strong>in</strong>g. Also, the ANNs can consider more <strong>in</strong>put parameters and the performance is better<br />

than conventional methods. The result of this study showed that The ANN model predicted<br />

POD activity with MSE 0.0002629 and good correlation between predicted and experimental<br />

data (R 2 = 0.9974). These results show the ability of ANN technology for predict<strong>in</strong>g POD<br />

activity of red cabbage under natural antioxidants. Results showed that POD activity was the<br />

highest sensitivity to time and between 3 essential oils, cum<strong>in</strong> was shown the highest effect on<br />

POD activity due to high antioxidant properties<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Lee H.C. & Kle<strong>in</strong> B.P. 1989. Evaluation of comb<strong>in</strong>ed effects of heat treatment and antioxidant on<br />

peroxidase activity of crude extract of green peas. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 32, 151-158.<br />

[2] Daraei Garmakhany A., Mirzaei H. O., Aghajani N. & Kashiri, M. 2010. Investigation of natural<br />

essential oil antioxidant activity on peroxidase enzyme <strong>in</strong> selected vegetables. J. Agri Scie and<br />

Techno USA., 4, 78-82.<br />

[3] Bryjak J., Ciesielski K. & Zbic<strong>in</strong>ski I. 2004. Modell<strong>in</strong>g of glucoamylase thermal <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> the<br />

presence of starch by artificial neural network. Journal of biotechnology 114, 177-185.<br />

1752

Quality classification of corn tortillas by means of cross validation between sensorial<br />

evaluation and computer vision system<br />

José Jorge Chanona-Pérez a , Dom<strong>in</strong>go Mery b , Alvaro Soto b , José Miguel Aguilera b , Aldo Cipriano b ,<br />

Nayeli Veléz-Rivera a , Israel Arzate-Vázquez a , Gustavo Fidel Gutiérrez-López a<br />

a<br />

Departamento de Graduados e Investigación en Alimentos, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas,<br />

Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n, Santo Tomás 11340,<br />

D.F. México, México (jorge_chanona@hotmail.com).<br />

b<br />

Escuela de Ingenieria, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Av. Vicuna Mackenna 4860 (143),<br />

Macul, Santiago de Chile, Chile.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In Mexico, tortillas are consumed by 94% of the population. Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, 60% of those<br />

tortillas are processed <strong>in</strong> small stores called tortillerias [1]. There are three ma<strong>in</strong> levels of<br />

production and distribution of corn tortillas: 1) small commercial scale (S) (tortillerias), 2)<br />

medium commercial scale or supermarkets (M), and 3) large commercial scale or samples<br />

packed <strong>in</strong> plastic bags (L). Many aspects of the tortilla production still depend on the operator’s<br />

expertise such as dough <strong>in</strong>put, mix<strong>in</strong>g, shap<strong>in</strong>g, bak<strong>in</strong>g and other process parameters. The<br />

study [2] revealed critical sensory attributes and gave a look <strong>in</strong>to how Mexican consumers<br />

weighted characteristics such as appearance, plasticity, chew<strong>in</strong>ess, taste, and overall, lik<strong>in</strong>g<br />

when mak<strong>in</strong>g purchas<strong>in</strong>g decisions about corn tortillas. With the necessity of more <strong>in</strong>-depth<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g the control process of corn tortilla production, the aim of this<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation is to use a computer vision framework, to automatically determ<strong>in</strong>e the quality of<br />

corn tortillas. The computer vision system is tra<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the selected features obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a<br />

panel of sensory analysis to classify automatically a tortilla.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A total of 750 corn tortillas were evaluated represent<strong>in</strong>g each level of corn tortilla production<br />

(S, M, L), which represent a wide range of desirable and undesirable visual appearance<br />

characteristics of corn tortillas. These characteristics contributed to overall visual appearance<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the orig<strong>in</strong> production. In order to ga<strong>in</strong> an understand<strong>in</strong>g of the consumers’<br />

preferences, a questionnaire was designed to establish which attributes were relevant to the<br />

visual appearance of the samples. Mexican consumers N=100, who regularly ate corn tortillas,<br />

answered the questionnaire. Colour was the most important attribute (around of 70%) while the<br />

homogeneity of the borders or contours was the least important attribute to consumers (around<br />

40%). Then, the samples were shown randomly to ten tra<strong>in</strong>ed panellists and each one evaluated<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the three production levels (S, M, L). 100% of the samples were classified<br />

correctly by the panellists. They determ<strong>in</strong>ed five sub-classes accord<strong>in</strong>g to the 5-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic<br />

scale (1: like extremely, 3: neither dislike nor like, 5: dislike extremely) as shown <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1.<br />

Representative tortilla images were collected with a computer vision system similar to the one<br />

described <strong>in</strong> [4] and were segmented accord<strong>in</strong>g to that described by [3]; features from each<br />

image were extracted and analyzed <strong>in</strong> order to select only those features that were relevant to<br />

the classification tasks. F<strong>in</strong>ally, 54 geometric and 2270 colour features were extracted. This<br />

extraction and the subsequent classification of production levels and subclasses, was performed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g algorithms such as sequential forward selection (SFS), among others.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1753

Figure 1: Gallery of corn tortilla images <strong>in</strong><br />

their three production level (classes) and<br />

five sub-classes<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

75% of the samples of each class were<br />

randomly chosen to perform the<br />

feature selection. Results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the two mentioned classification parts:<br />

(i) determ<strong>in</strong>ation of hedonic scale (sub<br />

class), and (ii) determ<strong>in</strong>ation of production level (class), are discussed below. Hedonic scale<br />

classification (sub-classes): Five data sets were built, one for each class. Forty features for each<br />

data set us<strong>in</strong>g the SFS were selected. The performance was evaluated us<strong>in</strong>g cross-validation.<br />

For m = 15 extracted features, our classifier had very high performance (average performance<br />

=0.95). In overall for this case, the sub-classes given by our classifier will be the same as the<br />

ones given by the sensorial panel. For the second classification, two sets of features selected<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g SFS were analyzed. Set-1 consisted on the best ten features selected from the 2324<br />

extracted features. Set-2 conta<strong>in</strong>ed the best 10 features chosen from the 64 features selected<br />

from the hedonic scale classification. The performance of the classification us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

Mahalanobis classifier and the selected features for Set-1 and Set-2 were validated us<strong>in</strong>g crossvalidation.<br />

It is evident that Set-1 achieved a higher performance (=0.995) than Set-2 although<br />

this one also had a very high performance (=0.96).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The method was tested <strong>in</strong> three different tortilla production levels with tortillas of five different<br />

hedonic sub-classes yield<strong>in</strong>g a performance of 95% <strong>in</strong> accuracy and 2770 features geometry<br />

and color were extracted for classification. It is possible that the proposed approach opens new<br />

possibilities not only <strong>in</strong> the field of automated visual <strong>in</strong>spection of tortillas but also <strong>in</strong> other<br />

similar food products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ayala-Rodríguez, A., Gutiérrez-Dorado, R., Milán-Carrillo, J., López-Valenzuela, S.M., R.J., Valdez-<br />

Ortiz, A., Paredes-López, O., Reyes-Moreno, C., 2009. Nixtamalised flour and tortillas from<br />

transgenic maize (zea mays l.) express<strong>in</strong>g amarant<strong>in</strong>: technological and nutritional properties. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry 114 (1), 50–56.<br />

[2] Herrera-Corredor, J., Saidu, J., Khachatryan, A., Pr<strong>in</strong>yawiwatkul, W., Carballo-Carballo, A., Zepeda-<br />

Bautista, R., 2007. Identify<strong>in</strong>g drivers for consumer acceptance and purchase <strong>in</strong>tent of corn tortilla.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science 72 (9), S727–S730.<br />

[3] Mery, D., Pedreschi, F., 2005. Segmentation of colour food images us<strong>in</strong>g a robust algorithm. Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 66 (3), 353–360.<br />

[4] Pedreschi, F., Mery, D., Mendoza, F., Aguilera, J., 2004. Classification of potato chips us<strong>in</strong>g pattern<br />

recognition. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science 69 (6), E264–E270.<br />

1754

Effect of Microwave Blanch<strong>in</strong>g on Acrylamide Content and Quality Attributes of French<br />

Fries<br />

Sez<strong>in</strong> Tuta a , Koray Palazoglu a , Vural Gökmen b<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Mers<strong>in</strong>,Turkiye(sez<strong>in</strong>tuta@gmail.com,<br />

koray_palazoglu@yahoo.com)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ankara, Turkiye (vgokmen@hacettepe.edu.tr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fried potato products are among the foods with the highest levels of acrylamide due to the high<br />

level of acrylamide precursors naturally present <strong>in</strong> potato. Therefore, reduc<strong>in</strong>g acrylamide level<br />

of fried potato products such as French fries is important. Blanch<strong>in</strong>g by electromagnetic energy<br />

presents advantages over conventional blanch<strong>in</strong>g by reduction of process times, energy and<br />

water usage and improvement of product quality [1,2]. The objective of this study was to<br />

employ microwave blanch<strong>in</strong>g (<strong>in</strong>stead of conventional blanch<strong>in</strong>g) dur<strong>in</strong>g manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

frozen par-fried potato strips and <strong>in</strong>vestigate its effect on acrylamide content and quality<br />

attributes (texture, color, oil content) of French fries.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Microwave blanch<strong>in</strong>g was performed by immers<strong>in</strong>g the potato strips <strong>in</strong> boil<strong>in</strong>g water and<br />

microwav<strong>in</strong>g for 1, 2, 3, and 4 m<strong>in</strong> at 900 W. Blanched potato strips were then dried (5 m<strong>in</strong> at<br />

70 ºC), parfried (1 m<strong>in</strong> at 180 ºC), cooled (20 m<strong>in</strong> at 4 ºC) and frozen (2h at -30 ºC). Control<br />

samples were prepared by two step blanch<strong>in</strong>g procedure ( 3 m<strong>in</strong> at 80 ºC and 20 m<strong>in</strong> at 65 ºC)<br />

and all other steps were the same. Sensorial analysis (thoroughly cooked potato strip with a soft<br />

<strong>in</strong>terior and a crispy outer crust) were done to determ<strong>in</strong>e fry<strong>in</strong>g times for f<strong>in</strong>al fry<strong>in</strong>g at 180 °C.<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g times for the control and 1, 2, 3 and 4 m<strong>in</strong> microwave blanched samples were 5, 4, 3.5,<br />

3 and 2.5 m<strong>in</strong>, respectively. Color measurement was done by digital image analysis, Texture<br />

Analyzer was used for texture measurement and oil content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g Soxhlet<br />

method. An LC-MS method was used for acrylamide analysis.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Acrylamide reduction was % 18, % 48, % 71 and % 79 for blanch<strong>in</strong>g 1, 2, 3, 4 m<strong>in</strong> with<br />

microwave, respectively (Figure 1). It has been reported that microwave pre-treatment to<br />

potato strips reduce the fry<strong>in</strong>g time result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a decrease <strong>in</strong> acrylamide level. Acrylamide<br />

formation was reported to further decrease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g microwave application time [3,4].<br />

In this research <strong>in</strong> contrast to conventional method potato strips were heated volumetrically<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g microwave blanch<strong>in</strong>g result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a greater degree of cook<strong>in</strong>g. As a result fry<strong>in</strong>g time<br />

was found to decrease <strong>in</strong> comparison to control. It was observed that the longer the microwave<br />

blanch<strong>in</strong>g time, the lower the surface temperature dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g , and hence less acrylamide<br />

formation. S<strong>in</strong>ce potato tissue becomes more permeable upon microwave pre-treatment, less<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1755

esistance to mass transfer takes place dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g. This results <strong>in</strong> a moisture transfer from<br />

the <strong>in</strong>terior to the surface at a greater rate limit<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the surface region.<br />

Acrylamide, ng/g<br />

800<br />

600<br />

400<br />

200<br />

0<br />

Control MW1 MW2 MW3 MW4<br />

The samples that were microwave-blanched for 3 m<strong>in</strong> were the most comparable to the control<br />

<strong>in</strong> terms of quality attributes of the f<strong>in</strong>al product (Table 1). Although a*, b* values were<br />

significantly different <strong>in</strong> comparison to control (p

Effects of Application of Tranglutam<strong>in</strong>ase <strong>in</strong> Wheat Prote<strong>in</strong>s Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Production of Bread.<br />

Elisena Ap. Guastaferro Seravalli a , Antonia Miwa Iguti a , Inês Ap. Santana a , Flavio F<strong>in</strong>ardi Filho b<br />

a<br />

Maua Institute of Techonology-School of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>-Chemical and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Sao Caetano do Sul, Brazil<br />

(elisena@maua.br)<br />

b University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The characteristics of prote<strong>in</strong>s are one of the ma<strong>in</strong> parameters that affect the quality of wheat flour and<br />

therefore the breadmak<strong>in</strong>g quality. Some authors reviewed the structural models for the formation of the<br />

dough and discussed chemical <strong>in</strong>teractions that could <strong>in</strong>fluence the structure, with emphasis on reactions<br />

of disulphide. In a accordance with researcher a prote<strong>in</strong> of <strong>in</strong>soluble matrix is an essential prerequisite for<br />

the formation of a cohesive dough; a quantity of <strong>in</strong>soluble prote<strong>in</strong> is essential to form a cont<strong>in</strong>uous prote<strong>in</strong><br />

phase <strong>in</strong> the presence of starch and water. Gerrard et al. [1] were the first researchers who used the<br />

MTGase <strong>in</strong> wheat-based products. They suggested that the enzyme could have beneficial effects dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the manufacture of bread comparable to those produced by traditional oxidants improvers. The aim of this<br />

study was to evaluate the use of transglutam<strong>in</strong>ase as an improver agent <strong>in</strong> the bread and dough, and<br />

compare the functional and molecular effects with the action exerted by traditional improver <strong>in</strong> the<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> fractions of gluten<strong>in</strong>s, the raw dough, the dough after fermentation and the bread.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The procedure of sequential extraction, fractionation by solubility Osborne, was used with few<br />

modifications. The prote<strong>in</strong> content of each fraction was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Kjeldahl (factor=5.7). After<br />

extraction of gliad<strong>in</strong>s, the residue was used for extraction of gluten<strong>in</strong>s. The gluten<strong>in</strong>s were extracted at 20<br />

°C with tetraborate buffer 0.05 mol/L (pH=8.5), 2-mercaptoethanol 2% (v/v), glyc<strong>in</strong>e 1 g/L and urea 6<br />

mol/L, adapted by Larré et al. [2]. To avoid gluten<strong>in</strong> subunits repolymerization dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

chromatographic analysis, it was made the alkylation of these subunits [3]. The chromatographic fractions<br />

of prote<strong>in</strong>s were made us<strong>in</strong>g an HPLC system: Varian, a column Chromspher C8, 250 x 4.6 mm, particle<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal 5 m and UV visible detector 9050. The elution system used: A) Trifluoroacetic acid<br />

(TFA)(0.1%,v/v), B) Acetonitrile (ACN)+TFA (99.9/ 0.1%, v/v), vary<strong>in</strong>g the gradients.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Moisture and prote<strong>in</strong> for the doughs were evaluated before fermentation (M1), after 150 m<strong>in</strong>utes of<br />

fermentation (M2) and the bread after bak<strong>in</strong>g. All samples were removed dur<strong>in</strong>g the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

process of bread. The doughs and bread Zero, bread Control and bread MTGase were analyzed (Table 1).<br />

The results of the table 1 showed that the amounts of prote<strong>in</strong> residues <strong>in</strong> M1 of the doughs are smaller<br />

than those found <strong>in</strong> M2. These significant differences (p

Table 1-Levels of prote<strong>in</strong> fractions of dough and bread (i) .<br />

Album<strong>in</strong>s/Globul<strong>in</strong>s Gliad<strong>in</strong>s Gluten<strong>in</strong>s Residues Total Prote<strong>in</strong><br />

M1(Zero) 1,44 0,01 2,84 0,06 ª,b 4,00 0,02 c 3,80 0,05 c 12,4<br />

M2( Zero) 1,38 0,09 2,95 0,09 a 2,23 0,01 d 5,90 0,01 d 12,8<br />

bread Zero 1,30 0,01 2,85 0,03 ª,b 2,2 0,3 d 5,04 0,07 e 11,6<br />

M1(MTGase) 1,56 0,01 2,8 0,2 b,c 5,0 0,1 b,e 2,3 0,2 f 12,0<br />

M2(MTGase) 1,6 0,1 2,75 0,01 c 4,10 0,06 c 3,0 0,1 g 12,0<br />

bread MTGase 1,85 0,06 2,95 0,02 a 5,15 0,02 e 1,7 0,1 h 11,76<br />

(i) Means (5 determ<strong>in</strong>ations) with different letters <strong>in</strong> the same column differ statistically (p

Agrophysical methods to determ<strong>in</strong>e bioenergetic status of agricultural products<br />

Józef Horabik, Piotr Baranowski, Jerzy Tys<br />

Institute of Agrophysics Polish Academy of Sciences, Lubl<strong>in</strong>, Poland (jhorabik@ipan.lubl<strong>in</strong>.pl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Detection of mechanical defects is very important <strong>in</strong> the systems of quality <strong>in</strong>spection of apples. Exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />

automatic apple sort<strong>in</strong>g systems still possess <strong>in</strong>sufficient precision <strong>in</strong> detect<strong>in</strong>g bruises, especially early<br />

ones. In spite of the fact that bruis<strong>in</strong>g is the reason for reject<strong>in</strong>g the highest number of fruit <strong>in</strong> sort<strong>in</strong>g<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es, the manual sort<strong>in</strong>g method is still used (Leemans et al., 2004; X<strong>in</strong>g et al., 2007). In recent years<br />

visual sort<strong>in</strong>g systems were applied for detect<strong>in</strong>g mechanical defects. They perform a multispectral<br />

analysis of colour and use advanced procedures of image process<strong>in</strong>g and analysis, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g neural<br />

networks, pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis, etc. (Lu et al., 1999; Peng and Lu, 2006). Because of some<br />

shortages of exist<strong>in</strong>g methods for early apple bruise detection, a grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest is observed <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g multi range non-destructive sort<strong>in</strong>g methods. In this paper the comparison of hyperspectral<br />

imag<strong>in</strong>g (400-2500 nm) and thermal imag<strong>in</strong>g (3500 -5000 nm) is presented.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Before hyperspectral and thermal imag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigations ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ apples<br />

(Malus domestica Borkh. The follow<strong>in</strong>g imag<strong>in</strong>g spectrographs were used <strong>in</strong> the study: the VNIR<br />

ImSpector V10E imag<strong>in</strong>g spectrograph (400-1000 nm) and the SWIR N25E 2/3” imag<strong>in</strong>g spectrometer<br />

(1000 nm – 2500 nm) by SPECIM, F<strong>in</strong>land. To reduce the dimensionality of data sets, to segregate noise<br />

components from images and especially to produce uncorrelated output bands for which bruise<br />

discrim<strong>in</strong>ation would be possible two methods were used. The first one was the Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal Components<br />

Analysis (PCA). The second studied method was M<strong>in</strong>imum Noise Fraction Transform (MNF). An active<br />

thermography system was designed, consist<strong>in</strong>g of a thermographic camera, excitation source, and a<br />

system for controll<strong>in</strong>g the heat pulse time as well as registration parameters and external conditions <strong>in</strong> the<br />

thermostated laboratory. In the study, a thermographic camera SC7600 (FLIR Systems, Inc., USA) was<br />

used. It is sensitive <strong>in</strong> the spectral range of 3-5μm. Two approaches to active thermography were applied<br />

<strong>in</strong> this study: the pulsed-phase thermography (PPT) and the lock-<strong>in</strong> thermography (LIT).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis of the apples of two studied varieties revealed its usefulness for extract<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the most relevant <strong>in</strong>formation from multiple band imagery gathered <strong>in</strong> a few component images. The use<br />

of the M<strong>in</strong>imum Noise Fraction Transform (MNF) made the <strong>in</strong>formation about the bruise localisation and<br />

composition even more readable. For VNIR range of wavelengths the most suitable components for<br />

bruise detection were MNF4, MNF5 and MNF6 (Fig.1), whereas for SWIR bands, the components which<br />

were the most <strong>in</strong>dependent from uneven illum<strong>in</strong>ation effects and could be used for bruise detection were<br />

MNF4 and MNF5. In Fig. 2 the results of this analysis are presented for ‘Jonagold’ apple. In this figure,<br />

thermogram marked with a) is the image of the apple before heat pulse or wave ext<strong>in</strong>ction (cold image).<br />

Images <strong>in</strong> b) and c) are the results of lock-<strong>in</strong> analysis.<br />

The lock-<strong>in</strong> ampligram is strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by reflections from illum<strong>in</strong>ation source. Therefore, the<br />

phase analysis, which is free of this <strong>in</strong>fluence is preferable for defect recognition. The images <strong>in</strong> d), e) and<br />

f) are phasegrams for various phase shifts of the same fruit obta<strong>in</strong>ed by pulsed-phase thermography.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1759

Figure 1. M<strong>in</strong>imum Noise Fraction Transform (MNF) scores images for the VNIR wavelength range<br />

a) thermal image without<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

b) lock-<strong>in</strong> ampligram c) lock-<strong>in</strong> phasegram<br />

d) pulsed- phase (phasegram 1) e) pulsed- phase (phasegram 2) f) pulsed- phase (phasegram 3)<br />

Figure 2. Scores of active thermography (3-5 m) of ‘Jonagold’ apple<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The whole studied spectrum range (400 nm- 5000 nm) is useful for detect<strong>in</strong>g mechanical defects such as<br />

bruise. Hyperspectral analysis of VNIR and SWIR wavebands can be effectively performed by<br />

application of pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis (PCA). Even better results are obta<strong>in</strong>ed by the use of<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imum noise fraction transform (MNF) which components could be preferable for image segmentation<br />

purpose. Thermal imag<strong>in</strong>g (3000 nm -5000 nm) is useful for bruise recognition when active approach<br />

(lock-<strong>in</strong> or pulsed-phase) is applied.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

MNF1 MNF2 MNF3<br />

MNF4 MNF5 MNF6<br />

[1] Leemans, V., Mag<strong>in</strong>, H. & Desta<strong>in</strong>, M.F. 2002. On-l<strong>in</strong>e fruit grad<strong>in</strong>g accord<strong>in</strong>g to their external quality us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mach<strong>in</strong>e vision. Biosyst. Eng. 83, 397–404. [2] Lu, R., Chen, Y.R. & Park, B. 1999. Hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

detect<strong>in</strong>g bruises <strong>in</strong> apples. ASAE Annual <strong>International</strong> Meet<strong>in</strong>g. Paper No. 99-3120. Toronto, Canada, 18–21 July. [3]<br />

Peng, Y. & Lu, R. 2006. An LCTF-based multispectral imag<strong>in</strong>g system for estimation of apple fruit firmness. Part II.<br />

Selection of optimal wavelengths and development of prediction models. Trans. ASAE 49, 269–275. [4] X<strong>in</strong>g, J.,<br />

Jancso, P., De Baerdemaeker, J. 2007. Stem-end/calyx identification on apples us<strong>in</strong>g contour analysis <strong>in</strong> multispectral<br />

images. Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 96, 231–237.<br />

1760

Separation between high and low quality coffees by FTIR-ATR<br />

Adriana S. Franca a,b , Ana Paula Craig b , Leandro S. Oliveira a,b<br />

aDepartamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Universidade Federal de M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais (UFMG), Av. Antônio<br />

Carlos 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil (adriana@demec.ufmg.br)<br />

b Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência de Alimentos, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The presence of defective coffee beans depreciates the quality of the coffee beverage<br />

consumed worldwide. The <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic defects (sour, black and immature) are the ones that, when<br />

roasted, contribute the most to the depreciation of the coffee beverage quality. Colour sort<strong>in</strong>g is<br />

the major procedure employed for separation of defective and non-defective coffee beans prior<br />

to roast<strong>in</strong>g. However, such procedure is not efficient for separation of immature beans. Thus,<br />

the objective of the present study was to evaluate the feasibility of employ<strong>in</strong>g FTIR for<br />

separation between high quality (non-defective) and low quality (defective) coffee beans.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Arabica green coffee samples were comprised of coffee beans obta<strong>in</strong>ed from different<br />

cooperatives located <strong>in</strong> M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais State, Brazil, that were rejected by color sort<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mach<strong>in</strong>es. Black, sour (separated <strong>in</strong>to light and dark coloured), immature and non-defective<br />

beans were manually picked to constitute separate sampl<strong>in</strong>g lots and ground to a particle<br />

diameter of 0.42 mm. A Shimadzu IRAff<strong>in</strong>ity-1 FTIR Spectrofotometer (Shimadzu, Japan)<br />

with a DLATGS (Deuterated Triglyc<strong>in</strong>e Sulfate Dopedwith L-Alan<strong>in</strong>e) detector was used <strong>in</strong><br />

the measurements that were all performed <strong>in</strong> a dry atmosphere at room temperature<br />

(20 ± 0.5 °C). A horizontal ATR sampl<strong>in</strong>g accessory (ATR-8200HA) equipped with ZnSe cell<br />

was employed. All spectra were recorded with<strong>in</strong> a range of 4000–700 cm 1 with a 4 cm 1<br />

resolution and 20 scans. Spectra treatment consisted of basel<strong>in</strong>e correction and normalization.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

PCA analysis of the ATR reflectance spectra, employ<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e correction and normalization<br />

is displayed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. Analysis was based on a 54 x 1188 data matrix assembled so that each<br />

row corresponded to a sample and each column represented the spectra data at a given<br />

wavelength. The two first components accounted for 76% of the total sample variance. The<br />

first component provided separation of the evaluated samples <strong>in</strong>to two major groups: nondefective/light<br />

sour (positive PC1) and black/dark sour/immature (negative PC1). Evaluation of<br />

the load<strong>in</strong>gs plot (not shown) <strong>in</strong>dicated that the spectral ranges that presented the highest<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence on PC1 values <strong>in</strong> association with the black/dark sour/immature group were the<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g: 1482-1554, 1776-1797 and 3020-3100 cm -1 . The only significant band that can be<br />

observed <strong>in</strong> the ATR spectra <strong>in</strong> those ranges is the one at 1534 cm -1 . It was also present <strong>in</strong> the<br />

spectra obta<strong>in</strong>ed by Lyman et al. [1] for aqueous extracts of roasted coffee, regardless of<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g conditions, although no identification was attempted. In the case of PCA based on the<br />

first-derivative of the spectra (not shown), the first and second pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components accounted<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1761

for 28.6 and 12.6% of the total sample variance, respectively. No separation could be observed.<br />

The results presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 confirm that separation between high (non-defective) and low<br />

quality (black, immature and dark sour) coffees can be accomplished by FTIR-ATR analysis.<br />

Although light sour beans could not be separated from non-defective ones, such separation<br />

could be easily performed by bi-chromatic colour sort<strong>in</strong>g. Given that the ma<strong>in</strong> problem with<br />

colour sort<strong>in</strong>g is the separation of immature and non-defective beans, colour sort<strong>in</strong>g could be<br />

employed as a first step to elim<strong>in</strong>ate sour and black beans and thus FTIR-ATR could be<br />

employed for separation between immature and non-defective coffees.<br />

Figure 1. PCA scores scatter plot of FTIR-ATR spectra submitted to normalization and basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />

correction (PC1 vs. PC2). non-defective; immature; sour (light); sour (dark); black.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The feasibility of employ<strong>in</strong>g FTIR as a methodology for the separation between low quality<br />

(defective) and high quality (non-defective) coffees was evaluated. PCA results based on<br />

normalized ATR-FTIR reflectance spectra <strong>in</strong>dicated separation of the samples <strong>in</strong>to two major<br />

groups: non-defective/light sour and black/dark sour/immature. The prelim<strong>in</strong>ary results<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the present study confirm that FTIR analysis presents potential for the development<br />

of an analytical methodology for separation between defective and non-defective coffee beans.<br />

Further studies will be conducted employ<strong>in</strong>g a larger set of samples <strong>in</strong> order to develop<br />

predictive models. The methodology will be also tested for roasted coffee samples.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The authors acknowledge f<strong>in</strong>ancial support from the follow<strong>in</strong>g Brazilian Government<br />

Agencies: CNPq and FAPEMIG.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Lyman, D.J., Benck, R., Dell, S., Merle, S. & Murray-Wijelath, J. 2003. FTIR-ATR analysis of<br />

brewed coffee: effect of roast<strong>in</strong>g conditions, Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 51, 3268-3272<br />

1762

Effect of temperature on biospeckle activity <strong>in</strong> apples<br />

Andrzej Kurenda a , Anna Adamiak a , Artur Zdunek a<br />

a<br />

Department of Microstructure and Mechanics of Biomaterials, Institute of Agrophysics PAS<br />

Dowiadczalna 4, 20-290 Lubl<strong>in</strong> 27, Poland<br />

<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Optical techniques are fast develop<strong>in</strong>g group of methods of food products quality evaluation, because of the<br />

speed and precision of measurement as well as the non-destructive character. Biospeckle is another optical technique,<br />

although less known, that could be used to this purpose.<br />

Previously conducted experiments on biological materials have demonstrated the usefulness of biospeckle<br />

technique <strong>in</strong> issues such as:analysis of maturation and bruis<strong>in</strong>g of fruits and vegetables [1], monitor<strong>in</strong>g of apple shelf<br />

life [2]. However it is still unknown what k<strong>in</strong>d of biological processes are at the basis of this phenomenon. It is<br />

suspected that the biospeckle activity is caused by biological processes such as: cytoplasmic stream<strong>in</strong>g, organelle<br />

movement, cell growth and division dur<strong>in</strong>g fruit maturation and biochemical reactions, but processes such as Brownian<br />

motion or diffusion should also be taken <strong>in</strong>to account.<br />

To test whether the biospeckle activity is caused by metabolic or physical processes, an experiment was made<br />

which consists <strong>in</strong> record<strong>in</strong>g the activity phenomena with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature of the biological object. In the case of<br />

liv<strong>in</strong>g organisms, whose operation is based on enzymes, the rate of biological processes depends on temperature <strong>in</strong> a<br />

characteristic non-l<strong>in</strong>ear way, unlike processes such as Brownian motion, which <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>vestigated temperature range<br />

should change l<strong>in</strong>early. An example of that temperature-dependent biological process is the cytoplasmic stream<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

Characeae cells [3] which is suspected to be one of the biospeckle sources.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The device for biospeckle measurements was similar to that which was previously used by Zdunek et al.[2].<br />

The experiment consisted <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the biospeckle activity <strong>in</strong> three variants of temperature: a constant<br />

temperature of 24°C, a constant temperature of 4°C and at gradually lower<strong>in</strong>g the temperature from 29 to 5°C.<br />

Biospeckle obta<strong>in</strong>ed by illum<strong>in</strong>ation of fruits by He-Ne laser light were recorded and their activity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

three methods of image analysis, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g assessment of the correlation coefficients between the first and successive<br />

frames, contrast changes and moments of <strong>in</strong>ertia of the co-occurrence matrix <strong>in</strong> subsequent frames <strong>in</strong> time.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of our experiments unequivocally <strong>in</strong>dicate that all the methods of image analysis reveal a stability of<br />

phenomena <strong>in</strong> a constant temperature and a decrease <strong>in</strong> the biospeckle activity with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature. We also<br />

observed some differences between the methods of assessment of the activity of the phenomenon studied. The highest<br />

differences <strong>in</strong> the activity between extreme temperatures are visible <strong>in</strong> the method of test<strong>in</strong>g the correlation coefficient,<br />

and the lowest - <strong>in</strong> the method of contrast evaluation<br />

Surface of apples placed <strong>in</strong> a 2°C, reached a m<strong>in</strong>imum temperature of about 4°C after 4-5 hours of the<br />

experiment. In additional experiments, it was found that despite 24 hours of storage at 2°C, apples did not reach the<br />

ambient temperature which may be a side effect of metabolic reactions. As shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 4, the values of correlation<br />

coefficient <strong>in</strong>crease with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature which means a decrease of biospeckle activity. The relationship<br />

between temperature and the correlation coefficient is nonl<strong>in</strong>ear and shows the best fit to the third degree polynomial<br />

functions as confirmed by the coefficient of determ<strong>in</strong>ation R2 of about 0,95. The chart also conta<strong>in</strong>s the standard<br />

deviation for the biospeckle activity <strong>in</strong> different temperatures.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1763

Phenomena related to the movement of substances and organelles <strong>in</strong> cells are probably the cause of coherent<br />

light scatter<strong>in</strong>g and consequently the biospeckle activity. All processes of active transport are l<strong>in</strong>ked with the<br />

consumption of energy present <strong>in</strong> the cells <strong>in</strong> the form of high-energy chemical bonds. So if the source of the<br />

biospeckle are biochemical reactions occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a cell, the lower<strong>in</strong>g the temperature of the<br />

<br />

Figure 4. Biospeckle activity with temperature decrease, expressed as the <strong>in</strong>verse of the correlation coefficient.<br />

object will cause decrease of biospeckle activity of the same nature as decrease <strong>in</strong> the rate of biochemical reactions,<br />

which <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>vestigated temperature range is S-shaped [4].Given that the relationship between temperature and other<br />

phenomenon that may affect the activity of biospeckle - Brownian motion - is l<strong>in</strong>ear [5], the relationship shown <strong>in</strong><br />

Figure 4 is more appropriate for the dependence temperature-biochemical reactions than for the temperature-Brownian<br />

motion.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The nature of changes of biospeckle activity with temperature, shows that the ma<strong>in</strong> source of phenomena are<br />

biochemical processes (which probably <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>tracellular transport processes) rather than physical processes.<br />

Moreover, assum<strong>in</strong>g that the biospeckle activity is caused by life processes, and tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the high sensitivity<br />

of the method on the rate of these processes, we believe that it can be used to evaluate some parameters of fruits and<br />

vegetables quality as well as <strong>in</strong> biological research.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Pajuelo, M., Baldw<strong>in</strong>, G., Rabal, H., Cap, N., Arizaga, R., Trivi, M., 2003. Bio-speckle assessment of bruis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> fruits.<br />

Opt. Lasers Eng. 40, 13–24.<br />

[2] Zdunek, A., Frankevych, L., Konstankiewicz, K., Ranachowski, Z., 2008. Comparison of Puncture Test, Acoustic<br />

Emission and Spatial-Temporal Speckle Correlation Technique as Methods for Apple Quality Evaluation. Acta Agrophys.<br />

11(1), 303-315.<br />

[3] Shimen, T., Yoshida, S., 1993. Analysis of temperature dependence of cytoplasmic stream<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g tonoplast-free cells of<br />

Characeae. Protoplasma. 176, 174-177<br />

[4] Kotov, N.V., Baker., R.E., Dawidov, D.A., Platov, K.V., Valeyev, N.V., Skor<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>, A.I., Ma<strong>in</strong>i, P.K., 2007. A study of the<br />

temperature dependence of bienzyme systems and enzymatic cha<strong>in</strong>s. Comput. Math. Meth. Med. 8(2), 93-112.<br />

[5] Jia, D., Hamilton, J., Zaman, L.M., Goonewardene, A., 2007. The time, size, viscosity, and temperature dependence of the<br />

Brownian motion of polystyrene microspheres. Am. J. Phys. 75(2), 111-115.<br />

1764

Implementation of DNA technology <strong>in</strong> a Greek dairy company: An overview<br />

E. Beletsiotis a , D. Ghikas a , K. Kalantzi a<br />

a DELTA FOODS S.A, Athens, Greece (vagbel@delta.gr, dimghi@ delta.gr , kelkal@ delta.gr )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The knowledge and understand<strong>in</strong>g of microbial ecosystem (micro-environment) of each production<br />

facility is a necessity <strong>in</strong> order to avoid spoil<strong>in</strong>g of the products and constitute an important part of<br />

HACCP plan. The microbiological analyses, conducted by Quality Control (QC) department, at the<br />

critical po<strong>in</strong>ts of the production l<strong>in</strong>es, gives <strong>in</strong>formation about the diversity and taxonomic identity<br />

of the species that could contam<strong>in</strong>ate the food at every stage of production [1]; [2]. Applications of<br />

DNA technology <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong>dustry are relatively new. The construction of a Molecular Biology<br />

Laboratory (MBL) and the <strong>in</strong>corporation of molecular techniques, <strong>in</strong> the QC control scheme of a<br />

dairy company, is an <strong>in</strong>novation for the Greek <strong>in</strong>dustry. The MBL operates provid<strong>in</strong>g auxiliary<br />

support to the monitor<strong>in</strong>g of the micro-environment for each of the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g plants, accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to HACCP standards each one has set. Services provided <strong>in</strong>clude microorganism and arthropod<br />

molecular identification, typ<strong>in</strong>g of microorganisms and GMO analyses <strong>in</strong> foodstuff and products.<br />

Another aspect of MBL is to co-operate with QC and R&D, <strong>in</strong> projects and certa<strong>in</strong> scientific needs.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

MBL uses a variety of standard microbiological and molecular techniques. For microorganism<br />

cultur<strong>in</strong>g a large number of microbial practices are followed accord<strong>in</strong>g to ISO, IDF standards and<br />

QC work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structions of each plant. Isolation of DNA, Polymerase Cha<strong>in</strong> Reactions (PCR), Real<br />

Time PCR (RT-PCR), sequenc<strong>in</strong>g and typ<strong>in</strong>g of microorganisms, GMO analyses are made<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g standard molecular techniques and kit utilization. Resulted sequences analyzed with<br />

Lasergene suite programs (DNASTAR) and then they were screened us<strong>in</strong>g BLASTn algorithm<br />

(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.-gov/BLAST/).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Identification of microorganisms was made, us<strong>in</strong>g sequenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation, obta<strong>in</strong>ed from 16S<br />

rDNA gene for bacteria and from 28S rDNA region for fungi.Total number of analyses conducted<br />

for stra<strong>in</strong> identification from 2008 until 2010 was 2850 for bacterial species and 1741 for fungal<br />

species from specimens provided by QC of six different plants. Differences <strong>in</strong> number of<br />

microorganisms identified for each plant was due to the k<strong>in</strong>d of product, volume of production and<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g scheme. Although, all plants processed milk and milk products, each one has its unique<br />

micro-environment. Differences, <strong>in</strong> percentages of bacterial tax<strong>in</strong>omical orders identified, vividly<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicate different manufactur<strong>in</strong>g practices, processes and adaptation of microorganisms <strong>in</strong> each<br />

facility. Data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from identification of microorganisms, ecology, specific needs for nutrients,<br />

growth rates and conditions (temperature, humidity) and isolation frequency <strong>in</strong> the plant<br />

environment, allowed the creation of “micro-bank”. The identity of microorganisms allowed us to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> a better image of the micro-environment of the plants, to decide and apply appropriate<br />

corrective measures, regard<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> the production area and mach<strong>in</strong>ery [2].<br />

Other services provided are related to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of each plant. The<br />

laboratory developed and applied a molecular technique for the identification of arthropods <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1765

order/genus level. In one year application 82 analyses have been made and <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g conclusions<br />

have been emerged. Arthropods, that have been identified from plants, participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> that program,<br />

belonged ma<strong>in</strong>ly to class Insecta. Geographical position and specific environmental conditions<br />

applied <strong>in</strong> each manufactur<strong>in</strong>g plant are among the factors that contribute substantial to the<br />

differences, observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>sects order and genus level among the different plants. An “<strong>in</strong>sect-bank”<br />

was constructed, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g data regard<strong>in</strong>g the ecology of the <strong>in</strong>sects identified, the ethology, the<br />

isolation sites <strong>in</strong>side the plants, while new data cont<strong>in</strong>uously enrich the data bank. These data are<br />

tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to consideration from the personnel of Q.C when the IPM control scheme is re-evaluated<br />

and corrective measures are taken if needed.<br />

Another aspect of MBL is to work with QC and R&D, <strong>in</strong> projects and certa<strong>in</strong> scientific needs.<br />

Information related to species and stra<strong>in</strong> level of microbial stra<strong>in</strong>s for two R&D projects regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

yoghurt starter cultures and an ongo<strong>in</strong>g typ<strong>in</strong>g project for one of our plants have been made.<br />

MBL has a supportive role <strong>in</strong> the surveillance plan for GMO presence <strong>in</strong> foodstuff and company’s<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al products. Analyses were made with RT-PCR techniques, for qualitative and quantitative<br />

identification of soya and GMO crops harbor<strong>in</strong>g NOS-term<strong>in</strong>ator and 35S promoter <strong>in</strong>sertions and<br />

has the molecular tools, to identify the majority number of soya and maize modifications of crop<br />

varieties, approved for food use <strong>in</strong> Europe [3]. In a three year period the MBL has analyzed 362<br />

samples for presence/absence of crop and soya GMO modifications and last year, up to 126<br />

different analyses have been conducted, for the detection of maize GMO events. All the results were<br />

negative for the presence of GMO material. These results are <strong>in</strong> accordance with results obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from external laboratory tests <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that foodstuff and company’s f<strong>in</strong>al products are “GMO<br />

free”.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

This study is unique as it describes examples of the implementation of DNA technology <strong>in</strong> a Greek<br />

dairy company.<br />

a. Rout<strong>in</strong>ely, microorganisms are identified us<strong>in</strong>g molecular techniques, with high speed and<br />

accuracy. That allowed the construction of a micro-bank, specific to the micro –environment<br />

of each facility. Knowledge of that k<strong>in</strong>d, allows the company to take appropriate preventive<br />

measures assur<strong>in</strong>g high level of safety <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al products.<br />

b. Molecular identification of arthropods, which to our knowledge, is unique application among<br />

Greek <strong>in</strong>dustries, provides accurate <strong>in</strong>formation for the construction of an <strong>in</strong>sect-bank and<br />

optimization of IPM scheme for each plant.<br />

c. Participation <strong>in</strong> “<strong>in</strong> house” research projects, result<strong>in</strong>g to novel approaches and contribut<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

a higher level of scientific <strong>in</strong>formation, regard<strong>in</strong>g microbiological aspects.<br />

d. GMO analyses, for all known soya and maize genetic events, result<strong>in</strong>g to a higher confidence<br />

level of GMO free policy, of the company.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fleet G.H. 1999. Microorganisms <strong>in</strong> food ecosystems. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 50, 101-117.<br />

[2] Marco M.L. & Wells-Bennik M.H. 2008. Impact of bacterial genomics on determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g quality and safety <strong>in</strong> the<br />

dairy production cha<strong>in</strong>. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 18, 486-496.<br />

[3] Batista R. & Oliveira M.M. 2009. Facts and fiction of genetically eng<strong>in</strong>eered food. Trends <strong>in</strong> Biotechnology. 27(5),<br />

277-286.<br />

1766

Sensorial Characteristics of Goat Milk Cheeses Made From Ultra High-Pressure<br />

Homogenization-Treated Milk<br />

B. Juan, J. M. Quevedo, B. Guamis, V. Ferragut, A. J. Trujillo<br />

Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, TECNIO, MALTA<br />

Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193<br />

Bellaterra (Spa<strong>in</strong>)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ultra-high pressure homogenization (UHPH) is one of the most promis<strong>in</strong>g alternatives to<br />

traditional thermal treatment of food preservations and diversification. UHPH has been used<br />

for the stabilization of emulsions and to <strong>in</strong>activate harmful bacteria <strong>in</strong> milk [1]. However, little<br />

research exists on the sensory characteristics of milk cheeses made from UHPH-treated milk.<br />

The aim of the current work was to study the effect of UPHP <strong>in</strong> goat milk at a pressure of 200<br />

MPa on the sensorial characteristics of goat milk cheeses (UH-cheeses). The results obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

were compared with those from cheeses produced by conventional homogenized-pasteurized<br />

(18+2 MPa, 72ºC for 15 s, PH-cheeses) and heat-pasteurized (72ºC for 15 s, PA-cheeses)<br />

milks.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Ultra-high pressure homogenization was carried out by subject<strong>in</strong>g milk to s<strong>in</strong>gle stage UHPH<br />

(200 MPa) us<strong>in</strong>g a Stansted high-pressure homogenizer (model FPG11300, Stansted Fluid<br />

Power Ltd., Essex, UK) at an <strong>in</strong>let temperature of 30 ± 1°C. Two-stage homogenization (18<br />

MPa plus 2 MPa) and pasteurization (72ºC for 15 s) of raw milk were carried out with a Niro<br />

Soavi homogeniser (model X68P, Parma, Italy) and a F<strong>in</strong>amat heat exchanger (model<br />

6500/010, Gea F<strong>in</strong>nah GmbH, Ahaus, Germany), respectively. Three <strong>in</strong>dependent productions<br />

of cheese were carried out <strong>in</strong> the Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels<br />

Aliments (CERPTA) at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.<br />

Cheeses were analysed for pH, total solids (TS) [2], moisture content (100 – TS), total nitrogen<br />

(TN) [3] and prote<strong>in</strong> (TN x 6.38). Instrumental texture was evaluated by uniaxial compression<br />

test us<strong>in</strong>g a TA-TX2 Texture Analyser (State Micro system, Surrey, UK) as described by [4].<br />

Sensory assessments of 60 day-old cheese samples were performed by a panel of 10 members<br />

from the CERPTA. Hardness, spr<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>ess, granular, sticky and watery were used for described<br />

the cheese texture. Intensity of flavour, aroma and off-flavour also were evaluated. Panellists<br />

marked responses on a 9-po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong>tensity scale were pasteurized milk cheeses (PA) were used as<br />

a control (0 = no differences with control, ±1 = m<strong>in</strong>imal differences, ±2 = noticeable<br />

differences, ±3 = considerable differences, ±4 = very considerable differences). Negative (-) or<br />

positive (+) <strong>in</strong>dicates lower or greater perception related to control sample. Panellist also<br />

described the preference order of cheeses.<br />

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed by SPSS W<strong>in</strong> version 17.0 (SPSS Inc.,<br />

Chicago, IL). Student-Newman-Keuls test was used for comparison of sample data.<br />

Evaluations were based on a significance level of P < 0.05.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1767

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

No differences <strong>in</strong> pH values were observed between cheeses at 1 or 60 days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g. At 60<br />

days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g UH-cheeses showed the highest fracture stress and fracture stra<strong>in</strong>, becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the firmest and the most deformable cheeses, agree<strong>in</strong>g with the sensorial analysis described by<br />

the panellists. The higher values of moisture content found <strong>in</strong> UH-cheeses would contribute to<br />

a cheese that deformed more easily.<br />

Table 1. Texture parameters of PA, PH and UH-cheeses at 1 and 60 days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Fracture stress (x10 kPa) Fracture stra<strong>in</strong> (-)<br />

Days 1 60 1 60<br />

PA 3,47 ± 0,62 b 38,49 ± 2,95 b 0,90 ± 0,17 a 0,27 ± 0,05 c<br />

PH 2,58 ± 0,44 c 36,92 ± 6,32 b 0,96 ± 0,05 b 0,31 ± 0,03 b<br />

UH 5,65 ± 0,78 a 49,01 ± 7,30 a 0,43 ± 0,05 c 0,40 ± 0,04 a<br />

abc<br />

Means with<strong>in</strong> the same column followed by different superscript are significantly different (P

User-friendly software predict<strong>in</strong>g the microbial spoilage of emulsified acid foods<br />

Stavros G. Manios a , Antonis Psomas, Panagiotis N. Skandamis<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> QualityControl and Hygiene, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology,<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55, Athens, Greece. (pskan@aua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

“Traditional Greek Salads” (TGS) are highly acidic, pourable appetizers which are<br />

manufactured based on traditional recipes. Their low pH (3.6 – 4.5) <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with salt<br />

(1-2%) allow a shelf life of 2-3 months under refrigeration. However, temperature abuse dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

distribution or retail and home storage may accelerate the microbial spoilage of these products,<br />

especially dur<strong>in</strong>g summer. A variety of k<strong>in</strong>etic models has been developed to predict the<br />

growth of spoilage microorganisms <strong>in</strong> foods. These models are useful for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

the shelf-life of such products. However, there is lack of models predict<strong>in</strong>g the shelf-life of<br />

weak acid acidified, RTE products which are be<strong>in</strong>g stored under refrigeration. Thus, the<br />

development of a ‘generic’ model, which is able to correlate microbial growth with the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

pH and weak acids concentration of such foods, is of high importance for assess<strong>in</strong>g microbial<br />

stability of similar products. The objectives of this study were; (i) to characterize the microbial<br />

spoilage of three TGS, by correlat<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> microbial populations with sensory<br />

evaluation, physicochemical changes, as well as changes <strong>in</strong> species diversity dur<strong>in</strong>g isothermal<br />

storage; (ii) to develop and validate a predictive spoilage model <strong>in</strong> the form of a user-friendly<br />

software (i.e., tertiary model based on Visual Basic platform), which may provide predictions<br />

on the microbial status and the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g shelf life of the above products under dynamic chill<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> conditions and; (iii) to evaluate the applicability of a unified (generic-like) predictive<br />

model of microbial spoilage based on the <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of the acidulant (acetic acid) and<br />

the <strong>in</strong>itial pH of relevant products, regardless of differences <strong>in</strong> the recipe and the<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Commercial samples of Pepper-based salad (PS), Fava beans-based salad (FS) and Eggplantbased<br />

salad (ES) were stored under isothermal conditions (4 – 25 o C) until occurrence of<br />

spoilage. The populations of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were primarily modelled through the<br />

Baranyi model. Growth rates were further modelled as a function of temperature with a<br />

polynomial model, based on storage temperature, the <strong>in</strong>itial pH and undissociated acetic acid<br />

concentration. The developed model was validated under dynamic temperature conditions <strong>in</strong><br />

four household refrigerators and measured LAB populations were compared with those<br />

predicted by the model. Changes <strong>in</strong> pH, titratable acidity and organic acids concentration<br />

(HPLC) as well as sensory characteristics were correlated with LAB population at the po<strong>in</strong>t of<br />

organoleptic rejection, <strong>in</strong> order to def<strong>in</strong>e the spoilage level of LAB. In addition, LAB isolates<br />

from each appetizer and storage temperature were characterized based on their SDS-PAGE<br />

pattern and were further identified with 16s rRNA<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1769

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The shelf-life of the products was def<strong>in</strong>ed as the time that organoleptic rejection occurred. This<br />

co<strong>in</strong>cided with LAB populations levels of 7.5-8 log CFU/g, drop of pH below 3.9 and <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

of NaOH consumption over 3 ml. The latter two may likely occur as a result of lactic acid<br />

production which was observed <strong>in</strong> all appetizers or acetic acid which is a metabolic product of<br />

hetero-fermentative LAB. Other organic acids such as succ<strong>in</strong>ic, malic and qu<strong>in</strong>ic displayed<br />

mildly reduction whereas citric acid rema<strong>in</strong>ed almost unchanged. These results where further<br />

expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the molecular analysis or the specific spoilage microorganisms (SSOs). Notably,<br />

despite the large diversity <strong>in</strong> species at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g and early storage, Lactobacillus brevis<br />

and L. plantarum dom<strong>in</strong>ated the microbial flora of the products at the onset of spoilage. This<br />

SSOs diversity likely affected the dependency of max on storage temperature. The <strong>in</strong>itial pH<br />

and acidity of the products strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced their shelf-life. Products with lower pH and/or<br />

higher acetic acid content showed higher microbial stability, while <strong>in</strong> ES different treatments<br />

on the added eggplant (with or without dipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> lactic acid) appeared to affect the growth rate<br />

of LAB. In a further step, a unified-generic model which described the predicted maximum<br />

specific growth rates of LAB <strong>in</strong> all weak acid acidified products, as a function of temperature,<br />

the <strong>in</strong>itial pH and the undissociated, weak acid concentration was assessed, and the predictions<br />

demonstrated good agreement with the populations of LAB observed dur<strong>in</strong>g storage under real<br />

chill cha<strong>in</strong> conditions (Fig. 1)<br />

Figure 1 Predictions of the unified – generic model (—) correlated with the observed () growth of lactic<br />

acid bacteria <strong>in</strong> fava beans salad, stored under two different time-temperature (---) profiles. An average ho<br />

value of 1.13 was used for the simulations.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results suggest that the potential of microbial spoilage of these products is highly<br />

associated with their <strong>in</strong>itial pH and potential temperature fluctuation, with a temperature<br />

stability zone between 4 and 10 o C. The proposed dynamic model may assist <strong>in</strong> the<br />

management of such products dur<strong>in</strong>g chill cha<strong>in</strong>. It may also be used as a tool to characterize<br />

the stability of emulsified acetic-acid based foods as a whole product category, based solely on<br />

their <strong>in</strong>itial acidulant concentration and pH levels.<br />

1770

Detection of fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on leafy greens by hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Sukwon Kang, Kangj<strong>in</strong> Lee, Jong-Guk Lim, Moon S. Kim a<br />

Rural Development Adm<strong>in</strong>istration, Suwon, Korea<br />

a Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Beltsville, MD, U.S.A.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

It has been reported that several E.coli O157:H7 outbreaks were associated with shredded<br />

iceberg lettuce and roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce [1]. The orig<strong>in</strong> of the such contam<strong>in</strong>ation may from<br />

irrigation water contam<strong>in</strong>ated with wildlife feces [2]. These foodborne illness outbreaks drive<br />

the food safety <strong>in</strong>itiatives to save public health from pathogens associated with fresh produce.<br />

Thus, development of automatic <strong>in</strong>spection system with fast and accurate has been required to<br />

detect the bov<strong>in</strong>e fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on fresh produce.<br />

Hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g technique has been applied to food quality and safety to detect the<br />

defects or fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on fruits and vegetables [3, 4] and f<strong>in</strong>d the microbial<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation such as bacterial biofilms on food process<strong>in</strong>g equipments [5].<br />

From the hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g technique, the fluorescence imag<strong>in</strong>g showed good detection<br />

results for the spots of diluted fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on apples. Detection can be allowed by<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ant constituents <strong>in</strong> feces such as chlorophyll a and its byproducts .<br />

The objective of this study is to use a hyperspectral fluorescence imag<strong>in</strong>g system to detect the<br />

bov<strong>in</strong>e fecal matter on leafy green vegetables such as roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach. Image<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g algorithm will be <strong>in</strong>vestigated to f<strong>in</strong>d the possibility of detect<strong>in</strong>g the fecal<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation spots on leafy green vegetables.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The prepared leafy vegetables are roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce (Lactua sativa L.) and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves<br />

(Sp<strong>in</strong>acia olerace L.) and they were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a local market. Two or three leaves from<br />

each head of lettuce were taken and washed for approximately 30 seconds. The each sp<strong>in</strong>ach<br />

leaf was washed by the same method. The feces samples are obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Holste<strong>in</strong> cows<br />

which are grow<strong>in</strong>g at the Dairy Operations Unit, Beltsville Area Research Center, Agricultural<br />

Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Forty leaves of roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce<br />

and forty leaves of baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves were prepared for the fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation. For each<br />

fresh produce, twenty leaves were used the adaxial surface and another twenty leaves were<br />

used for abaxial surface. Approximately 5-mm diameter fecal spot was applied on each lettuce<br />

and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaf surface us<strong>in</strong>g a spatula. The used hyperspectral l<strong>in</strong>e-scan imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

systems has electron-multiply<strong>in</strong>g-charge-coupled-device (EMCCD) camera, an imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

spectrograph, lenses, a pair of ultraviolet (UV)-A lights at 365 nm provid<strong>in</strong>g near-uniform<br />

illum<strong>in</strong>ation to the l<strong>in</strong>ear field of view (FOV). The image size for analysis was reduced to 60<br />

(spectral) × 200 (spatial) pixels. Image acquir<strong>in</strong>g program was developed by us<strong>in</strong>g MS Visual<br />

Basic with the development kit provided by the EMCCD manufacturer. After hyperspectral<br />

fluorescence images are acquired, image process<strong>in</strong>g program was used to analyze the image<br />

data us<strong>in</strong>g the Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal Component Analysis (PCA).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1771

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The spectra of soil were similar to those of non-fluorescent black cloth. The emission maxima<br />

for the roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves were between 660 nm and 690 nm,<br />

approximately, and this may be related to the <strong>in</strong>tensity of chlorophyll a <strong>in</strong> the roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce<br />

and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves. Compared to the emission peak for leafy green surface, the emission<br />

peak for the fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation spots are shifted toward the shorter wavelength. It was<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>guishable that each emission peaks for ve<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong>ter-ve<strong>in</strong>, and bov<strong>in</strong>e manure.<br />

PCA analysis results showed that the hyperspectral imag<strong>in</strong>g system with the developed<br />

detection algorithm could successfully detect the fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on the leaf surfaces and<br />

differentiate the contam<strong>in</strong>ated fresh produce from the uncontam<strong>in</strong>ated ones. The result also<br />

showed that the differences between two leaf surface (adaxial and abaxial), and two leaf<br />

surface areas (<strong>in</strong>ter-ve<strong>in</strong> and ve<strong>in</strong>) did not cause any difficulty to the detection of bov<strong>in</strong>e fecal<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation. However, it is necessary to develop the different PC band for the different fresh<br />

produce for the higher detection accuracy. This benefit is essential for onl<strong>in</strong>e application of the<br />

algorithm by sav<strong>in</strong>g computation and operation time and effort.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this study, the hyperspectral fluorescence l<strong>in</strong>e-scan imag<strong>in</strong>g system was used for the<br />

detection of fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on the leaf surface of fresh produce. The research <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />

that the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis method can be used for bov<strong>in</strong>e fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

detection. The mask created by the waveband at the 692 nm could be used to dist<strong>in</strong>guish the<br />

objects from the background before obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the image. The threshold of 0.45 was applied to<br />

the ratio image to mark the pixels with fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation, and the 3 × 3 filter was then<br />

applied to elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g false positive pixels. The f<strong>in</strong>al b<strong>in</strong>ary images for certa<strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />

component showed that the algorithm could successfully detect all of fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation spots<br />

on the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of roma<strong>in</strong>e lettuce and baby sp<strong>in</strong>ach.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] FDA. 2006. Questions & Answers: Taco Bell E. coli O157:H7 lettuce outbreak. FDA, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,<br />

DC.<br />

[2] Armstrong, G.L., Holl<strong>in</strong>gsworth, J. and Morris Jr., J.G. 1996. Emerg<strong>in</strong>g foodborne pathogens:<br />

Escherichia coli O157:H7 as a model of entry of a new pathogen <strong>in</strong>to the food supply of the<br />

developed world. Epidemiologic Reviews, 18(1), 29-51.<br />

[3] Kim, M.S., A. M. Lefcourt, A.M., Y. R. Chen Y. R. & Yang, T. 2005. Automated detection of fecal<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation of apples based on multispectral fluorescence image fusion. Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 71(1), 85-91.<br />

[4] Vargas, A.M., Kim, M. S., Tao Y., & Lefcourt., A. M. 2005. Detection of fecal contam<strong>in</strong>ation on<br />

cantaloupes us<strong>in</strong>g hyperspectral fluorescence imagery. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 70(8), 471-476.<br />

2005.<br />

[5] Jun, W., Kim, M. S., Lee, K., Millner, P., & Chao, K. 2009. Assessment of bacterial biofilm on<br />

sta<strong>in</strong>less steel by hyperspectral fluorescence imag<strong>in</strong>g, Sens<strong>in</strong>g and Instrumentation for <strong>Food</strong> Quality<br />

and Safety, 3(1), 41-48.<br />

1772

Detection of mushroom Virus X (MVX) <strong>in</strong>fection <strong>in</strong> asymptomatic mushrooms us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

FTIR microscopic imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Alvarez-Jubete L a , Bonnier F b , Byrne H b , Grogan H c , Frias JM a<br />

a<br />

Dubl<strong>in</strong> Institute of Technology, School of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Environmental Health, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland,<br />

City, Ireland<br />

b<br />

Dubl<strong>in</strong> Institute of Technology, FOCAS Research Institute, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland<br />

c<br />

Horticultural Development Unit, Teagasc, K<strong>in</strong>sealy, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Mushroom Virus X affects important traits associated with mushroom quality <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g colour<br />

and appearance [1]. As a result, the spread of Mushroom Virus X to mushroom crops may<br />

potentially result <strong>in</strong> devastat<strong>in</strong>g economical effects for mushroom growers and producers. To<br />

prevent cross-contam<strong>in</strong>ation from occurr<strong>in</strong>g, it is essential than MVX <strong>in</strong>fected crops can be<br />

readily identified. At present, the only valid method available to confirm MVX <strong>in</strong>fection is<br />

based on PCR technology, by detect<strong>in</strong>g the presence of viral dsRNA [2]. However, this method<br />

is time-consum<strong>in</strong>g and requires highly skilled personnel. FT-IR spectroscopy has been used<br />

successfully <strong>in</strong> several studies to measure key parameters associated with mushroom quality<br />

[3-5]. In this study, we <strong>in</strong>vestigated the use of FT-IR imag<strong>in</strong>g spectroscopy as a rapid method<br />

to effectively detect the presence of Mushroom Virus X <strong>in</strong> asymptomatic mushroom tissue<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A horticultural cropp<strong>in</strong>g experiment was conducted at the experimental mushroom unit at<br />

Teagasc, K<strong>in</strong>sealy (Ireland). Control non-<strong>in</strong>fected mushrooms and MVX-<strong>in</strong>fected mushrooms<br />

were grown dur<strong>in</strong>g the course of two crops. The set of samples employed <strong>in</strong> this study was<br />

selected us<strong>in</strong>g first, second and third flushes. A total of twenty-two control mushrooms and<br />

twenty-five MVX-<strong>in</strong>fected samples were used <strong>in</strong> the case of pielipellis tissue. For stalk tissue, a<br />

smaller set was selected compris<strong>in</strong>g of ten non-<strong>in</strong>fected samples and n<strong>in</strong>e MVX <strong>in</strong>fected<br />

samples. Follow<strong>in</strong>g harvest, mushroom samples were subjected to a freez<strong>in</strong>g pre-treatment and<br />

stored at -80 o C prior day of analysis. On the day of measurement, mushroom sections from the<br />

pilei (cap) and stalk (stem) were cut us<strong>in</strong>g a Leca cryomicrotome <strong>in</strong>strument. Mushroom<br />

sections were collected on CaF2 slides and stored at – 20 o C until analysis. Spectra acquisition<br />

took place with<strong>in</strong> 8 hours of sample cutt<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g a Perk<strong>in</strong> Elmer Spotlight 400N over the<br />

frequency range 700-4000 cm -1 .<br />

The microscopic images correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the different mushroom tissues were sectioned<br />

through k-means cluster<strong>in</strong>g analysis <strong>in</strong>to homogeneous zones. The f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t region (830-<br />

1750 cm -1 ) of the IR spectra was selected for discrim<strong>in</strong>ation [4]. A tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g subset (50% of the<br />

total database of samples) of those spectra was used to build discrim<strong>in</strong>ation models of MVX<br />

<strong>in</strong>fection us<strong>in</strong>g Random Forest (RF) and Partial Least Squares Discrim<strong>in</strong>ant Analysis (PLS-<br />

DA) classification techniques. A test<strong>in</strong>g subset (the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50% of the database) was used<br />

to confirm the ability of those models to generalise this classification ability.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1773

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results for discrim<strong>in</strong>ation between MVX-<strong>in</strong>fected and non-<strong>in</strong>fected samples are<br />

summarised <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The RF models resulted <strong>in</strong> good classification between MVX-<strong>in</strong>fected<br />

and non-<strong>in</strong>fected control mushrooms. In particular, 98% correct discrim<strong>in</strong>ation of the test<br />

subset was obta<strong>in</strong>ed through RF for stalk tissue. Regard<strong>in</strong>g the cap tissue, the surface layer<br />

(pileipellis) proved to be the location with the best ability to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate between <strong>in</strong>fected and<br />

non-<strong>in</strong>fected mushrooms through changes <strong>in</strong> the FTIR spectra, with a 93% correct<br />

classification of the test subset through RF. From the results presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1, it can be<br />

observed that RF performance <strong>in</strong> predict<strong>in</strong>g the test subset was superior compared to PLS-DA,<br />

although both methods obta<strong>in</strong>ed satisfactory discrim<strong>in</strong>ation consider<strong>in</strong>g the characteristic<br />

variability of mushroom.<br />

Table 1. Summary of results for discrim<strong>in</strong>ation between MVX-Infected and non-<strong>in</strong>fected control<br />

mushrooms <strong>in</strong> the validation subset<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

FTIR microscopy coupled with multivariate data analysis <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g K-means, PLS-DA and<br />

Random Forest offers a fast method to <strong>in</strong>dicate MVX <strong>in</strong>fection which can then be further<br />

confirmed by PCR analysis<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Grogan H.M., Gaze R.H. & Holcroft S. 2005. Viral dsRNAs <strong>in</strong> Agaricus bisporus: Transmission,<br />

symptom expression and control. In: Tan Q., Zhang J., Chen M., Cao H., Buswell J.A (Eds.). Fifth<br />

<strong>International</strong> Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products. Acta Edulis Fungi, Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

363-367.<br />

[2] Martens, H., Næs, T. 1989 Multivariate calibration.Chichester: Wiley<br />

[3] Gaston E., et al. Prediction of Polyphenol Oxidase Activity Us<strong>in</strong>g Visible Near-Infrared Hyperspectral<br />

Imag<strong>in</strong>g on Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Caps. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry,<br />

58(10), 6226-6233.<br />

[4] O'Gorman A., et al. Use of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometric Data Analysis<br />

To Evaluate Damage and Age <strong>in</strong> Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) Grown <strong>in</strong> Ireland. Journal of<br />

Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 58(13), 7770-7776.<br />

[5] Esquerre C., Gowen A.A., O'Donnell C.P., & Downey G. 2009. Initial Studies on the Quantitation of<br />

Bruise Damage and Freshness <strong>in</strong> Mushrooms Us<strong>in</strong>g Visible-Near-<strong>in</strong>frared Spectroscopy. Journal of<br />

Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 57(5), 1903-1907.<br />

1774

Design and validation of sensory focused processes of foods<br />

C. Tzia, V. Giannou, D. Lebesi, D. Sabanis, V. Polychniatou, P. Sfakianakis, C. Chranioti, P. Moutsatsou<br />

National Technical University of Athens<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology<br />

Iroon Polytechniou 9, 15780, Polytechnioupoli Zografou, Athens, Greece<br />

Tel: +30 210 772 3165, e-mail: tzia@chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Sensory characteristics are the ma<strong>in</strong> quality characteristics of foods that designate the consumer<br />

choice and acceptability. The sensorial attributes are <strong>in</strong>fluenced dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g of foods<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the applied method and conditions. Sensory quality of processed foods may also be<br />

altered dur<strong>in</strong>g storage depend<strong>in</strong>g on the packag<strong>in</strong>g process (packag<strong>in</strong>g method, packag<strong>in</strong>g material<br />

etc.) and storage conditions. The possibility for control and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of the sensory attributes of<br />

foods is of <strong>in</strong>terest for food processors. Moreover, the identification of the processes directly and<br />

critically affect<strong>in</strong>g the sensory quality of a food product is of great <strong>in</strong>terest as well.<br />

However, some food processes <strong>in</strong>tend to develop one or certa<strong>in</strong> sensory characteristics of food (i.e.<br />

extraction of flavor compounds, removal of undesirable constituents, yogurt coagulation etc.). The<br />

occurrence of a sensory attribute <strong>in</strong> respect to a certa<strong>in</strong> process can be affected by various factors<br />

(i.e. the type and the amount of a material, the proper process<strong>in</strong>g conditions etc.) while the<br />

effectiveness of such a process has important impact on the total quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al product. Such<br />

sensory focused processes should be designed and validated.<br />

MATERIALS &METHODS<br />

Sensory attributes (color, size, form, flavor, taste and texture) of a product can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by its<br />

chemical composition and as well as by process parameters (temperature, pressure, energy <strong>in</strong>put,<br />

time, etc.), equipment (size, supplier, etc.) and storage conditions.<br />

In the present study representative sensory focused processes of foods are presented <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />

the sensory characteristic they <strong>in</strong>duce (e.g. flavor, taste, odor, texture, appearance, color).<br />

Thereafter the methodology for their design and validation is developed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

<strong>Process</strong> design, from the sensorial characteristics po<strong>in</strong>t of view, <strong>in</strong>cludes the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the<br />

relative process parameters (formulation and conditions) focus<strong>in</strong>g on the critical factors. A proper<br />

methodology is proposed for design verification and process validation.<br />

As far as the role of constituents is concerned the critical factors for the formulation is the<br />

concentration of the <strong>in</strong>gredients (basic or m<strong>in</strong>or) and their addition <strong>in</strong> the correct/optimum quantity.<br />

Several food processes are specialized <strong>in</strong> the development of a sensory property (e.g. the critical<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1775

factors for the development of shape/size can be the extrusion conditions, color<strong>in</strong>g reactions<br />

(Maillard, caramelization) or bleach<strong>in</strong>g can affect color, fermentation or deodoriz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>duce odor<br />

characteristics, etc.). Optimum parameters of process<strong>in</strong>g and storage/ma<strong>in</strong>tenance can ensure the<br />

retention of desirable properties of foods and lead to the development of <strong>in</strong>tended attributes <strong>in</strong> the<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al product. Heat<strong>in</strong>g (thermal process<strong>in</strong>g), freez<strong>in</strong>g, proof<strong>in</strong>g, bak<strong>in</strong>g/grill<strong>in</strong>g and aeration are<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>ed and the critical factors which may <strong>in</strong>duce sensorial characteristics, such as time and<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity, are recorded. Packag<strong>in</strong>g and storage can also be very important. Parameters such as the<br />

material, type and <strong>in</strong>tegrity of packag<strong>in</strong>g may affect the formation of off-flavors or generate<br />

oxidation. F<strong>in</strong>ally, storage conditions (temperature, humidity, aeration, duration, etc.) may affect<br />

color, odor, taste or flavor characteristics of food products through degradation, brown<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

decolorization, gell<strong>in</strong>g or whey off reaction. The above are summarized <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />

Figure 1. Parameters affect<strong>in</strong>g the sensory properties of foods dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Sensory experiments are required for process design (at different percentages of <strong>in</strong>gredients/<br />

components used or conditions applied).<br />

A tra<strong>in</strong>ed sensory panel should be <strong>in</strong>troduced as well as standardized methods and procedures<br />

should be applied for sensory test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> each design/validation step.<br />

Sensory data should be utilized for evaluation of products’ sensory quality and design verification.<br />

Required changes should be <strong>in</strong>corporated and process should be validated.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Lyon D.H., Francombe M.A., Hasdell T.A. & Lawson K. 1992. Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Sensory Analysis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

Product Development and Quality Control, 2nd Edition. Chapman & Hall, UK.<br />

[2] Lawless H.T. & Heymann H. 2010. Sensory Evaluation of <strong>Food</strong>: Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Practices, 2nd Edition.<br />

Spr<strong>in</strong>ger Science & Bus<strong>in</strong>ess Media, USA.<br />

[3] Sikorski Z.E. 2002. Chemical and Functional Properties of <strong>Food</strong> Components, 2nd Edition. CRC Press<br />

LLC, USA.<br />

1776

Rapid HPTLC-based method for quality control: simultaneous chemical analysis and<br />

antioxidant activity determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> herbal, nutraceutical and functional foods<br />

Katal<strong>in</strong>a Muñoz a , Jeniffer Calderón a , Edison Osorio a , Dagoberto Castro b , Raquel Serna b , Jaiber Díaz b ,<br />

Julián Londoño a<br />

a Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia (kmunos@gmail.com)<br />

b Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rio Negro, (dcastro@uco.edu.co)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Plant secondary metabolites, such as essential oils and flavonoids, have been widely studied for<br />

their biological activities [1]. Nowadays, there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> natural antioxidants;<br />

particularly for phenols <strong>in</strong>tended to prevent not only the presumed deleterious effects of free<br />

radicals <strong>in</strong> the human body but also the deterioration of fats and other constituents of foods.<br />

The antioxidant property of essential oils also has been verified <strong>in</strong> vitro by physical–chemical<br />

methods to promote their use as natural food additives [2].<br />

Thymus vulgaris (T. vulgaris) and Rosmar<strong>in</strong>us offic<strong>in</strong>alis (R. offic<strong>in</strong>alis), Calendula offic<strong>in</strong>alis<br />

(C. offic<strong>in</strong>alis), as well as many other aromatic plants biosynthesize high amount of volatile<br />

compound referred as the essential oil. The whole plant and its essential oils and non-volatile<br />

compounds can be used as natural preservative and antioxidants <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries [3].<br />

Although, antioxidants have a high demand<strong>in</strong>g and also their sources, there is a great problem<br />

for assurance raw material quality due the variability of metabolite content. This work uses<br />

HPTLC to compare quality <strong>in</strong> terms of metabolite content and antioxidant capacity.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Plant material: For T. vulgaris (Alzate 3438) 3 materials were evaluated (T1, T2 and T3),<br />

harvested <strong>in</strong> 6 regions <strong>in</strong> Antioquia state (Col.) Rio Negro (RN), La Ceja (LC), Mar<strong>in</strong>illa (M),<br />

Peñol (P), Guarne (G) and Santuario (S). For R. offic<strong>in</strong>alis (Alzate 3444 ) 2 materials were<br />

evaluated R1 and R2, harvested <strong>in</strong> the same locations. For C. offic<strong>in</strong>alis (Alzate 3444) CI6A,<br />

C11C, CI8K, C4, C9, C2, C2I, C9A were evaluated, cultivated <strong>in</strong> Rio Negro. Samples were<br />

dried at 45ºC <strong>in</strong> an air-forced dryer (Dies 2009, Colombia) and ground <strong>in</strong> mill-excelsior (IKA<br />

A11 Basic). Standars were from Chromadex.<br />

HPTLC Analysis: Alum<strong>in</strong>ium sheets Kieselgel 60 from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) were<br />

used. Samples were applied with a 100 uL sample syr<strong>in</strong>ge (Hamilton, Bonaduz, Switzerland)<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a L<strong>in</strong>omat V system (Camag, Switzerland). 5 uL were applied as 5 mm bands. Plates<br />

were developed <strong>in</strong> a vertical glass chamber (Camag, Switzerland) for 5 m<strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g toluene/<br />

ethyl acetate (97:3 by volume) as a mobile phase for T. vulgaris, toluene/ethyl formiate/formic<br />

acid for R. offic<strong>in</strong>alis and ethyl acetate/formic acid/glacial acetic acid/water (100:11:11:26 by<br />

volume) for C. offic<strong>in</strong>alis. After development, the components were visualized by UV<br />

irradiation at 280 nm for tymol, 250 nm for rosmar<strong>in</strong>ic acid and 360 nm for rut<strong>in</strong>. Then the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1777

plates were dipped <strong>in</strong>to a 0.05% DPPH solution. Antiradical activity was estimated on the<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity of disappearance of violet/purple background of plate and was quantified by<br />

densitometric scann<strong>in</strong>g at 518 nm as negative peak. Stock solutions were prepared <strong>in</strong> methanol<br />

at different concentration levels, these solutions were analyzed by HPTLC exactly as described<br />

above and calibration curves were prepared by plott<strong>in</strong>g the negative peak area versus<br />

concentration. Antioxidant activity was expressed as ng of rut<strong>in</strong> equivalent/mg of sample.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Thymol, rosmar<strong>in</strong>ic acid and rut<strong>in</strong> from T. vulgaris, R. offic<strong>in</strong>alis and C. offic<strong>in</strong>alis extracts,<br />

respectively, were identified by comparisons of their Rf values and UV spectra to standards,<br />

while the quantitative data were calculated from their calibration curves. The calibration curves<br />

of negative peaks of rut<strong>in</strong> were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a calibration solutions developed <strong>in</strong> the HPTLC<br />

and postchromatographic DPPH radical derivatization. A l<strong>in</strong>ear correlation was found between<br />

the amount of analyte and the negative peak area (r 2 : 0.9735, n=4). Antioxidant activity<br />

amongst the 18 samples of T.vulgaris was significantly different (p-value< 0.0001). For T.<br />

vulgaris, the best material express<strong>in</strong>g the metabolite responsible of the antioxidant activity,<br />

thymol, is T3, cultivated <strong>in</strong> S (T1S: 2.37x10 4 ± 4.42x10 2 ; T2S: 2.00x104 ± 1.06x10 3 , T3S:<br />

2.83x10 4 ±2.70x10 3 ng rut<strong>in</strong>-eqv/mg) and <strong>in</strong> Guarne (G) (T1G: 1.38x10 4 3.58x10 2 ; T2G:<br />

1.94x10 4 ±1.65x10 2 ; T3G: 2.47x10 4 ±4.83x10 1 ng rut<strong>in</strong>-eqv/mg ± SD). R. offic<strong>in</strong>ales had a<br />

different behavior, <strong>in</strong> this case the best places are RN (R1RN: 8.03x10 3 ±1.09x10 2 ; R2RN:<br />

8.84x10 3 ±3.46x10 2 ) and LC (R1LC: 7.38x10 3 ± 6.87x10 1 , R2LC: 1.18x10 4 ±1.95x10 3 ). The<br />

antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> the 12 samples tested was significantly different (p-value< 0.0001). For<br />

C. offic<strong>in</strong>alis the content of ng rut<strong>in</strong>-eqv/mg is expressed for a group of three compounds<br />

(chlorogenic acid, hyperosid and rut<strong>in</strong>), the materials evaluated, are significantly different <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of their antioxidant activity (p-value< 0.0001).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In the study was observed that the effect of the ambient on the antioxidant profile is extremely<br />

significant. The procedure can be used for rapid analysis <strong>in</strong> pharmaceutical and food <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

where standardization of raw material plays a key role on quality and efficacy of f<strong>in</strong>al products.<br />

The postchromatographic derivatization with DPPH can be used as a cheap, fast, and efficient<br />

alternative. This work pretends to demonstrate the great importance of us<strong>in</strong>g new technologies<br />

<strong>in</strong> quality control.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Faleiro, L., et al. 1999. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of Rosmar<strong>in</strong>us offic<strong>in</strong>alis L., Thymus<br />

mastich<strong>in</strong>a (L) L. ssp. mastich<strong>in</strong>a and Thymus albicans. <strong>in</strong> II WOCMAP congress on medic<strong>in</strong>al and<br />

aromatic plants, part 2: pharmacognosy, pharmacology, phytomedic<strong>in</strong>e, toxicology.<br />

[2]. Ruberto, G. and M.T. Baratta, 2000. Antioxidant activity of selected essential oil components <strong>in</strong><br />

two lipid model systems. <strong>Food</strong> chemisty. 69: p. 167-174.<br />

[3]. Nguefack, J., et al., 2009. <strong>Food</strong> preservative potential of essential oils and fractions from<br />

Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris aga<strong>in</strong>st mycotoxigenic fungi.<br />

<strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology. 131(2-3): p. 151-156.<br />

1778

Nondestructive evaluation of watermelon ripeness us<strong>in</strong>g LDV<br />

Rouzbeh Abbaszadeh a , Ali Rajabipour a , Hojjat Ahmadi a , Mohammad Mahjoob b , Mojtaba Delshad c<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

a Department of Mechanic of Agricultural Mach<strong>in</strong>ery, University of Tehran<br />

b Faculty of Mechanical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Tehran<br />

c Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Tehran<br />

Watermelon quality dur<strong>in</strong>g consumption, ma<strong>in</strong>ly depends on its extent of ripeness.In recent years<br />

researchers have been studied a new non-destructive vibration technique us<strong>in</strong>g LDV technology to<br />

test the quality of some fruits. Muramatsu , et al evaluated the texture and ripeness of some<br />

varieties of kiwi, peach and pears. They excited samples at different stages of ripeness, by the s<strong>in</strong>e<br />

wave with frequencies from 5 to 2000 Hz and vibration at top po<strong>in</strong>t of the fruit were measured by<br />

LDV. Then the phase shift between <strong>in</strong>put and output signals was compared with the data obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from the method of force - displacement. Significant relationship between these two methods<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> 1200 and 1600 Hz frequencies. [1]. Terasaki , et al were used LDV to assess properties<br />

of kiwifruit at different stages of ripeness. They consider two-factor S = f n = 2 2 m 2/3 and = (f2-f 1) / f n =<br />

2 where f n = 2 : second peak resonance frequency, m: mass of fruit and f 2 and f 1 at 3 dB below peak<br />

resonance are determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The relationship between S and firmness of kiwifruit was significantly<br />

high. also showed well match with soluble solids content [2] Taniwaki , et al also conducted a<br />

separate <strong>in</strong>vestigation to review the trend of change <strong>in</strong> elasticity <strong>in</strong>dex figures from the persimmon<br />

and pear after harvest period. They were determ<strong>in</strong>ed elasticity <strong>in</strong>dex from the formula f 2 2 m 2 / 3 . f2<br />

was obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g LDV. The samples evaluated us<strong>in</strong>g professional's senses and fruits ripeness were<br />

evaluated consider<strong>in</strong>g features such as appearance, sweetness, firmness and etc. (each separately).<br />

High correlation between the elasticity <strong>in</strong>dex and the mentioned properties were observed. [3,4].<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> goal of this research is: study the vibration response of watermelon us<strong>in</strong>g LDV and<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g a nondestructive method to determ<strong>in</strong>e the watermelon ripeness.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

In this study 14 watermelons of Crimson Sweet varietywere selected for the experiments.<br />

First each watermelon was placed on shaker. Then samples were excited by random signal. This<br />

signal generated by computer and were applied on a range of frequencies from zero to 300 Hz. The<br />

signals were also amplified by a signal amplifier. For every sample, experiments were repeated <strong>in</strong><br />

different positions of fruit on shaker. Vibration applied to the fruit by shaker was measured by<br />

accelerometer <strong>in</strong>stalled <strong>in</strong> fruit plac<strong>in</strong>g position and f<strong>in</strong>ally transmitted to the computer.<br />

Simultaneously vibration response of fruit top po<strong>in</strong>t was measured by LDV Us<strong>in</strong>g a fast Fourier<br />

transform algorithm with consider<strong>in</strong>g ratio of response signals to excit<strong>in</strong>g signals, frequency<br />

response of fruit was analyzed and the desired results was extracted.<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g frequency response curves between the accelerometer and LDV, damp<strong>in</strong>g ratio and resonance<br />

frequencies of first two vibrational modes were measured. The damp<strong>in</strong>g ratio obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the<br />

relationship = (f 2-f 1) / f 0 where : the damp<strong>in</strong>g factor, f 0:,resonance frequency, and f 1 and f 2 are<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed at 3 dB below the resonance peaks. phase shifts between <strong>in</strong>put and output vibrations also<br />

were considered <strong>in</strong> predeterm<strong>in</strong>ed frequencies (50,100,150,200,250,300).In addition f 0 2 .m f0 2 .m 2 /<br />

were also calculated us<strong>in</strong>g the test results applied <strong>in</strong> the analysis. After determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the vibration<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1779

esponse of the samples and measur<strong>in</strong>g their weight, watermelons were sensory evaluated.<br />

Seventeen panelists graded the fruits <strong>in</strong> a range of ripeness based on sweetness, taste (except<br />

sweetness), color, texture and also <strong>in</strong> terms of overall acceptability (total desired traits consumers).<br />

The fruit ripeness <strong>in</strong>dices were scored on a scale of 1–5 (1: unripe, 3: ripe, and 5: overripe).F<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

the correlation between LDV-test results and the consumer op<strong>in</strong>ions was determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Spectrums showed that second resonance peak (128 Hz) has better contrast and less sharpness<br />

which can <strong>in</strong>crease the accuracy.There is no significant difference between second resonance<br />

frequency and sweetness, taste, color, texture at 1% level as well as at 5% for overall acceptability.<br />

Index obta<strong>in</strong>ed f 0 2 .m 2/3 has a significant correlation with color at 5% level but significant difference<br />

was observed between quality characteristics and damp<strong>in</strong>g ratio and also <strong>in</strong>dex calculated from<br />

f 02.m at 1% level.The results shows that phase shifts at 50,100 and 300 Hz have significant<br />

difference with sensory test results but significant relationship was observed between phase shift at<br />

200 Hz and consumer op<strong>in</strong>ions at 0.01 level. There are no significant difference between phase shift<br />

of 150Hz and taste and overall acceptability as well as phase shift of 250 Hz and color at 0.05<br />

level.It seems second resonance frequency and <strong>in</strong>dex calculated by f 0 2 .m 2/3 can be used <strong>in</strong> detection<br />

of watermelon ripeness but damp<strong>in</strong>g ratio and f 0 2 .m aren’t suitable for it. Meanwhile the phase shift<br />

at 200 Hz had good relation with quality <strong>in</strong>dicator. Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account figure 3mentioned<br />

phenomenon can happens because of exist<strong>in</strong>g valley <strong>in</strong> this part of spectrum. Therefore study of<br />

other similar po<strong>in</strong>ts is suggested. Compar<strong>in</strong>g with other methods, this technique is more accurate<br />

without limitations and problems of acoustic method due to distribution of excitation energy <strong>in</strong> a<br />

wide frequencies range and a period of time and lack of additional mass. Also <strong>in</strong> this method the<br />

vibration response of watermelon us<strong>in</strong>g LDV is measured without direct contact, accurate and<br />

timely that has significant advantage for grad<strong>in</strong>g and sort<strong>in</strong>g of the melon for commercial use.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Present study demonstrates potential of laser vibrometry for predict<strong>in</strong>g quality of fruit as an onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

contactless sens<strong>in</strong>g method. Diagnos<strong>in</strong>g poor-quality watermelons <strong>in</strong> a bottleneck and separate<br />

them, this could <strong>in</strong>crease the consumer satisfaction, and provid<strong>in</strong>g a plan for us<strong>in</strong>g those products is<br />

conceivable.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Muramatsu N.1; Sakurai N.; Wada N.; Yamamoto R.; Takahara T.; Ogata T.; Tanaka K.; Asakura T.; Ishikawa-<br />

Takano Y.; Nev<strong>in</strong>s D.J.(1999) Evaluation of fruit tissue texture and <strong>in</strong>ternal disorders by laser Doppler detection,<br />

Postharvest Biology and Technology, Volume 15, Number 1, January 1999 , pp. 83-88(6)<br />

[2] Terasaki, S., Wada, N., Sakurai, N., Muramatsu, N., Yamamoto, R., & Nev<strong>in</strong>s, D. J. (2001). Nondestructive<br />

measurement of kiwifruit ripeness us<strong>in</strong>g a laser Doppler vibrometer. Transactions of the ASAE, 44, 81–87.<br />

[3] Taniwaki, M., Hanada, T.,Tohro, M. & Sakurai, N.(In press) Non-destructive determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the optimum eat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ripeness of pears and their texture measurements us<strong>in</strong>g acoustical vibration techniques. Postharvest Biol.<br />

Technol(2008).<br />

[4] Taniwaki, M., Hanada, T., & Sakurai, N. (2009). Postharvest quality evaluation of‘‘Fuyu” and ‘‘Taishuu”<br />

persimmons us<strong>in</strong>g a nondestructive vibrational method and an acoustic vibration technique. Postharvest Biology<br />

and Technology. Volume 51, Issue 1, January 2009, Pages 80-85<br />

1780

Effect of pasteurization on bioactive am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> human milk<br />

Fabiane Fátima Silva & Maria Beatriz A. Gloria<br />

LBqA – Laboratório de Bioquímica de Alimentos, Faculdade de Farmácia, UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos,<br />

6627, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil (mbeatriz@ufmg.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Human milk is a complete food with the energy and nutrients requirements for the <strong>in</strong>fant;<br />

furthermore it provides protective and growth factors. Among growth factors present <strong>in</strong> human<br />

milk, polyam<strong>in</strong>es play an important role [1]. Polyam<strong>in</strong>es and biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es are bioactive<br />

am<strong>in</strong>es, which are aliphatic, alicyclic or heterocyclic bases. The polyam<strong>in</strong>es sperm<strong>in</strong>e and<br />

spermid<strong>in</strong>e play important roles <strong>in</strong> growth regulation and cell proliferation, <strong>in</strong> the stabilization<br />

of DNA, RNA transcription, prote<strong>in</strong> synthesis, apoptosis and immune response regulation.<br />

They are also relevant <strong>in</strong> the maturation of the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al tract. The biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es are vasoor<br />

neuro-active. The concentration of these substances <strong>in</strong> breast milk depends on the diet and<br />

on mothers’ conditions, such as nutrition, age, diet etc [2,3]. When mother’s own milk is not<br />

available, processed human milk from an appropriately screened donor can be used. Human<br />

Milk Banks (HMB) are units for the encouragement and promotion of breastfeed<strong>in</strong>g as part of<br />

public health policies. The human milk collected <strong>in</strong> HMB must be pasteurized before<br />

distribution to <strong>in</strong>fants. Pasteurization is a heat treatment (62.5 ºC/30 m<strong>in</strong>) followed by rapid<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g. It is undertaken to <strong>in</strong>activate 100% of pathogenic microorganisms and 99.9% of<br />

saprophyte microflora [1]. It was observed to be effect <strong>in</strong> the elim<strong>in</strong>ation of potential viral<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ants such as human immunodeficiency virus, human T-lymphoma virus and<br />

cytomegalovirus, as well as tuberculosis and other bacterial contam<strong>in</strong>ants, while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

the greatest possible complement of its unique bioactive factors [4]. This study was<br />

undertaken to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of pasteurization on the profile and levels of bioactive<br />

am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> human milk.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

This study was conducted <strong>in</strong> a Human Milk Bank (HMB) located <strong>in</strong> Betim, metropolitan area<br />

of Belo Horizonte, M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais, Brazil. It was approved by the Research Ethics Committee<br />

of the Universidade Federal de M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais and of the HMB. Milk samples (n = 40) were<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed from 21 donors. The samples were collected randomly and screened for acidity from<br />

1 to 7 ºD. The samples of human milk were analyzed before and after pasteurization at<br />

62.5 ºC/30 m<strong>in</strong>. The profile and levels of polyam<strong>in</strong>es were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by ion-pair HPLC, post<br />

column derivatization with o-phthalaldehyde and fluorimetric detection [2]. The data was<br />

submitted to Anova and compared by the Mann-Whitney test at p < 0.05.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The polyam<strong>in</strong>es sperm<strong>in</strong>e and spermid<strong>in</strong>e were detected <strong>in</strong> the samples analyzed. The<br />

prevalent am<strong>in</strong>e was sperm<strong>in</strong>e, followed by spermid<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> both raw and pasteurized human<br />

milk. The levels of sperm<strong>in</strong>e varied from non detected (nd) to 3.29 mg/L (mean of 0.65 and<br />

median of 0.49 mg/L) and the levels of spermid<strong>in</strong>e ranged from nd to 1.31 mg/L (mean of 0.32<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1781

and median of 0.25 mg/L) <strong>in</strong> the raw milk. Some biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es were also detected, among<br />

them, putresc<strong>in</strong>e, cadaver<strong>in</strong>e, histam<strong>in</strong>e, tyram<strong>in</strong>e, phenylethylam<strong>in</strong>e, seroton<strong>in</strong> and<br />

tryptam<strong>in</strong>e. These am<strong>in</strong>es have been detected <strong>in</strong> human milk <strong>in</strong> other studies. The variation on<br />

the levels could be related to several factors among them, health, age, number of children of<br />

the mother. The diet of the mother can also affect the levels of am<strong>in</strong>es [2,5]. As <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong><br />

Figure 1, pasteurization did not affect significantly the levels of the polyam<strong>in</strong>es sperm<strong>in</strong>e and<br />

spermid<strong>in</strong>e (Mann-Whitney test, p < 0.05), which are growth and protective substances <strong>in</strong><br />

human milk. This result suggests that the pasteurization conditions were adequate regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the presence of polyam<strong>in</strong>es. However, pasteurization affected significantly the levels of the<br />

biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e histam<strong>in</strong>e, which <strong>in</strong>creased after pasteurization. The role of histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />

human milk must be ascerta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e the impact of its changes dur<strong>in</strong>g human<br />

milk pasteurization.<br />

Figure 1. Mean levels (mg/L) of polyam<strong>in</strong>es and biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> human milk before and after<br />

pasteurization at 62.5 ºC/30 m<strong>in</strong> (difference for histam<strong>in</strong>e, Mann-Whitney test, p < 0.05).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Pasteurization at 62.5 ºC/30 m<strong>in</strong> did not affect the levels of polyam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> human milk which<br />

are growth factors and protective substances. There was a significant <strong>in</strong>crease on histam<strong>in</strong>e<br />

levels. Studies are needed to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the orig<strong>in</strong> of this am<strong>in</strong>e and its role <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fant’s health.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Almeida S.G. & Dórea J.G. 2006. Quality control of banked milk <strong>in</strong> Brasília, Brazil. Journal of<br />

Human Lactation, 22, 335-39.<br />

[2] Buts J.P., Keyser N.D., Laurence R.D., Collete E. & Sokal E.M. 1995. Polyam<strong>in</strong>e profiles <strong>in</strong> human<br />

milk, <strong>in</strong>fant artificial formulas, and semi-elemental diets. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and<br />

Nutrition, 21, 44-49.<br />

[3] Larqué E., Mol<strong>in</strong>a M.S. & Zamora, S. 2007. Biological significance of dietary polyam<strong>in</strong>es. Nutrition<br />

23, 87-95.<br />

[4] Braga L.P.M. & Palhares D.B. 2007. Efeito da evaporação e pasteurização na composição bioquímica<br />

e imunológica do leite humano. Jornal de Pediatria, 83, 59-63.<br />

[5] Dorhout B., Van Beusekom C.M., Huisman M., K<strong>in</strong>gma A.W., De Hoog E., Rudy E.B. & Muskiet<br />

F.A.J. 1996. Estimation of 24 hour polyam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>take from mature human milk. Journal of Pediatric<br />

and Gastroenterology Nutrition, 23, 298-302.<br />

1782

Integration of new/rapid methods and ICTs to improve food safety and quality<br />

D. Lebesi a , A. Bilbao b , A. I. Díaz b , I. Papadaki a & V. Oreopoulou a<br />

a<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechniou St., 15780 Athens, Greece<br />

b<br />

GAIKER Centro Tecnológico, IK4 Research Alliance, Parque Tecnológico, Edificio 202, 48170<br />

Zamudio- Bizkaia, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The control of food quality and safety is of major importance for both consumer and food<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry. Conventional analytical techniques used (e.g. chromatography, electrophoresis) do<br />

not allow an easy cont<strong>in</strong>uous monitor<strong>in</strong>g as they are expensive, time consum<strong>in</strong>g and need well<br />

tra<strong>in</strong>ed operators. Consequently, new/rapid methods are cont<strong>in</strong>uously be<strong>in</strong>g developed. In the<br />

framework of MoniQA project “Towards the harmonization of analytical methods for<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g food quality and safety <strong>in</strong> the food supply cha<strong>in</strong>” an extensive research was<br />

conducted to gather data about developed rapid methods of analysis and their validation status,<br />

as well as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) systems that can be adopted by<br />

the food <strong>in</strong>dustry for better management. Additionally, two surveys were carried out <strong>in</strong><br />

companies cover<strong>in</strong>g the whole food cha<strong>in</strong>. The objective was to identify the current situation,<br />

the gaps and future needs associated with the implementation of food safety and quality<br />

management systems, and to assess implications of rapid and easy to apply methods and ICTs.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The surveys were conducted through the distribution of two questionnaires focused ma<strong>in</strong>ly on<br />

the current use and future needs of rapid methods for the analyses of food hazards (specify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the exact hazard and the rapid method used). In addition, respondents were asked to specify<br />

which on l<strong>in</strong>e controllers and ICT systems they are accustomed to use rout<strong>in</strong>ely. More than<br />

2600 questionnaires were circulated <strong>in</strong> 17 European and non European countries for 6 weeks to<br />

companies cover<strong>in</strong>g the whole food cha<strong>in</strong> e.g. raw material and <strong>in</strong>gredient suppliers, food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g companies, retailers and cater<strong>in</strong>g companies <strong>in</strong> different food sectors (Bakery &<br />

Breakfast Cereals, Dairy, Meat/Fish, Oil, Fruit/Vegetables, Prepared <strong>Food</strong>s and Beverages).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results, several rapid methods have been developed for microbial analysis,<br />

mycotox<strong>in</strong>s and food allergens, while few focus on the analysis of chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ants<br />

(Figure 1). Many rapid methods for microbial analysis are validated, while validation of<br />

methods for mycotox<strong>in</strong>s and food allergens is ongo<strong>in</strong>g. There are no validated methods for<br />

several chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ants (e.g. pesticides, organic environmental contam<strong>in</strong>ants), while<br />

very few rapid methods have been developed for some categories (e.g. heavy metals, food<br />

additives, process<strong>in</strong>g toxicants).The surveys among food companies <strong>in</strong>dicated that the most<br />

common type of rapid analysis used was for microbiological analytes (by 58% of the<br />

respondents), while a smaller percentage of respondents used mycotox<strong>in</strong> (14%) and allergen<br />

related rapid methods (10%). However, overall the use of rapid methods <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

was not that common, as <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. This can be ma<strong>in</strong>ly attributed to<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1783

<strong>in</strong>adequate/poor <strong>in</strong>formation about exist<strong>in</strong>g rapid methods, except for those developed for<br />

microbiological contam<strong>in</strong>ants, and to limited existence of validated rapid methods for some<br />

analytes, e.g. chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ants and food additives. The ease of application is another<br />

major factor, consequently, <strong>in</strong>dustries use mostly non validated, easy to apply test kits for food<br />

allergens and mycotox<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Pesticides<br />

Org.environmentalcontam<strong>in</strong>ants<br />

Mycotox<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Histam<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Heavymetals<br />

<strong>Food</strong>additives<br />

Allergens<br />

Microbiological<br />

Used Nonvalidated Validated<br />

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180<br />

Numberofrapidmethods<br />

Figure 1. Rapid methods available and used by respondents for microbiological and chemical hazards<br />

detection<br />

Furthermore, companies use and need automatic on/<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g systems ma<strong>in</strong>ly for<br />

temperature control, as temperature is a critical parameter for the safety of the product;<br />

automatic on/<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e foreign body detection systems are also of high demand. Regard<strong>in</strong>g ICTbased<br />

management systems, there is <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> their use ma<strong>in</strong>ly for product and raw material<br />

traceability and for storage area management, while ICT is also used to source <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

about local legislation and regulations, exist<strong>in</strong>g suppliers and customers.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Rapid methods, although not used extensively, are needed throughout the food supply cha<strong>in</strong> to<br />

aid <strong>in</strong> the identification of potentially contam<strong>in</strong>ated raw materials/additives/food lots.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the conducted survey, a lot of <strong>in</strong>dustries were not well <strong>in</strong>formed about the rapid<br />

methods available for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the quality and safety of food and didn’t completely grasp the<br />

essence of rapid methods, while 62% of the respondents that used rapid methods considered<br />

that their <strong>in</strong>troduction had contributed to improved food safety management. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegration of ICTs <strong>in</strong> total quality and safety food management systems can be further<br />

enhanced, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to consideration the needs of food <strong>in</strong>dustries for improved data accuracy<br />

and real time data acquisition.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

The MoniQA Network of Excellence is funded by the European Commission (contract no. FOOD-CT-<br />

2006-36337) with<strong>in</strong> the Sixth Framework Programme Topic T5.4.5.1: Quality and safety control<br />

strategies for food (NOE). The authors appreciate the contribution of the follow<strong>in</strong>g MoniQA partners:<br />

Hanna-Leena Alakomi, Anton J. Alldrick, Ayse Bakan, Zsuzsanna Bugyi, Cathr<strong>in</strong>e F<strong>in</strong>ne Kure, Velitchka<br />

Gotcheva, Sandra Kerbach, Susan Paul<strong>in</strong>, Xiaofang Pei, Maddalena Ragona, Christelle Robert, Kim Ahn<br />

To and Hal<strong>in</strong>a Tureskja.<br />

1784

Commercial characterization of Madalenas: Relationship between physical and sensory<br />

parameters<br />

M. M. Ureta a , D. F. Olivera a,b , V.O. Salvadori a,b<br />

a Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CIDCA), Fac. de Cs. Exactas,<br />

UNLP – CCT La Plata, CONICET, 47 y 116, B1900AJJ, La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

b MODIAL, Depto. Ing. Qca., Fac. de Ingeniería, UNLP, 1 y 47, B1900TAG, La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

(micaelaureta@gmail.com, danielaolivera@conicet.gov.ar, vosalvad@<strong>in</strong>g.unlp.edu.ar)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The ability to produce high quality processed foods is essential <strong>in</strong> order to compete <strong>in</strong> a market<br />

were consumers have exigent requests. In particular, bak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry has an additional<br />

challenge: to achieve a mechanical and automatic process ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a given identity of<br />

quality <strong>in</strong> time. Different aspects, apart from bak<strong>in</strong>g operative conditions, contribute to the<br />

product quality and <strong>in</strong>duce consumer’s acceptance. Among others, the change <strong>in</strong> volume and<br />

shape, color, texture and flavor can be mentioned [1]. Madalenas, very common <strong>in</strong> Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

for breakfast or at tea time, are <strong>in</strong>cluded with<strong>in</strong> the general def<strong>in</strong>ition of sweet baked products.<br />

They have a particular taste and shape, similar to a small cake, with a formulation that basically<br />

consists <strong>in</strong> eggs, sugar, butter, flour and yeast.<br />

The objective of the present work was to analyze the physical and sensory quality of<br />

commercial madalenas with the purpose of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g relationships between consumer’s<br />

preference and physical parameters.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Four different trademarks of madalenas (MC1, MC2, MC3 y MC4), normally encountered <strong>in</strong><br />

Argent<strong>in</strong>ean food stores, were used <strong>in</strong> this study. The <strong>in</strong>strumental analysis consisted <strong>in</strong>:<br />

texture characterization through compression [2], relaxation [2] and TPA tests us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

TA.XT2i Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, UK); water content [2] and water activity<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g an AquaLab CX-2 (Decagon, USA); porosity measured by image analysis; color us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

colorimeter (M<strong>in</strong>olta CR-300, Japan); and global and crumb density. All tests were performed<br />

by quadruplicate for each trademark. The sensory characteristics of madalenas were measured<br />

by an untra<strong>in</strong>ed panel of 35 consumers (23 % males and 77 % females) us<strong>in</strong>g the acceptance<br />

test, i.e. the affective method <strong>in</strong> a verbally structured 9-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic scale (from 9 - extremely<br />

like, 5 - neither like nor dislike, to 1 - extremely dislike).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of analysis are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. A good correlation between structural parameters<br />

(crumb density), and textural (firmness) was found (R 2 0.9). This is, the greater the density,<br />

more firmness the sample showed.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1785

The jo<strong>in</strong>t analysis of these results and the previously presented physical properties showed that<br />

acceptability are strongly correlated with porosity, crumb density and firmness (R 2 =0.97,<br />

0.87and 0.92, respectively). It showed a high preference for products more porous and less firm<br />

[3].<br />

Although TPA is an excellent test for texture analysis <strong>in</strong> many k<strong>in</strong>d of food, <strong>in</strong> this case, it<br />

didn’t reveal significant differences between samples. On the other hand, there were found<br />

important variation when color was evaluated, what contributed to characterize each<br />

trademark.<br />

Table 1. Results from all the tests performed for the analysis.<br />

MC1 MC2 MC3 MC4<br />

Water content (%) 17.70 a 17.97 a 17.91 a 16.35 b<br />

Water activity 0.77 a 0.77 a 0.78 a 0.78 a<br />

Crumb density (g/cm 3 ) 0.66 a 0.60 b 0.53 c 0.73 d<br />

Global density (g/cm 3 ) 0.50 a 0.47 a 0.43 a 0.46 a<br />

Porosity (cell/cm 2 ) 6.80 a 4.80 b 10.40 c 2.30 d<br />

Firmness (N) 85.75 a<br />

69.04 b 23.15 c 138.97 d<br />

Elasticity (%) 48.00 a 45 ab 45 a 51 b<br />

Cohesiveness 0.47 a 0.51 b 0.50 b 0.55 b<br />

Acceptability (%) 73 % 71 % 80 % 64 %<br />

Values followed by a different letter are significantly different (P < 0.05).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present study is a prelim<strong>in</strong>ary stage of a more complete research that is focused on the<br />

optimization of bak<strong>in</strong>g process conditions affect<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>al quality of sweet baked products. It<br />

showed that sensory analysis alone is not sufficient to establish commercial trends for a given<br />

product. However, if it is accompanied by physical and texture evaluation, it can be correlated<br />

to def<strong>in</strong>e the desirable quality and, what is more, it will be a useful tool to design an <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

process with high quality standards of production.<br />

In this case, consumers appreciate more soft and aerated product, so there is a challenge to<br />

achieve a process that ensures these characteristics on sweet baked products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] van Kleef, E., van Trijp, H.C.M. and Lun<strong>in</strong>g, P. 2005. Consumer research <strong>in</strong> the early stages of new<br />

product development: a critical review of methods and techniques. <strong>Food</strong> Quality and Preference, 16,<br />

181–201.<br />

[2] AACC. 2000. Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, St Paul, MN,<br />

AACC.<br />

[3] Morr, C.V., Hoffmann, W. and Buchheim, W. 2003. Use of applied air pressure to improve bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

properties of whey prote<strong>in</strong> isolates <strong>in</strong> angel food cakes. Lebensmittel Wissenchaft und Technologie,<br />

36, 83-90.<br />

1786

ABSTRACT<br />

Integrat<strong>in</strong>g stra<strong>in</strong> variability <strong>in</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g Salmonella enterica growth<br />

Alexandra Lianou, Koutsoumanis Kostas<br />

Aristotle University Of Thessaloniki<br />

Stra<strong>in</strong> variability of the growth behavior of foodborne bacterial pathogens has been well<br />

documented and acknowledged as an issue of major importance <strong>in</strong> food safety management.<br />

Aim<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g such a variability <strong>in</strong> predictive modell<strong>in</strong>g approaches, a model<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tra-species variability data and predict<strong>in</strong>g the maximum specific growth rate<br />

(max) of Salmonella enterica as a function of pH and aw was developed.<br />

For this purpose, growth k<strong>in</strong>etic data (max values) of 60 S. enterica isolates, generated dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g of growth at 37°C <strong>in</strong> tryptone soy broth of different pH (4.0-7.0) or aw values<br />

(0.964-0.992), were used. The effects of pH and aw on max were modelled for each tested<br />

stra<strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g a card<strong>in</strong>al parameter model (CPM), and the parameters pHm<strong>in</strong>, pHopt, awm<strong>in</strong>, awopt<br />

were estimated and used to describe the variability of max among the stra<strong>in</strong>s. Specifically, S.<br />

enterica stra<strong>in</strong> variability was described by <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g cumulative frequency distributions for<br />

the card<strong>in</strong>al parameter values <strong>in</strong>to the model. In this way, the prediction of max provided by the<br />

model us<strong>in</strong>g Monte Carlo simulation is a distribution of values, allow<strong>in</strong>g for the stra<strong>in</strong><br />

variability of this growth k<strong>in</strong>etic parameter to be taken <strong>in</strong>to account. The developed model was<br />

validated aga<strong>in</strong>st growth k<strong>in</strong>etic data generated for the 60 stra<strong>in</strong>s of the pathogen at pH 5.0-aw<br />

0.977.<br />

The model predicted accurately the max of S. enterica, with the mean and standard deviation of<br />

the latter be<strong>in</strong>g 0.78 and 0.09 h -1 , respectively, and with 5th and 95th percentiles of 0.62 and<br />

0.91 h -1 , respectively. The mean, standard deviation, and the 5th and 95th percentiles of the<br />

observed max values were 0.73, 0.09, and 0.61 and 0.85 h -1 , respectively.<br />

The stochastic approach developed <strong>in</strong> this study can be useful <strong>in</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the stra<strong>in</strong> variability of S. enterica growth k<strong>in</strong>etic behavior <strong>in</strong> predictive microbiology and<br />

microbial risk assessment.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1787

A study on germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and mycelium growth k<strong>in</strong>etics of s<strong>in</strong>gle fungal spores<br />

Maria Gougouli, Kostas Koutsoumanis<br />

Aristotle University Of Thessaloniki<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

Most of the available studies on fungal behaviour <strong>in</strong> foods deal with monitor<strong>in</strong>g growth of<br />

mycelia orig<strong>in</strong>ated from a large number of spores. In practice however, the contam<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

food with fungal spores occurs at very low numbers. Therefore, the study of large populations<br />

can lead to unreliable conclusions, because it does not take <strong>in</strong>to account the variability between<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual spores.<br />

This study aims at describ<strong>in</strong>g the germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and mycelium growth k<strong>in</strong>etics of s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

fungal spores and establish<strong>in</strong>g a relationship between them.<br />

The germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and the mycelium growth k<strong>in</strong>etics of s<strong>in</strong>gle fungal spores of Penicillium<br />

expansum and Aspergillus niger were monitored at isothermal conditions rang<strong>in</strong>g from 0 to 33<br />

°C and from 5 to 42 °C, respectively. For each temperature, the germ<strong>in</strong>ation time of 450 spores<br />

on malt extract agar was monitored microscopically, while the radial growth of 200 mycelia<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>ated from a s<strong>in</strong>gle spore was assessed macroscopically. The data on the germ<strong>in</strong>ation and<br />

the lag time of s<strong>in</strong>gle spores were expressed as cumulative frequencies and fitted to the logistic<br />

model. In addition, a time-lapse microscopy method was developed for monitor<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gle spore<br />

behaviour us<strong>in</strong>g a z-motorized microscope (Olympus BX61) equipped with ×40 and x4<br />

objectives (Olympus) and a high-resolution device camera (Olympus DP71). The quality of the<br />

images was improved by develop<strong>in</strong>g an auto focus procedure with an Extended Depth of Focus<br />

(EDF) system us<strong>in</strong>g the ScopePro module of ImageProPlus software. The output of the above<br />

method was a video for each spore show<strong>in</strong>g the behaviour of s<strong>in</strong>gle spores from germ<strong>in</strong>ation to<br />

mycelium formation.<br />

The results of the study showed similar temperature dependence for the germ<strong>in</strong>ation and the<br />

lag time of s<strong>in</strong>gle spores. However, the temperatures limits for germ<strong>in</strong>ation time were wider<br />

compared to the lag time due to the fact that at the growth boundary spores germ<strong>in</strong>ated but<br />

were not able to form a mycelium. The lag time was significantly longer that the germ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

time. This was confirmed by the spore behaviour videos which clearly showed the relation<br />

between spore germ<strong>in</strong>ation time and the lag calculated from the mycelium growth.<br />

The data provided by this work describe the relation between germ<strong>in</strong>ation and lag time of<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gle spores and their variability, and can help to the development of stochastic methods for<br />

determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the risk of food spoilage by fungi.<br />

1788

Quantify<strong>in</strong>g the comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of salt and temperature on the growth of Listeria stra<strong>in</strong>s<br />

isolated from salmon and salmon process<strong>in</strong>g environments<br />

Torste<strong>in</strong> Skåra 1,2 , Astrid M Cappuyns 2 , Eva Van Derl<strong>in</strong>den 2 , Jan Thomas Rosnes 1 , Vasilis P Valdramidis 3 , Jan FM Van<br />

Impe 2<br />

1 Nofima, Stavanger, Norway (Torste<strong>in</strong>.Skara@nofima.no)<br />

2<br />

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, BioTeC - Chemical and Biochemical <strong>Process</strong><br />

Technology and Control, Leuven, Belgium (jan.vanimpe@cit.kuleuven.be)<br />

CPMF² - Flemish Cluster Predictive Microbiology <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s – http://www.cpmf2.be/<br />

3<br />

Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> UCD, School of Agriculture, <strong>Food</strong> Science and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e University College<br />

Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Ireland (Vasilis.Valdramidis@ucd.ie)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Recent legislation for shelf life determ<strong>in</strong>ation of RTE-products recommends documentation of growth<br />

potential of L. monocytogenes to be obta<strong>in</strong>ed either through challenge studies, or modell<strong>in</strong>g [1].<br />

Monitor<strong>in</strong>g bacterial growth response <strong>in</strong> nutrient media through measurements of optical density is an<br />

often used method for estimation of growth parameters [2]. Although validated growth models exist [3],<br />

the slow growth response of Listeria at refrigerated storage temperatures makes growth parameter<br />

estimation useful, for example, for screen<strong>in</strong>g stra<strong>in</strong>s and new preservation conditions. The objective of<br />

this work is to study the effect of temperature and salt concentration on the growth of Listeria <strong>in</strong> a liquid<br />

medium model system. The stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>vestigated orig<strong>in</strong>ate from or are relevant for salmon process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

L. monocytogenes stra<strong>in</strong>s (5, 11, 14, 15, 21, 26, 44, 51-2) isolated from salmon and salmon process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

environment and two L. <strong>in</strong>nocua stra<strong>in</strong>s, ATCC 33090 and CCUG 35613 (= ATCC 51742) were<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated with respect to their growth k<strong>in</strong>etic properties.10-fold serial dilutions of <strong>in</strong>ocula grown to<br />

stationary phase were prepared <strong>in</strong> TSBYE with 0, 2.5 and 5 % (w/v) NaCl. 5 ten-fold dilutions of each<br />

stra<strong>in</strong> were transferred to microtiter plates and mounted <strong>in</strong> a Bioscreen C measur<strong>in</strong>g absorbance at 600<br />

nm (abs600nm) at regular time <strong>in</strong>tervals, at 4, 12 and 30ºC. The maximum specific growth rate, max, and<br />

the lag time, , were estimated from abs600nm by determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the time to detection, and by us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

serial dilution method [4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

For the different salt and temperature comb<strong>in</strong>ations under study, no significant differences <strong>in</strong> max and <br />

were observed for the different stra<strong>in</strong>s with<strong>in</strong> one species. Therefore, no <strong>in</strong>dividual stra<strong>in</strong> results are<br />

presented, but the results are grouped per species. The estimated max and the estimated are presented <strong>in</strong><br />

table 1, show<strong>in</strong>g the decrease maximum growth rate with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature. The effect of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the salt concentration from 0% to 5% led to a reduced growth rate. Overall L. <strong>in</strong>nocua showed a higher<br />

growth rate than L. monocytogenes at 30ºC, while at 4ºC L. monocytogenes showed the higher growth<br />

rates. For L. monocytogenes the lag phase <strong>in</strong>creased with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature. Salt concentration also<br />

affected the lag phase of L. monocytogenes. At 30°C, however, the estimated lag phase values were <strong>in</strong> the<br />

same range for the different salt concentrations. For L. <strong>in</strong>nocua an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> lag phase can also be seen<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1789

for decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature. An <strong>in</strong>crease of was seen with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g salt concentration. In general the<br />

lag phase of L. <strong>in</strong>nocua <strong>in</strong>creased more than that of L. moncytogenes with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g salt concentration<br />

and decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature.<br />

Table 1: Effect of temperature and salt concentration on the maximum growth rate (mean maximum growth rate, max<br />

(h -1 ) ± SD) and lag phase (mean lag phase, (h) ± SD) of L. monocytogenes and L. <strong>in</strong>nocua stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> TSBYE<br />

Estimated<br />

Temperature (ºC)<br />

Salt (%) Species<br />

Parameter<br />

30 12 4<br />

max<br />

<br />

0<br />

2.5<br />

5<br />

0<br />

2.5<br />

5<br />

L. monocytogenes ±<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua ±<br />

L. monocytogenes ±<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua ±±<br />

L. monocytogenes ±<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua ±±<br />

L. monocytogenes<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua<br />

L. monocytogenes<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua<br />

L. monocytogenes<br />

L. <strong>in</strong>nocua<br />

1.03 ± 0.01<br />

1.05 ± 0.02<br />

0.85 ± 0.02<br />

0.89 ± 0.03<br />

0.49 ± 0.05<br />

0.62 ± 0.02<br />

1.1 ± 0.1<br />

1.5 ± 0.5<br />

1.3 ± 0.2<br />

1.7 ± 0.3<br />

1.0. ± 0.5<br />

2.2 ± 0.5<br />

0.185 ± 0.004<br />

0.179 ± 0.003<br />

0.158 ± 0.006<br />

0.157 ± 0.001<br />

0.124 ± 0.007<br />

0.119 ± 0.007<br />

5.7 ± 0.7<br />

6.8 ± 1.7<br />

6.5 ± 1.4<br />

10.0 ± 0.7<br />

9.9 ± 1.6<br />

15.5 ± 2.4<br />

0.042 ± 0.002<br />

0.034 ± 0.001<br />

0.033 ± 0.003<br />

0.023 ± 0.002<br />

0.028 ± 0.002<br />

37 ± 7<br />

80 ± 8<br />

23 ± 8<br />

41 ± 20<br />

53 ± 9<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The results show an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> growth rate of Listeria with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperatures. The levels were<br />

quite similar for both species, although L. monocytogenes showed the higher growth rate at 4ºC. Lag<br />

phase was more affected than growth rate; both by temperature and salt concentration, and these effects<br />

were most prom<strong>in</strong>ent for L. <strong>in</strong>nocua. As the major factors for controll<strong>in</strong>g growth of Listeria <strong>in</strong> salted fish<br />

products, the effects of temperature and salt content are relevant to product development and food safety.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This work was funded by The Research Council of Norway (project no.<br />

186905). The authors wish to thank the National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research<br />

(www.nifes.no) for provid<strong>in</strong>g the stra<strong>in</strong>s and Stord/Haugesund University College for lend<strong>in</strong>g their<br />

Bioscreen C <strong>in</strong>strument. E. Van Derl<strong>in</strong>den is supported by grant PDMK/10/122 of the Research Fund of<br />

the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Jan Van Impe holds the chair Safety <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> sponsored by the<br />

Belgian chemistry and life sciences federation essenscia. This work was supported by the Belgian<br />

Program on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction, <strong>in</strong>itiated by the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 1441/2007 of December 2007 amend<strong>in</strong>g Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005<br />

on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. L 322, 12-29. 2007. Official Journal of the European Union.<br />

[2] August<strong>in</strong> J.C., Rosso L., & Carlier V. 1999. Estimation of temperature dependent growth rate and lag time of<br />

Listeria monocytogenes by optical density measurements. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 38(1-2), 137-<br />

146.<br />

[3] Mejlholm O. & Dalgaard P. 2007. Model<strong>in</strong>g and predict<strong>in</strong>g the growth boundary of Listeria monocytogenes <strong>in</strong><br />

lightly preserved seafood. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Protection, 70(1), 70-84.<br />

[4] Biesta-Peters E.G., Reij M.W., Joosten H., Gorris L.G.M., & Zwieter<strong>in</strong>g M.H. 2010. Comparison of two opticaldensity-based<br />

methods and a plate count method for estimation of growth parameters of Bacillus cereus.<br />

Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(5), 1399-1405.<br />

1790

Modell<strong>in</strong>g thermosonication <strong>in</strong>activation of Aspergillus flavus comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g natural<br />

antimicrobial at different pH<br />

Claudia P. Coronel a , Maria T. Jiménez a , Aurelio López-Malo a , Enrique Palou a<br />

a Universidad de las Américas Puebla, Cholula, Puebla, México (claudiap.coronelaa@udlap.mx)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

High-<strong>in</strong>tensity ultrasound represents an alternative for the development of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed<br />

foods as a possible emerg<strong>in</strong>g preservation factor <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with other hurdles to reach the<br />

desired <strong>in</strong>activation effect [1]. The <strong>in</strong>troduction of any alternative technology or comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of various alternative/traditional technologies requires scientific data about microbial response.<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic parameters and models are essential to develop food preservation processes that ensure<br />

safety. The parameters also allow comparison of the ability of different process technologies to<br />

reduce microbial populations. An alternative survival model is the Weibull distribution<br />

function that presents the ma<strong>in</strong> advantage of rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g very simple and be<strong>in</strong>g sufficiently<br />

robust to describe both downward concave survival curves (n > 1) and upward concave curves<br />

(n < 1), and the model <strong>in</strong>cludes the traditional case where the survival curve is l<strong>in</strong>ear [2, 3].<br />

The objective of this study was to model the comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of thermosonication at different<br />

pH on the <strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics of A. flavus.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A. flavus was <strong>in</strong>oculated <strong>in</strong>to sterile broth prepared with Sabouraud glucose 2% broth adjusted<br />

by sucrose addition to aw 0.99 and citric acid to pH 5.5 or 3.0 and 500 ppm vanill<strong>in</strong> added, then<br />

treated with comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g thermosonication (52.5, 55 and 57.5°C and ultrasound at 20 kHz with<br />

13 mm diameter probe operat<strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>uously at an amplitude of 60, 90 and 120 μm). Survival<br />

viable mold spore counts were determ<strong>in</strong>ed immediately after treatment by surface plat<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

potato-dextrose agar and <strong>in</strong>cubated at 27°C for 3-5 days. Survival data were fitted to the<br />

cumulative form of frequency Weibull distribution of resistances.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Weibull model successfully captured all dose-response curves with a satisfactory fit and lower<br />

mean square error values (MSE). Predicted survival curve correspond<strong>in</strong>g to 57.5°C, amplitude<br />

120μm and pH 3.0 followed a first order k<strong>in</strong>etics. Shape factors (n) <strong>in</strong> Table 1 <strong>in</strong>dicate that<br />

most of the tested thermoultrasonic treatments were concave downward (n > 1), while few<br />

treatments were concave upward (n < 1). A. flavus exhibited higher sensitivity at lower pH 3.0<br />

and it is noticeable that at pH 5.5, <strong>in</strong> most of the cases, n was higher than 1, which suggests<br />

that the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g cells become weaker when treatment time <strong>in</strong>creases, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

accumulated damage may occur due to comb<strong>in</strong>ed stress factors. In this study, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

amplitude at pH 3.0 changed the survival patterns of the mold, however at higher pH 5.5 the<br />

change of ultrasound <strong>in</strong>tensity (higher amplitude) had no <strong>in</strong>fluence on the survival patterns.<br />

Treatment at 90 μm amplitude frequency distribution parameters (mode, mean, variance and<br />

coefficient of skewness) <strong>in</strong>dicated overall spread of data with correspond<strong>in</strong>g mean values<br />

greater than for 60 μm and 120 μm amplitudes at 57.5°C at pH 3.0 or 5.5.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1791

Table 1. Weibull distribution parameters (b, n) for A. flavus under thermosonication treatments at<br />

selected pHs and 500 ppm vanill<strong>in</strong>.<br />

pH T Ampli- b n R<br />

(°C) tude<br />

(μm)<br />

2 MSE Mode Mean Varian-<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>) (m<strong>in</strong>) ce<br />

(m<strong>in</strong> 2 Coefficien<br />

t of skew-<br />

) ness (-)<br />

3.0 52.5 60 0.071 1.224 0.985 0.012 2.175 8.158 44.896 0.066<br />

90 0.127 0.942 0.952 0.004 -- 9.150 94.443 0.020<br />

120 0.227 0.886 0.962 0.009 -- 5.650 40.824 0.038<br />

55.0 60 0.102 1.220 0.977 0.003 1.595 6.099 25.271 0.091<br />

90 0.040 1.827 0.941 0.008 3.753 5.147 8.525 0.620<br />

120 0.270 0.814 0.988 0.001 -- 5.595 47.915 0.032<br />

57.5 60 0.727 0.733 0.983 0.005 -- 1.874 6.771 0.210<br />

90 0.402 1.186 0.875 0.027 0.452 2.032 2.957 0.317<br />

120 0.543 1.031 0.975 0.008 0.060 1.787 3.007 0.307<br />

5.5 52.5 60 0.280 0.696 0.953 0.007 -- 7.936 136.328 0.012<br />

90 0.035 1.930 0.971 0.002 3.895 5.043 7.406 0.828<br />

120 0.292 0.678 0.976 0.002 -- 8.019 147.949 0.012<br />

55.0 60 0.074 1.542 0.939 0.009 2.735 4.851 10.316 0.291<br />

90 0.071 1.539 0.920 0.020 2.829 5.039 11.171 0.281<br />

120 0.041 1.737 0.940 0.017 3.833 5.596 11.045 0.467<br />

57.5 60 0.379 1.473 0.981 0.005 0.897 1.748 1.455 0.541<br />

90 0.136 2.390 0.960 0.017 1.837 2.043 0.828 1.679<br />

120 0.510 1.304 0.981 0.007 0.549 1.547 1.431 0.500<br />

In addition, the lower amplitude (60 μm) curve was more skewed to the right than curves for<br />

the other amplitudes evaluated, show<strong>in</strong>g that an important fraction of the mold can survive<br />

under this treatment. The higher distribution mean values, had much more spread evidenced by<br />

the high variance values (Table 1) at the lowest temperature evaluated (52.5°C).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Weibull parameters are useful to expla<strong>in</strong> mold <strong>in</strong>activation and perform comparisons among<br />

treatments. The pH treatment medium had an important effect for <strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g the mold s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

much lower frequency distribution of resistances were observed at lower pHs. Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

thermoultrasonication, vanill<strong>in</strong> and pH allows shorter treatment times for mold <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Guerrero S., López-Malo A. & Alzamora, S.M. 2001. Effect of ultrasound on the survival of Saccharomyces<br />

cerevisiae: <strong>in</strong>fluence of temperature, pH and amplitude. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies,<br />

2(1), 31-39. [2] Alzamora S.M., Guerrero S., López-Malo A., Palou E., Char C.D. & Raffell<strong>in</strong>i S. 2009. Models<br />

for microorganism <strong>in</strong>activation: application <strong>in</strong> food preservation design. In “<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Effects on Safety and<br />

Quality of <strong>Food</strong>s”. E. Ortega (ed.). CRC Taylor and Francis, New York, USA. [3] Mafart, P., Couvert, O.,<br />

Gaillard, S. and Leguer<strong>in</strong>el, I. 2002. On calculat<strong>in</strong>g sterility <strong>in</strong> thermal preservation methods: application of the<br />

Weibull frequency distribution model. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology 72, 107-113.<br />

1792

Survival of Bifidobacterium longum <strong>in</strong> model solutions and fruit juices<br />

Sawam<strong>in</strong>ee Nualkaekul 1 , Ivan Salmeron 2 , Dimitris Charalampopoulos 1<br />

1 Department of <strong>Food</strong> and Nutritional Sciences, University of Read<strong>in</strong>g, PO Box 226, Read<strong>in</strong>g RG6 6AP, UK<br />

2 Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Chih. Mexico C.P. 31125<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Although significantly less amount of research has been conducted on the factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence the viability of<br />

probiotics dur<strong>in</strong>g storage <strong>in</strong> fruit juices compared to dairy products, it has been shown that the storage temperature and<br />

time [1] and the presence of dietary fibre <strong>in</strong> the product [2] are likely to have an important role. However, there is very<br />

little <strong>in</strong>formation on the effect of the chemical composition of the fruit juices on probiotic survival. The aim of the<br />

study was to develop a mathematical model describ<strong>in</strong>g the survival of a model probiotic B. longum stra<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

refrigerated storage <strong>in</strong> model solutions, as a factor of the pH, and the citric acid, prote<strong>in</strong> and dietary fibre<br />

concentrations. These results were then used to expla<strong>in</strong> the survival of B. longum <strong>in</strong> various types of fruit juices tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>to account their composition.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Preparation of bacterial culture<br />

Bifidobacterium longum NCIMB 8809 (National Collection of Industrial and Mar<strong>in</strong>e Bacteria, UK) was used <strong>in</strong> this<br />

study. The cells were grown <strong>in</strong> trypticase-phytone-yeast extract medium at 37 ºC for 16 h.<br />

Experimental design<br />

Four factors (pH, citric acid, prote<strong>in</strong> and dietary fibre) were studied at three different levels; pH 3.2-4, citric acid 2-15<br />

g/l, prote<strong>in</strong> 0-10g/l, dietary fibre 0-8 g/l. The experiments were designed on the basis of a Central Composite Design<br />

(CCD). In total, thirty-one experimental runs were performed. Multiple regression analysis was carried out <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

fit a second order polynomial equation describ<strong>in</strong>g the log decrease [log10N0week-log10N6 week], as a function of the four<br />

factors. The basal medium for all solutions conta<strong>in</strong>ed 50 g/l sucrose, 25 g/l glucose and 25 g/l fructose. The <strong>in</strong>itial cell<br />

concentration was approximately 1× 10 8 CFU/ml. The solutions were stored at 4 °C for 6 weeks. Samples were<br />

collected every week for analysis.<br />

Chemical analyses<br />

Sugar concentrations (sucrose, glucose and fructose) and organic acids were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by high performance liquid<br />

chromatography (HPLC). The total dietary fibre <strong>in</strong> the juices was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of enzymatic and<br />

gravimetric methods (AOAC, 1997), whereas the total phenol by the Fol<strong>in</strong>–Ciocalteu assay.<br />

Cell survival <strong>in</strong> fruit juices<br />

Six commercial fruit juices (orange, grapefruit, blackcurrant, p<strong>in</strong>eapple, pomegranate and strawberry juice) were<br />

purchased from a local supermarket. The PBS/cell suspension was added <strong>in</strong>to 40 ml of each juice, so that the <strong>in</strong>itial cell<br />

concentration was approximately 1 × 10 8 CFU/ml, and the juices stored at 4 °C for 6 weeks. Samples were collected<br />

weekly and analysed for pH, cell concentration and composition.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

ANOVA analysis of the stepwise regression model demonstrated that a second order polynomial model fitted well the<br />

data. Based on the regression coefficient estimates, it was deduced that all the controll<strong>in</strong>g factors, i.e., pH, and citric<br />

acid, prote<strong>in</strong> and dietary fibre concentrations had a significant effect on the model. The result<strong>in</strong>g model describ<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

log decrease [log10N0week-log10N6week] as a function of the four factors was:<br />

[log10N0week- log10N6week] = 4.051-0.703[pH]-0.152[citric acid]-0.151[prote<strong>in</strong>]+0.005[citric acid][citric<br />

acid]+0.009[dietary fibre][dietary fibre]+0.026[pH] [prote<strong>in</strong>]-0.026[pH][dietary fibre]+0.003[citric acid][prote<strong>in</strong>]<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1793

Figure 1 shows the contour plots of the log decrease [log10N0week- log10N6week] as a function of two factors, with the<br />

other be<strong>in</strong>g kept constant at the middle po<strong>in</strong>t values. Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the plots, it can be derived that good survival<br />

of B. longum (log decrease < 0.4 log) was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the model solutions were the pH was above 3.7, the citric acid<br />

concentration 8-15 g/l, the prote<strong>in</strong> concentration above 3 g/L and the dietary fibre concentration 3-7 g/l.<br />

Figure 1 Contour plots describ<strong>in</strong>g the dependence of the<br />

log decrease [log10N0week- log10N6week] as a function of<br />

two controll<strong>in</strong>g factors. A): pH and citric acid (CA),<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> 5 g/l, dietary fibre (DF) 4g/l ; B): pH and<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>, CA 8.5 g/l, DF 4 g/l; C): pH and DA, CA 8.5 g/l,<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> 5 g/l; D): CA and prote<strong>in</strong>, pH 3.6, DF 4 g/l.<br />

It has been well established that the pH is an important<br />

factor <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the survival of probiotic bacteria <strong>in</strong><br />

food products. Regard<strong>in</strong>g the role of citric acid, up to<br />

now, there has been no <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the literature on<br />

the role of organic acids <strong>in</strong> the survival of lactic acid<br />

bacteria <strong>in</strong> food products dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. It was<br />

expected that organic acids would have a negative<br />

effect. However, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results from the<br />

model solutions, citric acid was seen to have a significant (P < 0.05) positive effect, especially when present at<br />

concentrations between 8 g/l and 15 g/l (Figure 1). Possible explanations for this could be that citric acid was either<br />

metabolised by the cells dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, although HPLC analysis did not show any significant (P < 0.05) decreases<br />

(data not shown), or that there was some k<strong>in</strong>d of buffer<strong>in</strong>g effect by citric <strong>in</strong>side the cells.<br />

The model predicted well the survival of the Bifidobacterium stra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> grapefruit and p<strong>in</strong>eapple and adequately <strong>in</strong><br />

orange and blackcurrant. However, it failed to predict the cell survival <strong>in</strong> pomegranate and strawberry. This suggests<br />

that although the four controll<strong>in</strong>g factors that were studied <strong>in</strong> this work, namely pH, citric acid, prote<strong>in</strong> and dietary<br />

fibre, are important factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the cell survival <strong>in</strong> fruit juices, additional ones, for example the levels of<br />

phenols <strong>in</strong> the juices, are likely to be <strong>in</strong>volved. The highest cell survival (less than 0.4 log decrease) after 6 weeks of<br />

storage was observed <strong>in</strong> orange and p<strong>in</strong>eapple, both of which had a pH of about 3.8. Although the pH of grapefruit and<br />

blackcurrant was similar (pH ~ 3.2), the log decrease of the former was ~ 0.5 log, whereas of the latter was ~ 0.7 log.<br />

One reason for this could be the fact that grapefruit conta<strong>in</strong>ed a high amount of citric acid (15.3 g/l). The log decrease<br />

<strong>in</strong> pomegranate and strawberry juices was extremely high (~8 logs) most likely due to the high levels of total phenol.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Based on the storage experiments of Bifidobacterium longum <strong>in</strong> model solutions and the mathematical model that was<br />

developed it was shown that high levels of pH, citric acid, prote<strong>in</strong> and dietary fibre enhanced the cell survival dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

refrigerated storage. The mathematical model was able to predict adequately cell survival <strong>in</strong> orange, grapefruit,<br />

blackcurrant and p<strong>in</strong>eapple juices. However, the model failed to predict cell survival <strong>in</strong> pomegranate and strawberry, <strong>in</strong><br />

which the cell viability decl<strong>in</strong>ed rapidly, most likely due to the very high levels of phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> these two<br />

juices.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Saarela, M., Alakomi, H.L., Puhakka, A., & Matto, J. 2009. Effect of the fermentation pH on the storage stability<br />

of Lactobacillus rhamnosus preparations and suitability of <strong>in</strong> vitro analyses of cell physiological functions to predict it.<br />

Journal of Applied Microbiology, 106, 1204-1212.<br />

[2] Saarela, M., Virkajarvi, I., Alakomi, H.L., Mattila, & P.S., Matto, J. 2006. Stability and functionality of freezedried<br />

probiotic Bifidobacterium cells dur<strong>in</strong>g storage <strong>in</strong> juice and milk. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 16, 1477–1482.<br />

1794

Inactivation k<strong>in</strong>etics of attached Escherichia coli cells on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel and fresh-cut<br />

apples by hydrogen peroxide dis<strong>in</strong>fection treatments<br />

Raffell<strong>in</strong>i, S. a , Ortiz, S. a , Guerrero S.N. b , Alzamora, S.M. b<br />

a Department of Technology, University of Luján, 6700 Luján, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.(sraffell<strong>in</strong>i@gmail.com)<br />

b Natural and Exact Sciences School, Buenos Aires University, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428, Ciudad<br />

Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argent<strong>in</strong>a (smalzamora@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The foodborne illness outbreaks l<strong>in</strong>ked to fresh-cut fruits and vegetables have <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the<br />

last years. Chemical dis<strong>in</strong>fection is one of the most critical process<strong>in</strong>g steps <strong>in</strong> fresh-cut<br />

vegetable production [1]. Most of the literature regard<strong>in</strong>g the use of sanitizers concluded that<br />

the dis<strong>in</strong>fection process reduces the microbial populations on the surface of the produce by<br />

only 2 log units. This behaviour is possibly due to the attached microbial cells are more<br />

resistant to sanitizer treatments than the correspond<strong>in</strong>g planktonic cultures. Hydrogen peroxide<br />

(H2O2) has been proposed as an alternative for decontam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g fruit and vegetables. However,<br />

there is lack of quantitative <strong>in</strong>formation concern<strong>in</strong>g its efficacy for <strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g attached<br />

microbial cells on different surfaces. The objective of this study was to evaluate and to model<br />

the survival of attached E. coli cells on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel and fresh-cut apple slices as affected by<br />

H2O2 treatment at different concentrations and temperatures.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Sta<strong>in</strong>less steel coupons and fresh-cut apple slices (10 x 50 mm) were suspended <strong>in</strong> 12 mL<br />

Tryptic Soy Broth and the growth medium was <strong>in</strong>oculated with E. coli ATCC 35218. Test<br />

samples were harvested after 48 h at 37ºC, when they reached 10 6 E. coli cells/cm 2 (adhesion<br />

by immersion). Additionally, apple slices were <strong>in</strong>oculated by spread<strong>in</strong>g with E. coli ATCC<br />

35218 and <strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> sterile Petri plates 24 h at 37ºC. Samples with attached bacterial cells<br />

were r<strong>in</strong>sed <strong>in</strong> phosphate buffer and suspended <strong>in</strong> sterile citric acid – Na2HPO4 buffer solutions<br />

(pH 3.0) conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g H2O2 solutions (0; 2 and 3% w/v) at 25ºC and 50ºC. The treated samples<br />

were periodically collected, neutralized by immersion <strong>in</strong> 4% w/v Na2S2O3.5H2O solution, and<br />

shaken 2 m<strong>in</strong> to dislodge attached cells. Dislodged cells were serially diluted <strong>in</strong> 0.1% peptone<br />

water, pour plated us<strong>in</strong>g Plate Count Agar and counted after <strong>in</strong>cubation at 37° C for 48 h.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The semilogarithmic experimental survival curves of sta<strong>in</strong>less steel attached E. coli cells<br />

treated with different H2O2 concentrations and temperatures are presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. For<br />

comparative purposes, Figure 1 <strong>in</strong>cludes survival curves of planktonic cells obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a<br />

previous research [2]. H2O2 efficacy was less as concentration and temperature decreased. At<br />

50ºC, 3% w/v H2O2 caused 5.0 log reductions of attached cells after 1 m<strong>in</strong> exposure while 4<br />

m<strong>in</strong> were necessary to obta<strong>in</strong> the same reduction when us<strong>in</strong>g 2% w/v H2O2. The same<br />

treatment caused 5.0 log reductions <strong>in</strong> planktonic E. coli cells with exposures of less than 1<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1795

m<strong>in</strong>ute [2]; therefore attached E. coli cells were more resistant to H2O2 treatments than<br />

correspond<strong>in</strong>g planktonic cultures.<br />

Log (N/N 0)<br />

Figure 1. Effect of H 2O 2 concentration (% w/v) and temperature on semilogarithmic survival curves of<br />

planktonic and sta<strong>in</strong>less steel attached E. coli ATCC 35218 cells. Experimental (po<strong>in</strong>ts) and fitted<br />

values derived from the Weibullian model (l<strong>in</strong>es). Data of planktonic cells obta<strong>in</strong>ed from [2].<br />

Cells attached on apple slices were even more resistant, and different mechanisms of adhesion<br />

to the tissue caused different resistance to H2O2: 3.6 and 10.5 m<strong>in</strong> were necessary to obta<strong>in</strong> 5log<br />

reductions <strong>in</strong> attached cells by immersion or spread<strong>in</strong>g respectively with 3.0% w/v H2O2 at<br />

50°C. Survival curves of attached cells on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel and fresh-cut apples were not l<strong>in</strong>ear<br />

unlike those reported for planktonic cultures for the same H2O2 treatments [2]. Inactivation<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics of attached cells on sta<strong>in</strong>less steel with enough experimental data was modelled by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a Weibull type distribution of resistances model (Figure 1). Experimental curves were<br />

highly correlated to fitted data, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g significant adjusted coefficients of determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

R 2 adj (0.96–0.99). Heavy tails <strong>in</strong> curves derived from the model would be <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

presence of attached cell subpopulations highly resistant to H2O2 treatments [3].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study confirmed that model systems of attached cells to <strong>in</strong>ert or fruit surfaces provide<br />

results that are more comparable to the actual situations <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g than those<br />

performed with planktonic cells.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

-0.5<br />

-1.5<br />

-2.5<br />

-3.5<br />

-4.5<br />

-5.5<br />

-6.5<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25<br />

Control<br />

2.0% H2O2 – 25°C – attached cells<br />

3.0 % H2O2 – 25°C – attached cells<br />

2.0% H2O2 – 25°C – planktonic cells<br />

3.0% H2O2 – 25°C – planktonic cells<br />

- - - 2.0% H2O2 – 50°C – attached cells<br />

3.0% H2O2 – 50°C – attached cells<br />

[1] Gil M., Selma M., López-Gálvez F. & Allende A. 2009. Fresh-cut product sanitation and wash water<br />

dis<strong>in</strong>fection: problems and solutions. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 134(1-2), 37-45.<br />

[2] Raffell<strong>in</strong>i S., Schenk M., Guerrero S. & Alzamora S.M. 2011. K<strong>in</strong>etics of Escherichia coli<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation employ<strong>in</strong>g hydrogen peroxide at vary<strong>in</strong>g temperatures, pH and concentrations. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Control, 22(6), 920-932.<br />

[3] van Boekel M.A.J.S. 2002. On the use of the Weibull model to describe thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

microbial vegetative cells. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 74(1-2), 139–159.<br />

1796

Bi-phasic growth of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A <strong>in</strong> Modified Welshimer’s broth at 7,<br />

10 and 14°C<br />

Nikolaos A. Tyrovouzis a , Apostolos S. Angelidis b and Nikolaos G. Stoforos c<br />

a<br />

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Greece (tyrovou@auth.gr)<br />

b<br />

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e, Greece (asangel@vet.auth.gr)<br />

c<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Greece<br />

(stoforos@aua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The psychrotrophic nature of Listeria monocytogenes is one of the most salient characteristics of<br />

this food-borne pathogen and highly important for food processors. Research has shown that the<br />

pathogen’s ability to proliferate at low temperatures, <strong>in</strong>volves, amongst others, the <strong>in</strong>tracellular<br />

accumulation of compatible solutes such as glyc<strong>in</strong>e beta<strong>in</strong>e and L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e, which act as<br />

cryoprotectants [1]. Def<strong>in</strong>ed media are used <strong>in</strong> microbiology <strong>in</strong> order to conduct reproducible<br />

experiments and avoid confound<strong>in</strong>g by extraneous, often-unknown factors orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

composition of the growth medium. Modified Welshimer’s Broth (MWB) is the def<strong>in</strong>ed medium<br />

that has been most frequently used by researchers work<strong>in</strong>g on the physiology and genetics of<br />

L. monocytogenes [2].<br />

The objective of this work was to further explore a previous observation [3] concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

bi-phasic growth of L. monocytogenes Scott A <strong>in</strong> MWB at 7°C. In the current work, further<br />

experiments were conducted with L. monocytogenes Scott A <strong>in</strong> MWB at 4°C, 7°C, 10°C, 14°C and<br />

18°C. At each tested temperature, cultures were grown both <strong>in</strong> the presence (20 ) or absence of<br />

L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e. Cell density was directly measured by surface-plat<strong>in</strong>g aliquots from each culture at<br />

selected time <strong>in</strong>tervals. Additionally, <strong>in</strong> four sets of experiments at 7°C, the composition of MWB<br />

was modified us<strong>in</strong>g a rotation scheme of ten-fold <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> different sets of medium constituents.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

L. monocytogenes cultures were grown overnight at 30°C <strong>in</strong> Bra<strong>in</strong> Heart Infusion (BHI) broth, and<br />

1-mL aliquots were centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 m<strong>in</strong>. The pellets were washed twice with 1-mL<br />

of MWB and used to <strong>in</strong>oculate (1%) 125-mL flasks conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL MWB. The cultures were<br />

grown with mild shak<strong>in</strong>g (120 rpm) at 30°C for 48 hours, until stationary phase to cell densities of<br />

ca. 10 9 CFU/mL. Stationary phase cultures were then serially diluted <strong>in</strong> MWB and used to <strong>in</strong>oculate<br />

10 sets of 125-mL flasks conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL of MWB. These cultures were <strong>in</strong>cubated aerobically<br />

(120 rpm) at 4°C, 7°C, 10°C, 14°C and 18°C with or without 20 M L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e. Growth was<br />

monitored by spread<strong>in</strong>g appropriately diluted aliquots <strong>in</strong> triplicate on the surface of BHI plates.<br />

Plates were <strong>in</strong>cubated at 30°C for 48 h and the CFU/mL was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for each sampl<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />

based on viable counts. The different trials were tested at least <strong>in</strong> duplicate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Experimental data for L. monocytogenes growth <strong>in</strong> MWB are presented on Figure 1. The growth of<br />

L. monocytogenes <strong>in</strong> MWB at 7°C and 10°C (but not at 4°C or 18°C) was bi-phasic irrespective of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1797

the presence of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e. At 14°C, growth was bi-phasic <strong>in</strong> the absence of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e, but not<br />

when the cryoprotectant was added <strong>in</strong> the growth medium. At 4°C, growth was observed only <strong>in</strong> the<br />

presence of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e. The effect of temperature and L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e addition was assessed by<br />

estimat<strong>in</strong>g, through Gompertz equation, the k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters of L. monocytogenes growth.<br />

In order to <strong>in</strong>vestigate whether the observed growth phenotypes have a nutritional basis, four<br />

modifications <strong>in</strong> the composition of the growth medium (MWB) were tested at 7°C. These data<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated either that the observed bi-phasic growth <strong>in</strong> MWB, at least at 7°C, does not have a<br />

nutritional basis, or that a different comb<strong>in</strong>ation of MWB constituents, other than the comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />

tested <strong>in</strong> this work, needs to be augmented <strong>in</strong> order to alleviate growth.<br />

log(CFU/mL).<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

4°C 7°C 10°C<br />

14°C 18°C<br />

0 10 20 30<br />

Time (days)<br />

40 50 60<br />

Figure 1. Growth of L. monocytogenes <strong>in</strong> MWB at different temperatures. (L<strong>in</strong>es represent Gompertz equation<br />

fitt<strong>in</strong>g to the experimental data po<strong>in</strong>ts.)<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The shape of the growth curves for L. monocytogenes cultures <strong>in</strong> MWB was function of the growth<br />

temperature, and to a lesser degree, of the presence of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the growth medium. It<br />

appeared that bi-phasic growth occurred when experimental conditions allowed for <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />

growth rates. Modifications <strong>in</strong> the concentration of MWB constituents did not appear to <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

the bi-phasic nature of L. monocytogenes growth when tested at 7°C.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Angelidis A.S. & Smith G.M. 2003. Role of the glyc<strong>in</strong>e beta<strong>in</strong>e and carnit<strong>in</strong>e transporters <strong>in</strong> adaptation of<br />

Listeria monocytogenes to chill stress <strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ed medium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,<br />

69(12), 7492-7498.<br />

[2] Premaratne R.J., L<strong>in</strong> W.-J. & Johnson E.A. 1991. Development of an improved chemically def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imal medium for Listeria monocytogenes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57(10), 3046-<br />

3048.<br />

[3] Tyrovouzis N.A., Angelidis A.S., Liakopoulou-Kyriakides M. & Stoforos N.G. 2008. Effect of<br />

cryoprotectants on the growth characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes at low temperatures. 10 th<br />

<strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong>, Viña del Mar, Chile. Paper No. K-04.<br />

1798

K<strong>in</strong>etic of White Chocolate Color Loss<br />

Denise C. P. JARDIM a ; Al<strong>in</strong>e G. ORSE b ; Priscilla EFRAIM a ; Silvia C. S. R. de MOURA a<br />

a Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (ITAL), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (djardim@ital.sp.gov.br,<br />

efraim@ital.sp.gov.br, smoura@ital.sp.gov.br)<br />

b Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba (UNIMEP), S. Barbara d´Oeste, Brazil (al<strong>in</strong>eorse@gmail.com).<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Quality loss caused by yellow<strong>in</strong>g (loss of white color, darken<strong>in</strong>g or brown<strong>in</strong>g) dur<strong>in</strong>g its<br />

storage and market<strong>in</strong>g is considered the ma<strong>in</strong> reaction which limits the shelf-life of white<br />

chocolate [1]. The system sugar, fat and milk is susceptible to brown<strong>in</strong>g reactions, ma<strong>in</strong>ly by<br />

Maillard reaction, especially because of the sugars and am<strong>in</strong>o acids <strong>in</strong> the composition. The<br />

occurrence of reaction depends on the conditions of humidity and temperature, as well as on<br />

changes to these conditions, dur<strong>in</strong>g chocolate storage. The k<strong>in</strong>etics data (constant and order of<br />

reaction, activation energy (Ea) and factor Q10) give <strong>in</strong>formation about the loss of quality.<br />

In the literature there are few articles about white chocolate despite its importance and presence<br />

<strong>in</strong> the market. Some <strong>in</strong>gredients of the white chocolate formulations can accelerate the loss of<br />

color and others can decrease it. One <strong>in</strong>gredient, recently made available to the <strong>in</strong>dustries, by<br />

Corn Products Company, called Globe TM Chocosystem, is offered as an <strong>in</strong>hibitor of the<br />

brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> white chocolate.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this research was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the k<strong>in</strong>etics data of transformations that<br />

entail loss of quality <strong>in</strong> white chocolate, be<strong>in</strong>g color the attribute chosen, to be studied over<br />

time or the shelf-life. Three basic formulations were studied, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g whey and Globe Choco<br />

System® as <strong>in</strong>gredients.<br />

MATERIAL & METHODS<br />

For the k<strong>in</strong>etic studies three formulations were prepared: WCh1 conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 9% of<br />

dem<strong>in</strong>eralized whey <strong>in</strong> the formulation, WCh2 conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 9% of skimmed powered milk and<br />

WCh3 conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 9% Globo Choco System®. Each formulation was completed with 47.0%<br />

sugar, 27.4% cocoa butter, 16% of whole powered milk, 0.3% soya lecith<strong>in</strong>, 0.2% of PGPR<br />

(polyglycerol polyric<strong>in</strong>oleate) and 0.1% of aroma.<br />

White chocolate samples were produced <strong>in</strong> the pilot-plant follow<strong>in</strong>g the conventional steps [2].<br />

Color: Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Instruction of colorimeter, model Chroma Meter CR-400/410, Konica<br />

M<strong>in</strong>olta obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the L*, a* and b * values of the Cielab System, at 25 °C.<br />

Calculation of k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters: For the k<strong>in</strong>etics study the samples (Table 1) were stored at<br />

10, 20 and 30 °C and 82% RH to accelerate the reaction. For k<strong>in</strong>etic data it was monitored the<br />

variation of color (values L*, a*, b*). For k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters calculation first was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

the order of reaction, by charts of the constant k reaction. The values of ln k were plotted as a<br />

function of <strong>in</strong>verse temperature (Arrhenius chart). Through the values of the slope of the<br />

straight l<strong>in</strong>e, the activation energy (Ea) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The calculation of Q10 was done<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Ea as shown <strong>in</strong> Q10 = 10 ((Ea/(0.46 x T ^ 2)).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Initially, the water activity (at 25 °C) of samples was around 0.40 and at the end it was around<br />

0.70. It suggests there was water uptake, change of physical state and loss of quality.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1799

The results were obta<strong>in</strong>ed over time with the three formulations of white chocolate stored at 10,<br />

20 and 30 °C and 82% RH.<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic Parameters: “a*” values were selected for k<strong>in</strong>etic study. The order of reaction was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed as 2 nd order. Values of R 2 and equations, activation energy and Q10 for the<br />

formulations (WCh1, WCh2 and WCh3) were presented at Table 1.<br />

Table 1. Values of R 2 and equations, activation Energy (Ea) and Q10 for the formulations (WCh1, WCh2,<br />

WCh3), for lost of color of white chocolate<br />

T (°C) R 2 Ea<br />

Equation (y) (kcal/ gmol.K) Q10 *<br />

WCh1 25.43 4.0<br />

10 0.856 -0.0001x-0.3618<br />

20 0.989 -0.0003x-0.3655<br />

30 0.918 -0.002x-0.2619<br />

WCh2 38.27 9.3<br />

10 0.863 -0.00008x-0.3439<br />

20 0.965 -0.0002x-0.3447<br />

30 0.958 -0.0007x-0.2964<br />

WCh3 9.25 2.0<br />

10 0.866 -0.0001x-0.4116<br />

20 0.952 -0.0001x-0.4199<br />

30 0.837 -0.0003x-0.3641<br />

((Ea/(0.46 x T^2))<br />

*Q10=10<br />

If the activation energy and Q10 <strong>in</strong>crease, the monitored transformation of the food will<br />

accelerate [3]. The results of Table 1 showed the formulation WCh3 (prepared with Globe TM<br />

Chocosystem, without skimmed milk or whey) had more stability related to color, followed by<br />

formulation WCh1 and WCh2.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It can be concluded that white chocolate conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Globe TM Chocosystem can ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the<br />

white color longer compared to formulations conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g whey and even more <strong>in</strong> those<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g skimmed milk.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: We do hereby thank CNPq [Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento<br />

Científico e Tecnológico] and CornProducts Brasil - Ingredientes Industriais.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] VERCET. A. Brown<strong>in</strong>g of white chocolate dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry. v. 81. p. 371-377. 2004.<br />

[2] BECKETT. S.T. Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use. 2.ed. London: Chapman and Hall. 1994.<br />

408p. [2] VERCET. A. Brown<strong>in</strong>g of white chocolate dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry. v. 81. p. 371-377.<br />

2004. [3] TAOUKIS. P.. LABUZA. T. P.; SAGUY. K<strong>in</strong>etics of <strong>Food</strong> Deterioration and Shelf-Life<br />

prediction. In: The Handbook of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Practice. K.J.Valentas. E.Rotste<strong>in</strong>. R.P.S<strong>in</strong>gh (ed).<br />

CRC Press. p.361-403. 1997.<br />

1800

Available lys<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> powdered <strong>in</strong>fant formula as described by reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics<br />

I. Schmitz a , A. Gianfrancesco b , U. Kulozik a , P. Foerst a<br />

a<br />

Chair for <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Dairy Technology, Technische Universität München,<br />

Freis<strong>in</strong>g/Weihenstephan, Germany (iris.schmitz@wzw.tum.de)<br />

b<br />

Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd., Lausanne, Switzerland,<br />

(alessandro.gianfrancesco@rdls.nestle.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Powdered <strong>in</strong>fant formulas are usually produced by spray dry<strong>in</strong>g which is a gentle dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

procedure. However, degradation reactions as the loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e due to the Maillard<br />

reaction with lactose can occur dur<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>fant formula. [1, 2] Milk prote<strong>in</strong>s conta<strong>in</strong><br />

relatively high amounts of lys<strong>in</strong>e which is an essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid that can only be metabolized<br />

<strong>in</strong> the human body if it has a free -am<strong>in</strong>o group. However, so far the loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e<br />

observed after spray dry<strong>in</strong>g has not systematically been l<strong>in</strong>ked to the process<strong>in</strong>g conditions. As<br />

the product is dehydrated and heated simultaneously dur<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g, the temperature and<br />

concentration of the product change cont<strong>in</strong>uously dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g process. Thus, to describe<br />

the lys<strong>in</strong>e losses dur<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g, the reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics have to be established for the high<br />

concentration regime at temperature-time conditions relevant for spray dry<strong>in</strong>g which has not<br />

been done yet.<br />

The objective of this study is to describe the loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>fant formula model<br />

system at conditions applicable to spray dry<strong>in</strong>g, i.e. <strong>in</strong> a high concentration regime. These<br />

reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics are established tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the concept of water activity, glass<br />

transition and molecular mobility with the aim of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a deeper understand<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />

mechanism of lys<strong>in</strong>e loss <strong>in</strong> concentrated milk systems.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The model system was prepared by reconstitut<strong>in</strong>g skim milk powder, whey prote<strong>in</strong> isolate,<br />

lactose, potassium citrate and sodium hydrogenphosphate <strong>in</strong> deionized water (all provided by<br />

Nestec Ltd., Switzerland). The solution was freeze-dried, ground after freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g and the<br />

water activity of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed powder was adjusted to 0.11, 0.23, 0.33 and 0.43. For the<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g experiments, the samples were transferred to heat<strong>in</strong>g cans and heated <strong>in</strong> a water bath<br />

at 60 – 90 °C for 0.5 – 30 m<strong>in</strong>. Available lys<strong>in</strong>e was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the fluorimetric ophthaldialdehyde<br />

(OPA) method. To measure the glass transition temperature of the<br />

samples, differential scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimetry was used <strong>in</strong> the modulated mode. Midpo<strong>in</strong>t<br />

temperatures are given. The delay of lactose crystallization was quantified by isothermal<br />

differential scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimetry (DSC). The molecular mobility was evaluated by measur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the transversal relaxation time T2 with a low resolution 1 H-NMR spectrometer<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e was observed at all conditions applied. The lys<strong>in</strong>e loss <strong>in</strong>creases with<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g time for all temperatures and water activities (data not shown). A maximum <strong>in</strong> lys<strong>in</strong>e<br />

loss was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for all temperatures (Figure 1), while the location of the maximum<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1801

depends on the temperature. Rather small lys<strong>in</strong>e losses were measured at 60 °C and the impact<br />

of the water activity was not significant. Rais<strong>in</strong>g the temperature to 70 °C leads to significantly<br />

higher lys<strong>in</strong>e losses and a maximum was detected at a water activity of 0.43. The maximum <strong>in</strong><br />

lys<strong>in</strong>e loss is shifted to lower water activities at higher temperatures and can be found at<br />

aw 0.23 at 80 and 90 °C.<br />

Figure 1. Loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e after 30 m<strong>in</strong> of heat<strong>in</strong>g as a function of water activity, temperature and<br />

distance from the glass transition temperature.<br />

Tak<strong>in</strong>g the physical state of the system <strong>in</strong>to consideration, it becomes obvious that lys<strong>in</strong>e<br />

losses are small <strong>in</strong> the glassy state. Furthermore, it can clearly be noticed that the maximum <strong>in</strong><br />

lys<strong>in</strong>e loss is found <strong>in</strong> the transition zone from the rubbery to the crystall<strong>in</strong>e state. Under these<br />

conditions, the samples stay for the longest period <strong>in</strong> the rubbery state. Samples that are<br />

crystall<strong>in</strong>e after 30 m<strong>in</strong> of heat<strong>in</strong>g passed the rubbery state faster. This means that the rubbery<br />

state is more reactive regard<strong>in</strong>g lys<strong>in</strong>e loss than the glassy and the crystall<strong>in</strong>e state.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Our results show that lys<strong>in</strong>e losses <strong>in</strong>crease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature and are dependent on<br />

the water activity. The importance of the physical state of lactose and of the molecular mobility<br />

(data not shown) arises. The k<strong>in</strong>etics obta<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g this study are used to build a model<br />

describ<strong>in</strong>g lys<strong>in</strong>e blockage dur<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g. This should allow optimisation of the dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

process, thus limit<strong>in</strong>g the loss of available lys<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Meade S.J., Reid E.A. & Gerrard, J.A. 2005. The impact of process<strong>in</strong>g on the nutritional quality of<br />

food prote<strong>in</strong>s. Journal of AOAC <strong>International</strong>, 88(3), 904-922.<br />

[2] F<strong>in</strong>ot P.A. 1983. Chemical modifications of the milk-prote<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g and storage -<br />

nutritional, metabolic and physiological consequences. Kieler Milchwirtschaftliche<br />

Forschungsberichte, 35(3), 357-369.<br />

1802

K<strong>in</strong>etic modell<strong>in</strong>g of colour changes dur<strong>in</strong>g beef roast<strong>in</strong>g<br />

S.M. Goñi a,b , V.O. Salvadori a,b<br />

a<br />

Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CIDCA, CONICET-La Plata),<br />

Fac. de Cs. Exactas - UNLP, 47 y 116, B1900AJJ, La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

b<br />

MODIAL, Área Deptal. Ing. Qca., Fac. de Ingeniería, UNLP, 1 y 47, B1900TAG, La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

(smgoni@cidca.org.ar, vosalvad@<strong>in</strong>g.unlp.edu.ar)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g the roast<strong>in</strong>g of beef samples, the muscle suffers several changes associated with its<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal temperature evolution. At the end of cook<strong>in</strong>g beef’s colour is the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator of the<br />

doneness as it is perceived by consumers. This way of perceiv<strong>in</strong>g doneness by consumers can<br />

lead to safety problems, s<strong>in</strong>ce there exists evidence that visual appearance does not imply that a<br />

safe temperature, from a microbiology po<strong>in</strong>t of view, have been reached ([1]). On the other<br />

hand, mathematical modell<strong>in</strong>g and simulation has been proved to be a useful tool <strong>in</strong> several<br />

meat process<strong>in</strong>g operations, like hamburger cook<strong>in</strong>g, where calculation of cook<strong>in</strong>g time to<br />

achieve safe products and optimization of the process has been done successfully. Then, the<br />

objective of this work was to develop a simple k<strong>in</strong>etic model to describe the colour changes<br />

produced dur<strong>in</strong>g beef roast<strong>in</strong>g. Furthermore we test coupl<strong>in</strong>g it to a previous developed and<br />

validated model of beef roast<strong>in</strong>g, which describe simultaneous heat and mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Th<strong>in</strong> slices (4 mm thickness, 44 cm 2 lengthwidth) of beef semitend<strong>in</strong>osus muscle were used<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> colour change <strong>in</strong>formation. The samples were packed and then subjected to different<br />

time-temperature treatments (2.5-30 m<strong>in</strong>utes, 40-100ºC) us<strong>in</strong>g a thermostatic water bath. After<br />

each heat treatment, <strong>in</strong>strumental measures of surface colour <strong>in</strong> the CIEL*a*b* colour space<br />

was obta<strong>in</strong>ed, us<strong>in</strong>g a MINOLTA colorimeter.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In all the treatments the a*-value was lower than the raw ones, the variation was more<br />

pronounced at high temperatures. The L*-value of cooked samples was higher than the value of<br />

raw ones, and the variation was less pronounced at high temperatures and long process time.<br />

Variations <strong>in</strong> b*-value did not exhibit a clear trend, be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a narrow region.<br />

From this analysis, variations of the a*-value appears to be the most important, s<strong>in</strong>ce it<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>es the change from a p<strong>in</strong>k-red colour of raw beef to a grey-brown colour of cooked<br />

beef; such changes are actually the ones perceived by consumer and can determ<strong>in</strong>e product<br />

acceptability and doneness. To describe the variation of a*-value a first order fractional k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

model was used (Eq. (1)), be<strong>in</strong>g reaction rates (k) correlated with temperature accord<strong>in</strong>g to an<br />

Arrhenius relationship. An equilibrium value a* depend<strong>in</strong>g on temperature also was obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from experiments (Eq. (2)). The model fits well to the experimental data, with an absolute<br />

relative error of 6.45%; parameters were found as k0=1.448210 10 s -1 , and the activation energy<br />

was found as Ea=80.7397 kJ mol -1 .<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1803

*<br />

da<br />

* *<br />

ka a<br />

(1)<br />

dt<br />

* *<br />

15.08<br />

aa0 1 1.84exp 0.17 47.17<br />

<br />

T <br />

Later, the k<strong>in</strong>etic model was coupled to a previously developed and validated beef roast<strong>in</strong>g<br />

model. Such model considers simultaneous heat and mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g the process, and their<br />

predictions were <strong>in</strong> good agreement with experimental test ([2], [3]). S<strong>in</strong>ce for large samples<br />

can exist large temperature differences between <strong>in</strong>ner-outer regions, also can exist colour<br />

differences <strong>in</strong> such regions. Then the model allow to obta<strong>in</strong> a non uniform <strong>in</strong>ternal distribution<br />

of a*-values, which is actually observed <strong>in</strong> large cooked samples, still more when end<br />

temperature is low. For <strong>in</strong>stance, Figure 1 shows the application of the methodology us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

3D irregular doma<strong>in</strong> of one semitend<strong>in</strong>osus muscle sample. The cook<strong>in</strong>g model was simulated<br />

until the coldest po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the geometry reach a temperature of 72ºC.<br />

Figure 1. Example of the application of the methodology. (a) 3D irregular geometric model; (b) middle<br />

cross-section colour (a*) prediction coupled to whole doma<strong>in</strong>, at different process times.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

From a model-based framework, the usefulness of beef cook<strong>in</strong>g models describ<strong>in</strong>g the relevant<br />

heat and mass transfer mechanisms can be improved <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g other important issues,<br />

related to safety restrictions, i.e. to reach a given temperature or lethality at certa<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t, and<br />

also consider quality features, as colour or texture, among others. In this sense, the developed<br />

model, which describes the redness variation dur<strong>in</strong>g beef roast<strong>in</strong>g, can be used to establish<br />

operat<strong>in</strong>g strategies to reach desirables colour values or colour uniformity at end of cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Furthermore, other beef muscles (or muscles of another k<strong>in</strong>d of animal) can be considered<br />

provided that appropriate <strong>in</strong>formation of colour variation is known.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] K<strong>in</strong>g, N., & Whyte, R. (2006). Does it look cooked? A review of factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence cooked meat<br />

color. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 71(4), 31-40.<br />

[2] Goñi, S.M. (2010). Simulación y optimización de la cocción de productos cárneos en hornos<br />

convectivos, Ph.D. thesis. Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Argent<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

[3] Goñi, S.M., & Salvadori, V.O. (2010). Prediction of cook<strong>in</strong>g times and weight losses dur<strong>in</strong>g meat<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 100(1), 1-11.<br />

1804<br />

(2)

Instrumentation of a semi-<strong>in</strong>dustrial oven to monitor non-enzymatic brown<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Courel Mathilde a,b , Rega Barbara a,b , Fehaili Souad a,b , Giampaoli Pierre a,b and Bonazzi Cather<strong>in</strong>e a,b<br />

a INRA, UMR1145 Ingénierie Procédés Aliments, Massy, France (mathilde.courel@agroparistech.fr)<br />

b AgroParisTech, UMR1145 Ingénierie Procédés Aliments, Massy, France<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The objective of this work was to design and characterize an experimental device enabl<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

generate reliable k<strong>in</strong>etic data on thermal reactions occurr<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the transformation of<br />

bakery products under real process<strong>in</strong>g conditions. A bak<strong>in</strong>g oven was thus developed with the<br />

objective of controll<strong>in</strong>g heat fluxes, which is a determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g parameter of bak<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

Sponge cake was used as a model of solid matrix which complex composition and structure is<br />

chang<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. In this study, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was used as a specific<br />

chemical <strong>in</strong>dicator of both Maillard and caramelization reactions and monitored <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

matrix as well as <strong>in</strong> the bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors. This work was carried out with the f<strong>in</strong>ancial support of<br />

the French National Research Agency under the "Programme National de Recherche en<br />

Alimentation et nutrition huma<strong>in</strong>e" project ANR-06-PNRA-023.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Sponge cake preparation: composition and preparation of the dough are fully described <strong>in</strong> [1].<br />

The bak<strong>in</strong>g oven was a static convective batch type oven (Bongard, France, 7.5 kW power, 96<br />

L work<strong>in</strong>g volume) generat<strong>in</strong>g ambient temperatures of up to 300°C. A frequency variation<br />

system (25 to 50 Hz) provided two convection levels: m<strong>in</strong> and max. K-type thermocouples<br />

were used for cake and air temperature measurements. Cakes’ surface temperature was<br />

measured us<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>frared thermometer (Optris CT, Germany). A Hygrox-C2 humidity sensor<br />

(McQueen Cairns <strong>International</strong>, UK) enabled monitor<strong>in</strong>g air humidity <strong>in</strong> the oven. Heat flux<br />

sensors gave access to radiative and convective surface heat fluxes, rad and conv (W.m -2 ),<br />

enabl<strong>in</strong>g estimation of hconv (W.m -2 .K -1 ), the convective heat transfer coefficient. It rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

very stable with a mean relative standard deviation of ± 2% dur<strong>in</strong>g acquisition time. The flux<br />

mapp<strong>in</strong>g gave relative standard deviations of reproducibility of 6.5%, 5.5% and 3.0% for conv,<br />

total and hconv respectively. Two orig<strong>in</strong>al sampl<strong>in</strong>g devices were specifically designed to carry<br />

out k<strong>in</strong>etic studies dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. The sponge cake sampler enabled extract<strong>in</strong>g a pan with<strong>in</strong> 10<br />

s without disturb<strong>in</strong>g the oven thermal environment. The vapor sampl<strong>in</strong>g device was based on<br />

the dynamic Head-Space Solid Phase Micro-extraction (HS-SPME) of vapors dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The SPME fibers were analyzed immediately after extraction us<strong>in</strong>g GC–MS [1].<br />

Bak<strong>in</strong>g conditions: temperature/ventilation were set at 140°C/max (A), 170°C/max (B),<br />

170°C/m<strong>in</strong> (C) and 200°C/max (D) with 30 m<strong>in</strong> total bak<strong>in</strong>g time. Cake and bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors<br />

were sampled synchronously dur<strong>in</strong>g 5 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervals throughout bak<strong>in</strong>g. Temperatures (cake<br />

core and surface, air), air humidity, water content, HMF concentration were monitored dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bak<strong>in</strong>g. Experiment (B) was done <strong>in</strong> triplicate for reproducibility estimation of the bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operation and extent of chemical reaction at all sampl<strong>in</strong>g times.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1805

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Simultaneous changes to HMF concentrations <strong>in</strong> the cake and bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors at a bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature of 170 °C are represented <strong>in</strong> figure 1-A. After 5 m<strong>in</strong> bak<strong>in</strong>g, the concentration of<br />

this compound rose rapidly show<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tense production <strong>in</strong> the cake matrix and volatilization <strong>in</strong><br />

the oven. An 8.7% relative error of reproducibility was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the sponge cake which is<br />

very satisfactory and 20.4% <strong>in</strong> the bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors, which corresponds to the reproducibility of<br />

the analytical method.<br />

Three loads of sponge cake (100, 240 and 420 g) were baked <strong>in</strong>dependently at 170°C with<br />

maximum ventilation, to check for possible saturation of the SPME extraction fiber. The<br />

chromatographic response of all studied volatile compounds had a l<strong>in</strong>ear shape (R 2 > 0.9)<br />

versus bak<strong>in</strong>g load; the case of acetic acid is shown <strong>in</strong> figure 1-B. Thus, despite air extraction<br />

for volatile analyzes and partial air renewal <strong>in</strong> the oven, the conditions prevail<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

bak<strong>in</strong>g operation are steady enough to let the composition of the bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors be<br />

representative of the load be<strong>in</strong>g baked.<br />

mmol/g DM (E-04)<br />

y = 0,3676 x + 32,721<br />

R 2 = 0,9926<br />

y = 0,0382 x + 2,2918<br />

R 2 A. Hydroxymethylfurfural B. Acetic acid<br />

60<br />

24 200<br />

50<br />

HMF <strong>in</strong> sponge cake<br />

HMF <strong>in</strong> bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors<br />

20<br />

160<br />

y = 0,3676 x + 32,721<br />

40<br />

16<br />

120<br />

R<br />

30<br />

12<br />

20<br />

10<br />

8<br />

4<br />

80<br />

40<br />

= 0,9933<br />

0<br />

0<br />

0<br />

2 = 0,9926<br />

y = 0,0382 x + 2,2918<br />

R 2 A. Hydroxymethylfurfural B. Acetic acid<br />

60<br />

24 200<br />

50<br />

HMF <strong>in</strong> sponge cake<br />

HMF <strong>in</strong> bak<strong>in</strong>g vapors<br />

20<br />

160<br />

40<br />

16<br />

120<br />

30<br />

12<br />

20<br />

10<br />

8<br />

4<br />

80<br />

40<br />

= 0,9933<br />

0<br />

0<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35<br />

Bak<strong>in</strong>g time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 1. 1-A. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of HMF concentration dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g at 170°C <strong>in</strong> sponge cake and bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

vapors. 1-B. Chromatographic response of volatile acetic acid sampled dur<strong>in</strong>g the bak<strong>in</strong>g of different<br />

sponge cake loads at 170°C. DM: dry matter.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A semi-<strong>in</strong>dustrial convective oven was <strong>in</strong>strumented and equipped with two orig<strong>in</strong>al sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

devices to study the development of thermal reactions like Maillard and caramelization dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the bak<strong>in</strong>g of sponge cake under fully controlled thermal conditions. Uniformity and<br />

reproducibility of the heat fluxes <strong>in</strong> the oven cavity lead to highly reproducible development of<br />

non-enzymatic brown<strong>in</strong>g reactions: 8.7% relative variation was obta<strong>in</strong>ed for HMF production<br />

<strong>in</strong> the cakes at six different bak<strong>in</strong>g times of a 30 m<strong>in</strong> bak<strong>in</strong>g operation. This oven should be of<br />

precious help for further k<strong>in</strong>etic model<strong>in</strong>g of complex thermal reactions occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> solid food<br />

matrix baked under real process conditions.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

peak area/g DM (E+05)<br />

Peak area (E+06)<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong><br />

25 m<strong>in</strong><br />

20 m<strong>in</strong><br />

15 m<strong>in</strong><br />

10 m<strong>in</strong><br />

5 m<strong>in</strong><br />

0 100 200 300 400 500<br />

Sponge cake load (g)<br />

[1] Fehaili S. 2010. Développement d’un simulateur de cuisson pour l’étude du couplage entre les<br />

transferts d’énergie et de matière et les c<strong>in</strong>étiques de réactions de Maillard ayant lieu au cours de la<br />

cuisson de produits céréaliers de type génoise. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Institute of Life and<br />

Environmental Science and Technology, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Process</strong>, Massy, France.<br />

1806

Degradation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural <strong>in</strong> Malt dur<strong>in</strong>g Fermentation of Beer<br />

Gül Akllolu, Burçe Ataç Mogol, Vural Gökmen<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey<br />

(gulakillioglu@hacettepe.edu.tr, burcea@hacettepe.edu.tr, vgokmen@hacettepe.edu.tr )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g brew<strong>in</strong>g, Maillard reaction and caramelization occur as roast<strong>in</strong>g proceeds at high<br />

temperatures up to 250 ºC lead<strong>in</strong>g to the formation of HMF and furfural [1]. There are several<br />

reports claim<strong>in</strong>g that furfural and HMF <strong>in</strong>hibit the growth of yeasts, hence cause a decrease <strong>in</strong><br />

the yield of ethanol production [2, 3]. On the other hand, HMF was found to be taken up and<br />

converted by the yeast dur<strong>in</strong>g both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and the ma<strong>in</strong> conversion<br />

product was found to be 5-hydroxymethylfurfuryl alcohol (HMF alcohol) [4]. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

experiments <strong>in</strong>dicated that HMF levels <strong>in</strong> beers are relatively low (1000 mg/kg) may form <strong>in</strong> dark roasted malts. Thus the present<br />

study aimed to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the mechanism and k<strong>in</strong>etics of HMF degradation dur<strong>in</strong>g yeast<br />

fermentation of malt.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Wort obta<strong>in</strong>ed from roasted and pale malt was fermented with baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces<br />

cerevisiae) at 30ºC for 24 hours. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g was performed at certa<strong>in</strong> time <strong>in</strong>tervals dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fermentation that was carried out both <strong>in</strong> the presence and absence of sugar. HMF and sugar<br />

concentrations were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g Shimadzu UFLC system (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto,<br />

Japan) and Agilent 1100 HPLC system (Waldbronn, Germany), respectively.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

HMF content of dark malt was found to be 520 mg/kg. Wort and sweet wort obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the<br />

dark malt had HMF contents of 71.99 ± 0.89 and 65.50 ± 1.10 mg/L, respectively. It was<br />

observed that HMF contents of both worts were decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation process<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that it is utilized by yeast.<br />

HMF data were evaluated with MATLAB ® 7.0.1. HMF content of worts showed an<br />

exponential decay as fermentation progressed (Figure 1). Data were fitted to equation<br />

[HMF]=[HMF]0×(exp(-k×t)), where “t” and “k” correspond to time <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>utes and rate<br />

constant m<strong>in</strong> -1 , respectively. The degradation rate constant of HMF was 0.693×10-2 m<strong>in</strong> -1 and<br />

1.397×10-2 m<strong>in</strong> -1 for wort and sweet wort samples, respectively, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that sugar enhances<br />

the activity of yeast. Sucrose was converted <strong>in</strong>to glucose and fructose just <strong>in</strong> the first hour of<br />

fermentation. Glucose and fructose contents of dark roasted malt decreased more rapidly than<br />

those of pale malt (p

Figure 1. Change of HMF concentration <strong>in</strong> wort dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of present study do not support that HMF may <strong>in</strong>hibit yeast growth as claimed by<br />

others. It was observed that HMF was utilized as a carbon source dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation besides<br />

glucose and fructose, and its degradation was more rapid than those of glucose and fructose. It<br />

is thought that roast<strong>in</strong>g modifies the malt composition that makes the nutrients more available<br />

for yeasts enhanc<strong>in</strong>g their growth.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Woffenden H.M., Ames J.M. & Chandra S. 2001. Relationships between antioxidant activity, color,<br />

and flavor compounds of crystal malt extracts. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 49,<br />

5524-5530.<br />

[2] Palmqvist E., Almeida J.S. & Hahn-Hagerdal B. 1999. Influence of furfural on anaerobic glycolytic<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae <strong>in</strong> batch culture. Biotechnology and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 62, 447-<br />

454.<br />

[3] Palmqvist E., Grage H., Me<strong>in</strong>ander N.Q. & Hahn-Hagerdal B. 1999. Ma<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>teraction effects of<br />

acetic acid, furfural, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid on growth and ethanol productivity of yeasts.<br />

Biotechnology and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 63, 46-55.<br />

[4] Taherzadeh M.J., Gustafsson L., Niklasson C. & Liden G. 2000. Physiological effects of 5hydroxymethylfurfural<br />

on Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 53,<br />

701-708.<br />

1808

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Polyvios Prokopiou a , Athanasia M. Goula b , Nikolaos G. Stoforos c<br />

a<br />

Pipis Farm Ltd., Nicosia, Cyprus (polyviosprokopiou@hotmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotle University of<br />

Thessaloniki, Greece (athgou@agro.auth.gr)<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece<br />

(stoforos@aua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g cells from the am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

acids lys<strong>in</strong>e and methion<strong>in</strong>e. Its primary function is to facilitate the transport of activated long<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acids from the cytosol <strong>in</strong>to the mitochondria and, thus, it is essential for the<br />

production of energy from lipids. In addition, L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e helps to remove toxic compounds<br />

from with<strong>in</strong> the cells. Although small amounts of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e can be synthesized by adults, the<br />

majority of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e needed <strong>in</strong> humans is taken through food consumption. Exogenous<br />

supply of carnit<strong>in</strong>e is ma<strong>in</strong>ly supplied by foods of animal orig<strong>in</strong>, where its concentration varies<br />

between 8 and 530 mg/kg of dry mass, whereas fruit and vegetables conta<strong>in</strong> very little, if any,<br />

L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e [1]. The development of accurate models able to predict the behavior of substances<br />

under specific environmental conditions is of ma<strong>in</strong> importance for the food <strong>in</strong>dustry and relies<br />

on the estimation of appropriate k<strong>in</strong>etic data. However, studies on thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Lcarnit<strong>in</strong>e<br />

have not been found <strong>in</strong> the literature. Thus, the objective of this work was the k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

study of thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e. Exist<strong>in</strong>g procedures for k<strong>in</strong>etic parameter<br />

estimation are normally based on experiments under isothermal conditions. However,<br />

temperature may vary extensively throughout a thermal process. A few works approach the<br />

estimation of <strong>in</strong>activation k<strong>in</strong>etics consider<strong>in</strong>g time-vary<strong>in</strong>g temperature conditions [2]. So,<br />

another task undertaken <strong>in</strong> this study was to develop a procedure for thermal <strong>in</strong>activation<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics determ<strong>in</strong>ation, from dynamic temperature profile experiments.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The <strong>in</strong>activation experiments of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e took place <strong>in</strong> glass Pasteur pipettes immersed <strong>in</strong> a<br />

water/oil bath set at specified temperatures (80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, and 130°C) selected<br />

after prelim<strong>in</strong>ary experiments. The L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e content was spectrophotometrically determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

[3]. DT values at each temperature tested were calculated with the progressive use of the<br />

experimental rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g concentration data (Eq. (1)) and afterwards these DT values were used<br />

for the calculation of the z value (Eq. (2)) by successive l<strong>in</strong>ear regressions.<br />

t<br />

log C log Co<br />

<br />

(1)<br />

DT<br />

Tref<br />

T<br />

log DT<br />

log DT<br />

<br />

(2)<br />

ref z<br />

where Co is the <strong>in</strong>itial L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e concentration, C is the L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e concentration at time t, DT<br />

is the decimal reduction time at temperature T, z is the thermal resistance constant, and Tref is a<br />

reference temperature. Furthermore, rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e concentration data were collected<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g a non-isothermal experiment for a step-wise <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature profile.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1809

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Data on rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e concentration aga<strong>in</strong>st process<strong>in</strong>g time as a function of<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g temperature are shown on Fig. 1. The parameters D120°C and z were calculated equal<br />

to 50.6 m<strong>in</strong> and 30.2°C, respectively.<br />

log C (C <strong>in</strong> g/100 mL).<br />

-2<br />

-3<br />

-4<br />

-5<br />

80°C 85°C 90°C 95°C<br />

100°C 110°C 120°C 130°C<br />

0 100 200 300 400 500 600<br />

t (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 1. Experimental (symbols) and predicted (l<strong>in</strong>es) values of rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e concentration as<br />

a function of process<strong>in</strong>g time and temperature.<br />

Similar values were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the measurements dur<strong>in</strong>g the dynamic temperature profile<br />

experiment. For this case, D120°C and z values were found equal to 48.8 m<strong>in</strong> and 29.9°C,<br />

respectively. The two methods resulted <strong>in</strong> not significantly different results. In addition, both<br />

methods yielded precise and accurate predictions. Correlation between experimentally<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed concentrations of L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e after non-isothermal treatment and those calculated<br />

by means of k<strong>in</strong>etic parameter estimates form dynamic and isothermal data gave R 2 and SSE<br />

values of 0.999 and 8.19, respectively, for the dynamic method and 0.998 and 10.28 for the<br />

isothermal experiments.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Based on the agreement between the parameters estimated us<strong>in</strong>g isothermal or non-isothermal<br />

temperature profiles, and given the reduced number of experimental data required by the latter<br />

approach, k<strong>in</strong>etic parameter estimation from experiments at dynamic conditions is<br />

recommended. Although <strong>in</strong> the present study L-carnit<strong>in</strong>e thermal <strong>in</strong>activation followed first<br />

order k<strong>in</strong>etics and the methodology used was focused on such k<strong>in</strong>etic behavior, deviations from<br />

first order k<strong>in</strong>etics can be handled.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Sel<strong>in</strong>e K.-G. & Johe<strong>in</strong> H. 2007. The Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of L-Carnit<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Several <strong>Food</strong> Samples. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 105(2), 793–804.<br />

[2] Van Boekel M. 1996. Statistical Aspects of K<strong>in</strong>etic Modell<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>Food</strong> Science Problems. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science, 61, 477–485.<br />

[3] Schafer J. & Reichmann H. 1989. A Spectrophotometric Method for the Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Free and<br />

Esterified Carnit<strong>in</strong>e. Cl<strong>in</strong>ica Chimica Acta, 182, 87–94.<br />

1810

Quality degradation of butterhead lettuce: the performance of General Stability Index<br />

(GSI) modified methodology<br />

María Victoria Agüero a , Sara Inés Roura b<br />

a<br />

Grupo de Investigación en Ingeniería en Alimentos (GIIA). Facultad de Ingeniería. UNMdP. CONICET,<br />

Mar del Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a. (mvaguero@fi.mdp.edu.ar)<br />

b<br />

GIIA. Facultad de Ingeniería. UNMdP. CONICET, Mar del Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a. (sroura@fi.mdp.edu.ar)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Lettuce shelf life is a dynamic period <strong>in</strong> which microbiological, chemical, enzymatic and<br />

physicochemical reactions simultaneously take place affect<strong>in</strong>g several quality aspects. Each<br />

quality <strong>in</strong>dex presents particular behavior dur<strong>in</strong>g lettuce storage. Moreover, chang<strong>in</strong>g storage<br />

conditions affects differentially each <strong>in</strong>dex. These facts make the evaluation of shelf-life an<br />

arduous task. GSI (General Stability Index) method [1] and its modified version [2] are<br />

valuable tools that allow the simultaneous evaluation of most relevant quality <strong>in</strong>dices<br />

express<strong>in</strong>g such variations as a s<strong>in</strong>gle value. The objective of the present work was to<br />

characterize the k<strong>in</strong>etic evolution (specially reaction order and constant rate) of GSI for<br />

butterhead lettuces stored under two different conditions commonly found dur<strong>in</strong>g its<br />

distribution from farm to vegetable processors: optimal (0-2ºC, 97-99% relative humidity) and<br />

suboptimal (0-2ºC, 70-72% relative humidity). Each lettuce section (external, middle and<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal) was analyzed <strong>in</strong>dependently.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Quality <strong>in</strong>dices were: relative water content (RWC), water content (WC), free water (FW),<br />

bound water (BW) and the ratio free to total water (FW/TW) as physiological <strong>in</strong>dices; total<br />

chlorophyll content (C) as greenness <strong>in</strong>dex; ascorbic acid content (AA) as nutritional <strong>in</strong>dex,<br />

total microbial counts (MC) as microbial <strong>in</strong>dex and overall visual quality (OVQ) as sensorial<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g days were: 0, 2, 5, 8, 13, 16 and 20; and 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 for lettuces stored<br />

under optimal or suboptimal conditions, respectively. GSI was calculated for each lettuce<br />

section and each storage condition follow<strong>in</strong>g the methodology suggested by Ansorena et al.<br />

(2009). GSI was modeled accord<strong>in</strong>g to: d(GSI)/dt=-k(GSI).<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally, it was established the dependence of k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters (n and k) with section and<br />

storage condition. Statistical analyses were carried out us<strong>in</strong>g SAS software version 9.0 (SAS<br />

Institute 2002). Adjustment of equations was done us<strong>in</strong>g SYSTAT 5.0 (SYSTAT Inc, 1992).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The lettuce section and the storage condition significantly affected the composition of the<br />

tetrad that best represent the quality evolution dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. The tetrads selected for lettuces<br />

stored under optimal conditions were: (RWC, FW, C, AA), (RWC, WC, C, AA) and (RWC,<br />

FW, WC, AA) for external, middle and <strong>in</strong>ternal sections, respectively; and for lettuces stored<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1811

under sub-optimal conditions, were: (RWC, WC, AA, MC), (RWC, WC, TC, AA) and (RWC,<br />

BW, WC, MC) for external, middle and <strong>in</strong>ternal sections, respectively.<br />

Regardless of the lettuce section or the storage condition, the evolution of GSI was<br />

characterized by a first order k<strong>in</strong>etic, with a rate constant (k) greatly affected by both factors.<br />

GSI<br />

1<br />

0,8<br />

0,6<br />

0,4<br />

0,2<br />

0<br />

0 5 10 15 20<br />

Time (days)<br />

Figure 1. GSI evolution <strong>in</strong> external ( and ), middle ( and ) and <strong>in</strong>ternal ( and ) lettuce sections<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g storage of lettuce heads under different relative humidity conditions: 97 – 99 %HR (- - - -) and 70<br />

– 72 %HR ( ).<br />

These results supported the great impact of relative humidity condition on butterhead quality<br />

and shelf life. The higher impact of humidity condition occurred <strong>in</strong> external and middle<br />

sections with a 4.2-4.9 fold <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the k value, while the <strong>in</strong>ternal section only <strong>in</strong>creases 1.3<br />

fold <strong>in</strong> sub-optimal condition respect the optimal one. Differences observed <strong>in</strong> k values from<br />

different lettuce sections could be attributed to both the degree of tissue development and the<br />

differential exposure to environment. In this way, <strong>in</strong>ternal leaves are younger than external<br />

ones and this could imply different physiological behavior. Moreover, due to lettuce plant<br />

morphology, the <strong>in</strong>ternal leaves are wrapped by middle and external leaves, protect<strong>in</strong>g them<br />

from environment stress.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The modified GSI methodology was successfully applied to evaluate the quality degradation of<br />

butterhead lettuce under different postharvest conditions. The GSI was composed by different<br />

<strong>in</strong>dices depend<strong>in</strong>g on both lettuce section and storage condition. However, as GSI is a<br />

dimensionless parameter, comparisons of GSI evolution could be done. First order k<strong>in</strong>etic was<br />

found for all situations but the rate constant was greatly affected by both factors. The<br />

methodology simplifies the quality evolution quantification because it recommends the<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation of only four <strong>in</strong>dices, and simplifies the comparisons between different storage<br />

conditions.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

k I = 0.05 day -1<br />

kE = 0.44 day -1<br />

kM = 0.25 day -1<br />

kE = 0.11 day -1<br />

kM = 0.05 day -1<br />

kI = 0.04 day -1<br />

[1] Achour, M. (2006). A new method to assess the quality degradation of food products dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 75 (4), 560-564.<br />

[2] Ansorena, M.R., Goñi, M.G., Agüero, M.V., Roura, S.I., & Di Scala, K.C. (2009). Application of the<br />

General Stability Index to assess the Quality of Butter Lettuce dur<strong>in</strong>g Postharvest storage by a multiquality<br />

<strong>in</strong>dices analysis. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 92, 317-323.<br />

1812

A MALST method comparison over univariate k<strong>in</strong>etic modell<strong>in</strong>g for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

Shelf life <strong>in</strong> cereal snack of dried apples<br />

J. Saavedra a,b , A. Córdova a , C.Quezada a .<br />

a<br />

Research Group on Chemometrics, Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Pontificia Universidad Católica de<br />

Valparaíso. (jorge.saavedra@ucv.cl)<br />

b<br />

Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables (CREAS). Valparaíso, Chile.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Formal determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Shelf Life is a key factor <strong>in</strong> the research and development of food,<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce provides <strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g the time that the product aptly reta<strong>in</strong>s its attributes. This<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation is usually performed by measurement of quality attributes [1], alternat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

accelerated age<strong>in</strong>g methods under extreme conditions, be<strong>in</strong>g methodoloy proposed by [2], the<br />

mostly used. However, the determ<strong>in</strong>ation becomes complex when multiple attributes must be<br />

studied simultaneously s<strong>in</strong>ce each one has an own specification related with the date of<br />

expiration, be<strong>in</strong>g useful <strong>in</strong> these cases the use of multivariate statistical techniques. In this<br />

sense, Accelerated Shelf Life Test<strong>in</strong>g methods have <strong>in</strong>corporated multivariate tools, called<br />

Multivariate Accelerated Shelf Life Test<strong>in</strong>g (MALST). In this context, the objective of this<br />

research was comparatively assess<strong>in</strong>g Shelf Life of an absolutely new product <strong>in</strong> market snackcereal<br />

of dried apple type, through traditional univariate method and multivariate accelerated<br />

method.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples of a new product <strong>in</strong> the market of dried Apple snack type from an export<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agribus<strong>in</strong>ess (Maule, Chile) packed <strong>in</strong> multi-lam<strong>in</strong>ated bags were <strong>in</strong>cubated at 18 ° C, 25 ° C<br />

and 35 ° C, for 18 months. Quality attributes considered: Aw, humidity, content of SO2,<br />

sensory attributes, and color CIE-Lab. Data were modeled by univariate degradation k<strong>in</strong>etics [2,<br />

3] and multivariate analysis was performed with PCA analysis, <strong>in</strong> order to model multivariate<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics, accord<strong>in</strong>g methodology proposed by [5]. All calculations and adjustments were made<br />

with SIMCA-P+ 12, Sigmaplot 11 and Excel 2003.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Graphic Scores (Figure 1) shows the evolution of the attributes used at three temperatures.<br />

Model reta<strong>in</strong>ed 2 Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal Component (PC) expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 83.1% of the total variability (PC 1:<br />

68% and PC2: 16.2%). PCA ordered the variability of samples based on the time through the<br />

first component (t1). Inspect<strong>in</strong>g the graphics of contribution it could be appreciated the<br />

variability expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the second computer (t2) expla<strong>in</strong>s different behavior for 3 temperatures<br />

profiles of storage. Thus, for the treatment of 18°C, contribution is ma<strong>in</strong>ly expla<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

attribute Aw, while at 25°C, the color variables of and SO2 content acquired greater importance.<br />

At 35°C the greatest contributions were associated with moisture and texture, at f<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>cubation<br />

times. The above, would imply that model reflected <strong>in</strong> terms of variability, biochemical<br />

phenomena associated with the deterioration of the product.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1813

Figure 1. Scores Plot for 3 storage temperatures<br />

From the specification values of the product (not shown values) and the load<strong>in</strong>gs matrix of the<br />

first PC related with time, was obta<strong>in</strong>ed the cut-off criteria (tc), which <strong>in</strong> this case was 0.2183.<br />

It can be observed first order k<strong>in</strong>etic degradation for all storages conditions. Thus, shelf-life was<br />

18.2 months for storage to 18 ° C, 18.1 months at 25 ° C and 15.5 months at 35 °C. By<br />

compar<strong>in</strong>g this value with the obta<strong>in</strong>ed by univariate k<strong>in</strong>etics, where the degradation only<br />

contemplates humidity as attribute, shelf-life of the product was 17.4 months, exist<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

difference of a few weeks <strong>in</strong> estimat<strong>in</strong>g by one method and other.<br />

Due to little difference of Shelf Life at 18°C and 35°C, it could be <strong>in</strong>ferred the high stability of<br />

the product.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

MALST methodology could estimate simultaneously deterioration of quality attributes of the<br />

product, show<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>teractions that occur between them.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Van Boekel, M., 2008. K<strong>in</strong>etic Model<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>Food</strong> Quality: A Critical Review, <strong>in</strong> Comprehensive<br />

reviews <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Food</strong> Safety 7, Institute of <strong>Food</strong> Technologists p. 144-158.<br />

[2] Labuza, T., 1982. Shelf Life Dat<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>Food</strong>s. <strong>Food</strong> and Nutricion Press, Inc. Westport, Connecticut,<br />

U.S.A<br />

[3] Man,C. & Jones, A.,1999. Shelf Life Evaluation of <strong>Food</strong>s. Aspen Publishers, Inc, Gaithersburg.<br />

[4] Sjostrom, M., Wold, S., L<strong>in</strong>dberg, W., Persson, J.A., Martens, H., 1983. A multivariate calibration<br />

problem <strong>in</strong> analytical chemistry solved by partial least-squares models <strong>in</strong> latent variables, Analytica<br />

Chimica Acta, Volume 150, 1983, Pages 61-70.<br />

[5] Pedro & Ferreira, 2006: Multivariate accelerated shelf-life test<strong>in</strong>g: a novel approach for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

the shelf-life of foods. Journal of Chemometrics, 20, 76–83.<br />

1814

Modulation of thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of protease dur<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic hydrolysis of salmon<br />

muscle<br />

Pedro Valencia, Noé Bustos, Sergio Almonacid<br />

Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile (pedro.valencia@usm.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Modulation consists <strong>in</strong> the protection or destabilization of an enzyme by substrates or products<br />

present <strong>in</strong> reaction [1]. This is a major concern for the hydrolysis of <strong>in</strong>soluble prote<strong>in</strong>s us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

proteases because enzyme <strong>in</strong>activation is a significant phenomena <strong>in</strong> this process and adsoption<br />

of enzyme on substrate suggests that native conformation of enzyme is stiffened caus<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

stabilization of activity. The objective of this work was to compare thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of<br />

Alcalase under non-reactive and reactive conditions dur<strong>in</strong>g the process of enzymatic hydrolysis<br />

of the substrate salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong>.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In non-reactive conditions Alcalase was mixed with 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 8.0. In<br />

reactive conditions Alcalase was mixed with a blended muscle slurry prepared from salmon<br />

fillets and the same phosphate buffer follow<strong>in</strong>g the method of Kr<strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>sson and Rasco [2]. In<br />

both conditions the mixture was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a temperature-controlled bath at 60ºC and<br />

constant pH 8.0 dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole experiment. Samples were withdrawn, cooled and assayed<br />

for Alcalase activity with azocase<strong>in</strong> method.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase was tested under reactive and non-reactive conditions, <strong>in</strong> the<br />

presence and absence of the salmon muscle as prote<strong>in</strong> substrate. The effect of proteic substrate<br />

on the thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase is observed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. A protective effect is observed<br />

when Alcalase was maita<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the presence of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong>s at 1% and 5% be<strong>in</strong>g 4fold<br />

and 7-fold more stable than <strong>in</strong> non-reactive condition. Half-life of enzyme activity <strong>in</strong> nonreactive<br />

conditions was 33 m<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>creased until 142 and 233 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the presence of 1% and<br />

5% of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong>. These experiments reveal the protective effect of the substrate<br />

upon the thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase. The hypothesis is positivelly contrasted with this<br />

evidence. The protective effect dur<strong>in</strong>g the thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase suggests that<br />

enzyme tightly attaches to muscle prote<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysis decreas<strong>in</strong>g the loss of its threedimensional<br />

conformation. This implies that the adsorption of the enzyme is a step to be taken<br />

<strong>in</strong>to account when model<strong>in</strong>g the hydrolysis of <strong>in</strong>soluble prote<strong>in</strong> by-products. Thermal<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation experiments <strong>in</strong> reactive conditions were done dur<strong>in</strong>g the hydrolysis of salmon<br />

muscle prote<strong>in</strong>, so substrate concentration decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g reaction. Degree of hydrolysis<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g reactive condition experiments reached about 15% <strong>in</strong> 200 m<strong>in</strong>. This means that product<br />

generated dur<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysis of prote<strong>in</strong>s could have a modulat<strong>in</strong>g effect on the enzyme. This<br />

effect was not quantified and the possibility that peptides formed from hydrolysed prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1815

modulates thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of enzyme cannot be supported nor discarded with these results.<br />

New experiments must be designed for this purpose.<br />

Figure 1. Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase at 60ºC <strong>in</strong> non-reactive (triangles) and reactive conditions<br />

with 1% (circles) and 5% (squares) of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong>. L<strong>in</strong>es represent first-order model.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase dur<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysis of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong> was clearly<br />

exposed. The protective effect of substrate on the thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

hydrolysis of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong> was demonstrated. Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Alcalase was<br />

decreased <strong>in</strong> the presence of salmon muscle prote<strong>in</strong>s. This observation suggests that enzyme<br />

tightly attaches to this substrate dur<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysis avoid<strong>in</strong>g the loss of its three-dimensional<br />

conformation. In this way mechanisms and conceptual mathematical models for hydrolysis of<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s must consider adsorption, thermal <strong>in</strong>activation and modulation components for proper<br />

enzyme reactor design.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Illanes A. 2008. Enzyme Biocatalysis: Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Applications. Spr<strong>in</strong>ger Science + Bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

Media B.V.<br />

[2] Krist<strong>in</strong>sson H., Rasco B. 2000. K<strong>in</strong>etics of the hydrolysis of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) muscle<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s by alkal<strong>in</strong>e proteases and a visceral ser<strong>in</strong>e protease mixture. <strong>Process</strong> Biochemistry 36(1-2),<br />

131-139.<br />

1816

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk by HPLC marker as evidence of cattle-food<br />

storage conditions from the herd suppliers of a dairy company <strong>in</strong> the city of Valledupar<br />

Fragoso E. a , David T. a , Romero S. a , Osp<strong>in</strong>o H. a<br />

a Universidad de Santander, Valledupar, Colombia (eliamercedes@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The production of mycotox<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> human or animal food represents a potential danger for health<br />

and milk production. Colombia is a country with large agricultural and livestock activities, and<br />

these areas are seriously affected by the presence of aflatox<strong>in</strong>s [1]. The contam<strong>in</strong>ation by<br />

aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> milk and its derivatives varies between 40% and 60% and is given by the<br />

presence of aflatox<strong>in</strong> B1 <strong>in</strong> food and feed commodities for consumption of such cattle, which<br />

has become a problem with global significance [2]. To contribute to the monitor<strong>in</strong>g of these<br />

mycotox<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Colombia, a study on thirty herd providers from a dairy company was carried<br />

out <strong>in</strong> the city of Valledupar to determ<strong>in</strong>e the concentration of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk by<br />

HPLC as evident marker of cattle-food storage conditions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

This research is descriptive. The population consisted of 97 herds suppliers of a dairy company<br />

<strong>in</strong> the city of Valledupar. The sample used consisted of the 30 herd .The sampl<strong>in</strong>g was carried<br />

out for convenience. The research was conducted <strong>in</strong> three phases: In the first stage data were<br />

organized <strong>in</strong> the forms of acceptance to create access routes herds. Subsequently conducted an<br />

<strong>in</strong>spection of the storage <strong>in</strong> herds for which they filled out the health <strong>in</strong>spection form. In the<br />

second phase proceeded with the test sample of 250g of the food field collect<strong>in</strong>g 5 po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

equidistant from storage. The samples were transported to the laboratory of food science at the<br />

University of Santander. Then processed the samples obta<strong>in</strong>ed by direct seed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the PDA<br />

medium. It took 10 g sample of 250g collected <strong>in</strong> each of the po<strong>in</strong>ts of food stored <strong>in</strong> herds to<br />

seek the fungal growth. Once growth was obta<strong>in</strong>ed microorganisms were replicated to PDA<br />

agar for isolation and identification. In the third stage were collected on the platform of receipt<br />

of the dairy raw milk 500 ml of the thirty herds under study obta<strong>in</strong>ed a sample. Subsequently<br />

refrigerated and were transported to the toxicology laboratory at the National University where<br />

they were processed by HPLC technique for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1. The limit of<br />

quantification LOQ of the technique was from 5ng/L-1 and the limit of detection (LOD) was<br />

less than 5ng/-1 concentration.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Storage conditions <strong>in</strong> the herds are not adequate for this purpose, which was corroborated with<br />

data from the <strong>in</strong>spection report, accord<strong>in</strong>g to which 100% showed clearly identified hazards of<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation of food <strong>in</strong>tended for livestock consumption. Similarly, 68% do not have an<br />

exclusive site for storage of food for cattle, given that most are exposed to environmental<br />

conditions that promote the spread and growth of A. flavus [3]. Of direct seed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> stored food<br />

PDA agar growth was obta<strong>in</strong>ed corroborat<strong>in</strong>g mycelial yeasts and <strong>in</strong>adequate food storage<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1817

conditions, this procedure was isolated from the fungus Aspergillus flavus aflatox<strong>in</strong> B1<br />

producer, but can’t relate strictly the presence of this fungus with aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 concentrations<br />

found <strong>in</strong> milk samples for this <strong>in</strong>fluence as other factors such as the aw [4].<br />

Figure 1.6. Comparison of concentration levels between herds AFM1 (m<strong>in</strong>imum and maximum)<br />

The found concentrations of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk of 30 herds were with<strong>in</strong> the levels<br />

permitted by the Colombian technical standard ICONTEC, but it would be limit<strong>in</strong>g if you want<br />

to export the product s<strong>in</strong>ce it significantly exceeds the maximum established for that purpose.<br />

The upper limit was obta<strong>in</strong>ed 160.2ng / L (figure 1.6) followed by 86.9ng / L. These accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to this study would be the maximum to which consumers would be exposed as the other values<br />

were lower.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Both yeast and mycelial growth were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from direct seed<strong>in</strong>g; mycelial growth was<br />

consistent with the producer of aflatox<strong>in</strong> B1 fungus Aspergillus flavus. In the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

AFM1 concentrations <strong>in</strong> raw milk, samples yielded results that found concentrations of<br />

aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> the raw milk of 30 herds with<strong>in</strong> the levels allowed by ICONTEC. The<br />

threshold obta<strong>in</strong>ed was 160.2 ng / L followed by 86.9 ng/L. These, accord<strong>in</strong>g to this study,<br />

would be the maximum limits to which consumers would be exposed as the other values were<br />

lower. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results of this study it is recommended to implement the determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of aflatox<strong>in</strong> M1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk produced <strong>in</strong> the department of Cesar, <strong>in</strong> order to verify the real<br />

situation regard<strong>in</strong>g this tox<strong>in</strong> and thus exercise control and surveillance measures which ensure<br />

the welfare of the consumer population.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Díaz, G. (2005) Aflatox<strong>in</strong>a M1: un carc<strong>in</strong>ógeno de potencial presencia en la leche. En: Sem<strong>in</strong>ario<br />

nacional en producción y sanidad bov<strong>in</strong>a, Secretaría de agricultura y desarrollo rural. Mayo 18–20:<br />

Bogotá, Colombia. Universidad Nacional de Colombia.<br />

[2] Cullen J. M. & Newberne P. M. 1993. Acute hepatoxicity of aflatox<strong>in</strong>s In: The toxicology of<br />

Aflatox<strong>in</strong>s, human health, veter<strong>in</strong>ary and agricultural significance. ISBN 0-12-228255-8 Press Inc,<br />

Baltimore, MD. 3-20.<br />

[3] Gimeno, A. 2002 Pr<strong>in</strong>cipales factores condicionantes para el desarrollo de los hongos y la producción<br />

de micotox<strong>in</strong>as.<br />

[4] Gimeno, A. & Mart<strong>in</strong>s, M. (2001) Residuos de aflatox<strong>in</strong>a M1 y otras micotox<strong>in</strong>as en leche y<br />

derivados; control y recomendaciones. En: XVIII sem<strong>in</strong>ario g-temcal organizado por g-temcal/danone<br />

Portugal Septiembre 28 Lisboa, Portugal.<br />

1818

Use of a Poisson-gamma regression model to assess the process hygiene criterion for<br />

Enterobacteriaceae on Irish sheep carcasses<br />

Ursula Gonzales-Barron and Francis Butler<br />

Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, UCD School of Agriculture, <strong>Food</strong> Science and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e, University<br />

College Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Dubl<strong>in</strong> 4, Ireland (ursula.gonzalesbarron@ucd.ie; f.butler@ucd.ie)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Historically, <strong>in</strong> the development or evaluation of sampl<strong>in</strong>g plans, two simplify<strong>in</strong>g assumptions<br />

have been always made: that the true concentration of microorganisms is log-normally<br />

distributed with<strong>in</strong> the batch, and that the variance of the samples with<strong>in</strong> a batch is constant.<br />

Gonzales-Barron and Butler [1] showed however that neither of these assumptions necessarily<br />

hold, and <strong>in</strong> fact they demonstrated that the Poisson-gamma distribution is by far more<br />

appropriate than the Poisson-lognormal or lognormal when modell<strong>in</strong>g low microbial counts <strong>in</strong><br />

foods. In the present study, we model the with<strong>in</strong>-batch and between-batch variability <strong>in</strong><br />

Enterobacteriaceae counts sampled from pre-chill sheep carcasses us<strong>in</strong>g a random-effects<br />

Poisson-gamma regression model, and we use this model <strong>in</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g the actual performance<br />

of the process hygiene criterion stipulated <strong>in</strong> EC No 2073/2005.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Plate count data was available for twenty pre-chill sheep carcasses swabbed on each of the four<br />

sampl<strong>in</strong>g visits to five Irish abattoirs (n=400, j=20 batches). The between-batch and with<strong>in</strong>batch<br />

variability <strong>in</strong> Enterobacteriaceae sampled from pre-chill sheep carcasses were modelled<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a Poisson-gamma regression model with correlated random effects for the log average<br />

[log mj] and the log dispersion measure [log kj] of the with<strong>in</strong>-batch gamma distributions. In this<br />

model, the random effects between the log average and log dispersion uj and vj, were assumed<br />

to be realisations of a bivariate normal distribution with mean [0,0] and covariance matrix .<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The random effects of the two parameters of the with<strong>in</strong>-batch true distributions (gamma) were<br />

moderately correlated (r=-0.62): the higher the contam<strong>in</strong>ation level with<strong>in</strong> a batch, the lower<br />

the dispersion (i.e., the lower the variability). Therefore, there is no reason to assume that the<br />

variability <strong>in</strong> Enterobacteriaceae counts is approximately constant and <strong>in</strong>dependent of the<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation level (i.e., with<strong>in</strong>-batch mean). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the model, when five samples are<br />

taken from a batch, only 0.93% (95% CI: 0-4.08%) of the batches of pre-chill sheep carcasses<br />

produced <strong>in</strong> Ireland would be found to be above the m limit of 1.5 log CFU/cm 2 while virtually<br />

no batches would be found to be above the M limit of 2.5 log CFU/cm 2 .<br />

The Poisson-gamma model was also used <strong>in</strong> the assessment of the operat<strong>in</strong>g characteristic<br />

(OC) curve of the acceptance sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan set by EC 2073/2005 (Figure 1). Along the<br />

average values of probability of batch acceptance, the OC curve presents the 95% confidence<br />

<strong>in</strong>tervals that stem from the uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>in</strong> the dispersion factor sampled for a batch of a given<br />

mean. At the consumer’s risk of 5% (5% probability of accept<strong>in</strong>g a batch that exceeds a level<br />

that poses an unacceptable risk to the consumers), batches of 250 CFU/cm 2 mean (95% CI:<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1819

150-400 CFU/cm 2 ) may still pass the hygiene criterion. Now suppose that this hygiene<br />

criterion has been developed under the two-class sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan, with lognormal assumption<br />

and a constant standard deviation of, say, 0.8 CFU/cm 2 . In that case, the acceptance sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

plan m=1.5 log CFU/cm 2 and n=5, would have been set to have a 5% probability of accept<strong>in</strong>g<br />

batches of average higher than ~140 CFU/cm 2 . The Poisson-gamma therefore is more<br />

conservative than the lognormal (two-class sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan) as for the consumer’s acceptable<br />

level of safety established by the latter (140 CFU/cm 2 at 5% consumer’s risk), a higher sample<br />

size (and/or a lower m limit) would be required to ensure it accord<strong>in</strong>g to the random-effects<br />

Poisson-gamma approach. To atta<strong>in</strong> a consumer’s level of protection of accept<strong>in</strong>g batches of at<br />

least 140 CFU/cm 2 on average with a probability of 5%, a sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan could be set at n=5<br />

and m=55 CFU/cm 2 (Figure 1). Under this sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan, 1.66% (95% CI: 0-19.6%) of the<br />

batches of pre-chill sheep carcasses produced <strong>in</strong> Ireland would prompt revision of the<br />

production process and hygiene practices. Although not shown comparatively, it is evident<br />

from this analysis that the higher the between-batch heterogeneity <strong>in</strong> the dispersion measure,<br />

the least effective will be the acceptance sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan or hygiene criterion.<br />

P(samples' mean < m limit)<br />

1.0<br />

0.9<br />

0.8<br />

0.7<br />

0.6<br />

0.5<br />

0.4<br />

0.3<br />

0.2<br />

m=1.5 log CFU/cm²,<br />

n=5 (Micro. criteria)<br />

m=55 CFU/cm², n=5<br />

(Variables sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

plan)<br />

0.1<br />

0.0<br />

10 100<br />

With<strong>in</strong>-batch average (CFU/cm<br />

1000<br />

2 )<br />

Figure 1. Operat<strong>in</strong>g characteristic curves of the microbiological criteria (m=1.5 log CFU/cm 2 ; n=5) and a<br />

variables sampl<strong>in</strong>g plan (m=55 CFU/cm 2 ; n=5) test<strong>in</strong>g Enterobacteriaceae counts on a batch of pre-chill<br />

sheep carcasses. 95% CI orig<strong>in</strong>ate from account<strong>in</strong>g variable with<strong>in</strong>-batch dispersion measures at a given<br />

with<strong>in</strong>-batch average.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A new Poisson-gamma modell<strong>in</strong>g framework has been applied for the first time <strong>in</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the performance of the EC 2073/2005 process hygiene criterion for Enterobacteriaceae <strong>in</strong> prechill<br />

sheep carcasses. A clear advantage of the random-effects Poisson-gamma model is that no<br />

assumption <strong>in</strong> relation to constant with<strong>in</strong>-batch variance has to be made, and therefore<br />

probabilities can be estimated with confidence <strong>in</strong>tervals, which arise from account<strong>in</strong>g variable<br />

with<strong>in</strong>-batch dispersion measures at a given with<strong>in</strong>-batch average. The Poisson-gamma model<br />

appeared to be more conservative than the lognormal <strong>in</strong> relation to variable sampl<strong>in</strong>g plans.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Gonzales-Barron U. & Butler F. 2011. Characterisation of with<strong>in</strong>-batch and between-batch variability<br />

<strong>in</strong> microbial counts <strong>in</strong> foods us<strong>in</strong>g Poisson-gamma and Poisson-lognormal regression models. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Control (2011), doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.01.028<br />

1820

Improvement of harvest<strong>in</strong>g and process<strong>in</strong>g of cultivated fresh water prawn<br />

(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)<br />

T. C. A. Silva, L. S. Arrieche<br />

Federal University of Espirito Santo , São Mateus, Brazil (leonardoarrieche@ceunes.ufes.br)<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

The availability of water and climate allow promis<strong>in</strong>g prospects for the <strong>in</strong>dustrialization of<br />

shrimp produced <strong>in</strong> conf<strong>in</strong>ement <strong>in</strong> Brazil. The challenge lies <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the postharvest<br />

quality, ensured by the disposal of the product properly, s<strong>in</strong>ce, after the capture and slaughter,<br />

the fish undergoes changes related to the biochemical, chemical, microbiological and also the<br />

loss of nutrients, until the complete deterioration.<br />

This work will analyze the process of improvement of freshwater species Macrobrachium<br />

rosenbergii, to <strong>in</strong>troduce the HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Po<strong>in</strong>ts). The need<br />

for the establishment of the HACCP is related to food security, <strong>in</strong>creased competitiveness of<br />

product market<strong>in</strong>g and product with uniform standards of quality. Production will be evaluated<br />

at the Cooperativa dos Aquicultores do Espírito Santo – CEAQ, Brazil, from the harvest of<br />

shrimp to delivery of the product <strong>in</strong> the Cooperative.<br />

The steps cover the description of the processes of harvest, wash<strong>in</strong>g, immobilization and<br />

storage relat<strong>in</strong>g them to fit with the good manufactur<strong>in</strong>g practices ideals. Critical limits are<br />

established based <strong>in</strong> the process measures as well as microbiological and physical-chemical so<br />

that they identify control po<strong>in</strong>ts and critical control po<strong>in</strong>ts. Rout<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g, verification<br />

systems and the establishment of corrective actions may be created from these critical limits<br />

and critical control po<strong>in</strong>ts identified and propose a schedule for improvements <strong>in</strong> the<br />

beneficiation. In a second step, we <strong>in</strong>tend to search for new chemical additives for improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the freez<strong>in</strong>g process that can add the greatest value to the product, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

shelf life of shrimp.<br />

We expected to contribute to the generation of scientific and technological knowledge <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to effectively meet the practical needs of efforts aimed at the <strong>in</strong>dustrialization produced <strong>in</strong> the<br />

state of Espírito Santo, as the freshwater shrimp farm<strong>in</strong>g is presented as an alternative<br />

profitable and high growth potential due to its commercial acceptance.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The adoption of the HACCP system <strong>in</strong> shrimp farms has the advantage of provid<strong>in</strong>g a high<br />

level of security to the shrimp farm, allow work proactively and not reactively, also contributes<br />

to <strong>in</strong>creased productivity and reduced costs by reduc<strong>in</strong>g rework and waste, permits a more<br />

effective monitor<strong>in</strong>g of product quality at lower cost, by the supervisory authorities and<br />

customers.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1821

1822

Assess<strong>in</strong>g the conditions of milk production on farms based on family farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Maria da Penha Piccolo Ramos a , Francisca C.N.N.Silva b , Luciana Oliveira de Fariña c , Cláudia Lúcia de<br />

Oliveira P<strong>in</strong>to d<br />

a Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, UFES, São Mateus, Brazil (penhapiccolo@ceunes.ufes.br)<br />

b Agente de Desenvolvimento Rural, Incaper, São Mateus, Brazil<br />

c Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná, UNIOESTE, Cascavel, Brazil<br />

d Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária de M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais, Epamig, Viçosa, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In Brazil, the milk<strong>in</strong>g activity is one of the ma<strong>in</strong> sectors of <strong>in</strong>come generation and tax<br />

collection. Given this economic importance and problems related to the quality of milk <strong>in</strong><br />

Brazil, the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply has approved Instruction 51, which<br />

establishes physicochemical and microbiological tests as well as the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture<br />

requires the product cool<strong>in</strong>g immediately after milk<strong>in</strong>g on the farm and its delivery <strong>in</strong> bulk to<br />

dairies [1]. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to data from Embrapa Gado de Leite [2], most milk producers <strong>in</strong> Brazil<br />

can be classified as small or medium, with daily production from 50 to 100 L, and they are<br />

typically based on family farm<strong>in</strong>g. In particular, the state of the Espirito Santo contributes<br />

approximately with 2% of the national milk production, and <strong>in</strong> São Mateus, a medium town<br />

located <strong>in</strong> the north of the State, milk production has its orig<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> rural areas, based on<br />

family farm<strong>in</strong>g. These places possess traditional milkmaid cattle, with animal races of low<br />

potential (average of 3.9 L/milk/day/cow) and few animals <strong>in</strong> lactation per property. Good<br />

Farm<strong>in</strong>g Practice (GFP) <strong>in</strong>cludes procedures that <strong>in</strong>tervene directly with the production, quality<br />

and harmless of raw milk. It Includes procedures for health control of the mammary gland,<br />

health of the flock, hygiene <strong>in</strong> milk<strong>in</strong>g and environment of production, quality of the water and<br />

hygiene and health of the milk<strong>in</strong>g workers. In this sense, the ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this study was<br />

to evaluate the hygienic conditions of milk production on farms of São Mateus/ ES/ Brazil, <strong>in</strong><br />

order to propose improvements for the sector.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The research was accomplished <strong>in</strong> 30 rural properties and data was collected by a questionnaire<br />

previously elaborated on the basis of Good Practice requirements, concern<strong>in</strong>g the Farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Legislation of the Brazilian Agriculture M<strong>in</strong>istry. Questions <strong>in</strong>cluded were type of milk<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

hygienic habits, health conditions of the milk<strong>in</strong>g workers, control of mastitis, resources of<br />

water and water treatment as well. In all properties, manual milk<strong>in</strong>g procedure was employed.<br />

The data were analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g response values <strong>in</strong> relative frequency (%).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Responses obta<strong>in</strong>ed through the questionnaires to farmers from São Mateus town, <strong>in</strong> the State<br />

of Espírito Santo, they showed a picture very similar to that one observed <strong>in</strong> other regions of<br />

Brazil [3, 4, 5]. In this study, results showed that only 40% of the milk<strong>in</strong>g man used to wash<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1823

theirs hands and arms before milk<strong>in</strong>g. Thirteen percent were accustomed to use antiseptic<br />

solutions after wash<strong>in</strong>g hands and only 4% of the workers used to pass through periodic health<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>ations. In none of the properties pre-dipp<strong>in</strong>g and post-dipp<strong>in</strong>g procedures were carried<br />

out. Equipment clean<strong>in</strong>g was performed immediately after milk<strong>in</strong>g, however, without usage of<br />

products for sanitization. Mastitis control was not performed <strong>in</strong> 94% of the properties and none<br />

of them accomplished the California Mastitis Test (CMT), which is an important tool <strong>in</strong> the<br />

detection of subcl<strong>in</strong>ical mastitis. The water used for hygienic clean<strong>in</strong>g of the equipment,<br />

utensils and <strong>in</strong>stallations was orig<strong>in</strong>ated from spr<strong>in</strong>gs (33%), wells (50%) and local stations of<br />

water treatment (17%). Irregularities detected <strong>in</strong> these properties can seriously compromise the<br />

quality and safety of raw milk and dairy products.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study was useful to warn the producers about the irregularities and to propose changes for<br />

qualification <strong>in</strong> GFP. Gradual implementation of improvements will be <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

adjust the procedures to current legislation. This will reduce profit losses by <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

devolutions, promote <strong>in</strong>crease of the familiar <strong>in</strong>come and contribute to guarantee the<br />

alimentary security of the population as well.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Brasil. M<strong>in</strong>istério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. Departamento de Inspeção de Produtos<br />

de Origem Animal. Instrução Normativa nº 51, de 18 de setembro de 2002. Coleta de leite cru<br />

refrigerado e seu transporte a granel. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil, n. 172, p. 8-13,<br />

20set. 2002a. Seção I.<br />

[2] Embrapa Gado de Leite. Estatísticas do leite. Juiz de Fora, MG, 2007.<br />

[3] Guerreiro, P.K.; Machado, M.R.F.; Braga, G.C.; Gaspar<strong>in</strong>o, E.; Franzener, A.S.M. Qualidade<br />

microbiológica de leite em função de técnicas profiláticas no manejo de produção. Ciência e<br />

Agrotecnologia, Lavras, v. 29, n. 1, p. 216-222, jan./fev. 2005.<br />

[4] Nero, L.A.; Viçosa, G.N.; Pereira, F.E.V. Qualidade microbiológica do leite determ<strong>in</strong>ada por<br />

características de produção. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, v. 29, n. 2, p. 386-390,<br />

abr.-jun. 2009.<br />

[5] Pedrico, A.; Castro, J. G.D.; Silva, J.E. C.; Machado, L.A.R. Aspectos higiênicos- sanitários na<br />

obtenção do leite no Assentamento Alegre, município de Araguaína, TO. Ciência Animal Brasileira,<br />

v. 10, n. 2, p. 610-617, abr./jun. 2009.<br />

1824

Regeneration of Fry<strong>in</strong>g Oils By Us<strong>in</strong>g Adsorbent Res<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Neslihan GÖNCÜOLU a , Burçe ATAÇ MOGOL a , Vural GÖKMEN a,b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, b <strong>Food</strong> Research Center, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey<br />

(neslihangoncuoglu@hacettepe.edu.tr, burcea@hacettepe.edu.tr, vgokmen@hacettepe.edu.tr )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Deep-fat fry<strong>in</strong>g is one of the most widely used process <strong>in</strong> the world. Dur<strong>in</strong>g deep-fat fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fry<strong>in</strong>g, oils are exposed to high temperatures ~160-180°C and when they come <strong>in</strong>to contact<br />

with fry<strong>in</strong>g material several chemical reactions occur. Two of the most important reactions<br />

occurr<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g are the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation <strong>in</strong> food and oil,<br />

respectively. These reactions generate neo-formed compounds that are potentially harmful<br />

from the viewpo<strong>in</strong>t of health. These harmful compounds, so called thermal process<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ants accumulate <strong>in</strong> fry<strong>in</strong>g oil dur<strong>in</strong>g its repetitive use for practical reasons. It is<br />

undesirable to use highly contam<strong>in</strong>ated fry<strong>in</strong>g oil because it becomes a significant part of the<br />

fried product. The worldwide production of edible vegetable oil is about 60 million tonne a<br />

year [1], most of this oil is used for fry<strong>in</strong>g and be<strong>in</strong>g discarded. Discard<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g oils<br />

immediately after use is not reasonable because of economical and waste disposal problems<br />

which endangers environment. Regenerat<strong>in</strong>g used fry<strong>in</strong>g oils by adsorption as a solution not<br />

only reduce disposal problems, but, more importantly, would <strong>in</strong>crease the quality of oil.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Intensively used fry<strong>in</strong>g oil conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g reasonably high concentration of HMF (~6 mg/L) was<br />

used. The suitability of six styrene-div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene based adsorbent res<strong>in</strong>s for removal of HMF<br />

from oil was tested. The successive use of res<strong>in</strong> was also tested after recondition<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

hexane. Among res<strong>in</strong>s one was selected, whose oil regeneration ability is higher, for further<br />

analysis. Adsorption experiments were performed by mix<strong>in</strong>g 100 mL of oil with different<br />

amounts of res<strong>in</strong> (1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 g) at different temperatures (30, 40, 50°C).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The objective of this study was regeneration of fry<strong>in</strong>g oils that conta<strong>in</strong> high amount of<br />

Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) as a thermal process contam<strong>in</strong>ant. In order to monitor the<br />

success of the regeneration process, it is advantageous to choose a marker molecule <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the level of fry<strong>in</strong>g oil contam<strong>in</strong>ation, rather than a global <strong>in</strong>dex like total polar compounds.<br />

HMF is formed dur<strong>in</strong>g the Maillard reaction [2] and sugar decomposition [3] reactions at high<br />

temperatures. Due to its partial polar structure, it may transfer to oil from food dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The results revealed that styrene-div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene based res<strong>in</strong>s are capable of remov<strong>in</strong>g HMF<br />

from oil. Of the res<strong>in</strong>s tested, Dowex SBR LC NG(OH) provided 99.3% reduction <strong>in</strong> HMF<br />

concentration of oil with<strong>in</strong> 1.5 hrs (Figure 1).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1825

Figure 1. HMF reduction of styrene-div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene based res<strong>in</strong>, Dowex SBR LC NG(OH) dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

adsorption process<br />

Equilibrium adsorption data was fitted to different adsorption models such as Langmuir,<br />

Freundlich etc. to describe the adsorption behavior of HMF onto res<strong>in</strong>. The data fitted well to<br />

Langmuir model at all temperatures studied. The adsorption process followed pseudo-second<br />

order k<strong>in</strong>etics, and pore diffusion was found to be the effective adsorption mechanism. The<br />

res<strong>in</strong> was able to remove ~90% of HMF <strong>in</strong> oil even after fifth adsorption cycle.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

HMF should be taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration as a quality <strong>in</strong>dex of fry<strong>in</strong>g oils. Dowex SBR LC<br />

NG(OH) , styrene-div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene based res<strong>in</strong>, was found to be an effective solution to remove<br />

HMF from highly contam<strong>in</strong>ated fry<strong>in</strong>g oil.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] United States Department of Agriculture 2000. United States Government Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g Office,<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, USA. In Agricultural Statistics pp. III-26.<br />

[2] Ames, J. M. 1992. Biochemistry of <strong>Food</strong> Prote<strong>in</strong>s. In : B. J. F. Hudson (Eds). Elsevier Applied<br />

Science London pp. 99, 153.<br />

[3] Kroh, L. W. 1994. Caramelisation <strong>in</strong> food and beverages. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 51, 373-379.<br />

1826

Extend<strong>in</strong>g shelf life of watercress by means of alternative sanitizers and modified<br />

atmosphere packag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Cielo Char a,b<br />

, Paul<strong>in</strong>a Villena a<br />

, Andrea H<strong>in</strong>ojosa a<br />

and Víctor Escalona a,c<br />

a<br />

Center of Postharvest Studies, University of Chile. Santiago, Chile. web site: www.cepoc.cl.<br />

Agro<strong>in</strong>dustry and Enology Department, Fac. Agricultural Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile<br />

(cdchar@u.uchile.cl)<br />

c<br />

Agricultural Production Department, Fac. Agricultural Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile<br />

(vescalona@uchile.cl)<br />

b<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Manipulation of vegetables and fruits causes physiological stress and wounds, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creased respiration rate and ethylene production, membrane deterioration, water loss and<br />

susceptibility to microbial contam<strong>in</strong>ation [1]. The dis<strong>in</strong>fection is one of the most critical steps<br />

<strong>in</strong> the development of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed fresh (MPF) products affect<strong>in</strong>g the quality, safety<br />

and shelf-life of the end product [2]. The aim of this research was to extend shelf life of ready<br />

to eat watercress salads by means of the reduction of the respiration rate and prevention of<br />

spoilage proliferation. The comb<strong>in</strong>ation of passive modified atmosphere with peroxyacetic acid<br />

(PAA), chlor<strong>in</strong>e dioxide (CD) and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) were assessed. Headspace<br />

gases evolution and native flora were monitored at selected time <strong>in</strong>tervals dur<strong>in</strong>g 12 days of<br />

refrigerated storage.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Watercress leaves were pre-washed with water at 5º C for 5 m<strong>in</strong> to remove any foreign<br />

material. Leaves were immersed for 3 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> different sanitizer solutions: chlor<strong>in</strong>e dioxide (5<br />

or 10 mg L -1<br />

), acidified sodium chlorite (250 or 500 mg L -1<br />

) and peroxyacetic acid (50 or 90<br />

mg L -1<br />

). The efficiency of the sanitizers was compared to that of sodium hypochlorite (100 mg<br />

L -1<br />

). Leaves were packed (50 g) <strong>in</strong> plastic bags PD-961EZ of 28 x 13 cm, (permeability: 7000<br />

mL m -2<br />

d -1<br />

O2 and 21,000 mL m -2<br />

d -1<br />

CO2), which were heat sealed generat<strong>in</strong>g a passive<br />

modified atmosphere and stored at 5°C for 12 days. The evolution of O2 and CO2 <strong>in</strong>side the<br />

plastic bags was monitored by tak<strong>in</strong>g gas samples with a 10 mL syr<strong>in</strong>ge and <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to a gas<br />

chromatograph (Hewlett Packard 5890 Series II). For microbiological analysis 10 g were<br />

placed <strong>in</strong> sterile bags with peptone water and processed <strong>in</strong> an stomacher. Serial dilutions were<br />

plated to determ<strong>in</strong>e mesophilic aerobic bacteria (Plate Count Agar, 37°C 2d.);<br />

Enterobacteriaceae (Eos<strong>in</strong>e Methylene Blue, 37°C 2 d.); acido lactic bacteria (Man Rogosa<br />

and Sharpe, 37°C 3 d); yeasts and molds (Acidified Potato Dextrosa Agar, 22°C 5 d) and<br />

psychrophilic bacteria (Plate Count Agar, 5°C 7 d.). Three samples per treatment were<br />

analyzed on two different runs.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Initial respiration rate values were <strong>in</strong> a range of 89 – 135 mg CO2 kg -1<br />

h -1<br />

and decl<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage for all treatments, reach<strong>in</strong>g equilibrium after 8 days (45 to 65 mg CO2 kg -1<br />

h -1<br />

). These<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1827

high respiration rates could be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the wound<strong>in</strong>g produced dur<strong>in</strong>g the preparation<br />

process and subsequent physiological response <strong>in</strong> the tissue. Initial lowest respiration rate was<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed for 10 mg L -1<br />

CD treatment. Even though, after equilibrium was reached non<br />

significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among all treatments. In the second<br />

experiment, <strong>in</strong>itial respiration rates were lower (80-99 mg CO2 kg -1<br />

h -1<br />

). However, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage respiration rates reached similar values. Oxygen levels decreased and CO2 levels<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> all MA packages dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage period at 5 ºC due to watercress respiration.<br />

Oxygen level was reduced from 18 % to a range of 5.7 - 2.2 % after 8 days of storage.<br />

Carbon dioxide levels promptly <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 24 h from less than 1% to more than<br />

2.5%, and reached equilibrium levels 3.5 % dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. Only slight differences were<br />

observed with the different treatments after 5-8 days of storage and non significant differences<br />

(p < 0.05) were observed at the end of storage. In the second experience a similar pattern was<br />

observed. Initial microbial load reduction <strong>in</strong> less contam<strong>in</strong>ated raw material was greater for DC<br />

and SH (1-1.2 Log units reduction of mesophilic bacteria) ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>g low counts ( 5 logCFU<br />

g -1<br />

) dur<strong>in</strong>g 13 days of storage. Higher reductions were obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g raw material with higher<br />

microbial load (1.9, 1.6 and 1.4 Log units for CD, ASC and SH, respectively). In spite of this,<br />

all sanitizers exceeded 8 logCFUg -1<br />

at the end of storage. Modified atmosphere had an<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitory effect on microbial growth obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g lower counts for SH with MA than <strong>in</strong> a<br />

perforated bag. The different sanitizers reduced <strong>in</strong>itial psychrotrophic bacteria counts (1.7- 1.5<br />

Log units). SH was the most effective; however, DC ended up with the lowest counts ( 4 log<br />

CFU g -1<br />

) at the end of storage. In cleaner raw material, CD (10 mg L -1<br />

) and SH successfully<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibited Enterobacteriaceae dur<strong>in</strong>g all storage accomplish<strong>in</strong>g less than 5 Log CFUg -1<br />

. Higher<br />

concentrations of PAA (90 mg L -1<br />

) and ASC (500 mg L -1<br />

) also achieved reasonable levels.<br />

Conversely, when raw material came with high <strong>in</strong>itial Enterobacteriaceae count, none of the<br />

sanitizers was efficient enough to dim<strong>in</strong>ish that load to acceptable levels. Sanitizers reduced<br />

mold and yeasts (0.5-0.85 log units). These microorganisms, as well as lactic acid bacteria<br />

slightly <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, but never exceed 2 logCFU g -1<br />

with none of the treatments.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

All sanitizers and MA helped to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> acceptable levels of microbial flora and reduced<br />

respiration rate of watercress for 13 or 8 days depend<strong>in</strong>g on the sanitizer and the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

microbial load of the raw material. DC (10 mg L -1<br />

) would be a good alternative to replace SH<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g the rates of deterioration and extend<strong>in</strong>g shelf life. It dim<strong>in</strong>ished <strong>in</strong>itial microbial load<br />

and also ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed low counts of all microorganisms dur<strong>in</strong>g storage <strong>in</strong> the raw watercress<br />

with low <strong>in</strong>itial load. PAA and ASC also achieved reasonable counts at 8 days of storage.<br />

When the raw material had high <strong>in</strong>itial load, all sanitizers exceeded 8 logCFU g -1<br />

at the end of<br />

storage.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Rico D., Martín-Diana A.B., Barat J.M. & Barry-Ryan C. 2007. Extend<strong>in</strong>g and Measur<strong>in</strong>g the Quality<br />

of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetables: a Review. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 18, 373-386.<br />

[2] Gil M.I., Selma M.V., López-Gálvez F. & Allende A. 2009. Fresh-Cut Product Sanitation and Wash<br />

Water Dis<strong>in</strong>fection: Problems and Solutions. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology 134: 37-45.<br />

1828

Model<strong>in</strong>g the effect of acid and osmotic shifts above and across the growth boundaries on<br />

the adaptation and growth of Listeria monocytogenes<br />

Charalampia-Ir<strong>in</strong>i A. Belessi a , Sofia I. Merkouri a , Antonia S. Gounadaki a , Sol Schvartzman b , Kieran<br />

Jordan b , Eleftherios H. Dros<strong>in</strong>os a and Panagiotis N. Skandamis a<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Quality Control and Hygiene, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology,<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. Correspondence: pskan@aua.gr<br />

b Teagasc, Dairy Products Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Dubl<strong>in</strong><br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Exposure of bacteria to dynamic environmental conditions may pose additional adaptation<br />

work, expressed <strong>in</strong> the form of <strong>in</strong>termediate lag time [3, 5]. Acid and osmotic shifts pose a<br />

higher energetic burden than temperature shifts, especially around the growth boundaries. In<br />

the present study, Listeria monocytogenes growth was evaluated at 10°C, be<strong>in</strong>g shifted after (i)<br />

growth at growth permitt<strong>in</strong>g pH and aw levels or (ii) habituation at no-growth acid and osmotic<br />

conditions for up to 10 days.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A L. monocytogenes isolate (10 2 cfu/ml), which persisted for 10 years <strong>in</strong> the environment of a<br />

dairy plant was grown to late-exponential phase <strong>in</strong> TSBYE at 7 pH (7.2, 6.5, 6.0, 5.8, 5.5, 5.3,<br />

5.1 at aw 0.995), adjusted with lactic acid and 5 aw (0.995, 0.97, 0.95 and 0.93 at pH 7.2).<br />

When L. monocytogenes reached ca. 8-9 log cfu/ml <strong>in</strong> each of the above conditions, it was<br />

shifted to all the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g growth-permitt<strong>in</strong>g pH and aw levels at 10°C. Shifts from growth to<br />

no growth conditions were also carried out by transferr<strong>in</strong>g L. monocytogenes, habituated at pH<br />

4.9 and aw 0.90 for 1, 5 and 10 days to all the growth permitt<strong>in</strong>g conditions. Growth curves<br />

were fitted with the Baranyi model [1]. Secondary models based on multiplicative effects of<br />

each factor as well as an <strong>in</strong>teraction term () were developed to predict lag time and max <strong>in</strong><br />

response to pH and/or aw shifts also tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account pH and aw before each shift. A similar<br />

approach was adopted for the work-to-be done (ho) of cells follow<strong>in</strong>g each shift.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Acidic and osmotic downshifts l<strong>in</strong>early decreased the maximum specific growth rate of L.<br />

monocytogenes. The lag time of the organism <strong>in</strong>creased with all osmotic downshifts, as well as<br />

with the reduction of pH to 5.1. Conversely, any type of shift with<strong>in</strong> pH 5.5-7.2 did not<br />

markedly affect the lag times of L. monocytogenes. Downshifts to pH 5.1 <strong>in</strong>duced 96 and 142 h<br />

of lag to cultures derived from pH 7.2 and 5.3, respectively [3], whereas cultures grown at pH<br />

5.5-6.0 showed no lag time. With regards to the habituation at no-growth conditions, longer<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubation of the cells at aw 0.90, <strong>in</strong>creased their subsequent growth <strong>in</strong>itiation, suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />

adaptation to osmotic stress. Conversely, extended habituation at pH 4.9 reduced subsequent<br />

growth of L. monocytogenes, possibly due to cell <strong>in</strong>jury. These results suggest that there is an<br />

adaptation or <strong>in</strong>jury rate <strong>in</strong>duced at conditions <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g the growth of the pathogen (Fig. 1a).<br />

A dynamic model, describ<strong>in</strong>g the effect of both the magnitude of shifts and the <strong>in</strong>itial pH or aw,<br />

successfully predicted growth of L. monocytogenes <strong>in</strong> milk and cheese dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g (pH<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1829

6.4-5.5 and aw 0.98 to

Effect of contam<strong>in</strong>ation stage and <strong>in</strong>oculum history on the survival and growth of Listeria<br />

monocytogenes <strong>in</strong> semi-hard and hard cheese<br />

Charalambia-Ir<strong>in</strong>i A. Belessi, Sonia Arapaki, Antonia S. Gounadaki and Panagiotis N. Skandamis<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Quality Control and Hygiene, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology,<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. Correspondence: pskan@aua.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Listeria monocytogenes is a food borne pathogen of major concern for the dairy <strong>in</strong>dustry. Dairy<br />

products are commonly ready-to-eat products and the evaluation of their ability to support<br />

growth or survival of this pathogen is crucial for risk assessment. Previous studies have<br />

demonstrated L. monocytogenes behavior <strong>in</strong> soft whey cheese [5], <strong>in</strong> semi-hard [4] and hard<br />

ripened cheese [2], <strong>in</strong> most cases, when contam<strong>in</strong>ation takes place at the f<strong>in</strong>al product.<br />

Nevertheless, contam<strong>in</strong>ation of a product <strong>in</strong> a dairy factory can occur at various stages (i.e.,<br />

storage, production and ripen<strong>in</strong>g) and from different sources (i.e. unpasteurized milk, f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

products, humans, surfaces, <strong>in</strong>sects). All sources provide cells with different physiology and<br />

probably different capacity to overcome the hurdles posed to L. monocytogenes throughout<br />

manufacture and ripen<strong>in</strong>g of dairy products, as well as by their physicochemical properties.<br />

The objective of the present study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e L. monocytogenes survival or <strong>in</strong>activation,<br />

after habituation or biofilm formation at various environments, <strong>in</strong> a semi-hard (Feta) or a hard<br />

(Graviera) cheese, contam<strong>in</strong>ated at different stages of manufacture procedure.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Planktonically grown and detached L. monocytogenes cells were prepared as <strong>in</strong>ocula (twelve <strong>in</strong><br />

total), when seven L. monocytogenes isolates (from cheese, dairy surfaces or humans) were left<br />

to grow separately <strong>in</strong>: TSBYE with 1% glucose (acid adapted) or without glucose<br />

(nonadapted), Maximum Recovery Diluent (MRD), full fat milk, and commercial Feta and<br />

Graviera cheese <strong>in</strong> the presence of sta<strong>in</strong>less steel coupons (2x5cm 2 ) for 3 days at 20°C and then<br />

detached by bead vortex<strong>in</strong>g. The <strong>in</strong>ocula were used separately to <strong>in</strong>oculate (10 2 CFU/g or ml)<br />

pasteurized milk, curd dur<strong>in</strong>g cutt<strong>in</strong>g, Feta and Graviera cheese after ripen<strong>in</strong>g. At all cases full<br />

manufacture was followed, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g and storage at 4 o C.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce cross contam<strong>in</strong>ation with L. monocytogenes can occur at various parts of cheese<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g it is important to <strong>in</strong>vestigate its behavior after contam<strong>in</strong>ation at each part<br />

separately. The three scenarios chosen were of the major critical control po<strong>in</strong>ts of Graviera and<br />

Feta manufactur<strong>in</strong>g procedures [1, 3]. Inoculation after milk pasteurization resulted <strong>in</strong> growth<br />

of all <strong>in</strong>ocula at both cheeses (Fig 1a, b). Most of <strong>in</strong>ocula types rema<strong>in</strong>ed above regulatory<br />

levels (100 cfu/g) dur<strong>in</strong>g 90 days of storage <strong>in</strong> both Graviera and Feta cheeses (Fig 1a, b).<br />

Inoculation dur<strong>in</strong>g curd cutt<strong>in</strong>g resulted <strong>in</strong> a long-term survival on Graviera cheese (possibly<br />

due to the reheat<strong>in</strong>g stage after cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Graviera cheese technology), while <strong>in</strong> Feta cheese, a<br />

significant growth was followed by <strong>in</strong>activation, <strong>in</strong> most cases. Initial growth was not observed<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1831

<strong>in</strong> Graviera cheese due to reheat<strong>in</strong>g of the product. When <strong>in</strong>oculated after ripen<strong>in</strong>g, L.<br />

monocytogenes cells survived throughout storage (82 days) of Graviera cheese at low levels<br />

(

Inoculated pack study of an <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg patty<br />

Michelle Richardson a , Anthony Sikes, Claire Lee, and Sydney Walker<br />

U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research Development & <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Center, Natick, MA, USA<br />

(michelle.j.richardson@us.army.mil)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The number of breakfast items conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g eggs available to military personnel is very limited<br />

and not highly acceptable. This limited variety of breakfast items results <strong>in</strong> noticeable<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> menu monotony, decreased consumption, and reduced nutritional <strong>in</strong>take.<br />

Therefore a need exist to provide military personnel with breakfast components that are<br />

microbiologically stable and highly acceptable. Previous studies show sodium laureate (SL)<br />

EDTA and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) alone and <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with Nis<strong>in</strong> was effective<br />

<strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g the growth of three stra<strong>in</strong>s Staphylococcus aureus <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg<br />

patties. However, when compared to other antimicrobials, Nis<strong>in</strong> is very expensive. Although<br />

sucrose laurate is not as expensive as nis<strong>in</strong>, it is not readily available to commercial producers.<br />

Thus objective of this study was to validate the use of an alternative antimicrobial <strong>in</strong>gredient<br />

that is less expensive than Nis<strong>in</strong> and more readily available than sucrose laurate to <strong>in</strong>hibit the<br />

growth of three stra<strong>in</strong>s of S. aureus <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg (IME) patty.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Dehydrated whole eggs (Henn<strong>in</strong>gsen, Omaha Nebreska); glycerol (KIC, Chemicals, Amonk,<br />

NY); dehydrated egg white (Debel <strong>Food</strong>s Corp., Elizabeth NJ) nis<strong>in</strong> (Nisapl<strong>in</strong>, Danisco USA);<br />

xantham gum (Keltrol F, Kelco, San Diego, CA); sodium acid sulfate (Jones Hamilto Co.,<br />

Walbridge, OH); citric acid, sorbic acid, tartaric acid, and malic acid (Spectrum Chemical<br />

Corp., Gardena, CA); glucono--lactone (Balchem Corp., New Hampton, NY); natural and<br />

artificial butter flavor F004418 (Edlong Flavors, Elk Grove Villlage, IL); and 100cc oxygen<br />

scavengers (Mutlisorb Technolgoies, Buffalo, NY). Bacteria used for <strong>in</strong>oculation were three<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>s of Staphylococcus aureus obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC,<br />

Rockville MD). The stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>cluded ATCC 27154, ATCC 6538 and ATCC 8095. Media and<br />

diluents used <strong>in</strong>cluded tryptic soy agar (TSA, Dif co) supplemented with 0.5 percent yeast<br />

extract, Tryptic soy broth (TSB, Difco); TSB-yeast extract (Difco); 0.1 percent sterile peptone<br />

water (Difco); Butterfield ‘s Phosphate Buffer pH 7.2; and Staphylococcus 110 culture agar,<br />

(DIFCO).<br />

The experimental units consisted of four variables: 20 gram egg patties that were (1) untreated<br />

positive control, with an average water activity (aw) of 0.989 and pH of 7.23; (2) treated<br />

positive control with 3.5% L Sodium Lactate (Purasal S100) with an average aw 0.989 and pH<br />

6.55; (3) untreated <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture control, with an average aw of 0.919 and pH of 5.61;<br />

and (4) treated <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture control with 3.5% Purasal S 100, with an average aw of<br />

0.902 and pH of 5.6. An <strong>in</strong>oculum cocktail of three stra<strong>in</strong>s of S. aureus was delivered across<br />

the surface of the IME patty; the products were packaged <strong>in</strong> tri-lam<strong>in</strong>ated pouches with<br />

oxygen-scaveng<strong>in</strong>g sachets and put <strong>in</strong>to storage for 6 months at 25°C. Microbiological<br />

enumerations were performed at 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42, 56, 84, 105, 133, and 161days of storage<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1833

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

IMF items are appropriate for field feed<strong>in</strong>g because they directly feed a faster, lighter<br />

mobilized military 1 . Previous studies show Sodium Laureate (SL) EDTA and Butylated<br />

Hydroxyanisole (BHA) alone and <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with Nis<strong>in</strong> was effective <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

growth of three stra<strong>in</strong>s s. aureus <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg patties 2 . Indications are that<br />

both the untreated and treated positive control patties supported the growth of s. aureus. There<br />

was more than a three log <strong>in</strong>crease for the control patties after 7 days of storage (25 o C); the S.<br />

aureus population was greater than 10 6 CFU/g throughout the study for both control samples.<br />

The level of S. aureus did not <strong>in</strong>crease dur<strong>in</strong>g storage for the untreated and treated IME patties.<br />

After 14 days the s. aureus population was below the m<strong>in</strong>imum detection level ( 10 6 cfu/g) and the<br />

positive control patties require time/temperature control. The s. aureus growth was limited for<br />

the treated and untreated IME patties throughout the study and time/temperature control is not<br />

needed, i.e., it is considered microbiologically stable. The limited s. aureus growth was not<br />

due to purasal, however, the ability to provide military personnel with breakfast components<br />

that are microbiologically stable and highly acceptable is feasible.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Taoukis, P. S. and Richardson, M. (2008) Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of Intermediate-Moisture <strong>Food</strong>s and Related<br />

Technology, <strong>in</strong> Water Activity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s: Fundamentals and Applications (eds G. V. Barbosa-<br />

Cánovas, A. J. Fontana, S. J. Schmidt and T. P. Labuza), Blackwell Publish<strong>in</strong>g Ltd, Oxford, UK.<br />

doi: 10.1002/9780470376454.ch11<br />

[2]. Richardson, M., Sikes, A. 2008. Development of an <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture egg (IME) us<strong>in</strong>g hurdle<br />

technology. Institute of <strong>Food</strong> Technologists Annual Meet<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

1834

HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> public hospitals: a survey <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece<br />

E. Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis ,b , A. Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki a , G. Kyriakidis b , A. Markaki b , G.A. Fragkiadakis b<br />

a Technological Education Institute (TEI) of Crete, Department of Commerce and Advertis<strong>in</strong>g, Ierapetra,<br />

Crete, Greece (manoskokk<strong>in</strong>akis@yahoo.gr; katr<strong>in</strong>akok@yahoo.gr)<br />

b Technological Education Institute (TEI) of Crete, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Siteia, Crete,<br />

Greece (gregkyriakidis@staff.teicrete.gr ; markaki@staff.teicrete.gr; fragkiadakis@staff.teicrete.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In the island of Crete, Greece, 7 major hospitals offer their services <strong>in</strong> conjunction with a<br />

number of public health centres. Between 2004 and 2009, personnel of the Technological<br />

Education Institute (TEI) of Crete, carried out food safety surveys <strong>in</strong> these hospitals. Our basic<br />

aim was to evaluate the degree of compliance to food safety [1] and to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the<br />

difficulties that exist dur<strong>in</strong>g the HACCP implementation process, <strong>in</strong> hospital mass-cater<strong>in</strong>g<br />

systems. In this paper we summarise our relevant experience concern<strong>in</strong>g the actual problems<br />

we observed on implement<strong>in</strong>g HACCP <strong>in</strong> the hospitals of Crete.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The evaluation process was based <strong>in</strong> personnel <strong>in</strong>terview<strong>in</strong>g; checklist screen<strong>in</strong>g of important<br />

processes: menu design, suppliers evaluation, <strong>in</strong>com<strong>in</strong>g materials control, storage, freez<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

refrigeration, food preparation, food distribution and general HACCP prerequisites application,<br />

e.g. sanitation procedures, water hygiene, pest control, personnel hygiene etc; microbiological<br />

analysis <strong>in</strong> food and water samples. Two of the hospitals we surveyed were follow<strong>in</strong>g HACCP<br />

methodology, two had just started to <strong>in</strong>troduce the system and the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g three were<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g HACCP <strong>in</strong>troduction. The overall results of the above screen<strong>in</strong>g have only been<br />

partially presented [1, 2].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Studies concern<strong>in</strong>g the barriers of HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> hospitals [8], have underl<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />

lack of HACCP prerequisites <strong>in</strong> hospitals; the lack of <strong>in</strong>-house HACCP skills; the high cost;<br />

the long time; the staff turn-over regulations with<strong>in</strong> the hospital; the lack of<br />

management/owner commitment; the poor ownership of externally designed HACCP plans etc.<br />

Some potential problems were detected <strong>in</strong> our survey also and unfortunately actual food-safety<br />

problems did occur <strong>in</strong> these hospitals <strong>in</strong> the same period [3, 4].<br />

Based on our actual f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the 7 hospitals, we present a specific key-elements approach,<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to both implement and successfully operate HACCP systems <strong>in</strong> public hospital masscater<strong>in</strong>g<br />

systems. This approach could potentially be valuable to public health <strong>in</strong>stitutions or<br />

authorities, currently under the process of implement<strong>in</strong>g HACCP or quality management<br />

system, such as ISO 9001:2000. Our proposed approach is based on fourteen key elements<br />

(Table 1). A “managerial effect” was observed to be of great importance for efficient HACCP<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1835

implementation <strong>in</strong> the hospitals. Without active managerial <strong>in</strong>volvement a HACCP system is<br />

almost impossible to operate successfully.<br />

No<br />

Table 1. Crucial elements for HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> hospitals<br />

Description<br />

1. Managerial commitment<br />

2. Availability and enforcement of risk-<strong>in</strong>formed regulations<br />

3. Hospital registered-dieticians, food technologists, and hygienists’ <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />

4. Patients menu’s plann<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the HACCP system<br />

5. Prevention of malnutrition <strong>in</strong> patients<br />

6. Hospitals kitchen and food-management personnel tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

7. Integration of HACCP procedures with other hospital functions<br />

8. Hygiene supervision by central and regional public health authorities<br />

9. External food delivery/<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>in</strong>to the hospital<br />

10. Handl<strong>in</strong>g of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed food<br />

11. Regular <strong>in</strong>spections of kitchenware<br />

12. <strong>Food</strong> storage conditions<br />

13. <strong>Food</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g disposal<br />

14. HACCP-certified suppliers’ availability<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Based on our actual f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs and experiences after a survey <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece, we emphasize<br />

some elements, crucial for implement<strong>in</strong>g and successfully operat<strong>in</strong>g HACCP systems <strong>in</strong><br />

hospitals. The specific requirements of HACCP <strong>in</strong> the hospitals, as well as the benefits that can<br />

offer to patients must be further <strong>in</strong>vestigated and presented to the health professionals <strong>in</strong>volved,<br />

as nutritionists and/or dieticians, food technologists, nurses, biologists etc. Cooperation is<br />

necessary between hospital adm<strong>in</strong>istrators, public-healthy authorities, universities and research<br />

centres, <strong>in</strong> order to advance the quality of the services that the Greek hospitals offer.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis E. & Fragkiadakis G.A. 2007. HACCP Effect on Microbiological Quality of M<strong>in</strong>imally<br />

<strong>Process</strong>ed Vegetables: a Survey <strong>in</strong> Six Mass-Cater<strong>in</strong>g Establishments. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science and Technology, 42(1), 18-23.<br />

[2] <strong>Food</strong> Standards Agency, FSA 2000. Code of Practice No.9: <strong>Food</strong> Hygiene Inspections (Second<br />

Revision, October 2000), London, UK.<br />

[3] “Patris” Newspaper, “ISO certification for Venizeleion Hospital” (<strong>in</strong> Greek), November the 26th<br />

2005, (http://www.patris.gr/articles/74175?PHPSESSID=5djb1h53aukdqsm5koi8ncc8r7).<br />

[4] “Patris” Newspaper, “Innocent for Salmonella <strong>in</strong> PAGNH” (<strong>in</strong> Greek), February the 1 st<br />

2010, (http://www.patris.gr/articles/173570?PHPSESSID=5djb1h53aukdqsm5koi8ncc8r7).<br />

1836

HACCP implementation <strong>in</strong> local food <strong>in</strong>dustry: a survey <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece<br />

E. Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis ,b , A. Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki a , G. Kyriakidis b , A. Markaki b , G.A. Fragkiadakis b<br />

a Technological Education Institute (TEI) of Crete, Department of Commerce and Advertis<strong>in</strong>g, Ierapetra,<br />

Crete, Greece (manoskokk<strong>in</strong>akis@yahoo.gr; katr<strong>in</strong>akok@yahoo.gr)<br />

b Technological Education Institute (TEI) of Crete, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Siteia, Crete,<br />

Greece (gregkyriakidis@staff.teicrete.gr ; markaki@staff.teicrete.gr; fragkiadakis@staff.teicrete.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Small food-process<strong>in</strong>g companies contribute substantially to the production, manufacture and<br />

retail of food <strong>in</strong> the periphery of most countries. For Crete, a lead<strong>in</strong>g dest<strong>in</strong>ation depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

tourism and on the agro-food sector, the high quality/safety and prestige of the food offered <strong>in</strong><br />

the island is crucial, <strong>in</strong> order to preserve the <strong>in</strong>ternational recognition on the brand name<br />

“Crete” and on the “Cretan diet” healthy lifestyle. The aim of our survey/study was to evaluate<br />

the actual changes to the microbiological quality of locally produced/packed food follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

implementation of HACCP systems <strong>in</strong> three different enterprises: a. an ice cream produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

factory, b. a company prepar<strong>in</strong>g pre-packed sandwiches, c. a water bottl<strong>in</strong>g company.<br />

Emphasis was given to the process<strong>in</strong>g steps, transportation, storage and retail<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

We applied ma<strong>in</strong>ly Association of the Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), and <strong>International</strong><br />

Organization for Standardization (ISO) reference-methods, us<strong>in</strong>g the recommended preenrichments<br />

and selective enrichments; <strong>in</strong> addition, other methods as i.e. Petrifilm [1, 2, 3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of our survey show the extent of the positive effects that a Hazard Analysis Critical<br />

Control Po<strong>in</strong>ts (HACCP) system, <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> an ice-cream factory, had on both the<br />

microbiological quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al product as well as on the total quality/hygiene management.<br />

Among others, two ma<strong>in</strong> hygiene problems concern<strong>in</strong>g the presence of the pathogen<br />

Staphylococcus aureus <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product and the contam<strong>in</strong>ation of the ma<strong>in</strong>s-supply water<br />

with Enterococcus faecalis were detected and corrected [1]. Further l<strong>in</strong>kage of the HACCP<br />

system <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the factory to quality management systems, such as ISO 9001:2000, can<br />

be possibly proved to provide higher quality/hygiene standards, along with higher awareness of<br />

the factories customers (i.e. ice cream retailers) [1].<br />

Concern<strong>in</strong>g the sandwiches produc<strong>in</strong>g plant, no special food-safety problem was detected,<br />

possibly due to the establishment of a HACCP system <strong>in</strong> the plant. The majority of the<br />

sandwiches were usually consumed with<strong>in</strong> 1-3 days, however, <strong>in</strong>dicator bacteria values cause<br />

some concerns on possible dangers to human health and prove the necessity of monitor<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

food-storage conditions at the retailer’s level [2]. S<strong>in</strong>ce, due to the modern way of life, the<br />

consumption of “ready to eat” food, as pre-packed sandwiches, <strong>in</strong>creases, and further research<br />

is needed on the logistics and retail<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1837

F<strong>in</strong>ally, concern<strong>in</strong>g the water-bottl<strong>in</strong>g company, the results <strong>in</strong>dicated the need to improve the<br />

HACCP system, <strong>in</strong> order to cont<strong>in</strong>uously monitor the water quality of the supply source <strong>in</strong> the<br />

plant, and to fully implement the correct storage conditions, hygiene procedures, and customer<br />

tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g at supermarkets [3]. The monthly storage <strong>in</strong> the supermarkets did not seem to affect<br />

the microbial safety of the bottled water, s<strong>in</strong>ce all the samples tested were with<strong>in</strong> safety<br />

specifications. The contribution of plant’s HACCP system was valuable <strong>in</strong> terms of<br />

transportation conditions of the bottled water, s<strong>in</strong>ce the microbial quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al products<br />

did not change dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1st month of storage <strong>in</strong> supermarkets. A small <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) levels, dur<strong>in</strong>g the 2nd and 4th month of storage, was with<strong>in</strong><br />

the safety limits with all the tested samples safe for human consumption [3].<br />

Both <strong>in</strong> the case of the ice-cream factory [1], as of course and <strong>in</strong> the water-bottl<strong>in</strong>g plant [3],<br />

the quality of the water source were proved crucial. The responsibility on this water quality<br />

concerns the local self-adm<strong>in</strong>istration, s<strong>in</strong>ce it is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the potable water offered by<br />

self-adm<strong>in</strong>istration companies [1] as well as by environmental parameters that <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

spr<strong>in</strong>g-water quality [3]. In the first case [1] specific technical problems arise, as i.e. whether<br />

the water must be chlor<strong>in</strong>ated and what may be the effect of chloride <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product. In the<br />

second case [3], monitor<strong>in</strong>g of animal husbandry activities and use of agricultural pesticides is<br />

crucial <strong>in</strong> preserv<strong>in</strong>g the environment and the water. The application of good agricultural<br />

practises protocols, as the AGRO 2-1 & 2-2 can reduce microbial hazards for consumers and<br />

furthermore can establish practices <strong>in</strong> compliance to modern European requirements [4].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In all cases studied, HACCP implementation had a positive impact on company function<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

personnel professionalism, and raw-materials quality-standards, while it was effective <strong>in</strong><br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g average microbiological counts dur<strong>in</strong>g food preparation. However, further attention is<br />

required, <strong>in</strong> order to susta<strong>in</strong> and improve the quality perception of the local food-process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the implementation of HACCP, this <strong>in</strong>dustry faces special technical problems<br />

and challenges that require <strong>in</strong>novation and close cooperation with the local tertiary education<br />

and research <strong>in</strong>frastructure. This cooperation, <strong>in</strong> the years of crisis, is a prerequisite not only for<br />

preserv<strong>in</strong>g food-safety but also for develop<strong>in</strong>g future <strong>in</strong>novation applications.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis E.N., Fragkiadakis G.A., Ioakeimidi S.H., Giankoulof I.B. & Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki A.N. 2008.<br />

Microbiological Quality of Ice-Cream before and after HACCP Implementation: A Factory Case<br />

Study. Czech Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 26(5), 383-391.<br />

[2] Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis E.N., Fragkiadakis G.A., Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki A.N. & Lapidakis N.E., 201?, Microbiological<br />

Quality of Pre-Packed Sandwiches at the Retail<strong>in</strong>g Level. Acta Alimentaria (under revision).<br />

[3] Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis E.N., Fragkiadakis G.A. & Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki A.N. 2008, Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Microbiological Quality of<br />

Bottled Water as Suggested by HACCP Methodology. <strong>Food</strong> Control, 19(10), 975-961.<br />

[4] Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis E., Boskou G., Fragkiadakis G.A., Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki A. & Lapidakis N. 2007. Microbiological<br />

Quality of Tomatoes and Peppers Produced under the Good Agricultural Practices Protocol AGRO 2-<br />

1 & 2-2 <strong>in</strong> Crete, Greece. <strong>Food</strong> Control, 18(12), 1538-1546.<br />

1838

A simplified method for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the sour cassava starch expansion property<br />

a a a a b<br />

Maria Janete Angeloni Marcon, Diego Jacob Kurtz, Marcelo Marasch<strong>in</strong>, Valéria Reg<strong>in</strong>atto, Ivo<br />

Mott<strong>in</strong> Demiate, a Edna Reg<strong>in</strong>a Amante*<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Agricultural Sciences Centre, Federal University of Santa<br />

Catar<strong>in</strong>a, Rodovia Admar Gonzaga, 1346, Itacorubi, Florianópolis, Santa Catar<strong>in</strong>a, Brazil, CEP 88034001<br />

Email: eamante@cca.ufsc.br<br />

*Correspondent author<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ponta Grossa Estadual University, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Expansion is a natural characteristic of polvilho azedo, def<strong>in</strong>ed as the growth rate of the dough<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g oven cook<strong>in</strong>g, also referred to as expansion rate [1]. It is directly related to specific<br />

volume, expressed <strong>in</strong> cm 3 .g -1 . Based on results of several other published works [2], <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

advanced techniques for analysis such as ATR-FTIR (Attenuated total reflectance-Fouriertransform<br />

<strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopy), DSC, X-Ray diffraction, and others, this present work<br />

<strong>in</strong>tends to show variables of easy determ<strong>in</strong>ation that could be suggested as an easy analysis to<br />

predict the performance of polvilho azedo.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Every bakery of every bakery <strong>in</strong> the centre of Florianópolis, Brazil, were <strong>in</strong>terviewed. All<br />

samples were characterized for moisture content (method AOAC 921.10) [3]. Acid factor, pH,<br />

expansion rate, swell<strong>in</strong>g power, and specific volume were determ<strong>in</strong>ed for all samples, and<br />

<strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic viscosity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for commercial native cassava starch (five samples) and<br />

commercial polvilho azedo (three samples). Swell<strong>in</strong>g power was evaluated at 90ºC, as<br />

described by, with modifications [4]. The solubility was expressed <strong>in</strong> weight percentage and<br />

the swell<strong>in</strong>g power <strong>in</strong> weight ga<strong>in</strong>. The determ<strong>in</strong>ation of bak<strong>in</strong>g expansion capacity followed<br />

the procedures proposed by the CERAT – Tropical Root Centre [5]. The formulation was<br />

made with 50 g of sample with 40 mL boil<strong>in</strong>g water for the production of the dough [6].<br />

Specific volume of the dough balls after cook<strong>in</strong>g was determ<strong>in</strong>ed through the rape seed<br />

displacement method and calculated as displacement/weight (cm 3 .g -1 ) [7]. The Intr<strong>in</strong>sic<br />

viscosity [8] of the cassava starch samples was measured with a thermostatized viscometer<br />

Schott, AVS 350, CT 52, at constant temperature 30 o C, capillary diameter 0.63 mm; capillary<br />

constant (K) of 0.01511 mm 2 .s -2 .<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 01 shows the value of co-relation coefficients for several parameters of the starch<br />

quality. The results of the samples studied <strong>in</strong> this work show that the commercial polvilho<br />

azedo with more desirable expansion property has pH values between 3.47 and 4.18, and acid<br />

factor values between 3.17 and 4.36. These m<strong>in</strong>imum and maximum values can be useful as<br />

limits to predict the performance of polvilho azedo. The weight of the samples of specimen can<br />

also be related with their expansion because the weight of the cooked product made with a<br />

good polvilho azedo is lower than a polvilho azedo with low expansion performance.<br />

Consider<strong>in</strong>g the method used <strong>in</strong> this work for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of specific volume [7], we can f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1839

a high amount of data, enough to establish a relation between the lost of weight sample of<br />

specimen and the expansion rate. It is possible to predict that a good polvilho azedo must show<br />

weight loss around 40 to 45 % after cook<strong>in</strong>g. This evaluation is <strong>in</strong>dependent of pH or acid<br />

factor determ<strong>in</strong>ation, but it is advantageous <strong>in</strong> comparison to the traditional method used <strong>in</strong><br />

bakeries because it uses only a m<strong>in</strong>imal quantity of sample, oven, and scale and also because it<br />

reduces time of assay.<br />

Table 1. Co-relation coefficient between expansion rate, and acid factor, pH, swell<strong>in</strong>g power, specific<br />

volume and specific viscosity for several samples of polvilho azedo with high and low expansion<br />

performance and native cassava starch.<br />

Sour cassava starch quality parameter Expansion rate(*) co-relation coefficient<br />

r<br />

Swell<strong>in</strong>g power 0.52<br />

Acid factor 0.81<br />

pH 0.92<br />

Intr<strong>in</strong>sic viscosity (**) 0.93<br />

Specific volume 0.97<br />

* Data from samples of native cassava starch (n=6) and sour cassava starch produced <strong>in</strong> laboratory (20) and<br />

commercial trade marks (17). **Native cassava starch (n=6); commercial sour cassava starch (n=3).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Among several quality variables such as <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic viscosity, swell<strong>in</strong>g power, specific volume,<br />

pH, and acid factor, only the last two could contribute to predict performance of polvilho azedo<br />

for products obta<strong>in</strong>ed through the traditional process, which takes long time for fermentation.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>clusion of the percentage of weight loss dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g can be a good variable, along<br />

with pH and acid factor, to establish a prediction of the expansion performance of polvilho<br />

azedo.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Mestres, C., Boungou, O., Akissoe & N., Zakhia, N. 2000. Comparison of the expansion ability of<br />

fermented maize flour and cassava starch dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of Science <strong>Food</strong> Agriculture 80, 665 –<br />

672.<br />

[2] Marcon, M.J.A., Kurtz D.J., Raguzzoni, J.C., Delgadillo, I., Marasch<strong>in</strong>, M., Soldi, V., Reg<strong>in</strong>atto, V. &<br />

Amante, E. R. 2009. Expansion Properties of Sour Cassava Starch (Polvilho Azedo): Variables Related to<br />

its Practical Application <strong>in</strong> Bakery. Stärke/Starch 61, 716 – 726.<br />

[3] Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). Official Methods of Analysis. 16 ed. Gaithersburg;<br />

1999.<br />

[4] Leach, H.W., McCowen, L.D. & Schoch, T.J. 1959. Structure of the starch granule. I. Swell<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

solubility patterns of various starches. Cereal Chemistry 36, 534 – 544.<br />

[5] Maeda, K.C. & Cereda, M.P. 2001.Avaliação de duas metodologias de expansão ao forno do polvilho azedo.<br />

Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 21, 139 – 143.<br />

[6] Pereira, J., Ciacco, C.F., Vilela, E.R. & Texeira, L.S. 1999. Féculas fermentadas na fabricação de biscoitos:<br />

estudo de fontes alternativas. Ciência e Tecnologia de. Alimentos 19, 287 – 293.<br />

[7] Cereda, M.P. 1983. Avaliação da qualidade de duas amostras de fécula fermentada de mandioca (polvilho<br />

azedo). Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 17, 305 – 320.<br />

[8] Leach, H.W. 1963. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic viscosity of starches. Cereal Chemistry 40, 593 – 600.<br />

1840

Influence of room temperature on food safety <strong>in</strong> refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et<br />

Laguerre O. a , Hoang M. a , Alvarez G. a , Flick D. b<br />

a Refrigeration <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Cemagref, 92160 Antony, France<br />

(onrawee.laguerre@cemagref.fr;hong-m<strong>in</strong>h.hoang@cemagref.fr; graciela.alvarez@cemagref.fr)<br />

b AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France (denis.flick@agroparistech.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A survey carried out by our team [1] showed that 30% of products presented <strong>in</strong> refrigerated<br />

display cab<strong>in</strong>et were subjected to temperature abuse (more than 2°C higher than recommended<br />

preservation temperature). Willocx et al [2] carried out a survey on processed vegetables <strong>in</strong><br />

Belgian retail display cab<strong>in</strong>ets. This study also showed that retail display cab<strong>in</strong>ets are a critical<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong>. Evans et al [3] observed that <strong>in</strong> open front display cab<strong>in</strong>et, the majority<br />

of high temperature packs (97%) were located at the front and the largest number (60%) of<br />

them was at the front base.<br />

This work was carried out to; firstly, experimentally study the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the room<br />

temperature on the product temperature <strong>in</strong> an open refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et. Then, these<br />

product temperatures were used <strong>in</strong> a predictive microbiological model to estimate the growth<br />

of Listeria monocytogenes.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Figure 1 shows the side view of the display cab<strong>in</strong>et used <strong>in</strong> our study which was equipped with<br />

one air curta<strong>in</strong> and 5 shelves. It was loaded with packages of test product made of<br />

methylcellulose. Some packages were <strong>in</strong>strumented by calibrated thermocouples (T-type).<br />

The display cab<strong>in</strong>et was located <strong>in</strong> a test room <strong>in</strong> which the room temperature was controlled at<br />

20, 25 and 30°C. The temperature of air and test packages was measured every m<strong>in</strong>ute until the<br />

steady state was reached.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The average temperature was calculated over 3h of the steady state period and reported <strong>in</strong><br />

figure1. The rise of room temperature leads to <strong>in</strong>crease the air and the load temperatures<br />

particularly at the front of the display cab<strong>in</strong>et.<br />

A simple predictive model was used assum<strong>in</strong>g a first order growth rate. The growth of Listeria<br />

monocytogenes was estimated at various product temperatures after 4 days storage (Table 1).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Higher room temperature leads to higher air and product temperatures particularly the one<br />

located at the front. This can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the external air <strong>in</strong>filtration and the heat loss from<br />

the display cab<strong>in</strong>et. The product temperature was used <strong>in</strong> a predictive microbiological model to<br />

estimate the Listeria monocytogenes growth. This approach can be used as a tool of risk<br />

evaluation.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1841

a-T room = 20°C b-T room = 25°C c-T room = 30°C<br />

Figure 1. Product and air temperatures <strong>in</strong> the studied display cab<strong>in</strong>et.<br />

bold and italic=air temperature, underl<strong>in</strong>ed= surface temperature of package, not underl<strong>in</strong>ed = centre<br />

temperature of package<br />

Table 1. Influence of product temperature on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes after 4 days storage.<br />

Temperature Log[N(t)/N0)] 1.3°C (lowest observed product temperature) 0.13<br />

4.0°C (maximal recommended storage temperature) 1.2<br />

7.0°C 3.8<br />

9.9°C (highest observed product temperature) 7.4<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Cemagref & ANIA 2004. La cha<strong>in</strong>e du froid du fabricant au consommateur: résultats de l'audit<br />

ANIA/Cemagref. Revue Générale du Froid, 1042, 29-36.<br />

[2] Willocx, F., Hendrick, M., Tobback, P., 1994. A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary survey <strong>in</strong>to the temperature conditions<br />

and residence time distribution of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed MAP vegetables <strong>in</strong> Belgian retail display<br />

cab<strong>in</strong>ets. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Refrigeration, 17(7), 436-444.<br />

[3] Evans, J.A., Scarcelli S. & Swa<strong>in</strong> M.V.L. 2007. Temperature and energy performance of refrigerated<br />

retail display and commercial cater<strong>in</strong>g cab<strong>in</strong>ets under test conditions. <strong>International</strong> Journal of<br />

Refrigeration, 30, 398-408.<br />

1842

Antemortem and postmortem biochemistry, drip loss and lipid oxidation of European sea<br />

bass muscle tissue<br />

Nathanailides Cosmas, Panopoulos Soctrates., Kakali Fot<strong>in</strong>i, Karipoglou Costas, Lenas Dimitrios<br />

Dept Aquaculture & Fisheries, TEI of Epirus, Igoumenitsa, Greece,(cosmasfax@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Slaughter<strong>in</strong>g methods of farmed fish can <strong>in</strong>fluence swimm<strong>in</strong>g activity and stress levels with<br />

consequences for the flesh quality properties of fish fillets. For example, muscle metabolic<br />

activity prior to death can affect the concentration of oxygen, ATP and the pH of muscle.<br />

Handl<strong>in</strong>g stress of fish prior to harvest<strong>in</strong>g is characterized by <strong>in</strong>creased swimm<strong>in</strong>g activity<br />

which leads to anaerobic metabolism while energy stores are depleted and white muscle pH<br />

drops lead<strong>in</strong>g to acceleration of autolytic reactions after death with consequences for the<br />

organoleptic parameters of fish fillets and the fillet<strong>in</strong>g yield of farmed fish[1]. In addition to the<br />

food quality aspects of the slaughter<strong>in</strong>g method, the potential suffer<strong>in</strong>g of fish be<strong>in</strong>g handled<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g common aquaculture procedures or dur<strong>in</strong>g slaughter<strong>in</strong>g prompted scientific research <strong>in</strong><br />

the welfare of farmed fish dur<strong>in</strong>g harvest<strong>in</strong>g [5]. The purpose of this work was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate<br />

the effect of hand<strong>in</strong>g stress on post- mortem muscle pH and rigor mortis of sea bass.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

European sea bass were harvested us<strong>in</strong>g two different levels of handl<strong>in</strong>g stress. In one tank<br />

(High handl<strong>in</strong>g stress group, HHSG) the water was lowered and the fish were captured us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

net and the fish were killed by immersion <strong>in</strong> and ice cold bath (4 part ice: 1 part sea water). In<br />

the other tank (Lower handl<strong>in</strong>g stress group, LHSG) the level of water was lowered and fish<br />

were anaesthetized moderately by immersion <strong>in</strong> a 30mg l -1 clove oil bath for 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Subsequently the fish were slaughtered by immersion <strong>in</strong> ice cold sea water (4 part ice:1part sea<br />

water). After 30 m<strong>in</strong>, the fish were stored with the ventral side upwards <strong>in</strong> ice. After 30 m<strong>in</strong>,<br />

the fish were stored with the ventral side upwards <strong>in</strong> ice. Body temperature of the fish was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals us<strong>in</strong>g a temperature probe. Muscle pH was monitored shortly<br />

after death and after ice storage. Drip loss, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances<br />

(TBARS) were measured <strong>in</strong> ice stored fillets.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The different methods of slaughter<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> the present work varied <strong>in</strong> terms of the<br />

anticipated level and duration of stress. The fish of the HHSG exhibited significantly longer<br />

period of escape swimm<strong>in</strong>g activity dur<strong>in</strong>g the immersion <strong>in</strong> an ice cold bath. Moderate<br />

anaesthetised fish (LHSG) exhibited m<strong>in</strong>imal and short duration swimm<strong>in</strong>g activity dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

immersion <strong>in</strong> the ice slurry. The levels of lactate present <strong>in</strong> the muscle tissue of the two groups<br />

varied accord<strong>in</strong>g to the kill<strong>in</strong>g method, the lactate levels of the HHSG fish were higher<br />

(11.64±1.08moles g-1) than the LHSG fish (9.6±1.1moles g-1). This difference <strong>in</strong> lactate<br />

levels <strong>in</strong>dicates a higher level of slaughter<strong>in</strong>g stress <strong>in</strong> the HHSG. Under handl<strong>in</strong>g stress, fish<br />

exhibit an escape swimm<strong>in</strong>g behaviour, which utilises the anaerobic metabolic pathways of the<br />

fast white skeletal muscle.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1843

Table 1. Fillet pH drip loss and levels of Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) after 12 days<br />

ice storage of sea bass. LHSG: Clove oil treated fish; HHSG: High handl<strong>in</strong>g stress group. n=10 per<br />

group, Average values (+/- s.d.).<br />

LHSG(Clove oil treated fish) HHSG (Control) ANOVA<br />

pH 6.59 (0.06) 6.58 (0.08) NS,(P=0.7)<br />

Fillet Drip loss (%) 4.77 (0.48) 5.39 (0.52) P=0.006<br />

TBARS<br />

(g MDA mg –1 )<br />

1.04 (0.07) 1.16 (0.02) *<br />

P=0,001)<br />

The results <strong>in</strong>dicate that the <strong>in</strong>tensity of handl<strong>in</strong>g stress dur<strong>in</strong>g slaughter<strong>in</strong>g of sea bass can<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence the development of biochemical changes and the onset of rigor mortis. Our results<br />

support the hypothesis that <strong>in</strong>creased levels of handl<strong>in</strong>g stress can lead to <strong>in</strong>creased lipid<br />

oxidation <strong>in</strong> the fillets of the harvested fish [2]. The handl<strong>in</strong>g stress prior to slaughter<strong>in</strong>g results<br />

<strong>in</strong> rapid ATP depletion and reduced nucleotides such as NAD+ and NADP+ which are<br />

<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the regeneration of various pro-oxidant substances [3] may have contributed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

difference of lipid oxidation between the stressed group (HHSG) and the clove oil treated fish.<br />

Lipid oxidation of fish fillets is highly undesirable with negative consequences for the<br />

organoleptic and the nutritional parameters of the fillets. The clove oil treated fish exhibited<br />

lower rate of lipid oxidation and drip loss dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. In agreement with previously works,<br />

on sea bass and sea bream [1] the result <strong>in</strong>dicate that a reduction of slaughter<strong>in</strong>g stress can<br />

reduce the suffer<strong>in</strong>g of farmed fish dur<strong>in</strong>g harvest<strong>in</strong>g and also improve the quality of the fillets<br />

[4,5] dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, with benefits for both the animals and the consumers.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Our results <strong>in</strong>dicate the significance of slaughter<strong>in</strong>g procedure for both the food quality aspects<br />

and the welfare of the harvested farmed fish. In the commonly used ice-slurry slaughter<strong>in</strong>g<br />

method, the death of the un-anaesthetized fish of the HHSG appeared to progress much slower<br />

than the clove oil treated fish. This long agony of the HHSG appears to be a less humane<br />

kill<strong>in</strong>g method with consequences for the meat quality of the harvested fish.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Bagni M., Civitareale C., Priori A., Baller<strong>in</strong>i A., F<strong>in</strong>oia M., Brambilla G., Mar<strong>in</strong>o G. 2007. Preslaughter<br />

crowd<strong>in</strong>g stress and kill<strong>in</strong>g procedures affect<strong>in</strong>g quality and welfare <strong>in</strong> sea bass<br />

(Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture 263, 52–60.<br />

[2] Giuffrida A., Pennisi L., Zi<strong>in</strong>o G., Fort<strong>in</strong>o L., Valvo G., Mar<strong>in</strong>o S., Panebianco A. 2007. Influence of<br />

slaughter<strong>in</strong>g method on some aspects of quality of gilthead seabream and smoked ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout.<br />

Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Research Communications, 31(4), 437-446.<br />

[3] Hult<strong>in</strong> H.O., 1992. Biochemical deterioration of fish muscle. In: Huss, H.H. Jakobsen M. and Liston,<br />

J. (eds.), Quality Assurance <strong>in</strong> the Fish Industry (Elsevier, Amsterdam), 125–138.<br />

[4] Ribas L., Flos R., Reig L., MacKenzie S., Barton B.A., Tort L., 2007. Comparison of methods for<br />

anaesthetiz<strong>in</strong>g Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis) before slaughter: stress responses and nal product<br />

quality. Aquaculture 269, 250–258<br />

[5] Sigholt T., Erikson U., Rustad T., Johansen S., Nordtvedt T., Seland A., 1997. Handl<strong>in</strong>g stress and<br />

the temperature affect meat quality of farmed-raised Atlantic salmon Journal <strong>Food</strong> Science 62, 868–<br />

872.<br />

1844

Impact of <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g and subsequent storage conditions on the safety and keep<strong>in</strong>g<br />

quality of sard<strong>in</strong>es<br />

K. Chatzikyriakidou a,b and E. Katsanidis a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotle University of<br />

Thessaloniki, Box 235, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece. (e-mail: ekatsani@agro.auth.gr)<br />

b Current affiliation: Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of<br />

Wiscons<strong>in</strong>, Madison, WI, USA. (e-mail: hatzikyriakidouk@yahoo.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Sard<strong>in</strong>e (Sard<strong>in</strong>a pilchardus) is a highly perishable food commodity with a very short shelflife.<br />

Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g histam<strong>in</strong>e, putresc<strong>in</strong>e and cadaver<strong>in</strong>e) are formed due to<br />

microbial activity <strong>in</strong> fish tissue and they can cause adverse health effects for the consumers.<br />

Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) and oxidation levels (as measured by the TBA test) are<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicators of the safety and quality of the fish. It is hypothesized that vary<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

conditions, which may not cause immediately detectable changes, can have a very significant<br />

impact on the safety and quality of fish dur<strong>in</strong>g subsequent storage.<br />

The objective was to study and model the impact of the <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g conditions (dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

first 24 hrs) on the safety and quality of sard<strong>in</strong>es subsequently stored at different temperatures.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Freshly caught sard<strong>in</strong>es were <strong>in</strong>itially stored at 0, 5 and 10 °C for 24 hrs <strong>in</strong> high precision (±0.2<br />

°C) low temperature <strong>in</strong>cubators. Then, they were vacuum-packaged and stored at either 4 or 8<br />

°C for 12 and 5 d, respectively. The pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN, official EU<br />

method 95/149/U), oxidation levels (us<strong>in</strong>g the TBA test [1]) and the concentration of<br />

putresc<strong>in</strong>e, cadaver<strong>in</strong>e and histam<strong>in</strong>e (us<strong>in</strong>g HPLC analysis [2]) <strong>in</strong> the fish tissue were<br />

measured throughout the storage period. Specific reaction rates for fish exposed to different<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial conditions were calculated where appropriate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

No significant differences were observed <strong>in</strong> the pH and TBA values of sard<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>itially stored<br />

at 0, 5 and 10 °C. A small <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> pH dur<strong>in</strong>g storage can be attributed to proteolysis and<br />

decarboxylation reactions. The TBA values for samples <strong>in</strong>itially stored at 5 and 10 °C reached<br />

their maximum value sooner than the samples ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at 0 °C. The TVBN <strong>in</strong>creased over<br />

time and samples <strong>in</strong>itially stored at higher temperatures exhibited a faster development of<br />

TVBN, for both storage temperatures (Table 1). Significant differences <strong>in</strong> the concentrations of<br />

biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the fish tissue were observed throughout storage at 4 and 8 °C, with the 8<br />

°C samples reach<strong>in</strong>g higher levels of biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es (Table 1). Samples exposed to lower<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial temperatures exhibited a slower rate of biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es production dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1845

oth temperatures. The rates of putresc<strong>in</strong>e, cadaver<strong>in</strong>e and histam<strong>in</strong>e formation were calculated<br />

for the different <strong>in</strong>itial and subsequent storage temperature conditions.<br />

Table 1. Effect of <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g conditions on the TVBN and histam<strong>in</strong>e levels of sard<strong>in</strong>es stored at 4<br />

and 8 °C *<br />

Stored at 4 °C Stored at 8 °C<br />

Initial<br />

conditions<br />

TVBN (%mg) Histam<strong>in</strong>e (ppm) TVBN (%mg) Histam<strong>in</strong>e (ppm)<br />

0 °C 29.7 a 21.0 a 20.3 a 7.1 a<br />

5 °C 39.6 b 130.5 b 27.8 b 125.2 b<br />

10 °C 41.9 c 150.6 b 33.3 c 208.8 c<br />

* Values are least square means for the duration of the storage period (12d at 4 °C and 5d at 8 °C).<br />

a,b,c Different superscripts <strong>in</strong> the same column denote statistically significant differences.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>itial handl<strong>in</strong>g temperature (dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 24 hrs after the fish are caught) is a<br />

determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factor for the safety and quality of sard<strong>in</strong>e. Regardless of the subsequent storage<br />

temperatures, the biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es formation is accelerated significantly if the sard<strong>in</strong>es are<br />

<strong>in</strong>itially exposed to elevated temperatures (5 or 10 °C). A small temperature abuse dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

distribution cha<strong>in</strong> may not be immediately detected, but it can affect the safety and keep<strong>in</strong>g<br />

quality of fish.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Salih, A.M., Smith, D.M., Price, J.F. and Dawson, L.E. 1987. Modified extraction 2-thiobarbituric<br />

acid method for measur<strong>in</strong>g lipid oxidation <strong>in</strong> poultry. Poultry Sci. 66:1483-1488.<br />

[2] Malle P. & Vallé M. 1996. Assay of biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> fish decomposition. Journal of<br />

AOAC <strong>International</strong>, 79(1): 43-49.<br />

1846

Survival of Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g, thaw<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g of ground beef patties, simulat<strong>in</strong>g common household practises<br />

Stavros G. Manios a , Thomas Giovanis a , Argiro Lalechou a , Panagiotis N. Skandamis a<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> QualityControl and Hygiene, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology,<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55, Athens, Greece. (pskan@aua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ground beef patties constitute conventional Ready-To-Cook meat products, ranked among the<br />

top most frequently consumed meat products worldwide. These products may be prepared <strong>in</strong>house<br />

from ground beef or may also be found available <strong>in</strong> the form of pre-shaped frozen<br />

patties, which is highly convenient for Quick Service Restaurants. In the recent years, ground<br />

beef has been l<strong>in</strong>ked with several outbreaks of foodborne diseases caused by Salmonella or<br />

Escherichia coli O157:H7. Therefore, <strong>Food</strong> Safety authorities have issued general guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />

for the proper handl<strong>in</strong>g of ground beef <strong>in</strong> households or cater<strong>in</strong>g services. Through these<br />

guidel<strong>in</strong>es it is recommended that ground beef should be stored <strong>in</strong> refrigerators for 1-2 days or<br />

<strong>in</strong> freezer up to 4 months, thawed <strong>in</strong> refrigerator or <strong>in</strong> microwave and cooked until the <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />

temperature of patties reaches 71 o C. However, the storage and cook<strong>in</strong>g practices be<strong>in</strong>g applied<br />

by the consumers, either <strong>in</strong> households or <strong>in</strong> cater<strong>in</strong>g services and restaurants, are generally<br />

based on personal preferences and convenience for handl<strong>in</strong>g and consum<strong>in</strong>g foods, rather than<br />

on the exist<strong>in</strong>g recommendations. Any deviation from the suggested guidel<strong>in</strong>es may likely<br />

compromise the safety of ground beef and <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of foodborne diseases. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to the above, we aimed to evaluate the effect of frozen storage, thaw<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g method of<br />

beef patties on the survival of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7, simulat<strong>in</strong>g common consumerstyle<br />

practices.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Portions (400 g) of ground beef were <strong>in</strong>oculated (~6.5 log CFU/g) with a five-stra<strong>in</strong> composite<br />

of Salmonella or a three-stra<strong>in</strong> composite of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and stored at -22 o C.<br />

After 5 and 75 days of frozen storage, thaw<strong>in</strong>g took place as follows: (i) <strong>in</strong> refrigerator at 4 o C<br />

for 16 hours; (ii) at 20 o C for 12 hours, simulat<strong>in</strong>g thaw<strong>in</strong>g on counter, or; (iii) <strong>in</strong> microwave for<br />

22-24 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Follow<strong>in</strong>g thaw<strong>in</strong>g, 90 g beef patties were shaped and cooked by broil<strong>in</strong>g or <strong>in</strong><br />

pan-grill up to two levels of <strong>in</strong>ternal temperature: 60 o C, simulat<strong>in</strong>g undercook<strong>in</strong>g or 71 o C<br />

(recommended cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature). In addition, the survival of the two pathogens after direct<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g of frozen patties was studied, simulat<strong>in</strong>g commercial cook<strong>in</strong>g practices <strong>in</strong> cater<strong>in</strong>g<br />

services and restaurants. The temperature of the samples dur<strong>in</strong>g thaw<strong>in</strong>g or cook<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

measured with type-K thermocouples, which were fitted <strong>in</strong> the geometrical center of the<br />

patties. Changes <strong>in</strong> the microbial populations that survived after cook<strong>in</strong>g of patties were<br />

monitored on TSA (total viable counts), CT-SMAC (E. coli O157:H7) or XLD (Salmonella).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1847

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The populations of the pathogens exhibited slight reduction (0.5 – 0.7 log CFU/g) dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

frozen storage for 5 or 75 days. This may occurred due to the mechanical <strong>in</strong>jury of the cells<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g. The time-temperature profile dur<strong>in</strong>g thaw<strong>in</strong>g of ground beef overnight (12<br />

hours) at 20 o C showed that the samples ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the “danger zone” (5-60 o C) for over 7<br />

hours. This extended exposure to ambient conditions resulted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease of 1 log CFU/g of<br />

both pathogens. Cook<strong>in</strong>g by broil<strong>in</strong>g was more effective for elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g 6.5 logs of both<br />

microorganisms compared to cook<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pan-grill, especially when the target <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />

temperature was 71 o C. This may have occurred due to the slower heat transfer rate and the<br />

longer exposure of the patties to heat dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> broiler compared to pan-grill (Figure<br />

1). Undercook<strong>in</strong>g (60 o C) resulted only <strong>in</strong> 0.6 – 2.8 log CFU/g and 0.6 – 1.8 log CFU/g<br />

decrease of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 populations, respectively, regardless of the<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g method. Defrost<strong>in</strong>g methods did not affect significantly (p

European <strong>Food</strong>, Technology and Nutrition Declaration (EFTN Declaration)<br />

Peter Raspor a , Lidija Baša a<br />

a Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and <strong>Food</strong> Safety, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana,<br />

Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (peter.raspor@bf.uni-lj.si)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

History of human development illustrates clear image of impotence of food <strong>in</strong> our life. <strong>Food</strong><br />

has played important part <strong>in</strong> religion, is science, <strong>in</strong> technology, <strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e; not very pleasant<br />

to hear but also <strong>in</strong> wars, <strong>in</strong> class dist<strong>in</strong>ction and relations between people. In everyday’s life we<br />

have a “dialogue” with food (we have to eat, we have to buy food, we have to produce food,<br />

ect). This “dialogue” has its benefits and its negative sides, that might be shown through<br />

malnutrition on one side and overnutrition on other side, stable economy on one side and<br />

unstable economy on other side, ect. There is always <strong>in</strong>volved this balance catch<strong>in</strong>g issue.<br />

From this po<strong>in</strong>t of view, the scientists and experts from field of food area <strong>in</strong>itiated the EFTN<br />

Declaration. EFTN Declaration’s aim is po<strong>in</strong>ted at collaborative work among scientists and<br />

experts who are deal<strong>in</strong>g with challeng<strong>in</strong>g questions about food and nutrition <strong>in</strong> the Europe,<br />

tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account cooperative activities with the rest of the world. The <strong>in</strong>auguration event of<br />

sign<strong>in</strong>g ceremony was held on 7 November, 2008 <strong>in</strong> City Hall <strong>in</strong> Ljubljana, Slovenia.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

In this contribution we will avoid strict term materials & method s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>terted parties<br />

contributed to the document development <strong>in</strong> written process. This was based on concept to<br />

improve situation locally and globally. This was actually based on philosophy. The declaration<br />

is not a paper of results where data would be ga<strong>in</strong>ed by quantitative or qualitative method. It is<br />

just a paper deal<strong>in</strong>g with the broad area of food queries. EFTN Declaration`s ma<strong>in</strong> conceptplatform-philosophy<br />

is to br<strong>in</strong>g together scientists, experts, those European professionals <strong>in</strong><br />

food science, technology and nutrition who are daily challenged by food deal<strong>in</strong>g questions.<br />

And what is the argument of this action? To found out the answer, its deepness and importance<br />

please read the follow<strong>in</strong>g quotation from the declaration:<br />

“<strong>Food</strong> is necessary for human growth, development and the functions of the body. Good<br />

nutrition demands a well-balanced diet that provides an adequate daily amount of all nutrient<br />

classes and optimal <strong>in</strong>take of energy for the human body. <strong>Food</strong> must be safe, nutritious and<br />

provided <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able way that ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s consumer’s dignity and cultural identity (EFTN<br />

Declaration, 2008).”<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The first idea of the declaration raised <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g 2007. In the same year, 2007, <strong>in</strong> December<br />

first call for Ambassadors was realised. To this action followed nom<strong>in</strong>ation of Ambassadors<br />

(January 2008). First draft of declaration was prepared <strong>in</strong> June, 2008 and already <strong>in</strong> November<br />

2008 the declaration was signed for the first time by Ambassadors from 41 different countries.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1849

Until now the declaration has been signed by EFTN Declaration`s Ambassadors from 43<br />

different countries (Albania, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegov<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, F<strong>in</strong>land, France, Georgia,<br />

Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,<br />

Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania,<br />

Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spa<strong>in</strong>, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e, United<br />

K<strong>in</strong>gdom) and translated <strong>in</strong>to 26 languages (Albanian, Armenian, Bosnian, Bulgarian,<br />

Croatian, Dutch, English, Estonian, French, Georgian, German, Greek, Hungarian, Icelandic,<br />

Italian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Moldovan, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian,<br />

Spanish, Turkish, Ukra<strong>in</strong>ian). From the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of 2010 the EFTN Declaration is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

presented to the world through its website (http://eftndeclaration.aaeuropae.org).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

For the conclusion let’s return to another quotation from the EFTN Declaration. This quotation<br />

is about the cohesion of European food science, technology and nutrition.<br />

“This declaration aims to <strong>in</strong>itiate debate amongst European food scientists, food technologists<br />

and nutrition professionals to establish mechanisms through which, hopefully, future<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegration can be achieved. A second objective is to assist the harmonisation of the European<br />

food <strong>in</strong>dustry and food quality and safety standards. All of these <strong>in</strong>itiatives can help to promote<br />

the expand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence that the food science, technology and nutrition professions should<br />

have on technological, scientific, political, environmental, social and cultural thought <strong>in</strong><br />

Europe. Of course, this must be done without harm<strong>in</strong>g nutrition and regional specificities of<br />

food and diets <strong>in</strong> Europe s<strong>in</strong>ce it is this diversity, which will generate future discoveries and<br />

<strong>in</strong>novations (EFTN Declaration, 2008)”<br />

There are different issues on food technology and nutrition. This is a permanent evolution and<br />

novelties are com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>. This process will cont<strong>in</strong>ue side by side with <strong>in</strong>cremental development<br />

<strong>in</strong> technology and habits. The consumer will stay <strong>in</strong> focus of food quality and food safety. But<br />

it should be also <strong>in</strong> focus for food security. Unfortunately food reserves are go<strong>in</strong>g down and<br />

prices are ris<strong>in</strong>g. In spite of this or better because of this issue the technology has many<br />

possibilities; nutrition has many opportunities and general food sciences many challenges to<br />

solve all this elements. This is real challenge to have better tomorrow with safe and wholesome<br />

foods, but it will not help if we will not educate and tra<strong>in</strong> conscious consumer.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] European <strong>Food</strong> Technology and Nutrition Declaration (EFTN Declaration).<br />

http://eftndeclaration.aaeuropae.org, .<br />

[2] Raspor, Peter. 2009. The European declaration on food, technology and nutrition: editorial. Acta<br />

aliment. (Bp.), 1(38), 3-7.<br />

1850

Optimization of shelf life distribution of frozen fish products based on modell<strong>in</strong>g and TTI<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />

M. N. Giannoglou a , M. Loukianou, K. Tsatsaragou, T. Tsironi and P.S. Taoukis<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> and Chemistry, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical University of<br />

Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechniou Str, 15780, Athens, Greece (giannoglou@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of storage temperature, the ma<strong>in</strong> shelf life determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g post-process<strong>in</strong>g parameter<br />

of foods, constitutes an essential prerequisite for effective shelf life management. Application<br />

of an optimized quality and safety assurance system for the distribution of frozen products<br />

requires cont<strong>in</strong>uous monitor<strong>in</strong>g and control of storage conditions. Time-Temperature<br />

Integrators (TTI) are <strong>in</strong>expensive, active “smart labels” that can show an easily measurable,<br />

time-temperature dependent change that reflects the temperature history of a food product to<br />

which it is attached.<br />

The objectives of this study were the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the response function of two types of<br />

UV activated photochemical and one type of enzymatic TTI labels, the development and<br />

validation of k<strong>in</strong>etic models for the quality <strong>in</strong>dices deterioration of the frozen fish products and<br />

the evaluation of the applicability of a TTI based system to improve frozen fish product<br />

quality.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Frozen shrimps and frozen sea-bream fillets were packed and stored at controlled isothermal<br />

conditions from -15 to-5C. Samples were taken <strong>in</strong> appropriate time <strong>in</strong>tervals for efficient<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etic analysis of quality parameters (total viable count, pH, color, texture, lipid oxidation<br />

(TBARS), total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), trimethylam<strong>in</strong>e nitrogen (TMA-N) and<br />

sensory characteristics [1, 2, 3].<br />

The OnVu-Logistics and the F4 photochemical prototype TTI labels(BASF, Germany) were<br />

studied. Biserba GLP80 labell<strong>in</strong>g unit (Biserba GmbH & Co. KG, Bal<strong>in</strong>gen, Germany), with<br />

2” th<strong>in</strong>-layer thermal pr<strong>in</strong>t head and TTF equipment was used for UV charg<strong>in</strong>g of the Logistics<br />

for 0.2-0.8 s and 3-10 s for F4 TTI labels and subsequent lam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g with a film (TTR 70QC)<br />

which acts as an optical filter and protects TTI from light exposure and recharg<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

M-type enzymatic TTIs (VITSAB,Sweden) with different enzyme concentrations rang<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

10 to 200 Units were studied.<br />

For monitor<strong>in</strong>g the colour change of a number of TTI tags, isothermally stored at constant<br />

temperatures (from -15 to -5C), at appropriate time <strong>in</strong>tervals, a colour measur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strument<br />

(X-Rite, Michigan, USA) was used display<strong>in</strong>g L, a and b values of the CIELab scale.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

For monitor<strong>in</strong>g the shelf lives of frozen shrimps and frozen sea-bream fillets, selected quality<br />

<strong>in</strong>dices (colour, texture, oxidative rancidity, TVBN and TMA analysis, aerobic plate count, pH<br />

and sensory evaluation) were k<strong>in</strong>etically modelled and the temperature dependence of the<br />

quality loss rates was modelled by the Arrhenius equation.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1851

For the selection of the appropriate photochemical and enzymatic TTI for monitor<strong>in</strong>g the shelf<br />

lives of the studied frozen fish products, TTI labels response was k<strong>in</strong>etically studied. For the<br />

modell<strong>in</strong>g of the response rate constant of the two photochemical TTIs as a function of degree<br />

of <strong>in</strong>itial activation and storage temperature, composite mathematical equations were<br />

developed. A mathematical model which describes the effect of the concentration of the<br />

substrate and the storage temperature on the response of the enzymatic TTIs was also<br />

developed. Apply<strong>in</strong>g the developed models, the required charg<strong>in</strong>g levels for the photochemical<br />

TTIs and the required substrate concentrations for the enzymatic TTI labels, to effectively<br />

monitor the shelf life of the frozen fish products, were estimated.<br />

Figure 1 shows the correlation between the shelf life of the frozen sea bream fillets and frozen<br />

shrimps with the response times of two M-type TTI labels. M-17U and M-35U enzymatic TTI<br />

labels response times are well correlated with the shelf lives of the frozen sea-bream fillets and<br />

frozen shrimps, respectivelly.<br />

Shelf Lif e (days)<br />

50 0<br />

40 0<br />

30 0<br />

20 0<br />

10 0<br />

0<br />

-20 -15 -10 -5 0<br />

T (oC)<br />

Validation experiments measur<strong>in</strong>g the response of the selected TTIs dur<strong>in</strong>g a period of 12<br />

months at various frozen temperatures are <strong>in</strong> progress.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

M-1 7U<br />

M-3 5U<br />

Sea-br eam<br />

shelf life<br />

Shrimps<br />

shelf life<br />

Figure 1. Correlation of the response times of M-17U<br />

and M-35U TTI labels with the shelf lives of the frozen<br />

sea-bream fillets and frozen shrimps<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The selection of the appropriate TTI for<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g the shelf lives of frozen<br />

shrimps and frozen sea breams fillets,<br />

was based on developed mathematical<br />

models. Apply<strong>in</strong>g the developed models,<br />

the required charg<strong>in</strong>g levels for the<br />

photochemical TTIs and the required<br />

substrate concentrations for the<br />

enzymatic TTI labels were estimated to<br />

effectively monitor the shelf life of<br />

frozen fish products.<br />

[1] Loovas E. A., Sensitive spectrophotometric method for lipid hydroperoxide determ<strong>in</strong>ation, Journal of<br />

the American Oil Chemists' Society 69 (1992), pp. 777–783<br />

[2] Pivarnik L., Ellis P., Wang X. and Reilly T., Standardization of the Ammonia electrode method for<br />

evaluat<strong>in</strong>g seafood quality by correlation to sensory analysis, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science 66 (7) (2001),<br />

pp. 945–952.<br />

[3] Tsironi T., Taoukis P., Model<strong>in</strong>g Microbial Spoilage and Quality of Gilthead Seabream Fillets:<br />

Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Effect of Osmotic Pretreatment,Modified Atmosphere Packag<strong>in</strong>g, and Nis<strong>in</strong> on Shelf Life,<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science 75 (4) (2010), pp.243-251<br />

Acknowledgement: This study was partly supported by the European Commission FP7 Collective<br />

Research Project IQ-Freshlabel “Develop<strong>in</strong>g novel <strong>in</strong>telligent labels for chilled and frozen food products<br />

and promot<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fluence of smart labels application on waste reduction, food quality and safety <strong>in</strong> the<br />

European supply cha<strong>in</strong>s” FP7-SME-2008-2-243423 (http://www.iq-freshlabel.eu).<br />

1852

Model<strong>in</strong>g of Greek coffee aroma loss dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at different temperatures and water<br />

activities<br />

E. Makri, D. Tsimogiannis, E.K. Dermesonluoglu, P.S. Taoukis<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>,<br />

National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece (taoukis@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ground roasted coffee is a shelf-stable product. Because of the high temperature atta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g process, coffee is characterized by a very low water activity (aw) as well as the<br />

presence of Maillard reaction products with antimicrobial properties [1]. However, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage, coffee may undergo important chemical and physical changes, responsible for coffee<br />

“stal<strong>in</strong>g”, which affects the quality and acceptability [2]. The ma<strong>in</strong> causes of coffee stal<strong>in</strong>g are<br />

attributable to losses of volatile compounds, <strong>in</strong> particular, of key sulfur-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g odorants<br />

and oxidation reactions, the latter be<strong>in</strong>g responsible for off-flavor formation [3]. Temperature,<br />

oxygen concentration and relative humidity/water activity are the major factors that affect the<br />

shelf life of roasted coffee. The rate of coffee degradation reactions, may suddenly <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

after the packag<strong>in</strong>g has been opened by the consumer, thus determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the so-called<br />

“secondary shelf life”.<br />

Coffee aroma, which <strong>in</strong>volves more than 800 volatile compounds, is one of the most<br />

contributory factors for the high acceptability of coffee by consumers. In fact, <strong>in</strong> the coffee<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry, sensory profil<strong>in</strong>g is still the most widespread technique employed to evaluate the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

quality of both raw material and f<strong>in</strong>ished products. Several research groups have tried to<br />

associate coffee stal<strong>in</strong>g with chemical changes <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the ratios between<br />

certa<strong>in</strong> pairs of volatile compounds, called aroma <strong>in</strong>dices, which have been used as <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />

of coffee storage time [4].<br />

The objective was to determ<strong>in</strong>e and characterize changes <strong>in</strong> the composition of the volatile<br />

fraction of Greek coffee as a function of temperature and water activity dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Sample preparation<br />

Greek coffee samples equilibrated at aw values, 0.15, 0.22, 0.33, 0.52, were stored at<br />

temperatures T, 25, 35, 45°C. To ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the water activity values, coffee samples were<br />

placed <strong>in</strong> jars over saturated salt solutions (no salt -<strong>in</strong>itial aw value-, CH3COOK, MgCl2,<br />

Mg(NO3)2*6H20, Mg(NO3)2,respectively). Water activity was measured with a Rotronic A6<br />

AM3t-AwVD (Basserdorf, Switzerland) aw-meter. To simulate home storage conditions, coffee<br />

samples were not hermetically packaged.<br />

Analysis of flavor compounds<br />

The profile of volatile compounds was obta<strong>in</strong>ed directly from ground coffee samples us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

purge & trap(OI Analytical 4660, USA)-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry methodology<br />

(Agilent Technologies, USA, 5975C MSD System with Triple Axis Detector & 7890A GC<br />

System). The storage temperature and water activity effect on volatile compounds was studied.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1853

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Volatile compounds identified and quantified throughout 150 days of storage at temperatures<br />

studied were 7 aldehydes, 1 ester, 7 furans, 3 ketons, 1 pyrrole, 1 pyrid<strong>in</strong>e, 11 pyraz<strong>in</strong>es and 1<br />

alcohol. Among aldehydes detected, hexanal, n-decanal, n-heptanal and nonanal (malty flavor)<br />

were the most abundant. The formation of hexanal (rancid flavor), due to the oxidation of<br />

polyunsaturated fatty acids such as l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid, seems to have a certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence on the<br />

stal<strong>in</strong>g of the coffee brew. It exhibited a stationary phase and then a rapid <strong>in</strong>crease dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

storage; however it should not be considered as a good marker. Among detected furans (burnt<br />

sugar, caramel aromas), furfural that is the oxidative product of furfuryl alcohol showed an<br />

exponential <strong>in</strong>crease with storage that could be described mathematically (R<br />

160<br />

Table 1. Shelf-life values calculated based on aroma<br />

retention for Greek coffee samples stored at T 25-45°C<br />

140<br />

and aw 0.15-0.52.<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0 30 60 90 120 150<br />

Storage Time (days)<br />

2 >0.90). In Fig. 1,<br />

the change of furfural for coffee samples stored at T= 45°C and aw= 052 is representatively<br />

shown. With<strong>in</strong> the group of ketones, special mention should be made of decrease of 2,3<br />

pentanedione (buttery flavor). The most abundant pyraz<strong>in</strong>e (roasty, earthy/musty flavors) was<br />

2-methylpyraz<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Increase of water activity (for aw values above 0.33) and <strong>in</strong>crease of storage temperature (from<br />

25 to 45°C) caused decrease of shelf life estimated based on selected aroma <strong>in</strong>dex for Greek<br />

coffee. In Table 2 calculated shelf-life values for Greek coffee samples stored at different<br />

temperature and water activity conditions were presented.<br />

T, °C aw Shelf-life, days<br />

45 0.52 15<br />

45 0.33 41<br />

45 0.22 50<br />

45 0.15 49<br />

35 0.52 22<br />

35 0.33 57<br />

35 0.22 65<br />

35 0.15 66<br />

25 0.52 88<br />

Figure 1. Changes <strong>in</strong> furfural of coffee brews:<br />

25 0.33 97<br />

aw 0.52; T 25, 35, 45°C; t 150 days<br />

25 0.22 98<br />

25 0.15 104<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Furfural<br />

The results of this study would give an idea about the possibility of the control of coffee<br />

quality by measur<strong>in</strong>g only a few volatile compounds. Furthermore, they can be used to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />

tolerance on home storage conditions of Greek coffee.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Daglia, M., Cuzzoni, M.T., Dacarro, C. 1994. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem., 42, 2270. [2] Nicoli, M.C.,<br />

Savonitti, O. Espresso Coffee, 2nd ed.; Illy, A., Viani, R., Eds.; Elsevier Academic Press:San Diego, C.A.<br />

2005. p.230. [3] Anese, M., Manzocco, L., Nicoli, M.C. 2006. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem., 54, 5571. [4] Perez-<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, M., Sopelana, P., Paz de Pena, M., Cid, C. 2008. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem., 56(9), 3145<br />

1854

Comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of meat composition and heat<strong>in</strong>g parameters on the physicochemical<br />

state of prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Promeyrat Aurélie, Le Louët Laure, Kondjoyan Ala<strong>in</strong>, Astruc Thierry, Santé-Lhoutellier Véronique,<br />

Gatellier Philippe, Daud<strong>in</strong> Jean Dom<strong>in</strong>ique<br />

INRA, UR370 QuaPA, 63122 Sa<strong>in</strong>t Genès Champanelle, France (aurelie.promeyrat@clermont.<strong>in</strong>ra.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g meat cook<strong>in</strong>g, prote<strong>in</strong>s undergo some oxidations and conformation changes which can<br />

<strong>in</strong>duce a loss <strong>in</strong> the nutritional value of products by a decreased bioavailability of essential<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids [1]. The present study aimed at determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the effect of heat treatments on the<br />

physicochemical state of prote<strong>in</strong>s (oxidation and thermal denaturation). To avoid confus<strong>in</strong>g<br />

effect due to the uncontrolled biological variability and to assess <strong>in</strong>dependently the specific<br />

<strong>in</strong>cidence of various compounds, we used two mimetic models: a basic model, composed of an<br />

aqueous suspension of myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s, and a complex model, <strong>in</strong> which oxidants were<br />

added <strong>in</strong> physiological concentrations. Heat treatments were applied at 4 temperatures (from<br />

45°C to 90°C) dur<strong>in</strong>g 5 times (from 5 to 120 m<strong>in</strong>) and changes <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong>s state were evaluated<br />

by the measurement of carbonyl groups and prote<strong>in</strong> surface hydrophobicity. Then, the results<br />

were compared to those obta<strong>in</strong>ed on a pork meat model (M. Longissimus dorsi), cooked <strong>in</strong> the<br />

same conditions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

1. Mimetic model mak<strong>in</strong>g: The basic mimetic model was composed of myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

<strong>in</strong> suspension <strong>in</strong> a phosphate buffer with a same pH and ionic strength than muscle (40 mM<br />

and pH 6). Our objective was to determ<strong>in</strong>e k<strong>in</strong>etic laws of prote<strong>in</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> pure fibre types<br />

and to extrapolate these laws to mixed fibre types. Myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s were extracted from a<br />

rabbit muscle (Psoas major, which is a 100% -white fibre type muscle), accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

method of Pietrzak et al., 1997 [2] and delipidated by solvent (butanol/di-isopropyl ether)<br />

which preserved the prote<strong>in</strong> state.<br />

Thermal treatments: Myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong> suspensions were heated at 45°C, 60°C, 75°C, and<br />

90°C dur<strong>in</strong>g 5, 10, 30, 60 and 120 m<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> a dry bath.<br />

Addition of oxidants: The basic mimetic model was complexified by addition, just before<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g, of a mixture of oxidants composed of hydrogen peroxide (2 mM), ascorbate (0.1 mM),<br />

and ferrous iron. Iron concentrations of 0.05 mM, 0.2 mM and 0.6 mM, were tested to screen<br />

different lean meat tissues. These oxidants produce hydroxyl radicals (OH°), by the Fenton<br />

reaction, which are very reactive towards prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

2. Pork meat model: To avoid biological variability of raw meat the experiments were carried<br />

out on samples taken from only one pig muscle Longissimus dorsi (fibre type: 11% -red, 16%<br />

-red, 73% -white). Th<strong>in</strong> slices of meat (1.5 mm) were enclosed <strong>in</strong> plastic bags and heated <strong>in</strong><br />

a water bath us<strong>in</strong>g the same conditions than with the mimetic models. Myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

were prepared from the heated samples us<strong>in</strong>g the same protocols as described above.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1855

3. Characterisation of prote<strong>in</strong> physicochemical changes: Prote<strong>in</strong> oxidation was assessed by<br />

the measurement of carbonyl groups [3] and prote<strong>in</strong> thermal denaturation was evaluated by the<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> surface hydrophobicity [4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> oxidation: In prote<strong>in</strong>s, carbonyl groups are formed by oxidation of basic am<strong>in</strong>o acids,<br />

which are essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids for humans. Moreover, carbonyls groups can react with free<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o groups of non oxidized am<strong>in</strong>o acids of prote<strong>in</strong>s to form amide bonds which are<br />

precursors of prote<strong>in</strong> aggregation. The results obta<strong>in</strong>ed with the two mimetic models showed<br />

that carbonyls can not be produced under the thermal process alone; oxidants are required for<br />

their formation. A synergic effect of the chemical and thermal treatments was noticed on<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> oxidation. Carbonyl production was considerably higher <strong>in</strong> the complex mimetic model<br />

than <strong>in</strong> meat and this can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the muscle antioxidant protection which was not<br />

taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>in</strong> this prelim<strong>in</strong>ary version of the mimetic model.<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> surface hydrophobicity: Thermal treatment can impair the structure of meat prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

by break<strong>in</strong>g of hydrogen and electrostatic bonds. As a consequence of this thermal<br />

denaturation, an exposure to the prote<strong>in</strong> surface of hydrophobic am<strong>in</strong>o acids can occur and<br />

favour a tendency of prote<strong>in</strong>s to form aggregates. The mimetic models results showed that<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> surface hydrophobicity was ma<strong>in</strong>ly under the dependence of thermal denaturation and<br />

that oxidants poorly affected its change. In contrast to prote<strong>in</strong> oxidation, hydrophobicity values<br />

were higher <strong>in</strong> meat than <strong>in</strong> the mimetic model. In general, at highest temperatures, thermal<br />

denaturation is a rapid process, the maximum value of hydrophobicity was reach from 5<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes and no further <strong>in</strong>crease was observed with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g time.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> advantage of us<strong>in</strong>g the mimetic models was to assess the relative contributions of the<br />

chemical and thermal effects on prote<strong>in</strong> changes. Our ultimate goal is to predict through a<br />

mathematical tool the effects of heat treatments on the nutritional value of meat products.<br />

Thus, to build up this tool the k<strong>in</strong>etics of prote<strong>in</strong> oxidation and denaturation will be modelled<br />

and comb<strong>in</strong>ed to heat-mass transfer models to consider realistic cook<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>in</strong> large<br />

pieces of meat.<br />

Acknowledgement: The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/ 2007-2013) under the grant<br />

agreement n°FP7-222 654-DREAM.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Santé-Lhoutellier V., Aubry L. & Gatellier, P. 2007. Effect of oxidation on <strong>in</strong>-vitro digestibility of<br />

skeletal muscle myofibrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 55, 5343-5348.<br />

[2] Pietrzak M., Greaser M.L. & Sosnicki A.A. 1997. Effect of a rapid rigor mortis processes on prote<strong>in</strong><br />

functionality <strong>in</strong> Pectoralis major muscle of domestic turkeys. Journal of Animal Science, 75, 2106-<br />

2116.<br />

[3] Oliver C.N., Al<strong>in</strong> B.W., Moerman E.J., Goldste<strong>in</strong> S. & Stadtman E.R. 1987. Age-related changes <strong>in</strong><br />

oxidized prote<strong>in</strong>s. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 262, 5488-5491.<br />

[4] Chelh I., Gatellier P. & Santé-Lhoutellier V. 2006. Technical note: A simplified procedure for<br />

myofibril hydrophobicity determ<strong>in</strong>ation. Meat Science, 74, 681-684.<br />

1856

Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e levels <strong>in</strong> dry fermented sausages produced and sold <strong>in</strong> Greece<br />

E.J.Papavergou a<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Hygiene & <strong>Food</strong> Technology of Animal Orig<strong>in</strong>,<br />

Faculty of Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece (ekpap@vet.auth.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es (BAs) are formed <strong>in</strong> foods by enzymatic decarboxylation of free am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />

produced dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation and/or ag<strong>in</strong>g of foods. Fermented sausages may conta<strong>in</strong> high<br />

levels of BAs due to the high prote<strong>in</strong> content of raw materials and also their production<br />

technology which <strong>in</strong>cludes a microbial fermentation period followed by a long ripen<strong>in</strong>g period<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g which extended proteolysis occurs [1]. S<strong>in</strong>ce BAs can cause various food-born diseases<br />

to consumers and also, their formation <strong>in</strong> fermented foods may <strong>in</strong>dicate the presence of<br />

undesired contam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g microbial flora, there is an <strong>in</strong>creased need for monitor<strong>in</strong>g their<br />

presence <strong>in</strong> fermented sausages. The present study was carried out <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

levels of BAs <strong>in</strong> dry fermented sausages produced and consumed <strong>in</strong> Greece. The am<strong>in</strong>es<br />

measured <strong>in</strong>clude putresc<strong>in</strong>e (PU), cadaver<strong>in</strong>e (CA), tyram<strong>in</strong>e (TY), histam<strong>in</strong>e (HI), tryptam<strong>in</strong>e<br />

(TR), -phenyl-ethylam<strong>in</strong>e (PHE), spermid<strong>in</strong>e (SD) and sperm<strong>in</strong>e (SP).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Forty samples of various types of dry fermented sausages made <strong>in</strong> Greece by different<br />

manufacturers were bought from retail markets of Thessaloniki dur<strong>in</strong>g the summer of 2010.<br />

BAs were extracted from the samples with 0.6 M HClO4 and subsequently measured by HPLC<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g fluorescence detection after post column derivatisation with o-phthaldialdehyde [2].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The formation of BAs dur<strong>in</strong>g the production of dry fermented sausages is ma<strong>in</strong>ly attributed to<br />

the decarboxylat<strong>in</strong>g activity on free am<strong>in</strong>o acids of certa<strong>in</strong> ferment<strong>in</strong>g or contam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />

microbial groups present <strong>in</strong> them such as several Lactobacillus and Enterococcus stra<strong>in</strong>s<br />

(formation of TY, PHE, PU), Pseudomonas spp, (formation of PU), genera of the family of<br />

Enterobacteriaceae, (formation of PU, CA and HI) and of Micrococcaceae (formation of HI,<br />

PHE) [1]. Various fermentation and ripen<strong>in</strong>g parameters such as high availability of free am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

acids due to extended proteolysis, prolonged ripen<strong>in</strong>g period, pH decrease, <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

fermentation and storage temperatures and potentially high microbial load of raw materials also<br />

favour the accumulation of BAs <strong>in</strong> fermented sausages [1].<br />

The levels of BAs measured <strong>in</strong> the exam<strong>in</strong>ed samples are summarized <strong>in</strong> Table 1. A wide<br />

variation of BA concentrations was observed among the samples. In most of them, the BAs<br />

present <strong>in</strong> the highest concentrations were PU or TY. Similar TY and PU levels to those found<br />

<strong>in</strong> the present study were reported <strong>in</strong> traditional fermented sausages manufactured <strong>in</strong> other<br />

countries [1]. However, selection of bacterial starter cultures with limited tyros<strong>in</strong>e and<br />

ornith<strong>in</strong>e decarboxylat<strong>in</strong>g activity might reduce TY and PU levels <strong>in</strong> fermented sausages [3].<br />

CA concentrations were lower and exceeded 100 g/g <strong>in</strong> only 17.5% of the exam<strong>in</strong>ed samples.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1857

High CA contents were usually accompanied by high PU levels <strong>in</strong> the same sample <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

either poor hygienic conditions and freshness of raw materials, or adoption of <strong>in</strong>correct<br />

production procedures by the manufacturer [1]. HI levels were low <strong>in</strong> most of the exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

samples. However, a notable proportion of the samples (37%) far exceeded the toxicity limit of<br />

100 mg/kg legally set for HI <strong>in</strong> some fish species. High <strong>in</strong>itial microbial load of raw materials,<br />

<strong>in</strong>adequate decrease of pH at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the ripen<strong>in</strong>g process, or extended ripen<strong>in</strong>g time<br />

could be the reasons for considerable accumulation of HI <strong>in</strong> some of the fermented sausages.<br />

Table 1. Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e contents (mg/kg) <strong>in</strong> fermented sausages produced and consumed <strong>in</strong> Greece<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>es Range Median Mean ± S.D.<br />

TY 3.66 – 381.43 175.19 164.95 ± 98.08<br />

PU 0 – 491.74 176.62 187.86 ± 144.94<br />

CA 0 – 1014.08 15.31 94.19 ± 213.62<br />

HI 0 – 375.75 36.28 89.07 ± 101.55<br />

TR 0 – 60.53 6.81 14.27 ± 17.61<br />

PHE 0 – 56.40 2.81 6.71 ± 11.24<br />

SD 1.45 – 19.53 5.72 6.71 ± 3.98<br />

SP 13.37 – 60.11 35.92 36.63 ± 10.30<br />

TY+HI+PHE 5.56-619.48 264.7 261.29 ± 176.37<br />

TY, HI and PHE show vasoactive and psychoactive properties and foods conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong><br />

high levels may constitute a potential risk for certa<strong>in</strong> sensitive groups of consumers exhibit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

deficient biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e metabolis<strong>in</strong>g ability [4]. The sum of these three am<strong>in</strong>es exceeded <strong>in</strong><br />

63% of the exam<strong>in</strong>ed samples the proposed for fermented sausages limit of 200 mg/kg [1] for<br />

good manufactur<strong>in</strong>g practices and safe consumption. The presence of high contents of PU and<br />

CA found <strong>in</strong> many of the exam<strong>in</strong>ed samples might further potentiate the toxicological impact<br />

of TY, HI and PHE <strong>in</strong> them [4].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is concluded that an improvement <strong>in</strong> production technology and raw material hygienic<br />

quality used for manufactur<strong>in</strong>g various types of dry fermented sausages <strong>in</strong> Greece may be<br />

necessary <strong>in</strong> order to ensure the safe consumption of this type of meat products with respect to<br />

their BA content.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Suzzi G. & Gard<strong>in</strong>i F. 2003. Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> dry fermented sausages: a review. <strong>International</strong><br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 88(1), 41-54<br />

[2] Hernández-Hover T., Izquierdo-Pulido M., Veciana-Nogués M.T. & Vidal-Carou M.C. 1996. Ion-<br />

Pair High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Biogenic Am<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> Meat and<br />

Meat Products. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 44(9), 2710-2715.<br />

[3] Komprda T., Sládková P. & Dohnal V. 2009. Biogenic am<strong>in</strong>e content <strong>in</strong> dry fermented sausages as<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenced by a producer, spice mix, starter culture, sausage diameter and time of ripen<strong>in</strong>g. Meat<br />

Science, 83(3), 534-542.<br />

[4] Shalaby A.R. 1996. Significance of biogenic am<strong>in</strong>es to food safety and human health. <strong>Food</strong> Reasearch<br />

<strong>International</strong>, 29(7), 675-690.<br />

1858

Spore Inactivation by Ultraviolet Irradiation Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with Different Pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

150mm<br />

a<br />

b<br />

Treatment<br />

Daisuke Hamanaka a , Hironori Yamada b , Takashi Kadoyanagi b , Vipavee Tryvittayasil b ,<br />

Fumihiko Tanaka a , Toshitaka Uch<strong>in</strong>o a<br />

a Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku,<br />

Fukuoka 8128581, Japan (hamanaka@bpes.kyushu-u.ac.jp)<br />

b Graduate School of Biores. Bioenviron. Sci., Kyushu University, 6-10-1<br />

Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 8128581, Japan<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The dis<strong>in</strong>fect<strong>in</strong>g treatment by ultraviolet ray (UV) irradiation has been widely applied <strong>in</strong><br />

various <strong>in</strong>dustrial fields [1]. In relation to the preservation of fresh agricultural produce, several<br />

researchers <strong>in</strong>vestigated the application of UV irradiation to surface decontam<strong>in</strong>ation. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g efficiency of UV irradiation was enhanced by the comb<strong>in</strong>ation of other<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g techniques. Some researchers tried to extend the shelf life of fresh fruits by<br />

the comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g treatment of UV irradiation and thermal technologies [2-3]. However, no<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation on the effect of the treatment temperature controlled by <strong>in</strong>frared radiation heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(IRH) on the <strong>in</strong>activat<strong>in</strong>g efficiency of UV irradiation was reported. In the present study, we<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated the <strong>in</strong>fluence of IRH temperature <strong>in</strong> addition to UV irradiation for microbial spore<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation on agar media. We also compared with the kill<strong>in</strong>g efficiency of UV irradiation<br />

under the same temperature conditions prepared by conductive heat<strong>in</strong>g (CH) us<strong>in</strong>g an electric<br />

hot plate.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The sample microbial spores (Penicillium isolated from peach fruit and Bacillus subtilis<br />

NBRC3134) <strong>in</strong>oculated onto the surface of agar media (potato dextrose agar, nutrient agar)<br />

plate were heate d to the required temperatures (20, 30, 40, and 50 °C) by either CH or IRH,<br />

and then exposed to UV light for required periods by laboratory assembled devices (Figure 1).<br />

The surface temperature of agar media was monitored by <strong>in</strong>frared thermography camera.<br />

Surface temperature profile of IRH was adjusted by the current sett<strong>in</strong>g of IR heater us<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

<br />

c<br />

150mm<br />

d<br />

e<br />

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of experimental devices. The distribution of irradiation<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity of UV at the surface of sample plate was ensured to be uniform at both devices.<br />

a: ultraviolet lamp, b: <strong>in</strong>frared radiation heater, c: 90mm sample plate (potato dextrose<br />

agar/nutrient agar), d: table, e: electric hot plate<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1859<br />

a<br />

c

electric transformer <strong>in</strong> order to give same profile of CH treatment.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The survival curves of spores of Penicillium and B. subtilis did show convex upward and<br />

downward curves, respectively. Generally, the <strong>in</strong>activation efficiency of UV irradiation with<br />

CH (UV-CH) was greater than that with IRH (UV-IRH) for Penicillium spores. The greatest<br />

<strong>in</strong>activat ion, 2.3 logs reduction, was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by 60 sec of UV-CH treatment at 20 °C. In<br />

contrast, the <strong>in</strong>activation efficiency of UV-IRH was greater than that of UV-CH for B. subtilis<br />

spores. A 4.1 log reduction of B. subtilis spores was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by 60 sec of UV-IRH treatment<br />

at 50 °C. The Duv-values (the times required for 90% reduction) of Penicillium spores appeared<br />

to be greater with the <strong>in</strong>crease of temperature <strong>in</strong> both treatments of UV-IRH and UV-CH. The<br />

greater Duv -values of B. subtilis spores were obta<strong>in</strong>ed at a mild temperature range (around<br />

30 °C), especially with the treatment of UV-CH (Figure 2).<br />

0<br />

10 20 30 40 50 60<br />

<br />

Figure 2. Relationship between decimal reduction time (Duv-value) of Bacillus<br />

subtilis spores and temperature controlled by conductive heat<strong>in</strong>g () and <strong>in</strong>frared<br />

radiation heat<strong>in</strong>g (). Duv-values were calculated by the l<strong>in</strong>ear regression portion of<br />

the survival curves.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is suggested that these obta<strong>in</strong>ed differences <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>activation characteristics of UV<br />

irradiation could be caused by the differences <strong>in</strong> UV absorption characteristics of microbial<br />

spores treated by different thermal processes.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

[1] B<strong>in</strong>tsis, T., Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E. & Rob<strong>in</strong>son, R.K. 2000. Exist<strong>in</strong>g and Potential Applications of<br />

Ultraviolet Light <strong>in</strong> The <strong>Food</strong> Industry – a critical review. Journal of the Science of <strong>Food</strong> and<br />

Agriculture, 80, 637-645.<br />

[2] Marquenie, D., Michiels, C.W., Geeraerd, A.H., Schenk, A., Soontjens, C., Van Impe, J.F. & Nicolai,<br />

B.M. 2002. Us<strong>in</strong>g Survival Analysis to Investigate The Effect of UV-C and Heat Treatment on<br />

Storage Rot of Strawberry and Sweet Cherry. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 73, 187-<br />

196.<br />

[3] Pan, J., Vicente, A.R., Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, G.A., Chaves, A.R. & Civello, P.M. 2004. Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Use of UV-C<br />

Irradiation and Heat Treatment to Improve Postharvest Life of Strawberry Fruit. Journal of the<br />

Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 84, 1831-1838.<br />

1860

Aroma profile of different salted dried codfishes<br />

Marta Costa Silva a , Luís R. Silva b *, Paula Guedes-de-P<strong>in</strong>ho c , Paula Andrade b , Patrícia Valentão b , Rui<br />

Costa a *<br />

a<br />

CERNAS/ Escola Superior Agrária, Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal<br />

(ruicosta@esac.pt)<br />

b<br />

REQUIMTE/ Dept of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Porto, Portugal<br />

(ext_lsilva@ff.up.pt)<br />

c<br />

REQUIMTE/ Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Porto, Portugal<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Salted dried codfish is a highly consumed product <strong>in</strong> Mediterranean and South American<br />

countries. Several procedures are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the traditional manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of this product that<br />

br<strong>in</strong>gs up organoleptic differences. Aroma is the first characteristic that <strong>in</strong>fluences consumer<br />

perception of codfish quality at the sell<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t and latter at the consumption stage.<br />

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the differences <strong>in</strong> volatile profile of salted dried<br />

codfishes species commercialized <strong>in</strong> Portugal, caught <strong>in</strong> different fish<strong>in</strong>g zones, and cured by<br />

different processes and for dist<strong>in</strong>ct periods. For these purposes HS-SPME/GC IT-MS analysis<br />

was performed, data obta<strong>in</strong>ed was treated by us<strong>in</strong>g a pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis (PCA).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Volatile profiles of three species (G. morhua, G. macrocephalus and T. chalcogramma) caught<br />

<strong>in</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>ct orig<strong>in</strong>s along with two cur<strong>in</strong>g processes (Traditional and Yellow cur<strong>in</strong>g) and<br />

different process<strong>in</strong>g times, were characterized by HS-SPME/GC IT-MS. The codfish samples<br />

were supplied by Lugrade (Coimbra, Portugal).<br />

Each sample was magnetically stirred (200 rpm) at 40 °C, for 10 m<strong>in</strong>. The fibre coated with<br />

div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/PDMS - 65 m) was exposed to the headspace for<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong>, with agitation (200 rpm) at 40 ºC. Afterwards the fibre was <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>in</strong>jection<br />

port of the GC system for thermal desorption, for 1 m<strong>in</strong>. The fibre was then conditioned <strong>in</strong><br />

another GC <strong>in</strong>jection port for 10 m<strong>in</strong> at 250 °C.<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis (PCA) was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g XLSTAT 2010.3.01 software.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The analysis by HS SPME/GC-IT-MS of salted cured codfish samples allowed the<br />

characterization of fifty-five volatile compounds, which were distributed by dist<strong>in</strong>ct chemical<br />

classes: two am<strong>in</strong>es, two hydrocarbons, one ester, one chlor<strong>in</strong>ated compound, ten aldehydes,<br />

eight aromatic hydrocarbons, sixteen alcohols, three acids, one sulphur compound, two ethers,<br />

three ketones, two terpenes and four other compounds. The major class of identified<br />

compounds <strong>in</strong> the analyzed samples was that of alcohols (ca. 29.1 % of total identified<br />

compounds), followed by aldehydes (ca. 18.2%) and aromatic hydrocarbons (14.5%). Esters,<br />

chlor<strong>in</strong>ated and sulphur compounds represented the m<strong>in</strong>or components (

icher <strong>in</strong> compounds from all chemical classes except<strong>in</strong>g am<strong>in</strong>es, terpenes, sulphur compounds<br />

and acids. Amongst all, salted dried codfish from Russian/Norway fish<strong>in</strong>g zone (MOR)<br />

exhibited the poorer volatiles profile, with thirty four compounds be<strong>in</strong>g characterized.<br />

To assess the variation of volatile composition of the analyzed codfish samples, PCA was<br />

performed (Fig. 1).<br />

F2 (23,42 %)<br />

Figure 1 - PCA of the volatile profiles of salted dried codfish samples: projection of volatile compounds<br />

<strong>in</strong>to the plane composed by the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal axes F1 and F2 (73.80%).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Thirty compounds were fully characterized and 25 were tentatively identified, from which 26<br />

are reported for the first time <strong>in</strong> dried salted codfish aroma, contribut<strong>in</strong>g to a greater knowledge<br />

of their volatile composition. Differences among fish species and fish<strong>in</strong>g zones were not<br />

perceivable, with the exception of T. chalcogramma (TCP) that presented more terpenes and<br />

less aldehydes than the other samples. Microbial activity, know to be much higher <strong>in</strong> the<br />

yellow cur<strong>in</strong>g, appears to have a high contribution to the overall production of volatiles.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

1<br />

0,75<br />

0,5<br />

0,25<br />

0<br />

0,25<br />

0,5<br />

0,75<br />

1<br />

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 73,80 %)<br />

Terpenes<br />

Sulphur<br />

compound<br />

Acids<br />

Ethers<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>es<br />

Aldehydes<br />

Alcohols<br />

Others<br />

Aromatics<br />

hydrocarbons<br />

Chlor<strong>in</strong>ated<br />

compound<br />

Esters<br />

Hydrocarbons<br />

Ketones<br />

1 0,75 0,5 0,25 0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1<br />

F1 (50,38 %)<br />

[1] Olafsdottir G., Jonsdottir R., Lauzon H.L., Luten J., & Kristbergsson K. 2005. Characterization of<br />

volatile compounds <strong>in</strong> chilled codfish (Gadus morhua) fillets by gas chromatography and detection of<br />

quality <strong>in</strong>dicators by an electronic nose. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 53,10140-10147.<br />

[2] Guillén M.D., Errecalde M.C., Salmerón J. & Casas C. 2006. Headspace volatile components of<br />

smoked swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and codfish (Gadus morhua) detected by means of solid phase<br />

microextraction and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 94, 151-156.<br />

1862<br />

F2 (23,42 %)<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

1<br />

2<br />

3<br />

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 73,80 %)<br />

MOR MOI<br />

TCP<br />

MAP<br />

MOC<br />

MAP7<br />

MOIY<br />

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6<br />

F1 (50,38 %)

Influences of pH and temperature on <strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopic features of brewed coffee<br />

Atsushi Hashimoto, Yoshiko Sugimoto, Ken-ichiro Suehara, Takaharu Kameoka<br />

Department of Susta<strong>in</strong>able Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Bioresources, Mie University, Tsu, Japan<br />

(hasimoto@bio.mie-u.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A huge amount of brewed coffee is manufactured, and very long time has passed s<strong>in</strong>ce the start of the<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g. However, the coffee process is empirically controlled based on the <strong>in</strong>formation provided<br />

by the cup tasters and the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g experts, and the process control could be generally due to the<br />

expertise accumulated <strong>in</strong> each coffee manufactur<strong>in</strong>g company. Quality of brewed coffee highly depends<br />

on the chemical components and their <strong>in</strong>teractions. The states of the chemical components and their<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions are significantly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the temperature and pH.<br />

The application of spectroscopy, especially <strong>in</strong> mid-<strong>in</strong>frared (MIR) region, to the above measurement is<br />

then desirable as a high potential implement. The objective of this study is to develop a simple, rapid,<br />

accurate and non-chemical method evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the brewed coffee by MIR spectroscopy. We studied the<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluences of the pH and temperature on the MIR spectral characteristics of the brewed coffee by<br />

consider<strong>in</strong>g hot and iced brewed coffee and by spectroscopically discuss<strong>in</strong>g the spectral features of the<br />

brewed coffee model composed from the ma<strong>in</strong> component.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Aqueous solution of the commercial <strong>in</strong>stant coffee was prepared as brewed coffee. Additionally,<br />

chlorogenic acid, citric acid, qu<strong>in</strong>ic acid, trigonell<strong>in</strong>e, caffe<strong>in</strong>e and arab<strong>in</strong>ogalactan were selected as the<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> components <strong>in</strong> brewed coffee, and their aqueous solution and the mixture (brewed coffee mode;<br />

Table 1) were prepared.<br />

Table 1. Concentrations of reagents <strong>in</strong> brewed coffee model.<br />

Reagents Concentration [mg/100 ml]<br />

chlorogenic acid 37<br />

ionic dissociative components<br />

citric acid<br />

qu<strong>in</strong>ic acid<br />

20<br />

46<br />

trigonell<strong>in</strong>e 10<br />

ionic undissociative component<br />

caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />

arab<strong>in</strong>ogalactan<br />

60<br />

300<br />

The <strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopic measurement system [1, 2] was used for the spectral measurements, which is<br />

composed from the FT-IR system (Magna-IR 750; Nicolet Instrument Corp.), the cyl<strong>in</strong>drical sample<br />

conta<strong>in</strong>er, a water bath and a data logger. The bottom part of the cyl<strong>in</strong>drical sample conta<strong>in</strong>er was the<br />

ATR accessory (DuraSampleIR; SensIR Technologies) equipped the FT-IR system, and the cyl<strong>in</strong>der<br />

made of sta<strong>in</strong>less steel adheres to the top of the ATR accessory. The ATR spectra were measured at 283,<br />

298 or 333 K.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>fluences of the pH and temperature on the second derivative spectral characteristics of brewed<br />

coffee are displayed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. The absorption peak shifts and the absorption <strong>in</strong>tensity changes due to<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1863

the pH and temperature changes are observed. The ionic equilibrium conditions of the ionic dissociative<br />

materials such as chlorogenic and qu<strong>in</strong>ic acids as the ma<strong>in</strong> components <strong>in</strong> the brewed coffee could be<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenced by the pH value, and could be also changed due to the temperature at the same pH value.<br />

In order to study spectral behavior of brewed coffee, the spectra theoretically calculated based on the<br />

spectral additivity and the ionic dissociation equilibrium conditions were compared with measured ones<br />

under several pH and temperature conditions [3, 4]. Figure 2 shows <strong>in</strong>fluences of the simultaneous<br />

changes of the temperature and pH on the experimental and calculated <strong>in</strong>frared absorption spectra of the<br />

brewed coffee model. The calculated spectra represented the <strong>in</strong>frared absorption peaks characteriz<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

brewed coffee model as well as the measured ones. Additionally, the peak shifts due to the temperature<br />

and pH changes of the brewed coffee model of the calculated spectra consistently agree with the<br />

experimental ones. These results suggest that the spectral analyz<strong>in</strong>g method of the brewed coffee model<br />

developed <strong>in</strong> this study could be acceptable to spectroscopically understand the quality <strong>in</strong> consideration of<br />

the temperature and pH.<br />

Figure 1. Influences of pH and temperature Figure 2. Influence of pH and temperature<br />

on <strong>in</strong>frared absorption spectra of brewed coffee. on actual and calculated second derivative<br />

and calculated second derivative spectra<br />

of brewed coffee model.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study is an important step <strong>in</strong> the developments of the quality and taste of brewed coffee based on the<br />

MIR f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t spectra, which <strong>in</strong>clude the <strong>in</strong>formation of the chemical components and the <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

<strong>in</strong> brewed coffee, and of the non-<strong>in</strong>tensive on-l<strong>in</strong>e monitor<strong>in</strong>g of the brewed coffee production process.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Pan, T., Hashimoto, A., Kanou, M., Nakanishi, K. & Kameoka, T. 2003. Development of a Quantification System<br />

of Ionic Dissociative Materials <strong>in</strong> the Glycolytic Pathway Us<strong>in</strong>g an FT-IR/ATR Method. Bioprocess and<br />

Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 26(2), 133-139.<br />

[2] Hashimoto, A., Pan, T., Kanou, M., Nakanishi, K. & Kameoka, K. 2005. Mid-Infrared Spectroscopic Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

Enzyme Reaction Associat<strong>in</strong>g with Ionic Dissociative Metabolites. In: Pons, M.-N. & van Impe, J.F.M. (Eds.).<br />

Computer Applications <strong>in</strong> Biotechnology 2004. Elsevier Science, Oxford. pp.375-380.<br />

[3] Nakanishi, K., Hashimoto, A., Kanou, M., Pan, T. & Kameoka, T. 2003. Mid-Infrared Spectroscopic Measurement<br />

of Ionic Dissociative Materials <strong>in</strong> Metabolic Pathway. Applied Spectroscopy, 57(12), 1510-1516.<br />

[4] Hashimoto, A., Sugimoto, Y., Suehara, K., Kanou, M. & Kameoka, T. 2009. Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis on<br />

W<strong>in</strong>e Components Us<strong>in</strong>g Ionic Dissociative Information. 5th <strong>International</strong> Conference on Advanced Vibrational<br />

Spectroscopy, Melbourne, Australia, 12-17 July 2009. Book of Abstract, pp. 117-118.<br />

1864

Comparison of wild and farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L) lipid quality<br />

Lenas Dimitrios a , Chatziantoniou Soumela b , Nathanailides Cosmas a , Triantafillou Dimitrios b<br />

a Dept Aquaculture & Fisheries, TEI of Epirus, Igoumenitsa, Greece, (Lenasds@teiep.gr)<br />

b Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Dept Nutrition & Dietetics, Thessaloniki, Greece<br />

(tridim@nutr.teithe.g)r<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The nutritional value of fish is attributed to the am<strong>in</strong>o-acids, trace elements, vitam<strong>in</strong>s, but most<br />

importantly, to their fatty acids (FAs). Recently, a reduction <strong>in</strong> the utilisation of fish oil <strong>in</strong> the<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of aquaculture feeds is reflected <strong>in</strong> the FAs of farmed fish. The aim of the<br />

present work was to compare the fatty acids profile of wild and farmed sea bass flesh.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Wild and farmed sea bass specimens were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a fisherman and a fish farm <strong>in</strong> NW<br />

Greece. The feed (manufacturer label) chemical analysis was: 45% prote<strong>in</strong>s, 20% lipids, 14.5%<br />

carbohydrates, 9% ash, 1.5% fibres, 10% moisture, vitam<strong>in</strong>s and trace elements. The raw<br />

materials were fish meal, fish oil, wheat flour, corn gluten, vitam<strong>in</strong>s and m<strong>in</strong>erals (no<br />

<strong>in</strong>dication of %). Fillets were obta<strong>in</strong>ed and lipid was extracted us<strong>in</strong>g chloroform and methanol.<br />

The fatty acids were methyl-esterified <strong>in</strong> 12% (BF3-MeOH). Methyl-esters were obta<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

normal hexane for gas chromatography.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The dom<strong>in</strong>ance of 18:2n-6, l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid (LA) the <strong>in</strong>creased 18:3 n-3, L<strong>in</strong>olenic acid (LNA)<br />

and the <strong>in</strong>creased n-6/n-3 ratio <strong>in</strong> the flesh <strong>in</strong> farmed fish appears to be a result of the <strong>in</strong>clusion<br />

of <strong>in</strong>creased amounts of plant oils as an alternative raw material for fish feeds [1]. As a result<br />

farmed fish exhibited lower nutritional value <strong>in</strong> terms of FAs, especially <strong>in</strong> terms of high LA&<br />

LNA content and low n-3/n-6 ratio, which is important for human’s health. LA and LNA <strong>in</strong><br />

fish feeds cannot be transformed easily to n-6 and n-3 FAs <strong>in</strong> the flesh of mar<strong>in</strong>e fish, contrary<br />

to fresh water fish. This is probably due to lack of necessary enzymes (D-5-6-Desaturase)<br />

which elongate the carbonic cha<strong>in</strong> of fatty acids [5]. This disability of mar<strong>in</strong>e fish leads to LA<br />

and LNA <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> flesh lipids, which f<strong>in</strong>ally end to the human body through consumption.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> reason for the use of alternative sources of raw materials <strong>in</strong> fish feeds is the high cost<br />

of fish meal and fish oil due to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand and limited production from wild fish<br />

stocks. This trend tends to <strong>in</strong>crease as a convenient tool to reduce production cost <strong>in</strong> an<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensely competitive market and have been reflected <strong>in</strong> previous published workss [1,4] and <strong>in</strong><br />

FAO reports for decreased imports and consumption of fish meal and fish oil, which dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

last decade, decreased by 18% <strong>in</strong> the European Union, despite the <strong>in</strong>crease of fish farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

production. This fact <strong>in</strong>dicates that the alteration of fish feeds composition have been<br />

established <strong>in</strong> the at least dur<strong>in</strong>g last decade. Nutritional experiments <strong>in</strong> fish showed that the<br />

addition of 60% soybean oil <strong>in</strong> fish feed resulted <strong>in</strong> a 428-647% <strong>in</strong>creased levels of LA <strong>in</strong> the<br />

flesh of fish compared to fish oil based feed. In the same manner, 60% l<strong>in</strong>seed oil resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creased levels of LA <strong>in</strong> the flesh of fish compared to controls [3]. Increased LA consumption<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1865

may cause 100 times greater risk of homicide mortality. Increased LA consumption may<br />

contribute to depression and <strong>in</strong>creased cardiac mortality [2].<br />

Table 1. Fatty acid profile (% ±SD) of wild and farmed sea bass lipids<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>creased LA, LNA and n-6 of farmed fish can be attributed to the <strong>in</strong>creased amounts of<br />

plant oils <strong>in</strong> fish feeds manufactur<strong>in</strong>g. This feed driven change of farmed fish works aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />

public health and those who consume it for the cardiovascular benefits of a high n-3/n6 diet.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Fatty acid Wild Sea bass Farmed Sea bass<br />

C14:0 2.34±0.11 2.75±0.14<br />

C15:0 0.64±0.03 0.33±0.04<br />

C16:0 17.69±0.40 13.81±0.63<br />

C18:0 5.40±0.62 3.72±0.15<br />

C16:1 n-7 (9C) 5.72±0.28 3.97±0.19<br />

C18:1 n-9 (9C) 20.01±1.94 19.56±0.49<br />

C18:1 n-7 (11C) 4.55±0.47 3.15±0.20<br />

C20:1 n-9 (11C) 0.00±0.00 0.41±0.06<br />

C22:1 n-9 (13C) 7.55±0.36 6.71±0.14<br />

C18:2 n-6 4.42±0.29 18.02±o.12<br />

C18:3 n-3 1.53±0.03 2.08±0.10<br />

C18:4 n-3 0.62±0.02 0.69±0.06<br />

C20:4 n-6 3.63±0.23 0.68±0.04<br />

C20:5 n-3 0.00±0.00 2.15±0.08<br />

C22:4 n-6 0.00±0.00 0.12±0.02<br />

C22:5 n-3 2.96±0.13 1.81±0.06<br />

C22:6 n-3 15.41±0.63 8.60±0.17<br />

Total n-3 Fatty acids 20.52±0.54 15.33±0.44<br />

Total n-6 Fatty acids 8.05±0.51 18.81±0.18<br />

Ratio n-3/n-6 2.55±0.10 0.81±0.02<br />

[1] Dubois V., Breton S., L<strong>in</strong>der M., Fanni J., & Parmentier M. 2007. Fatty acid profiles vegetable oils<br />

with regard to their nutritional potential. European Journal of Lipid Science & Technology, 109, 710-732.<br />

[2] Hibbeln J.R., Niem<strong>in</strong>en L.R.G., Blasbalg T.L., Riggs J.A., & Lands W.E.M. 2006. Healthy <strong>in</strong>takes of<br />

n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: estimations consider<strong>in</strong>g worldwide diversity. American Journal of Cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />

Nutrition, 83, 1483S-1493S. [3] Izquierdo M.S., Montero D., Roba<strong>in</strong>a L., Caballero M.J., Rosenlund G.,<br />

& G<strong>in</strong>es R. 2005. Alterations <strong>in</strong> fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality <strong>in</strong> gilthead sea bream feed<br />

vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feed<strong>in</strong>g. Aquaculture, 250,<br />

431-444. [4] Phichova J. & Morkore T. 2007. Alternate oils <strong>in</strong> fish feeds. European Journal of Lipids<br />

Technology, 109, 256-263. [5] Tocher D.R. (2003). Metabolism and functions of lipids and fatty acids <strong>in</strong><br />

teleost fish. Reviews <strong>in</strong> Fisheries Science, 11(2), 107-184.<br />

1866

Coupl<strong>in</strong>g between heat and mass transfer and stoechio-k<strong>in</strong>etic models to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sight<br />

<strong>in</strong>to Maillard reaction k<strong>in</strong>etics dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g of sponge-cake products<br />

Carol<strong>in</strong>e Pénicaud b,a , Bertrand Broyart a,b , Daniel Goujot b,a , Mathilde Courel a,b , Xuan-Mi Meyer c ,<br />

Cather<strong>in</strong>e Bonazzi b,a<br />

a<br />

AgroParisTech, UMR 1145 Ingenierie Procedes Aliments, Massy, France<br />

(bertrand.broyart@groparistech.fr)<br />

b<br />

INRA, UMR 1145 Ingenierie Procedes Aliments, Massy, France (cather<strong>in</strong>e.bonazzi@groparistech.fr)<br />

c<br />

Université de Toulouse, Laboratoire de Génie Chimique CNRS/INPT/UPS, Toulouse, France<br />

(XuanMi.Meyer@ensiacet.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The present work is part of the REACTIAL project "Prediction and control of the appearance or<br />

disappearance of reactional markers dur<strong>in</strong>g food process and conservation" (ANR-06-PNRA-023)<br />

supported by the French National Research Agency. Very few studies have taken <strong>in</strong>to account both<br />

effect of heat and mass transfer phenomena and composition of the product (<strong>in</strong> terms of chemical<br />

species <strong>in</strong>volved) upon nature and extent of Maillard reaction with<strong>in</strong> solid food products undergo<strong>in</strong>g<br />

“realistic” heat treatments. One of the major issues of this work is hence to extract an “apparent<br />

reaction scheme” from the complex Maillard reaction scheme. This apparent reaction scheme must<br />

be: (1) able to give reliable representation of the real complex reaction scheme of Maillard reaction<br />

(2) coherent with analytical capabilities by isolat<strong>in</strong>g so-called chemical markers representative of<br />

the extent of Maillard reaction. From this apparent reaction scheme, stoechio-k<strong>in</strong>etic models will be<br />

developed. These equations will appear as s<strong>in</strong>k- and source-terms <strong>in</strong> classical heat and mass transfer<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uity equations <strong>in</strong> order to predict local k<strong>in</strong>etics of product temperature rise and moisture loss<br />

as well as k<strong>in</strong>etics of variation of concentrations of chemical species appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the reaction<br />

scheme. The aim of this work is to give an overview of the results concern<strong>in</strong>g the prediction of<br />

extent of Maillard reaction dur<strong>in</strong>g sponge cake bak<strong>in</strong>g coupled with the prediction of product<br />

temperature rise and moisture loss k<strong>in</strong>etics dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. Ma<strong>in</strong> hypotheses of both physical and<br />

chemical models will be given as well as constitutive equations and prelim<strong>in</strong>ary results of<br />

validation.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Bak<strong>in</strong>g experiments of sponge-cake and associated chemical analyses (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g vapour products<br />

present <strong>in</strong> the bak<strong>in</strong>g atmosphere) were realised us<strong>in</strong>g a specifically <strong>in</strong>strumented electric<br />

convective oven presented <strong>in</strong> [1]. Oven atmosphere was cont<strong>in</strong>uously extracted from the oven cavity<br />

and analysed us<strong>in</strong>g dynamic headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and GC-MS<br />

system adapted to the present oven from a previous study [2]. Seven Maillard reaction markers were<br />

followed dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g among which non-volatile markers measured <strong>in</strong> the product (glucose, am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

groups and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural HMF) and volatile markers measured <strong>in</strong> the bak<strong>in</strong>g atmosphere<br />

(furfural, 2,3-dihydroxy-6-methyl-pyranone or DDMP, acetic and formic acids and HMF).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1867

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Concern<strong>in</strong>g the modell<strong>in</strong>g of heat and mass transfer phenomena, the cereal product is considered as<br />

a biphasic medium constituted of a cont<strong>in</strong>uous “pseudo-liquid” phase (L) conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g liquid water,<br />

dissolved chemical markers of Maillard reaction and dry matter, locally <strong>in</strong> equilibrium with a<br />

gaseous phase (G) composed of vapour and volatile chemical markers. The heat and mass transport<br />

phenomena <strong>in</strong> the product are assumed unidirectional. The upper surface of the product is heated by<br />

convection and radiation and its lower surface partly by contact with a perforated bak<strong>in</strong>g tray and<br />

partly by convection and radiation. The value of product porosity is assumed uniform with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

product and constant dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. The product is assumed non-shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />

porosity of the product is considered as an open porosity allow<strong>in</strong>g gas diffusion from the core of the<br />

product to its surface described by a pseudo-Fick law us<strong>in</strong>g apparent gas diffusivity. Diffusion of<br />

chemical species <strong>in</strong> liquid phase is assumed negligible except for water where pseudo-Fick law is<br />

used with an apparent liquid water diffusivity. In the open porosity of the product and at its surface,<br />

the composition of the liquid phase and the gaseous phase <strong>in</strong> vapour and volatile compounds of<br />

volatile chemical markers is assumed locally at equilibrium. Concern<strong>in</strong>g the volatile chemical<br />

markers, they are quantified us<strong>in</strong>g dynamic headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and<br />

GC-MS system. The <strong>in</strong>formation given by this analysis is expressed <strong>in</strong> peak area on a<br />

chromatogram and converted <strong>in</strong> gas concentration us<strong>in</strong>g a proportionality coefficient quantify<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

aff<strong>in</strong>ity of the species for the fibre selected for the extraction. For prediction of product physical<br />

variables (temperature and moisture content) and composition <strong>in</strong> chemical markers (non-volatile<br />

and volatile compounds), a relatively good agreement is found between predicted and experimental<br />

measurements. Concern<strong>in</strong>g stoechio-k<strong>in</strong>etic model, data about k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters for the apparent<br />

reactional can not be found <strong>in</strong> the literature. A lack of data has also been noted for equilibrium data<br />

for the volatile chemical markers: partition coefficient for the equilibrium between liquid and<br />

gaseous phase and proportionality coefficient between the gaseous phase and the surface of the fibre<br />

used for the HS-SPME measurements. For this reason, a trial and error methodology has been<br />

adopted to f<strong>in</strong>d acceptable values for the k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the stoechio-k<strong>in</strong>etic model.<br />

These values must be considered as rough estimates (and hence used <strong>in</strong> extrapolation with caution)<br />

tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the numerous hypotheses made when develop<strong>in</strong>g the model and the lack of data<br />

<strong>in</strong> the literature for the model unknown parameters.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This work presents an attempt to predict mechanistically the extent of Maillard reaction dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bak<strong>in</strong>g of a sponge-cake type bakery product. The complexity of phenomena taken <strong>in</strong>to account and<br />

the lack of literature data about unknown model parameters force us to fix the optimal values of<br />

unknown k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters us<strong>in</strong>g a trial and error methodology. The values of identified k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

parameters must hence be used with caution <strong>in</strong> extrapolated conditions.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fehaili, S., Courel, M., Rega, B. & Giampaoli, P.. 2010. An <strong>in</strong>strumented oven for monitor<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

thermal reactions dur<strong>in</strong>g the bak<strong>in</strong>g of sponge cake. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 101(3), 253-263.<br />

[2] Rega, B., Guerard, A., Delarue, J., Maire, M. & Giampaoli, P. 2009. On-l<strong>in</strong>e dynamic HS-SPME for<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g endogenous aroma compounds realeased dur<strong>in</strong>g the bak<strong>in</strong>g of a model cake. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 112(1), 9-17.<br />

1868

A methodology for the certification of food-serv<strong>in</strong>g services accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

Mediterranean dietary model<br />

Evangelos Grigoroudis a , Antonia Psaroudaki b,c<br />

a Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece (vangelis@ergasya.tuc.gr)<br />

b Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Sitia, Greece (psaroudaki@staff.teicrete.gr)<br />

c Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In the era of globalization, the concept of national dietary models has been remarkably reduced<br />

to a m<strong>in</strong>imum, given the fact that the selection of different types of food depends on more<br />

factors compared to the past. Research and epidemiological results associat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

Mediterranean diet with good health have led to an exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the economic aspect of the<br />

Mediterranean diet. Certify<strong>in</strong>g a dietary model presupposes its historic character and the exact<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation of its content. The aforementioned f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs justify the need to certify this model<br />

<strong>in</strong> food-serv<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>esses with<strong>in</strong> the framework of a wider quality management system.<br />

The characteristics of the Mediterranean diet are typical of the diet of Cretans <strong>in</strong> the 1960’s [1].<br />

The term “traditional Mediterranean diet” is used to describe the dietary habits that were<br />

typical <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> regions of the Mediterranean <strong>in</strong> the early 1960’s, such as Crete, some areas <strong>in</strong><br />

the rest of Greece and southern Italy. The association of the Mediterranean diet with good<br />

health has boosted the desire of consumers, especially <strong>in</strong> tourist areas, to follow the<br />

Mediterranean/Cretan dietary model [2]. This fact has led professionals <strong>in</strong> the food-serv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sector to advertise the delivery of such services.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of the paper is to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the potential of the Mediterranean dietary<br />

model to <strong>in</strong>spire proposals of meals by food-serv<strong>in</strong>g services and suggests a methodology for<br />

the certification of such services, accord<strong>in</strong>g to this model. The development of the certification<br />

procedure follows the structure of the ISO 9000 series.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For this study, we have used the results of the seven countries study on food types and general<br />

dietary habits <strong>in</strong> Greece and areas of southern Italy <strong>in</strong> the 1960’s. The development of<br />

specifications <strong>in</strong> the quality manual follows the Mediterranean diet pyramid, as it was<br />

developed by the Oldways Health Organization, the <strong>World</strong> Health Organization and the<br />

Harvard School of Public Health <strong>in</strong> 1942, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to consideration dietary directions on food<br />

expressed by the Supreme Special Scientific Health Council under the auspices of the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />

of Health and Solidarity [3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The development of the certification procedure that follows the structures of the ISO 9000<br />

series requires the compilation of quality manuals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the assessment of quality policies,<br />

the analysis of procedures, and the development of work <strong>in</strong>structions, as well as the<br />

documentation of the whole quality management system [4], [5].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1869

<strong>Food</strong>-serv<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>esses that wish to be certified based on the Mediterranean model should be<br />

able to offer one or more Mediterranean menus. To achieve this, it is necessary to follow the<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>ciples described <strong>in</strong> the production flow with reference to the selection, preparation and<br />

serv<strong>in</strong>g of food accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Mediterranean dietary model and to allocate responsibilities<br />

and competencies so that the quality system can be applied and operate efficiently.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the seven countries study, the Mediterranean diet is characterized by [1]: higher<br />

consumption ratio of monounsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids, high consumption of<br />

pulses, high consumption of gra<strong>in</strong>s (bread), high consumption of fruit, high consumption of<br />

vegetables, moderate to high consumption of fish and seafood, moderate to high consumption<br />

of milk and dairy products, low consumption of alcohol (w<strong>in</strong>e) and low consumption of meat<br />

and meat preparations. The above characteristics, translated <strong>in</strong>to food quantities, are<br />

represented <strong>in</strong> the food pyramid that was prepared by the Supreme Special Scientific Health<br />

Council.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> procedures followed by food-serv<strong>in</strong>g services are: (a) Production flow (supply and<br />

selection of provisions, delivery of provisions and storage, preparation and cook<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

conservation and serv<strong>in</strong>g), (b) Compilation/Reorganization of menu, (c) Hir<strong>in</strong>g and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of<br />

employees, (d) Customer satisfaction measurement, and (e) Compla<strong>in</strong>t management and<br />

corrective actions.<br />

The necessary documentation conta<strong>in</strong>s data and <strong>in</strong>formation that are critical for the justification<br />

and the validity of the quality management system. The documentation is used as a proof that<br />

the requirements of the quality management system are met. In general, the documentation<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes forms, checklists, records, and other lists (additional records that support specific<br />

procedures).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this study, we present the basic po<strong>in</strong>ts for the compilation of a quality manual and a<br />

procedures and directions manual, which can support the certification methodology of the<br />

Mediterranean dietary model, follow<strong>in</strong>g the structures of the ISO 9000 series. The benefits that<br />

a bus<strong>in</strong>ess can earn from the certification of this dietary model and the wider system of quality<br />

assurance of its services become apparent <strong>in</strong> a short time. A bus<strong>in</strong>ess that adopts such systems<br />

becomes more competitive and its products and services become more useful, which results <strong>in</strong><br />

a remarkable boost <strong>in</strong> client confidence. At the same time, this contributes to the safeguard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of an important cultural legacy, which can enhance the susta<strong>in</strong>ability of the tourism sector.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Willett W.C., Sacks F., Trichopoulou A., Drescher G., Ferro-Luzzi A., Hels<strong>in</strong>g E. & Trichopoulos<br />

D. 1995. Mediterranean diet pyramid: A cultural model for healthy eat<strong>in</strong>g. American Journal of<br />

Cl<strong>in</strong>ical Nutrition, 61, 1402S-1406S<br />

[2] Trichopoulou A. & Lagiou P. 1997. Healthy traditional Mediterranean diet: An expression of<br />

culture, history, and lifestyle. Nutrition Reviews, 55, 383-389.<br />

[3] Special Scientific Health Council 1999. Dietary directions for adults <strong>in</strong> Greece, Archives of Hellenic<br />

Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 16(5), 516-524.<br />

[4] Schlickman J. 2003. ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System Design, Artech House, Norwood.<br />

[5] <strong>Food</strong> Safety and Inspection Service 1997. Guidebook for the preparation of HACCP plans, US<br />

Department of Agriculture, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton.<br />

1870

Bactericidal effect of electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g (EO) water on E. coli O157:H7- and<br />

Salmonella-<strong>in</strong>oculated beef, chicken, and shrimp<br />

Jean Weese a and Tung-Shi Huang b<br />

a Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Alabama USA (weesesj@auburn.edu)<br />

b Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Alabama USA (huangtu@auburn.edu)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

This paper evaluates the bactericidal effect of electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g (EO) water on E. coli<br />

O157:H7- and Salmonella-<strong>in</strong>oculated beef, chicken, and shrimp.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Strips of beef and chicken meat (25 g) were placed <strong>in</strong> a bacterial suspension of five-stra<strong>in</strong><br />

mixtures of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, or Salmonella enteritidis for 2<br />

m<strong>in</strong>. After the strips were allowed to dry <strong>in</strong> the air for 10 m<strong>in</strong>, they were treated with EO<br />

water, aqueous chlor<strong>in</strong>e, or tap water for 1, 3, 5 or 10 m<strong>in</strong>. The removed strips were placed <strong>in</strong><br />

stomacher bags with 225 ml sterile Butterfield’s phosphate buffer and blended for 2 m<strong>in</strong> at<br />

normal speed. The suspension was serially diluted and 0.1 ml aliquots from appropriate<br />

dilutions were spread onto the respective selective agar plates for each test bacteria. After<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubation at 37 o C for 24 hr, colony numbers were recorded for the beef and chicken meat.<br />

The shrimp were <strong>in</strong>oculated on day 0 and stored frozen at -20 °C. Bacterial enumeration was<br />

done on day 0, 24, 49 and 119 of frozen storage.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

S. enteritis, E. coli O157:H7, and L. monocytogenes on <strong>in</strong>oculated beef were reduced by 65.3-<br />

83.6%, 60.9-75.4%, and 79.8-92.1%, respectively, and 87.1-93.6%, 80.6-94.9%, and 91.1-<br />

97.6% respectively for treated chicken strips, follow<strong>in</strong>g EO water treatment. No significant<br />

difference <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g bacterial loads was noted among the three treatment solutions.<br />

However, a longer treatment time resulted <strong>in</strong> a greater bacterial loss.<br />

Acidic EO water at 40 ppm free available chlor<strong>in</strong>e was as effective as aqueous chlor<strong>in</strong>e of the<br />

same concentration, and significantly more effective (P < 0.05) than tap water <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pathogen load on the <strong>in</strong>oculated shrimp. Further reduction of pathogen numbers was observed<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g each frozen storage period. Pre-wash<strong>in</strong>g with alkal<strong>in</strong>e EO water did not enhance the<br />

bactericidal activity of the acidic EO water on the shrimp. The washed acidic EO water of the<br />

<strong>in</strong>oculated shrimp had non-detectable bacterial populations when compared to treated aqueous<br />

chlor<strong>in</strong>e, alkal<strong>in</strong>e EO water, and tap water<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1871

CONCLUSION<br />

Meat texture and fat content may contribute to the greater bacterial loss <strong>in</strong> treated chicken meat<br />

when compared to the beef. Acidic EO water can be used as an effective dis<strong>in</strong>fectant to<br />

replace aqueous chlor<strong>in</strong>e for thaw<strong>in</strong>g shrimp blocks.<br />

1872

Predict<strong>in</strong>g persimmon puree colour as a result of puree strength manipulation<br />

Andrew R. East a , Xiu Hua Tan b , Jantana Suntudprom a<br />

a<br />

Institute of <strong>Food</strong>, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University,<br />

Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand (a.r.east@massey.ac.nz)<br />

b Massey University (S<strong>in</strong>gapore), Block T1A25, 500 Dover Road, S<strong>in</strong>gapore<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Colour is an important quality def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g attribute for any food product [1] as it is the first perceived<br />

judgement of the quality of the food by the consumer. Quantitative measurement of the colour of foods is<br />

rout<strong>in</strong>ely reported <strong>in</strong> the Commision <strong>International</strong>e de L’Eclairage (CIE) 3-dimensional model. As most<br />

processed fruit products convert solid foods to liquid or semi-liquid products, the colour of the result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

product is an important attribute <strong>in</strong> allow<strong>in</strong>g the consumer to identify and establish authenticity that the<br />

product is <strong>in</strong>deed made from the fresh fruit.<br />

Non-astr<strong>in</strong>gent persimmon cultivars (e.g. ‘Fuyu’) ripen after harvest and can be consumed when either a<br />

crisp apple like texture (firmness = 9 kgf) or a soft peach like texture (firmness = 1 kgf). Dur<strong>in</strong>g fruit<br />

ripen<strong>in</strong>g, synthesis and degradation of pigments (carotenoids, chlorophyll and anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s) occurs<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> dramatic colour changes. This natural change <strong>in</strong> colour due to ripen<strong>in</strong>g, creates challenges <strong>in</strong><br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g consistent colour properties of fruit based products. Pilando et al. [2] previously found that<br />

strawberry maturity played an important role <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the colour characteristics of strawberry w<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

As solids concentration is likely to be manipulated and fruit maturity variable for any potential<br />

persimmon fruit product, this work aimed to create a model that would enable prediction of the effect of<br />

solids concentration manipulation on persimmon puree colour irrespective of fruit maturity.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fruit were ripened at 20°C and destructively measured <strong>in</strong> order to identify approximately 7 kg of fruit<br />

with<strong>in</strong> three maturity classes represent<strong>in</strong>g firm (6.5-8 kgf), medium (3-6.5 kgf) and soft (0.1-3 kgf). Persimmon purees were created by first prepar<strong>in</strong>g a large batch of the native state puree. This native state<br />

puree was mixed <strong>in</strong> proportion with either de-ionised water or the 45% solids puree paste to create 10<br />

purees <strong>in</strong> the range of half to double strength. Colour of the persimmon purees were measured<br />

immediately after preparation. The experiment was conducted twice <strong>in</strong> order to create two sets of data,<br />

one be<strong>in</strong>g used for model creation and the second for model validation.<br />

A s<strong>in</strong>gle model that was functional <strong>in</strong>dependent of fruit maturity was developed. All solids concentration<br />

and colour parameter data (xi) was converted to a fractional change scale (x) relative to the values<br />

measured for the native state puree (xn, Eq. 1). A simple second order polynomial (forcibly fitted through<br />

the native puree characteristics) was used to fit and describe the patterns observed (Eq. 2) for each<br />

CIELAB colour parameter. Validation of the result<strong>in</strong>g model was conducted by apply<strong>in</strong>g the equations<br />

for predict<strong>in</strong>g the colour change to the second <strong>in</strong>dependent data set. Model accuracy was quantified by<br />

calculat<strong>in</strong>g the mean absolute error (MAE).<br />

xi<br />

x<br />

1<br />

(1)<br />

x<br />

n<br />

2<br />

x vSz(<br />

S)<br />

(2)<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1873

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Irrespective of fruit maturity it was observed that dilution <strong>in</strong> the solids content of the puree result <strong>in</strong><br />

reduced L*, a*, b* and C parameters and <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> h, while the <strong>in</strong>verse was true for purees with<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased solids concentration (data not shown). These changes <strong>in</strong> the CIELAB colour parameters<br />

suggest that dilution of solids content <strong>in</strong> persimmon puree results <strong>in</strong> a darker (lower L*), less <strong>in</strong>tense<br />

(lower C) and more yellow (<strong>in</strong>creased h) product colour.<br />

In most cases, the second order polynomial fitted through the native puree properties was found to be an<br />

adequate description of the change <strong>in</strong> colour parameter as caused by a change <strong>in</strong> solids content (Table 1).<br />

Table 1. Fitted constants for the second order polynomials to describe the fractional change <strong>in</strong> CIELAB colour<br />

parameters as a function of the fractional change <strong>in</strong> puree solids content.<br />

CIELAB Parameter v z R 2<br />

L* 0.139 -0.083 0.91<br />

a* 0.943 -0.378 0.96<br />

b* 0.651 -0.255 0.98<br />

C 0.689 -0.273 0.99<br />

H -0.113 0.122 0.89<br />

Use of the polynomial prediction models found that the prediction was robust over a large range of<br />

potential values (Figure 1). For the five CIELAB parameters the mean absolute error of prediction ranged<br />

between 0.55 (for L*) and 1.17 (for h). The largest deviation from predictions occurred for purees made<br />

from firm fruit and with <strong>in</strong>creased (S > 0.5) solids concentrations. These deviations from prediction was<br />

a result of low prediction of a* values from those observed (Figure 1b) which also results <strong>in</strong> prediction of<br />

higher h values (Figure 1e).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Colour is an important attribute of fruit based products that can be substantially <strong>in</strong>fluenced by solids<br />

concentration manipulation. In this work a second order polynomial was used to model the change <strong>in</strong><br />

CIELAB parameters with manipulation of concentration of solids <strong>in</strong> persimmon puree. The developed<br />

models were <strong>in</strong>dependently validated and found to be robust, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that prediction and hence<br />

manipulation of colour outcomes is achievable through solids content manipulation.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. Independent validation<br />

(prediction vs observed) of use of<br />

second order polynomial (Eq. 2; Table<br />

1) to predict CIELAB colour parameters<br />

(L*, a*, b*, C, and h) of persimmon<br />

puree as a function of manipulation of<br />

solids content.<br />

[1] Francis F.J. 1995. Quality as <strong>in</strong>fluenced by color. <strong>Food</strong> Quality and Preference, 6(3), 149-155.<br />

[2] Pilando L.S., Wrolstad R.E., Heatherbell, D.A. 1985. Influence of fruit composition, maturity and mold<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation on the color and appearance of strawberry w<strong>in</strong>e, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 50, 1121-1125.<br />

1874

Occurrence of furan <strong>in</strong> commercial samples of roasted coffee <strong>in</strong> Brazil<br />

Adriana P. Arisseto a , Eduardo Vicente a , Mariana S. Ueno a , Maria Cecília F. Toledo a<br />

a Institute of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (adriana.arisseto@ital.sp.gov.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Furan is a food process<strong>in</strong>g contam<strong>in</strong>ant which occurs <strong>in</strong> several heat-treated foods, such as<br />

canned and jarred foods, coffee and cereal products [1]. Furan is classified as a possible human<br />

carc<strong>in</strong>ogen and recent risk evaluations have <strong>in</strong>dicated that the exposure to furan by commonly<br />

consumed foods <strong>in</strong> the diet is a human health concern [2, 3]. Previous studies <strong>in</strong>dicate that<br />

roasted coffee conta<strong>in</strong>s the highest furan levels <strong>in</strong> comparison to other products, with mean and<br />

maximum values of 1807 and 6900 g/kg, respectively [4].<br />

So far, no data on the level of furan <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee samples from Brazil is available <strong>in</strong> the<br />

literature. Therefore, the objective of this study was to validate a method based on gas<br />

chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry preceded by headspace solid phase<br />

microextraction (HS-SPME-GC/MS) for furan determ<strong>in</strong>ation and evaluate the levels of the<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> roasted coffees available on the Brazilian market.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A total of 41 samples were purchased at supermarkets <strong>in</strong> the city of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil,<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g traditional ground coffee of different <strong>in</strong>tensities (n=27), <strong>in</strong>stant (n=8), decaffe<strong>in</strong>ated<br />

(n=2) and premium coffee samples (n=4). All products were analyzed as bought. The SPME<br />

was carried out by us<strong>in</strong>g a 75 m carboxen-polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) fiber, under<br />

the previously optimized conditions, i.e. extraction temperature: 35ºC and extraction time: 30<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes. Furan-d4 was used as <strong>in</strong>ternal standard. The method was validated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

guidel<strong>in</strong>es laid down by the Brazilian Institute of Metrology, Standardization and Industrial<br />

Quality [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In relation to the analytical method, good l<strong>in</strong>earity over the range 0-9600 g/kg was obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

(r 2 = 0.992). A comparison between curves set on aqueous standard solutions and on matrix by<br />

apply<strong>in</strong>g the F-test and t-test revealed a non-significant matrix effect. Limit of detection (LOD)<br />

and limit of quantitation (LOQ) were 3 and 10 g/kg, respectively. Mean recoveries ranged<br />

from 76 to 101%, and coefficients of variation ranged from 1.7 to 7.1% for repeatability and<br />

from 6.2 to 13.8% for with<strong>in</strong>-laboratory reproducibility.<br />

The levels of furan <strong>in</strong> the analyzed samples are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The furan content varied<br />

from 250 to 5332 g/kg. The lowest mean level was found <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stant coffee (449 ± 271 μg/kg)<br />

whereas the highest mean concentration was observed <strong>in</strong> strong ground coffee packed under<br />

vacuum (4247 ± 1090 μg/kg). These results are comparable to data reported <strong>in</strong> the literature by<br />

European and North-American countries. The high levels of furan found <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee may<br />

be associated to the higher temperatures used <strong>in</strong> the roast<strong>in</strong>g process, which exceed most of<br />

other food process<strong>in</strong>g procedures.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1875

Table 1. Furan levels <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee<br />

Product n<br />

Furan (μg/kg)<br />

Mean M<strong>in</strong>-Max<br />

Packag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> normal atmosphere<br />

Classic 7 1670 1129-2026<br />

Extra-strong 6 1556 1247-1861<br />

Instant<br />

Packag<strong>in</strong>g under vacuum<br />

8 449 250-1012<br />

Classic 6 3472 2534-5021<br />

Strong 2 4247 3340-5332<br />

Extra-strong 6 2445 1556-5056<br />

Decaffe<strong>in</strong>ated 2 4082 3274-4778<br />

Premium 4 1789 1273-2494<br />

There was no correlation between furan levels and the coffee <strong>in</strong>tensity as <strong>in</strong>dicated on the label<br />

(classic, strong and extra-strong). However, mean furan levels found <strong>in</strong> the samples packed<br />

under vacuum were higher than those packed <strong>in</strong> normal atmosphere.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is expected that these results will contribute to data accumulation for worldwide health risk<br />

assessment and be helpful <strong>in</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g approaches to lower the exposure of the population to<br />

furan from the consumption of coffee.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] US FDA. Exploratory data on furan <strong>in</strong> food: <strong>in</strong>dividual food products; United States <strong>Food</strong> and Drug<br />

Adm<strong>in</strong>istration. 2004.<br />

[2] IARC. Furan. In: IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carc<strong>in</strong>ogenic risks of chemicals to humans;<br />

<strong>International</strong> Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, v. 63, 1995.<br />

[3] FAO/WHO. Summary and conclusions of the seventy-second JECFA meet<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture<br />

Organization/<strong>World</strong> Health Organization. 2010.<br />

[4] EFSA. Update of results on the monitor<strong>in</strong>g of furan levels <strong>in</strong> food; European <strong>Food</strong> Safety Authority.<br />

2010.<br />

[5] INMETRO. Orientação sobre validação de métodos de ensaios químicos DOQ-CGCRE-08. Instituto<br />

Nacional de Metrologia, Normalização e Qualidade Industrial. Revisão 2, Junho 2007.<br />

1876

Potential of furan formation <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee as <strong>in</strong>fluenced by species and roast degree<br />

Adriana P. Arisseto a , Eduardo Vicente a , Mariana S. Ueno a , Silvia A. V. Tfouni a , Maria Cecília F. Toledo a<br />

a Institute of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (adriana.arisseto@ital.sp.gov.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of furan formation <strong>in</strong> heat-treated foods commonly consumed by the population<br />

have atta<strong>in</strong>ed worldwide concern s<strong>in</strong>ce furan is classified as a “possible human carc<strong>in</strong>ogen” [1,<br />

2]. The pathways proposed to expla<strong>in</strong> the furan formation <strong>in</strong> foods is ma<strong>in</strong>ly based on the<br />

thermal degradation/Maillard reaction of sugars, alone or <strong>in</strong> the presence of am<strong>in</strong>o acids,<br />

thermal degradation of certa<strong>in</strong> am<strong>in</strong>o acids, and thermal oxidation of ascorbic acid and polyunsaturated<br />

fatty acids [3, 4]. It has been reported <strong>in</strong> the literature that roasted coffee conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />

the highest furan levels when compared to other foods, with mean and maximum values of<br />

1807 and 6900 g/kg, respectively [5]. The levels of furan found <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee may be<br />

associated to the higher temperatures used <strong>in</strong> the roast<strong>in</strong>g process, which exceed most of other<br />

food process<strong>in</strong>g procedures.<br />

Although there have been several studies on furan content <strong>in</strong> commercial samples of roasted<br />

coffee, little knowledge is available on the relationship between roast<strong>in</strong>g conditions and furan<br />

formation. Thus, the objective of this work is to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of coffee species and<br />

roast degree on furan levels <strong>in</strong> roasted ground coffee.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Green coffee beans of Coffea arabica (cv. Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62) and Coffea canephora (cv.<br />

Apoatã IAC-2258) were roasted to light, medium and dark roast degrees, which were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Agtron/SCAA Roast Color Classification System. Roasted beans were<br />

stored at -18ºC <strong>in</strong> alum<strong>in</strong>ized valve bags and ground immediately before analysis.<br />

The furan content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the green and roasted ground coffees by us<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>-house<br />

validated method based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry preceded by<br />

headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME-GC/MS). The limits of detection and<br />

quantification were 3 and 10 g/kg, respectively.<br />

Data were processed by analysis of variance one-way ANOVA and Tukey test for comparisons<br />

of means (Statistica 5.5, Stat Soft Inc.).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Furan was not detected <strong>in</strong> green coffee whereas levels between 911 and 5852 g/kg were found<br />

<strong>in</strong> the roasted samples (n=20). This range is <strong>in</strong> accordance with data reported <strong>in</strong> the literature<br />

[5].<br />

Figure 1 shows the average furan levels for the species and roast degrees evaluated. When<br />

consider<strong>in</strong>g the species, higher furan levels were observed <strong>in</strong> samples of C. canephora with<strong>in</strong><br />

each roast degree. The higher levels of furan <strong>in</strong> C. canephora samples could not be expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce it is not completely understood which components are the key reactants that could<br />

contribute to relatively higher furan levels <strong>in</strong> some foods. In relation to the roast<strong>in</strong>g process, it<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1877

was verified that furan levels significantly <strong>in</strong>creased (p 0.05) with the <strong>in</strong>tensity of roast<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

both species with darker roasted samples show<strong>in</strong>g the highest levels of furan.<br />

Different capital letters <strong>in</strong>dicate statistic difference between species with<strong>in</strong> a same roast degree.<br />

Different small letters <strong>in</strong>dicate statistic difference between roast degrees with<strong>in</strong> a same species.<br />

Figure 1. Mean furan levels <strong>in</strong> roasted coffee accord<strong>in</strong>g to species and roast degree.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of the present study showed that the furan formation dur<strong>in</strong>g roast<strong>in</strong>g vary<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the coffee species and roast degree. The management of these parameters could<br />

be tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account as possible strategies to reduce the formation of this contam<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong><br />

roasted coffee.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] US FDA. Exploratory data on furan <strong>in</strong> food: <strong>in</strong>dividual food products; United States <strong>Food</strong> and Drug<br />

Adm<strong>in</strong>istration. 2004.<br />

[2] IARC. Furan. In: IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carc<strong>in</strong>ogenic risks of chemicals to humans;<br />

<strong>International</strong> Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, v. 63, 1995.<br />

[3] Locas C.P. & Yaylayan V.A. 2004. Orig<strong>in</strong> and mechanistic pathways of formation of the parent furan<br />

- a food toxicant. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 52, 6830-6836.<br />

[4] Becalski A. & Seaman S. 2005. Furan precursors <strong>in</strong> food: a model study and development of a simple<br />

headspace method for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of furan. Journal of AOAC <strong>International</strong>, 88, 102-106.<br />

[5] EFSA. Update of results on the monitor<strong>in</strong>g of furan levels <strong>in</strong> food; European <strong>Food</strong> Safety Authority.<br />

2010.<br />

1878

Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of Byssochlamys nivea <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

prelim<strong>in</strong>ary high pressure treatments<br />

Elisa Helena da Rocha Ferreira a . Amauri Rosenthal b . Verônica Calado a . Jorge Saraiva c . Sónia Mendo c .<br />

Pilar Rodrigues De Massaguer d<br />

a<br />

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Rio de Janeiro. RJ. Brazil.<br />

(elisahelenarocha@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Embrapa Agro<strong>in</strong>dustria de Alimentos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (arosent@ctaa.embrapa.br)<br />

c<br />

Aveiro University. Department of Chemistry. Aveiro. Portugal. (jsaraiva@dq.ua.pt)<br />

c<br />

Aveiro University. Department of Biology. Aveiro. Portugal. (smendo@ua.pt)<br />

d<br />

Fundação Tropical de Pesquisas e Tecnologia André Tosello. LABTERMO. Camp<strong>in</strong>as. Brazil.<br />

(pilar.rodriguez@terra.com.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Byssochlamys nivea is a thermal resistant filamentous fungi and potential micotox<strong>in</strong> producer.<br />

Recent studies have verified the presence of ascospores of such microorganism <strong>in</strong> samples of<br />

p<strong>in</strong>eapple nectars and juices. Although the majority of filamentous fungi have limited heat<br />

resistance and are easily destroyed by heat, Byssochlamys nivea ascospores have shown great<br />

thermal resistance. The aim of this work was to evaluate the application of l<strong>in</strong>ear and Weibull<br />

models on thermal <strong>in</strong>activation (70, 80 and 90ºC) of Byssochlamys nivea ascospores <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple<br />

juice after pretreatment with high pressure (550MPa or 650MPa dur<strong>in</strong>g 15m<strong>in</strong>).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For the prelim<strong>in</strong>ary high pressure treatment applied to the <strong>in</strong>oculated p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice previously to<br />

thermal treatment the follow<strong>in</strong>g conditions were used: 550 e 650MPa for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Initial<br />

temperature of high pressure treatment was set at 20 ºC. Samples <strong>in</strong>oculated with the mould were<br />

<strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> sterilized polyethylene bags and pressurized. After on, the sample were transferred to<br />

sterile eppendorf tubes and immersed <strong>in</strong> thermostatic baths, adjusted to the follow<strong>in</strong>g temperatures:<br />

70, 80 e 90ºC for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 e 25 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the thermal treatment, tubes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

samples were immediately cooled down <strong>in</strong> ice bath and aseptically opened. Serial dilution and pour<br />

plat<strong>in</strong>g were then carried out, us<strong>in</strong>g double concentrated Malt Extract Agar added with rose bengal<br />

(0,25%), followed by homogenization. After mixture solidification, the plates were <strong>in</strong>oculated at<br />

30ºC for 7 days. Analyses were done <strong>in</strong> duplicate.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Survival curves of B. nivea ascospores at 70°C after either pressure treatment and at 80°C after<br />

550MPa for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes fitted well <strong>in</strong> both l<strong>in</strong>ear and Weibull models (Table 1). For the other<br />

treatments, the Weibull model showed better fit. At 90ºC the Weibull model also showed a better<br />

adjustment for ascospores <strong>in</strong>activation (control) without previously high pressure treatment,<br />

present<strong>in</strong>g a larger R 2 and a smaller RMSE. In the others controls treatments (70 and 80ºC without<br />

previously high pressure treatment), it was verified the activation of B. nivea ascospores, avoid<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the models adjustment. Table 2 shows the result<strong>in</strong>g parameters for L<strong>in</strong>ear model (D-value) and for<br />

Weibull (b e n) for each treatment applied to the mould.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1879

The parameter of form (n) varied proportionally with the temperature <strong>in</strong> both previous high pressure<br />

treatment. D-value from L<strong>in</strong>ear model was significant for all survival curves, while the parameters<br />

of Weibull model were significant for some of the treatments. All parameters presented low<br />

standard-deviation, assur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> that way the repeatability.<br />

Previous pressure treatment at 650 MPa for 15 m<strong>in</strong>. thermal resistance higher resistance to<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation was verified for the B. nivea ascospores <strong>in</strong>oculated <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice at 70 and 80ºC, or<br />

possibly a higher capacity of the spores to adapt to the treatment (tail formation n 1). On the other<br />

hand, <strong>in</strong> both treatments at 90ºC cumulative damage resulted <strong>in</strong> higher ascospores sensitiveness<br />

(shoulder formation n 1).<br />

By obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g t 1 value related to Weibull model as well as D-value associated to l<strong>in</strong>ear model (data<br />

not shown), it was possible to design the thermal process required for each pressure with the<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ation with each temperature considered. In this sense, after pressure application at<br />

550MPa/15m<strong>in</strong>. it would be necessary a thermal treatment of 16.50m<strong>in</strong>. on the juice to obta<strong>in</strong> 5<br />

logarithmic reductions <strong>in</strong> B. nivea ascospores population, while with prelim<strong>in</strong>ary treatment at<br />

650MPa for 15m<strong>in</strong> a heat treatment of 15.38m<strong>in</strong> would be required. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary high pressure<br />

treatment contributed to ascospores <strong>in</strong>activation at 90ºC and avoided activation <strong>in</strong> treatments at 70<br />

and 80ºC.<br />

Table 1. Determ<strong>in</strong>ant coefficients (R 2 ) and residues square mean (MQ E) from survival curve of B. nivea<br />

ascospores <strong>in</strong>oculated <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice fitted us<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>ear and Weibull models, after treatment at 550<br />

MPa for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes and 650 MPa for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes<br />

Ascospores of B. nivea <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice<br />

After treatment at 550 MPa / 15 m<strong>in</strong> After treatment at 650 MPa / 15 m<strong>in</strong><br />

Weibull Model L<strong>in</strong>ear Model Weibull Model L<strong>in</strong>ear Model<br />

R 2 MQE R 2 MQE R 2 MQE R 2 MQE T*<br />

70 0,99 6,4.10 -4 0,99 7,9.10 -4 0,87 0,0068 0,87 0,0069<br />

80 0,94 0,90 0,91 1,39 0,93 0,43 0,93 0,44<br />

90 0,99 0,12 0,91 1,11 0,99 8,3.10 -6 0,95 0,16<br />

*T = Temperature (ºC)<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary pressure treatment contributed to B. nivea asospores <strong>in</strong>activation <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice at<br />

90ºC and avoided activation and 70 and 80ºC. Weibull model fitted better for the both applied<br />

treatments. It was required 16.50m<strong>in</strong> at 90ºC after treatment at 550MPa/15m<strong>in</strong> and 15.38m<strong>in</strong> after<br />

650MPa/15 m<strong>in</strong>., <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> a 5 log-reduction, as recommended by the FDA [1]. However,<br />

consider<strong>in</strong>g the long time required for <strong>in</strong>activation which would imply <strong>in</strong> low process efficiency,<br />

high energy demand an prejudice to quality characteristics such as sensory attributes, further studies<br />

are necessary to improve the process aim<strong>in</strong>g possible <strong>in</strong>dustrial application.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] FDA. <strong>Food</strong> and Drug adm<strong>in</strong>istration. 2001. Exemptions from the Warn<strong>in</strong>g Label Requirement for<br />

Juice – Recommendations for Effectively Achiev<strong>in</strong>g a 5-Log Reduction. U.S. <strong>Food</strong> and Drus<br />

Adm<strong>in</strong>istration Centre of <strong>Food</strong> Safety and Applied Nutrition.<br />

1880

Role of spices on acrylamide formation <strong>in</strong> buckwheat g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes<br />

L. Marková a,b , Z. Ciesarová a , K. Kukurová a , H.Zieliski c , D.Zieliska d , A. Bednáriková a<br />

a<br />

VÚP <strong>Food</strong> Research Institute, Bratislava, Slovak Republic (markova@vup.sk, ciesarova@vup.sk,<br />

kukurova@vup.sk)<br />

b<br />

VUT University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno, Czech Republic (xcmarkova@fch.vutbr.cz)<br />

c<br />

Institute of Animal Reproduction and <strong>Food</strong> Research of Polish Academy of Sciences, Olsztyn, Poland<br />

(h.ziel<strong>in</strong>ski@pan.olsztyn.pl)<br />

d<br />

University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland (dziel@uwm.edu.pl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Acrylamide is a probably probable carc<strong>in</strong>ogen to humans, which is formed <strong>in</strong> foods dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<br />

treatment. The use of substances that allow effective elim<strong>in</strong>ation of acrylamide <strong>in</strong> foods [1] is<br />

the effective way to reduce acrylamide content <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong> order to protect human health.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to our previous model study, the antioxidant capacity of some spice extracts highly<br />

correlated with acrylamide formation <strong>in</strong> simplified simulated food matrices [2].<br />

The aim of this study was to assess the impact of selected spices on acrylamide occurrence <strong>in</strong><br />

g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with the addition of buckwheat flour, which is frequently used as an additive <strong>in</strong><br />

functional foods due to its high level of antioxidants [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples of spices were separately extracted with mixture ethanol/water (1:1, v/v) and<br />

antioxidant activity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by DPPH• radicals scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity assay.<br />

Dough for the production of g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes consisted of light buckwheat flour and light rye flour<br />

(<strong>in</strong> a ratio 0.7 : 0.3), buckwheat honey, rais<strong>in</strong>g agent, sugar, butter and spices (2 % content of<br />

flour). G<strong>in</strong>ger cakes were baked at 180 °C for 18 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

The extraction of acrylamide from the samples was implemented with CH3COOH (0.2 mmol/l)<br />

and re-extraction <strong>in</strong>to ethyl acetate. Acrylamide content was analysed by LC/ESI-MS-MS.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The acrylamide content <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with spices (Figure 1) was compared with the values of<br />

antioxidant activity of extracts from spices. The highest antioxidant capacity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

extracts of c<strong>in</strong>namon and star anise but the decrease of acrylamide content was not observed<br />

for these two k<strong>in</strong>ds of spices. The content of acrylamide <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with star anise has not<br />

changed. Acrylamide content <strong>in</strong> the g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with c<strong>in</strong>namon <strong>in</strong>creased even up to 29 %.<br />

Conversely, acrylamide content was significantly reduced <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with nutmeg, fennel,<br />

anis and clove. A m<strong>in</strong>imal decrease of acrylamide content was observed <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with<br />

vanilla, cardamom and white pepper. These k<strong>in</strong>ds of spices showed much lower antioxidant<br />

activity compared with c<strong>in</strong>namon and star anise.<br />

A content of acrylamide <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes could be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by chemical constituents with<br />

antioxidant capacity of spices. Nevertheless, only weak correlation between results of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1881

antioxidant capacity of spices extracts and acrylamide content of g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with correlation<br />

coefficient of 0.68 was observed.<br />

Figure 1. Impact of selected k<strong>in</strong>d of spices on acrylamide content <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The aim of this study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the role of spices on acrylamide formation <strong>in</strong><br />

buckwheat g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes. Acrylamide content was significantly reduced <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with<br />

nutmeg, fennel, anis and clove. In contrast, the highest antioxidant capacity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

extracts of c<strong>in</strong>namon and star anise. The change of acrylamide content was not observed <strong>in</strong><br />

g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with star anise. Acrylamide content <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes with c<strong>in</strong>namon <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

The f<strong>in</strong>al acrylamide content was probably <strong>in</strong>fluenced by compounds, which are found <strong>in</strong><br />

particular k<strong>in</strong>ds of spices. The <strong>in</strong>vestigation of the effect of chemical constituents with<br />

antioxidant capacity of spices is proposed <strong>in</strong> further studies us<strong>in</strong>g model systems.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This contribution is the result of the project implementation "The Centre of Excellence for<br />

Contam<strong>in</strong>ants and Microorganisms <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s" supported by the Research & Development<br />

Operational Programme funded by the ERDF. This work was also supported by the Slovak<br />

Research and Development Agency under the contracts No. LPP 0310-09 and SK-PL-0051-09.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

212.61<br />

258.22<br />

[1] The CIAA Acrylamide "Toolbox". 2009. Confederation of the food and dr<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong>dustries of the EU<br />

[onl<strong>in</strong>e]. [cit. 2011-02-02], 1-41. Available from: .<br />

[2] Ciesarova, Z., Suhaj, M., & Horvátová, J. 2008. Correlation between acrylamide contents and<br />

antioxidant capacities of spice extracts <strong>in</strong> a model potato matrix. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> and Nutrition<br />

Research, 47(1), 1-5.<br />

[3] Zieliski, H., Amigo-Benavent, M., Del Castillo, M.D., Horszwald, A., & Zieliska, D. 2010.<br />

Formulation and bak<strong>in</strong>g process affect Maillard reaction development and antioxidant capacity of<br />

g<strong>in</strong>ger cakes. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> and Nutrition Research, 49(3), 140-148.<br />

1882<br />

vanilla<br />

c<strong>in</strong>namon<br />

allspice<br />

nutmeg<br />

coriander<br />

clove<br />

cardamom<br />

fennel<br />

white pepper<br />

star anise<br />

anise<br />

without spices<br />

197.26<br />

213.47<br />

202.47<br />

227.14<br />

234.87<br />

236.61<br />

266.27<br />

260.57<br />

306.00<br />

333.60<br />

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400<br />

Acrylamide [g/kg]

Detection of deoxynivalenol <strong>in</strong> wheat flour us<strong>in</strong>g fluorescence f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t<br />

Junichi Sugiyama a , Kaori Fujita a , Mizuki Tsuta a , Masayo Kushiro a<br />

a National <strong>Food</strong> Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan (sugiyama@affrc.go.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Deoxynivalenol(DON) is one of mycotox<strong>in</strong>s produced by Fusarium spp. <strong>in</strong> cone, wheat and<br />

other gra<strong>in</strong>s. Conventionally, the gas chromatography-electron capture detector or the enzymel<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

immunosorbent assay method has been used to detect DON, but these methods are timeconsum<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

professional operation, and require expensive equipment and reagents. A new<br />

method to detect DON quickly, easily, and accurately has been demanded.<br />

The objective of this study is to detect DON <strong>in</strong> wheat flour us<strong>in</strong>g FF.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples<br />

Japanese w<strong>in</strong>ter wheat variety “Hokush<strong>in</strong>” was used for this experiment. The wheat was<br />

artificially <strong>in</strong>fected with Fusarium gram<strong>in</strong>earum s.str <strong>in</strong> an experimental field. Four levels of<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ated wheat with different k<strong>in</strong>ds of fungicide were harvested. They were named<br />

Sample A, B, C and D from low to high contam<strong>in</strong>ation level.<br />

Figure 1 shows preparation of wheat flour and experimental flow. After removal of foreign<br />

substance from 120g of wheat gra<strong>in</strong> for each sample, a cyclone sample mill (CSM-S1, UDY<br />

Corp., USA) was used for mill<strong>in</strong>g to make wheat flour. Three sets of 20g sample were divided<br />

<strong>in</strong>to 15g for chemical analysis and 5g for FF measurement. The FF measurement was repeated<br />

5 times for each 5g, so total of 15samples were measured <strong>in</strong> each contam<strong>in</strong>ation level. On the<br />

other hand, the chemical analysis was carried out for 3 samples <strong>in</strong> each contam<strong>in</strong>ation level.<br />

Chemical Analysis<br />

Liquid Chromatography with UV detector (LC1100, Agilent Technologies, USA) was used to<br />

measure the concentration of DON <strong>in</strong> flour [1]. ODS column (L-Column ODS,<br />

4.6mmx250mm, 5m, CERI, Japan) was used. The wavelength of UV detector was set to<br />

220nm.<br />

FF measurement<br />

A fluorescence spectrometer (F7000, Hitachi high technologies, Japan) was used for<br />

measurement of FF[2]. The slit widths on both the excitation and emission sides are fixed at<br />

10 nm. The <strong>in</strong>terval of excitation and emission wavelength was fixed at 10 nm. The<br />

wavelength scann<strong>in</strong>g speed was set to 30 000 nm/m<strong>in</strong>. The wavelength ranges were 200–900<br />

nm for both excitation and emission. The charge voltage of photo multiplier was 350V.<br />

Amount of flour sample for one measurement was 240mg.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1883

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

DON concentration varies from 2.4 ppm to 26.6 ppm. As a whole, it was relatively higher than<br />

that observed <strong>in</strong> normal fields. This is because it was artificially <strong>in</strong>fected with DON produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bacteria. It was found that the sample A and B is almost the same concentration <strong>in</strong> average.<br />

The concentration of the sample C was three times as much as that of the sample A and B. The<br />

sample D was extremely contam<strong>in</strong>ated and was about 10 times as much as the sample A and B.<br />

PLS regression was applied to the same data as quantitative analysis. There were 60 samples<br />

based on 4 contam<strong>in</strong>ation levels. We divided them <strong>in</strong>to two even groups, which are calibration<br />

dataset and validation dataset. PLS regression model was constructed <strong>in</strong> calibration dataset<br />

with cross validation method. Six latent variables were adopted and the result was shown <strong>in</strong><br />

Figure 1. There were high correlation (R 2 =0.990) <strong>in</strong> calibration dataset. The validation dataset<br />

had also similar correlation (R 2 =0.983). Because not much difference between SEC (1.1 ppm)<br />

and SEP (1.4ppm) was observed, the prediction model was expected to be robust.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Nowadays, modern <strong>in</strong>formation technology can handle this vast <strong>in</strong>formation at the same time.<br />

The results of this research <strong>in</strong>dicate that there will be high possibility to detect DON <strong>in</strong> wheat<br />

flour non-destructively us<strong>in</strong>g FF.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. PLS regression of DON concentration.<br />

[1] Thammawong M., Okabe M., Kawasaki T., Nakagawa H., Nagashima H., Okadome H., Nakajima T.<br />

& Kushiro M. 2010. Distribution of Deoxynivalenol and Nivalenol <strong>in</strong> Mill<strong>in</strong>g Fractions from<br />

Fusarium-Infected Japanese Wheat Cultivars. J <strong>Food</strong> Prot., 73 (10), 1817-1823.<br />

[2] Fujita K., Tsuta M., Kokawa M. & Sugiyama J. 2010. Detection of Deoxynivalenol Us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Fluorescence Excitation-Emission Matrix. <strong>Food</strong> Bioprocess Technol., 3 (6), 922-927.<br />

1884

Model<strong>in</strong>g of growth and ochratox<strong>in</strong> A production of Aspergillus carbonarius and evaluation <strong>in</strong> food<br />

matrices: effect of (gel) microstructure, water activity, and temperature<br />

A. E. Kapetanakou a , A. Abavi a , S. Yanniotis b , E. H. Dros<strong>in</strong>os a , P. N. Skandamis a<br />

a <strong>Food</strong> Quality Control and Hygiene, <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece.<br />

pskan@aua.gr<br />

b <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Preservation of Agricultural Products, <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology,<br />

Agricultural University of Athens, Greece.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In addition to the well-established effect of pH and water activity on microbial growth <strong>in</strong> foods, structural<br />

properties (i.e., viscosity and liquid, semi-liquid or solid state) of foods are also known to highly affect<br />

the probability and rate of microbial growth. Although the effect of food microstructure on microbial<br />

growth has been studied extensively for bacteria and yeasts, limited <strong>in</strong>formation is available on how this<br />

parameter affects fungal growth and mycotox<strong>in</strong> production [1, 2].<br />

The present study aimed to develop models for the comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect of aw, microstructure (expressed as %<br />

w/v gelat<strong>in</strong>), and temperature on growth and OTA production of A. carbonarius and to evaluate the<br />

predictions of the developed models <strong>in</strong> food matrices of different viscosity such as custard, jelly, and<br />

marmalade.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Growth and OTA production k<strong>in</strong>etics of A. carbonarius (ATHUM 5659) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Malt Extract<br />

Broth of aw 0.90, 0.94, 0.99 (by glycerol addition), supplemented with different gelat<strong>in</strong> concentrations (0,<br />

5, 10 and 20%) at different temperatures (15, 20 and 25 o C). Fungal growth and OTA production of A.<br />

carbonarius (10 3 spores/mL) was also evaluated on food matrices of different viscosity, such as custard,<br />

jelly and marmalade and <strong>in</strong>cubated at 20 o C. Fungal growth was estimated by measur<strong>in</strong>g the dry fungal<br />

biomass us<strong>in</strong>g sterile cellophane discs, while OTA quantification was performed by HPLC. The square<br />

root of growth and OTA production rates were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Baranyi model and were further<br />

modeled as a function of temperature, gelat<strong>in</strong> concentration and aw by apply<strong>in</strong>g polynomial models.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> gelat<strong>in</strong> concentration caused a significant decrease <strong>in</strong> growth and OTA production rates of<br />

A. carbonarius at almost all exam<strong>in</strong>ed assays (Fig. 1). Both models, for fungal growth and OTA<br />

production, <strong>in</strong>dicated that the <strong>in</strong>fluence of structure was less important as aw decreased and temperature<br />

was not close to the optimum. The comparison of our results with previous reports was difficult due to the<br />

limited number of studies on model<strong>in</strong>g the effect of microstructure on fungi; however our results may be<br />

comparable to relevant models for structure on bacteria species [2]. Coefficients of determ<strong>in</strong>ation were<br />

0.90 and 0.89 for the models predict<strong>in</strong>g the square root (max) of growth and OTA production rate,<br />

respectively.<br />

The mechanism through which microstructure affects the fungal growth and OTA production rates may<br />

be associated with the mechanical distribution of water, diffusion of O2, nutrients or <strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

compounds, such as organic acids, and the mobility of microorganisms. Specifically, a number of studies<br />

support that microorganisms <strong>in</strong> structured products, are immobilized and forced to grow <strong>in</strong> a restricted<br />

space as colonies, pos<strong>in</strong>g an additional stress, which reduces their growth rate [2].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1885

Figure 1. Fitted curves of polynomial model for the square root of: (a) fungal growth (g -1 ) and; (b) OTA production<br />

(ppm d -1 ) rates of A. carbonarius on laboratory media of different aw (0.99, 0.94 and 0.90) and microstructure (0, 5, 10,<br />

and 20% gelat<strong>in</strong>) at 15 (___, ), 20 (___, ) and 25 o C (___, ) <strong>in</strong> comparison with experimental data used for the<br />

fitt<strong>in</strong>g. From: Kapetanakou et al. (2010). <strong>Food</strong> Microbiol (<strong>in</strong> press) doi:10.1016/j.fm.2010.06.001<br />

Although a positive effect of glycerol on viscosity of culture media was observed (data not shown),<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Table 1 the addition of glycerol did not significantly <strong>in</strong>fluence the performance of both<br />

models. Predictions of fungal growth rate agreed well with the recorded data on custard and marmalade,<br />

while predictions for OTA production rates showed low accuracy compared to observations <strong>in</strong> all studied<br />

food matrices, except for marmalade (Table 1). Moreover, predictions for jelly from both developed<br />

models <strong>in</strong>dicated a poor correlation compared to the observed values. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the manufacturer<br />

company label, jelly powder conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>gredients of poor nutritional value, suggest<strong>in</strong>g a possible cause<br />

for the low recorded data compared the predictions. Another <strong>in</strong>terpretation for the observed discrepancies<br />

may be attributable to differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic conditions (e.g., porosity and viscosity) and nutrients<br />

between laboratory media and food matrices.<br />

Table 1. Observed and predicted values of max of fungal growth and OTA production on custard, jelly and<br />

marmalade, <strong>in</strong>cubated at 20ºC for 40-day of storage.<br />

Fungal Growth Sq rate (g d -1 ) OTA Production Sq rate (ppm d -1 )<br />

Predictions Observations<br />

Predictions<br />

Observations<br />

0.99aw 0.94aw 0.90aw<br />

0.99aw 0.94aw 0.90aw<br />

Custard 0.775 0.769 0.761 0.678±0.135 2.486 2.467 2.441 0.939±0.179<br />

Jelly 0.731 0.725 0.718 0.312±0.082 2.320 2.301 2.276 0.193±0.049<br />

Marmalade 0.402 0.399 0.396 0.339±0.188 1.129 1.118 1.102 0.711±0.212<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The food structure markedly affects the growth and OTA production by A. carbonarius. The results of the<br />

evaluation of model performance aga<strong>in</strong>st different foods underl<strong>in</strong>ed the need to identify the critical<br />

variables associated with food structure, which may account for the effect of the latter on microbial<br />

behaviour and can be used <strong>in</strong> predictive models.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Brocklehurst, T. F, Mitchell, G. A. and Smith, A. C., 1997. A model experimental gel surface for the growth of<br />

bacteria on foods. <strong>Food</strong> Microbiol. 14, 303–311. [2] Wilson, P.D.G., Brocklehurst, T.F., Ar<strong>in</strong>o, S., Thuault, D.,<br />

Jakobsen, M., Lange, M., Farkas, J., Wimpenny, J.W.T. and Van Impe, J.F., 2002, Modell<strong>in</strong>g microbial growth <strong>in</strong><br />

structured foods: towards a unified approach. Int. J <strong>Food</strong> Microb. 73, 275– 289.<br />

1886

Modell<strong>in</strong>g of In-Mouth Perception The Case of Sodium<br />

B.J.D. Le Révérend, I.T. Norton, S. Bakalis<br />

School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Birm<strong>in</strong>gham<br />

B15 2TT, Birm<strong>in</strong>gham, United K<strong>in</strong>gdom (s.bakalis@bham.ac.uk)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Over recent years, governmental and non-governmental health agencies have issued<br />

recommendations aim<strong>in</strong>g at reduc<strong>in</strong>g sodium <strong>in</strong>take. Although the recommendations are<br />

target<strong>in</strong>g daily consumption 80% of the salt <strong>in</strong>gested by the consumer <strong>in</strong> the developed<br />

countries comes from processed foods [1]. This puts pressure <strong>in</strong> food manufacturers to reduce<br />

salt content without affect<strong>in</strong>g sensory perception. It has been suggested that delivery profile<br />

can be alter sensory perception [1]. In solid foods mass transfer and more specifically the rate<br />

of mix<strong>in</strong>g with saliva has been postulate to have a significant effect on salt perception.<br />

However <strong>in</strong> liquid food matrices, mix<strong>in</strong>g between the food and saliva is very efficient and <strong>in</strong>vivo<br />

measurements have shown a fast response to pulses of sodium <strong>in</strong> a solution delivered<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a gustometer or under sip-wise conditions.<br />

The aim of this work is to develop a mathematical model that will be able to describe<br />

phenomena occurr<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g oral process<strong>in</strong>g with an emphasis to salt perception.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The model was built consider<strong>in</strong>g two ma<strong>in</strong> compartments:<br />

1) a first represent<strong>in</strong>g the bulk of the mouth and is modelled as a stirred tank, us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

mass balance between food <strong>in</strong>let (Vf, cf) and saliva (Vs, cs). Both fluids are mixed <strong>in</strong>to a foodsaliva<br />

mixture (Vfs, cfs) accord<strong>in</strong>g to a mix<strong>in</strong>g time T which is a function of the <strong>in</strong>verse of the<br />

viscosity of the food (). This volume is emptied of 90% of its content (swallow<strong>in</strong>g) when the<br />

volume reaches 4 ml. The system of differential equations describ<strong>in</strong>g this mass balance was<br />

solved us<strong>in</strong>g a forward Euler scheme.<br />

2) a second is a diffusive volume that represents the mucus boundary layer close to<br />

the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of the tongue. This layer is of fixed thickness (e) and the diffusion of sodium ions<br />

<strong>in</strong> this layer is that of sodium ions <strong>in</strong> water. Fickian diffusion through this layer was solved<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a 2nd order f<strong>in</strong>ite difference scheme.<br />

Between those two compartments, a transfer coefficient h is controll<strong>in</strong>g the exchange of mass<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a Neumann boundary condition Neumann boundary condition<br />

h·(Cm|bulk-Cfs)=-D·( Cm|bulk)·n.<br />

This was estimated us<strong>in</strong>g a dimensionless analysis named Chilton-Colburn analogy that is<br />

presented <strong>in</strong> eq. 1.<br />

Sh = 0.0023 · Re 4/5 · Sc 1/3 (1)<br />

where Sh is the Sherwood number Sh=h·l/D, Re is the Reynolds number Re=u·l·/ and Sc is<br />

the Schmidt number Sc=/(·D).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1887

The equations describ<strong>in</strong>g the system were solved us<strong>in</strong>g MATLAB (Mathworks, USA).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The proposed model compared favourably with experimental data as can be seen from Fig.1.<br />

The model was then further developed to understand the effect of viscosity on the salt<br />

perceived from foods hav<strong>in</strong>g different release profiles. The results demonstrate that as viscosity<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases salt perception can be <strong>in</strong>deed modified by controll<strong>in</strong>g the rate of delivery.<br />

Figure 1. Comparison between the XRD measured and model prediction of the crystal structure of cocoa<br />

butter <strong>in</strong> chocolate at different locations <strong>in</strong> the chocolate.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A conceptual and mathematical model describ<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>-mouth momentum and mass transfer<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g consumption of liquid was developed and tested aga<strong>in</strong>st dynamic and static<br />

experimental sensory data. The model was successful <strong>in</strong> predict<strong>in</strong>g the dynamics of Time-<br />

Intensity curves as well as overall salt<strong>in</strong>ess perception <strong>in</strong> thickened salted solutions. The model<br />

was then used to predict the effect of pulsed delivery of sodium <strong>in</strong> high viscosity liquids and<br />

showed that it is a possible way to effectively reduce salt content without affect<strong>in</strong>g salt<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

perception.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Drake, S. L., Lopetcharat K. & Drake M. A Salty taste <strong>in</strong> dairy foods: Can we reduce the salt?<br />

Journal of Dairy Science 94, 636-645 (2011).<br />

1888

Furan derivatives dynamic <strong>in</strong> rye bread process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

V. Ozol<strong>in</strong>a a , D. Kunkulberga a , B. Cieslak b , M. Obiedz<strong>in</strong>ski b<br />

a Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia (vro@apollo.lv)<br />

b Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland (beata_cieslak@sggw.pl )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Furan is a volatile cyclic compound consist<strong>in</strong>g of five members of the four CH groups and one<br />

oxygen atom. Furans as well as a large proportion of aromatics form from the sugar<br />

caramelization process at high temperatures or Maillard reaction at lower temperatures.<br />

The IARC has evaluated furans as a possible carc<strong>in</strong>ogen of the 2B group. Based on studies<br />

conducted <strong>in</strong> laboratories with animals at high doses of furan, it is assumed that furan can<br />

contribute to the <strong>in</strong>cidence of cancer <strong>in</strong> long-term exposure to very low levels of furan <strong>in</strong> foods.<br />

Furan compounds on heat–treated products can be found <strong>in</strong> the J. Maga study which gathered<br />

data on their occurrences <strong>in</strong> food, their sensory properties and the formation pathways [1].<br />

The European <strong>Food</strong> Safety Authority founded an evaluation group and dur<strong>in</strong>g 2004-2009<br />

collected data from EU Member States for furan content <strong>in</strong> food. Six Member States were<br />

reported for furan content <strong>in</strong> gra<strong>in</strong> products. There no such <strong>in</strong>formation from Latvia.<br />

The FDA recommends HS-GC/MS methodology for furan determ<strong>in</strong>ation, where furans are<br />

analyzed as volatile compounds. The method represents a new approach to the rapid<br />

characterization of food products. High resolution mass spectrometry allows <strong>in</strong>formation to be<br />

gathered on molecular ion orig<strong>in</strong>, creat<strong>in</strong>g a permanent database of the product compounds<br />

from the volatile part of sample composition. Temperature, equilibrium time and the vial size<br />

are key parameters to be optimized for each food [2].<br />

The aim of the present study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate formation of furan and its derivatives <strong>in</strong><br />

Latvian whole-gra<strong>in</strong> rye bread crust and crumb dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The samples used <strong>in</strong> this experiment were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from rye whole-gra<strong>in</strong> flour (stock company<br />

‘Jelgavas Dzirnavas’, Latvia).The dough was made with scald, natural starter and sugar, salt,<br />

malt and cum<strong>in</strong>. The dough sample was fast frozen to stop fermentation and sublimated <strong>in</strong><br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g equipment. The whole-meal rye bread was baked <strong>in</strong> a Latvian commercial<br />

bakery <strong>in</strong> a wood-fired oven 30, 45, 60 and 75m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

After bak<strong>in</strong>g, the loaves were left to cool at room temperature for 12 hours. Crumb and crust of<br />

bread loafs were exam<strong>in</strong>ed on presence of furan and derivatives. Solid phase micro extraction<br />

(SPME) was applied for sampl<strong>in</strong>g and analysis of furan by means gas chromatography-mass<br />

spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC/MS).<br />

Quantitative determ<strong>in</strong>ation were made us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternal standard addition of 1,2-dichlorobenzen<br />

and simultaneous scann<strong>in</strong>g mode (mass range 38-200 m/z) and selected ion monitor<strong>in</strong>g (SIM)<br />

of ions (m/z) 39 and 68 for furan and respectively m/z 146 for IS.<br />

The experiment was carried out <strong>in</strong> the Research Laboratory of Department of Biotechnology,<br />

Microbiology and <strong>Food</strong> Valuation, Warsaw University of Life Sciences <strong>in</strong> 2010.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1889

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

N<strong>in</strong>e furan derivatives were identified <strong>in</strong> Latvian baked rye bread: 1) 2-Furancarboxaldehyde;<br />

2) Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-; 3) 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-; 4) 2-Furanmethanol; 5) 2-<br />

Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-; 6) Furan, 2-pentyl-; 7) 2-Furanmethanol, acetate;<br />

8) 1-(2-Furanyl)-2-hydroxyethanone; 9) 5-Formyl-2-furfurylmethanoate.<br />

The presence of furans has been ascerta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> rye bread crumb already at 30 m<strong>in</strong>ute of bak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Rapid formation of 2-Furancarboxaldehyde (furfural) was observed <strong>in</strong> the subsequent bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stage, and at 45 m<strong>in</strong>utes at a temperature of 99 ºC reached maximum value <strong>in</strong> comparison with<br />

IS. The furfural amount <strong>in</strong> the next 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes of bak<strong>in</strong>g decreases dramatically, and cont<strong>in</strong>ues<br />

to decl<strong>in</strong>e after the optimal bak<strong>in</strong>g time of 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes. In 1993, Silwar and Lullmann observed<br />

a similar dynamic <strong>in</strong> the process of green coffee roast<strong>in</strong>g where furfural fully formed after 5<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes at 230 ºC, then fell rapidly, and decomposed at a higher temperature. In 1963 Smith<br />

found that furfural forms from the oxidation of furfuryl alcohol and is also formed by<br />

decomposition of pentosans, for <strong>in</strong>stance by dehydration of arab<strong>in</strong>ose. In 1991 Mottram<br />

showed that furfural is formed from the Amadori compound of a pentose and an <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />

3-deoxyosone. [3].<br />

In this study it was observed that 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl- formation is tak<strong>in</strong>g place<br />

at an early stage of the bak<strong>in</strong>g process, reach<strong>in</strong>g a maximum at 45 m<strong>in</strong>utes of bak<strong>in</strong>g at 98 ºC,<br />

then decreases until the end of bak<strong>in</strong>g. In 1969 Fagerson described that 2-<br />

Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-forms <strong>in</strong> the thermal degradation of glucose [3].<br />

Other derivatives - 2-Furanmethanol, Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl) and 5-HMF <strong>in</strong> rye bread crumb<br />

formed <strong>in</strong> negligible quantities at the early stage of bak<strong>in</strong>g with maximum reached at 45<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes, than decreases until the end of bak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>creases rapidly <strong>in</strong> bread crust to higher than 100 ºC. N<strong>in</strong>e furan<br />

derivatives were found <strong>in</strong> rye bread crust, four derivatives more than <strong>in</strong> rye bread crumb. In<br />

addition to the crumb, identified derivatives Furan, 2-pentyl-; 2-Furanmethanol, acetate; 1-(2-<br />

Furanyl)-2-hydroxyethanone; 5-Formyl-2-furfurylmethanoate were detected <strong>in</strong> more quantity<br />

<strong>in</strong> rye bread crust.<br />

Compar<strong>in</strong>g the formation of furfural <strong>in</strong> rye bread crumb and crust, it is seen that the amounts at<br />

45 m<strong>in</strong>utes of bak<strong>in</strong>g are significantly different.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

N<strong>in</strong>e volatile furan derivatives were identified <strong>in</strong> Latvian rye bread- 5 <strong>in</strong> bread crumb and 9 <strong>in</strong><br />

bread crust. The majority of the volatile furan derivatives form at early stage of bak<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />

further reduce dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g. Dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g the 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-(5HMF)<br />

formed <strong>in</strong> negligible amounts <strong>in</strong> Latvian rye bread crust but <strong>in</strong>creased with prolonged bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Maga J.A. 1979. Furans <strong>in</strong> foods. Critical Reviews <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutrition, 11, 355-400.<br />

[2] Altaki M.S., Santos F.J. & Galceran M.T. 2007. Analysis of furan <strong>in</strong> foods by headspace solid-phase<br />

microextraction-gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A,<br />

1146, 103-109.<br />

[3] Flament I. 2002. Coffee Flavor Chemistry, John Willey and Sons, England, 410 p.<br />

1890

The effects of Heracleum Platytaenium Boiss Essential Oil on The Growth of<br />

Ochratoxigenic Penicillium Verrucosum (D-99756) Isolated From Kashar Cheese<br />

Sibel Ozcakmak a , Muhammet Dervisoglu b , Abdullah Akgun c , Adnan Akc<strong>in</strong> d ,<br />

Tülay Ayta Akc<strong>in</strong> e , Fatih Seyis f<br />

aDepartment<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, Terme Vocational School, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey<br />

(sibelo@omu.edu.tr)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, Ondokuz Mayis University Samsun, Turkey<br />

(mderviso@omu.edu.tr)<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, Trakya Univerisity, Edirne, Turkey<br />

d<br />

Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science and Literature, Amasya University, Amasya, Turkey<br />

e<br />

Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science and Literature, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun,<br />

Turkey<br />

f<br />

Field Crops Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Penicillium species are frequent contam<strong>in</strong>ants of different food products and are known to<br />

produce a variety of secondary metabolites. P. verucosum is primarily encountered on cereals<br />

and cheeses [1]. Various species of Heracleum have been reported to possess antibacterial and<br />

antifungal properties [2].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Materials<br />

Heracleum platytaenium Boiss essential oil was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Biological Science Department,<br />

Faculty of Science and Literature, Amasya University, Samsun-Turkey. Penicillium<br />

verrucosum Dierck (D-99756), obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> Istanbul<br />

Technical University, Istanbul-Turkey. Yeast Extract Sucrose (YES) agar, YES broth,<br />

methanol, Tween-80, Sodium Clorid (NaCl) were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Merck, Germany.<br />

Methods<br />

M<strong>in</strong>imal <strong>in</strong>hibitory concentrations (MIC) and m<strong>in</strong>imal lethal concentrations (MLC) were<br />

evaluated us<strong>in</strong>g the method of Tavares et al. (2008) [3]. The fungal growth was <strong>in</strong>dicated by the<br />

turbidity. The highest dilution (lowest concentration), show<strong>in</strong>g no visible growth compared<br />

with Eo-free controls, was regarded as MIC. The Eo dilution, which is not visible growth of<br />

typical P. verrucosum colonies on the plates, was accepted as lethal effect. The MLC was<br />

def<strong>in</strong>ed as the lowest Eo concentration at which 99% of the <strong>in</strong>oculums was killed. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>oculations of 1 mL for pour plate method and 30 μL for three po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong>oculation method from<br />

the tubes were sub cultured on YES agar plates and than <strong>in</strong>cubated at 25 o C for 72 hours. All the<br />

experiments were performed <strong>in</strong> duplicate and three <strong>in</strong>dependent experiments were run with<br />

concordant results.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1891

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The mycelia growth was visible <strong>in</strong> negative control tube while any fungal growth wasn’t seen <strong>in</strong><br />

positive control tubes. MIC and MLC values were at 31 and 125 μL mL -1 , respectively.<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ed MLC values were the same <strong>in</strong> both of two assays. The <strong>in</strong>hibitory effect of spice<br />

essential oils is ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to the most abundant component. Heracleum species has just been<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated for anticandidal activity due to the presence of myristic<strong>in</strong>, elemic<strong>in</strong> and (E)anethole<br />

by some researches [2, 4]. This study demonstrated that H. platytaenium oils had the<br />

most fungistatic and fungicidal affect on ochratoxigenic P. verrucosum.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Larsen T.O., Svendsen A. and Smedsgaard J., 2001. Biochemical characterization of ochratox<strong>in</strong><br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g stra<strong>in</strong>s of the genus Penicillium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 67, 3630-3635.<br />

[2] Kuljanabhagavad1 T., Sriubolmas N. and Ruangrungsi1 N., 2010. Chemical composition and<br />

antmicrobial activity of the essental oil from Heracleum samcum. J Health Res., 24(2), 55-60.<br />

[3] Tavares AC., Gonçalves MJ., Cavaleiro C., Cruz MT., Lopez MC., Cahoto J. and Salgueir LR., 2008.<br />

Essential oil of Daucus carota subsp. halophilus: Composition, antifungal and cytotoxicity. J of<br />

Ethnopharmacology, 119, 129-134.<br />

[4] Iscan G., Ozek T., Ozek G., Duran A. and Baser KHC., 2004. Essential oils of three species of<br />

Heracleum anticandidal activity. Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 40(6), 544–547.<br />

1892

The Inhibition of Contam<strong>in</strong>ated Molds by Some Essential Oils <strong>in</strong> Cheeses<br />

Sibel Ozcakmak *a , Abdullah Akgun b , Muhammet Dervisoglu c<br />

aDepartment<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, Terme Vocational School, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey<br />

(sibelo@omu.edu.tr)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, Trakya Univerisity, Edirne, Turkey<br />

(abdullahakgun@yahoo.com)<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Mould growth on cheeses should be <strong>in</strong>hibited by some preservation methods, such as chemical<br />

food preservatives. But consumer perception that the use of <strong>in</strong>dustrially synthesized food<br />

preservatives may be associated with potential toxicological problems has generated <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />

the use of naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g compounds [1]. Some certa<strong>in</strong> herbs, spices or their oils with wellknown<br />

antimicrobial properties have been used for a long time <strong>in</strong> some foods such as cheese to<br />

prevent fungal growth [2].<br />

THE CONTAMINATED FUNGI STRAINS COMMONLY ISOLATED FROM<br />

CHEESES<br />

Mold growth except mould-ripened cheese varieties on the cheese surface causes undesirable<br />

flavor, economic loses and quality problems which of them are capable of produc<strong>in</strong>g toxic<br />

secondary metabolites. The genus most frequently isolated was Penicillium sp. produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mycotox<strong>in</strong>s such as ochratox<strong>in</strong>-A and citr<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> as responsible for spoilage <strong>in</strong> cheeses [3].<br />

USING SOME EOS FOR THE CONTROL OF UNDESIRED MOLDS IN CHEESES<br />

The selected plant essential oils have been classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by<br />

the Unites States <strong>Food</strong> and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (FDA) as approved flavors or food additives<br />

[4]. It was determ<strong>in</strong>ded that the growth of Penicillium sp. could be <strong>in</strong>hibited with phenolic<br />

compunds Eos [5].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Natural phenolic compounds could <strong>in</strong>hibit the growth of the fungi and their tox<strong>in</strong> production.<br />

This is a consumer pressure to reduce the use of such preservatives and perhaps replace them<br />

with other more natural ones. They could be used by the food <strong>in</strong>dustry as antifungal agents<br />

without toxic risk. Eos or their products could be treated with cheeses <strong>in</strong> order to protect from<br />

fungal contam<strong>in</strong>ation. The us<strong>in</strong>g of some essential oils treatment on the surface of cheeses for<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g undesired fungi may be an alternative protection <strong>in</strong>stead of chemical <strong>in</strong> future.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1893

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Leung AY. 1978. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>, Drugs and<br />

Cosmetics, 309–311, Wiley, New York.<br />

[2]. Coma V. 2008. Bioactive pack<strong>in</strong>g technologies for extend shelf life of meat-based products. Meat<br />

Sci 78, 90-103.<br />

[3]. Torkar KG, Vengust A. 2008. The presence of yeasts, moulds and aflatox<strong>in</strong> M 1 <strong>in</strong> raw milk and<br />

cheese <strong>in</strong> Slovenia. <strong>Food</strong> Control 19: 570-577.<br />

[4]. Burt S. 2004. Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications <strong>in</strong> foods- A<br />

review. Int J <strong>Food</strong> Microbiol 94: 223-253.<br />

[5]. Vazquez BI, Fente C, Franco CM, Va´zquez MJ, Cepeda A. 2001. Inhibitory effects of eugenol<br />

and thymol on Penicillium citr<strong>in</strong>um stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> culture media and cheese. Int J <strong>Food</strong> Microbiol 67:<br />

157–163.<br />

1894

Fungicidal aga<strong>in</strong>st Aspergillus flavus and Decontam<strong>in</strong>ate Aflatox<strong>in</strong>B1 with<br />

Neutralized and Acidic electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g water<br />

Li Lite, Xiong Ke<br />

College of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutritional <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, P.R.Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

One of serious food safety problems is likely to be <strong>Food</strong>-borne mycotox<strong>in</strong>s. Some mycotox<strong>in</strong>s<br />

such as aflatox<strong>in</strong>s (especially aflatox<strong>in</strong>sB1) ma<strong>in</strong>ly produced by A.flavus, are considered to be<br />

serious contam<strong>in</strong>ant of food. This study <strong>in</strong>vestigated the effectiveness of Neutralized<br />

electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g water (NEW) and Acidic electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g water (AcEW) on<br />

Fungicidal aga<strong>in</strong>st Aspergillus flavus and decontam<strong>in</strong>ate Aflatox<strong>in</strong>B1 (AFB1).<br />

Although the results reveal both NEW and AcEW possessed potent to <strong>in</strong>hibit A.flavus, they<br />

have different fungicidal efficiency on A.flavus. Different . OH level <strong>in</strong> NEW and AcEW<br />

accounts for this different. AcEW and NEW also have the potent to decontam<strong>in</strong>ate the AFB1<br />

produced by A.flavus. The ma<strong>in</strong> conversion production produced by AFB1 treatment with<br />

AcEW and NEW were isolated and identified. It is showed that AFB1 (C17H12O6) produce the<br />

8-Cl-9-OH-AFB1 (C17H13O7Cl) treatment with AcEW and NEW. The conversion produce of 8-<br />

Cl-9-OH-AFB1 belongs to amphiphilic molecules, which different from the fat solution of<br />

AFB1. Furthermore, the mutagenicity assay showed that the conversion produce did not exhibit<br />

mutagenic activity.<br />

KEY WORD: Neutralized electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g water (NEW); Acidic electrolyzed oxidiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

water (AcEW); OH radical ( . OH); Conversion structure; Mutagenic responses<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1895

1896

Influence of different <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> types on bread quality <strong>in</strong> the process of freez<strong>in</strong>g and thaw<strong>in</strong>g<br />

J. S. Filipovi a , . B. Psodorov a , N. K. Filipovi b , V. S. Filipovi c<br />

a Jelena Filipovi Ph.D, Institute for <strong>Food</strong> Technology <strong>in</strong> Novi Sad Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad,<br />

Serbia (jelena.filipovic@f<strong>in</strong>s.uns.ac.rs)<br />

a ore Psodorov Ph.D, Institute for <strong>Food</strong> Technology <strong>in</strong> Novi Sad Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad,<br />

Serbia(djordje.psodorov@f<strong>in</strong>s.uns.ac.rs)<br />

b Nada Filipovi Ph.D, Faculty of Technology, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia(nfil@uns.ac.rs)<br />

c Vladimir Filipovi Bs., Ml<strong>in</strong>pek Instiute, Bul. Oslobodjenja 66b, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia<br />

(filipovic@ml<strong>in</strong>pekzavod.com)<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

Bakery products, particularly bread, are constituent parts of meals <strong>in</strong> all dietary patterns. By<br />

enrich<strong>in</strong>g the composition of bread with fibers, recognized as, prebiotic substances, long term<br />

health benefits can be easily met. Two different types of commercial <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> were <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />

the dough formula as flour supplements at the level of 5 %. Dough freez<strong>in</strong>g/thaw<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed at -18°C and +20°C, respectively (the highest determ<strong>in</strong>ation coefficient is experienced<br />

with 5% of <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> GR 0.948 and 0.982, and the lowest with the dough without fibers 0.915 and<br />

0.976).The dough was frozen at -18°C and stored over a period 30 days. The results concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bread quality changes were <strong>in</strong>terpreted through bread with volume and crumb quality.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The follow<strong>in</strong>g conclusions can be drawn:<br />

Inul<strong>in</strong> type, regard<strong>in</strong>g the length of side molecular cha<strong>in</strong>s, has the greatest <strong>in</strong>fluence on the freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and thaw<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and quality of f<strong>in</strong>al product.<br />

Freez<strong>in</strong>g and thaw<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics can be reliably described by square polynomial (Y= b0+b1*X<br />

+b2*X 2 ) profile for unsteady temperature change with <strong>in</strong>troduced value of t 2 referr<strong>in</strong>g to the phase<br />

transformation, thus enabl<strong>in</strong>g comput<strong>in</strong>g the process.<br />

The highest positive effect on freez<strong>in</strong>g/thaw<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics, confirmed by high determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

coefficient R 2 is experienced with 5 % of <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> GR (0.948 and 0.982, respectively).<br />

Over a longer period of stor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> with longer molecular cha<strong>in</strong>s is beneficial <strong>in</strong> preserv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

quality of f<strong>in</strong>al products at the <strong>in</strong>itial level and the adverse effect of fiber on bread crumb quality is<br />

not evident.<br />

In the period of 30 days, doughs without and with <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> GR, deterioration of the quality of f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

products is similar, thus po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>in</strong>convenience of this type of <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the frozen dough<br />

technology.<br />

Bakery products enriched with <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> HPX can be successfully produced by frozen dough<br />

technology, enabl<strong>in</strong>g quick preparation of a wider variety of fresh and appeal<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>al products and<br />

distribut<strong>in</strong>g to larger areas, i.e. to consumers with special nutritive needs.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1897

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

These results are part of the project supported by the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Science of the Republic of Serbia<br />

1898

Thermal analysis of strawberry preservation by cool<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Adrian-Gabriel Ghiaus a , Catal<strong>in</strong>a Vasilescu a<br />

a Technical University of Civil <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Bucharest, Romania (ghiaus@<strong>in</strong>stal.utcb.ro)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Healthy diet for the population requires large consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables<br />

throughout the year. Their seasonal and perishable features, especially <strong>in</strong> the case of<br />

strawberries, make them difficult to commercialize outside the harvest period. Therefore,<br />

different conservation methods and techniques are used aim<strong>in</strong>g to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, as much as<br />

possible, the properties of the fresh product and to achieve a high quality f<strong>in</strong>al product for the<br />

out of the season. Cool<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g are the most common conservation methods used for<br />

strawberries to enjoy their sweet taste all year round.<br />

The objective of this study is to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the mechanisms through which different parameters<br />

affect the rate and uniformity of cool<strong>in</strong>g. The thermal behavior of the strawberries is analyzed<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the heat transfer mechanism used for cool<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The time depend<strong>in</strong>g temperature field <strong>in</strong>side the strawberry was numerically simulated us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the COMSOL Multiphysics commercial software package which is based on f<strong>in</strong>ite element<br />

method. The Heat Transfer module was used to simulate different ways of heat transfer, e.g.<br />

conduction, convection and radiation as well as comb<strong>in</strong>ation between them. Boundary<br />

conditions were imposed for each specific surface of the berry accord<strong>in</strong>g to the analyzed<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g system. A non-uniform mesh consist<strong>in</strong>g of 2076 triangles elements has been generated.<br />

The temperature distribution <strong>in</strong> the product is calculated with the differential equation of the<br />

transient heat conduction [1]:<br />

t<br />

k 2<br />

t<br />

(1)<br />

<br />

cp<br />

where t is the temperature, is the time, k is thermal conductivity, is the density and c p<br />

is the specific heat. The solution of this differential equation is found with the f<strong>in</strong>ite element<br />

method.<br />

Heat transfer from the product surface to the air of the cool<strong>in</strong>g room is made by natural or<br />

forced convection and it is based on the Newton law:<br />

q hcv<br />

t p t f <br />

(2)<br />

where q is the heat flux, cv h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, t p is the temperature<br />

of the product surface and t f is the temperature of the cool<strong>in</strong>g air.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Initially, the product is at the temperature of 20 °C and it is <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> a cool<strong>in</strong>g room where<br />

the air temperature is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed constant at the value of 0 °C us<strong>in</strong>g a refrigerant that is<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1899

evaporated. It is assumed that the product is homogenous and the thermophysical properties are<br />

constant: thermal conductivity, k is 1.1 W/m·K, density, is 800 kg/m 3 and the specific heat, cp<br />

is 4000 J/kg·K [2].<br />

The product is progressive cooled from the surface to the <strong>in</strong>terior of the product. Inside the<br />

product, the heat is transferred by conduction and the heat is released at the surface of the<br />

product with natural convection.<br />

Figure 1. Simulated time temperature profile<br />

One of the cases, which are analyzed, is the cool<strong>in</strong>g by the natural convection with the ambient<br />

air that has the temperature of 0 ºC. The product is placed on a support made by a good<br />

<strong>in</strong>sulation material and no heat transfer occurs between the support and the product. The<br />

convection heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be equal to 5 W/m 2 K. Figure 1 presents the<br />

temperature distribution <strong>in</strong> the cooled product after 4 hours and 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes and the variation of<br />

the temperature dur<strong>in</strong>g the cool<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong> two characteristics po<strong>in</strong>ts, A and B: at the surface<br />

of the top of the product and <strong>in</strong> the middle of the product, respectively.<br />

The analysis of the temperature distribution at different time <strong>in</strong>tervals leads to the optimization<br />

of the operat<strong>in</strong>g parameters and the choice of the cool<strong>in</strong>g system <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> high quality<br />

cooled product.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A simulation of the cool<strong>in</strong>g process of strawberry was performed with the software package<br />

COMSOL Multiphysics that is based on f<strong>in</strong>ite element method. The cool<strong>in</strong>g of the product was<br />

studied when different heat transfer mechanisms are used: conduction and convection. For the<br />

presented cool<strong>in</strong>g case with natural convection, the temperature on the surface is lower at the<br />

top and <strong>in</strong>creases slightly to the bottom.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

A<br />

B<br />

[1] Ghiaus A.-G., 2003, Heat Transfer, Editura Conspress, Bucharest<br />

[2] ASHRAE, 2006, Refrigeration<br />

[3] Ghiaus A.-G., Vasilescu C., 2010, The analysis of strawberries freez<strong>in</strong>g methods and systems with<br />

numeric simulations, The Conference of the Build<strong>in</strong>g Services Faculty, 18-19 March<br />

1900<br />

B<br />

A

Effects on Xe hydrate formation for texture <strong>in</strong> vegetable tissue<br />

Hiroko Ando a , Toru Suzuki b , Kazuhito Kajiwara a , Yosh<strong>in</strong>ori Kawagoe c , Yoshio Mak<strong>in</strong>o c , Seiichi<br />

Oshita c<br />

a School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo university of Technology, Tokyo, Japan<br />

(hiando@bs.teu.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Technology,<br />

Tokyo, Japan (toru@kaiyodai.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan<br />

(aoshita@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Texture of “fresh” vegetable tissue degrades significantly by freeze-thaw<strong>in</strong>g treatment. It has<br />

been attempted to improve the freez<strong>in</strong>g technique <strong>in</strong> order to prevent such texture degradation<br />

after thaw<strong>in</strong>g. On the other hand, it was reported that the storage time of vegetable after harvest<br />

could be extended when it was storied <strong>in</strong> xenon gas (Xe) atmosphere at 5 o C, where the water<br />

<strong>in</strong> the vegetable is just before formation of gas hydrate, then forms so called structured liquid<br />

water [1]. Recently, we proposed an <strong>in</strong>terested storage technique us<strong>in</strong>g Xe hydrate formation<br />

for fresh vegetable tissue, <strong>in</strong>stead of freez<strong>in</strong>g. Gas hydrates are crystall<strong>in</strong>e solids composed of<br />

water and gas as Xe. It was confirmed that Xe hydrate can form <strong>in</strong> onion tissue by pressuriz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

between 0.4 and 0.8 MPa Xe pressure at 5 o C. Additionally, it was found that the formation<br />

ratio of Xe hydrate <strong>in</strong> the tissue can be arbitrarily determ<strong>in</strong>ed by controll<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial pressure<br />

[2]. As a next step to f<strong>in</strong>d a suitable storage condition, this study <strong>in</strong>vestigated the effect of Xe<br />

hydrate formation on texture <strong>in</strong> onion tissue by vary<strong>in</strong>g the hydrate formation ratio. Especially,<br />

two texture parameters of fracture stress and <strong>in</strong>itial modulus <strong>in</strong> onion tissue after the<br />

decomposition were used to evaluate the change of texture<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Soft core of a fresh onion was cut <strong>in</strong>to a 4 x 4 x 10 mm 3 . This tissue sample was pressurized<br />

between 0.4 and 0.8 MPa Xe pressure at 5 o C for the Xe hydrate formation ratio (gas hydrate/<br />

whole free water) to be 15~25, 26~35, 36~45, and 46~55 %. The formation ratio <strong>in</strong> the tissue<br />

was confirmed by NMR measurement with solid echo pulse sequence (MU25A, JEOL, Japan).<br />

As a reference, N2 gas also <strong>in</strong>duced to the samples under same condition. After that, fracture<br />

stress and <strong>in</strong>itial modulus as texture characteristics of onion tissue after gas hydrate<br />

decomposition were measured by us<strong>in</strong>g texture analyzer (RE2-33005S, Yamadam co., ltd.,<br />

Japan) at room temperature.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure.1 shows change of fracture stress (a) and <strong>in</strong>itial modulus (b) <strong>in</strong> onion tissue after Xe<br />

hydrate formation and decomposition with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the hydrate formation ratio. Both<br />

parameters after decomposition were lower relatively than that of fresh tissue though it is not<br />

shown <strong>in</strong> Fig.1. Furthermore, as shown by white keys <strong>in</strong> figure.1 (, ), when it was stored <strong>in</strong><br />

0.8 MPa N2 gas pressure at 5 o C for 1 week, <strong>in</strong>stead of Xe, the texture degradation <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1901

onion tissue was not observed because water did not crystallize. It was found that texture for<br />

onion tissue degraded some extent by Xe hydrate formation, however, the pattern of the change<br />

with the hydrate formation ratio shows a significant difference between texture characteristics.<br />

Fracture stress was kept a constant value (61 x 10 4 N/m 2 , approximately) which was<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent of the hydrate formation ratio even though it decreased a little. On the other hand,<br />

the <strong>in</strong>itial modulus decreased l<strong>in</strong>early with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the hydrate formation ratio. Previously, it<br />

was reported that <strong>in</strong>itial modulus might be a texture characteristic related to cell membrane<br />

water permeability <strong>in</strong> vegetable tissue. On the other hand, fracture stress reflects cell wall<br />

strength <strong>in</strong> the tissue. [3]. Thus, it was considered that the cell membrane of onion was more<br />

sensitive to Xe hydrate formation rather than the cell wall. Particularly, the damage degree of<br />

cell membrane changed gradually depend<strong>in</strong>g on the hydrate formation ratio.<br />

Both fracture stress and <strong>in</strong>itial modulus <strong>in</strong> vegetable tissue after freeze-thaw<strong>in</strong>g usually<br />

decreased dramatically than that after Xe hydrate formation and decomposition. It is a key<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t how to prevent the damage for cell membrane <strong>in</strong> order to keep vegetable tissue texture<br />

after freeze-thaw<strong>in</strong>g. On the other hand, by us<strong>in</strong>g Xe hydrate <strong>in</strong>stead of freez<strong>in</strong>g, it is possible<br />

to prevent the damage for cell membrane with the hydrate formation by controll<strong>in</strong>g the hydrate<br />

formation ratio.<br />

Fracture stress, 104 N/m2 Fracture stress, 104 N/m2 100<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

(a)<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />

Gas hydrate formation ration <strong>in</strong> onion tissue, %<br />

<br />

Initial modulus, 104 N/m2 Initial modulus, 104 N/m2 160<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

(b)<br />

R2 R = 0.96<br />

2 = 0.96<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />

Gas hydrate formation ration <strong>in</strong> onion tissue, %<br />

Figure 1. Change of texture, fracture stress (a) and <strong>in</strong>itial modulus (b), depend<strong>in</strong>g on the <strong>in</strong>crease of<br />

Xe hydrate formation ratio <strong>in</strong> onion tissue. Error bar shows upper and lower values (n=3).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was considered that us<strong>in</strong>g of Xe hydrate was expected as a novel preservation technique for<br />

fresh vegetable <strong>in</strong>stead of freez<strong>in</strong>g. Particularly, it would be an useful technique to prevent the<br />

damage of “cell membrane” <strong>in</strong> the tissue by controll<strong>in</strong>g the hydrate formation ratio.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Mak<strong>in</strong>o et al., Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>International</strong>: the CIGR Ejournal, VIII (June), 1, 2007.<br />

[2] Ando et al., 5th <strong>International</strong> Technical Symposium on <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>gMonitor<strong>in</strong>g Technology <strong>in</strong><br />

Bioprocesses and <strong>Food</strong> Quality Management1Germany082009<br />

[3] Ando et al., <strong>Food</strong> Preservation Science, 34, 261, 2008. In Japanese.<br />

1902

The potential of ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g systems for reduc<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration loads and sav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

energy<br />

Stephen J James, Christian James<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Refrigeration and <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Research Centre (FRPERC), The Grimsby Institute of<br />

Further & Higher Education (GIFHE), HSI Build<strong>in</strong>g, Orig<strong>in</strong> Way, Europarc, Grimsby, North East<br />

L<strong>in</strong>colnshire, DN37 9TZ, UK (jamess@grimsby.ac.uk)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The surface temperature of cooked products is very high when they leave bak<strong>in</strong>g ovens or deep<br />

fat fryers, and consequently the difference between the surfaces and the ambient is very large at<br />

that time. To reduce energy usage, and costs, a number of food manufacturers have<br />

traditionally operated two-stage cool<strong>in</strong>g operations us<strong>in</strong>g ambient air followed by refrigerated<br />

air. An <strong>in</strong>itial higher temperature stage can also be used to improve the energy efficiency of<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g operations. With many ambient stable products such as bread and confectionary<br />

filtered ambient air is a common cool<strong>in</strong>g method after the product exit back<strong>in</strong>g ovens.<br />

However, the use of ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g is not widespread with<strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry and <strong>in</strong> some<br />

cases it is not encouraged. This study <strong>in</strong>vestigates the ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g of hash browns prior to<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g, and the ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g of meat and vegetable pies prior to blast chill<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Hash brown freez<strong>in</strong>g. Targeted trials were carried out to determ<strong>in</strong>e the amount of heat and<br />

moisture that could economically be removed from fried hash browns us<strong>in</strong>g ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

prior to freez<strong>in</strong>g. Batches of fried hash browns were cooled under a range of air velocities<br />

followed by freez<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> air at -30°C and 3.5 ms -1 .<br />

Pie chill<strong>in</strong>g. Trials were carried out to produce an efficient energy sav<strong>in</strong>g process that could be<br />

<strong>in</strong>stalled after the company moved to new premises. Batches of cooked pies were cooled under<br />

different comb<strong>in</strong>ations of air temperature and air speed us<strong>in</strong>g air at -10°C or 0°C (±0.3°C) and<br />

three air velocity sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1. Core temperatures <strong>in</strong> hash browns dur<strong>in</strong>g ambient (22°C) cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Air<br />

Core temperature (°C)<br />

velocity<br />

(ms<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

-1 )<br />

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20<br />

2.0 86.8 70.1 56.9 47.2 40.2 34.9 31.0 28.3 26.1<br />

2.5 76.0 66.0 55.3 47.0 40.2 35.0 31.3 28.4 26.2<br />

3.0 83.1 70.9 57.3 46.9 39.4 34.0 30.1 27.3 25.3<br />

Hash brown freez<strong>in</strong>g. In the <strong>in</strong>itial ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g trials the core temperatures of the hash<br />

browns were 40±1°C after 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes at all three air velocities (Table 1). After a further 10<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes the product core temperatures were approach<strong>in</strong>g (with<strong>in</strong> 2.5°C) that of the ambient<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1903

temperature. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes of ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g the hash browns lost approximately<br />

1 g of weight and less than one third of a g <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes (Table 2).<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Table 2. Weight loss from hash browns dur<strong>in</strong>g ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Weight loss (g) dur<strong>in</strong>g different time (m<strong>in</strong>) periods<br />

0 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to 20 20 to 25 25 to 30<br />

Mean (SD) 2.25 (0.30) 0.94 (0.07) 0.31 (0.03) 0.22 (0.05) 0.13 (0.02) 0.15 (0.05) 0.12 (0.02)<br />

Pie chill<strong>in</strong>g. In the pie cool<strong>in</strong>g, trials us<strong>in</strong>g a 30 m<strong>in</strong>ute pre-chill<strong>in</strong>g ambient (20°C) cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stage before chill<strong>in</strong>g at 0°C, showed that the core temperature of the pie could substantially be<br />

reduced by this process (Table 3). The overall cool<strong>in</strong>g time to 5°C was <strong>in</strong>creased but the time<br />

required <strong>in</strong> the blast chiller slightly reduced as was the heat extraction required by the blast<br />

chiller.<br />

Table 1. Pie temperatures after 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes, total and time <strong>in</strong> chiller to reach 3°C. Control is the time<br />

achieved <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle stage system at 0°C, 3 ms -1<br />

Conditions Pie temperature (°C)<br />

Time to 5°C (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

after 30 m<strong>in</strong> Total In Chiller Control<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong> at 20°C then 0°C on grid, both<br />

64 140 110 117<br />

3.3ms -1<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong> at 20°C then 0°C on tray, both<br />

3.3ms -1<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong> at 10°C, 1.3 ms -1 then 0°C, 3.3ms -1<br />

on tray<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong> at 10°C, 3.3 ms -1 then 0°C, 3.3ms -1<br />

on tray<br />

60 120 90 100<br />

Time to 3°C (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

45 136 106 120<br />

47 136 106 120<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>troduction of an ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g operation prior to refrigerated chill<strong>in</strong>g or freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operations can significantly reduce the heat load and energy consumption of chill<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g systems. Two cases studies have been presented that clearly demonstrate this.<br />

Hash browns emerged from a fryer at 80°C and had to be frozen to -12°C before packag<strong>in</strong>g at a<br />

process rate 4.5 tones/h. The exist<strong>in</strong>g spiral freezer was <strong>in</strong>capable of extract<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial heat<br />

load and the moisture loss from the hash browns was caus<strong>in</strong>g ice to build up the evaporator.<br />

An <strong>in</strong>itial 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes of ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g removed 562,500 kJ of heat energy from the 4.5 tonnes<br />

of hash browns every hour. It also prevented 60 kg per hour of water freez<strong>in</strong>g on the evaporator<br />

In the pie case, by comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g experimental studies with modelled data a two-stage process was<br />

designed <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>itial ambient cool<strong>in</strong>g stage followed by a redesigned multi-rack<br />

chill<strong>in</strong>g tunnel. This work showed that approximately 50% of the heat that had to be extracted<br />

<strong>in</strong> the total cool<strong>in</strong>g pie cool<strong>in</strong>g process could be removed <strong>in</strong> a 30 m<strong>in</strong>ute ambient pre-chill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stage. This two-stage system has now been <strong>in</strong>stalled by the company and shown to achieve<br />

more controlled, uniform and faster cool<strong>in</strong>g of the pies than previously achieved with a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

chiller.<br />

1904

Industrial Superchill<strong>in</strong>g, A Practical Approach<br />

A.M. Stevik a , I.C. Claussen b<br />

a SINTEF Energy research, Kolbjørn Hejes vei 1D, NO-7465 Trondheim, Norway<br />

(astrid.stevik@s<strong>in</strong>tef.no)/ (<strong>in</strong>grid.c.claussen@s<strong>in</strong>tef.no)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

An <strong>in</strong>dustrial, automated superchill<strong>in</strong>g process l<strong>in</strong>e needs to comb<strong>in</strong>e the requirement for<br />

gentle handl<strong>in</strong>g of a valuable raw material with demands for energy efficiency, high capacity<br />

and product quality. The results from the study of three alterative process l<strong>in</strong>es for superchilled<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g of fresh cod showed large variations with respect to process<strong>in</strong>g time, need for<br />

manual operations, sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors and yield. The process<strong>in</strong>g time and need for operators was<br />

very high for the Marel superchill<strong>in</strong>g concept, while the quality and yield was high. The<br />

alternative <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a Baader59 unit followed by superchill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an imp<strong>in</strong>gement<br />

freezer was very rapid and showed competitive results for quality and yield. Superchill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

the imp<strong>in</strong>gement freezer followed by sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Baade59 unit resulted <strong>in</strong> a substantial<br />

amount of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors <strong>in</strong> spite of very rapid process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

An efficient process presupposes a high yield comb<strong>in</strong>ed with efficient production, large<br />

capacity, few operators, few sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors and an end product of high quality. The results<br />

from the current experiments <strong>in</strong>dicate that superchilled process<strong>in</strong>g of cod by means of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> the Baader59 unit followed by superchill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Imp<strong>in</strong>gement freezer would be the most<br />

competitive alternative, taken the above mentioned factors <strong>in</strong>to account. The method implies<br />

short process<strong>in</strong>g time, low amount of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors, little manual operation as well as high<br />

yield and quality.<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g is a robust method for conserv<strong>in</strong>g fresh food, and br<strong>in</strong>gs along many possibilities<br />

due to the extended product shelf-life. In the near future it is considered likely that most<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial process<strong>in</strong>g of fresh fish will be done by means of superchill<strong>in</strong>g, and the pioneer<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry currently tak<strong>in</strong>g on the method will have a great advantage based on the experience<br />

from f<strong>in</strong>al development and implementation of the superchill<strong>in</strong>g technology.<br />

The results discussed <strong>in</strong> this paper are based on a series of tests performed <strong>in</strong> November 2010<br />

at the site of a large Norwegian fish producer.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Three alternatives for superchilled process<strong>in</strong>g of Atlantic cod (Ghadus morhua) were tested as<br />

shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1; (1) the Marel Superchiller concept process l<strong>in</strong>e, (2) Superchill<strong>in</strong>g of cod<br />

fillets <strong>in</strong> an Imp<strong>in</strong>gement Advantec Lab Freezer, and (3) Sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the cod fillets <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Baader59 unit followed by superchill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the JBT Imp<strong>in</strong>gement freezer .<br />

The experiments were performed on 1-3 kg cod fillets, caught 4-6 days ahead of the<br />

experiments. For all process alternatives the cod was pre-chilled <strong>in</strong> ice-slurry at -1,2 ºC, filleted<br />

<strong>in</strong> Baader 184/182 fillet<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>es for white fish before the further process<strong>in</strong>g were split <strong>in</strong><br />

the three mentioned alternatives. Quality assessment of the fillets was performed shortly after<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g of superchilled fillet, and six days after temperature equalization.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1905

Pre<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Fillet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Baader 184/182<br />

Alt.1<br />

Alt.2<br />

Alt.3<br />

Ice Slurry<br />

Superchill<br />

Imp<strong>in</strong>gement<br />

Sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Baader59<br />

Figure 1. Experimental setup<br />

Superchill<br />

CBC<br />

Sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Baader59<br />

Superchill<br />

Imp<strong>in</strong>gement<br />

Sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Skag<strong>in</strong>n<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g through alternative 1 <strong>in</strong>duced major bottlenecks <strong>in</strong> the production l<strong>in</strong>e due to loss of<br />

orientation of the fillets when enter<strong>in</strong>g the salt br<strong>in</strong>e. This also generated a need for many<br />

operators upfront the CBC- superchill<strong>in</strong>g unit. The second and third alternatives were both very<br />

rapid and generated no comparable need for manual operations. However, process<strong>in</strong>g by<br />

alternative 2 <strong>in</strong>duced a great amount of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors, and for alternative three the sk<strong>in</strong>ned<br />

fillets easily stuck onto the Imp<strong>in</strong>gement transport band dur<strong>in</strong>g superchill<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The yield and share for fresh end product showed little variation for the three alternatives,<br />

favour<strong>in</strong>g alternative 1 by a few percent (3,7% higher share for fresh end product than for<br />

Alternative 3). This result is not adjusted for the quality loss due to freez<strong>in</strong>g of the fillets unto<br />

the Imp<strong>in</strong>gement transport band.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Based on the results above superchilled process<strong>in</strong>g of cod is considered most feasible by means<br />

of alternative 1 or alternative 3. An efficient process presupposes a high yield comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

efficient production, large capacity, few operators, few sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors and an end product of<br />

high quality. Of the three alternatives tested, process<strong>in</strong>g by means of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of filets <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Baader59 unit followed by superchill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the imp<strong>in</strong>gement freezer seems to be the most<br />

promis<strong>in</strong>g alternative due to the short process<strong>in</strong>g time, low amount of sk<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g errors, the need<br />

for few operators as well as high yield and quality. The method presupposes that the<br />

superchill<strong>in</strong>g step can be handled automatically, and that the fillets don’t stick unto the<br />

transport band dur<strong>in</strong>g chill<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g is a robust method for conserv<strong>in</strong>g fresh food, and br<strong>in</strong>gs along many possibilities<br />

due to the extended product shelf-life. This <strong>in</strong>volves i.e. <strong>in</strong>creased production capacity,<br />

simplified production plann<strong>in</strong>g as well as open<strong>in</strong>g up for new k<strong>in</strong>ds of product and the ability<br />

to reach new markets. Automatization is very important also for the fish <strong>in</strong>dustry and<br />

superchill<strong>in</strong>g as a rapid and repeatable production method is very suitable for automated<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g. In the near future it is considered likely that most <strong>in</strong>dustrial process<strong>in</strong>g of fresh fish<br />

will be done by means of superchill<strong>in</strong>g, and the pioneer <strong>in</strong>dustry currently tak<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />

method will have a great advantage based on the experience from f<strong>in</strong>al development and<br />

implementation of the superchill<strong>in</strong>g technology.<br />

1906

Evaluation of thermal resistance and efficiency of palm ole<strong>in</strong> and canola oils <strong>in</strong> fry<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

potato chips<br />

Shadi. Bolourian a , Ali. Rafe b , Gholamali. Goli Movahhed a,b , Majid. Afshari a,b<br />

a Department of food additives, Iranian Academic Center for Education Culture and Research<br />

(ACECR), Mashhad, Iran, P.O.Box: 91775-1376, ( shadibolourian@yahoo.com)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM),<br />

PO Box: 91775-1163, Mashhad, Iran (alirafe1400@yahoo.com)<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g is a popular way for food process<strong>in</strong>g. Selection of suitable oil is an important factor that<br />

affects the quality of fried foods. This study was carried out <strong>in</strong> order to optimize the blend of<br />

palm ole<strong>in</strong> and canola oils as fry<strong>in</strong>g oil. At first, various compositions of these oils were<br />

prepared and their heat resistance was evaluated <strong>in</strong> 120°C us<strong>in</strong>g rancimat method. The oil<br />

blends were used for fry<strong>in</strong>g of potato <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate their fry<strong>in</strong>g performance. Fry<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

carried out for 5 successive days <strong>in</strong> 180°C and changes <strong>in</strong> total polar compounds (TPC), acidity<br />

and peroxide values of oils were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. Results were shown that TPC, acidity and<br />

peroxide value <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g. Increase <strong>in</strong> canola ratio <strong>in</strong>creased the peroxide value of<br />

used oil. In fact, a blend of palm ole<strong>in</strong> and canola oils with ratio of 9:1 was chosen as a best<br />

formula. It had highest <strong>in</strong>duction time (18.72h) <strong>in</strong> rancimat method and it's TPC after fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(17.72%) was lowest.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Although there was some differences <strong>in</strong> the trend of quality of formulated oil by us<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />

measured parameters, but it may be possible to propose that the F2 formula is suitable oil. This<br />

formula was advocate the highest time of <strong>in</strong>duction period <strong>in</strong> the method of rancimate and the<br />

total production of polar compound was less. In addition to, the oil uptake of potato chips was<br />

less than the other formula (i.e. 31.8%). In spite of; the peroxide value was higher than the F0<br />

and F1. By mix<strong>in</strong>g of olive oil and palm ole<strong>in</strong>, the stability of oil was <strong>in</strong>creased. The<br />

comparsion of stability oxidative was <strong>in</strong>dicated that F2 oil was better than the commercial<br />

control oil (table 4).<br />

Table 4. Comparison of commercial parameters of control oil with F2 oil<br />

specification<br />

Oil<br />

F2<br />

Induction period at 120 °C (houre)<br />

18.72<br />

13.46<br />

total polar compounds<br />

peroxide value<br />

Acidity<br />

17.72<br />

5.88<br />

0.12<br />

22.37<br />

5.12<br />

0.08<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1907

1908

Assessment of furfurol derivatives: food risk factors <strong>in</strong> natural apricot and peach juice<br />

Jianu Cl<strong>in</strong> a , Cocan Ileana a , Jianu Ionel a<br />

a<br />

Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> Technology Products,<br />

Timisoara, Romania (negreaileana@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Expression „protective foods” (M<strong>in</strong>cu, I., et al. 1989; Segal, B., et al, 1999, Durlach, J. Et al, 1999)<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes foods rich <strong>in</strong> bioactive compounds („protective factors”) obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the vegetable, fruit.<br />

Natural juices, apricot / peach („liquid fruit”) by their nutrient / biologically active native potential are<br />

functional foods (protective) with health benefits (hyperacidity, diabetes, gout, senescence,<br />

cardiovascular disease, etc).<br />

Their process<strong>in</strong>g technologies <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>evitably thermal unit operations (peel<strong>in</strong>g, monitored enzyme<br />

<strong>in</strong>activation, soften<strong>in</strong>g texture, chicken) (figure 3) requir<strong>in</strong>g technological steam.<br />

Furfural (F) (2 – furaldehyde, furfurol) (CAS 98-01-1) and some of its derivatives [5-(hydroxymethyl)<br />

furfural (5-HMF) (CAS 67-47-0) heterocyclic carbonyl compounds is commonly found <strong>in</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g<br />

amounts <strong>in</strong> various foods rich <strong>in</strong> carbohydrates (hexose) as a result of improperly monitored thermal<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g which hexose respectively pentose its dehydrate the acid catalysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Colorimetric determ<strong>in</strong>ation of azometh<strong>in</strong>e compounds of F i 5-HMF<br />

It can perform <strong>in</strong> liquid phase (apricot and / or peaches juice) used as reference <strong>in</strong> identical cells that <strong>in</strong><br />

the gas phase (bubbl<strong>in</strong>g atmosphere <strong>in</strong> the process<strong>in</strong>g space through a trap) (figure 3). In both cases<br />

proceed classic by calibration curve plott<strong>in</strong>g to 5-HMF reference, în <strong>in</strong>tervalul 10 – 100 /mL. L<strong>in</strong>earity<br />

range Lambert-Beer is 0-5/mL. Absorption maximals recommended for colorimetric assessment 580<br />

and 640 nm. Color reagent solution its prepare with validity checked of 24 h, by dissolv<strong>in</strong>g 0,375 g<br />

diphenylam<strong>in</strong>e (CAS 122-39-4) analytical purity <strong>in</strong> 15 mL glacial acetic acid (CAS 64-19-7) and 9 mL<br />

concentrated hydrochloric acid. Can be diluted depend<strong>in</strong>g on the emissions concentration of 5-HMF<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g procedure. The maximum error recorded is ±1%, reproducibility ± 0,341%. In determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g were<br />

no reported other <strong>in</strong>terference.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary research monitored the changes (variation) of the organic composition of the apricots and<br />

peaches throughout the determ<strong>in</strong>ed duration of the vegetation period (growth, maturity) subsequently<br />

stored until usage. The three geographical area (AG 1, AG 2; AG 3) of reference for the studied fruits<br />

belong to the Western Pla<strong>in</strong> of Romania (Northerns latitude 45°; 22´ respectively Eastern longitude<br />

21°; 25´) with a predom<strong>in</strong>antly chernozemic soil leached with humus, next to halomorphic,<br />

hydromorphic, meadows and sands. The moderate pla<strong>in</strong> climate with oceanic and sub Mediterranean<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluences registers an average temperature of 21 to 23°C (the hottest month and ra<strong>in</strong>fall between 600 and<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1909<br />

1

700 mm and predom<strong>in</strong>antly Western w<strong>in</strong>ds). The complex phenomenon of growth and maturity of the<br />

apples <strong>in</strong>cludes a cha<strong>in</strong> of biochemical processes that generate and determ<strong>in</strong>e the accumulation of<br />

carbohydrates <strong>in</strong> ratios specific to the species and breed follow<strong>in</strong>g their utilisation <strong>in</strong> other metabolic<br />

processes. In our research, fructose, glucose and sucrose dur<strong>in</strong>g a grow<strong>in</strong>g cycle of apricots and peaches<br />

have overall slight accumulation. Thus the glucose for peach oscillates between Astfel 10-20 mg/edible<br />

part (<strong>in</strong> cuticle) and between 20 – 30 mg/edible part (<strong>in</strong> pulp). Weight ratio of fructose / glucose<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed constant (1,1/1). Dur<strong>in</strong>g maturation (months V,VI, VII for apricots, respectively VII, VIII, IX<br />

for peachs, sucrose rema<strong>in</strong>s constant (5,1 – 5,3 g/100 g edible part). Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage (deposit<strong>in</strong>g) to<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g total carbohydrate content is changed for both types (between 9,6 – 13,8% for apricots<br />

respectively between 6,3 – 12,8% for peaches). For storage temperatures of 20-22°C total carbohydrate<br />

loss by respiration is between the 1 – 1,8% for apricots and between 1 – 1,7% for peaches. Storage <strong>in</strong><br />

controlled atmosphere (94% CO2/ 6% O2) significantly decreased weight loss (between 0,7 – 0,8%) for<br />

glucose, fructose and sucrose. Lower organic acids and mono-polycarboxylic from apricots and peaches<br />

addition to the major role of <strong>in</strong>termediaries <strong>in</strong> the overall metabolism, <strong>in</strong> sensory qualities determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

equilibrium acid - base of the system. Amount of their share <strong>in</strong> the free state and comb<strong>in</strong>ed (total acidity)<br />

<strong>in</strong> studied case, with titratable acidity expressed as mg/% edible part confirmed for apricots (malic acid<br />

1000, citric acid 400) and for peaches (malic acid 340, citric acid 250) values are consistent with<br />

dissociation constants for malic acid (K1=3,86·10 -4 ; K2=1,29·10 -5 ) and for citric acid (K1=8,7·10 -4 ;<br />

K2=1,8·10 -5 ; K3=4,0·10 -6 ). Malic and citric acids evaluated were 95,08% of total water soluble organic<br />

acids. They but <strong>in</strong> smaller proportion (below 250 mg/% edible part) and ascorbic (K1=7,94·10 -5 ;<br />

K2=1,62·10 -12 ), succ<strong>in</strong>ic (K1=6,3·10 -5 ; K2= 3,4·10 -16 ), tartaric (K1=1,04·10 -3 ; K2=4,55·10 -5 ), lactic (K1 =<br />

1,4 · 10 -4 ) acids are responsible for the thermal dehydration of glucose (5,36%), fructose (7,54%) and<br />

sucrose (after split <strong>in</strong> fructose and i glucose (5,34%)). Dynamics of titratable acidity proved to be<br />

proportional to the storage conditions for apricots (1,51% <strong>in</strong>itially, respectively 1,32% after 5 days at<br />

22°C storage and 1,51% <strong>in</strong>itially, respectively 1,49% after 10 days at 3°C). For peaches (0,79% <strong>in</strong>itially,<br />

respectively 0,68% after 30 days at 0 - 1°C and 0,79% <strong>in</strong>itially, respectively 0,73% after 63 days at 0°C<br />

<strong>in</strong> Controlled-atmosphere (with 5% CO2; 3%O2; 92%N2). In the same storage period for all apple types<br />

that are evaluated the process of form<strong>in</strong>g and transform<strong>in</strong>g protopect<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> soluble pect<strong>in</strong>, associated<br />

with the reduction of the total pect<strong>in</strong> quantity. Simultaneously after 60 days of apple storage at 4°C and<br />

80% relative humidity the texture firmness decreases by 3,0 kgf (piston penetrometer with a 6 mm<br />

diameter).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Cont<strong>in</strong>uous Colorimetric Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of furfural and their its major derivatives can be considered a<br />

preventive method available, fast, secure of risk warn<strong>in</strong>g, adventitious presence of these compounds <strong>in</strong><br />

natural juices of apricots and/or peaches as a result of „aggressive” thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of primary fruits.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] M<strong>in</strong>cu, I. .a., 1989, Orientri actuale în nutriie, Ed. Medical, Bucureti.<br />

[2] Segal, B., Segal, R., 1991, Tehnologia produselor alimentare de panificaie, Ed. Ceres, Bucureti.<br />

[3] Jianu, I., Delia Dumbrav, 2000, Factori de protecie alimentari, Ed. Mirton, Timioara.<br />

1910<br />

<br />

2

Numerical evaluation of liquid food heat sterilization <strong>in</strong> a brick-shaped package<br />

Pedro E. D. AUGUSTO a ; Marcelo CRISTIANINI b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (DTA), School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as<br />

(UNICAMP); Technical School of Camp<strong>in</strong>as (COTUCA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as (UNICAMP),<br />

Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (pedro@cotuca.unicamp.br)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology (DTA), School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA), University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as<br />

(UNICAMP), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (olecram@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Thermal process<strong>in</strong>g is one of the most utilized methods for food preservation. Appertization is<br />

still the most effective conservation method, even when compared to recently advanced<br />

techniques.<br />

The liquid flow characteristics <strong>in</strong>side the packag<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g are a function of its<br />

geometry, where even small alterations can change the process characteristics. However, little<br />

attention has been deposited on modifications <strong>in</strong> the thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of liquid foods through<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> geometry or orientation of its packag<strong>in</strong>g [1, 2].<br />

The present work aimed to evaluate the thermal process of a low viscosity liquid food <strong>in</strong> a<br />

brick shaped package, as the <strong>in</strong>fluence of its orientation on the process lethality.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Simulations were performed by CFD analysis. The three-dimensional model was obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from the actual geometry of the brick shaped package, a retortable multilayer carton-based<br />

package. The unstructured tetrahedral mesh was generated based on previous work.<br />

Due to the small thickness of the packag<strong>in</strong>g, its thermal resistance was considered negligible.<br />

Water was considered as a liquid model food, and its thermal properties were used as function<br />

of temperature. The <strong>in</strong>itial conditions generally used <strong>in</strong> the literature were considered. As<br />

boundary condition, heat<strong>in</strong>g and cool<strong>in</strong>g were considered to be uniform, with heat flow<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed at each time step by the retort convective heat transfer coefficient (h) and temperature<br />

(Th), based on previous work. M<strong>in</strong>imization of RMS was used as a criterion of convergence.<br />

The time step used was 2.0 s. Efficiency of the thermal process was compared for three<br />

possible package orientation, based on mass average sterilization value (Fm; Equation 1; Tref =<br />

121.1 ºC, zClostridium botul<strong>in</strong>um = 10 ºC).<br />

T t, V T<br />

V t<br />

n f ref<br />

z<br />

1<br />

Fm dtdV<br />

process D<br />

V 10<br />

<br />

V0<br />

t0<br />

Equation 1<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The temperature and velocity profiles were compatible with those described <strong>in</strong> different works<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g different products <strong>in</strong> cans and bottles, as <strong>in</strong> the pasteurization of water <strong>in</strong> bottles,<br />

sterilization of water <strong>in</strong> cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cans, pasteurization of water <strong>in</strong> cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cans,<br />

sterilization of viscous fluid <strong>in</strong> cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cans and bottles.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1911<br />

Tref

In the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of heat<strong>in</strong>g, there is the presence and dis<strong>in</strong>tegration of various Benard Cells,<br />

circular flows formed due to the meet<strong>in</strong>g of two or more flows, as the package heat<strong>in</strong>g is<br />

uniform through its sides. If heat<strong>in</strong>g is cont<strong>in</strong>uous, the flow tend to stabilize <strong>in</strong> a characteristic<br />

profile, with a larger loop<strong>in</strong>g ascend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> package walls and descend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the center of the<br />

package, and small ones near the center of the package base, at an opposed direction to the<br />

first. Fluid flow took almost 1000 s to stabilize, for the three orientations. The same behavior is<br />

then observed dur<strong>in</strong>g the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of cool<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The fluid flow po<strong>in</strong>ts down to a coldest region, called the slowest heat<strong>in</strong>g zone (SHZ), <strong>in</strong><br />

contrast with the cold spot characteristic of conductive products heat<strong>in</strong>g. The fluid temperature<br />

is distributed <strong>in</strong> layers, with the hot ascend<strong>in</strong>g flow close to the package walls dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The SHZ is located <strong>in</strong> the bottom of the package dur<strong>in</strong>g the process.<br />

Packag<strong>in</strong>g orientation was evaluated due to the big differentiation of its dimensions (94 mm of<br />

height, 83 mm of depth, and 45 mm of width), which results <strong>in</strong> a difference of one order of<br />

magnitude <strong>in</strong> Grashof number (Gr) and Rayleigh number (Ra).<br />

Orientation does not result <strong>in</strong> different sterilization values (Fm). This behaviour is similar to<br />

water pasteurization <strong>in</strong> beer cans [3], but contrary to the sterilization of consistent liquid foods<br />

<strong>in</strong> conical [1, 2] and cyl<strong>in</strong>drical [4] cans.<br />

This difference can be attributed to the convection flow <strong>in</strong>side packag<strong>in</strong>g, which is high<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenced by its geometry and by the evaluation itself. In Varma and Kannan [1, 2] and Ghani<br />

et al. [4] works, the authors evaluated the orientation only by temperature profiles. Although<br />

comparison among the efficiencies <strong>in</strong> the thermal processes must be done through sterilization<br />

values, this approach is rarely adopted. We highlight once more that liquid food thermal<br />

process efficiency must also be evaluated by its mass average sterilization value (Fm).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present work has shown for the first time the <strong>in</strong>ternal thermal and velocity profiles of<br />

liquid foods thermally processed <strong>in</strong> a brick shaped package, as well as its sterilization values<br />

due to process<strong>in</strong>g. The results obta<strong>in</strong>ed demonstrated the potential of us<strong>in</strong>g computational fluid<br />

dynamics (CFD) <strong>in</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g thermal processes of liquid foods, especially <strong>in</strong> new or nonconventional<br />

packag<strong>in</strong>g geometries. It can be concluded that packag<strong>in</strong>g orientation does not<br />

result <strong>in</strong> different sterilization values dur<strong>in</strong>g thermal process of water <strong>in</strong> the brick shaped<br />

package.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Varma, M. N. and Kannan, A. (2005). Enhanced food sterilization through <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ation of the conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />

walls and geometry modifications. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 48(18), 3753-<br />

3762.<br />

[2] Varma, M. N. and Kannan, A. (2006). CFD studies on natural convective heat<strong>in</strong>g of canned food <strong>in</strong><br />

conical and cyl<strong>in</strong>drical conta<strong>in</strong>ers. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 77(4), 1024-1023.<br />

[3] Augusto, P. E. D.; P<strong>in</strong>heiro, T. F. and Cristian<strong>in</strong>i, M. (2010). Us<strong>in</strong>g computational fluid-dynamics<br />

(CFD) on the evaluation of beer pasteurization: effect of can orientation. Ciência e Tecnologia de<br />

Alimentos, 30(4).<br />

[4] Ghani, A. G. A.; Farid, M. M. and Chen, X. (2002). Numerical simulation of transient temperature<br />

and velocity profiles <strong>in</strong> a horizontal can dur<strong>in</strong>g sterilization us<strong>in</strong>g computational fluid dynamics.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>,51(1), 77-83.<br />

1912

Effect of steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g on the destruction of corn starches<br />

L.H. Ferng,* S.H. Chen , Y.A. L<strong>in</strong><br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, National I-lan University, I-lan City, Taiwan (lhferng@niu.edu.tw)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Aqueous starch dispersions have many practical applications <strong>in</strong> food products. Steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

has been used for years to prepare aqueous starch dispersions for food and non-food application. [1][3]<br />

This technique <strong>in</strong>volves pump<strong>in</strong>g starch slurry through an orifice and mix<strong>in</strong>g with steam at high<br />

temperature and pressure. It is well known that the steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g high turbulence<br />

and large pressure drop generated high shear stress to starch. [2] There is limited <strong>in</strong>formation about<br />

the destruction of starch granules by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g. The objective of this research is to study the<br />

effect of shear stress on structure of corn starch granules by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A laboratory scale steam jet cooker has been established with flow rate about 1L/m<strong>in</strong> and cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature up to 145C. Three k<strong>in</strong>ds of corn starch, waxy, regular, and high amylose were used.<br />

Starch slurries (5% w/w) were cooked by steam jet cooker at temperature 100C (SJ100), 120C<br />

(SJ120) and 135C (SJ135) compared with hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g at 90C 30 m<strong>in</strong>. (HB). The cooked<br />

dispersions were rapidly cooled by liquid nitrogen, dried by freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g, ground, and sieved<br />

through 80 mesh. The cooked starches were washed with water and centrifuged to obta<strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>in</strong>soluble particles. The particles were <strong>in</strong>vestigated by particle size analyzer, scann<strong>in</strong>g electron<br />

microscope (SEM) and damage starch assay kit.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

To understand the effect of steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>tegrity of starch particles, the raw and cooked<br />

starches were washed three times with cold water, the <strong>in</strong>soluble particles were isolated by<br />

centrifugation <strong>in</strong> centrifuge at 2000g for 20 m<strong>in</strong>. Percent yield was determ<strong>in</strong>edby freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

water-washed particles. The percent yields of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles of raw starches were all excess 98<br />

%. The effect of heat treatment was revealed by decreas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> percent yield of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles.<br />

There were also significant differences <strong>in</strong> percent yield of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles among different<br />

starches. There was a significant decrease <strong>in</strong> percent yield of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles of cooked<br />

dispersions for all three starches <strong>in</strong> the order HB > SJ100 > SJ120 > SJ 135. That is the starch<br />

granule destruction was exacerbated by jet cook<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature. The percent yield<br />

of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles of waxy corn decreased from 56.2 for hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g to 18.8 for steam jet<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g at 120C, regular corn from 81.7 to 75.9, and high amylose corn from 96.9 to 93.9. The<br />

data also showed that SJ100 has higher destruction than HB, although the temperature of heat<br />

treatment was similar. This could be due to the shear effect of steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

To understand the size of <strong>in</strong>soluble particles, the dried sample was dispersed <strong>in</strong> cool water and the<br />

particle distribution was analyzed by particle size analyzer. The results of particle size distribution<br />

analysis revealed that the <strong>in</strong>soluble particles swelled on contact with water, the particle size of<br />

studied starches were much larger than uncooked raw starches, and the particle size of HB was<br />

larger then SJ100 for all starches. This may be due to the time of cook<strong>in</strong>g, 30 m<strong>in</strong>. for hot water<br />

boil<strong>in</strong>g vs. a few sec for steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g at 100C.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1913

To <strong>in</strong>vestigate the damage of cooked starch particles, damage starch assay kit was used to test thr<br />

percentage of damaged starch. Percentage damaged starch of cooked dispersions for all three<br />

starches became higher with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature.(Table 1) The high amylose corn<br />

starch(Hylon VII) was more resist to steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g than the others. Although, the time of heat<br />

treatment was much shorter for steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g at 100C than hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g, the percentage of<br />

damaged starch was higher. This also revealed the effect of shear stress from steam cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

On SEM observation, waxy corn starch granules appeared to be fractured by all heat treatments.<br />

The damaged granules showed sponge like structure for the starch dispersions of normal corn starch<br />

cooked by hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g. The starches heated by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g were fractured <strong>in</strong>to small<br />

fragments. For high amylose corn starch, hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g treatment only caused granule swelled.<br />

Steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g at 100C not only swelled the granule but also fractured some filamentous pieces<br />

from starch granule. When cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>creased high than 120C, the starch granules<br />

were fractured and sponge like structures were observed.<br />

Table 1. Percentage damaged starch of waxy, normal corn starch and Hylon VII after hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and steam jet-cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Sample<br />

Hylon VII<br />

Starch damage (%)<br />

Normal corn Waxy corn<br />

Untreated 1.91 ± 0.02 e 1.06 ± 0.01 c 1.22 ± 0.02 e<br />

Boil<strong>in</strong>g 36.49 ± 0.27 d 71.90 ± 0.18 b 74.56 ± 0.53 d<br />

SJC-100 38.99 ± 0.27 c 72.01 ± 0.24 b 77.53 ± 0.11 c<br />

SJC-120 40.06 ± 0.51 b 77.07 ± 0.93 b 79.81 ± 0.86 b<br />

SJC-135 41.11 ± 0.11 a 80.60 ± 0.06 a 83.19 ± 0.79 a<br />

Reported values are the mean ± SD (n = 3).<br />

a-e Values <strong>in</strong> a column for each sample with different superscripts are significantly different (p<br />

< 0.05).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The effect of shear force by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g on destruction of corn starches granule is significant.<br />

The comparison between hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g and steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g at 100C revealed the destruction<br />

of shear force by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g. The starches heated by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g were fractured <strong>in</strong>to<br />

small fragments. The degree of destruction relates to the amylose content of corn starch. Waxy<br />

corn with little amylose is easy to swell dur<strong>in</strong>g heat treatment and to destroy by shear force of jet<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g. High amylose corn starch (Hylon VII) susta<strong>in</strong>ed the <strong>in</strong>tegrity of starch granule after heat<br />

treatment of hot water boil<strong>in</strong>g and steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g at 100C. The study offered basic <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

of starch granule destruction by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g for further application <strong>in</strong> food product<br />

development and process<strong>in</strong>g design.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kle<strong>in</strong>, R.E. & Brogly, D.A. 1981.. Method for select<strong>in</strong>g the optimum starch b<strong>in</strong>der preparation system.<br />

Pulp and papers 55:98-103.<br />

[2] Fanta GE. & Esk<strong>in</strong>s K. 1995. Stable starch-lipid compositions prepared by steam jet cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Carbohydrate Polymer 28:171-175.<br />

[3] Mason W.R. 2009. Starch use <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s. In: BeMiller J. & Whistler R. (Eds.). Starch: Chemistry ans<br />

Technology. 3 rd edition. Academic Press, Burl<strong>in</strong>gton, MA 01803, USA.<br />

1914

Experimental studies and <strong>in</strong>terpretation of pistachio nut roast<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

Gilles TRYSTRAM a , Reza YEGANEH ,b<br />

a<br />

AgroParisTech, INRA, <strong>Food</strong> process <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, F91300 France gilles.trystram@agroparistech.fr<br />

b<br />

Department of Farm Mach<strong>in</strong>ery, Faculty of Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ilam University P.O. Box 69315-516, Ilam,<br />

Iran<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The pistachio is ma<strong>in</strong>ly produced <strong>in</strong> Iran, USA, and Turkey. The pistachio nut is the second nonpetroleum<br />

export product, which has the important role <strong>in</strong> the development of national economic value<br />

and agro-food <strong>in</strong>dustry of Iran. Based on FAO statistics (2005), Iran produced about 275,000 Mt of<br />

pistachio <strong>in</strong> 2003, which was approximately 54.7% of the world’s pistachio production. Iran exported<br />

184,946 Mt of its pistachio nut <strong>in</strong> this year and the total export revenue from pistachio was about<br />

679,940,000 US$ <strong>in</strong> 2003 (Razavi & Taghizadeh, 2007). Roast<strong>in</strong>g is one of the most important processes<br />

giv<strong>in</strong>g necessary alterations to the product (Demir & Cron<strong>in</strong>, 2005). Physical properties also affect on<br />

hydrodynamic / pneumatic convey<strong>in</strong>g characteristics of solid materials, and cool<strong>in</strong>g and heat<strong>in</strong>g loads of<br />

food materials (Mohsen<strong>in</strong>, 1978). Density, shr<strong>in</strong>kage and porosity are important transport properties that<br />

are widely used <strong>in</strong> process design calculations, i.e. various heat and mass transfer operations. These<br />

properties are also used to characterize the texture and quality of dry and <strong>in</strong>termediate moisture foods<br />

(Schubert, 1987). Density is the variable affect<strong>in</strong>g most thermophysical and transport properties.<br />

Shr<strong>in</strong>kage and porosity are also important parameters <strong>in</strong> the prediction of diffusional properties of cellular<br />

food dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g (Rotste<strong>in</strong>, 1987). The objective of the work is to establish a data base of roast<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

its consequences on nuts qualities and to propose an <strong>in</strong>terpretation of the key process variables that<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence product attributes.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g pistachio roast<strong>in</strong>g, temperature record<strong>in</strong>g shows the evolution of the <strong>in</strong>ternal nuts temperature<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the roast<strong>in</strong>g. It put <strong>in</strong> evidence the classical effect of air temperature on the evolution of nuts<br />

temperature. Initial nuts temperature <strong>in</strong>crease at all air temperatures dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 6 m<strong>in</strong>utes of roast<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Then, the thermal equilibrium is reached and nuts temperature stays constant close to 100 °C where the<br />

balance between evaporation and heat transfers is reached. The duration of the plate is approximately 10<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes. When constant evaporation period is f<strong>in</strong>ished, <strong>in</strong>ternal nuts temperature started aga<strong>in</strong> to <strong>in</strong>crease,<br />

complet<strong>in</strong>g water evaporation, until eventually reach<strong>in</strong>g to value of 104, 123, 135, 144 and 156 °C after<br />

31 m<strong>in</strong>utes for 120, 130, 140, 150 and 160 °C air temperature respectively. At the low temperatures (110<br />

and 120 °C <strong>in</strong> this study), the status of four zone doesn’t occur dur<strong>in</strong>g the maximum 31 m<strong>in</strong>utes of<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g process. It could be seen on curves, that <strong>in</strong> some cases, the temperature after 6 m<strong>in</strong>utes reaches<br />

more than 100 °C and decrease later. It is probably due to lag <strong>in</strong> the establishment of the equilibrium.<br />

The relationship between the moisture content and roast<strong>in</strong>g time for pistachio kernels at all temperatures<br />

present a non-l<strong>in</strong>ear decrease of moisture content with roast<strong>in</strong>g time. Initially, moisture decreased rapidly<br />

and then the decrease <strong>in</strong> moisture slowed down considerably as expected. The roast<strong>in</strong>g time performed to<br />

recover the f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content varies with the roast<strong>in</strong>g temperature. The experimental data regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pistachio nuts moisture variations dur<strong>in</strong>g roast<strong>in</strong>g at 110-160 °C showed that the time needed to reach<br />

about 15% moisture content was about 30 m<strong>in</strong> for pistachio roasted at 110 °C and about 7 m<strong>in</strong> for<br />

pistachio roasted at 160 °C. The time required to br<strong>in</strong>g the moisture content less as 6% (d.b.) was 23, 18,<br />

14 and 11 m<strong>in</strong> for 130, 140, 150 and 160 °C, respectively. It was observed that the dry<strong>in</strong>g rate was higher<br />

at higher temperature, as normally expected.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1915

The water activity of the pistachio kernels was measured at different moisture content and it was observed<br />

a positive correlation and varied from 0.14, 0.15, 0.19, 0.35, 0.60 and 0.64 to 0.97 at 0.332, 0.465, 1.346,<br />

3.242, 10.662, 15.265 and 49.95% (d.b) moisture content respectively. The curves are classical ones,<br />

characterised with a significant decrease <strong>in</strong> the range of a w: 1 to 0.70 and slower reduction when moisture<br />

content becomes low.<br />

The magnitude of the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> porosity may be attributed to the change <strong>in</strong> absolute and apparent<br />

density with the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> roast<strong>in</strong>g time. The porosity of pistachio kernels <strong>in</strong>creased from 0.159 for raw<br />

pistachio kernels to 0.240, 0.260, 0.267, 0.270, 0.288 and 0.317 at 110, 120, 130, 140, 150 and 160 °C,<br />

respectively. After 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes of roast<strong>in</strong>g, the porosity, for a given temperature does not have significant<br />

evolution. The accuracy of the measurements is not a sufficient to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate clearly between curves<br />

due to the determ<strong>in</strong>ation method. At lower temperature (110 and 120 °C) it seems that the porosity still<br />

have evolution. In numerous applications, when dry<strong>in</strong>g occurs comb<strong>in</strong>ed with heat process<strong>in</strong>g of food, the<br />

creation of porosity is observed, strongly related with moisture departure.<br />

As higher is the moisture content (from 0.332, 0.465, 1.346, 3.242, 10.662 and 15.265% (d.b.)) as lower<br />

is the maximum break<strong>in</strong>g force: 3312.5, 3075.5, 3190, 3075, 2382.5 and 1945 N to 1355, 1105, 1240,<br />

1085, 1250 and 1350 N respectively and then for raw pistachio <strong>in</strong>crease from there to 1970 N<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependently of the temperature. Results show the break<strong>in</strong>g force is ma<strong>in</strong>ly correlated with the moisture<br />

content. Nevertheless, after a m<strong>in</strong>imum value of the break<strong>in</strong>g force obta<strong>in</strong> of approximately 30% moisture<br />

content, the force <strong>in</strong>crease. The result<strong>in</strong>g variation of the force versus moisture content is close to an<br />

exponential variation. The duration of the performed experiment does not permit to observe if there are<br />

any plates for the trends.<br />

An analysis was done to establish the effect of the parameters related with roast<strong>in</strong>g (air temperature and<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g time) on the properties of pistachio nuts at only 6% moisture content. The results establish<br />

clearly that the time-temperature control of the roast<strong>in</strong>g operation is possible and efficient <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> a given objective of the physical properties. With <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g roast<strong>in</strong>g temperature, the roast<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time decreased. A w values of all applications were found under the critical value for long-term storage to<br />

prevent mold growth and aflatox<strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation, which is at 0.70. Different properties could be obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g time temperature operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions, and the ranges significant for most of the properties.<br />

This study reported some physical properties of pistachio nuts evolution (Ahmad Aghaei variety)<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g nuts temperature, moisture content, apparent volume, apparent density, absolute density,<br />

porosity, water activity and texture. On the basis of our results, it is possible to establish that the moisture<br />

content, roast<strong>in</strong>g temperature and roast<strong>in</strong>g time affect the physical properties of pistachio nuts dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g and the follow<strong>in</strong>g conclusions can be drawn: The curves of nuts temperature presented four<br />

zones: an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the first 6 m<strong>in</strong>utes, a temperature constant approximately 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes, an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

until f<strong>in</strong>al the evaporation period and a temperature plateau nearly equal to the air temperature. In the all<br />

temperature, moisture content decrease with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> roast<strong>in</strong>g time. As the roast<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>in</strong>creased,<br />

apparent volume of pistachio kernels <strong>in</strong>creased at different temperatures studied. The apparent density of<br />

pistachio kernels decreased with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> roast<strong>in</strong>g time. Initially, <strong>in</strong> the first 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes, the absolute<br />

density <strong>in</strong>creased and then decrease as roast<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>in</strong>creased. For all temperature, the porosity of<br />

pistachio kernels <strong>in</strong>creased as moisture content decrease. As the roast<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>in</strong>creased, water activity<br />

decrease for all temperature. It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to note that the roast<strong>in</strong>g process could <strong>in</strong>fluence the textural<br />

properties of the pistachio nuts, rather than just the <strong>in</strong>fluence on the moisture content. The maximum<br />

force of pistachio kernels was found to decrease <strong>in</strong> the first 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes of process and then <strong>in</strong>crease as<br />

roast<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>in</strong>creased. Other ways are possible to conduct experiment <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>crease heat fluxes to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> the new values of physical properties. Roast<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g other process<strong>in</strong>g ways could be of <strong>in</strong>terest<br />

(superheated steam, fry<strong>in</strong>g for example).<br />

1916

Heat transfer analysis-based prediction of prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and umami component of<br />

meat dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Naomi Ishiatari, Mika Fukuoka, Naoko Hamada, Noboru Sakai<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Technology,<br />

4-5-7 Konan, M<strong>in</strong>atoku, Tokyo, Japan (fukuoka@kaiyodai.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In meat cook<strong>in</strong>g, various reactions may occur simultaneously with heat and mass transfer. The<br />

physical properties and eat<strong>in</strong>g quality of cooked meat are strongly affected by both the the<br />

degree of prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and the amounts of umami components result<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

difference temperature treatments. Inos<strong>in</strong>ic acid (IMP) is famous as the major component of<br />

umami taste. It seems that the IMP content of meat is affected by the heat<strong>in</strong>g temperature<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g, because IMP is decomposed by the enzyme orig<strong>in</strong>ally present <strong>in</strong> the meat.<br />

However, there have been no reports predict<strong>in</strong>g the changes <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and umami<br />

component <strong>in</strong> accordance with heat transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g meat cook<strong>in</strong>g. The objective of this work<br />

was to simulate changes <strong>in</strong> both prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and the amount of IMP by a 3D f<strong>in</strong>iteelement<br />

method. We targeted the vacuum-pack cook<strong>in</strong>g (sous-vide) that is frequently used by<br />

professional chefs.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Beef from the purchase was used for all the experiments. Roast beef was cooked <strong>in</strong> the<br />

laboratory accord<strong>in</strong>g to the sous-vide method. We corrected the temperature history for both<br />

the core and surface of the meat and measured the weight and size of the meat before and after<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g. The k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters of prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation were measured by differential<br />

scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimetry (DSC). IMP <strong>in</strong> the meat was quantified by high performance liquid<br />

chromatography (HPLC). The temperature dependency of the IMP decomposition reaction was<br />

also exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> an isothermal heat<strong>in</strong>g experiment.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Roast beef cooked <strong>in</strong> the laboratory showed the character with a low weight loss compared<br />

with a usual cook<strong>in</strong>g method. The sample thermogram shows two endothermic peaks. From<br />

published literature, the first peak corresponds to myos<strong>in</strong> and the second one to the act<strong>in</strong> of the<br />

fibrillary prote<strong>in</strong>. It turned out the myos<strong>in</strong> denatures at about 50 while the act<strong>in</strong> denatures at<br />

about 70.The amount of rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of IMP has decreased as the heat<strong>in</strong>g time progresses at<br />

all the heat<strong>in</strong>g temperatures. However, as for the sample heated at the temperature above 40,<br />

the amount of rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g was lower than sample heated at 40, because the enzyme activity<br />

that decomposed IMP decreased. Then, the activation energy and the frequency factor of the<br />

IMP decomposition reaction and the enzyme activity decrease reaction were calculated by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the Arrhenius plot. The shape model similar to the sample cooked <strong>in</strong> the laboratory was<br />

made, and the three-dimensional heat conduction analysis by the f<strong>in</strong>ite element method was<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1917

done. Figure 1 shows the comparison between measured value and the calculated temperature<br />

history of meat at the core. The change <strong>in</strong> the temperature was similar. Next, the prote<strong>in</strong><br />

denaturation ratio and IMP rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ratio were simulated by us<strong>in</strong>g the prote<strong>in</strong> heat<br />

denaturation rate constant and rate constant related to IMP based on the calculated temperature<br />

history. In case of the sous-vide cook<strong>in</strong>g, it turned out that the denaturation ratio of the act<strong>in</strong><br />

was low at the central position and IMP decreased near the central position.<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Figure 1. Comparison between measured and calculated temperature history of meat at the core dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sous-vide cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The distribution of thermal denaturation of prote<strong>in</strong> and IMP rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ratio were analyzed by<br />

heat transfer analysis that imitates sous-vide method. It turned out that the denaturation ratio of<br />

the act<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the central position is low and IMP rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ratio on the surface is high.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

[1] Wagner J.R. & Anon M.C. 1985. Denaturation k<strong>in</strong>etics of myofigrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> brov<strong>in</strong>e muscle.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 50, 1547-1551.<br />

[2] Bertola N. C., Bevilacqua A. E. & Zaritzky N. E., 1994. Heat treatment effect on texture changes and<br />

thermal denaturation of prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> beef muscle. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Preservation, 18(1), 31-<br />

46.<br />

1918

Effect of steam cook<strong>in</strong>g of food on mass transfer<br />

Emilie DESCOURS 1 , Eric FERRET 2,3 , Nicolas VALANCE 4 , Andrée VOILLEY 1,3 , Anne-Marie<br />

SEUVRE 1,5<br />

1<br />

Laboratoire EMMA, Université de Bourgogne, 1 esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon France<br />

2<br />

Laboratoire GPMA, Université de Bourgogne, 1 esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon France<br />

3<br />

Agrosup Dijon, 26 Boulevard Docteur Petitjean, BP 87999, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France<br />

4<br />

Groupe SEB, Rue La Patenee, 21261 Selongey, France<br />

5<br />

IUT Génie Biologique, Université de Bourgogne, Bd Docteur Petitjean, BP 17867, 21078 Dijon cedex,<br />

France<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last few years, the number of health problems related to poor nutrition has<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased. Due to globalisation and open markets, people have never had such a vast selection<br />

of food products. Therefore, the right choice of cook<strong>in</strong>g preparation can help <strong>in</strong> overcom<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

problems mentioned above. The most promis<strong>in</strong>g method that preserves nutritional as well as<br />

organoleptic food properties, seems to be steam cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The aim of this work is to study the impact of steam cook<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st the loss and/or the<br />

generation of aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> potatoes, especially those that have a major impact <strong>in</strong> the<br />

flavour of potatoes. Among these, many aldehydes, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g hexanal, octanal, nonanal,<br />

decanal, benzaldehyde but also 2-pentylfuran [1], [2]. Hexanal which is present <strong>in</strong> large<br />

amounts <strong>in</strong> raw potatoes and <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g quantities dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g, is chosen so as the mass<br />

transfer can be studied [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

600g of potato cyl<strong>in</strong>ders (3cm x 2cm) were steam cooked (100°C) for 20 m<strong>in</strong>utes. This amount<br />

of time was determ<strong>in</strong>ed after study<strong>in</strong>g at three parameters: cook<strong>in</strong>g value, textural measures<br />

and sensorial analysis [4]. After cook<strong>in</strong>g, the water vapour, the potato samples and the<br />

collected cook<strong>in</strong>g juice were analysed.<br />

Quantitative analysis of aroma compounds was done us<strong>in</strong>g Chrompack CP9000 gas liquid<br />

chromatograph teamed with a with a flame ionization detector (200°C) (Flow N2:20ml/m<strong>in</strong>,<br />

H2.:26ml/m<strong>in</strong>, air: 360ml/m<strong>in</strong>) The <strong>in</strong>jector temperature was set at 190°C, the column<br />

(sta<strong>in</strong>less steel column 3m length, 2.2 mm <strong>in</strong>ner diameter, packed with Chromosorb 20W/AW,<br />

80/100mesh Carbowax 20M/10%) from 90 to 110°C.<br />

To allow the aroma to be analysed <strong>in</strong> saturated water vapour, an adapted system was<br />

developed. In a transfer l<strong>in</strong>e, the steam was cooled and due to the Peltier effect, the water was<br />

removed and the condensate recovered. After, compounds were concentrated by a thermodesorption<br />

system (Markes) connected to a Gas liquid chromatograph (7890 A Agilent)<br />

coupled with a mass spectrometer equipped with a quadripole (5975 C Agilent).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g, a potato lost on average 0.3% of its <strong>in</strong>itial mass. The water lost represented<br />

48% of water <strong>in</strong>itially <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the system.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1919

The first results show a variation of concentration of aroma compounds. To understand the<br />

behaviour of aroma compounds dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g, hexanal was used as a tracer. This compound<br />

was <strong>in</strong>jected with known quantities <strong>in</strong>to the center or onto the surface of the cyl<strong>in</strong>der before<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g steam cooked. The potato, gaseous phase and cook<strong>in</strong>g juice were analyzed after.<br />

Table 1. Average mass balance obta<strong>in</strong>ed after steam<strong>in</strong>g potatoes 600g calibrated for 20 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Mass of hexanal <strong>in</strong>troduced Mass of hexanal after 20 m<strong>in</strong>utes cook<strong>in</strong>g recup<br />

(mg)<br />

(mg) and (%)<br />

Without the addition of hexanal 35,4 0,9 1,2<br />

When <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the center 62,0<br />

0,5<br />

6,3<br />

300ppm (183mg)<br />

34 %<br />

0,3%<br />

3,4%<br />

When <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the center 27,7<br />

0,9<br />

8,0<br />

300ppm (183mg)<br />

15%<br />

0,5%<br />

4,4%<br />

An important difference was observed if hexanal was <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the potato or on the surface.<br />

When hexanal was added <strong>in</strong>to the center, only 38% of it was reta<strong>in</strong>ed by the potato and more<br />

than 62% of the compound released from the cook<strong>in</strong>g system. When we added hexanal on the<br />

surface, the loss was more significant, as only 15% was still <strong>in</strong> the system. These losses are<br />

greater than the concentration of hexanal as shown <strong>in</strong> the literature as it is supposed to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

A solution of hexanal <strong>in</strong> water at a know concentration was placed <strong>in</strong> the system to follow the<br />

loss of aroma compound dur<strong>in</strong>g the cook<strong>in</strong>g. It was observed that after 4 m<strong>in</strong>utes of cook<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

half was lost and after 20 m<strong>in</strong>utes, 98 % of hexanal had escaped out of the system.<br />

Steam cook<strong>in</strong>g is an open system that works under atmospheric pressure. The compounds<br />

responsible for the flavour are ma<strong>in</strong>ly hydrophobic aromatic compounds (log P>1,5) especially<br />

aldehydes that, under these conditions, release from the system.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Most aroma compounds hav<strong>in</strong>g a strong impact on the flavour <strong>in</strong> steam cooked potatoes are<br />

aldehydes. These hydrophobic compounds are weakly reta<strong>in</strong>ed by the low-fat foods cooked <strong>in</strong><br />

a saturated water vapour atmosphere. The steam cook<strong>in</strong>g will cause a loss of aroma<br />

compounds. It is necessary to improve steam cook<strong>in</strong>g to try to preserve the maximum amount<br />

of compounds to limit lost.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Shelley H. Jansky. 2010. Potato Flavor. American Journal of Potato Research, 87, 209217.<br />

[2] Mutti, B., and W. Grosch. 1999. Potent odorants of boiled potatoes. Nahrung/<strong>Food</strong> 43: 302306.<br />

[3] Petersen, M. A.; Poll, L.; Larsen, L. M. 1998. Comparison of volatiles <strong>in</strong> raw and boiled potatoes<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a mild extraction technique comb<strong>in</strong>ed with GC odour profil<strong>in</strong>gand GC-MS. <strong>Food</strong> Chem. 61,<br />

461- 466.<br />

[4] Chiavaro E., Barbanti D., Vittad<strong>in</strong>i E., Mass<strong>in</strong>i R. 2006.The effect of different cook<strong>in</strong>g methods on<br />

the <strong>in</strong>strumental quality of potatoes. Journal of food eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 77, 169-178.<br />

1920

Development of experimental devices <strong>in</strong> order to study the <strong>in</strong>teractions between heat and<br />

mass phenomena and thermal degradation reactions of lipids dur<strong>in</strong>g domestic reheat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of pre-fried food products<br />

Cernela, J. a,b , Heyd, B. a,b , Broyart, B. a,b<br />

a<br />

AgroParisTech, UMR 1145 GENIAL <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 1, avenue des Olympiades, 91744<br />

Massy cedex, France (bertrand.broyart@agroparistech.fr)<br />

b<br />

INRA, UMR 1145 GENIAL <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>,1, avenue des Olympiades, 91744 Massy cedex,<br />

France<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

When solid products conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g lipids are submitted to high temperatures, thermal degradation reactions<br />

of lipids occur. Few studies concern thermal degradation reactions of lipids dur<strong>in</strong>g contact heat<strong>in</strong>g or<br />

oven cook<strong>in</strong>g of food products. Some experimental and theoretical studies can be found concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gle- or double-sided pan fry<strong>in</strong>g of beef burgers: [1], [2], [3]. With regards to these applicative and<br />

scientific stakes, a French national 3-years research project called DOMINOVE (“DOMestic heat<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

deep-fat fried products IN OVEn and pan”) has been supported by the French Research National Agency<br />

(ANR) s<strong>in</strong>ce 2010. This paper will first present orig<strong>in</strong>al results taken from an experimental campaign<br />

aim<strong>in</strong>g at evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the variability <strong>in</strong>herent to hot-air cook<strong>in</strong>g and contact heat<strong>in</strong>g at domestic scale. In a<br />

second part, the experimental laboratory devices developed <strong>in</strong> our laboratory to reproduce the domestic<br />

operations of concern and their thermal characterization will be presented and discussed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For the study of the variability <strong>in</strong>herent to domestic hot-air cook<strong>in</strong>g, three commercial electric ovens were<br />

used: two built-<strong>in</strong> ovens and a m<strong>in</strong>i-oven (free or forced convection). After a pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g step, an<br />

alum<strong>in</strong>um cook<strong>in</strong>g plate conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 3 breaded poultry products was put at the centre of the oven cavity.<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g these experiments, the product thermal environment was assessed by three variables: the air<br />

temperature, the convective heat transfer coefficient and the equivalent radiative temperature (with heat<br />

fluxes sensors).<br />

For contact heat<strong>in</strong>g, four commercial heat<strong>in</strong>g devices typically encountered <strong>in</strong> domestic conditions were<br />

used and two Teflon ® -coated pans were selected: a th<strong>in</strong> and light alum<strong>in</strong>ium pan (pan #1) and a heavier<br />

one made from an assembly of sta<strong>in</strong>less steel and alum<strong>in</strong>ium (pan #2). Pan temperature was measured<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a thermocouple <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> a th<strong>in</strong> hole below the pan surface. After a pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g step, a thermal<br />

load of 3 breaded poultry products were put <strong>in</strong> the pan and the selected heat<strong>in</strong>g power is adjusted to a<br />

medium or high level. This operation is made with or without sunflower oil. The heterogeneity of the pan<br />

surface temperature was evaluated just before the disposal of the products us<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>frared thermography<br />

camera.<br />

For hot-air cook<strong>in</strong>g and contact-heat<strong>in</strong>g devices, the electrical power consumptions were recorded dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

all experiments with a Joule-meter.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Characterization of domestic heat<strong>in</strong>g devices: the fastest pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g is achieved with the <strong>in</strong>duction<br />

hob. The addition of an oil layer has no significant effect on pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g rate except for <strong>in</strong>duction hob. By<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1921

contrast, the nature of the pan has an effect on the pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g rate. The heterogeneity of pan surface<br />

temperature at the end of pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g depends widely on the type of pan selected and the nature of the<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g device.<br />

Once food products have been put on the pan, the four contact-heat<strong>in</strong>g devices show very different<br />

behaviours. Pan temperature is never constant dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g. Trials at high power show a pan<br />

temperature always ris<strong>in</strong>g and reach<strong>in</strong>g circa 300°C.<br />

When look<strong>in</strong>g at the pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g rate for the hot-air cook<strong>in</strong>g devices, it can be noted a good accordance<br />

for the two built-<strong>in</strong> ovens tested. In the m<strong>in</strong>i-oven the pre-heat<strong>in</strong>g rate is significantly higher although the<br />

power consumption is lower.<br />

Very different air temperature evolutions dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g are also observed for hot-air cook<strong>in</strong>g devices.<br />

This is ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to the different modes of temperature control with<strong>in</strong> the oven. Whatever the oven, the<br />

set po<strong>in</strong>t is never successfully reached and kept constant dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g. In the three ovens selected, the<br />

convective heat transfer coefficients measured at the centre of the cook<strong>in</strong>g plate <strong>in</strong> free convection are<br />

nearly the same. In contrast for the forced convection mode, we note a significant difference between the<br />

two built-<strong>in</strong> ovens and the m<strong>in</strong>i-oven. The results on equivalent radiative temperature are more difficult to<br />

<strong>in</strong>terpret because of the unstable air temperature.<br />

Development of laboratory heat<strong>in</strong>g devices: the experimental device for hot air cook<strong>in</strong>g was developed<br />

from a commercial oven. The air temperature control of the commercial oven was improved by add<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

PID controller to the <strong>in</strong>stalled electronic control system. The convection mode has an <strong>in</strong>fluence on the<br />

value and heterogeneity of the convective heat transfer coefficient and equivalent radiative temperature<br />

over the cook<strong>in</strong>g plate.<br />

Contrary to the hot air cook<strong>in</strong>g device, the laboratory device for contact heat<strong>in</strong>g is an orig<strong>in</strong>al prototype.<br />

A sta<strong>in</strong>less-steel pan with a bottom made of a sandwich sta<strong>in</strong>less steel/alum<strong>in</strong>ium/sta<strong>in</strong>less steel is<br />

positioned on a double jacketed sta<strong>in</strong>less-steel cyl<strong>in</strong>drical basis filled with an <strong>in</strong>sulat<strong>in</strong>g material. A<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g resistance is fixed <strong>in</strong>side the basis. A thermocouple <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> the centre of the pan below the<br />

surface is used for controll<strong>in</strong>g the pan temperature us<strong>in</strong>g a PID controller. The two ma<strong>in</strong> advantages of<br />

this device are the good surface temperature uniformity of the pan and the high thermal <strong>in</strong>ertia of the<br />

system coupled to the pan temperature control which allows to work <strong>in</strong> constant and repeatable<br />

conditions.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g domestic hot-air or contact cook<strong>in</strong>g, the behaviour of the consumer and the nature of equipment<br />

used <strong>in</strong>fluence greatly the thermal environment of the heated product and hence certa<strong>in</strong>ly the magnitude<br />

of heat and mass transfers and reactivity of lipids with<strong>in</strong> the product. These observations led us to develop<br />

two heat<strong>in</strong>g devices <strong>in</strong> order to study heat and mass transfers <strong>in</strong> repeatable and constant conditions: a hotair<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g device based on a commercial oven and an orig<strong>in</strong>al prototype for contact-heat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ikediala, J.N., Correia, L.R., Fenton, G.A., Ben-Abdallah, N. (1996). F<strong>in</strong>ite-element modell<strong>in</strong>g of heat transfer <strong>in</strong><br />

meat patties dur<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gle-sided pan-fry<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 61, 796-802.<br />

[2] Pan, Z., S<strong>in</strong>gh, R.P., Rumsey, T.R. (2000). Predictive model<strong>in</strong>g of contact-heat<strong>in</strong>g process for cook<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

hamburger patty. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 46, 9-19.<br />

[3] Ou, D. & Mittal, G.S. 2006. Double-sided pan fry<strong>in</strong>g of unfrozen/frozen hamburgers for microbial safety us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

modell<strong>in</strong>g and simulation. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 39, 133-144.<br />

1922

The Effect of UHT and VAT Thermal <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Systems on Whey Prote<strong>in</strong> Denaturation<br />

and Gel Strength of yoghurt<br />

Labropoulos, A a ., Varzakas, T., b , Anestis, S. a<br />

a TechnologicalEducational Institute of Athens, Hellas (athanlab@teiath.gr)<br />

b Technological Educational Institute of Kalamata, Hellas (tvarzakas@teikal.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

It is well known that different process variables can <strong>in</strong>duce changes <strong>in</strong> the physical properties of milk<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s. Such variables affect<strong>in</strong>g physical properties of prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>clude heat treatment, prote<strong>in</strong> content,<br />

acidity, etc. There is considerable controversy, however, regard<strong>in</strong>g temperature-time relationships<br />

necessary to change the physical property of a product, e.g. stability. Therefore, it is of <strong>in</strong>terest to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e the degree of whey prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation <strong>in</strong>duced by different process<strong>in</strong>g systems and the<br />

correlation of denaturation to the gel strength. The current study exam<strong>in</strong>es the effect of two process<br />

systems i.e. cont<strong>in</strong>uous UHT and batch VAT heat treatments, on the denaturation of whey prote<strong>in</strong>s with a<br />

view to further correlation with the mechanism of gel strength <strong>in</strong> yoghurt.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Raw whole milk was heat treated by two process<strong>in</strong>g systems, i.e. a cont<strong>in</strong>uous UHT and a batch VAT,<br />

represented by the follow<strong>in</strong>g temperature-process hold<strong>in</strong>g time comb<strong>in</strong>ations: UHT process<strong>in</strong>g at<br />

temperatures 132 0 C to 154 0 C with an app. 6 0 C <strong>in</strong>crement for 0.0, 1.2, 3.3, 5.2, 9.0, and 12.0 sec and<br />

VAT process<strong>in</strong>g at temperatures 66 0 C to 88 0 C with an app. 6 0 C <strong>in</strong>crement for 0.0, 5.0, 10.o, 20.0, and<br />

30 m<strong>in</strong>. Unheated milk was utilized as a control.<br />

UHT and VAT heat treatments were carried out <strong>in</strong> a helically coiled tube, with an <strong>in</strong>direct heat<strong>in</strong>g system,<br />

automatic temperature control and <strong>in</strong> a steam jacketed batch type pasteurizer respectively. Different<br />

residence times were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g hold<strong>in</strong>g tubes of vary<strong>in</strong>g length size and chang<strong>in</strong>g pump speeds <strong>in</strong><br />

the UHT process system. All heat treatments were homogenized at 60 0 C preheat<strong>in</strong>g temperature and an<br />

approximate 105 Kg/cm 2 operat<strong>in</strong>g pressure. ). A Cherry-Burrel curd tension meter was used to measure<br />

the strength of yoghurt gels. Whey prote<strong>in</strong>s were separated on cellulose acetate strips us<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

electrophoresis procedure. Qualitative analysis of the whey prote<strong>in</strong> fractions was made accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

procedure of Puyol et al. <strong>in</strong> which the whey prote<strong>in</strong> fractions of the milk are identified by the rate of<br />

travel <strong>in</strong> the electric field relative to standard prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of heat treatment on whey prote<strong>in</strong> electrophoresis<br />

A typical densitometer trac<strong>in</strong>g of separation of whey prote<strong>in</strong>s of raw milk shows 5 dist<strong>in</strong>ct electrophoretic<br />

peaks, correspond<strong>in</strong>g to immunoglobul<strong>in</strong>s (Igs), alpha-lactalbum <strong>in</strong> A (alpha-La), beta-lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> B<br />

(beta-Lg B), beta-lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> A (beta-Lg A), and bov<strong>in</strong>e serum album<strong>in</strong> (BSA).<br />

Progressive decreases <strong>in</strong> the area of electrophoretic peaks occurred with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> process hold<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time, for example, at the UHT system (149 0 C) and at the VAT system (82 0 C) (Figure 1). Qualitative<br />

analysis of the areas under the electrophoretic peaks for the UHT treatments at 132 0 C through 154 0 C<br />

showed that these treatments with no process hold<strong>in</strong>g times did not severely denature the whey prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

A significant denaturation was observed at l49 0 C and above. However, the same UHT treatments but<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1923

with 12 sec process hold<strong>in</strong>g times yielded a complete denaturation for all the temperatures applied to<br />

whey prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

On the other hand, VAT treatments at 66 0 C from 0 to 30 m<strong>in</strong> process hold<strong>in</strong>g times <strong>in</strong>dicated only a<br />

small effect on whey prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation. There was a severe denaturation effect somewhere between 82<br />

0 C and 88 0 C temperatures. When VAT heat treatments were applied at various temperatures with a<br />

constant 30 m<strong>in</strong> process hold<strong>in</strong>g time, a substantial denaturation effect was obta<strong>in</strong>ed after 71 0 C<br />

temperature.<br />

Effect of heat treatment on gel strength<br />

Whey prote<strong>in</strong>s have been demonstrated to participate <strong>in</strong> gel formation, while other studies have shown<br />

that heat treatment (conventional or UHT) of milk affects the rheological properties of yoghurt gel<br />

prepared from this milk. However, a differential effect of VAT and UHT heat treatments on the gel<br />

strength of yoghurt made by the above process<strong>in</strong>g systems was observed <strong>in</strong> this study. Gel strength<br />

measured by curd tension values ranged between 15 and 34.5 g for the UHT heat treatments and reached<br />

up to 85 g for the VAT heat treatments (Table 1). The strength of yoghurt gels prepared from UHT heat<br />

treatments was, thus, always lower than those prepared from VAT heat treatments<br />

1924<br />

Table 1. Effect of UHT and VAT heat treatments on gel strength of yoghurt<br />

HEAT TREATMENT <strong>Process</strong> Hold<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Time<br />

(sec)<br />

<strong>Process</strong> Temperature<br />

( 0 C)<br />

Gel<br />

Strength<br />

(g)<br />

UHT 0.0 149 24<br />

UHT 3.3 149 33<br />

UHT 5.2 149 27<br />

UHT 9.0 149 14<br />

UHT 12.0 149 12<br />

VAT 1800.0 82 86<br />

Figure 1: Electrophoretic patterns of whey<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s of whole milk thermally processed<br />

by the UHT system at 149°C temperature<br />

and 0 to 12 sec process hold<strong>in</strong>g times<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of this study <strong>in</strong>dicate that electrophoresis on<br />

cellulose acetate membranes provides a relatively simple<br />

and quick procedure for separat<strong>in</strong>g and measur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

relative quantities of prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation <strong>in</strong>duced by<br />

different thermal process<strong>in</strong>g operations. Denaturation of<br />

the whey prote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>duced by UHT and VAT process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

systems was dependent on thermal process<strong>in</strong>g systems and<br />

thermal process<strong>in</strong>g parameters (process hold<strong>in</strong>g time and<br />

temperatures). A rough correlation between extent of whey<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and gel strength was found for the<br />

VAT heat treated whey prote<strong>in</strong>s, while no such correlation<br />

was observed <strong>in</strong> the UHT heat treated whey prote<strong>in</strong>s. On<br />

the other hand, the strength of gels prepared with the UHT<br />

process was always lower than those prepared with the<br />

VAT process. This could lead to production of light<br />

strength gels with an application to dr<strong>in</strong>kable or semiliquid<br />

products.

Application of ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g to whole egg<br />

Toshio Nakai, Mika Fukuoka, Noboru Sakai<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Technology,<br />

4-5-7 Konan, M<strong>in</strong>atoku, Tokyo, Japan (fukuoka@kaiyodai.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g has various advantages such as the high heat<strong>in</strong>g efficiency and the accuracy of<br />

the temperature control, and it is applied to the sterilization of liquid food <strong>in</strong> the foods <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

Because the liquid egg is delicate liquid food changed from the liquid phase to a semisolid<br />

state so that the prote<strong>in</strong> may denature accord<strong>in</strong>g to the heat<strong>in</strong>g temperature, the heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sterilization is very difficult. Objective of this study is to exam<strong>in</strong>e whether the ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

can be applied to the thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of the whole egg by understand<strong>in</strong>g the electrical<br />

property of the egg component.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Whole egg: Fresh shell eggs (large size, 52-76g) with<strong>in</strong> one week from the date of spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

purchased from a supermarket were used for heat<strong>in</strong>g experiments and impedance<br />

measurements<br />

Ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g system: Ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g system was composed of the power supply unit<br />

(frequency at 20kHz, 3kW <strong>in</strong> capacity, applied voltage range 0~100V), the heat<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />

with a titanium electrode (L53mm×W 79mm×T1mm), PC for data storage.<br />

Impedance measurement: The whole egg was separated to egg white and the whole yolk with<br />

the separator, egg white was put <strong>in</strong>to the SUS basket of 1mm mesh, the egg white that<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the basket was assumed the dense egg white and egg white that had passed<br />

naturally were assumed to be the liquid egg white. Yolk w/ and w/o vitell<strong>in</strong>e membrane were<br />

used respectively. Liquid whole egg was prepared by stirr<strong>in</strong>g whole egg without the chalazae.<br />

The impedance of those samples was measured by LCR meter (LCR HIGHTESTER 3532-50,<br />

HIOKI Co., Japan).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

A part of egg white became clouded by ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g at 50V and the prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation was<br />

confirmed. The region which became clouded was a dense egg white that exists around the<br />

yolk. It was clarified that the thermal denaturation of the dense egg white <strong>in</strong> the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of the<br />

center between two electrodes was remarkable. The temperature histories of both yolk and egg<br />

white dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g were shown <strong>in</strong> Figure1. Egg white was heated selectively dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g (50V-2m<strong>in</strong>) of the whole egg. On the other hand, the temperature rise at the<br />

whole egg was small though the whole yolk enclosed by the dense egg white and the liquid egg<br />

white was the central part between two electrodes.<br />

From the result of the heat<strong>in</strong>g experiment, the impedance measurements for component of the<br />

egg were necessary. Figure 2 shows that the temperature dependence of the impedance of the<br />

egg components. The frequency of impedance measurement was 20 kHz.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1925

Figure 1. Temperature history of whole egg dur<strong>in</strong>g ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g at 50 V.<br />

The impedance of egg white and yolk has become small with the temperature rise and the<br />

temperature dependency of impedance was able to be confirmed. On the other hand, the<br />

impedance of both dense egg white and liquid egg white were small. Moreover, there is little<br />

temperature dependence <strong>in</strong> egg white. Impedance at 50 kHz was also measured. The<br />

impedance of whole yolk has <strong>in</strong>creased remarkably compared with that of 20 kHz, though that<br />

of yolk and egg white didn't change.<br />

It was thought that a big difference <strong>in</strong> the electrical property between egg white and yolk<br />

affected the characteristic <strong>in</strong> the ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g of the whole egg.<br />

1926<br />

250<br />

200<br />

) 150<br />

(O<br />

ce<br />

a<br />

n<br />

d<br />

e<br />

p<br />

im 100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

20 30 40 50 60 70 80<br />

temperature()<br />

wholeyolk<br />

yolk<br />

denseeggwhite<br />

liquideggwhite<br />

liquidwholeegg<br />

Figure 2. Temperature dependency of the impedance at 20 kHz of frequency.

Transient mass and heat transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g potato deep fat fry<strong>in</strong>g – The effect of the oil<br />

type, fry<strong>in</strong>g load and <strong>in</strong>itial fry<strong>in</strong>g temperature<br />

John S. Lioumbas a , Margaritis Kostoglou a , Thodoris D. Karapantsios<br />

a Division of Chemical Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,<br />

Thessaloniki, Greece (karapantsios@chem.auth.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In order to design fry<strong>in</strong>g equipment for space, the critical po<strong>in</strong>ts of the fry<strong>in</strong>g process under no<br />

or partial gravity must be exam<strong>in</strong>ed. On this account, ESA (European Space Agency) has<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiated a project to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effect of different g-levels on fry<strong>in</strong>g. Experiments at<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased gravity levels are conducted <strong>in</strong> ESA‘s Large Diameter Centrifuge whereas<br />

experiments at reduced gravity levels are conducted dur<strong>in</strong>g ESA’s Parabolic Flight Campaigns.<br />

Beforehand, meticulous experiments are performed under normal (terrestrial) gravity<br />

conditions to serve as reference. This is <strong>in</strong>deed the objective of this work.<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g long-duration space missions astronauts must receive food that is not only nutritional<br />

but should also offer pleasure which is significant for crew morale and performance. Fry<strong>in</strong>g is<br />

a popular cul<strong>in</strong>ary process worldwide. This is especially so regard<strong>in</strong>g potato fry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> western<br />

societies. So, from a psychological po<strong>in</strong>t of view it would be important for astronauts to<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude fried potatoes <strong>in</strong> their menu. Fry<strong>in</strong>g is a process strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the acceleration<br />

of gravity. It is not only the convective heat transfer between the oil and the food surface that<br />

is affected by gravity. What is perhaps more significant is the formation and removal of<br />

evaporated water <strong>in</strong> form of bubbles from the food surface that leaves beh<strong>in</strong>d a porous crust<br />

which dictates the eventual oil uptake and food oral (sensory) perception.<br />

To our knowledge, Hubbard & Farkas [1, 2] were the first and only researchers, who<br />

performed simultaneous on-l<strong>in</strong>e weight loss measurements and temperature measurements<br />

<strong>in</strong>side the potato, dur<strong>in</strong>g deep fat fry<strong>in</strong>g (large scale fry<strong>in</strong>g) of s<strong>in</strong>gle potato pieces. Hubbard<br />

and Farkas [1] focused on fry<strong>in</strong>g of a s<strong>in</strong>gle potato piece (or just a few pieces) assum<strong>in</strong>g<br />

constant thermophysical properties of both the oil and the food. However, this does not<br />

resemble the conditions encountered <strong>in</strong> actual applications where many food items fry together<br />

<strong>in</strong> close proximity result<strong>in</strong>g to an oil bath temperature drop of 30 to 45 o C. The results of the<br />

present study, apart from act<strong>in</strong>g as reference for future experiments under <strong>in</strong>creased and<br />

reduced gravity levels, improve our understand<strong>in</strong>g of the complicated phenomena prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g large scale fry<strong>in</strong>g and so contribute to the design of more energy-efficient fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

appliances.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

This work <strong>in</strong>vestigates the dependence of transient mass transfer characteristics (i.e. vapour<br />

flux) and heat transfer characteristics (i.e. heat transfer coefficient and thermal conductivity of<br />

the fried medium) dur<strong>in</strong>g potato deep fry<strong>in</strong>g, on the type of fry<strong>in</strong>g oil, the <strong>in</strong>itial fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature and the fry<strong>in</strong>g load. Simultaneous on-l<strong>in</strong>e water loss measurements as well as<br />

temperature record<strong>in</strong>gs both <strong>in</strong>side the potatoes (Angria variety, all from the same producer,<br />

geographical region and harvest<strong>in</strong>g period) and <strong>in</strong> the oil are employed to evaluate mass and<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1927

heat transfer characteristics. Two types of oil (i.e. extra virg<strong>in</strong> olive oil and ref<strong>in</strong>ed palm oil),<br />

two <strong>in</strong>itial fry<strong>in</strong>g temperatures (i.e. 150 and 180 o C) and two fry<strong>in</strong>g loads (i.e. 1/35 and 1/7<br />

kgpotatoes/Loil) are exam<strong>in</strong>ed. These two potato-to-oil ratios are typical for large scale cater<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and <strong>in</strong>dustrial applications, respectively.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The oil temperature, Toil, profiles and the water loss, mw, data per potato stick are presented <strong>in</strong><br />

Figure 1 and 2 respectively (for <strong>in</strong>itial Toil =180 o C and two fry<strong>in</strong>g loads).<br />

Toil, o C<br />

200<br />

180<br />

160<br />

140<br />

120<br />

Initial oil temperature: 180 o C<br />

olive oil<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g load: 1/35<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g load: 1/7<br />

palm oil<br />

(b)<br />

100<br />

0 50 100 150<br />

t, sec<br />

200 250 300<br />

Figure 1. Oil temperature profiles dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fry<strong>in</strong>g at two fry<strong>in</strong>g loads at <strong>in</strong>itial oil<br />

temperature 180 o C.<br />

mw per stick, gr<br />

2.0<br />

1.5<br />

1.0<br />

0.5<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial oil temperature: 180 o C<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g load: 1/35<br />

Fry<strong>in</strong>g load: 1/7<br />

olive oil<br />

0.0<br />

palm oil<br />

0 50 100 150<br />

t, sec<br />

200 250 300<br />

Figure 2. Average loss of water mass per<br />

potato stick dur<strong>in</strong>g fry<strong>in</strong>g at two fry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

loads at <strong>in</strong>itial oil temperature 180 o C.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is found that the fry<strong>in</strong>g load and the <strong>in</strong>itial fry<strong>in</strong>g temperature significantly affect the Toil<br />

profiles (Figure 1) as well as the mass of the evaporated water (Figure 2). On the contrary,<br />

virtually no significant dependence on the oil type is observed. Furthermore, by employ<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

fundamental mass and heat transfer analysis, different zones have been identified with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

potato exhibit<strong>in</strong>g dist<strong>in</strong>ct properties.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This study was carried under the programme “Influence of<br />

gravity conditions on mass and heat transfer <strong>in</strong> porous media” and funded by (Co. No.<br />

22470/09/NL/CBi). The view expressed here<strong>in</strong> can <strong>in</strong> no way be taken to reflect the official<br />

op<strong>in</strong>ion of the European Space Agency.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Hubbard, L.J. and Farkas, B.E., 1999. A method for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the convective heat transfer<br />

coefficient dur<strong>in</strong>g immersion fry<strong>in</strong>g, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 22, 201-214.<br />

[2] Hubbard, L.J. and Farkas, B.E., 1999. Influence of oil temperature on convective heat transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

immersion fry<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Preservation 24, 143–161.<br />

1928<br />

(b)

Acceptance of Iron Fortified Rice (I-Rice) <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es to Combat Iron Deficiency<br />

Anemia (IDA)<br />

Edith M. San Juan, Neri O. Camitan, Amelita C. Natividad, Mario U. Gochangco, Lauro D. Alku<strong>in</strong>o,<br />

Alberto R. Cariso, Jr., Dr. Alicia O. Lustre and Dr. Amelia W. Tejada<br />

National <strong>Food</strong> Authority-<strong>Food</strong> Development Center, Taguig City, Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (<strong>in</strong>fo@fdc.net.ph)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Rice is a valuable vehicle for alleviat<strong>in</strong>g iron micronutrient deficiency because of its role as the<br />

basic staple food for 93% of households <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es [1]. For rice to be an effective<br />

delivery vehicle for iron, its color, flavor and price should be similar to that of good quality<br />

non-fortified rice. It has to be white <strong>in</strong> color, with the flavor of good quality rice and at a price<br />

similar to the latter. These characteristics are not easy to achieve <strong>in</strong> I-Rice due to the effect of<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g iron on the color of the cooked rice, and on its price. Both color and price are factors<br />

that affect the purchase <strong>in</strong>tent of rice of low <strong>in</strong>come consumers.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of the study was to assess consumer acceptance of I-Rice to household<br />

members of Grade 1 students from five identified schools <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es who were either<br />

participants or not participants <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Food</strong> for School Program (FSP) of the Department of<br />

Education (DepEd) [2]. The specific objectives were: (a) to identify the sensory attributes<br />

preferred by Filip<strong>in</strong>os <strong>in</strong> I-Rice; (b) to determ<strong>in</strong>e which of the demographic profiles of the<br />

respondents affect the acceptance of I-Rice; and (c) to establish the relationship of the different<br />

socio-demographic profiles of the respondents and acceptance of I-Rice.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The surveys were conducted <strong>in</strong> five (5) public elementary schools, namely, Tenement<br />

Elementary School (TES) <strong>in</strong> Taguig City, Camar<strong>in</strong> D Elementary School (CDES) <strong>in</strong> Caloocan<br />

City, Soledad Marasigan Elementary School (SMES) <strong>in</strong> Pili, Camar<strong>in</strong>es Sur, North City<br />

Elementary School (NCES) <strong>in</strong> Dumaguete City, Negro Oriental, and Libertad Central<br />

Elementary School (LCES) <strong>in</strong> Butuan City, Agusan del Norte us<strong>in</strong>g the home-use test (HUT)<br />

protocol. Of the five schools, TES and CDES are schools participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the FSP while the<br />

other three schools are not participat<strong>in</strong>g. The five schools were considered to determ<strong>in</strong>e if there<br />

is significant difference <strong>in</strong> responses between the two classifications of schools. The target<br />

respondents were the qualified household members of Grade 1 students. A total of 2,442<br />

respondents participated <strong>in</strong> the study. The materials used for the survey were as follows: (1)<br />

Letter to the Households; (2) Instruction Sheets; (3) Consent Form; (4) Demographic<br />

Questionnaire – Parts 1 and 2; (5) Scoresheet; and (6) I-Rice samples. The 9-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic<br />

scale was used to determ<strong>in</strong>e the acceptance rat<strong>in</strong>g for odor, color, flavor, and overall lik<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

I-Rice.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Results of non-parametric test us<strong>in</strong>g the Kruskal-Wallis Test for group comparison revealed<br />

that there were no significant differences among the acceptance rat<strong>in</strong>gs obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1929

espondents of the five (5) schools as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. This means that the responses of all<br />

the qualified respondents on acceptance of I-Rice were the same <strong>in</strong> all schools regardless of<br />

whether the chosen school is participat<strong>in</strong>g or not <strong>in</strong> the FSP of DepEd.<br />

Table 1. Kruskal-Wallis Test of significance for acceptanceof I-Rice <strong>in</strong> five (5) schools<br />

Test Color Odor Flavor Overall<br />

Chi-square 7.383 245.291 6.403 0.801<br />

d.f. 4 4 4 4<br />

Asymp. Sig. 0.1170 0.0000 0.1710 0.9272<br />

*Significant at 0.05 level.<br />

Statistical analysis us<strong>in</strong>g Spearman correlation showed that demographic profiles of the<br />

respondents commonly portray a weak positive correlation on acceptance of I-Rice as <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />

by the correlation coefficient of age, frequency of eat<strong>in</strong>g rice, amount of rice consumption, and<br />

will<strong>in</strong>gness to buy I-Rice. A weak negative correlation was also observed between educational<br />

atta<strong>in</strong>ment and acceptance of I-Rice. The rest of the demographic profiles that were statistically<br />

analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g the Spearman correlation (awareness of FSP of the government, experience of<br />

eat<strong>in</strong>g I-Rice, awareness of health benefits of I-Rice, and price will<strong>in</strong>g to pay for I-Rice)<br />

showed a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of weak positive and weak negative correlations on acceptance.<br />

Gender of the respondents showed to have a significant difference on acceptance for overall<br />

lik<strong>in</strong>g of I-Rice us<strong>in</strong>g Mann-Whitney (Wilcoxon). Other demographic profiles such as marital<br />

status, number of parents liv<strong>in</strong>g with Grade I students, job nature of the head of the family, and<br />

employment status of the <strong>in</strong>come contributor of the household were found to have no<br />

significant difference on acceptance of I-Rice, except for odor <strong>in</strong> relation to job nature of the<br />

head of the family and employment status of <strong>in</strong>come contributor. This means that only the odor<br />

attribute ga<strong>in</strong>ed high consideration on acceptance of I-Rice from the preference of the<br />

respondents.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results of non-parametric test revealed that there were no significant differences among the<br />

acceptance rat<strong>in</strong>gs obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the respondents of the five (5) schools. Statistical analysis<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g Spearman correlation showed that among the demographic profile of the respondents,<br />

age, educational atta<strong>in</strong>ment, amount of rice consumption and their will<strong>in</strong>gness to buy I-Rice<br />

had significant effects on its acceptance. Gender of the respondents showed to have significant<br />

difference with each other with respect to overall lik<strong>in</strong>g of I-Rice us<strong>in</strong>g Mann-Whitney<br />

(Wilcoxon) Test. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs imply that moderate acceptance of I-Rice could be <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />

by socio-demographic profiles of the consumers that were found to have slight relationship on<br />

acceptance.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] <strong>Food</strong> and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI). 2003. Presentation Power po<strong>in</strong>t provided dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>terview on 14 June 2007. Manila, Philipp<strong>in</strong>es.<br />

[2] <strong>Food</strong> for School Program (FSP) Inter-agency Technical Work<strong>in</strong>g Group. 2006 Operational<br />

Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on the <strong>Food</strong> for School Program “Bigas para sa Mag-aaral at Pamilya. February 2006. A<br />

jo<strong>in</strong>t project of the National <strong>Food</strong> Authority, Department of Agriculture, National Nutrition Council,<br />

Department of Education and Department of Health. pp. 13.<br />

1930

Quality characteristics and dry<strong>in</strong>g behaviour of muff<strong>in</strong>s baked <strong>in</strong> steam assisted and<br />

convectional ovens<br />

Sak<strong>in</strong> Yilmazer, M a ., Isleroglu, H a ., Kemerli, T a ., Ozdestan, O a ., Guven, G b ., Kaymak-Ertek<strong>in</strong>, F a .,<br />

Uren, A a ., Ozyurt, B c .<br />

a<br />

Ege University, Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Izmir, Turkey (melike.sak<strong>in</strong>@ege.edu.tr,<br />

hilal.isleroglu@ege.edu.tr, tanselkemerli@gmail.com, ozgul.ozdestan@ege.edu.tr,<br />

figen.ertek<strong>in</strong>@ege.edu.tr, ali.uren@ege.edu.tr)<br />

b<br />

M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Izmir Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Control Laboratory, Bornova-Izmir, Turkey<br />

(guvengonul@yahoo.com)<br />

c<br />

Arçelik A.S. Çayrova Campus, ARGE Directory,<br />

Material Technology Department, Istanbul/ Turkey (bekir.ozyurt@arcelik.com)<br />

Advantages of steam-bak<strong>in</strong>g and natural and/or forced convection bak<strong>in</strong>g are shared <strong>in</strong> steam<br />

assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g which attracts <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest with the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g health standards of the<br />

society. Steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g (steam+forced convection/turbo) is known as result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

healthy foods.<br />

Bak<strong>in</strong>g muff<strong>in</strong> by us<strong>in</strong>g steam assisted oven is not common as it is with bread. By the effect of<br />

steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g of muff<strong>in</strong>s, the idea of lower<strong>in</strong>g the formation of harmful chemical<br />

compounds, such as acrylamide, and keep<strong>in</strong>g the physical quality at the same time was driven.<br />

Muff<strong>in</strong>s by steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g were produced and it was evaluated the quality<br />

characteristics as a profile, as well as the dry<strong>in</strong>g behaviour dur<strong>in</strong>g a complete bak<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

Steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g oven used <strong>in</strong> the study is a hybrid oven hav<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>ner steam generator.<br />

The steam generated from 150-200 g water was <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the oven cavity <strong>in</strong> three times<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the bak<strong>in</strong>g process. The steam <strong>in</strong>jection times were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

experiments. The average moisture content, temperature profiles at the top surface, <strong>in</strong>ner<br />

position of muff<strong>in</strong> and oven ambient and quality characteristics (height, bulk density, surface<br />

colour (Hunter a and brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dex (BI) value) and acrylamide content) of muff<strong>in</strong>s baked at<br />

steam assisted oven and natural and forced convection ovens at 160 C were determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g behaviour was observed mak<strong>in</strong>g use of the total moisture loss values.<br />

Steam assisted oven was not resulted <strong>in</strong> a significant difference <strong>in</strong> average moisture content of<br />

muff<strong>in</strong>s, compared to natural and forced convection ovens (p>0.05), which is an important<br />

criteria <strong>in</strong> packag<strong>in</strong>g and storage stage. Temperature profiles obta<strong>in</strong>ed at different ovens do<br />

nearly match. The oven ambient temperatures dur<strong>in</strong>g steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g was a little lower<br />

than the other ones although the set values were all constant, due to the effect of condensation<br />

of steam <strong>in</strong>jected to the oven chamber. Surface Hunter a and brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dex (BI) values of the<br />

muff<strong>in</strong>s were observed that steam assisted oven had significantly lower values than the natural<br />

and forced convection ovens at all bak<strong>in</strong>g times (p

it was 62.73 (±4.68) ppb for forced convection and 59.5 (±13.12) ppb for natural convection<br />

baked muff<strong>in</strong>s, each for 40 m<strong>in</strong>utes bak<strong>in</strong>g at 160C. The dry<strong>in</strong>g rates calculated for the three<br />

ovens were compared and the maximum dry<strong>in</strong>g rate was observed for the forced convection<br />

oven baked muff<strong>in</strong>s, where the steam assisted ones showed the m<strong>in</strong>imum dry<strong>in</strong>g rates. This<br />

would mean that it would be required a longer bak<strong>in</strong>g time for steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g to reach a<br />

similar eventual moisture loss value.<br />

It was seen that steam assisted bak<strong>in</strong>g would be a good bak<strong>in</strong>g choice over natural convection<br />

or forced convection bak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> that it was resulted <strong>in</strong> lower acrylamide content, and Hunter a<br />

and BI values, and nearly same moisture content that would be recommended for better quality<br />

muff<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

1932

Study Of An Innovative Comb<strong>in</strong>ation Between Microwaves And Enzymes Applied To<br />

Bakery Products.<br />

T. De Pilli*, A. Derossi, R. Giuliani C. Sever<strong>in</strong>i<br />

University of Foggia, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy<br />

(t.depilli@unifg.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The biggest difference between convective ovens and microwave ovens is the <strong>in</strong>ability of the<br />

microwave ovens to <strong>in</strong>duce brown<strong>in</strong>g. The cool ambient temperature <strong>in</strong>side a microwave oven<br />

causes surface cool<strong>in</strong>g of microwave-baked products and low surface temperature prevents<br />

Maillard brown<strong>in</strong>g reactions from be<strong>in</strong>g formed, these are responsible for the production of<br />

many flavoured and coloured compounds.<br />

The aim of this research was to comb<strong>in</strong>e enzymatic and microwave treatments <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

improve sensorial characteristics of products baked by microwaves.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The dough was prepared mix<strong>in</strong>g wheat flour, runn<strong>in</strong>g water and different amounts of enzymes<br />

like amylase (GRINDAMYL Amylase 1000 from Aspergillus orizae - 1000 FAU/g); protease<br />

(GRINDAMYL Protease 41 from Bacillus subtilis - 41 FAU/g) and glucoamylase<br />

(GRINDAMYL AG 1500/C from Aspergillus orizae - 1500 FAU/g) supplied from Danisco<br />

Cultor (Gr<strong>in</strong>dsted, Danimarca). For each power percentage, the treatment times were chosen to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> samples with the same value of water activity (0.1-0.3). A factorial design at five<br />

variables (power percentages, time of enzymatic pre-treatments, amounts of amylase,<br />

glucoamylase and protease) and five levels was elaborated by Central Composite Design.<br />

Percentages of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars developed dur<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic treatment were measured<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method proposed by Tateo [1]. Colour on the surface of samples was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed from image process<strong>in</strong>g by software Image-Pro Discovery 6.5. Bulk density was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to Bhatnagar et al. [2]. Break<strong>in</strong>g strength (N/mm 2 ) was measured by a<br />

dynamometer Stable Micro System TA-HDi Texture Analyser (ENCO s.r.l., Venezia, Italy).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Results relat<strong>in</strong>g to amounts of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars developed <strong>in</strong> samples dur<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic<br />

treatment show a decrease at the highest amounts of amylase and glucoamylase. In particular,<br />

the maximum production of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> dough added of middle amounts<br />

of three enzymes (0.05 g/kg of dough for amylase and glucoamylase and 0.5 g/kg of dough for<br />

protease). An amount of enzyme more then 0.05 g/kg caused, probably, a production of<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugar such as to <strong>in</strong>hibit enzymatic activity and to change the reaction equilibrium<br />

toward reagents. Moreover, it is known that high amounts of glucoamylase cause an opposite<br />

reaction i.e. these conditions catalyze the repolymerization of glucose <strong>in</strong>to isomaltose. An<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction between oven power percentages and enzymatic treatment times was observed; it is<br />

possible to obta<strong>in</strong> samples with best colour characteristics <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g enzymatic treatment<br />

times and oven power percentages. These operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions determ<strong>in</strong>e a decrease of thermal<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1933

treatment time and therefore an energy sav<strong>in</strong>g. The <strong>in</strong>crease of protease amount determ<strong>in</strong>es an<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease of colour percentages <strong>in</strong> absence of glucoamylase and middle amounts of amylase,<br />

this could due to the <strong>in</strong>crease of am<strong>in</strong>o acid production that is one of reagent of Maillard<br />

reaction. Nevertheless, the presence at the same time of the highest amounts of protease,<br />

glucoamylase and amylase <strong>in</strong>volved a decrease of colour percentages. This could be attributed,<br />

probably, to <strong>in</strong>hibition of amylase and glucoamylase by Amadori compound that caused a<br />

decrease of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugar formation [3]. Nevertheless, middle amounts of three enzymes<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed a good characteristics of colour. A considerably decrease of bulk density was<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed to short enzymatic treatment times with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of power percentages because of<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease of spr<strong>in</strong>g oven that occurred under these operat<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g conditions. With regard<br />

to break<strong>in</strong>g strength (N/mm 2 ), the only enzyme that showed a significant effect on this <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

was protease (Figure 1). In particular, the <strong>in</strong>crease of enzyme amount <strong>in</strong>volved a decrease of<br />

break<strong>in</strong>g strength values of samples, which resulted more fragile.<br />

Figure 1. Break strength values (N/mm 2 ) of roasted samples as a function of amounts of<br />

protease and enzymatic treatment times.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results showed that the best operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions, to obta<strong>in</strong> a good colour and the lowest bulk<br />

density (0.38 g/ml) of samples, were the highest time of enzymatic pre-treatment (30 m<strong>in</strong>utes)<br />

and power percentages of 90%. All enzymes had a positive effect on colour and texture of<br />

samples only if added together and at middle amounts (0.5 g/kg protease and 0.05 g/kg<br />

amylase and glucoamylase), which corresponds to maximum formation of reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars and<br />

did not <strong>in</strong>volve an <strong>in</strong>hibition of enzymatic activity. Moreover, the protease was the only<br />

enzyme that showed a positive and significant effect on decrease of break<strong>in</strong>g strength values.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Tateo, F. 1969. A spectrophotometric method for the analysis of mixtures of maltose, glucose and<br />

sucrose <strong>in</strong> foods. Rassegna-Chimica, 21(4), 174-77. [2] Bhatnagar S., Hanna, M.A. & L<strong>in</strong>coln, NE. 1997.<br />

Modification of Microstructure of Starch Extruded With Selected Lipids. Starch/Stärke, 49, 12-20. [3]<br />

Woods, L.F.J. & Sw<strong>in</strong>ton, S.J. 1991. Enzymes <strong>in</strong> the starch and sugar <strong>in</strong>dustries. In: Tucker G.A. &<br />

Woods L.F.J. (Eds), Enzymes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, AVI, Van Nostrand Re<strong>in</strong>hold, New York.<br />

1934

Effective removal of heavy metal <strong>in</strong> some fish sauce products by tann<strong>in</strong> treatment<br />

T. Sasaki a , T. Michihata a , S. Nakamura a , T. Enomoto b , T. Koyanagi b ,<br />

H. Taniguchi b , M. Aburatani c , M Koudou a,b , K. Tokuda c<br />

a Industrial Research Institute of Ishikawa, Kanazawa, Japan (t-sasaki@irii.jp)<br />

b Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Japan (enomoto@ishikawa-pu.ac.jp)<br />

c Shata Shuzo Co., Ltd., Nonoichi, Japan (tokuda@tengumai.co.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fish sauce is a traditional season<strong>in</strong>g produced by fermentation of fish or mollusc under high<br />

concentration of sodium chloride for one or two years. It conta<strong>in</strong>s quite high amounts of free<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids and peptides [1], and furthermore, has been shown to possess health effective<br />

functions such as anti-oxidative and angiotens<strong>in</strong> I-convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme (ACE) <strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

activities. It is reported that a part of fish sauce products conta<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> amounts of heavy<br />

metals (i.e., cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), lead (Pb)) like other seafoods [2]. Heavy metals <strong>in</strong><br />

these fish sauces are derived from fish or mollusc organ, which is supposed to <strong>in</strong>take and<br />

accumulate heavy metal from polluted seawater. The found levels of heavy metals are<br />

considered not to be harmful as the daily <strong>in</strong>take of these fish sauces is quite low. Still it is<br />

desirable to remove heavy metals from fish sauce products. There have been many reports on<br />

the removal of heavy metals from fish or mollusc organs [3]. In most of these works, strong<br />

acids, such as sulfuric acid, are used to remove heavy metals, but these acids are not acceptable<br />

for process<strong>in</strong>g of foods <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fish sauce. The purpose of this research is to develop new,<br />

<strong>in</strong>expensive and acceptable method for remov<strong>in</strong>g heavy metals from fish sauce. Particularly,<br />

we tried to remove Cd from fish sauce produced from squid. We assumed that Cd molecules<br />

are present <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong>-bound forms <strong>in</strong> fish sauce as well as <strong>in</strong> fish or mollusc organs. Therefore,<br />

we surveyed food additives that can remove metal-bound prote<strong>in</strong>s from fish sauce by selective<br />

precipitation without <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g on other components and biological functions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Tann<strong>in</strong>, glucono delta-lactone (GDL) and bentonite, all approved as food additives <strong>in</strong> Japan,<br />

were tested as clarification agents. These agents were added respectively to fish sauce, and<br />

after shak<strong>in</strong>g for a few seconds, the mixtures were centrifuged at 8000 X g for 10 m<strong>in</strong> to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

treated fish sauces. The Cd concentrations <strong>in</strong> fish sauce were analyzed by ICP-AES. In<br />

addition, the chemical component (total nitrogen, free am<strong>in</strong>o acids) and biological functions<br />

(1,1-diphyenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity and ACE <strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

activity) were also evaluated.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

When the Cd, As, Pb and Hg concentrations were analyzed <strong>in</strong> various fish sauces, Cd was<br />

detected <strong>in</strong> some of fish sauce manufactured from squid, and the concentration was higher than<br />

those of other fish sauces. We then tried to remove Cd from the fish sauce by us<strong>in</strong>g various<br />

food additives described above. In this experiment, tann<strong>in</strong> was found to be most effective <strong>in</strong><br />

remov<strong>in</strong>g Cd.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1935

Figure 1 shows the effect of tann<strong>in</strong> concentration on the Cd concentrations <strong>in</strong> treated fish<br />

sauces. The Cd concentrations <strong>in</strong> the treated fish sauces decreased with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the amounts<br />

of tann<strong>in</strong> added Then the Cd level decreased from 0.39 mg/100ml to 0.03 mg/100ml with<br />

0.1 %(w/v) tann<strong>in</strong>. Cd was also detected <strong>in</strong> the precipitate of treated fish sauce obta<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

centrifugation, and its amount corresponded to that of Cd removed from the treated sauce.<br />

Total nitrogen, free am<strong>in</strong>o acid and ACE <strong>in</strong>hibitor activity <strong>in</strong> the treated fish sauce were found<br />

to be the same levels as those of untreated one. DPPH radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activitiy was reduced<br />

by 28 %. Sensorial test did not show any difference between the treated and untreated fish<br />

sauces.<br />

Cd concentrations <strong>in</strong> fish sauce<br />

(mg/100ml)<br />

0.5<br />

0.4<br />

0.3<br />

0.2<br />

0.1<br />

0.0<br />

Untreated 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2<br />

Treated fish sauce with various conc. of tann<strong>in</strong> (% w/v)<br />

Figure 1. Effect of added amounts of tann<strong>in</strong> on Cd concentrations <strong>in</strong> the treated fish sauces<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Some fish sauce products prepared from squid conta<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> amounts of Cd. We developed a<br />

simple method to remove Cd from these products us<strong>in</strong>g tann<strong>in</strong>, one of the approved food<br />

additives <strong>in</strong> Japan. The method consists of add<strong>in</strong>g 0.1 % (w/v) tann<strong>in</strong> to fish sauce and<br />

centrifug<strong>in</strong>g out the result<strong>in</strong>g precipitate. Cd concentration (0. 39 mg/100ml) of the start<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fish sauce product decreased to 0.03 mg/100ml by this treatment. Chemical components such<br />

as free am<strong>in</strong>o acids and health beneficial functions present <strong>in</strong> fish sauce were found to be<br />

reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the tann<strong>in</strong>-treated fish sauce.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Jung-Nim, P., Fukumoto, Y., Fukumoto, Y., Fujita, E., Tanaka, T., Wahio, T., Otsuka, S., &<br />

Watanabe, K. 2001. Chemical Composition of Fish Sauces Produced <strong>in</strong> Southeast and East Asian<br />

Countries. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Composition and Analysis, 14(2), 113-125.<br />

[2] Nakazato, M., Tateishi, Y., Kobayashi, C., Yamajima, Y., Ohno, I., Kawai, Y., &Yasuda, K. 2000.<br />

Hygienic Studies on Imported Fish Sause (II) -Contents of 9 Elements-. Ann. Rep. Tokyo Metr. Res.<br />

Lab. P.H. 51, 155-159.<br />

[3] Sakuta, Y., Nagano, N., Tomita, K., Wakasugi, M., Saitou, T., Shimakage, K., & Kitazaki, T. 2000.<br />

Developments of Cadmium Removal Systems for Residues Wasted from Scallop <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

Manufacture by an Electrochemical Method. Journal of the Japan Society of Waste Management<br />

Experts, 11(3), 145-154.<br />

1936

Crispy air-dried p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs: optimization of process<strong>in</strong>g parameters<br />

Giovanna Cortell<strong>in</strong>o, Paola Pani, Danila Torreggiani<br />

Research Unit of <strong>Food</strong> Technology - Council of Agricultural Research, Milan, Italy<br />

(giovanna.cortell<strong>in</strong>o@entecra.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Traditionally, fruits <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries are sun dried and the quality of these products is<br />

often poor. Osmotic dehydration, commonly used to remove part of the water content of fruit<br />

before further dry<strong>in</strong>g, could improve sensory and functional properties. In particular<br />

application of osmotic dehydration made better fruit texture and <strong>in</strong>creased the stability of the<br />

colour pigment. Great changes <strong>in</strong> the structure of vegetal tissue could be produced by both<br />

osmotic dehydration and air dry<strong>in</strong>g [1]. In particular, texture of material moves from elasticvisco-plastic<br />

to rigid, becom<strong>in</strong>g fragile and brittle. These changes are welcomed when the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

product is a snack food such as p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>in</strong> which “crispy” and “crunchy” are sensory<br />

attributes greatly <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g quality evaluation by the consumers [2]. The aim of this work is<br />

to def<strong>in</strong>e the comb<strong>in</strong>ed process, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the osmodehydration and air-dry<strong>in</strong>g techniques, <strong>in</strong><br />

order to obta<strong>in</strong> dried and crispy r<strong>in</strong>gs of p<strong>in</strong>eapple, hav<strong>in</strong>g high qualitative characteristics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Six mm thick p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs were osmodehydrated for 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice and<br />

sucrose solution, both at 50°Bx. Not pre-treated and pre-osmodehydrated r<strong>in</strong>gs were air dried<br />

at 70-75-80 °C till constant weight. Dry matter, soluble refractometric residue, pH and total<br />

tritable acidity of raw and osmodehydrated samples were measured. Solid ga<strong>in</strong> and water loss<br />

of the osmotic process were assessed. Dry matter and water activity of dried product were also<br />

measured. Changes of colour due to process<strong>in</strong>g were evaluated by image analysis technique.<br />

Index crispness (Emod value) of f<strong>in</strong>al product was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by bend<strong>in</strong>g snapp<strong>in</strong>g test [3]. The<br />

sensorial characteristics were judged by a panel test.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g the osmotic process the <strong>in</strong>itial dry matter and refractive <strong>in</strong>dex of p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased as a consequence of both water loss and solid ga<strong>in</strong> regardless of osmotic solution<br />

used. The osmodehydration <strong>in</strong> sucrose solution decreased significantly the pH of p<strong>in</strong>eapple<br />

r<strong>in</strong>gs. The same treatment <strong>in</strong> juice did not modify the pH while it caused a consistent <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

of the total acidity. The air dehydration process led to an evident brown<strong>in</strong>g of samples. This<br />

was confirmed by higher a* values and lower L* and b* values of dried samples compared to<br />

the raw ones. As expected <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature colour was negatively <strong>in</strong>fluenced. The<br />

osmotic pre-treatment <strong>in</strong> sucrose solution protected the colour dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g but the osmodehydration<br />

with p<strong>in</strong>eapple juice hadn’t the same positive <strong>in</strong>fluence.<br />

The Emod values showed a positive progressive trend with the dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong> accordance<br />

with the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed for osmo-air-dried apple r<strong>in</strong>gs [3]. The Emod values was also<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1937

<strong>in</strong>fluenced significantly by osmodehydration: lower values <strong>in</strong> both pre-treated samples than <strong>in</strong><br />

the not pre-treated ones.<br />

As for sensorial tests the colour of samples dried at the lowest temperature was judged the<br />

lightest and at the same time the most pleasant. By <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature the r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

acquired a colour tend<strong>in</strong>g towards orange/brown result<strong>in</strong>g less pleasant. The protective effect<br />

of osmosis <strong>in</strong> sucrose solution wasn’t supported by the sensorial results. The flavour of the<br />

samples dried at 75°C were judged more <strong>in</strong>tense and pleasant if compared to those dried at the<br />

other temperatures. Both osmosis treatments tended to improve the flavour and its<br />

pleasantness. Among the samples dried at the same temperature the not pre-treated ones were<br />

judged the crispiest, less firm and so more pleasant than the respective treated ones. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to bend<strong>in</strong>g-snapp<strong>in</strong>g results the crispness, valuated by tasters, was positively <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature. Overall the highest score for both crispness and pleasantness<br />

was given to the not-treated samples dried at 75°C and 80°C.<br />

Moisture content of dried p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs decreased as the dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

regardless of the pre-treatment applied, as verified for a similar apple product [3]. The lower<br />

the dry matter the higher the water activity, which <strong>in</strong>creased with dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g of dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature. At all the tested temperatures the dried r<strong>in</strong>gs had a significantly lower moisture<br />

content and water activity than the respective osmo-air-dried ones. From both <strong>in</strong>strumental and<br />

sensorial aspects, air-dehydrated samples resulted crispier than the respective osmo-airdehydrated<br />

ones <strong>in</strong>dependently of the solution type and temperature, confirm<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>versely<br />

proportional relationship between water activity and moisture content and crispness [3,4,5].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Contrarily to what was expected and reported by literature [3], the osmotic pre-treatment didn’t<br />

contribute to the formation of the porous and crumbly structure of p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g process, whereas it contributed to the <strong>in</strong>crease of the residual water content, which<br />

affected the texture of f<strong>in</strong>al products. This fact supports the relevance of tissue characteristics<br />

which <strong>in</strong>fluence osmotic exchanges and rheological behaviour. Nevertheless the osmotic<br />

treatment <strong>in</strong> sucrose solution protected the colour dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g, confirm<strong>in</strong>g that the solid ga<strong>in</strong><br />

limited the not enzymatic brown<strong>in</strong>g through air dehydration, as observed for other fruits. The<br />

best result was obta<strong>in</strong>ed dry<strong>in</strong>g p<strong>in</strong>eapple r<strong>in</strong>gs not pre-treated at 75°C: the product was<br />

slightly amber-coloured, crispy and not too firm and consequently appreciated by the tasters.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Lewicki P.P. 1998. Effect of pre-dry<strong>in</strong>g treatment, dry<strong>in</strong>g and rehydration on plant tissue properties:<br />

a review. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Properties, 1, (1), 1-22.<br />

[2]. Shewfelt R.L. 1999. What is food quality? Postharvest Biology and Technology, 15, 197-200.<br />

[3]. Farris S., Gobbi S., Torreggiani D., Piergiovanni L. 2008. Assessment of two different rapid<br />

compression tests for the evaluation of texture differences <strong>in</strong> osmo-air-dried apple r<strong>in</strong>gs. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 88, 484-491.<br />

[4]. Pittia P., Nicoli M.C., Sacchetti G. 2007. Effect of moisture and water activity on textural properties<br />

of raw and roasted coffe beans. Journal of Texture Studies. 38, (1): 116-134.<br />

[5]. Lewicki P.P., Marzec A., Kuropatwa M. 2007. Influence of water activity on texture of corn flakes.<br />

Acta Agrophysica 9 (1): 79-90.<br />

1938

Extraction of polyphenols from grape seeds by unconventional methods and extract<br />

concentration through polymeric membrane<br />

Dan LIU a , Eugène VOROBIEV a* , Raphaëlle SAVOIRE b , Jean-Louis LANOISELLÉ a,c<br />

a<br />

Université de Technologie de Compiègne EA 4297 TIMR, Centre de Recherche de Royallieu, B.P.<br />

20529, 60205 Compiègne, France (dan.d<strong>in</strong>g@utc.fr) (eugene.vorobiev@utc.fr) (jeanlous.lanoiselle@utc.fr)<br />

b<br />

Ecole supérieure de chimie organique et m<strong>in</strong>érale EA 4297 TIMR, 1 allée du réseau J.M. Buckmaster,<br />

60200 Compiègne, France (r.savoire@escom.fr)<br />

c<br />

Université de Bretagne Sud, BP92116, 56321 Lorient cedex, France<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Grape seeds are a by-product obta<strong>in</strong>ed after w<strong>in</strong>e or juice mak<strong>in</strong>g and present a good source of<br />

functional compounds such as polyphenols, which are very valuable due to their antioxidant<br />

capacity. Solvent extraction is the most commonly used technique for recovery of these<br />

compounds [1]. However, the health concerns have sparked research <strong>in</strong>to the safe extraction<br />

protocols. Physical and electrical methods have been proposed as alternative methods.<br />

Ultrasonication (US), pulsed electric field (PEF) and high voltage electrical discharge (HVED)<br />

have been demonstrated to improve mass transfer <strong>in</strong> extraction of polyphenols from grapes [2].<br />

The utilization of membrane technologies for concentrat<strong>in</strong>g and purify<strong>in</strong>g phenolic compounds<br />

from aqueous streams is a topic of grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest. Membranes have been used to recover<br />

phenolic compounds from extracts of mulberry root cortices, and to concentrate catech<strong>in</strong>s from<br />

aqueous grape stream [3].<br />

The aim of this work was to apply the unconventional extraction methods <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g US,<br />

HVED and PEF to extract polyphenols from grape seeds and concentrate the extracted<br />

polyphenols by ultrafiltration.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

HVED and PEF treatments are conducted with a high voltage pulse generator provided 40 kV-<br />

10 kA discharges (Tomsk, Russia). The ultrasonic extraction is performed us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasonic<br />

processor (Hielscher GmbH, Stuttgart, Germany). The treatment is conducted with grape seeds<br />

(50.0 ± 0.1 g) and distilled water (the liquid-solid ratio, L/S=5, w/w) at 50°C. The<br />

concentration of polyphenols is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Fol<strong>in</strong>–Ciocalteau method [4]. After the<br />

treatment, samples are centrifuged for 10 m<strong>in</strong> at 4000 g, and supernatant solution is collected<br />

for dead-end filtration. PVDF membrane (50 kDa) is used and filtration is conducted with<br />

volume concentration ratio (VCR) equal to 3.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1 shows the results of physico-chemical properties of the samples after membrane<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g. It was shown that the quantity of polyphenols released by HVED is much higher<br />

than the other two methods, which <strong>in</strong>dicates that the HVED is a more effective method for the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1939

<strong>in</strong>tracellular product extraction. After the filtration process, a remarkable reduction of the<br />

polyphenol content is observed <strong>in</strong> the permeate fractions (57.0% for PEF, 61.5% for US and<br />

78.3% for HVED, respectively). Consequently, polyphenols rema<strong>in</strong> concentrated <strong>in</strong> the<br />

retentate streams, which show a dark orange color. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the molecular weight of<br />

polyphenols, this phenomenon can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the screen<strong>in</strong>g effect of the membrane.<br />

Table.1 Physico-chemical properties of feeds, permeates and retentates for three extraction methods<br />

Polyphenol Clarity Color Conductivity Brix PH<br />

g/L %T625 A420 s/cm %<br />

PEF<br />

Feed 5.46 38.1 1.345 1185 1.9 4.66<br />

Permeate 2.35 92.6 0.155 961 1.3 5.08<br />

Retentate<br />

US<br />

10.31 4.98 4.9 1632 4.2 4.69<br />

Feed 9.39 24.8 1.736 1252 2.2 4.70<br />

Permeate 3.62 93.0 0.173 992 1.4 4.94<br />

Retentate<br />

HVED<br />

21.68 2.27 5.6 1757 5.5 4.67<br />

Feed 15.35 2.82 4.95 1795 4.9 5.15<br />

Permeate 3.33 90.2 0.218 1013 2.1 5.24<br />

Retentate 39.02 0.01 20.30 3090 10.7 5.00<br />

T625 : clarity is characterized by transmittance at 625 nm<br />

A420 : color is characterized by absorbance at 420 nm<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

HVED permits higher polyphenol extraction than the other two methods. Dur<strong>in</strong>g clarification,<br />

high retention of polyphenols <strong>in</strong> the retentates is achieved. Electrically assisted technologies<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ed with ultrafiltration demonstrated their effectiveness for the extraction and<br />

concentration of polyphenols from grape seeds.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Lafka, T.I., S<strong>in</strong>anoglou, V., & Lazos, E.S. 2007. On the extraction and antioxidant activity of phenolic<br />

compounds from w<strong>in</strong>ery wastes. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 104, 1206–1214.<br />

[2] Boussetta, N., Lanoisellé, J.-L., Bedel-Cloutour, C., & Vorobiev, E. 2009. Extraction of soluble<br />

matter from grape pomace by high voltage electrical discharges for polyphenol recovery: Effect of<br />

sulphur dioxide and thermal treatments. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 95, 192–198.<br />

[3] Díaz-Re<strong>in</strong>oso, B., Moure, A., Domínguez, H., & Parajo, J.C. 2009. Ultra- and nanofiltration of<br />

aqueous extracts from distilled fermented grape pomace. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 91, 587–593.<br />

[4] Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Sudraud, P., Milhé, J.C., & Canbas, A. 1970. Recherches technologiques sur les<br />

composés phénoliques des v<strong>in</strong>s rouges. Connaissance Vigne V<strong>in</strong> 2, 133–143<br />

1940

Performance of bov<strong>in</strong>e and ov<strong>in</strong>e liquid whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate on functional<br />

properties of set yoghurts<br />

Marta Henriques a,b , David Gomes a , Daniela Rodrigues a , Carlos Pereira a , Maria Gil b<br />

a<br />

Escola Superior Agrária - Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Polytechnic Institute of<br />

Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal (mhenriques@esac.pt; david@esac.pt; cpereira@esac.pt)<br />

b<br />

CIEPQPF, Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of<br />

Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal (hgil@eq.uc.pt)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g prote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> yoghurts implies the milk fortification by the addition of SMP.<br />

More recently, whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate (WPC) are also used due to their availability and low<br />

cost. Despite WPC are largely applied as attractive food <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> a wide range of food<br />

applications, the direct re<strong>in</strong>corporation of liquid whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrates (LWPC) <strong>in</strong> dairy<br />

products, be<strong>in</strong>g a less expensive alternative, is seldom referred. The effect of the replacement<br />

of SMP by WPC on textural and physicochemical properties of yoghurts has been reported by<br />

several authors but <strong>in</strong> some cases their conclusions were contradictory. The reasons po<strong>in</strong>ted for<br />

that are the significant variations <strong>in</strong> the functionality of WPC resultant from the whey<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g conditions, specially heat<strong>in</strong>g and the whey source. Based on the bov<strong>in</strong>e and ov<strong>in</strong>e<br />

cheese production, <strong>in</strong> Portugal, the overall volume of whey produced annually is estimated <strong>in</strong><br />

approximately 560 000 tonnes. The use of membrane technology, namely ultrafiltration (UF)<br />

enables the extraction and concentration of whey prote<strong>in</strong>s from whey to its re<strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong><br />

production, solv<strong>in</strong>g environmental problems and adds value to exist<strong>in</strong>g products.<br />

No <strong>in</strong>formation is available about the LWPC functionality <strong>in</strong> yoghurt. In this work we <strong>in</strong>tended<br />

to evaluate the effects of partial substitution of SMP by LWPC of bov<strong>in</strong>e and ov<strong>in</strong>e orig<strong>in</strong> on<br />

physicochemical, textural, rheological and sensorial properties of set yoghurts as well as to test<br />

the acceptability of ov<strong>in</strong>e yoghurt as an alternative product <strong>in</strong> Portugal.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

LWPC production consisted <strong>in</strong> the concentration of whey at 30ºC <strong>in</strong> a batch ultrafiltration pilot<br />

plant. The result<strong>in</strong>g retentate suffered a thermal treatment (90ºC/5m<strong>in</strong>) followed by<br />

homogenization at 100 bar. After LWPC characterization the product was <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong> milk<br />

batches used for yoghurt production. Four yoghurt formulations with 16% total solids were<br />

produced. Ov<strong>in</strong>e yoghurts (LO) were produced exclusively with ov<strong>in</strong>e skimmed milk. The<br />

formulations with bov<strong>in</strong>e milk were normalized <strong>in</strong> fat content with cream, and prote<strong>in</strong> content<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g respectively: (i) SMP (conventional bov<strong>in</strong>e yoghurt (LB)); (ii) 7.3% of bov<strong>in</strong>e LWPC +<br />

4.4% of SMP (LB-LWPCb) and (iii) 7.3% of ov<strong>in</strong>e LWPC + 4.8% of SMP (LB-LWPCo).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Compar<strong>in</strong>g conventional yoghurts with the ones produced with LWPC <strong>in</strong>corporation, no<br />

significative differences <strong>in</strong> color were found, only a decreased <strong>in</strong> L* value dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1941

The textural analysis did not differ over the products shelf live <strong>in</strong> each type of formulation,<br />

neither between formulations for cohesiveness, spr<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>ess and resilience. Hardness,<br />

adhesiveness and gumm<strong>in</strong>ess were significantly higher (p

Manufacture of Gelat<strong>in</strong>-Based Films Us<strong>in</strong>g Extrusion: Assessment of Extrusion<br />

Parameters on Film Properties<br />

Z. A. Nur Hanani, E. Beatty, Y. H. Roos & J. P. Kerry<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Packag<strong>in</strong>g Group , School of <strong>Food</strong> & Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork (UCC), Cork,<br />

Ireland (Joe.Kerry@ucc.ie)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Biopolymers have a potential role to replace some plastic materials <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry, particularly for<br />

certa<strong>in</strong> food packag<strong>in</strong>g applications. Gelat<strong>in</strong> is a prote<strong>in</strong>-based polymer, commercially obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from the sk<strong>in</strong>s and bones of cattle and pigs dur<strong>in</strong>g slaughter<strong>in</strong>g. Gelat<strong>in</strong> has ga<strong>in</strong>ed more<br />

attention as an <strong>in</strong>gredient capable of produc<strong>in</strong>g edible or biodegradable films because of its<br />

abundance and usage costs. However, fish gelat<strong>in</strong> has been <strong>in</strong>vestigated as an alternative to<br />

mammalian gelat<strong>in</strong> usage with<strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. Fish gelat<strong>in</strong>s have demonstrated suitable<br />

film-form<strong>in</strong>g abilities, yield<strong>in</strong>g transparent and highly deformable films. Fish gelat<strong>in</strong> cannot<br />

replace the role of mammalian gelat<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> many applications because fish gelat<strong>in</strong> has a low<br />

melt<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t and low gel strength, but with a relatively high viscosity, compared to<br />

mammalian gelat<strong>in</strong>s. However, its potential role <strong>in</strong> film manufacture deserves to be<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated. From the scientific literature, gelat<strong>in</strong> films for biodegradable food packag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

applications have been predom<strong>in</strong>antly prepared us<strong>in</strong>g cast<strong>in</strong>g methods. However, extrusion is<br />

one of the most important process<strong>in</strong>g techniques required to produce plastics on a commercial<br />

scale [1]. Thus, <strong>in</strong> this study, fish-derived gelat<strong>in</strong>e was used to manufacture films via the use of<br />

extrusion. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of modify<strong>in</strong>g selected extrusion<br />

parameters on the physical properties of the result<strong>in</strong>g films.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Gelat<strong>in</strong> films from fish sk<strong>in</strong> (Healan Ingredients Ltd, York, UK) were prepared by tw<strong>in</strong> screw<br />

co-rotat<strong>in</strong>g extruder (APV Baker, Peterborough, UK). The barrel had 4 heat<strong>in</strong>g zones with a<br />

screw diameter of 19 mm and length to diameter ratio (L/D) of 25:1. First, the temperatures of<br />

the four heat<strong>in</strong>g zones were all set at 80 °C and the screw speed was adjusted from 100 to 200<br />

rpm. Then the screw speed was fixed to 150 rpm and the temperatures of the 4 heat<strong>in</strong>g zones<br />

were adjusted.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

From the colour measurement, the lightness (L values) of the films significantly (P 0.05)<br />

decreased when the screw speed of extruder <strong>in</strong>creased. The <strong>in</strong>crease of screw speed<br />

significantly (P 0.05) <strong>in</strong>creased film yellowness (b values). The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> screw speed<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased the amount of shear applied to the gelat<strong>in</strong>e, thereby promot<strong>in</strong>g discoloration [2]. The<br />

barrel temperature also affected the lightness and yellowness values for manufactured films.<br />

Mechanical properties of fish gelat<strong>in</strong> films are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The extrusion process<br />

significantly improved the mechanical properties of fish gelat<strong>in</strong> films. TS values for gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

films significantly (P 0.05) <strong>in</strong>creased when the speed of extruder also <strong>in</strong>creased. Improved<br />

TS values us<strong>in</strong>g higher screw speeds can be attributed to enhanced dispersion of gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1943

powder. Kumar et al. [1] reported the same trend for soy prote<strong>in</strong>-based films when extrusion<br />

screw speeds <strong>in</strong>creased. PS also significantly (P 0.05) <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g screw<br />

speed. However, the effect of screw speed on EBP was not significant. Compar<strong>in</strong>g films heated<br />

at different temperatures, it was noted that the use of a higher temperature contributed to lower<br />

TS values. The effect of temperature on PS was not significant. However, EBP values<br />

significantly (P 0.05) <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature application. It can be concluded<br />

that higher screw speeds are required to prepare films with <strong>in</strong>creased mechanical properties.<br />

Samples<br />

Table 1. Mechanical properties of gelat<strong>in</strong> films<br />

Means <strong>in</strong> the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P 0.05).<br />

Analysis of variance us<strong>in</strong>g the general l<strong>in</strong>ear model showed that effect of screw speed and<br />

temperature on WVP was not significant. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to FTIR results, all the spectra obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

had no changes <strong>in</strong> vibrational wavenumber except for amide-A peak. FTIR has shown that the<br />

wavenumber of amide-A has shifted higher when the screw speed <strong>in</strong>creased. This is possibly<br />

due to lower formation of hydrogen bond<strong>in</strong>g. Conversely, the wavelength of amide-A is<br />

decreased when a higher barrel temperature was used. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Jongjareorak et al. [3],<br />

this structural alteration might be related to the mechanical properties of films. However,<br />

further studies are required to <strong>in</strong>vestigate these results.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Fish gelat<strong>in</strong>e-based films were successfully produced us<strong>in</strong>g extrusion. The parameters of<br />

extrusion process have an important <strong>in</strong>fluence on the f<strong>in</strong>al structure and properties of such<br />

films.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Thickness<br />

(m)<br />

Tensile strength<br />

(MPa)<br />

Puncture strength<br />

(N)<br />

Elongation<br />

(%)<br />

Speed<br />

100 0.065 ± 0.016 a 5.64 ± 0.50 bc 3.36 ± 0.23 c 3.65 ± 0.36 b<br />

150 0.042 ± 0.015 b 6.45 ± 0.15 b 5.57 ± 0.47 b 4.40 ± 0.29 ab<br />

200 0.035 ± 0.006 b 9.11 ± 2.05 a 6.80 ± 0.33 b 4.89 ± 0.93 a<br />

Temperature<br />

65, 75, 85, 95 0.029 ± 0.006 b 4.28 ± 0.45 a 10.51 ± 1.84 a 3.61 ± 0.31 b<br />

65, 85, 105, 85 ab<br />

0.047 ± 0.007<br />

cde<br />

1.99 ± 0.20<br />

a<br />

10.63 ± 1.68 5.13 ± 0.63 a<br />

[1] Kumar, P., Sandeep, K. P., Alavi, S., Truong, V. D. & Gorga, R. E. 2010. Preparation and<br />

characterization of bio-nanocomposite films based on soy prote<strong>in</strong> isolate and montmorillonite us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

melt extrusion. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 100, 480-489.<br />

[2] Berset, C. 1989. Color. In: Mercier, C., L<strong>in</strong>ko, P. & Harper, J. M. Extrusion Cook<strong>in</strong>g. American<br />

Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. M<strong>in</strong>nesota, USA.<br />

[3] Jongjareonrak, A., benjakul, S., Visessanguan, W., Tanaka, M., 2008. Antioxidative activity and<br />

properties of fish sk<strong>in</strong> gelat<strong>in</strong> films <strong>in</strong>corporated with BHT and -tocopherol. <strong>Food</strong> hydrocolloids, 22,<br />

449-458.<br />

1944

Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g microwave and jet-imp<strong>in</strong>gement <strong>in</strong> a oven prototype<br />

Gianpaolo Ruocco a , Maria V. De Bonis a , Francesco Marra b<br />

a<br />

University of Basilicata, College of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Potenza, Italy (gianpaolo.ruocco@unibas.it)<br />

b<br />

University of Salerno, Department of Industrial <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Fisciano (SA), Italy (fmarra@unisa.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Although the use of microwave (MW) ovens has been proven beneficial <strong>in</strong> food preparation due to its<br />

speed and convenience, the potential of MW heat<strong>in</strong>g is currently not fully realized due to its generally<br />

non-uniform effects on the product f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g. A viable option to mitigate this is the use of an optimized<br />

forced convection, as the jet imp<strong>in</strong>gement (JI), that result <strong>in</strong> improved heat and mass transfer, even for<br />

moderately turbulent flows [2]. In the research proposed here<strong>in</strong> a MW/JI comb<strong>in</strong>ation oven prototype has<br />

been set-up and operated, exercis<strong>in</strong>g low MW power density, also to prevent pressure build-up and<br />

splatter and allow monitor<strong>in</strong>g and calibration [3,4].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The experiments have been carried out <strong>in</strong> a prototype plant consist<strong>in</strong>g of a commercial MW oven, with 5<br />

nom<strong>in</strong>al power levels up to 1000 W, and an auxiliary system of JI heat<strong>in</strong>g. The oven was modified by<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g a calibration nozzle to realize a precise outlet velocity profile of the jet [1].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The analysis is focussed upon the dimensionless descriptors for the fluid dynamic (Re) and local thermal<br />

(T * ) regimes, and process duration (t * ). Potato samples were placed on a wood mesh pedestal, directly<br />

under the <strong>in</strong>jected air. Three optical thermometers cont<strong>in</strong>uously read T * 1, T * 2 and T * 3 (for the top, centre<br />

and bottom locations, respectively) at the sample's vertical axis. A total of 10 operat<strong>in</strong>g schemes were<br />

employed by vary<strong>in</strong>g MW <strong>in</strong>tensity and jet velocity and temperature: 1) pure MW treatments, with<br />

operat<strong>in</strong>g schemes MW2-JI0 (337 W, nom<strong>in</strong>al) and MW3-JI0 (555 W, nom<strong>in</strong>al); 2) comb<strong>in</strong>ed MW/JI<br />

treatments, i.e. enhanced by the application of JI obta<strong>in</strong>ed by vary<strong>in</strong>g the TJ and Re: MW2-JI1, nom<strong>in</strong>al<br />

MW power 337 W, with Re=8.86×10 3 and TJ=330 K; MW2-JI2, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power 337 W, with<br />

Re=8.09×10 3 and TJ=373 K; MW2-JI3, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power 337 W, with Re=14.5×10 3 and TJ=330 K;<br />

MW2-JI4, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power 337 W, with Re=13.3×10 3 and TJ=373 K; MW3-JI1, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power<br />

555 W, with Re=8.86×10 3 and TJ=330 K; MW3-JI2, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power 555 W, with Re=8.09×10 3 and<br />

TJ=373 K; MW3-JI3, nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power 555 W, with Re=14.5×10 3 and TJ=330 K; MW3-JI4, nom<strong>in</strong>al<br />

MW power 555 W, with Re=13.3×10 3 and TJ=373 K.<br />

The nom<strong>in</strong>al MW power was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by exposure times, that were regulated by impos<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

magnetron work<strong>in</strong>g time t * 1, followed by a rest<strong>in</strong>g or relaxation period t * 2, <strong>in</strong> which the heat ad mass<br />

transport <strong>in</strong> the subject sample is residual only.<br />

In MW2 cases, with the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Re, the heat<strong>in</strong>g on-set loses synchrony with the adopted MW<br />

production mode <strong>in</strong> all sample’s location, as the <strong>in</strong>ternal conduction is more effective <strong>in</strong>stead. At the top<br />

location (T * 1), compar<strong>in</strong>g the progress for MW2-JI4 to that for MW2-JI2 <strong>in</strong> Figure 1, the <strong>in</strong>crement of<br />

40% of Re results after t * =2 <strong>in</strong> about a 30% <strong>in</strong>crement <strong>in</strong> the dimensionless temperature. This effect is<br />

milder, as expected, for a colder JI (for MW2-JI3). At the centre location (T * 2) the <strong>in</strong>crement of the<br />

convective mechanism is barely felt, so the heat<strong>in</strong>g relies more on conduction. At the bottom location<br />

(T * 3) the aforementioned cool<strong>in</strong>g effect is more evident, for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Re, even for warmer JI.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1945

In all the position of MW3 cases, the pure MW process allows for higher temperature. As <strong>in</strong> previous<br />

cases, among <strong>in</strong>vestigated positions, the bottom is the one exhibit<strong>in</strong>g the higher temperatures, the top<br />

position be<strong>in</strong>g the colder. When JI is comb<strong>in</strong>ed to MW, <strong>in</strong> all the <strong>in</strong>vestigated positions the reached<br />

temperatures are lower with respect to pure MW exposition and the behaviour of heat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated positions is the opposite: the top exhibits the higher temperature values while the bottom<br />

results as the cooler position. The cool<strong>in</strong>g effects of JI, at higher Re number, are due by its capability to<br />

convey the moisture far from the sample thus cool<strong>in</strong>g it down. The higher cool<strong>in</strong>g effects at samples<br />

bottom are probably due by that accumulation of moisture <strong>in</strong> the lower part of the sample, as discussed <strong>in</strong><br />

the above sections. In the present case, the MW power be<strong>in</strong>g the higher among considered case, the<br />

sample structure is subjected to stronger electromagnetic field: a porous structure is formed as result of<br />

the <strong>in</strong>tense heat<strong>in</strong>g and moisture easy goes to bottom enhanc<strong>in</strong>g, locally, the capability to further absorb<br />

MW power. But the wetter the bottom, the better the JI exerts its convective action on the moisture, thus<br />

tak<strong>in</strong>g away energy as latent heat.<br />

Figure 1. Thermal histories <strong>in</strong> the sample measurement locations for the MW2-JI0, MW2-JI1, MW2-JI2 treatments<br />

(top left), for the MW2-JI0, MW2-JI3, MW2-JI4 treatments (top right), for the MW3-JI0, MW3-JI1, MW3-JI2<br />

treatments (bottmo left) and for the MW3-JI0, MW3-JI3, MW3-JI4 treatments (bottom right).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

An experimental work has been proposed on a lab-scale plant to comb<strong>in</strong>e MW exposure and localized<br />

forced convection. For Re higher than 13000 a cool<strong>in</strong>g effect is detected even for hot jets, whereas for<br />

milder flows the action of jet imp<strong>in</strong>gement is almost irrelevant. For long microwave exposures, an excess<br />

of moisture is found at the sample’s bottom, therefore the heat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creases due to the greater energy<br />

absorption, and the jet imp<strong>in</strong>gement may lead to strong localized cool<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Angioletti, M., Di Tommaso, R.M., N<strong>in</strong>o, E. & Ruocco, G. 2003. Simultaneous visualization of flow field and<br />

evaluation of local heat transfer by transitional imp<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g jets. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 46,<br />

1703-1713. [2] De Bonis, M.V. & Ruocco, G. 2007. Modell<strong>in</strong>g local heat and mass transfer <strong>in</strong> food slabs due to air jet<br />

imp<strong>in</strong>gement, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 78, 230-237. [3] Marra, F., Zhang, L. & Lyng, J.G. 2009. Radio frequency<br />

treatment of foods: review of recent advances. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 91(4), 497-508. [4] Marra, F., De Bonis,<br />

M.V. & Ruocco, G. 2010. Comb<strong>in</strong>ed microwaves and forced convection heat<strong>in</strong>g: a conjugate approach. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 97(1) 31-39.<br />

1946

The Sequential Ventilation of Cheese Ripen<strong>in</strong>g Rooms: an Eco-Design Approach?<br />

Pierre-Sylva<strong>in</strong> Mirade a , Bruno Perret b , Hervé Guillem<strong>in</strong> b , Daniel Picque b , Cécile Callon c , Marie-Christ<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Montel c , Georges Corrieu b<br />

a UR370 Qualité des Produits Animaux, INRA, 63122 Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Genès-Champanelle, France<br />

(e-mail: pierre-sylva<strong>in</strong>.mirade@clermont.<strong>in</strong>ra.fr)<br />

b UMR782 Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, INRA, 78850 Thiverval, France<br />

c UR545 Recherches Fromagères, INRA, 20 Côte de Reyne, 15000 Aurillac, France<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Part of the <strong>in</strong>tegrated European ‘Truefood’ project was dedicated to study<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g room<br />

management strategies that aimed at reduc<strong>in</strong>g energy costs, particularly by adopt<strong>in</strong>g sequential<br />

ventilation systems. In a first study [1], results obta<strong>in</strong>ed on two types of cheeses showed that<br />

significant improvements could be achieved <strong>in</strong> terms of cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g room monitor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

control us<strong>in</strong>g sequential air ventilation <strong>in</strong> small-sized ripen<strong>in</strong>g rooms. The objectives of this<br />

‘<strong>in</strong>dustrial-scale’ study were to test a new ripen<strong>in</strong>g room system based on sequential air<br />

ventilation, and to determ<strong>in</strong>e the sav<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> terms of electrical energy consumption result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from these new ventilation conditions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The <strong>in</strong>dustrial ripen<strong>in</strong>g room selected <strong>in</strong> this study is currently used to ripen traditional PDO<br />

Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Nectaire cheeses. We designed and produced a lab prototype <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g the most<br />

significant measurements (air temperature, RH, CO2 and O2 contents, electrical energy<br />

consumption) and automatically controll<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g room conditions. Furthermore, <strong>in</strong>-house<br />

software was specially adapted for monitor<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>dustrial prototype and used to control air<br />

ventilation regime, i.e. either cont<strong>in</strong>uous or sequential, and either time-controlled or<br />

temperature-controlled. Over one year, six different cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g trials were performed: (1)<br />

two reference trials, called Ref1 and Ref2, with cont<strong>in</strong>uous air ventilation, (2) two trials with<br />

“time-based” sequential ventilation (SV50 and SV60), and (3) two trials with “temperaturebased”<br />

sequential ventilation, called SVRT1 and SVRT2. Each of these six trials was led for 28<br />

days. Two cheeses were sampled on day 1 and then every week to analyze the microbial,<br />

biochemical and sensory evolution.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The effect of sequential air ventilation <strong>in</strong> the ripen<strong>in</strong>g room was assessed through 3 ma<strong>in</strong><br />

factors: cheese respiratory activity, energy consumption, and evolution of Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Nectaire<br />

ripen<strong>in</strong>g dynamics and f<strong>in</strong>al product quality.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the first factor, measurements <strong>in</strong>dicated that cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g created significant<br />

respiratory activity. This activity was not significantly affected by ripen<strong>in</strong>g room ventilation<br />

regime, whether cont<strong>in</strong>uous or sequential. Air renewal and door open<strong>in</strong>g were identified as the<br />

two most important factors act<strong>in</strong>g on the amount of CO2 and O2 measured <strong>in</strong> the room.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g energy consumption, prelim<strong>in</strong>ary measurements showed that electrical energy<br />

consumption <strong>in</strong> the room was essentially due to ventilation. Consequently, sequential<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1947

ventilation led to significant sav<strong>in</strong>gs compared to the cont<strong>in</strong>uous ventilation rout<strong>in</strong>ely used <strong>in</strong><br />

ripen<strong>in</strong>g rooms. The data from each of the 6 trials performed was used to determ<strong>in</strong>e mean<br />

electrical energy consumptions and sav<strong>in</strong>gs listed <strong>in</strong> Table 1. On this basis, an improved<br />

approach to ripen<strong>in</strong>g room monitor<strong>in</strong>g was suggested, which entailed temperature-based<br />

sequential ventilation, with a temperature variation ideally rang<strong>in</strong>g from 0.6 to 0.8°C, together<br />

with disconnect<strong>in</strong>g the room heat<strong>in</strong>g device. The economic impact of the result<strong>in</strong>g electricity<br />

sav<strong>in</strong>gs culm<strong>in</strong>ated at 0.55% of the productivity of the cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

Table 1. Sav<strong>in</strong>gs on electrical energy consumption obta<strong>in</strong>ed with sequential ventilation and cutt<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g. CV+H: cont<strong>in</strong>uous ventilation with heat<strong>in</strong>g; CV-H: cont<strong>in</strong>uous ventilation without heat<strong>in</strong>g; SV:<br />

time-based sequential ventilation; SVRT: temperature-based sequential ventilation; T: temperature<br />

difference between the low and high set-po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

Trial Work<strong>in</strong>g conditions Electrical energy Daily economy Percentage ga<strong>in</strong> (%)<br />

consumption (kWh)<br />

(kW/d) H SV H SV<br />

Ref1 CV+H 253 0 0 0<br />

Ref2 CV-H 212 41 0 16 0<br />

SV50 SV 109 41 103 16 49<br />

SV60 SV 85 41 127 16 60<br />

SVRT1 SV T=1°C 83 41 129 16 61<br />

SVRT2 SV T=0.7°C 87 41 125 16 59<br />

SVRT2 SV T=0.3°C 85 41 127 16 60<br />

SVRT2 SV T=0.3°C<br />

without blow<strong>in</strong>g ducts<br />

164 41 48 16 23<br />

To compare the evolution <strong>in</strong> cheese ripen<strong>in</strong>g dynamics and f<strong>in</strong>al quality as a function of<br />

ventilation conditions, we evaluated the ma<strong>in</strong> microbiological, biochemical and sensory<br />

characteristics of the cheeses. Results showed that sequential ventilation had no significant<br />

effect on cheese quality. Ripen<strong>in</strong>g microbial flora, the ma<strong>in</strong> biological characteristics of the<br />

cheese, and sensory descriptors showed little evolution versus ripen<strong>in</strong>g time compared to<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uous ventilation.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Under the conditions of this study, mean sav<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> electrical energy consumption under<br />

temperature-based sequential ventilation at a temperature variation close to 0.7°C reached<br />

125 kWh per day, which translates <strong>in</strong>to a 0.43% <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> ripen<strong>in</strong>g room productivity. It was<br />

proposed to further improve the ripen<strong>in</strong>g room by disconnect<strong>in</strong>g the room heat<strong>in</strong>g device <strong>in</strong><br />

order to keep heat production down at the level provided by the cheese respiration activity.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally, it was shown that sequential ventilation had no significant effect on cheese quality.<br />

REFERENCE<br />

[1] Picque D., Guillem<strong>in</strong> H., Mirade P.S., Didienne R., Lavigne R., Perret B., Montel M.C. & Corrieu G.<br />

2009. Effect of Sequential Ventilation on Cheese Ripen<strong>in</strong>g and Energy Consumption <strong>in</strong> Pilot<br />

Ripen<strong>in</strong>g Rooms. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 19, 489-497.<br />

1948

Influence of additives on white t<strong>in</strong> loaf alveolloli formation<br />

Cecília Dom<strong>in</strong>gues a , Paula Prazeres b , Paula Correia a,c<br />

a<br />

Escola Superior Agrária, Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, Viseu, Portugal<br />

(raquel.dom<strong>in</strong>gues@hotmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Bimbo, Produtos Alimentares. Albergaria-a-Velha. Portugal (paularita.prazeres@saralee.com)<br />

c<br />

CI&DETS, Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, Viseu, Portugal(paulacorreia@esav.ipv.pt)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Bread has always been one of the most popular and appeal<strong>in</strong>g food products due to its superior<br />

nutritional, sensorial and textural characteristics, ready to eat convenience as well as cost<br />

competitiveness. Bread is essential to the diets of many people worldwide. The <strong>in</strong>gredients of<br />

bread will impart characteristic colours, texture, and nutritional value which may improve<br />

quality of the bread. Therefore, a proper balance of <strong>in</strong>gredients needs to be achieved to produce<br />

high-quality bread. Concerns about the quality of bread go beyond the <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> the loaves<br />

themselves. One of the ma<strong>in</strong> quality criteria of bread is related with texture, and the<br />

development of a desirable volume, related to alveolloli formation. In white t<strong>in</strong> loaf it is also<br />

important that these alveolloli have a diameter < 2 mm, to ensure uniformity throughout the<br />

bread. Gluten and monocalcium phosphate are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the fermentation process, the first<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g a leaven<strong>in</strong>g agent that causes baked goods to rise. The objective of the present study was<br />

to produce a white t<strong>in</strong> loaf with different additive formulations to evaluate their effect on the<br />

alveolloli formation and determ<strong>in</strong>e which amount of additives is the optimum for a uniform<br />

distribution.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

White t<strong>in</strong> loaves were made at the laboratory, simulat<strong>in</strong>g equal conditions to the ones used on<br />

an <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale. A Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) of the experiment was<br />

applied, us<strong>in</strong>g the Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The experiments were performed<br />

with k = 2 for: additive (monocalcium phosphate and gluten) as <strong>in</strong>dependent variables. The<br />

legal addition limit <strong>in</strong> Portugal for monocalcium phosphate is 10g to one bread kilogram (DL<br />

121/98, 8 th May). The upper and lower limits for these variables were established by national<br />

bread legislation and enterprise rules. The dependent variables <strong>in</strong>cluded total alveolloli<br />

number, number of alveolloli with a diameter 2 mm and number of alveolloli with a diameter<br />

< 2 mm. For the alveolloli measurements it was use the “Image J” software, which is a public<br />

doma<strong>in</strong>, Java-based image process<strong>in</strong>g program (National Institutes of Health, USA).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of the analysis of variance obta<strong>in</strong>ed with the white t<strong>in</strong> loaf made with different<br />

additive formulations to evaluate their effect on the total alveolloli number, number of<br />

alveolloli with a diameter 2 mm and number of alveolloli with a diameter < 2 mm fit to the<br />

model proposed. In spite of this, RSM regression equations did not adjust to the dependent<br />

variable number of alveolloli with a diameter 2 mm, which presented a R 2 = 0.3. A strong<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1949

correlation was found between the total number of alveolloli and number of alveolloli with a<br />

diameter < 2 mm (r = 0.965), and this as a refection on the RSM results, which presented<br />

similar responses. Thus, Figure 1 shows that the number of alveolloli is higher for low<br />

concentrations of monocalcium phosphate/ gluten, which means that to produce a white t<strong>in</strong> loaf<br />

with a high number of alveolloli with a diameter < 2 mm the quantity of monocalcium<br />

phosphate and gluten must be lower than 0.8g and 0.4g, respectively. The results also revealed<br />

that without any addition of these additives a white t<strong>in</strong> loaf will also present uniform alveolar<br />

formation.<br />

Z=309.31774-45.64590*MP-86.34899*MP 2 -236.73591*G+58.22195*G 2 +61.21212*MP*G ; R 2 = 0.88<br />

Figure 1. Number of alveolloli with a diameter < 2 mm response surfaces and adjusted<br />

regression equation for white t<strong>in</strong> loaf produced with addition of monocalcium phosphate (MP)<br />

and gluten (G).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present work allows a deeper knowledge about the implication of addition of gluten and<br />

monocalcium phosphate on the alveolloli formation <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial white t<strong>in</strong> loaves, which is<br />

closely related with bread quality. It was found a l<strong>in</strong>ear correlation between the mean of total<br />

alveolloli and the mean of alveolloli with diameter < 2 mm. Results showed that to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

bread with a higher number of alveolloli the optimum quantities of monocalcium phosphate<br />

and gluten added should be less than 6 g/ Kg bread and 3 g/ kg bread, respectively. It was also<br />

possible to conclude that if white t<strong>in</strong> loaf is produced without monocalcium phosphate and<br />

gluten it will also present a uniform alveolar formation.<br />

1950<br />

300<br />

250<br />

200<br />

150<br />

100<br />

50

Textural properties of vegetables: a key parameter on ultrasonic assisted convective<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

C. Ozuna, J. A. Cárcel, J. V. Santacatal<strong>in</strong>a, A. Mulet and J. V. García-Pérez *<br />

Grupo de Análisis y Simulación de Procesos Agroalimentarios. Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos.<br />

Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. Cam<strong>in</strong>o de Vera. s/n. E46022.<br />

Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong> (jogarpe4@tal.upv.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g need for produc<strong>in</strong>g high quality dried products has led to comb<strong>in</strong>e traditional dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

methods with non-conventional energy sources. In this sense, ultrasonic energy is very promis<strong>in</strong>g because<br />

it can act without affect<strong>in</strong>g the ma<strong>in</strong> characteristics and quality of products due to its low heat<strong>in</strong>g effects.<br />

Product characteristics also <strong>in</strong>fluence the absorption of ultrasound; so far only porosity has been<br />

addressed [1]. Therefore, it should be expected that the ultrasonic effects on the material be<strong>in</strong>g dried will<br />

be l<strong>in</strong>ked to product’s textural properties. Textural properties of vegetable tissue are related with<br />

histological factors, such as, size, shape, adhesion, <strong>in</strong>tercellular spaces, wall properties and turgor<br />

pressure of the cells. For evaluat<strong>in</strong>g textural properties on vegetables it is essential to understand their<br />

mechanical behavior <strong>in</strong> terms of different rheological parameters [2]. In this sense, texture profile analysis<br />

(TPA) is a method commonly used to evaluate mechanical properties on this k<strong>in</strong>d of products [3]. The<br />

aim of this work was to identify the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the textural properties of different vegetable products on<br />

the ultrasonic assisted convective dry<strong>in</strong>g effectiveness.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Experimental dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics (40 ºC and 1 m/s) of different vegetable products already reported <strong>in</strong><br />

previous works were used: carrots and potato cubes (8.7 mm), eggplant cyl<strong>in</strong>ders (height 20 mm and<br />

diameter 24 mm), orange and lemon peel slabs (thickness 5.95 ± 0.41 mm). For each case, different<br />

ultrasonic powers (UP): 0, 6, 12, 18, 25, 30 and 37 kW/m 3 were applied until samples lost 70 % of the<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial weight. Dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics were modeled apply<strong>in</strong>g a diffusion model which neglected the external<br />

resistance to mass transfer. The effective moisture diffusivity was identified by us<strong>in</strong>g an optimization<br />

procedure, the Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG), available <strong>in</strong> Microsoft Excel TM spreadsheet from<br />

MS Office 2007. The goodness of the fit was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by calculat<strong>in</strong>g the percentage of expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

variance (%VAR). The multifactor ANOVA and the LSD <strong>in</strong>tervals were chosen to evaluate the<br />

significance (p

tested <strong>in</strong> this work (0-37 kW/m 3 ). The improvement of the D e values may be associated with the<br />

mechanical effects brought about by apply<strong>in</strong>g ultrasound to the material be<strong>in</strong>g dried.[1] The proposed<br />

diffusion model provided low percentages of expla<strong>in</strong>ed variance (< 90 %). In order to obta<strong>in</strong> a better fit of<br />

experimental data, the hypothesis assumed to solve the diffusion equations should be reconsidered.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> differences for the products tested <strong>in</strong> terms of texture were observed <strong>in</strong> hardness and chew<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

values. Carrot and potato showed the higher values. The relatively high volume of cell wall material and<br />

strong cohesion <strong>in</strong> these products contributes to the higher values of hardness and chew<strong>in</strong>ess than<br />

eggplant, lemon and orange peel. Therefore, citrus peels and eggplant may be considered non-compact<br />

structures with a low mechanical resistance to deformation.<br />

Slope (m 5 /kJ)<br />

0.25<br />

0.20<br />

0.15<br />

0.10<br />

0.05<br />

y = -0.0063x + 0.2681<br />

R² = 0.92<br />

0.00<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50<br />

Hardness (N)<br />

Carrot<br />

Eggplant<br />

x Lemon peel<br />

Orange peel<br />

Potato<br />

Figure 1. Influence of the hardness on the acoustic effectiveness on the dry<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

As can be observed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1, a l<strong>in</strong>ear relationship between the slopes of the l<strong>in</strong>ear relationships of the<br />

effective diffusivity and the acoustic power versus hardness was found, the higher the hardness of the<br />

tested products, the lower the slope. That means that the improvement due to ultrasound effects on the<br />

effective diffusivity is well correlated (at 99 % confidence level) with the hardness of the product. This<br />

fact confirms that the mechanical compressions and expansions (“sponge effect”) produced <strong>in</strong> the<br />

materials by ultrasound were more <strong>in</strong>tense <strong>in</strong> soft products result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a more effective water removal.<br />

Furthermore, the acoustic effects on boundary layer of <strong>in</strong>tercellular spaces could be also more <strong>in</strong>tense <strong>in</strong><br />

this type of products due to a larger porous net. In the case of the chew<strong>in</strong>ess parameter, a similar behavior<br />

was observed than that found for the hardness. However, other texture parameters calculated<br />

(cohesiveness, spr<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>ess, adhesiveness and resilience) were not well correlated with the effect of<br />

ultrasound.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results of this work, the ultrasonic effectiveness on the dry<strong>in</strong>g process depends on the<br />

structure of the material be<strong>in</strong>g treated. A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong>strumental textural analysis could be used to<br />

evaluate the potential of the ultrasonic application for the dry<strong>in</strong>g of a particular product.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] García-Pérez J.V., Cárcel J.A, Riera E. & Mulet A. 2009. Influence of applied acoustic energy on the dry<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

carrots and lemon peel. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 27, 281-287. [2] Ferreira D., Lopes da Silva A., P<strong>in</strong>to G., Santos C.,<br />

Delgadillo I. & Coimbra M. A. 2008. Effect of sun-dry<strong>in</strong>g on microstructure and texture of S. Bartolomeu pears (Pyrus<br />

communis L.). European <strong>Food</strong> Research Technology, 226, 1545-1552. [3] Alvarez M.D., Canet W. & López M.E.<br />

2002. Influence of deformation rate and degree of compression on textural parameters of potato and apple tissues <strong>in</strong><br />

texture profile analysis. European <strong>Food</strong> Research Technology. 215, 13-20.<br />

1952

The <strong>in</strong>fluence of palm oil quality on the ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

Klicia A. Sampaio a ,*, Jose V. Ayalla b , Simone M. Silva a , Roberta Ceriani c , Roland Verhé d and Antonio J.<br />

A. Meirelles a<br />

a<br />

EXTRAE, <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Zip Code, 13083-862, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, São<br />

Paulo, Brazil (klicia@fea.unicamp.br)*<br />

b<br />

Desmet & Ballestra R&D Center, Zip Code, 1935, Zaventem, Belgium<br />

(jose.vila.ayala@desmetballestra.com)<br />

c<br />

School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Zip Code, 13083-852, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, São Paulo,<br />

Brazil (rceriani@feq.unicamp.br)<br />

d<br />

Faculty of Bioscience <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ghent University, Zip Code, 9000, Ghent –Belgium<br />

(roland.verhe@ugent.be)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The quality of any crude oil is to be considered as it can greatly affect the efficiency of the ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

process and the quality of the end-products. The most used parameters to asses crude palm oil<br />

quality is: FFA; phosphatide content; peroxide value (PV); metal traces and the deterioration of<br />

bleachability <strong>in</strong>dex (DOBI). Although, the FFA is one of the most frequently determ<strong>in</strong>ed quality<br />

<strong>in</strong>dices dur<strong>in</strong>g the production, storage and market of palm oil products and the oil price is dictated<br />

by FFA content. The reported range of free fatty acid content of crude palm oil was 2.3–6.7% [1].<br />

Edible oils are ref<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to remove unacceptable materials with the least possible loss of oil<br />

and without affect<strong>in</strong>g desirable compounds that are present <strong>in</strong> the oil <strong>in</strong> small quantities [2].<br />

Ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of palm oil is preferably performed by physical means, s<strong>in</strong>ce its high acidity can lead to<br />

excessive losses of neutral oil <strong>in</strong> case of the caustic ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process [3].<br />

For multivariable processes such as food systems, a large number of factors can <strong>in</strong>fluence the<br />

responses of the process [4]. Thus, the aim of this work was to verify the effects of two operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

parameters i.e., temperature (rang<strong>in</strong>g from 200 °C to 260°C) and steam flow (from 0.5% to 3.5%),<br />

and one quality parameter, i.e., the <strong>in</strong>itial oil acidity (from 2.22% to 6%) <strong>in</strong> the removal of free fatty<br />

acids and loss of neutral oil, follow<strong>in</strong>g a 2 3 factorial design.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Crude palm oil (CPO) was k<strong>in</strong>dly provided by the <strong>in</strong>dustry (Agropalma S/A, Amazon Ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

Company, Brazil). The oil was then submitted to regular degumm<strong>in</strong>g and bleach<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

Commercial oleic acid (MERCK, USA) was added to adjust the acidity of each model system.<br />

The experiments were carried out us<strong>in</strong>g a 2 3 full-factorial design with three central po<strong>in</strong>ts to<br />

estimate the reproducibility of the trials. The steam deacidification experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> a<br />

laboratory-scale batch deodorizer (Desmet & Ballestra – Zaventem, Belgium). The glass batch<br />

deodorizer was loaded with bleached palm oil and placed <strong>in</strong> an oven with controlled and monitored<br />

temperature.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The experimental results (Table 1) revealed that the f<strong>in</strong>al FFA and the NOL were a function of the<br />

three variables studied. However, the effect of the temperature was predom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> both responses,<br />

followed by the steam percentage.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1953

Compar<strong>in</strong>g trials 9 and 10, it is possible to verify the effect of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature on the<br />

decrease <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al FFA and on the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> NOL, due to volatilization of fatty compounds at<br />

higher temperatures. A comparison of trials 11 and 12 showed that an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the steam<br />

percentage, promoted a decrease <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al oil acidity and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the neutral oil loss, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

it reduced the required partial pressure of the volatiles. The effect of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial oil acidity<br />

on the removal of FFA and on the NOL can be seen by compar<strong>in</strong>g trials 13 and 14.<br />

Table 1. Central composite design experiment data for the physical ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of palm oil<br />

Trial<br />

T (°C)<br />

Real Variables<br />

Steam (%) IOA (%)<br />

Responses<br />

F<strong>in</strong>al FFA (%) a NOL (%) b<br />

1 212.1 1.11 2.99 0.455±0.001 0.062<br />

2 247.9 1.11 2.99 0.112±0.013 0.143<br />

3 212.1 2.89 2.99 0.152±0.004 0.079<br />

4 247.9 2.89 2.99 0.085±0.001 0.291<br />

5 212.1 1.11 5.23 0.915±0.003 0.067<br />

6 247.9 1.11 5.23 0.120±0.008 0.162<br />

7 212.1 2.89 5.23 0.230±0.008 0.080<br />

8 247.9 2.89 5.23 0.098±0.003 0.305<br />

9 200.0 2.00 4.11 0.650±0.002 0.081<br />

10 260.0 2.00 4.11 0.092±0.007 0.375<br />

11 230.0 0.50 4.11 0.554±0.001 0.076<br />

12 230.0 3.50 4.11 0.101±0.003 0.180<br />

13 230.0 2.00 2.20 0.118±0.003 0.139<br />

14 230.0 2.00 6.00 0.170±0.003 0.190<br />

15 230.0 2.00 4.11 0.109±0.004 0.166<br />

16 230.0 2.00 4.11 0.110±0.002 0.164<br />

17 230.0 2.00 4.11 0.109±0.004 0.163<br />

a b<br />

Values expressed as % of oleic acid; Calculated by difference<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was possible to conclude that for the physical ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of palm oil, the variables temperature and<br />

steam percentage presented the predom<strong>in</strong>ant effects. However, for the response f<strong>in</strong>al FFA the effect<br />

of the <strong>in</strong>itial oil acidity was also significant, provid<strong>in</strong>g evidences of the need for the previous<br />

analysis of the oil before send<strong>in</strong>g it to the commercial ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Tan, C.-H., Ghazali, H. M., Kuntom, A., Tan, C.-P. and Ariff<strong>in</strong>, A. A. 2009. Extraction and physicochemical<br />

properties of low free fatty acid crude palm oil, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 113(1), 645-650. [2] Rossi, M.,<br />

Gianazza, M., Alamprese, C. and Stang, F. 2001. The Effects of Bleach<strong>in</strong>g and Physical Ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g on Color and<br />

M<strong>in</strong>or Components of Palm Oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemistry Society, 78(1), 1051–1055. [3]<br />

Sampaio, K. A., Ceriani, R., Silva, S. M., Taham, T., Meirelles, A. J. A. 2010. Steam Deacidification of Palm<br />

Oil, <strong>Food</strong> and Bioproducts <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, doi:10.1016/j.fbp.2010.11.012. [4] BOX, G.E.P. and HUNTER, J.S.<br />

1978. Statistic for Experimenters – An Introduction to Design, Data Analysis, and Model Build<strong>in</strong>g. John Wiley<br />

& Sons, New York, USA.<br />

1954

Challenges and solutions of a novel muscle-food process<strong>in</strong>g technology: acid and alkal<strong>in</strong>e<br />

solubilization<br />

Patroklos K. Vareltzis 1 , Konstant<strong>in</strong>os G. Adamopoulos 1 and Herbert O. Hult<strong>in</strong> †<br />

1<br />

Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Aristotle<br />

University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece<br />

(p.k.vareltzis@gmail.com; costadam@eng. auth.gr)<br />

†<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, USA<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Acid and/or alkali solubilization is a recent method developed to separate muscle prote<strong>in</strong>s with good<br />

functional properties. However, exposure of the muscle and its components at low pH values has been<br />

shown to promote lipid oxidation. Therefore, the utilization of fatty fish species is limited. The major<br />

factors <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> lipid oxidation process are the substrate, the pro-oxidants and the anti-oxidants of the<br />

system. A ma<strong>in</strong> substrate for lipid oxidation is the membrane phospholipids, because they are more<br />

susceptible to oxidation than the triacylglycerols. Hemoprote<strong>in</strong>s, like hemoglob<strong>in</strong> and myoglob<strong>in</strong>, are<br />

believed to be the ma<strong>in</strong> pro-oxidants <strong>in</strong> a muscle food system .This research work aims primarily to study<br />

the structural and physicochemical changes of the fish membranes brought about dur<strong>in</strong>g acid or alkali<br />

solubilization processes. The effect on lipid oxidation and ways to stabilize the membrane lipids aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

oxidation are also studied. Model systems compris<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>ced cod muscle or cod microsomal suspensions<br />

are used. Cod muscle (Gadus morhua) was chosen as it primarily conta<strong>in</strong>s membrane lipids with almost<br />

no triacylglycerols.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fillets of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglef<strong>in</strong>us) were purchased from<br />

a local fish distributor and transported to the laboratory on ice. Chemicals were purchased from Sigma<br />

Chemical Co., (St. Louis, MO). All reagents were of ACS grade and all solvents were of HPLC grade.<br />

Canola oil was purchased from a local supermarket.<br />

Preparation and quantification of hemolysate<br />

A modified method of Fyhn et al. (1979) was used for prepar<strong>in</strong>g hemolysate from cod frames (obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

after fillet<strong>in</strong>g whole cod).<br />

Preparation of model systems: prote<strong>in</strong> isolates from washed cod and microsomal suspensions. Prote<strong>in</strong><br />

isolates, washed cod model system, press juice and microsomal suspensions were prepared as described<br />

by Vareltzis and Hult<strong>in</strong> (2008). The prote<strong>in</strong> content of the samples, the total lipid content of the m<strong>in</strong>ced<br />

muscle and the membrane suspensions were determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method of Vareltzis and Hult<strong>in</strong><br />

(2008). A modified method of Lemon (1975) [5] was used for measur<strong>in</strong>g thiobarbituric acid reactive<br />

substances (TBARS).<br />

Data was analyzed by ANOVA us<strong>in</strong>g SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Differences between<br />

treatment means at the 5% level were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the Duncan Multiple Range Test.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The results clearly <strong>in</strong>dicated that at a pH around 5.3 virtually all of the membranes (99%) <strong>in</strong> histid<strong>in</strong>e<br />

buffer had precipitated. Sedimentation behavior of membranes <strong>in</strong> HEPES buffer followed a similar trend,<br />

with a significant (p

To study the effect of pH and added triacylglycerols on hemoglob<strong>in</strong>-mediated lipid oxidation, a washed<br />

cod/haddock and canola oil system was used. Canola oil (6%, w/w) was added by blend<strong>in</strong>g for 1m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Hemoglob<strong>in</strong> (6mol/kg of tissue) was added afterwards and the pH of the sample was adjusted to 5.2 or<br />

3.0. After <strong>in</strong>cubation for 20m<strong>in</strong> the pH was readjusted to 7.2 and the samples were put <strong>in</strong>to Erlenmeyer<br />

flasks and stored on ice for oxidation studies. Even though washed haddock was exposed to pH 5.2 <strong>in</strong> the<br />

presence of hemoglob<strong>in</strong>, oxidation was slower compared to the untreated sample, where untreated<br />

hemoglob<strong>in</strong> was added at pH 7.4. TBARS values were significantly lower for the acid-treated sample<br />

compared to the untreated sample. The addition of 6% (w/w) canola oil before pH treatment resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

the presence of higher peroxide amounts <strong>in</strong>itially compared to the samples without canola oil. However,<br />

these peroxides exhibited a very slow <strong>in</strong>crease over time (results not shown). Overall, the presence of<br />

canola oil significantly delayed lipid oxidation, when washed muscle and hemoglob<strong>in</strong> are together<br />

exposed to pH 5.2.<br />

To further <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of pH on the structural changes of microsomal suspensions, qualitative<br />

SDS-PAGE analysis of treated microsomes was performed. Microsomal suspensions were exposed to pH<br />

3.0 or 10.8 for 30m<strong>in</strong> and then readjusted to pH 7.4. Then the samples were centrifuged and the collected<br />

sediment was resuspended <strong>in</strong> histid<strong>in</strong>e buffer (pH 7.4). SDS-PAGE analysis of the pH-treated samples<br />

revealed two polypeptide bands ~45 and 36kDa, which were not present <strong>in</strong> the centrifuged and<br />

resuspended membranes of the untreated microsomal suspensions.<br />

Investigation of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to membranes showed that that <strong>in</strong> the case of untreated microsomal<br />

suspensions the precipitation of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creases with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g prote<strong>in</strong> concentration. On the other<br />

hand the acid-treated membranes b<strong>in</strong>d less hemoglob<strong>in</strong> at high membrane prote<strong>in</strong> concentration, while at<br />

concentration 0.7mg/mL, acid-treated membranes exhibited the highest degree of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />

compared to the other treatments (Table 1).<br />

Table 1. Hemoglob<strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to acid and alkali treated membranes (n=3, ±SE)<br />

Microsomal suspensions with different<br />

% of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> precipitation<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> concentrations<br />

Hb 8.7± 0.66<br />

MS + Hb (0.7mg prote<strong>in</strong>/mL) 21.76±3.1<br />

MS + Hb (1.4mg/mL) *<br />

MS + Hb (2.2 mg/mL) *<br />

Acid MS + Hb (0.7mg/mL) *<br />

25.33±1.39<br />

26.33±1.93<br />

25.33±3.69<br />

Acid MS + Hb (1.4mg/mL) 20.00±2.49<br />

Acid MS + Hb (2.2 mg/mL) 20.66±2.45<br />

Alkali MS + Hb (0.7 mg/mL) 15.83±1.12<br />

Alkali MS + Hb (1.4 mg/mL) 16.33±0.68<br />

Alkali MS + Hb (2.2 mg/mL) 18.66±1.07<br />

Note: the concentrations <strong>in</strong> the parenthesis refer to membrane prote<strong>in</strong> concentrations. Hemoglob<strong>in</strong> was added to all samples at a<br />

concentration of 6m; * denotes significant (p

Effect of various prote<strong>in</strong>s on characteristics and synerisis of tzatziki<br />

Athanasios G.Stefanakis 1 , Efstratios K.Stavrakakis 1 , Konstant<strong>in</strong>os G. Adamopoulos 1 , Patroklos K. Vareltzis 1 ,<br />

Athanasia M. Goula 2<br />

1<br />

Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki,<br />

Greece (costadam@eng.auth.gr)<br />

2<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,<br />

Thessaloniki, Greece (athgou@agro.auth.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Tzatziki is a well known Hellenic delicatessen consisted ma<strong>in</strong>ly of yogurt, pieces of cucumber garlic and<br />

olive oil. S<strong>in</strong>ce tzatziki consists ma<strong>in</strong>ly of yogurt, it shares the same quality profile and problems of<br />

product failure. Yogurt is the result of acidic fermentation of milk creat<strong>in</strong>g a network of coagulated<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s. It is the result of disulfide bond<strong>in</strong>g between k-case<strong>in</strong> and denatured whey prote<strong>in</strong>s as well as<br />

case<strong>in</strong>-case<strong>in</strong> aggregation [1]. The common problems yogurt-based products face, are related with prote<strong>in</strong><br />

gel network stability, variations of acidity, microbiological <strong>in</strong>fection dur<strong>in</strong>g storage and the synerisis<br />

phenomenon.<br />

Addition of dried dairy <strong>in</strong>gredients is a common practice <strong>in</strong> yogurt manufacture. The addition of dried<br />

dairy <strong>in</strong>gredients causes an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> density of the prote<strong>in</strong> matrix <strong>in</strong> the gel microstructure and<br />

reduction of synerisis <strong>in</strong> yogurt [2]. In this research 3 dried dairy types of prote<strong>in</strong>s were tested: sodium<br />

case<strong>in</strong>ate, whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate (WPC) and album<strong>in</strong> which is ma<strong>in</strong>ly orig<strong>in</strong>ated from egg white<br />

serum. The primary aim of this study was to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effect of the above prote<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong><br />

yogurt <strong>in</strong>dividually at different concentrations, on the pH and synerisis of a tzatziki gel dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at 4<br />

o C. The water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity (WHC) of each prote<strong>in</strong>-enriched sample <strong>in</strong> different ratios was measured.<br />

Solubility of the added prote<strong>in</strong>s was determ<strong>in</strong>ed, s<strong>in</strong>ce it plays a crucial role <strong>in</strong> delay<strong>in</strong>g synerisis <strong>in</strong><br />

yogurt.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Preparation of tzatziki<br />

Cucumber was added to stra<strong>in</strong>ed yogurt (10% fat) <strong>in</strong> a ratio of 1:4 cucumber to yogurt. The moisture<br />

content of cucumber was measured and the appropriate amount of water was added to yogurt <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

achieve the same moisture content with tzatziki. Whey powder concentrate (WPC), album<strong>in</strong> and case<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

sodium were <strong>in</strong>dividually added to the samples at concentrations of 1% and 5% w/w for each prote<strong>in</strong>. The<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s were dissolved <strong>in</strong> water at 25°C before added to the stra<strong>in</strong>ed yogurt. One extra sample without<br />

added prote<strong>in</strong> was used as the control sample. All samples were stored at 5°C.<br />

Synerisis and water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity<br />

Both synerisis an water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity were measured by a centrifuge method accord<strong>in</strong>g to a modified<br />

method of Keogh and O’Kennedy (1998)[3]. A 20g sample of tzatziki was centrifuged at 2.500rpm for<br />

10m<strong>in</strong> at 25°C. The whey expelled was removed and weighed. The synerisis was expressed as the<br />

percentage % of the whey relative to the orig<strong>in</strong>al weight of the sample. The water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity was<br />

expressed as the percentage % of pellet weight relative to the orig<strong>in</strong>al weight of the sample.<br />

Solubility of tested prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

The solubility of prote<strong>in</strong> water solutions was measured accord<strong>in</strong>g to Markwell et al. (1978) [4]. The<br />

absorbance of the samples was measured at 660nm us<strong>in</strong>g a Heos spectrophotometer (Thermo<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1957

Spectronic). Bov<strong>in</strong>e serum album<strong>in</strong> was used to obta<strong>in</strong> the prote<strong>in</strong> standard curve <strong>in</strong> the range of 0-100 g<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>/ml. The pH value of prote<strong>in</strong> solutions was also measured<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Water content<br />

The water content of tzatziki was measured at 83% w/w which is 5% higher than that of pla<strong>in</strong> stra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

yogurt. Total moisture content of the different samples was reduced proportionally to the level of added<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s due to the <strong>in</strong>crease of total solids <strong>in</strong> the mixture.<br />

pH value and stability<br />

pH values of the prote<strong>in</strong>-enriched samples appeared to be more stable through time compared to the<br />

control. Samples conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 1% of added prote<strong>in</strong>s exhibited a stable pH around 4, slightly higher than the<br />

control. However, samples conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 5% of added prote<strong>in</strong>s stabilized at significantly higher pH values<br />

around 4.5. The significant changes <strong>in</strong> pH of the control sample might be attributed to the transformation<br />

of lactose to lactic acid at different rates depend<strong>in</strong>g on the culture reaction. On the other hand, prote<strong>in</strong>enriched<br />

samples exhibit a higher pH throughout storage, probably due to the dissolved prote<strong>in</strong>s. The<br />

elevation of pH <strong>in</strong> tzatziki samples can be partly attributed to the pH of added prote<strong>in</strong> solutions which<br />

was <strong>in</strong> all cases above 6.7.<br />

Synerisis<br />

Overall, prote<strong>in</strong>-enriched samples displayed less synerisis than<br />

the control sample. Higher total solids could cause an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

density and reduce pore size <strong>in</strong> the prote<strong>in</strong> matrix of the yogurt<br />

gel [3]. As shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 the presence of added prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

decreased significantly the rate of synerisis until the 14<br />

Figure 1. Rate of synerisis of tzatziki<br />

simulated samples <strong>in</strong> different<br />

concentrations of prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

th day of<br />

storage. At samples of 1% added prote<strong>in</strong>, WPC exhibited the<br />

most stable results reach<strong>in</strong>g an 8% difference compared to the<br />

control and dropp<strong>in</strong>g at 4% difference on the 25 th day.<br />

Samples conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 5% of added prote<strong>in</strong>s seemed to have<br />

synerisis rates stabiliz<strong>in</strong>g at significantly lower levels than the<br />

control. At 5% level, album<strong>in</strong>, which also had the highest<br />

solubility, displayed the best behavior achiev<strong>in</strong>g 10 – 13% lower<br />

synerisis followed by case<strong>in</strong> reach<strong>in</strong>g 7-10% less synerisis effect.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The addition of prote<strong>in</strong>s to yogurt <strong>in</strong> order to avoid or delay synerisis seems to be an effective method to<br />

improve product stability. However, more work is needed <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e the optimum conditions<br />

of pH, temperature and concentration of the added prote<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] M.R. Dam<strong>in</strong>, M.R. Alcantara, A.P. Nunes, M.N. Oliveira 2009. Effects of milk supplementation with skim milk<br />

powder, whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate and sodium case<strong>in</strong>ate on acidification k<strong>in</strong>etics, rheological properties and structure<br />

of nonfat stirred yogurt, <strong>Food</strong> science and Technology, 42, 1744-1750. [2] Jiancai Li & M<strong>in</strong>gruo Guo 2006. Effects of<br />

Polymerized Whey Prote<strong>in</strong>s on Consistency and Water-hold<strong>in</strong>g Properties of Goat’s Milk Yogurt, Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science, 71(1), 34-38. [3] M.K. Keogh & B.T. O’Kennedy 1998. Rheology of stirred yogurts as affected by added milk<br />

fat, prote<strong>in</strong> and hydrocolloids. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 63(1), 108-112. [4] Markwell, M.A., Haas, S.M., Bieber, L.L.<br />

and Tolbert,N.E. 1978. A modification of the Lowry procedure to simplify prote<strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> membrane and<br />

lipoprote<strong>in</strong> samples. Anal. Biochem. 87, 206-210<br />

1958

High-Power Ultrasound-Assisted Pasteurisation Of Honey<br />

Dania Kabbani a, b , Francesc Sepulcre b , Jan Wedek<strong>in</strong>d a<br />

a Innovació i Recerca Industrial i Sostenible Co, Castelldefels, Spa<strong>in</strong> (dkabbani@iris.cat).<br />

b<br />

Departament d'Eng<strong>in</strong>yeria Agroalimentària i Biotecnologia, Escola Superior d'Agricultura, Universitat Politècnica<br />

de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spa<strong>in</strong>.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Crystallization of honey is a natural but undesirable process <strong>in</strong> the honey <strong>in</strong>dustry. Liquid honey is preferred by most<br />

of the consumers and by food companies for ease of handl<strong>in</strong>g. Honey is commonly heated for pasteurization and <strong>in</strong><br />

order to liquefy it and <strong>in</strong>hibit any microbial growth [1] . However, high temperatures treatments may deteriorate the<br />

quality of the honey. A better method compared to expensive and time-consum<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g is desirable for accelerat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

liquefaction and decontam<strong>in</strong>ation. In the present work, we liquefied crystallized honey harvested directly from Spanish<br />

apiaries us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasound bath, operat<strong>in</strong>g at a nom<strong>in</strong>al frequency of 40 kHz <strong>in</strong> a temperature range of 40-50 °C for a<br />

maximum period of 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes. We performed several microbial tests to study the degree of microbiological<br />

decontam<strong>in</strong>ation after an ultrasound treatment, <strong>in</strong> particular study<strong>in</strong>g the presence of yeasts and moulds. On the other<br />

hand, honey is also known for its antimicrobial activity due to physical (acidity, osmolarity) and chemical (nectar,<br />

pollen) factors as well as the presence of the glucose-oxidase enzyme. Hence, the effect of the ultrasound on the<br />

antimicrobial <strong>in</strong>hibitory capacity of the honey was also studied aga<strong>in</strong>st Saccharomyces cerevisiae.<br />

2. MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

2.1 Experimental design<br />

Crystallized rosemary (Rosmar<strong>in</strong>us offic<strong>in</strong>alis) honey was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a local producer (Viadiu Ltd., Caldes de<br />

Montbuí Spa<strong>in</strong>).<br />

Samples were placed <strong>in</strong> 35 ml glass test tubes covered with a screw top, wrapped with parafilm and subjected to the<br />

liquefaction <strong>in</strong> a temperature range of 40-50 °C for 20-120 m<strong>in</strong>utes by:<br />

a) Liquefaction us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasound (US) bath (Powersonic 603, Cobos Precisions. Korea) operat<strong>in</strong>g at a nom<strong>in</strong>al<br />

frequency of 40 kHz (<strong>in</strong>put power 200 W).<br />

b) Liquefaction by only heat<strong>in</strong>g (HT) us<strong>in</strong>g a thermostatic bath (Digiterm 200 P Selecta S.A, Barcelona, Spa<strong>in</strong>) .<br />

The whole experiment was performed 3 times and samples were prepared by 5 replicates.<br />

2.2 Microbiological analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of honey<br />

Aliquots of one gram of honey samples were placed <strong>in</strong> sterile Petri dishes and <strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> Nutrient Agar (NA) and<br />

Special Yeast and Mould Medium (SYM) and at 35 ± 1 °C for 5 days. All colonies appear<strong>in</strong>g at the end of <strong>in</strong>cubation<br />

were counted and the results expressed as colony form<strong>in</strong>g units per gram (cfu/g).<br />

To determ<strong>in</strong>e the antimicrobial efficacy of honey, Saccharomyces cerevisiae was selected. For the test assays, five<br />

grams of US, HT and raw honey were diluted <strong>in</strong> 25 ml of distilled water and kept at 20 °C for one hour. A 24 multiwell<br />

plate was used for the screen<strong>in</strong>g of the antimicrobial activity. Each well conta<strong>in</strong>ed 1300 μl of SYM , 500 μl of<br />

<strong>in</strong>oculum and 200 μl of honey or Buffer solution (control). The plate was measured at <strong>in</strong>tervals of 1h dur<strong>in</strong>g 24 h at 37<br />

°C.<br />

3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

3.1 Microbiological analysis<br />

As described <strong>in</strong> our previous works [3,4] when crystallized honey is sonicated <strong>in</strong> a nom<strong>in</strong>al frequency of 40 kHz (<strong>in</strong>put<br />

power 200 W) <strong>in</strong> a temperature range of 40-50 °C it becomes liquid faster than a conventional thermal treatment. This<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates that honey can be liquefied without compris<strong>in</strong>g its quality by US waves without need<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1959

temperature up to 50 °C or even higher [4] . Raw honey<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubated <strong>in</strong> NA and SYM mediums showed microbial<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ation. The NA petri dishes presented white<br />

colonies of microorganisms that occupied the totality of<br />

the plates after 24 h. The SYM petri dishes presented a<br />

mean value of 4 dark green colonies of fungi and yeast<br />

after 24 h that also occupied the totality of the plates<br />

with<strong>in</strong> 48 h. Samples were sonicated at 50 °C for 120<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes and heat-treated <strong>in</strong> the same conditions but<br />

without sonication. Samples sonicated for 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong><br />

NA and SYM showed a significant decrease of<br />

microorganisms of 60 % (45 cfu/g) after 48 and 120 h.<br />

The US counts <strong>in</strong> SYM presented an average of just 1<br />

colony per gram while the HT showed a mean value of 4 colonies per gram of treated honey. Moreover, the size of<br />

colonies <strong>in</strong> the ultrasonicated samples was noticeably smaller. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the diameter of a colony <strong>in</strong> SYM agar plate<br />

measured 0.8 cm while a colony <strong>in</strong> the heat treated sample measured 2.5 cm, after 48 h. This <strong>in</strong>dicates that US delays<br />

the microbial growth <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g its stationary phase.<br />

3.2 Antimicrobial Activity of honey<br />

Honey has been reported to have a potent antibacterial activity, effective aga<strong>in</strong>st a very broad spectrum of species, and<br />

to have antifungal properties as well [2] . When diluted, honey also shows an antimicrobial capacity due to hydrogen<br />

peroxide, a bacteriostatic agent produced by enzymatic activity <strong>in</strong> the honey. As previously described [4] US did not<br />

affect the activity of the diastase enzyme. In the present research we aimed at <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g the effect of US on<br />

glucose-oxidase enzyme activity. When diluted honey (100-200 μl) was placed <strong>in</strong> the presence of Saccharomyces<br />

cerevisiae (10 3 Figure 1: Saccharomyces growth curve <strong>in</strong> presence of<br />

100 microlitres of honey<br />

cfu/ml) and SYM medium and <strong>in</strong>cubated at 37 °C for 24h, a microbial growth was observed.<br />

Nonetheless, it can be seen (Fig.1) that the curve of the sonicated samples showed the lowest development of culture<br />

growth. Different volumes were placed <strong>in</strong> the multiwell plate (100-200 μl) to observe the efficacy of the honey. 100 μl<br />

of diluted US sample resulted <strong>in</strong> a decrease <strong>in</strong> absorbance of 0.1 units <strong>in</strong> the Saccharomyces culture after 8.6 hours,<br />

which <strong>in</strong> turn resulted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>hibition of the culture growth of 50 %. This could be because of the comb<strong>in</strong>ed work of<br />

the US treatment and the glucose-oxidase activity, which activity is <strong>in</strong>creased once diluted.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Our results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this research po<strong>in</strong>t to a successful application of the ultrasound technology for decontam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of honey. Ultrasound treatment can be effectively used for thermal process<strong>in</strong>g of honey, as it was observed a<br />

significant decrease and a delayed the microbiological growth of treated honey at 50 °C for 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Moreover, the<br />

natural antimicrobial properties of honey were enhanced by the US treatment as an <strong>in</strong>hibition of culture growth was<br />

observed. Future works will be focused on optimiz<strong>in</strong>g the treatment conditions as well as to study the activity of the<br />

glucose-oxidase enzyme after an US treatment.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Tosi E.A., Ré E, Lucero H. and Bulacio L. 2004. Effect of honey high-temperature short-time heat<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

parameters related to quality, crystallisation phenomena and fungal <strong>in</strong>hibition. LWT - <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology,<br />

37, 669-678.<br />

[2] Molan P.C. 1992. The antibacterial activity of honey: 1. The nature of the antibacterial activity. Bee <strong>World</strong>, 73(1),<br />

5-<br />

[3] Kabbani D, Sepulcre F, Wedek<strong>in</strong>d J. 2011, submitted. Ultrasound-assisted Liquefaction of Honey. Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>.<br />

[4] Kabbani D, Wedek<strong>in</strong>d J and. Sepulcre F. 2011, submitted. Honey hidroxymethylfurfural and amylase content<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenced by ultrasound treatment. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>.<br />

1960

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopic Analysis of Biodegradable Gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

Films Immersed <strong>in</strong> Water<br />

Z. A. Nur Hanani, Y. H. Roos & J. P. Kerry*<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Packag<strong>in</strong>g Group, School of <strong>Food</strong> & Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork (UCC), Cork,<br />

Ireland (Joe.Kerry@ucc.ie)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fourier transform <strong>in</strong>frared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most important tools used to analyze<br />

food packag<strong>in</strong>g films due to its sensitivity, relatively low cost and speed. Its applications are not<br />

limited to analyz<strong>in</strong>g the properties of petrochemical-based plastics, but can also be used for<br />

biodegradable packag<strong>in</strong>g films manufactured from polysaccharides or prote<strong>in</strong> sources. Prote<strong>in</strong>based<br />

films (manufactured us<strong>in</strong>g case<strong>in</strong>, whey, gelat<strong>in</strong> etc.) have attracted enormous <strong>in</strong>terest due to<br />

their biodegradability. Furthermore, prote<strong>in</strong>-based films have good barrier properties compared to<br />

synthetic films. Gelat<strong>in</strong> is a prote<strong>in</strong> that is commercially obta<strong>in</strong>ed from sk<strong>in</strong>s and bones of cattle and<br />

pigs follow<strong>in</strong>g slaughter. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Wang et al. [1], follow<strong>in</strong>g the screen<strong>in</strong>g of numerous food<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients for establishment of film form<strong>in</strong>g ability, gelat<strong>in</strong> was one of the biopolymer materials<br />

assessed which demonstrated desirable film form<strong>in</strong>g properties. Few researchers have <strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />

the use of FTIR as an analytical tool for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g biodegradable film properties, and most<br />

specifically for those manufactured from gelat<strong>in</strong>. Prote<strong>in</strong>s are comprised of am<strong>in</strong>o acids jo<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

together by amide bonds. The polypeptide and prote<strong>in</strong> repeat units give rise to n<strong>in</strong>e characteristic<br />

<strong>in</strong>frared (IR) absorption bands, namely; amide A, B, and I-VII [2]. Amide bands represent different<br />

vibrational modes of the peptide bond. The absorption bands of gelat<strong>in</strong> films <strong>in</strong> the IR spectra are<br />

situated <strong>in</strong> the amide band region; Amide-I represents C=O stretch<strong>in</strong>g/hydrogen bond<strong>in</strong>g couple<br />

with COO, Amide-II represents bend<strong>in</strong>g vibration of N-H groups and stretch<strong>in</strong>g vibrations of C-N<br />

groups, Amide-III is related to the vibrations <strong>in</strong> plane of C-N and N-H groups of bound amide.<br />

Amide-I band is the most sensitive spectral region to the prote<strong>in</strong> secondary structural. The objective<br />

of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of a water immersion process on biodegradable gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

films, via the use of FTIR spectra, <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e possible <strong>in</strong>teractions that might occur<br />

between gelat<strong>in</strong> functional groups and water.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Films were manufactured from gelat<strong>in</strong>, us<strong>in</strong>g a 6 and 8% concentration, derived from bov<strong>in</strong>e sk<strong>in</strong><br />

(Healan Ingredients Ltd, York, UK). Solutions were stirred us<strong>in</strong>g a magnetic stirrer hotplate and<br />

heated to 80°C. Films were cast by pour<strong>in</strong>g pre-heated solutions onto level circular teflon-coated<br />

Perspex plates and dried at 50 ± 5% RH and 23 ± 2 °C. Prior to FTIR attenuated total reflectance<br />

(ATR) spectroscopic analysis, gelat<strong>in</strong> films were immersed <strong>in</strong> distilled water from 1 m<strong>in</strong>ute up to 1<br />

hour <strong>in</strong> duration. The spectra of gelat<strong>in</strong> films were recorded us<strong>in</strong>g Varian 600-IR Series FTIR<br />

equipped with horizontal attenuated total reflectance (ATR) ZnSe cell at room temperature.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The spectra for 6% gelat<strong>in</strong>e films prior to immersion showed that the band was formed by four<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual peaks; situated at amide-A and free water (3282 cm -1 ), amide-I (1630 cm -1 ), amide-II<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1961

(1547 cm -1 ) and amide-III (1239 cm -1 ). The peak situated around 1034 cm -1 might be related to the<br />

possible <strong>in</strong>teractions aris<strong>in</strong>g between plasticizer (OH group of glycerol) and film structure [3].<br />

These results were broadly <strong>in</strong> agreement with previous studies [2,3]. After immersion <strong>in</strong> water for 1<br />

m<strong>in</strong>ute, the amide-A peak, amide-I and amide-II became broader and shifted to a higher<br />

wavenumber. However, the amide-III peak disappeared after the immersion process, thereby<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g no vibrations <strong>in</strong> the plane of C-N and N-H groups of bound amide. The amide-A peak,<br />

amide-I and amide-II became <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly broad when immersion time <strong>in</strong>creased. Additionally, the<br />

peak (1034 cm -1 ) which related to the <strong>in</strong>teraction between plasticizer and film was not appeared.<br />

Similar spectra for 8% gelat<strong>in</strong>e films to those obta<strong>in</strong>ed for 6% gelat<strong>in</strong> films were noticeable.<br />

However, the wavenumber of Amide-A for 8% gelat<strong>in</strong> concentration was higher than that for 6%<br />

gelat<strong>in</strong>, with a lower wavenumber of amide-I and amide-II peaks. After 1 m<strong>in</strong>ute immersion, the<br />

amide-A peak showed a broader peak and shifted to a higher wavenumber. The same behaviour<br />

occurred for amide-I and amide-II peaks.<br />

Pure distilled water showed a strong IR absorbance band at 3349 cm -1 (O-H stretch<strong>in</strong>g) and around<br />

1637 cm -1 (H-O-H bend<strong>in</strong>g). Meanwhile the strong band for distilled water that held the 6% gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

films for 1 hour shifted to a lower wavelength, around 3304 cm -1 . However, the band for distilled<br />

water that held the 8% gelat<strong>in</strong> films for 1 hour <strong>in</strong>creased to 3358 cm -1 . The peak for amide-I, for<br />

immersed gelat<strong>in</strong> films have a similar functional group to that of water, thereby mak<strong>in</strong>g it difficult<br />

to differentiate between absorbances accru<strong>in</strong>g to the presence of water or gelat<strong>in</strong> films, thereby<br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g to band<strong>in</strong>g overlap. However, this problem was overcome by us<strong>in</strong>g a subtraction process.<br />

The shift <strong>in</strong> the amide-A band after immersion might be due to the hydrogen bond<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />

between polymer molecules <strong>in</strong> the film. A shift <strong>in</strong> the secondary structure (amide-I and amide-II)<br />

might also contribute to the creation of ‘hydrogen bonds’ between the molecules <strong>in</strong> films with<br />

water. Additionally, when prote<strong>in</strong> films like gelat<strong>in</strong> are immersed <strong>in</strong> water, the hydrogen attached to<br />

the amide nitrogen could readily exchange for hydrogens attached to water molecules [4]. In terms<br />

of concentration, 8% gelat<strong>in</strong> films generated strong amide-II peaks compared to 6% gelat<strong>in</strong> films.<br />

This might be due to the weak bond<strong>in</strong>g of water molecules with those present <strong>in</strong> 8% gelat<strong>in</strong>.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The FTIR spectroscopy has successfully shown some changes on the properties of the gelat<strong>in</strong> films<br />

after the samples immersed <strong>in</strong> water. The changes can be seen after the films immersed <strong>in</strong> water for<br />

1 m<strong>in</strong>ute. The wavenumber of the amide-A, amide-I and amide-II peaks <strong>in</strong>creased when the time<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Wang, L. Liu, L., Holmes, J., Kerry, J. F. & Kerry, J. P. 2007. Assessment of Film-Form<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Potential and Properties of Prote<strong>in</strong> and Polysaccharide-based Biopolymer Films. <strong>International</strong> Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 42, 1128-1138.<br />

[2] Kong, J. & Yu, S. 2007. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis of Prote<strong>in</strong> Secondary<br />

Structures. Acta Biochimica et Biophysica S<strong>in</strong>ica, 39(8), 549-559.<br />

[3] Hoque, M. S., Benjakul, S. & Prodpran, T. 2010. Effect of heat treatment of film-form<strong>in</strong>g solution on<br />

the properties of film from cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) sk<strong>in</strong> gelat<strong>in</strong>. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 96,<br />

66-73.<br />

[4] Gallager, W. 2005. FTIR Analysis of Prote<strong>in</strong> Structure. Manuals Chem 455: Biochemistry Lab,<br />

University of Wiscons<strong>in</strong>, US.<br />

1962

Effects of edible chitosan- l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage coat<strong>in</strong>g on quality and shelf life of fresh-cut<br />

strawberry<br />

Laura Eugenia Pérez Cabrera a , Gloria Crist<strong>in</strong>a Díaz Narváez a , Alberto Tecante Coronel b , Chelo<br />

González Martínez c<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México<br />

(leperez@correo.uaa.mx)<br />

b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> and Biotechnology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Application of edible coat<strong>in</strong>gs is promis<strong>in</strong>g to improve the quality and extend shelf life of<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imally processed produce; several mechanisms are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> extend<strong>in</strong>g the shelf-life of<br />

fruits and vegetables. Strawberries are especially perishable fruits, be<strong>in</strong>g susceptible to<br />

mechanical <strong>in</strong>jury, desiccation, decay and physiological disorders dur<strong>in</strong>g storage [1]. On the<br />

other hand chitosan, is an ideal preservative coat<strong>in</strong>g for fresh fruits because of its film-form<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and biochemical properties [2] and its use <strong>in</strong> food is particularly promis<strong>in</strong>g because of its<br />

‘‘biocompatibility’’, non-toxicity and antimicrobial action. L<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage is capable to<br />

film-form<strong>in</strong>g [3]; the functionality of l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage is similar to that of gum arabic [4]. The<br />

objective of this study was evaluated the effectiveness of edible chitosan-l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage<br />

coat<strong>in</strong>gs to extend the shelf-life of strawberries m<strong>in</strong>imally processed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Edible coat<strong>in</strong>gs made with brown l<strong>in</strong>seed (L<strong>in</strong>um usitatissimum) mucilage (ML) polymer (1.5,<br />

1.2 and 1.0% w/v; FA, FB and FC, respectively) <strong>in</strong> aqueous dispersion, chitosan with a<br />

deacetylation degree of 75% (1% w/v) (Sigma-Aldrich N. C3646), lactic acid 0.5% (Hycel)<br />

and Glycerol 0.6% (Fermot). The pH of the formulations of edible coat<strong>in</strong>gs were ~ 4.5-5.2. It<br />

dipped strawberries (cv Albion), stalks, washed and sanitized <strong>in</strong> the edible coat<strong>in</strong>gs and stored<br />

at 10 ° C to facilitate dry 120 m<strong>in</strong>, then were packed <strong>in</strong> polystyrene bags at 4 ° C. Uncoated<br />

strawberries were used as a blank and coated strawberries without chitosan <strong>in</strong> the formulation<br />

was control. Were analyzed weight loss, respiration rate (CO2/O2 RR, static method; PBI-<br />

Dansensor), colour (CIEL*,a*,b*; M<strong>in</strong>olta CR-400) decay rate (lost of visual quality, arbitrary<br />

scale), texture (simple compression plate; Texture Analyser-TA-XT2,) and microbial growth<br />

(plate count of mesophilic bacteria, total coliforms and yeast and moulds) were modelled<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Gompertz equation dur<strong>in</strong>g storage (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 days).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Weight loss was expressed as percentage loss of the <strong>in</strong>itial total weight (Table 1) all samples<br />

showed a progressive loss of weight dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, after the fifth day of storage weight losses<br />

for strawberries coated with chitosan-l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage (FA, FB & FC) were significantly lower<br />

(p

The respiration pattern at 0 day for coated fruit differed from that of untreated fruit, after 1h of<br />

processed or coated fruits, CO2 production was lower for all coated strawberries than for the<br />

blank and control. The respiratory quotient was <strong>in</strong> all coated samples cases close to one,<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g that no change was detected <strong>in</strong> the metabolic pathways of coated strawberries. The<br />

addition of this type of coat<strong>in</strong>g is likely to modify the <strong>in</strong>ternal atmosphere without caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />

anaerobic respiration, s<strong>in</strong>ce chitosan-l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage edible are more selectively permeable to<br />

O2 than to CO2 [2]. One of the best parameters to describe the variation of colour is the colour<br />

differences (E*), as it shows the total change <strong>in</strong> all parameters L *, a * b *, the changes<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g storage were visually perceptible to an end. Uncoated fruits were darkens, sk<strong>in</strong> colour<br />

becomes less chromatic and surface brown<strong>in</strong>g develops. Firmness significantly decreased<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g storage for all samples, these changes, which can be attributed to tissue senescence and<br />

cell wall breakdown, as well as to the sample water loss, were significantly less marked <strong>in</strong><br />

coated strawberries. Under refrigeration, the antimicrobial activity of chitosan seemed to<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence significantly the growth of mesophilic bacteria. Edible coat<strong>in</strong>gs chitosan-based<br />

displayed a strong <strong>in</strong>hibition for all microbial groups; the presence of chitosan on coated<br />

strawberries were significant difference between uncoated or control strawberries.<br />

Sample<br />

Table 1. Physicochemical, microbiological and quality parameters of strawberry<br />

%<br />

Weight<br />

lost a<br />

Respiratory<br />

quotient (RQ)<br />

Colour<br />

E* a<br />

%<br />

Firmness<br />

lost a (N)<br />

%<br />

Visual<br />

lost<br />

quality a<br />

Gompertz parameters a,c<br />

A max R 2<br />

Blank 151.5 1.80.5 8.21.1 5512 755 6.9 3.0 0.45 .995<br />

Control 121.0 1.30.4 12.31.0 528 632 4.3 7.0 0.39 .998<br />

FA 80.8 1.00.2 2.10.8 62 101 1.7 2.5 0.18 .995<br />

FB 70.5 1.10.3 1.50.6 63 122 1.3 2.6 0.21 .997<br />

FC 40.5 0.80.2 1.81.0 82 131 1.5 3.0 0.15 .989<br />

a 020 days, b 0 days, c For mesophilic bacteria<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The use of edible chitosan-l<strong>in</strong>seed mucilage applied at strawberry fruits is recommended to<br />

control brown<strong>in</strong>g, firmness lost, microbial growth and decay <strong>in</strong> strawberry fruit <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

with other methods, i.e. low temperature and suitable packag<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Tournas V. H. & Katsoudas E. 2005. Mould and yeast flora <strong>in</strong> fresh berries, grapes and citrus fruits.<br />

<strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 105, 1117.<br />

[2] El Ghaouth A. Ponnampalam R. Castaigne F. & Arul J. 1992. Chitosan coat<strong>in</strong>g to extend the storage<br />

life of tomatoes. Horticultural Science, 27, 1016–1018.<br />

[3] Hernández C., Pérez-Cabrera L. E. & González-Martínez C. 2010. Development of L<strong>in</strong>seed-<br />

Mucilage Edible Coat<strong>in</strong>gs and its Application to Extend Fresh-cut Cucumber Shelf-life. In Regalado<br />

C. & García B. E. (Eds.). Innovations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology <strong>in</strong> Develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Countries. Inc. AMECA, A. C. Queretaro, Mexico.<br />

[4] Mazza G. & Biliaderis C. G. 1989. Functional properties of flax mucilage. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science,<br />

54, 1302-1305.<br />

1964

How to apply acrylamide mitigation tools <strong>in</strong> food technology<br />

Zuzana Ciesarová a , Krist<strong>in</strong>a Kukurova a , Lucie Markova a , Jana Sadecka a<br />

a VUP <strong>Food</strong> Research Institute Bratislava, Slovak Republic, e-mail: ciesarova@vup.sk<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A high concern about acrylamide has been revealed from the fact that acrylamide belongs to<br />

probably carc<strong>in</strong>ogenic compounds <strong>in</strong> humans based on the evaluation of the <strong>International</strong><br />

Agency for Research on Cancer s<strong>in</strong>ce 1994. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last decade acrylamide was confirmed<br />

to be found <strong>in</strong> many staple foods <strong>in</strong> a level attract<strong>in</strong>g attention of food safety bodies and<br />

consumers as well. As ma<strong>in</strong> sources of acrylamide <strong>in</strong>take are considered to be, besides coffee<br />

and potato specialities like potato chips and crisps, a wide range of cereal based products<br />

(bread, crisp bread, cookies, crackers, cakes, g<strong>in</strong>gerbreads, breakfast cereals) which<br />

substantially contribute to human exposure of acrylamide. Although cereal products generally<br />

are not known with higher acrylamide content (usually up to 1000 μg/kg), due to their frequent<br />

consumption are considered to be a significant contributor to acrylamide exposure. The reason<br />

arose from the mechanism of acrylamide formation: the simple saccharides, as glucose and<br />

fructose are, act as promoters of acrylamide formation [1].<br />

The <strong>in</strong>cessant effort of responsible food safety bodies as well as research on acrylamide<br />

mitigation <strong>in</strong> foods has been reflected <strong>in</strong> summarization of possible tools applicable <strong>in</strong> food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g and technology with the aim to reduce acrylamide level <strong>in</strong> products as low as<br />

reasonably achievable. The document CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox [2] revealed tools based on<br />

next approaches: i) Intervention <strong>in</strong> raw material selection; ii) Alteration <strong>in</strong> recipes; iii)<br />

Adjustment of process<strong>in</strong>g conditions; iv) F<strong>in</strong>al preparation before eat<strong>in</strong>g. A proposition of tools<br />

is based on the actual knowledge built on the clarification of mechanism and they are chosen<br />

with the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tentions: i) To decrease the level of precursors <strong>in</strong> raw materials; ii) To<br />

avoid acrylamide formation dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g of foods;<br />

iii) To facilitate acrylamide elim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Among possible methods to decrease acrylamide level the selection of raw material accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to the occurrence of precursors and the use of asparag<strong>in</strong>ase before heat process<strong>in</strong>g and/or the<br />

application of <strong>in</strong>organic salts seem to be a very efficient way of acrylamide reduction.<br />

Acrylamide and am<strong>in</strong>o acids were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by LC/MS/MS technique precisely described<br />

previously [3] with calculation on <strong>in</strong>ternal standards.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Selection of raw materials. The determ<strong>in</strong>ation of am<strong>in</strong>o acids <strong>in</strong> raw material or <strong>in</strong> flours can<br />

predict the acrylamide formation <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al products after thermal process<strong>in</strong>g. Differences <strong>in</strong><br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile (Asn, Asp, Gln, Glu) between varieties of gra<strong>in</strong>s were clearly documented<br />

on the samples of wheat gra<strong>in</strong>s, oat gra<strong>in</strong>s and wheat flours. Results showed that <strong>in</strong> the wheat<br />

flour there was the aspartic acid which had the highest portion among determ<strong>in</strong>ed am<strong>in</strong>o acids.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1965

In the whole gra<strong>in</strong>s of wheat and oat the free L-asparag<strong>in</strong>e occupied the highest ratio of free<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids. It is important for the next usage of these gra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the process of production of<br />

bakery ware or breakfast cereals.<br />

Application of asparag<strong>in</strong>ase <strong>in</strong> pastry production. To avoid alteration <strong>in</strong> expected sensory<br />

properties of f<strong>in</strong>al products the application of L-asparag<strong>in</strong>ase enzyme before heat treatment<br />

was used which resulted <strong>in</strong> a sufficient decrease of acrylamide content. This approach was<br />

successfully used for fried products, baked cakes and biscuits. Appropriate enzyme pretreatment<br />

of fried cereal products brought “free-acrylamide” products like donuts [4].<br />

Manufactured biscuit and g<strong>in</strong>gerbread production with enzyme pre-treatment resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

important elim<strong>in</strong>ation of acrylamide <strong>in</strong> those products which are <strong>in</strong>tended especially for<br />

consumption by children [5].<br />

Application <strong>in</strong> bread mak<strong>in</strong>g process. Last but not least, the effort to mitigate acrylamide<br />

was focused on bread mak<strong>in</strong>g process. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the fact that domestic bread preparation is<br />

ris<strong>in</strong>g generally and production of bread mix for bread mach<strong>in</strong>e are frequently <strong>in</strong>novated<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to new trends, the <strong>in</strong>corporation of improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong>to the recipes is easily<br />

under control. The calcium chloride was recognized as the salt which suppressed acrylamide<br />

formation up to 10 % and concurrently improved sensorial as well as functional properties of<br />

the f<strong>in</strong>al bread loaf.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The enzyme application had an unambiguous advantage <strong>in</strong> no sensorial impact on expected<br />

properties of f<strong>in</strong>al products. Calcium chloride addition improved the quality and safety of<br />

bread. Both mentioned approaches are promis<strong>in</strong>g ways to depress acrylamide <strong>in</strong>take from<br />

cereal foods.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

This contribution is the result of the project implementation "The Centre of Excellence for<br />

Contam<strong>in</strong>ants and Microorganisms <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong>s" funded by the ERDF. This work was also<br />

supported by the APVV contracts No. LPP 0310-09 and VMSP 0089-09 as well as by the<br />

MARD SR under the contract No. 4697/2009-810.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ciesarová Z., Kiss E. & Kolek, E. 2006. Study of factors affect<strong>in</strong>g acrylamide levels <strong>in</strong> model<br />

systems. Czech Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 24, 133–137.<br />

[2] Toolbox (2009). The CIAA Acrylamide "Toolbox". Confederation of the food and dr<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

of the EU [onl<strong>in</strong>e]. 2009. 1-41.<br />

[3] Ciesarová Z., Kukurová K., Bednáriková, A. & Morales, J.F. 2009. Effect of heat treatment and<br />

dough formulation on the formation of Maillard reaction products <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e bakery products – benefits<br />

and weak po<strong>in</strong>ts. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> and Nutrition Research 48(1), 20-30.<br />

[4] Kukurová K., Morales F.J., Bednáriková A. & Ciesarová Z. 2009. Effect of L-asparag<strong>in</strong>ase on<br />

acrylamide mitigation <strong>in</strong> a fried-dough pastry model. Molecular Nutrition and <strong>Food</strong> Research,<br />

53(12), 1532-1539.<br />

[5] Ciesarová Z., Kukurová K., Bednáriková A., Marková L. & Baxa, S. 2010. Influence of food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g on acrylamide level <strong>in</strong> g<strong>in</strong>gerbreads and cookies. Aspects of Applied Biology 97(1), 87-<br />

92.<br />

1966

Coconut water process<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g ultrafiltration and pasteurization<br />

L.A.Nakano a , W.F.Leal Jr. b , D.G.C.Freitas b , L.M.C.Cabral b , E.M.Penha b , A.L.Penteado b , V.M.Matta b<br />

a Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (lucasassad@yahoo.com.br)<br />

b Embrapa <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (vmatta@ctaa.embrapa.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Green coconut water is a very pleasant dr<strong>in</strong>k, usually consumed fresh at production regions,<br />

directed from the fruit. As the water represents just 25% of the fruit weight the discard of<br />

coconut waste is still a problem <strong>in</strong> the cities [1]. The use of adequate processes for conserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

coconut water makes possible to extend its shelf-life and preserve the fresh characteristics.<br />

When us<strong>in</strong>g ultrafiltration membranes, the permeate fraction can be considered as cold<br />

pasteurized as microorganisms are reta<strong>in</strong>ed by the membrane [2]. In this study ultrafiltration<br />

and pasteurization processes are compared concern<strong>in</strong>g the preservation of coconut water<br />

regard<strong>in</strong>g the fresh product characteristics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fresh coconut water was extracted, cold and filtered for removal of suspended solids.<br />

Membrane process was conducted <strong>in</strong> semi-pilot scale <strong>in</strong> a plate and frame ultrafiltration unit<br />

composed of 20 kDa flat sheet membranes. <strong>Process</strong> was carried out <strong>in</strong> batch mode, at 5 bar and<br />

15 o C. The permeate flux was measured along the process. Pasteurization was performed <strong>in</strong> a<br />

tubular pasteurizer at 96 o C for 20 s. Samples of fresh, ultrafiltered and pasteurized coconut<br />

water were collected for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of physico-chemical and biochemical parameters,<br />

microbiological quality and sensory acceptability.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The physico-chemical data are presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

Table 1. Characteristics of fresh, ultrafiltered and pasteurized coconut water<br />

Parameter/Sample Fresh Ultrafiltered Pasteurized<br />

Soluble solids ( r Brix) 5.6 5.0 5.2<br />

pH 4.89 4.86 4.89<br />

Acidity (g/100g) 0.06 0.05 0.05<br />

Total phenolics (mg/100g) 3.65 1.09 1.33<br />

Peroxidase activity (U/mL) 0.320 0.002 0.002<br />

Polyphenoloxidase activity (U/mL) 0.649 0.026 0.026<br />

Acidity, pH and soluble solids content of ultrafiltered and pasteurized waters were very close,<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g verified a small reduction <strong>in</strong> soluble solids when compar<strong>in</strong>g to fresh coconut water. The<br />

soluble solids reduction <strong>in</strong> ultrafiltered water (10%) is <strong>in</strong> the same range of the sugars<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1967

eduction verified by Reddy et. al. [3] when filtered coconut water <strong>in</strong> a 0.2 μm cellulose nitrate<br />

microfiltration membrane. It can be observed that ultrafiltration and pasteurization were both<br />

effective for reduc<strong>in</strong>g the enzyme activity of coconut water although decreas<strong>in</strong>g total<br />

phenolics.<br />

Microbiological analyses have shown that both processes provided safe products with<br />

coliforms at 45 o C less than 3 MPN/g, absence of Salmonella spp. <strong>in</strong> 25 g and count<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

psicrotrophyc bacteria, mold and yeast less than 1.0 x 10 1 CFU/g.<br />

After consumers’ evaluation, a good acceptance (over to 68%) was observed for all coconut<br />

water samples. Figure 1 shows that the frequency of acceptance scores (scores > 5.0) for<br />

“overall lik<strong>in</strong>g” of fresh coconut water was higher than those obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the pasteurized and<br />

ultrafiltered coconut water. However, there was a significant difference (p

INTRODUCTION<br />

Progressive freeze-concentration: Improvement and applications<br />

Osato Miyawaki<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Ishikawa Prefectural University, 1-308 Nonoichi,<br />

Ishikawa 921-8836, Japan (osato@ishikawa-pu.ac.jp)<br />

There are three methods for the concentration of liquid food: evaporation, reverse osmosis, and<br />

freeze concentration. Among these, freeze concentration is known to give the best quality. The<br />

conventional method of freeze concentration is based on the suspension crystallization, <strong>in</strong> which<br />

many small ice crystals are formed. This system is very complex to require very high <strong>in</strong>itial<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestment. On the contrary, the progressive freeze-concentration (PFC) is a method with a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

ice crystal formed on the cool<strong>in</strong>g plate. This method is expected to be much simpler <strong>in</strong> its system as<br />

compared with the conventional method based on the suspension crystallization.<br />

In the present paper, PFC was applied for the high quality concentration of fruits (pear) flavour<br />

solution, apple juice, tomato juice, and water melon juice. When the osmotic pressure of the sample<br />

to be concentrated was low, a s<strong>in</strong>gle step PFC was effective with a high concentration yield for<br />

solute components. When the osmotic pressure of the sample was high, some part of the solute was<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the ice phase to reduce the yield. In this case, however, partial melt<strong>in</strong>g of ice was<br />

effective to improve the concentration yield.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A model solution of pear (La France) flavour components, apple juice, tomato juice, and water<br />

melon juice were used as samples to be concentrated. A test apparatus with a vertical cyl<strong>in</strong>drical<br />

sample vessel was used for the small-scale PFC of 100 to 200 mL sample. The sample vessel was<br />

plunged <strong>in</strong>to a cool<strong>in</strong>g bath (-15 o C) at a constant speed to control the ice crystal growth rate. The<br />

sample vessel was equipped with a stirrer to control the mass transfer at the ice-liquid <strong>in</strong>terface. For<br />

the scale-up of PFC, a tubular ice system with 10 L scale was used. In this case, a circulation pump<br />

was used <strong>in</strong>stead of stirr<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Rotary evaporator with reduced pressure operated at 50 o C and reverse osmosis system with a test<br />

vessel (C40-B, Nitto Denko) with a reverse osmosis membrane (NTR-70 SWC, Nitto Denko) were<br />

also used for the concentration of pear flavour components.<br />

The pear flavour solution was extracted with diethylether, which was analyzed chromatographically.<br />

For identification and quantification of the flavour components, GC/MS system (Focus DSQ 2,<br />

Thermo Fisher Scientific) and gas chromatograph (G-3900, Hitachi) were used with a capillary<br />

column (InertCap WAX, GL Science). In the concentration of apple juice, tomato juice, and water<br />

melon juice, the concentration <strong>in</strong> Brix was measured by a refractometer (APAL-1, Atago).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In Fig. 1, the concentration yields were compared for each flavour components among the three<br />

methods. The concentration yields for most flavour components <strong>in</strong> the evaporation method were less<br />

than 20% and those <strong>in</strong> the reverse osmosis were less than 60%. In PFC, the concentration yields for<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1969

most flavours, except esters, were the highest among the three concentration methods to be 80 to<br />

100%.<br />

In the evaporation, most flavour components were lost <strong>in</strong> gas phase <strong>in</strong> the concentration process <strong>in</strong><br />

spite of the reduced evaporation temperature down to 50 o C. In the reverse osmosis, the lost<br />

components were detected <strong>in</strong> the permeate although a tight RO membrane was used. In PFC,<br />

however, the lost components were not detected <strong>in</strong> the ice phase so that the lost components have<br />

been not <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the ice phase. The relatively lower yields for esters might be related to<br />

the open-air structure of the cyl<strong>in</strong>drical sample vessel with stirr<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Yield<br />

Figure 1. Comparison of concentration yield among the three methods for concentration of pear flavour solution.<br />

When the osmotic pressure of the solution was low, high concentration efficiency was obta<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

a high yield by a s<strong>in</strong>gle step PFC as shown above. With an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the osmotic pressure,<br />

however, concentration yield decreases because of the <strong>in</strong>corporation of solute components <strong>in</strong>to the<br />

ice phase.<br />

Apple juice, tomato juice, and water melon juice were freeze-concentrated by about two-fold by the<br />

tubular ice system. The concentration yield for apple, tomato, and water melon juices were 73.6,<br />

91.2, and 80.3%, respectively. In these cases, the loss components were <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the ice<br />

phase.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>corporation of solute <strong>in</strong>to the ice phase has been supposed to be the weak po<strong>in</strong>t of PFC. To<br />

improve this, the partial melt<strong>in</strong>g of ice was applied. When the contam<strong>in</strong>ated ice crystal was partially<br />

melted, the <strong>in</strong>itial fractions of melt ice conta<strong>in</strong>ed the higher amount of solutes. By recover<strong>in</strong>g these<br />

concentrated fractions, the concentration yield of the process could be improved to a necessary<br />

level. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, partial melt<strong>in</strong>g of ice formed after the PFC of apple juice was<br />

carried out. The concentration of the <strong>in</strong>itial ice melt fractions were high and the concentration yield<br />

could be improved to 90% by recover<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial 30% of the melt fractions. This shows the<br />

effectiveness of the partial melt<strong>in</strong>g of ice to improve the concentration yield <strong>in</strong> PFC.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Evaporation<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

PFC was proved to be effective for the concentration of solute for the solution with a low osmotic<br />

pressure. In this case, no <strong>in</strong>corporation of solute components <strong>in</strong>to the ice phase was observed. For<br />

solutions with a high osmotic pressure, however, some part of solute components was <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />

<strong>in</strong>to the ice phase to reduce the concentration yield. In this case, partial melt<strong>in</strong>g of ice was useful to<br />

improve the yield to a necessary level.<br />

1970<br />

Yield<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Progressive freeze-concentration<br />

Yield<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Reverse osmosis

Study of color and shr<strong>in</strong>kage of Physalis peruviana dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g by computer<br />

vision<br />

Luis Puente a , Claudia P<strong>in</strong>to a , Eric Echegaray a , Eduardo Castro a , Misael Cortés b<br />

a Universidad de Chile, <strong>Food</strong> Science and Chemical Technology Department,<br />

Santiago, Chile (lpuente@ciq.uchile.cl)<br />

b Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Agrícola and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department,<br />

Medellín, Colombia (mcortesro@unal.edu.co)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Physalis peruviana fruit is a juicy berry with ovoid shape, a diameter from 1.25 to 2.50 cm and<br />

a typical weight between 4 to 10 g. The fruit is covered by a calyx, that protect the fruit dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

grow and development from <strong>in</strong>sects, birds, diseases and climatic conditions. The fruit is<br />

attributed to different medic<strong>in</strong>al properties such as antiasthmatic, diuretic, antiseptic and other<br />

effects on human health, more <strong>in</strong>formation can be found <strong>in</strong> Puente et. al., 2011 [1].<br />

One of the most important physical changes that food suffers dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g are the reduction of<br />

its external volume and color. Loss of water and heat<strong>in</strong>g cause stresses <strong>in</strong> the cellular structure<br />

of the food lead<strong>in</strong>g to change <strong>in</strong> shape and decrease <strong>in</strong> dimension [2]. When water is removed<br />

from food structure, there is disequilibrium between pressures <strong>in</strong>side and outside the food<br />

matrix structures. This fact generates a contraction of cells belong<strong>in</strong>g to food tissues which<br />

results <strong>in</strong> shr<strong>in</strong>kage or collapse of structures. The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this work was to<br />

characterize physically the fruit Physalis peruviana dur<strong>in</strong>g hot air dry<strong>in</strong>g, determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

shr<strong>in</strong>kage of the sample and its color changes dur<strong>in</strong>g the process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fruits of physalis peruviana L acquired from local market <strong>in</strong> Santiago-Chile were stored at 5ºC<br />

until dry<strong>in</strong>g experiments. A Black box for image acquisition was designed and built accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to sample manipulation and experimental conditions. Inside the box can be found a standard<br />

illum<strong>in</strong>ation system (two fluorescent tubes 6500 K), a digital camera Canon ® model Power<br />

Shot 520 and a device to rotate the sample up to 360º. Physalis samples were dried by hot air <strong>in</strong><br />

a convective dryer at 65ºC and an air velocity a 1 m/s, pictures of fruit were taken every 15<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 4 hours and then every 1 hour until to reach a f<strong>in</strong>al moisture of 10%<br />

(w.b.). At the same time moisture content was registered to build a typical dry<strong>in</strong>g curve. In this<br />

work a rout<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> MATLAB ® was developed to process the images and deliver the RGB<br />

values of each image, then these values were converted to L * a * b * by the gamma correction<br />

factor. Volume changes were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the technique of solid displacement us<strong>in</strong>g poppy<br />

seeds of known density as displacement fluid.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> volume and color dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g occurred as a result of dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature and<br />

prolonged dry<strong>in</strong>g times, <strong>in</strong> the case of volume (Fig 1, a) can be appreciated, a k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1971

anisotropic shr<strong>in</strong>kage s<strong>in</strong>ce shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g is ma<strong>in</strong>ly through equatorial axis, while axial axis suffers<br />

almost imperceptible changes., the distribution of seeds <strong>in</strong>side the fruit determ<strong>in</strong>ed the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

shape taken by the dried fruit and prevented the development of ideal shr<strong>in</strong>kage of the sample.<br />

The values of color parameter L* and b* decrease, while the parameter a* <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g as can be seen <strong>in</strong> Fig 1 b, the fruit becomes darker and less sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, due to the loss of<br />

water and the effect of dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature on physalis peruviana structure and chemical<br />

composition.<br />

Figure 1. Changes <strong>in</strong> Physalis peruviana dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g a) volume, b) color<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed, it can be established that the Physalis peruviana fruit<br />

undergoes an anisotropic shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g at used temperature, where seeds play an<br />

important role on the f<strong>in</strong>al shape of the dried fruit.<br />

The dry<strong>in</strong>g process affects negatively the color properties of the fruit.<br />

The experimental device developed was an <strong>in</strong>expensive and simple way to study changes <strong>in</strong><br />

volume and color of Physalis peruviana fruit dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Puente L., P<strong>in</strong>to-Muñoz C., Castro E., Cortés M., 2011. Physalis peruviana L<strong>in</strong>naeus, the multiple<br />

properties of a highly functional fruit: A review. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>,<br />

doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.09.034. In Press accepted paper.<br />

[2] Mayor, L., & Sereno, A. M., 2004, Modell<strong>in</strong>g shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g of food materials: a<br />

review, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 61, 373-386.<br />

1972

Optimization of osmotic dehydration process coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g granny<br />

smith apples<br />

Sepúlveda a , A., Sastry d , S., Moreno c , J., Nuñez, H., Almonacid a,b , S., and Simpson a,b , R.<br />

a Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Ambiental; Universidad Técnica Federico Santa<br />

María;Valparaíso, Chile, Ricardo.simpson@usm.cl<br />

b Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables, Valparaíso, Chile.<br />

c Departamento de Ingeniería en Alimentos; Universidad del Bío-Bío; Chillán, Chile.<br />

d Department of <strong>Food</strong>, Agricultural, and Biological <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Osmotic dehydration is the process of water removal by the immersion of high water-content<br />

cellular solids <strong>in</strong> a concentrated aqueous solution, dur<strong>in</strong>g which solids ga<strong>in</strong> takes place<br />

simultaneously [1]. Mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration occurs through the semi-permeable<br />

cell membranes by the dom<strong>in</strong>ant resistance <strong>in</strong> mass transfer <strong>in</strong> biological materials.<br />

Ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g is a thermal process <strong>in</strong> which heat is <strong>in</strong>ternally generated by the passage of an<br />

alternat<strong>in</strong>g electrical current (AC) through a body, such as a food system, that serves as an electrical<br />

resistance.<br />

Previous studies have given us the <strong>in</strong>formation necessary to establish the process<strong>in</strong>g of fruits at<br />

different voltages, times and temperatures. The various process<strong>in</strong>g conditions employed will<br />

generate different quality or/and energy sav<strong>in</strong>gs at the end of the process. Therefore, identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the optimum process<strong>in</strong>g conditions will be a natural extension of the previous research.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Raw Material<br />

Granny Smith apples were selected and obta<strong>in</strong>ed from commercial sources and then refrigerated<br />

at 2 ºC for preservation purposes. Sucrose (commercial sugar) was utilized as the osmotic<br />

solution.<br />

Experimental device<br />

The experimental setup consisted of a sta<strong>in</strong>less steel cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cell, as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. Each<br />

cyl<strong>in</strong>der acted as an electrode, and the voltage was generated by a variable transformer that<br />

controlled the level of voltage delivered to the cell, thus heat<strong>in</strong>g the osmotic solution (45-65 ° Brix)<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the apple samples.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1. Experimental device.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1973

Analysis of water activity (a w)<br />

Table 1 summarizes the values of water activity and the percentage of reduction from the basel<strong>in</strong>e of<br />

water activity <strong>in</strong> each experiment. Experiments 12 (40°C, 65°Brix and 130 V) and 4 (50°C, 65°Brix<br />

and 100 V) had the optimum results, whereas the worst results were obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> experiment 1 (30°C,<br />

45°Brix and 100 V).<br />

Response Surface Methodology<br />

In most RSM problems, one or more polynomials approach the relation between the response and<br />

the n <strong>in</strong>dependent variables are used, either a first-order l<strong>in</strong>ear model, a l<strong>in</strong>ear model with<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions between variables, or a second-order model when there is curvature <strong>in</strong> the system. The<br />

model selection was selected accord<strong>in</strong>g to the C P statistic, the coefficient of determ<strong>in</strong>ation (R²) and<br />

the adjusted coefficient of determ<strong>in</strong>ation (R² adjusted).<br />

Table 1. Water activity and water activity loss (%).<br />

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS: water activity (aw)<br />

EXPERIMENT Time [m<strong>in</strong>] % aw loss<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

0 30 60 90 t = 90m<strong>in</strong><br />

1 0,9895 0,9695 0,9617 0,9539 3,60<br />

2 0,9898 0,9761 0,9538 0,9428 4,76<br />

3 0,9894 0,9527 0,9364 0,9216 6,86<br />

4 0,9870 0,9596 0,9176 0,9057 8,24<br />

5 0,9914 0,9545 0,9453 0,9410 5,09<br />

6 0,9909 0,9768 0,9699 0,9378 5,36<br />

7 0,9912 0,9636 0,9468 0,9415 5,02<br />

8 0,9913 0,9506 0,9308 0,9115 8,05<br />

9 0,9896 0,9712 0,9727 0,9555 3,45<br />

10 0,9920 0,9475 0,9238 0,9194 7,32<br />

11 0,9892 0,9723 0,9547 0,9497 4,00<br />

12 0,9887 0,9450 0,9168 0,9045 8,52<br />

13 0,9901 0,9600 0,9517 0,9399 5,07<br />

14 0,9898 0,9552 0,9387 0,9316 5,88<br />

15 0,9896 0,9505 0,9364 0,9285 6,17<br />

By us<strong>in</strong>g the Response Surface Methodology, effective results were obta<strong>in</strong>ed for f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g optimal<br />

parameters. The high values for the coefficients of determ<strong>in</strong>ation (R 2 ) of the models (Y aw, Y Xt, and<br />

Y Xss were 0.9754, 0.9690, and 0.9441, respectively) <strong>in</strong>dicated a good fit. In all three cases, the<br />

models justified about 93% of the data variability.<br />

The optimization results obta<strong>in</strong>ed were as expected, be<strong>in</strong>g located near or with<strong>in</strong> the limits of the<br />

range of research, with the parameter of water activity be<strong>in</strong>g the most significant. However, it is<br />

necessary to corroborate the results with organoleptic measurements of the f<strong>in</strong>al product.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Sutar, P., Gupta, D. 2005. Mathematical model<strong>in</strong>g of mass transfer <strong>in</strong> osmotic dehydration of onion<br />

slices. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 78(1):90-97.<br />

1974

Analysis of the quality attributes of osmotically dehydrated mango<br />

Maida Khan a , Lília Ahrné b and Jorge Oliveira c<br />

a Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo,Mozambique (maida.khan@uem.mz)<br />

Lília Ahrné, SIK, Gothenborg, Sweden (Lilia.Ahrne@sik.se)<br />

Jorge Oliveira, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland (jmfcoliveira@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g is one of the most widely used methods to preserve fruits. Osmotic dehydration (OD)<br />

has been reported to be useful prior to dry<strong>in</strong>g to produce a variety of shelf-stable dried products<br />

with improved quality attributes such as colour, texture and aroma (Heng et al., 1990). <strong>Food</strong><br />

preservation is dependent on colour, texture and water activity and those are the quality<br />

parameters that are widely used to evaluate the quality of food. The objective of this work was<br />

to assess the <strong>in</strong>fluence of osmotic dehydration and its operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions on the quality<br />

factors of mangoes. The parameters measured are related to colour, firmness and water activity.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Two varieties of mango from two different harvest years were used: Haden, 2004 and Haden 2,<br />

2005 variety and Keith variety, 2005. The OD experiments with Haden 1 were done up to 240<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes and the quality was analysed for the <strong>in</strong>itial and f<strong>in</strong>al product. The OD experiments<br />

with Haden and Keith were done up to a moisture content of 65% (g H2O/g product). The<br />

sampl<strong>in</strong>g times and the time needed to reach moisture content of about 65% <strong>in</strong> the OD product<br />

were predicted us<strong>in</strong>g the model developed by Khan et al. (2008). The quality of the products<br />

was analysed <strong>in</strong> terms of colour, firmness and water activity, and the k<strong>in</strong>etics of quality change<br />

evaluated for all different process<strong>in</strong>g conditions.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The quality of fruits and vegetables is strongly dependent on harvest, cultivars, climate, soil<br />

type and ripeness. This results <strong>in</strong> a wide variability of the product characteristics. The raw<br />

material presented a high variability, be<strong>in</strong>g the firmness the most variable parameter.<br />

The firmness of Haden 2 and Keith were very similar and much higher than the firmness of<br />

Haden 1. The results suggested that the Haden 1 mangoes were used <strong>in</strong> a much more mature<br />

stage compared to the Haden 2 and Keith.<br />

The moisture content values of fresh samples were 82± 1 % for Haden 1, 78±2 % for Haden 2<br />

and 80±2. The soluble solids fraction ranged from 0.14 ±0.02 to 0.17±0.01 be<strong>in</strong>g the highest<br />

value for Haden 1, and the water activity was 0.991± 0.003 and 0.989±0.003 for Haden 1 and<br />

Haden 2, respectively, and 0.988±0.003 for Keith. All batches were therefore statistically<br />

similar regard<strong>in</strong>g these parameters. Compar<strong>in</strong>g the three mango batches, Lightness (L), ranged<br />

from 64.2±4.4 to 73.3±3.4. The lowest lightness was for Haden 1. The redness was higher for<br />

Haden 1 than for Haden 2 and Keith, which were more similar. Correlat<strong>in</strong>g a and b (redness<br />

and yellowness) and L and b (yellowness and Lightness) showed that the effect of the harvest<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1975

year on colour was more important than the variety of mangoes used. It can be concluded that<br />

product homogeneity can be controlled by the state of ripeness, with both varieties be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

equally suitable.<br />

None of the quality parameters showed any statistically significant k<strong>in</strong>etic effect, except water<br />

activity. The f<strong>in</strong>al colour quality of the OD mango, Haden 2 and Keith were very similar<br />

compared to Haden1. The yellowness of Haden 1 was high and was even slightly enhanced by<br />

the OD process. The variability was smaller <strong>in</strong> the OD processed products compared to fresh<br />

products.<br />

Table 1. Average firmness, water activity, composition and colour parameters of the Haden 2 and Keith<br />

OD mangoes<br />

aw Xw Xss L a b F<br />

H2F 0.988±0.003 0.78±0.02 0.14+0.02 73.1±3.6 8.6±5.7 60.1±5.9 5.17±4.47<br />

H2OD 0.973±0.002 0.63±0.02 0.28±0.02 71.0±3.4 10.3±4.9 61.7±6.6 4.08±3.65<br />

KF 0.989±0.003 0.80±0.02 0.14±0.02 69.4±4.2 9.0±2.3 58.1±4.4 5.67±3.87<br />

KOD 0.976±0.002 0.64±0.01 0.23±0.01 66.1±4.0 9.6±2.2 60.5±4.5 4.80±3.31<br />

KF = Keith Fresh; KOD =Keith OD processed to 65% water content<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The Keith and Haden varieties are very similar both <strong>in</strong> terms of their colour, texture and water<br />

activity parameters as fresh, and after OD. OD did not affect colour nor texture significantly.<br />

However, OD significantly reduced the spread of texture and water activity, that is, it resulted<br />

<strong>in</strong> a more homogenous product.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Bol<strong>in</strong>, H.R. & Huxsoll, C.C. 1993 Partial dry<strong>in</strong>g of cut pears to improve freeze/thaw texture. Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 58, 357-360.<br />

[2] Forni, E. Torregiani, D. Battiston, P & Polesello, A. 1986 Research <strong>in</strong>to changes of pectic substances<br />

<strong>in</strong> apricots and peaches processed by osmotic dehydration. Carbohydrate polymers, 6, 379-393.<br />

[3] Heng, K; Guilbert, S; Cuq, J.L .1990 Osmotic dehydration of papaya - <strong>in</strong>fluence of process variables<br />

on the product quality. Sciences des aliments.10, 4, 831-848.[4] Holdsworth, S.D. 1979 Fruits. In:<br />

Priestley R. J. (Eds). Effects of heat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> stuffs. London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd. pp<br />

255-305.<br />

[4] Khan,MAM, Ahrné,L, Oliveira, JC and Oliveira, FAR. 2008. Prediction of water and soluble solids<br />

concentration dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration of mango, <strong>Food</strong> and Bioproducts <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, Volume 86,<br />

Issue 1, March 2008, Pages 7-13.<br />

[5] Torregiani, D., Forni, E., Maestrelli, A. & Quadri, F. 1999. Influence of osmotic dehydatration and<br />

pectic composition of kiwifruit slices. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 17: (7&8), 1387-1397.<br />

1976

Osmotic Dehydration <strong>Process</strong> Coupled with Ohmic Heat<strong>in</strong>g Us<strong>in</strong>g Granny Smith Apples<br />

and its Effects on Product Quality<br />

Simpson a,b , R., Farias a , C., Med<strong>in</strong>a a , V., Almonacid a,b , S., and Nuñez a , H.<br />

a<br />

Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Ambiental, P.O.<br />

Box 110-V; Valparaíso, Chile.<br />

b<br />

Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables, Blanco 1623, Valparaíso, Chile.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Osmotic dehydration is a water removal process <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g soak<strong>in</strong>g of foods, mostly fruits and<br />

vegetables, <strong>in</strong> a hypertonic solution such as concentrated sugar syrup. This gives rise to two<br />

major simultaneous counter-current mass transfer fluxes, namely water flow from the product<br />

to the surround<strong>in</strong>g solution and solute <strong>in</strong>fusion <strong>in</strong>to the product [1], [2], [3]. Ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g is<br />

def<strong>in</strong>ed as a process where electric currents are passed through foods to heat them. The<br />

dissipation of electrical energy <strong>in</strong> the product-mass generates heat. Several studies have shown<br />

that osmotic dehydration process can be accelerated through ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g of food material.<br />

The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of Granny Smith Apples when subjected<br />

to osmotic dehydration coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g. Variables <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this study were<br />

temperature (40–60 °C), voltage (100–140 V) and solution concentration (52–68% w/w) at a<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g time of 90 m<strong>in</strong>. The moisture content, soluble solids, water activity and physical<br />

parameters such as color and texture, were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. Measurements were made <strong>in</strong> triplicate<br />

at 0, 30, 60 and 90 m<strong>in</strong>utes and correlated through Response Surface Methodology us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

factorial Box-Behnken Design.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Materials<br />

Apples samples (granny smith) were hand-peeled, and cut <strong>in</strong>to cubes of approximately 1 cm 3<br />

and were placed <strong>in</strong> an anti-brown<strong>in</strong>g solution. Sucrose, the osmotic agent, was a food grade<br />

commercial granulated cane sugar.<br />

System description<br />

The heater and data acquisition system used consisted of a sta<strong>in</strong>less steel cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cell, with<br />

each cyl<strong>in</strong>der acted as an electrode. Samples were heated us<strong>in</strong>g a regulated thermal bath (BS-<br />

21 Jeio Tech, Korea) conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the cell and controll<strong>in</strong>g the temperature dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

experiments. A ratio of apples to sugar solution of 1:5 by weight was used. Apples pieces were<br />

weighed and placed <strong>in</strong>to cyl<strong>in</strong>drical cell conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sugar solutions of vary<strong>in</strong>g concentrations<br />

(52–% 68 by weight).<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of physicochemical properties<br />

Measurements of water activity, moisture and soluble solids were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> triplicate at 0,<br />

30, 60 and 90 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Analysis of quality properties<br />

The <strong>International</strong> Commission on Illum<strong>in</strong>ation (Commission <strong>International</strong>e de IEclairage, CIE)<br />

based L*, a* and b* that represent fruit surface lightness, green and red chromaticity<br />

coord<strong>in</strong>ate, and blue and yellow chromaticity coord<strong>in</strong>ate respectively were measured us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

Colorimeter (M<strong>in</strong>olta,CR-400 , Japan). Textural properties of sample were measured by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1977

texture analyzer CT3 (BROOKFIELD, EEUU) with 10 kg load cell and computer software of<br />

texture TexturePro CT. A Kramer cell was used for compression test.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Regression equations describ<strong>in</strong>g the effect of osmotic dehydration coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

variables on the total color difference (E) and % loss of hardness of granny smith apples are<br />

given <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

Table 1: Regression equation coefficients.<br />

Regression coefficients Hardness (%) Total color difference (E)<br />

0 117,0023 36,51597<br />

1 19,1711 0,31109<br />

2 -29,4711 -1,70230<br />

3 3,8335 0,13617<br />

4 -0,1606 0,00993<br />

5 0,0080 0,00434<br />

6 -0,0144 -0,00005<br />

7 -0,1075 -0,01273<br />

8 0,3354 0,00921<br />

9 -0,0109 -0,00118<br />

R 2<br />

0,972 0,660<br />

Relatively high correlation coefficients (R 2 ) were obta<strong>in</strong>ed for loss of hardness (%). However,<br />

for the color difference only 66% is expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the model. The optimal values obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

the operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions (<strong>in</strong>dependent variables) for each objective were as follows:<br />

• The optimal value for % loss of hardness was 0.24 % for the <strong>in</strong>dependent variables 47.55 ° C,<br />

53.27 °Brix and 102.84 V.<br />

• The optimal value for color difference was E= 1.27 for the <strong>in</strong>dependent variables 40 ° C, 68<br />

°Brix and 100 V.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

By us<strong>in</strong>g second order polynomial models fitted <strong>in</strong> this study, the % hardness loss and total<br />

color difference dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration coupled with ohmic heat<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />

predicted. RSM and the conventional graphic and desirability functions methods have been<br />

effective <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the optimum zone with<strong>in</strong> the experimental region. The high value for<br />

the coefficient of determ<strong>in</strong>ation (R 2 ) of the % model loss of hardness <strong>in</strong>dicated a good fit. In<br />

the case of color difference the correlation was only 66% so <strong>in</strong> future studies should better<br />

characterize the raw material.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Azoubel and Murr, 2004 P.M. Azoubel and F.E.X. Murr, Mass transfer k<strong>in</strong>etics of osmotic dehydration of cherry<br />

tomato, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 61 (2004), pp. 291–295. [2] Lazarides et al., 1995 H.N. Lazarides, E. Katsanidis<br />

and A. Nickolaidis, Mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic pre-concentration aim<strong>in</strong>g at m<strong>in</strong>imal solid uptake, Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 25 (1995), pp. 151–166. [3] Lewicki and Porzecka-Pawlak, 2005 P.P. Lewicki and R. Porzecka-Pawlak,<br />

Effect of osmotic dewater<strong>in</strong>g on apple tissue structure, Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 66 (2005), pp. 43–50.<br />

1978

Physico-chemical, rheological and sensory properties of shamia date sheets<br />

Khaled Youssef, Adel Shatta, Tamer Moussa-Ayoub, Salah El-Samahy<br />

Faculty Of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

Shamia –dry variety- date pulp (45 ºBrix) was used to prepare eight different treatments of date<br />

sheets. Citric acid, Na-metabisulfite, eugenia and c<strong>in</strong>namon were homogenate with date pulp<br />

and spread on alum<strong>in</strong>um trays, and then dried at 60 ºC for 24 h. The sheets were rolled <strong>in</strong> a<br />

polyethylene bags till analyze for physical, chemical, and sensory properties as well as<br />

rheological properties of control sheet either before dry<strong>in</strong>g or after rehydration.<br />

Moisture content of the sheets ranged from 14.49 to 17.22%. Add<strong>in</strong>g citric acid, Nametabisulfite<br />

alone or as a mixture significantly decreased the color <strong>in</strong>dex and hydroxyl methyl<br />

furfural content, while <strong>in</strong>creased the lightness value of the resultant sheets. Reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugars<br />

significantly <strong>in</strong>creased by add<strong>in</strong>g citric acid, while fiber content slightly decreased. There were<br />

some variations between the rheological properties of the date pulp before and after<br />

dehydration. While, date sheets conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g citric acid or a mixture of citric acid with Nametabisulfite<br />

had the highest organoleptic scores the sheets conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g eugenia and c<strong>in</strong>namon<br />

had the lowest scores.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1979

1980

Colour stability of sp<strong>in</strong>ach leaves dur<strong>in</strong>g freeze process<strong>in</strong>g steps<br />

Khaled Yousef, Adel Shatta, Abdullah Al-Sanabani<br />

Faculty Of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt<br />

ABSTRACT<br />

Chlorophylls content and Hunter color read<strong>in</strong>gs (L*, a*, b*) of sp<strong>in</strong>ach (Sp<strong>in</strong>acia oleracea)<br />

leaves after wash<strong>in</strong>g, blanch<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g processes were measured. Chlorophyll a content<br />

not significantly decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g steps, but chlorophyll b content significantly<br />

decreased. Hunter color parameter (-a*) values significantly decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g process. The<br />

correlation between the contents of chlorophylls a and b and Hunter color read<strong>in</strong>gs dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g was l<strong>in</strong>ear. The best correlation was between chlorophyll a content and –a* values<br />

(r2= 1.00).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1981

1982

Study on Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Hot-air and Microwave Vacuum Dry<strong>in</strong>g for Scallion<br />

Yifan Li, Shujun Li*, B<strong>in</strong>gnan Yang, Q<strong>in</strong>ghua Han, Jiwei Ma, Dongl<strong>in</strong> Zhao<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization SciencesBeij<strong>in</strong>g 100083, Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Scallion is a delicious and nutritious vegetable as raw material or season<strong>in</strong>g. Microwave<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g comb<strong>in</strong>es the advantages of very rapid and low-temperature dry<strong>in</strong>g, and obta<strong>in</strong>s<br />

dried products of high quality. [1-3] The aims of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effects of<br />

different dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions and dry<strong>in</strong>g methods on its dry<strong>in</strong>g time and sensory quality<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g color, superficial aspect and shape of dried scallion.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Materials<br />

Fresh scallion was purchased from local market, and the process<strong>in</strong>g scallion should be fresh, no<br />

rotten and no bad. The experimental microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g apparatus was previously<br />

developed by the authors and was described previously. [4]<br />

Methods<br />

Fresh scallion was sorted, peeled root and sk<strong>in</strong>, washed, and cut segments of certa<strong>in</strong> length <strong>in</strong><br />

the range of 5~25mm. Then scallion segments was dried by four dry<strong>in</strong>g methods <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g, microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g, comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave dry<strong>in</strong>g, comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

hot-air and microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g, respectively.<br />

The hot-air pre-dry<strong>in</strong>g is the same process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> these two comb<strong>in</strong>ed dry<strong>in</strong>g methods at 60<br />

for between 2 and 4 h to reach the required moisture content of about 35%.<br />

A batch of the scallion segments was dried to f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content less than 10% at different<br />

four dry<strong>in</strong>g methods and various dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions. The moisture content was measured<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the vacuum oven method. [5]<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of Cutt<strong>in</strong>g Length on Dried Scallion Characteristics<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g effects of scallion for different cutt<strong>in</strong>g length( 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 mm)us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was studied. It was observed that the shorter cutt<strong>in</strong>g length led to<br />

the shorter dry<strong>in</strong>g times and the higher sensory quality.Under the dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions of<br />

microwave power of 0.65 kW and vacuum level of 0.085MPa, the scallion of cutt<strong>in</strong>g length<br />

5mm was the shortest dry<strong>in</strong>g time of 18m<strong>in</strong> and the highest sensory quality. When the scallion<br />

cutt<strong>in</strong>g length <strong>in</strong>creased to 25mm, the dry<strong>in</strong>g time rose to 35m<strong>in</strong>, and furthermore, the sensory<br />

quality became lower so that scallion segments was severe scorch, part of scallion core was<br />

wett<strong>in</strong>g, majority of scallion was not dry<strong>in</strong>g and stick<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Effect of Microwave Power on Dried Scallion Characteristics<br />

The microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g times were 18, 15, and 13 m<strong>in</strong> at the microwave power of 0.65,<br />

1.30, and 1.95 kW, respectively at 5mm scallion cutt<strong>in</strong>g length and 0.085MPa vacuum level. It<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1983

was obvious that the higher levels of microwave power resulted <strong>in</strong> little shorter dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

times.While microwave power <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, the dry<strong>in</strong>g speed was so rapid that ultimate water<br />

content of scallion was more difficult to control, the edges or sharp corners of scallion was<br />

easy to overheat, and some core appeared yellow, lead<strong>in</strong>g to the lower scallion sensory quality.<br />

[6,7]<br />

Effect of Different Dry<strong>in</strong>g Methods on Dried Scallion Characteristics<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g time of four different dry<strong>in</strong>g methods <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g, microwave vacuum<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g, comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave dry<strong>in</strong>g, comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave vacuum<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g, respectively are 4.5h,0.6h,2.9h,2.8h at 5mm cutt<strong>in</strong>g length, 0.65 kW microwave power<br />

and 0.085MPa vacuum level. The total dry<strong>in</strong>g time of comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g decreased 1.7h, about 37.8% than the hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g, and <strong>in</strong>creased 2.2h, 3.67<br />

times than microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g. [8]<br />

Sensory quality of hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g was the best. The sensory quality of comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and<br />

microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was little worse than hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g, but better than comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

hot-air and microwave dry<strong>in</strong>g. The sensory quality of microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was lowest <strong>in</strong><br />

the four dry<strong>in</strong>g methods.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

At the scallion cutt<strong>in</strong>g length of 5mm, it was obta<strong>in</strong>ed that the shortest microwave vacuum<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g time of 18m<strong>in</strong> and the highest sensory quality. The higher microwave power resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

little shorter dry<strong>in</strong>g times and obvious lower scallion quality us<strong>in</strong>g microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

In the 4 different dry<strong>in</strong>g methods, the total dry<strong>in</strong>g time of comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and microwave<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was lowest under little decrease of sensory quality. So comb<strong>in</strong>ed hot-air and<br />

microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g is suitable advanced dry<strong>in</strong>g technology for scallion dry<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Liu Yuhuan, Yang Dejiang, Q<strong>in</strong> Liangshen. 2006. Research on the freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g and the<br />

curve of the onion. <strong>Food</strong> Research and Development, 27(7), 121-122, 127.<br />

[2] Cui Q<strong>in</strong>gliang, He Baofeng. 2009. Experimental study on Ch<strong>in</strong>ese onion vacuum freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

process. Pack<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>Food</strong> Mach<strong>in</strong>ery, 27(5), 46-49.<br />

[3] Han Q<strong>in</strong>ghua, Y<strong>in</strong> Lijun, Li Shujun, et al. 2010.Optimization of process parameters for microwave<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g of apple slices us<strong>in</strong>g response surface method. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 28(4), 523-532.<br />

[4] Han Q<strong>in</strong>ghua, Li Shujun, Ma Jiwei, et al. 2006. Microwave vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g and puff<strong>in</strong>g characteristics<br />

of apple chips. Transactions of the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Society for Agricultural Mach<strong>in</strong>ery, 37 (8), 155-158,167.<br />

[5] Zheng, S.X.; Li, Y.Z.; Luo, et al. 2004. Effect of microwave on the dehydration feature of apple<br />

crispy chips. Journal of South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, 25(3), 109-111.<br />

[6] Zhang Guochen, Mao Zhihuai, et al. 2005. Comb<strong>in</strong>ed vacuum-microwave and hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

scallop. Transactions of the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Society for Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 21(6), 144-147.<br />

[7] Giri, S.K.; Prasad, S. 2005. Dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and rehydration characteristics of microwave-vacuum and<br />

convective hot-air dried mushrooms. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 78, 512–521.<br />

[8] Wu Haihua, Han Q<strong>in</strong>ghua, Yang B<strong>in</strong>gnan, et al. 2010. Experiment on comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g hot air and<br />

microwave vacuum to dry lycium. Transactions of the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Society for Agricultural Mach<strong>in</strong>ery, 41<br />

(supp.), 178-181,202.<br />

1984

Experimental Study of Vacuum Discharge <strong>in</strong> Microwave Freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Process</strong><br />

Youfu Cao, Shujun Li*, B<strong>in</strong>gnan Yang, Fengm<strong>in</strong> Zhao, Dan Su, Q<strong>in</strong>gliang Zhao<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a (sxllc@sohu.com)<br />

*Correspond<strong>in</strong>g Author: Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(lisj@caams.org.cn)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Microwave Freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g technology (MFD) is one of the new promis<strong>in</strong>g techniques <strong>in</strong> recent<br />

years, which has been used successfully as a heat source <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. There are many<br />

advantages of MFD, compared with the traditional freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g (FD) technology, which can<br />

greatly reduce the dry<strong>in</strong>g time, energy consumption and capital cost [1, 2, 3]. However, there<br />

was little research on how many <strong>in</strong>fluence factors <strong>in</strong> microwave discharge and their <strong>in</strong>teraction.<br />

Through the observation, it is a relatively complex subject that microwave discharge depends<br />

on several factors <strong>in</strong> microwave freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g process. In this work, the relationship between<br />

microwave critical discharge power, the weight of feedstock, vacuum pressure and energy<br />

feed-<strong>in</strong> area was ma<strong>in</strong>ly studied.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fresh w<strong>in</strong>ter-dates with proper <strong>in</strong> appearance, same maturity, no mildew, big size and small<br />

kernel were cleaned and cut <strong>in</strong>to 8-mm-thick slices with a hand-operated slicer. Then, the<br />

samples with different weights <strong>in</strong> trays were frozen at -25 for at least 8 h until all water <strong>in</strong><br />

the samples were frozen <strong>in</strong>to ice.<br />

Discharge experiments were carried out on a microwave freeze dryer equipment (LG-0.2,<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, Ch<strong>in</strong>a). Circumstance temperature<br />

was set at -5.The variety of weight of feedstock could be neglected as the experience cycle is<br />

quite short (20 m<strong>in</strong>).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of the weight of feedstock, vacuum pressure and feed-<strong>in</strong> area on critical discharge<br />

microwave power<br />

The weight of feedstock, vacuum pressure and feed-<strong>in</strong> area were chosen as <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

variables to study the law of microwave discharge power. the three groups of feed-<strong>in</strong> area were<br />

chosen by 1433 cm 2 , 350 cm 2 and 37 cm 2 . The samples with 78.8of moisture contents were<br />

divided <strong>in</strong>to seven groups accord<strong>in</strong>g to their orig<strong>in</strong>al weight (100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220<br />

g). Each group was frozen at -25 for at least 5 h, and each group experiment was run <strong>in</strong> 38±3<br />

times. By analysis of distribution surface method and regression model, there was negative<br />

correlativity between critical discharge power and pressure as well as weight of feedstock and<br />

feed-<strong>in</strong> area. From the discharge photograph, the larger feed-<strong>in</strong> area used dur<strong>in</strong>g MFD<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g results <strong>in</strong> a lower critical discharge power so that the discharge energy decreased.<br />

The results <strong>in</strong>dicated that the degrees of three factors affect<strong>in</strong>g the critical discharge power:<br />

feed-<strong>in</strong> areavacuum pressure weight of feedstock.<br />

Regression model fitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

On account of large amount of critical discharge power (P) data, all results were statistically<br />

analyzed with SAS System to have regression analysis [4]Results of analysis of variance and<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1985

t test not shown)The fitted results of predictive model based on weight of sample(M) and<br />

vacuum pressure (N)values( the feed-<strong>in</strong> area was 1433 cm 2 , 350 cm 2 and 37 cm 2 respectively)<br />

show that all the models were acceptable for high correlation coefficient.The regression<br />

equation, which prediction of the law of microwave discharge <strong>in</strong> three groups with change of<br />

vacuum pressure and weight of sample, were presented <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />

P1=-0.0202112M 2 +0.0011314MN+7.9732251M+ 0.0983634N-495.9521297 Eq. (1)<br />

P2=161.5202717+0.0116532M 2 +0.0000436N 2 2.2142811M+0.0776315N Eq. (2)<br />

P3=149.308+0.009M 2 +0.00009MN- 1.911M Eq. (3)<br />

Confirmatory studies<br />

The ten groups with different value of weight of feedstock (M) and vacuum pressure were<br />

randomly selected for test<strong>in</strong>g regression models.<br />

Figure 1. Comparison curves of predictive values and test<strong>in</strong>g values<br />

Figure 1 shows that Approximation of models provided better description of the data result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> a more desirable prediction of the critical discharge power.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In summary, the data from the present study <strong>in</strong>dicate that there was negative correlativity<br />

between critical discharge power and pressure as well as weight of feedstock and feed-<strong>in</strong> area<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g the SAS software, the regression models based on the ANOVA and significance test<br />

were established. And the tests used <strong>in</strong> this study show that the predictive value <strong>in</strong> the<br />

regression model is closer to the measured values and the regression model proved to be an<br />

excellent adaptation. By analysis of distribution surface method and regression model <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

that The results <strong>in</strong>dicated that the degrees of three factors affect<strong>in</strong>g the critical discharge power:<br />

feed-<strong>in</strong> areavacuum pressure weight of feedstock. Subsequently, this result can provide<br />

the theoretical basis for the design of microwave freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g equipment.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

[1] Wang Zhaohui.1996. Heat and Mass Transfer Dur<strong>in</strong>g Microwave Freeze-Dry<strong>in</strong>g. Southeast<br />

University, Nanj<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a. (<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese)<br />

[2] Copson D.A.. 1975. Microwave Heat<strong>in</strong>g, AVI Publish<strong>in</strong>g Co. Inc.,New York.<br />

[3] Qian Hongsen.1985.Technique and Application of Microwave Heat<strong>in</strong>g. Inc.Science and Technology<br />

Press, Haerb<strong>in</strong>, Heilongjiang. (<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese)<br />

[4] Ren Lou-quan.Optimum design and analysis of experiments(Second Edition). Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Higher<br />

Education Press, 2003.<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />

1986

Ultrasound application as pre-treatment for dry<strong>in</strong>g of fruits<br />

Fabiano A. N. Fernandes a and Sueli Rodrigues b<br />

a Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Campus do Pici, Bloco 709,<br />

60455-760 Fortaleza – CE, BRAZIL. Email: fabiano@ufc.br<br />

b Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Campus do Pici, Bloco<br />

858, 60455-760 Fortaleza – CE, BRAZIL. Email: sueli@ufc.br<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g is the most common method of food preservation. Air-dry<strong>in</strong>g is generally carried out at<br />

mild temperatures (between 40ºC to 70ºC) to reduce the degradation of the fruit. The process<br />

takes from 8 to 24 hours depend<strong>in</strong>g on the fruit that is be<strong>in</strong>g processed, on its <strong>in</strong>itial moisture<br />

content, on the desired f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content and on the temperature used <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />

Temperature is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by direct heat<strong>in</strong>g of the air pass<strong>in</strong>g through the samples mak<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

air-dry<strong>in</strong>g process heat <strong>in</strong>tensive and expensive. A pre-treatment can be employed to reduce<br />

air-dry<strong>in</strong>g time.<br />

One of pre-treatment that can be used to reduce air-dry<strong>in</strong>g time is ultrasound application.<br />

Power ultrasound can produce chemical, mechanical or physical changes on the processes or<br />

products where it is applied. When low frequency power ultrasound is applied, ultrasonic<br />

waves travel through the solid medium caus<strong>in</strong>g a rapid series of alternative compressions and<br />

expansions, <strong>in</strong> a similar way to a sponge when it is squeezed and released repeatedly (sponge<br />

effect). The mechanical and physical effects of acoustic waves can be used to enhance many<br />

processes where mass transfer takes place, dry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cluded. The forces <strong>in</strong>volved by the sponge<br />

effect caused by ultrasonic waves can create microscopic channels that may ease moisture<br />

removal. These microscopic channels can be used by water molecules as a preferential pathway<br />

to diffuse toward the surface of the fruit <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g its effective water diffusivity.<br />

In this paper, an overview of the effects of ultrasound application <strong>in</strong> the dehydration of eight<br />

fruits (banana, genipap, malay apple, melon, papaya, p<strong>in</strong>eapple, p<strong>in</strong>ha and sapota) is presented.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The ultrasound pre-treatment procedure consists <strong>in</strong> the immersion of the fruit <strong>in</strong> water to which<br />

ultrasound is applied. Fruit samples were cut to obta<strong>in</strong> cubes, cyl<strong>in</strong>ders or triangular shaped<br />

slices, depend<strong>in</strong>g on the fruit that was studied. Moisture content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by heat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

a dry<strong>in</strong>g oven at 105 o C for 48h, accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOAC method. The <strong>in</strong>itial soluble solids content<br />

of the fruit (ºBrix) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by refractometry. The samples were immersed <strong>in</strong> distilled<br />

water and were subjected to ultrasonic waves dur<strong>in</strong>g a period of 10 to 45 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The process<br />

was carried out plac<strong>in</strong>g the samples <strong>in</strong> an ultrasonic bath. Ultrasound should be applied for at<br />

least 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes, because the effect of ultrasound showed to be <strong>in</strong>significant at lower times.<br />

The water to fruit ratio was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed between 3:1 and 4:1 (weight basis). The pre-treatment<br />

was carried out under ambient temperature. The frequency of the ultrasonic waves was 25 kHz<br />

and the <strong>in</strong>tensity was 4000 W/m 2 .<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1987

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Each fruit presented a different behavior when ultrasound was applied. Melons and p<strong>in</strong>eapples<br />

lost water to the liquid medium dur<strong>in</strong>g the pre-treatment. The concentration gradient of soluble<br />

solids between the fruit and the liquid medium should result <strong>in</strong> the ga<strong>in</strong> of water by the fruit<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the pre-treatment. Most fruit presented such behavior, except for melons and<br />

p<strong>in</strong>eapples. These latter fruits present high moisture content (90% for melons and 83% for<br />

p<strong>in</strong>eapples) and were significantly affected by the sponge effect of ultrasonic waves.<br />

Sugar ga<strong>in</strong> was negative for all fruits <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the fruit lost soluble solids to the liquid<br />

medium. This result was expected because of the concentration gradient of soluble solids<br />

between the fruit and the liquid medium that favors the mass transfer of soluble solids from the<br />

fruit to the liquid medium. The loss of soluble solids for each fruit was very different, rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from 1.5% to 52.9%. Fruits with high <strong>in</strong>itial moisture content lost more soluble solids to the<br />

liquid medium than fruits with low <strong>in</strong>itial moisture content. Fruits with high <strong>in</strong>itial moisture<br />

content may ease the diffusion of soluble solids toward the liquid medium. The exception was<br />

p<strong>in</strong>ha that rapidly lost soluble solids to the liquid medium because of the low cohesion between<br />

the cells <strong>in</strong> its tissue structure.<br />

The loss of soluble solids was also <strong>in</strong>fluence by the effects of ultrasound on the tissue structure<br />

of the fruit. Ultrasonic waves cause a rapid series of alternative compressions and expansions,<br />

<strong>in</strong> a similar way to a sponge when it is squeezed and released repeatedly (sponge effect). The<br />

sponge effect results <strong>in</strong> the creation of microscopic channels <strong>in</strong> the fruit tissue. The tissue<br />

structure of melons was very sensitive to ultrasound application and several microscopic<br />

channels appeared <strong>in</strong> the tissue structure. Short microscopic channels were formed <strong>in</strong> papayas.<br />

Few microscopic channels were formed <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapples and strawberries, but they were long,<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the overall mass transfer. Consequently, the sugar loss <strong>in</strong> p<strong>in</strong>eapples and<br />

strawberries were high (18.9% and 9.5% respectively).<br />

The effect of the ultrasonic pre-treatment was ma<strong>in</strong>ly observed dur<strong>in</strong>g the air-dry<strong>in</strong>g stage<br />

where a significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> effective water diffusivity was observed. Effective water<br />

diffusivity was affected by ultrasound application <strong>in</strong> some fruits. The ultrasonic pre-treatment<br />

had a positive effect on dry<strong>in</strong>g because the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the effective water diffusivity resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

shorter air-dry<strong>in</strong>g time if compared to the fresh fruit with no pre-treatment.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Fruits pre-treated with ultrasonic waves have presented significant loss of sugars when the<br />

process was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g distilled water as the liquid medium. This process can be applied<br />

to produce dried fruits with low sugar content, which might be used <strong>in</strong> the production of<br />

foodstuffs with reduced calories.<br />

The application of the ultrasound pre-treatment <strong>in</strong>creased the water diffusivity of the fruit, <strong>in</strong><br />

most cases. This phenomenon may occur because of the formation of micro-channels dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the application of ultrasound. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the effective water diffusivity at the air-dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stage makes the use of ultrasound an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g technique that can be used complementary to<br />

classical air-dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

The authors thank the f<strong>in</strong>ancial support of the Brazilian fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitute CNPq.<br />

1988

A Basic Investigation On Instant Coffee Production By Vacuum Belt Dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Katr<strong>in</strong> Burmester a , Arne Pietsch b , Rudolf Eggers a<br />

a University of Technology Hamburg-Harburg, Germany (Katr<strong>in</strong>.Burmester@tuhh.de)<br />

b Eurotechnica GmbH, Hamburg, Germany (arne.pietsch@eurotechnica.de)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Coffee is the <strong>in</strong>ternationally second most important merchandise with a worldwide production<br />

of about 8.26 mio tons per year. Instant coffee is an <strong>in</strong>vention of the early twentieth century<br />

and nowadays it plays an important role besides other preparation techniques due to easy<br />

handl<strong>in</strong>g and longer durability. State of the art processes for <strong>in</strong>stant coffee production are spray<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g and freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g. Freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g leads to the best product quality <strong>in</strong> terms of aroma<br />

recovery but requires a huge amount of <strong>in</strong>vestment and operat<strong>in</strong>g costs. Spray dry<strong>in</strong>g stands<br />

out due to high production capacities at low energy costs but it results <strong>in</strong> a higher thermal<br />

impact on the product, which may lead to lower product qualities.<br />

Vacuum belt dry<strong>in</strong>g is a well-established process <strong>in</strong> food technology but it has not been applied<br />

yet to the production of soluble coffee. The application of vacuum belt dry<strong>in</strong>g could comb<strong>in</strong>e<br />

an economically method with a high product quality. [2]<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g experiments were performed with coffee extract on a vacuum belt dryer <strong>in</strong> laboratory<br />

scale (Merk process GmbH, 79725 Laufenburg, Germany). <strong>Process</strong> parameters were changed,<br />

analyz<strong>in</strong>g the product temperature. After each dry<strong>in</strong>g experiment samples were taken and the<br />

dry matter content was <strong>in</strong>vestigated gravimetrically. Flavour, structure, density and porosity of<br />

the produced <strong>in</strong>stant coffee samples were measured.<br />

The effective diffusion coefficient was evaluated by dry<strong>in</strong>g a sample of coffee extract with<strong>in</strong> a<br />

def<strong>in</strong>ed surround<strong>in</strong>g accord<strong>in</strong>g to the th<strong>in</strong>-film measurement technique [4].<br />

The sorption behaviour was analysed by a static measurement us<strong>in</strong>g eight desiccators<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g different super-saturated salt solutions assur<strong>in</strong>g a fixed water activity with<strong>in</strong> the air.<br />

The samples were stored with<strong>in</strong> the desiccator until its mass was no longer chang<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

With<strong>in</strong> this study it was found, that the dry<strong>in</strong>g under low pressures (1 – 15 mbar) leads to a<br />

highly porous product cake with a very low thermal conductivity slow<strong>in</strong>g down the further<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g process. Furthermore, the highly porous structure leads to an undesirable appearance of<br />

the product. The analysis of the product’s flavour could directly be related to the product<br />

temperature. The lower the temperature was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed, the better the flavour retention with<strong>in</strong><br />

the product. The pressure only <strong>in</strong>fluences the flavour retention <strong>in</strong>directly by affect<strong>in</strong>g the heat<br />

and mass transfer properties and thereby the product’s temperature. The bulk density is <strong>in</strong> the<br />

same order for all products from the three different processes. With<strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>vestigation it could<br />

be shown, that the process parameters of the vacuum belt dry<strong>in</strong>g process have only a m<strong>in</strong>or<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence on the particle density. The vacuum belt dried sample has the highest real density of<br />

the particles, even higher than the freeze dried sample. The high real density values for the<br />

vacuum belt dried particles, which are <strong>in</strong> the same order as the real density of a f<strong>in</strong>ely ground<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1989

powder, <strong>in</strong>dicates that dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g process only a macroscopic bubble structure is formed<br />

with<strong>in</strong> the porous product cake and no vapour is <strong>in</strong>cluded with<strong>in</strong> the macroscopic lamella<br />

structure. The SEM micrographs affirm this assumption. Furthermore, it can be seen, that the<br />

particles have a big surface area compared to the spray dried or freeze dried particles. The<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ation of high density and big surface area lead to extraord<strong>in</strong>ary good dissolution<br />

properties of the product, which would even allow a cold dissolution of the product.<br />

The recorded th<strong>in</strong>-film dry<strong>in</strong>g curves were analysed us<strong>in</strong>g the analytical solution accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

Crank. As proposed by Räderer [4] the thickness of the plane sheet is to be considered as<br />

double sized tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account that the mass transfer only takes place at one surface. The<br />

effective diffusion coefficient was determ<strong>in</strong>ed at 50 °C for various water activities of the<br />

surround<strong>in</strong>g. The temperature dependency of the effective diffusion coefficient is currently<br />

under <strong>in</strong>vestigation.<br />

For the sorption behaviour of <strong>in</strong>stant coffee at 40 and 50 °C no significant difference between<br />

the different <strong>in</strong>stant coffees was found. Furthermore, no <strong>in</strong>fluence of the product temperature<br />

on the sorption behaviour was detected. A GAB isotherm was determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The sorption<br />

behaviour of <strong>in</strong>stant coffee was compared to that of green [1] and roasted coffee [3].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A series of dry<strong>in</strong>g experiments <strong>in</strong> a lab-scale dryer was performed vary<strong>in</strong>g the process<br />

parameters optimis<strong>in</strong>g the product’s properties. By m<strong>in</strong>imis<strong>in</strong>g the thermal impact on the<br />

product good flavour retention could be achieved. By density and structure analysis of the<br />

product it could be proven that <strong>in</strong>stant coffee produced with<strong>in</strong> a vacuum belt dryer, fulfils the<br />

present requirements, although first impression is not the usual <strong>in</strong> the market today. Especially<br />

<strong>in</strong> terms of dissolution properties the product shows advantages compared to standard freeze or<br />

spray dried products. Additionally, the mass transfer throughout the dry<strong>in</strong>g process was<br />

analysed, determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the effective diffusion coefficient by means of a th<strong>in</strong> film measurement<br />

technique. The sorption behaviour of <strong>in</strong>stant coffee was systematically <strong>in</strong>vestigated and could<br />

be described us<strong>in</strong>g a GAB sorption isotherm. No <strong>in</strong>fluence of the production process or the<br />

product temperature on the sorption behaviour was detected.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This research project was supported by the German Federal M<strong>in</strong>istry of Economics and<br />

Technology (via AIF) due to a resolution of the German Bundestag. Project BWT 08-001 /<br />

206032.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Burmester K. & Eggers R. 2010. Heat and mass transfer dur<strong>in</strong>g the coffee dry<strong>in</strong>g process. Journal of<br />

food eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 99 (4), 430-436.<br />

[2] Burmester K., Fehr H., Eggers R. 2011. A comprehensive study on thermophysical properties for an<br />

<strong>in</strong>novative coffee dry<strong>in</strong>g process. Submitted to the <strong>in</strong>ternational journal of dry<strong>in</strong>g technology for<br />

publication.<br />

[3] Rahmann S. 1995. <strong>Food</strong> Properties Handbook. Water activity and sorption properties of food. CRC<br />

Press<br />

[4] Räderer M. 2001. Dry<strong>in</strong>g of viscous, shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g products: modell<strong>in</strong>g and experimental validation.<br />

Dissertation thesis, TU München, VDI Verlag<br />

1990

Shr<strong>in</strong>kage of papaya (Carica papaya L.) dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g: Influence of glass<br />

transition phenomenon<br />

Louise Emy Kurozawa a,c , Miriam Dupas Hub<strong>in</strong>ger b , Kil J<strong>in</strong> Park c<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Rural Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil<br />

(louisek98@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (mhub@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

c<br />

School of Agricultural <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (kil@feagri.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

An important change <strong>in</strong> the physical state of the product dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g is shr<strong>in</strong>kage, which may<br />

be highly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by glass transition temperature (Tg) dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g. Fruit samples, due to<br />

its high moisture content, are rubbery state at the start of the dry<strong>in</strong>g and could be rema<strong>in</strong><br />

likewise as process progresses or suffer phase transition for glassy state. At rubbery state,<br />

shr<strong>in</strong>kage almost entirely compensates for moisture loss. At glassy state, the product would<br />

become rigid and volume reduction is greatly restricted [1, 2]. The aim of the work was to<br />

study the shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g of papaya (Carica papaya L.) cubes and relate its<br />

extension with glass transition.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A convective tray dryer was used <strong>in</strong> the experiments (carried out at air temperatures of 40°C<br />

and 70°C and air velocity of 1.0m/s). The sample (papaya cube, 30mm × 30mm × 30mm) was<br />

weighed at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals of time until constant weight. The shr<strong>in</strong>kage k<strong>in</strong>etics was<br />

accomplished by monitor<strong>in</strong>g of apparent volume dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g. Samples were photographed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a camera at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals of time. Their lateral areas and length were measured us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the ImageJ ® software. Thermocouples were used to analyze the evolution of temperature <strong>in</strong>to<br />

the product (Tp). The values of Tg of papaya as a function of moisture content were based on<br />

another work [3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The shr<strong>in</strong>kage phenomenon can be related to the glass transition temperature. Figures 1(a) and<br />

1(b) show the evolution of the Tg, Tp and shr<strong>in</strong>kage (V/V0) throughout dry<strong>in</strong>g process at air<br />

temperature of 40°C and 70°C, respectively. Analyz<strong>in</strong>g Figure 1(a), Tp was higher than the Tg<br />

up to moisture content of 0.21 g water/g, show<strong>in</strong>g that the material was <strong>in</strong> the rubbery state,<br />

which is characterized by high molecular mobility of solid matrix. At low moisture content, Tg<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased, allow<strong>in</strong>g the material to pass from rubbery to glassy state: the dried material became<br />

rigid, decreas<strong>in</strong>g significantly shr<strong>in</strong>kage extension. At 70°C, Tp was above the Tg throughout<br />

the process (Figure 1(b)), show<strong>in</strong>g that the material did not undergo phase change dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g and rema<strong>in</strong>ed on the rubbery state. The sample suffered shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole<br />

process, until the f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g molecular mobility of the solid matrix.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1991

(a)<br />

(b)<br />

Figure 1. Relationship between T g, T p and (V/V 0) at: (a) 40°C and (b) 70°C.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This work demonstrated the <strong>in</strong>fluence of glass transition on shr<strong>in</strong>kage of papaya cubes dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g. At 70°C, the experiment was carried out above the Tg, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> higher extent of<br />

shr<strong>in</strong>kage, due to the mobility of the solid matrix. At 40°C, the samples, suffered phase<br />

transition for glassy state, become rigid and volume reduction was restricted. The results will<br />

be valuable to select adequate dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g dried food with quality.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Mayor, L. & Sereno, A.M. 2004. Modell<strong>in</strong>g shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g of food materials: a<br />

review. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 61(3), 373-386.<br />

[2] Bhandari, B.R. & Howes, T. (1999). Implication of glass transition for the dry<strong>in</strong>g and stability of dried<br />

foods. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 40(1-2), 71-79.<br />

[3] Kurozawa, L.E., Hub<strong>in</strong>ger, M.D. & Park, K.J. 2010. Glass transition and sorption isotherm for fresh<br />

papaya (Carica papaya L.). 17 th <strong>International</strong> Dry<strong>in</strong>g Symposium (IDS 2010), Magdeburg, Germany,<br />

3-6 October, 2010. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs p. 945.<br />

1992

Influence of sucrose replacement on colour and texture of kiwi jam<br />

*E. Rosa, I. Pe<strong>in</strong>ado, A. Heredia and A. Andrés<br />

Institute of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> for Development, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia<br />

*e-mail: esrobar@doctor.upv.es<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Traditional manufactur<strong>in</strong>g jam’s methods require concentration by heat treatments, which<br />

promotes quality changes that affect sensory and nutritional properties, the latter related ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

to ascorbic acid losses. Osmotic dehydration can be used for water remov<strong>in</strong>g and sugar<br />

addition <strong>in</strong> jam manufactur<strong>in</strong>g, avoid<strong>in</strong>g the heat<strong>in</strong>g process s<strong>in</strong>ce water removal takes place<br />

by osmosis. On the other hand, osmotic process can also be applied by us<strong>in</strong>g dry sugar <strong>in</strong>stead<br />

of sugar solutions, similar to dry salt<strong>in</strong>g process commonly applied to meat and fish products.<br />

In these processes, a concentrated solution, rich <strong>in</strong> volatile compounds, vitam<strong>in</strong>s and water<br />

soluble m<strong>in</strong>erals is generated due to the water out-flow and its volume is considerably lower<br />

than the volume used <strong>in</strong> traditional osmotic dehydration processes. Additionally, undesirable<br />

effects related with sugar consumption, as caries and diabetes could be solved if sucrose could<br />

be replaced by other sugars with low glycemic <strong>in</strong>dex as fructose and isomaltulose.<br />

The aim of this work was to analyze the sugar <strong>in</strong>fluence on optical and textural properties of<br />

kiwi spread-products (50 Brix) elaborated by us<strong>in</strong>g dry osmosis dehydration and to compare<br />

these spread-products with kiwi commercial jams.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Kiwis (Act<strong>in</strong>idia deliciosa) acquired <strong>in</strong> a local supermarket were peeled, cut <strong>in</strong> 1 cm 3 cubes and<br />

s<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> chloride water to elim<strong>in</strong>ate possible field residues.<br />

Equilibrium Stage: Dry osmotic dehydration (DOD) method was used to achieve an<br />

equilibrium concentration of 50 Brix. In this method the osmotic agent was placed directly on<br />

the fruit like <strong>in</strong> meat or fish salt<strong>in</strong>g process. The ratio fruit:osmotic agent was calculated by<br />

mass balances. The process was carried out 25 ºC. In this stage either sucrose (control) or a<br />

mixture 50:50 of isomaltulose:fructose were used like osmotic agents.<br />

Jellification Stage: The <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> the spread formulations were dehydrated kiwi, osmotic<br />

solution, apple pect<strong>in</strong> (1, 1.5 or 2 %) and potassium sorbate (500 ppm). The proportion of<br />

dehydrated kiwi:osmotic solution was exactly the same proportion reached at the end of<br />

equilibrium stage. Therefore, effluents were not generated.<br />

Analytical Determ<strong>in</strong>ations: Moisture content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed gravimetrically by method<br />

20.103 AOAC (1980). Soluble solids content (Brix) was measured with a refractometer at 20<br />

ºC (ATAGO 3 T). Water activity (aw) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed with a dew po<strong>in</strong>t hygrometer (FA-st lab,<br />

GBX). pH was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a pH-meter (SevenEasy, Mettler Toledo). Colour coord<strong>in</strong>ates<br />

were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a M<strong>in</strong>olta spectrophotometer (model CM-3600d) us<strong>in</strong>g a 20 mm plastic<br />

cell (illum<strong>in</strong>ant D65-10º standard observer). Texturometer TA/XT/PLUS-Texture Analyser and<br />

the accessory Back extrusion cell with 35 mm r<strong>in</strong>g [1] were used to obta<strong>in</strong> the textural<br />

parameters.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1993

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results showed that elaborated kiwi spreads could be compared with kiwi commercial jams<br />

<strong>in</strong> optical and textural properties, s<strong>in</strong>ce similar physicochemical values were obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

Colour Analysis<br />

There was not a clear tendency on the colour coord<strong>in</strong>ates (L*, a*, b*) <strong>in</strong> elaborated spreads<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g either on the osmotic agent or pect<strong>in</strong> percentage. Similar results were found <strong>in</strong> other<br />

studies about spread-products such as tomato ones [2] while, <strong>in</strong> strawberry spreads colour<br />

difference depend<strong>in</strong>g on osmotic agent were observed [3]. On the other hand, kiwi spreadproducts<br />

showed more similar colour coord<strong>in</strong>ates to fresh sample than commercial jam. This<br />

would be expla<strong>in</strong>ed ma<strong>in</strong>ly as a result of cook<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong> traditional jam and the storage<br />

time of these products.<br />

Texture Analysis<br />

The results showed that spread-products formulated with sucrose had higher consistency and<br />

cohesiveness values than the same products formulated with the mixture isomaltulose:fructose.<br />

Similar results were found <strong>in</strong> tomato spread-products [2]. On the other hand, spread-products<br />

with different consistency and cohesiveness characteristics could be obta<strong>in</strong>ed depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

pect<strong>in</strong> percentage used, be<strong>in</strong>g able to obta<strong>in</strong> similar values to commercial jam.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study confirmed that dry osmotic dehydration could be a useful technique <strong>in</strong> fruit spreadproducts<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g with a similar stability and texture to traditional fruit jams but more<br />

similar to fresh sample <strong>in</strong> colour terms. Furthermore, it can be considered environmental<br />

friendly s<strong>in</strong>ce the management of sugar solutions and thermal treatments are avoided.<br />

Additionally, as there are not generated effluents the process yield is higher and <strong>in</strong> this sense,<br />

the product keep the aromatic compounds and vitam<strong>in</strong>s levels of fresh fruit.<br />

On the other hand, results confirmed that the mixture of isomaltulose:fructose is a good<br />

alternative to replace sucrose <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of products s<strong>in</strong>ce, colour difference were not found<br />

between sugars. In this sense, healthy spread-products suitable to diabetic persons could be<br />

elaborated and <strong>in</strong> addition, this k<strong>in</strong>d of fruit spreads might be employed <strong>in</strong> the formulation of<br />

other products like yogurt, cookies or cakes.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Garcia-Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, E., Ruiz-Diaz, J, Mart<strong>in</strong>ez-Monzó, J., Camacho, M.M., Mart<strong>in</strong>ez-Navarrete, N. &<br />

Chiralt, A. (2002). Jam manufacture with osmodehydrated fruit. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 35,<br />

301-306.<br />

[2] Rosa, E., Pe<strong>in</strong>ado, I., Heredia, A. & Andrés, A. (2010). Influence of some process variables on<br />

optical properties and texture of healthy tomato spreads. In <strong>Food</strong> Innova 2010. <strong>International</strong><br />

Conference on <strong>Food</strong> Innovation. Book of Abstracts (ISBN: 978-84-693-5010-2) & USB Artículos<br />

(ISBN: 978-84-693-5011-9). Pedro Fito & Fidel Toldrá, eds., Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong>.<br />

[3] Pe<strong>in</strong>ado, I., Rosa, E., Heredia, A. & Andrés, A. (2008). Estudio comparativo del color en fresa<br />

deshidratada osmóticamente con sacarosa, sorbitol e isomaltulosa. In Actas del V Congreso Español<br />

de Ingeniería de Alimentos CESIA 2008. II Congreso Iberoamericano sobre Seguridad Alimentaria.<br />

Cd-Room/Book of Abstracts (ISBN: 978-84-96736-57-3). Mercè Raventós & Jordi Salazar, eds.,<br />

Barcelona, Spa<strong>in</strong>.<br />

1994

Influence of dry and wet osmotic dehydration on colour and texture of a spread kiwi<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

product<br />

I. Pe<strong>in</strong>ado*, E. Rosa, A. Heredia and A. Andrés<br />

Institute of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> for Development, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

*e-mail: irpeipar@tal.upv.es<br />

Development of new products which present a good organoleptic quality but also offer other advantages<br />

such as the <strong>in</strong>corporation of healthier <strong>in</strong>gredients is currently a priority <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. It is also<br />

important that the elaboration method of these products would be as soft as possible to preserve the<br />

maximum characteristics and nutrients of fresh fruit. In this sense, the elaboration of healthy spread fruits<br />

by osmotic dehydration is an excellent option due to the high quality of the products obta<strong>in</strong>ed as<br />

compared with other dry<strong>in</strong>g methods.<br />

Traditional wet osmotic dehydration has however some disadvantages related with the handl<strong>in</strong>g of big<br />

volumes of osmotic solutions. The dry osmotic dehydration might be an alternative s<strong>in</strong>ce the volume of<br />

solution generated is considerably lower than the volume managed <strong>in</strong> the wet method and it is more<br />

concentrated <strong>in</strong> aromatic compounds, soluble vitam<strong>in</strong>s and m<strong>in</strong>erals as it comes from the product itself.<br />

The aim of this study was to compare the two different methods, wet and dry osmotic dehydration, as a<br />

step to produce a 30 Brix spread kiwi product formulated with two different sugars, sucrose and<br />

isomaltulose. Physicochemical parameters as well as colour and texture analyses were performed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Kiwis (Act<strong>in</strong>idia deliciosa), acquired <strong>in</strong> a local supermarket were peeled, cut <strong>in</strong> 1 cm 3 cubes and s<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong><br />

chloride water.<br />

Equilibrium stage: two different osmotic dehydration methods were used, Wet Osmotic Dehydration<br />

(WOD), <strong>in</strong> which the fruit was immersed <strong>in</strong> a hypertonic osmotic solution (40 Brix) and Dry Osmotic<br />

Dehydration (DOD), <strong>in</strong> which the osmotic agent was placed directly on the fruit like <strong>in</strong> meat or fish<br />

salt<strong>in</strong>g process. The equilibrium concentration achieved <strong>in</strong> this stage was 30 Brix. The ratio fruit:sugar or<br />

fruit:solution was calculated by mass balances. Sucrose or Isomaltulose were used as osmotic agents. The<br />

work temperature was 25 ºC.<br />

Product formulation: the <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> the spread formulations were dehydrated kiwi, osmotic solution,<br />

apple pect<strong>in</strong> (1, 1.5, 2 %) as a jell<strong>in</strong>g agent and potassium sorbate (500 ppm) as a preservative. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to the different proportions of dehydrated kiwi:osmotic solution and depend<strong>in</strong>g on the dehydration<br />

methods, three k<strong>in</strong>ds of process were selected.<br />

WOD: 70 % dehydrated fruit and 30 % osmotic f<strong>in</strong>al solution.<br />

DOD1: 100 % dehydrated fruit and 100 % generated osmotic solution<br />

DOD2: 70 % dehydrated fruit and 30 % generated osmotic solution.<br />

Analytical determ<strong>in</strong>ations: Moisture content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed gravimetrically by method 20.103 AOAC<br />

(1980). Soluble solids content (Brix) was measured with a refractometer at 20 ºC (ATAGO 3 T). Water<br />

activity (aw) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed with a dew po<strong>in</strong>t hygrometer (FA-st lab, GBX). pH was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a pHmeter<br />

(SevenEasy, Mettler Toledo). Colour coord<strong>in</strong>ates were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a M<strong>in</strong>olta spectrophotometer<br />

(model CM-3600d) us<strong>in</strong>g a 20 mm plastic cell (illum<strong>in</strong>ant D65 - 10º standard observer). Texturometer<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1995

TA/XT/PLUS-Texture Analyser and the accessory Back extrusion cell with 35 mm r<strong>in</strong>g were used to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> the textural parameters.<br />

Table 1. Experimental design of the different kiwi spread products.<br />

Dehydration k<strong>in</strong>d Pect<strong>in</strong> % Dehydration k<strong>in</strong>d Pect<strong>in</strong> %<br />

SUCROSE ISOMALTULOSE<br />

1 1 10 1<br />

2 WOD 1.5 11 WOD 1.5<br />

3 2 12 2<br />

4 1 13 1<br />

5 DOD 1.5 14 DOD 1.5<br />

6 2 15 2<br />

7 1 16 1<br />

8 DOD 1.5 17 DOD 1.5<br />

9 2 18 2<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

After the formulation of the different kiwi spreads they were storage dur<strong>in</strong>g 24 hours at room temperature<br />

to allow the gel formation. Then analysis of moisture (x w ), soluble solids content (x ss ), and water activity<br />

(aw), pH as well as colour and texture determ<strong>in</strong>ation were performed.<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed products showed a similar composition <strong>in</strong> terms of moisture and soluble solids content<br />

which could be expected as the ratio was calculated to reach a f<strong>in</strong>al concentration of 30 Brix. The solid<br />

soluble content of the f<strong>in</strong>al spread-products was 0.291 (± 0.03) and the moisture of 0.69 (± 0.02). On the<br />

other hand, aw showed values of 0.964 (± 0.006). F<strong>in</strong>ally, pH value for the formulated products was<br />

around 3.37 (± 0.07). Therefore no differences depend<strong>in</strong>g on the different sugars, dehydration methods or<br />

pect<strong>in</strong> percentages were found <strong>in</strong> terms of physicochemical parameters on the f<strong>in</strong>al products. These<br />

results are contrary to those obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the same k<strong>in</strong>d of spreads elaborated with strawberry where the<br />

isomaltulose spreads showed a higher aw compared with the sucrose ones.<br />

Colour analysis: All the samples were very similar to the fresh one and there was not a clear tendency <strong>in</strong><br />

the colour coord<strong>in</strong>ates (L*, a*, b*) of samples depend<strong>in</strong>g on osmotic dehydration method, k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />

osmotic agent or pect<strong>in</strong> percentage; similar results have been reported <strong>in</strong> tomato spreads of 50 Brix, while<br />

colour differences have been noticed <strong>in</strong> other spread-products such as <strong>in</strong> strawberry ones depend<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

osmotic agent. This fact could be related to the high stability of kiwi pigments and lower degree of<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction with<strong>in</strong> the system components compared to those present <strong>in</strong> strawberries.<br />

Texture analysis: No differences <strong>in</strong> texture parameters were found between the different products as a<br />

consequence of the different sugars used <strong>in</strong> their formulations. On the other hand, spread-products with<br />

different consistency and cohesiveness characteristics could be obta<strong>in</strong>ed depend<strong>in</strong>g on osmotic<br />

dehydration method and pect<strong>in</strong> percentage used.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This work confirmed the viability of DOD and the use of new sugars (ex, Isomaltulose) as an alternative<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> tomato spreads with colour and texture comparable to those elaborated by WOD with sucrose.<br />

The f<strong>in</strong>al product obta<strong>in</strong>ed by DOD is additionally richer <strong>in</strong> aromatic compounds, soluble vitam<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

m<strong>in</strong>erals from fresh fruit s<strong>in</strong>ce effluents are not generated, gett<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>crease the process yield.<br />

Furthermore, as isomaltulose has less sweetener power than sucrose, the obta<strong>in</strong>ed product is closer <strong>in</strong><br />

taste to fresh fruit than the product processed with sucrose.<br />

1996

Quality assessment of dried eggplant us<strong>in</strong>g different dry<strong>in</strong>g methods: hot air dry<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

vacuum freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g and atmospheric freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

J. V. Santacatal<strong>in</strong>a, C. Ozuna, J. A. Cárcel, J. V. García-Pérez * and A. Mulet<br />

Grupo de Análisis y Simulación de Procesos Agroalimentarios (ASPA), Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos,<br />

Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camí de Vera s/n, E46022, Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong> (jogarpe4@tal.upv.es).<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g is a classical method to preserve foods, which provides longer shelf life, lighter weight for<br />

transport and smaller space for storage than fresh products. However, dry<strong>in</strong>g prompts a loss of quality<br />

properties due to a structural collapse and biochemical changes. Obviously, the quality degradation<br />

depends on the dry<strong>in</strong>g technique used. Eggplant is an important vegetable <strong>in</strong> Asian and Mediterranean<br />

markets and has a very limited shelf life for fresh use. Dehydration constitutes an alternative to provide<br />

higher stability eggplant products. Dried eggplant could be used as a new <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> foodstuffs, like<br />

soups and sauces. Most of dried products should be rehydrated before consumption. Therefore, it is<br />

necessary to know the behavior of the product when it is soaked <strong>in</strong> water. On the other hand, soften<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and loss of texture is a problem of dried/rehydrated products, thus texture profile analysis is frequently<br />

used to evaluate the textural properties of rehydrated products. The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of the present study<br />

was to evaluate the effect of different dry<strong>in</strong>g techniques on the quality of dried eggplant.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Hot air dry<strong>in</strong>g (HAD) k<strong>in</strong>etics (50 ºC, 2 m/s) were carried out <strong>in</strong> a convective drier, which has already<br />

been described <strong>in</strong> the literature [1]. Atmospheric freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g (AFD) experiments (-14±1 ºC, 2 m/s) were<br />

conducted <strong>in</strong> a convective drier with air recirculation, which was placed <strong>in</strong>side a freez<strong>in</strong>g chamber to keep<br />

the sample at low temperature. Vacuum freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g (VFD) cubes were obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a vacuum freeze<br />

drier (Telstar, Lioalfa-6, Germany) that worked at 10 -3 mbar and -45 ºC. In all the cases, HAD, AFD and<br />

VFD experiments were carried out, at least, <strong>in</strong> triplicate and extended until samples lost 90 % of the<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial weight. Cubic particles (10 mm side) were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the flesh of Spanish orig<strong>in</strong> eggplants<br />

(Solanum melongena var. Black Enorma). The rehydration experiments (HAD, AFD and VFD) were<br />

carried out, at least three replicates, <strong>in</strong> distilled water at 25 ºC, until achiev<strong>in</strong>g constant weight. Textural<br />

properties of dried/rehydrated and fresh eggplant cubes were assessed by texture profile analysis (TPA).<br />

At least, 10 measurements were performed for each set of samples (HAD, AFD, VFD rehydrated and<br />

fresh eggplant cubes). ANOVA (p

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of the dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics modell<strong>in</strong>g are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The value of the effective moisture<br />

diffusivity (De) for hot air dry<strong>in</strong>g experiments was 7.64·10 -10 m 2 /s and the percentage of expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

variance of the model 89.30%. The low value of the expla<strong>in</strong>ed variance could mean that assumptions<br />

considered <strong>in</strong> the model formulation were not properly chosen. The value of De for the atmospheric freeze<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g experiments was almost one order of magnitude lower (5.28·10 -11 m 2 /s) than <strong>in</strong> HAD (Table 1).<br />

The %VAR was 92.07%, show<strong>in</strong>g that the diffusion model fitted to the AFD experimental data slightly<br />

better than to HAD data.<br />

The rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics of the HAD and AFD eggplant cubes showed that AFD samples rehydrated<br />

faster than hot air dried cubes and reached higher values of equilibrium moisture (Weq). Vacuum freeze<br />

dried cubes reached the equilibrium moisture immediately after their immersion <strong>in</strong> distilled water (<strong>in</strong> less<br />

than 2 seconds). This fact may be expla<strong>in</strong>ed due to the high porosity of vacuum freeze dried samples. The<br />

equilibrium moisture reached by the AFD and the VFD samples was similar and close to the fresh<br />

eggplant (12.285±0.925 kg w/kg d.m.).<br />

Table 1 also shows the results of the rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics modell<strong>in</strong>g, that is the effective moisture<br />

diffusivity, the equilibrium moisture content and the percentage of expla<strong>in</strong>ed variance. The diffusion<br />

model fitted to the HAD rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics better than to the AFD ones. Moreover, the effective<br />

moisture diffusivity for the AFD rehydration experiments was almost one order of magnitude higher than<br />

<strong>in</strong> HAD experiments due to the high porosity of the AFD cubes. Hot air dry<strong>in</strong>g reduces the <strong>in</strong>tercellular<br />

spaces and creates a compact tissue, partially los<strong>in</strong>g the spongy structure of the eggplant and decreas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the porosity [2]. In AFD samples, the shr<strong>in</strong>kage was almost negligible due to dry<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g conducted at a<br />

temperature lower than sample thaw<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t, thus a very low cellular stress is produced.<br />

Table 1. Results of dry<strong>in</strong>g and rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

De (m 2 /s) Weq (kg w/kg d.m.) VAR (%)<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g HAD 7.64·10 -10 - 89.30<br />

AFD 5.15·10 -11 - 90.37<br />

Rehydration HAD 4.43·10<br />

AFD<br />

-9<br />

2.56·10 -8<br />

6.496<br />

96.56<br />

9.653<br />

88.58<br />

Dehydration <strong>in</strong>volves a high degradation of eggplant structure [2], thus rehydrated samples don’t recover<br />

the <strong>in</strong>itial texture. Regardless the dry<strong>in</strong>g method, dried/rehydrated samples were much softer than fresh<br />

eggplant. Significant differences (p

Effect of Fluidized-bed dry<strong>in</strong>g on the microstructure of higuerilla seeds (Ric<strong>in</strong>us<br />

communis). An alternative source of prote<strong>in</strong> and biofuel.<br />

José Jorge Chanona Pérez a *, Eduardo Terrés Rojas b , Jorge Alberto. Mendoza Pérez c , Hilda María<br />

Hernández a , Gustavo Fidel Gutiérrez López a , Vicente Garibay Febles b and Maria de Jesús Perea Flores a<br />

a<br />

Departamento de Graduados e Investigación en Alimentos, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas,<br />

Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México D.F.( jorge_chanona@hotmail.com )<br />

b<br />

Laboratorio de Microscopía Electrónica de Ultra Alta Resolución. Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo.<br />

México D.F.<br />

c<br />

Departamento de Ingeniería en Sistemas Ambientales, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas,<br />

Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México D.F.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong>duces microstructural changes that affect the physical properties and<br />

functionality of biomaterials; for example, the oil extraction could be improved and the toxic<br />

compound <strong>in</strong>activated. Higuerrilla seed (Ric<strong>in</strong>us communis) is an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g material due to<br />

their large content of prote<strong>in</strong>s and lipids [1]. Thus, the oilseed can be extracted and converted<br />

to biodiesel and the prote<strong>in</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong> of oil extraction could be used for human or animal<br />

consume, if the toxic substances are <strong>in</strong>activated dur<strong>in</strong>g thermal process. Fluidized bed dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

can be useful to <strong>in</strong>duce changes on the structure and functionality of R. communis seed such as<br />

coat crack<strong>in</strong>g, damage <strong>in</strong> the endosperm cells and <strong>in</strong>activation of tox<strong>in</strong>s, these structural<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> the seeds could be benefic for their use as source of the prote<strong>in</strong> and biofuel [2]. The<br />

aim of this work was to evaluate the microstructural changes dur<strong>in</strong>g convective dry<strong>in</strong>g of R.<br />

communis by means of microscopy techniques and image analysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

R. communis seeds variety Silvestre Tiripiteo were k<strong>in</strong>dly provided by means Promotora<br />

Agricola “La Estancia” (Michoacán, México). Seeds without fissures and damage were<br />

selected and cleaned manually. Next, R. communis seeds were dried <strong>in</strong> fluidized-bed at<br />

different temperatures (80, 90, 100, 110 ºC) at constant air flow (7 m/s). Effective Diffusion<br />

Coefficient of water vapor (Deff) and Activation Energy (Ea) were measure from dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics by means of Second Fick law and Arrehnius equation.<br />

The effect of dry<strong>in</strong>g process on oilseed structure was evaluated by us<strong>in</strong>g of Environmental<br />

Scann<strong>in</strong>g Electron Microscopy (ESEM) and Image Analysis (IA). For ESEM observations,<br />

th<strong>in</strong> slices (45 m) of endosperm tissue were obta<strong>in</strong>ed with a freez<strong>in</strong>g microtome (Leica, 157<br />

CM1850, Germany) and seed coat was observed directly <strong>in</strong> the electronic microscope. The<br />

samples were mounted on alum<strong>in</strong>ium stubs whit carbon adhesive tape and directly observed by<br />

XL-30 ESEM (Philips, USA) at 25 kV accelerat<strong>in</strong>g voltage. For IA, the images obta<strong>in</strong>ed were<br />

used to extracted cellular shr<strong>in</strong>kage from ESEM images of endosperm and crank<strong>in</strong>g of seed<br />

coat was observed.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 1999

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content of dried oilseed oscillated between of 1.43-0.6% wet basis <strong>in</strong> an<br />

<strong>in</strong>terval of 80-110 °C. The Deff values were affected by the <strong>in</strong>crement air temperature (6.3x10 -<br />

10 -9 2 2<br />

–3.2x10 m /s from 80 to 110°C), additionally an Ea of 55.9kJ/mol (R =0.87) was obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

by fitt<strong>in</strong>g of the Deff values with the Arrhenius equation. Dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics (Figure 1) showed<br />

that the water diffusion was controlled ma<strong>in</strong>ly by the <strong>in</strong>ternal structure of the material and the<br />

water is strongly b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to the structure of the material. This fact, it has been reported for<br />

similar dry<strong>in</strong>g seeds studies [3]. In this curves, there was not constant-rate period but it seen to<br />

occur the fall<strong>in</strong>g-rate period.<br />

X t/XO<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

0.4<br />

0.2<br />

0.0<br />

S/T<br />

80C 80C<br />

110C 110C<br />

Endosperm<br />

Figure 1. Experimental dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics of Figure 2. Gallery of ESEM micrographs of the<br />

R. communis seeds at different temperatures effect of Fluidized-bed dry<strong>in</strong>g on the endosperm<br />

of R. communis seeds at different temperatures.<br />

The micrographs (Figure 2) showed structural damages on the endosperm at 80°C and IA<br />

allowed evaluate a 13% of cellular shr<strong>in</strong>kage <strong>in</strong> endosperm cells, <strong>in</strong> contrast a complete<br />

destruction of endosperm was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the material dry<strong>in</strong>g at 110°C, and the cellular<br />

shr<strong>in</strong>kage cannot be evaluated. The seed coat showed a major damage when the material was<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g at 110 ºC. The cellular damage <strong>in</strong>duced by dry<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong> the endosperm of seeds<br />

could help to oil diffusion and to improve the oil extraction yield. The oil obta<strong>in</strong>ed from seed<br />

could have a potential use <strong>in</strong> the production of biodiesel. Structural changes observed could<br />

expla<strong>in</strong> the effect of the dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions on the material structure.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics were controlled by <strong>in</strong>ternal microstructure of the biomaterial. The cellular<br />

damage and low moisture caused by dry<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>in</strong> the endosperm of seeds could help to oil<br />

diffusion and with it improve the oil extraction yield.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

80°C (7m/s)<br />

90°C (7m/s)<br />

100°C (7m/s)<br />

110°C (7m/s)<br />

0 50 100<br />

tiempo (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

150 200<br />

[1] Ogunniyi, D.S. 2006. Castor oil: A vital <strong>in</strong>dustrial raw material. Bioresource Technology. 97, 1086-<br />

1091.<br />

[2] Aguilera, J.M., Stanley, D.W. (1999). Microstructural Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>.<br />

2nd Ed. <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Series. Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Series editor. Aspen Publishers, Inc.<br />

[3] Sablani, S.S., Rahman, M.S. 2008. Fundamentals of <strong>Food</strong> Dehydratation <strong>in</strong> FOOD DRYING Science<br />

and Technology: Microbiology, Chemistry, Applications. Edited by: Hui, Y.H., Clary, C., Farid,<br />

M.M., Fas<strong>in</strong>a, O.O., Noomhorm, A., Welti-Chanes. DEStech Publications, Inc. Pennsylvania, U.S.A.<br />

1-42.<br />

2000

A simple mathematical model proposed to predict k<strong>in</strong>etics of mass transfer <strong>in</strong> osmotic dehydration<br />

of muskmelon<br />

Jose Lucena Barbosa Jr a,c , Daniel Guimaraes Correa Moreira Rocha a , Maria Ivone Mart<strong>in</strong>s Jac<strong>in</strong>tho<br />

Barbosa a , Mauricio Cordeiro Manc<strong>in</strong>i b , Miriam Dupas Hub<strong>in</strong>ger c<br />

a<br />

IT/UFRRJ, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Seropedica-RJ, Brazil (lucena@ufrrj.br)<br />

b IT/UFRRJ, Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Seropedica-RJ, Brazil (manc<strong>in</strong>i@ufrrj.br)<br />

c FEA/UNICAMP, Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Camp<strong>in</strong>as-SP, Brazil (hub<strong>in</strong>ger@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

There is a lot of published <strong>in</strong>formation describ<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fluence of variables on mass transfer rates and<br />

considerable effort has been made toward develop<strong>in</strong>g models to predict the mass transfer k<strong>in</strong>etics of<br />

osmotic dehydration (OD). Due to the simplifications <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> solv<strong>in</strong>g the diffusion equation for a<br />

food subjected to osmotic process, the Fickian diffusion model becomes an empirical equation, despite its<br />

theoretical basis. So, it should be used very carefully. Therefore empirical models are important, notably<br />

for non-classical geometries, whose solutions of the diffusion coefficients <strong>in</strong>volve numerical methods.<br />

Some authors have used statistical tools to study process variables, such as Response Surface<br />

Methodology (RSM). However, <strong>in</strong>formation about the process k<strong>in</strong>etics is omitted <strong>in</strong> this type of approach<br />

and moreover the process time could mask the effect of other process variables. Some efforts have been<br />

made to overcome these limitations. Nevertheless, it is still difficult to def<strong>in</strong>e adequately the process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time. The aim of this work was to propose a simple mathematical model to predict the water losses and<br />

solute ga<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic process. The specific objective was the development of a correlation between<br />

dehydration/impregnation rates with effective diffusivity. The applicability of the model was evaluated<br />

for orange-fleshed muskmelons osmotically dehydrated <strong>in</strong> corn syrup solutions.<br />

MATERIAL & METHODS<br />

Samples and osmotic dehydration treatment<br />

Fresh muskmelons were cut <strong>in</strong>to slices (30 x 40 and 5 mm) and subjected to osmotic process for 30, 60,<br />

90, 120, 180, 240, 360, 600 and 1440 m<strong>in</strong>utes for each temperature (28 to 42 °C) and solute concentration<br />

(38,7 to 61,3% w/w) condition, given by central composite experimental design, agitation (80 rpm) and<br />

weight ratio of sample to solution (1:10) kept constant. Water loss (WL) (g water/100g <strong>in</strong>itial wet sample)<br />

and solids ga<strong>in</strong> (SG) (g solids/100g <strong>in</strong>itial wet sample) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by gravimetric method.<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etic models<br />

Peleg modified model: The reciprocal value of Peleg rate constant (K1) is related to the dry<strong>in</strong>g rate at the<br />

very beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g (i.e. t=0), suggest<strong>in</strong>g a relationship between K1 and the driv<strong>in</strong>g force of the process. The<br />

half-life for dehydration/impregnation rate (t1/2) can be expressed as follow:<br />

(1)<br />

dX ( t)<br />

dt<br />

t t1<br />

/ 2<br />

1 dX ( t)<br />

<br />

2 dt<br />

Thus, substitut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to Peleg’s model, we obta<strong>in</strong>: K1<br />

t 2 1<br />

t 0<br />

1 <br />

2 K2<br />

Data relative to mass transfer parameters were fitted us<strong>in</strong>g the equation proposed by Peleg modified <strong>in</strong> the<br />

present work, <strong>in</strong> order to compare itself to the diffusion model.<br />

Statistical Analysis: A first-order central composite rotatable design was used for design<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

experiments for osmotic dehydration of muskmelon slices us<strong>in</strong>g two factors. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed coefficients<br />

were subjected to analysis of variance, test of lack of fit and the criterion used to evaluate the best fitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2001<br />

(2)

model was their average relative error (P) less than or equal to 10% are considered to fit the experimental<br />

data satisfactorily.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Both models showed low dispersion (P values under 10% and R<br />

1.00<br />

0.75<br />

(a)<br />

0.50<br />

0.25<br />

0.00<br />

experimental<br />

0.00<br />

1.00<br />

0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00<br />

(b)<br />

0.75<br />

0.50<br />

0.25<br />

experimental<br />

0.00<br />

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00<br />

Figure 1. Fitt<strong>in</strong>g capability of the<br />

diffusive (a) and proposed (b)<br />

models for WL() and SG()<br />

2 -values near 1.0), show<strong>in</strong>g a good fitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capability for WL and SG (Fig. 1). The observed difference between half-life for WL and SG was due to<br />

the fact that the upcom<strong>in</strong>g solids dur<strong>in</strong>g osmosis take place mostly between the extracellular space and<br />

not through the selective cell membrane as observed for water fluxes. It was obta<strong>in</strong>ed mass diffusivity<br />

values rang<strong>in</strong>g 1.11-2.25x10 -10 for WL and 1.10-2.27x10 -10 m 2 .s -1 for SG, respectively. It can be observed<br />

that the proposed model is more accurate relative to diffusive model, ma<strong>in</strong>ly at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />

process. Furthermore, it has the advantage of allow<strong>in</strong>g the calculation of the equilibrium values<br />

satisfactorily. The lower fitt<strong>in</strong>g capacity of diffusive model relative to the other models has been reported<br />

by several authors. This can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by that other phenomena besides diffusion are occurr<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the osmotic process, or the assumptions made to obta<strong>in</strong> diffusive model are not fulfilled, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

high viscosity solutions when high solids concentration was used.<br />

The values of the half-life were higher for highest mass transfer<br />

potential, show<strong>in</strong>g the relationship between dehydration and solid<br />

uptake rates and mass transfer potential.<br />

Analysis of Variables Influence on t1/2, dX(t)/dt| t=0 and X(t1/2) for WL and SG<br />

High correlation coefficients were obta<strong>in</strong>ed for WL’s models,<br />

whereas for SG, a poor correlation for t1/2 was obta<strong>in</strong>ed and the<br />

models for <strong>in</strong>itial rate and solids ga<strong>in</strong> at the half-life were not<br />

predictive. Therefore, temperature and solution concentration<br />

showed no significant <strong>in</strong>fluence on solid uptake rates at the<br />

beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the process. The variation <strong>in</strong> half-life values (higher<br />

for SG) occurred around a mean value, provid<strong>in</strong>g a range of<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g time (30 to 70 m<strong>in</strong>utes) <strong>in</strong> which the potential transfer<br />

reduction is similar, regardless the type (dehydration or<br />

impregnation) and conditions of process. In some researches,<br />

osmotic dehydration process times were higher than 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes<br />

and an important observation to be considered <strong>in</strong> these cases is<br />

solids amounts <strong>in</strong>corporated to the fruit dur<strong>in</strong>g the osmotic<br />

dehydration. If for quality reasons, the fruits amount of sugars has<br />

to be enhanced, the period of time that the fruit should stay <strong>in</strong> the<br />

osmotic solution needs to be higher. Alternatively, if the process focus is on m<strong>in</strong>imal solids uptake and<br />

cost reduction the period of time has to be as short as possible. It is important to remark that these models<br />

have a limited validity with<strong>in</strong> the experimental range which their coefficients were obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

predicted<br />

predicted<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The proposed model was able to predict the k<strong>in</strong>etics of osmotic dehydration and the WL and SG values at<br />

equilibrium. A correlation between rates of dehydration/impregnation process and effective diffusivities<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g osmotic dehydration of orange-fleshed muskmelon was obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

2002

Dry<strong>in</strong>g characteristics of Açaí (Euterpe oleracea)<br />

Antônio M. Barbosa Neto, Luanda G. Marques, Manoel M. Prado<br />

Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE/Brazil<br />

(manoelprado@ufs.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fresh açaí fruit is highly perishable and dry<strong>in</strong>g is a potential method to <strong>in</strong>crease its shelf-life<br />

for further use. However, to these authors knowledge, studies on dry<strong>in</strong>g of whole açaí berries<br />

have not been reported.<strong>in</strong> the literature.<br />

Due to their high <strong>in</strong>itial moisture content açaí fruits tend to undergo volumetric changes upon<br />

water removal, thus affect<strong>in</strong>g heat and mass transfer. The changes <strong>in</strong> shape, dimension and<br />

solid structure of deformable particles yield to a particular system where the available<br />

coefficients of mass transfer are not suitable to reproduce moisture loss dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />

material. Thus any attempt to characterize the dry<strong>in</strong>g behavior of the açaí berries must address<br />

the shr<strong>in</strong>kage characteristics. The shr<strong>in</strong>kage phenomenon affects the length of the diffusion<br />

path <strong>in</strong> dried material, which <strong>in</strong>fluences the moisture diffusion coefficient of the material and,<br />

as result, <strong>in</strong>fluences the dry<strong>in</strong>g rate [1].<br />

In the present work, the effects of dry<strong>in</strong>g air temperature on dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and shr<strong>in</strong>kage of<br />

whole açaí berries are presented and discussed, as well as values of moisture diffusivity<br />

estimated with and without <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g the shr<strong>in</strong>kage <strong>in</strong> diffusion model are compared and<br />

analysed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Açaí fruits from the “Black” cultivar, produced <strong>in</strong> Belém-PA, Brazil, were used <strong>in</strong> this<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation. Convective dry<strong>in</strong>g of whole açaí fruits was carried out us<strong>in</strong>g a cross flow air<br />

oven dryer at four different temperatures (40, 50, 60 and 70oC) and air velocity of 1.0 m/s. The<br />

shr<strong>in</strong>kage of açaí berries dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g was quantified from the changes <strong>in</strong> volume and surface<br />

area of <strong>in</strong>dividual berries, which were calculated from the dimensions taken by the digital<br />

micrometer, assum<strong>in</strong>g that açaí berries are oblate spheroids.<br />

Shr<strong>in</strong>kage of <strong>in</strong>dividual particles was evaluated <strong>in</strong> terms of reduced dimensional change <strong>in</strong> both<br />

volume (Vp/Vp0) and surface area (Ap/Ap0).<br />

The mass transfer <strong>in</strong> dry<strong>in</strong>g of açaí fruits was analyzed <strong>in</strong> terms of effective diffusivity, which<br />

was determ<strong>in</strong>ed at each temperature by apply<strong>in</strong>g diffusional models of Fick’s second law for<br />

sphere without and with consideration of shr<strong>in</strong>kage [2, 3] to describe the dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The surface area and volume of açaí berries decreased about 18 and 26% until the end of the<br />

process, respectively, stress<strong>in</strong>g the need to take <strong>in</strong>to account the surface area changes to the<br />

calculation of the water flux density as well as to <strong>in</strong>clude the shr<strong>in</strong>kage <strong>in</strong> the mass transfer<br />

models.<br />

Three dist<strong>in</strong>ct dry<strong>in</strong>g flux periods were identified dur<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>-layer dry<strong>in</strong>g of açaí berries: a<br />

short heat<strong>in</strong>g-up period followed by two fall<strong>in</strong>g flux periods. No constant dry<strong>in</strong>g flux period<br />

was observed, <strong>in</strong> spite of the exchange area correction. The pronounced period of fall<strong>in</strong>g flux<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2003

<strong>in</strong>dicated that the moisture diffusion <strong>in</strong>side the solid was the ma<strong>in</strong> physical mechanism<br />

govern<strong>in</strong>g mass transfer <strong>in</strong> dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Table 1 shows the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the effective diffusion coefficient estimated from<br />

diffusional models without and with consideration of shr<strong>in</strong>kage, for the four dry<strong>in</strong>g air<br />

temperatures <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> this study. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed values are with<strong>in</strong> the range of diffusivities<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> the literature for fruits and vegetables [4]. It can be verified that the values of<br />

diffusivity calculated without consider<strong>in</strong>g the shr<strong>in</strong>kage were higher than those obta<strong>in</strong>ed tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>to account the phenomenon. Neglect<strong>in</strong>g shr<strong>in</strong>kage of <strong>in</strong>dividual particles dur<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>-layer<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g leads, therefore, to an overestimation of the mass transfer by diffusion. The explanation<br />

is on the fact that berry shr<strong>in</strong>kage produces a variation <strong>in</strong> the distance required for the<br />

movement of water molecules, therefore mak<strong>in</strong>g that effective diffusivity be overestimated<br />

when obta<strong>in</strong>ed from analytical solution analytical of diffusion without consider<strong>in</strong>g volume<br />

contraction. This f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g agrees with results of previous reports on other products [3].<br />

Table 1. Effective coefficients of diffusion estimated without and with consideration of shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

açaí berries dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Th<strong>in</strong> layer dry<strong>in</strong>g of açaí berries was characterized by significant area and volume changes<br />

upon moisture removal. Changes <strong>in</strong> fruit volume and surface area were found to be dependent<br />

only on the average moisture content of the whole fruit. The process was found to take place<br />

predom<strong>in</strong>antly <strong>in</strong> the fall<strong>in</strong>g flux period, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the mass transfer was limited by<br />

diffusion of moisture from <strong>in</strong>side to the surface of the material. Neglect<strong>in</strong>g the shr<strong>in</strong>kage of<br />

whole açaí fruits led to an overestimation of the effective diffusion coefficient and,<br />

consequently, of the energy required for dry<strong>in</strong>g the material.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Bialobrzewski, I.; Zielínska, M.; Mujumdar, A. S. & Markowski, M. 2008. Heat and mass transfer<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g of a bed of shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g particles – Simulation for carrot cubes dried <strong>in</strong> a spoutfluidizedbed<br />

drier. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 51, 4704–4716.<br />

[2]. Crank, J. 1975. The mathematics of diffusion, 2nd, Ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, London.<br />

[3]. Souraki, B. A. & Mowla, D. 2008. Axial and radial moisture diffusivity <strong>in</strong> cyl<strong>in</strong>drical fresh green<br />

beans <strong>in</strong> a fluidized bed dryer with energy carrier: Model<strong>in</strong>g with and without shr<strong>in</strong>kage. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 88, 9-19.<br />

[4]. Ramos, I. N.; Miranda, J. M. R.; Brandão, T. R. S. & Silva, C. L. M. 2010. Estimation of water<br />

diffusivity parameters on grape dynamic dry<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 97, 519-525.<br />

2004

Vitam<strong>in</strong> C Content of Freeze-Dried Tropical Fruits<br />

Luanda G. Marques a , Manoel M. Prado a ; José T. Freire b<br />

a<br />

Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil<br />

(luanda_gimeno@yahoo.com.br)<br />

b<br />

Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil<br />

(freire@power.ufscar.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Brazil is among the largest producers of tropical fruits <strong>in</strong> the world. Tropical fruits such as<br />

guava, mango, papaya and p<strong>in</strong>eapple are excellent source of carotenoids and vitam<strong>in</strong> C. In<br />

recent years, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g attention has been paid to the role of diet <strong>in</strong> human health. Among<br />

antioxidant vitam<strong>in</strong>s, vitam<strong>in</strong> C has many biological activities <strong>in</strong> human body reduc<strong>in</strong>g the risk<br />

of arteriosclerosis and some forms of cancer, a marker of <strong>in</strong>flammation and possibly a<br />

predictor of heart disease [1, 2]. Commercialization of dried fruits has ga<strong>in</strong>ed importance<br />

worldly due to the search of consumers for practicability and products of great nutritional<br />

value. The application of the freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g technique <strong>in</strong> fruits conservation is the key for a<br />

successful of their commercialization.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fresh guava, mango, papaya and p<strong>in</strong>eapple were purchased from local market <strong>in</strong> the city of São<br />

Carlos-SP, Brazil. The fruits were cut <strong>in</strong>to slices of 5 mm thickness and subsequently were<br />

frozen <strong>in</strong> liquid N2. The frozen fruits were dehydrated <strong>in</strong> a laboratorial scale freeze-dryer,<br />

manufactured by Edwards, L4KR model. The ascorbic acid content of “<strong>in</strong> nature”, freeze-dried<br />

and hot air dried pulps was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the 2.6 dichlorophenol<strong>in</strong>dophenol titration [3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

After freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g the moisture content was equal to 5, 4, 2 and 7% (wet basis) for guava,<br />

mango, papaya and p<strong>in</strong>eapple, respectively. Figure 1 presents the vitam<strong>in</strong> C content determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

for “<strong>in</strong> nature” and freeze-dried tropical fruits. It can be observed after the process vitam<strong>in</strong> C<br />

losses of 37.47, 3.05; 6.91, and 27.31% for guava, mango, papaya and p<strong>in</strong>eapple, occurred,<br />

respectively. The difference <strong>in</strong> ascorbic acid content of freeze-dried fruits can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

the differences between the physical and chemical properties of morphological structures of<br />

each fruit.<br />

The results shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 are <strong>in</strong> agreement with those obta<strong>in</strong>ed by Marques et al. [4]. The<br />

authors determ<strong>in</strong>ed the vitam<strong>in</strong> C content <strong>in</strong> freeze-dried acerola for three different ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stages. It was observed that the smaller loss of vitam<strong>in</strong> C was of 13% for the <strong>in</strong>termediate stage<br />

(yellow-reddish fruits), while the greater loss was of 69.3% for the green fruit. The vitam<strong>in</strong> C<br />

losses for freeze-dried fruits are considerable smaller when compared the vitam<strong>in</strong> C losses<br />

caused to others dry<strong>in</strong>g methods.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2005

Figure 1. Vitam<strong>in</strong> C content for the fresh and freeze-dried tropical fruits.<br />

Cutt<strong>in</strong>g and slic<strong>in</strong>g fruits may <strong>in</strong>duce a rapid enzymatic depletion due to the cellular disruption<br />

which allows contacts of substrates and enzymes [1]. Thus, the vitam<strong>in</strong> C losses can be due not<br />

only to primary and secondary dry<strong>in</strong>g of freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g (thermal process<strong>in</strong>g), but also by the<br />

operations before dry<strong>in</strong>g such as cutt<strong>in</strong>g, slic<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g (first stage of freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The vitam<strong>in</strong> C of both fresh and freeze-dried guava, mango, papaya and p<strong>in</strong>eapple was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed. Although losses of 37.47; 3.05; 6.91, and 27.31% for guava, mango, papaya and<br />

p<strong>in</strong>eapple, respectively, have occurred, the freeze-dried tropical fruits were characterized by a<br />

high nutritional value, when compared with those dried by other methods.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Podsedek, A. 2007. Natural antioxidants and antioxidant capacity of Brassica vegetables: A<br />

review. LWT-<strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 40, 1-11.<br />

[2] Lee, S. K. & Kader, A. A. 2000. Preharvest and postharvest factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g vitam<strong>in</strong> C<br />

content of horticultural crops. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 20, 207-220.<br />

[3] Benassi, M. T. & Antunes, A. J. 1988. A comparison of metaphosphoric and oxalic acids as<br />

extractants solutions for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of vitam<strong>in</strong> C <strong>in</strong> selected vegetables. Arq. Biol.<br />

Technol., 31(4), 507-513.<br />

[4] Marques, L. G.; Ferreira, M. C. & Freire, J. T. 2007. Freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g of acerola (Malpighia<br />

glabra L.). Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 46, 451–457.<br />

2006

Rehydration characteristics of freeze-dried avocado (Persea americana)<br />

D. S. Souza a ; J. D. R. Pimentel a ; M. M. Prado b ; L. G. Marques b ;N. Nara<strong>in</strong> a<br />

a<br />

Post-Graduate Program <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology (NUCTA)/ Federal University of Sergipe, São<br />

Cristóvão-SE, Brazil (narendra.nara<strong>in</strong>@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Department of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>/Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE, Brazil<br />

(luanda_gimeno@yahoo.com.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)is a commercially valuable crop whose trees and fruits are<br />

cultivated <strong>in</strong> tropical climates throughout the world. Approximately 75% of an avocado’s<br />

calories come from fat, most of which is monounsaturated fat [1]. Several researchers have<br />

attempted to obta<strong>in</strong> stable avocado pulp, us<strong>in</strong>g a series of preservation methods. Dried products<br />

are usually rehydrated prior to their use. Rehydration is a complex process aimed at the<br />

restoration of the properties of the raw product. The aim of this work was to evaluate the<br />

rehydration capacity of freeze-dried avocado pulp powder and pieces. Peleg and Weibull<br />

equations were used to describe the rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics. The hardness of fresh, freeze-dried<br />

and rehydrated avocado was measured us<strong>in</strong>g a texture analyser.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The avocado fruits (variety Coll<strong>in</strong>son) were purchased <strong>in</strong> the city of Aracaju - SE. In order to<br />

assess the <strong>in</strong>fluence of different geometries on the rehydration process, the samples were cut <strong>in</strong><br />

the shape of cubes, slabs and disks. Samples of beaten avocado pulp were also prepared. After<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g, the samples were dried <strong>in</strong> a laboratorial scale freeze-dryer. Lyophilized avocado<br />

powder was rehydrated <strong>in</strong> a equipment similar to that proposed by Mart<strong>in</strong>s & P<strong>in</strong>to [2], while<br />

freeze-dried avocado slices were rehydrated by immers<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong> a water bath at room<br />

temperature [3]. The equations proposed by Peleg and Weibull, which can be given by,<br />

respectively:<br />

where k1 is a k<strong>in</strong>etic constant with dimension of time and k2 is a dimensionless parameter,<br />

which is related to the maximum moisture content at saturation, Xe; X0 is the <strong>in</strong>itial moisture<br />

content (d. b.), X is the moisture content at time (d. b.); and is the shape parameter<br />

(dimensionless), is the scale parameter, with dimension of time. Tests on texture were carried<br />

out with fresh, freeze-dried and rehydrated samples at room temperature us<strong>in</strong>g a Texture<br />

Analyser.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1 shows the rehydration k<strong>in</strong>etics of freeze-dried avocado pieces of different geometries<br />

and the fit of the Weibull equation. It may be noted that the structure <strong>in</strong> which the samples<br />

were lyophilized <strong>in</strong>fluenced the rehydration process. The curves showed a typical behaviour of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2007

ehydration with a fast <strong>in</strong>itial water absorption period followed by a slower rate <strong>in</strong> the later<br />

stages. It can be seen that the equilibrium moisture content at saturation does not reach the<br />

moisture content of the raw avocado, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that changes us<strong>in</strong>g the freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

are irreversible. However, compar<strong>in</strong>g these results with the avocado dried us<strong>in</strong>g tray-dryer [4],<br />

it is evident that the freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g produces a best product.<br />

Figure 1. Moisture content <strong>in</strong> dry basis as a function of time dur<strong>in</strong>g rehydration of freeze-dried avocado<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Lee et al. [4], it is possible that the cube samples did not <strong>in</strong>duced significant<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternal alignment of avocado cell structure. On the other hand, the disk and slab<br />

samples could have caused damages <strong>in</strong> this cell structure, which acted as <strong>in</strong>ternal resistance to<br />

the water flow dur<strong>in</strong>g rehydration.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The powder obta<strong>in</strong>ed from freeze-dried beaten pulp and avocado cube presented the higher<br />

rehydration rates and moisture contents at saturation. The Weibull equation was found to be the<br />

most suitable to describe the rehydration behaviour of freeze-dried avocado <strong>in</strong> all geometries<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> this work. The texture of avocado was affected by both the lyophilization and<br />

rehydration processes as well as by the sample geometry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Fernandes, F. A. N.; Rodrigues, S.; Law, C. L. & Mujumdar, A. S. 2010. Dry<strong>in</strong>g of Exotic Tropical<br />

Fruits: A Comprehensive Review. <strong>Food</strong> Bioprocess Technol, DOI 10.1007/s11947-010-0323-7,<br />

published onl<strong>in</strong>e, 24 February.<br />

[2]. Mart<strong>in</strong>s, P. C. & P<strong>in</strong>to, L. A. A. 2003. Caracterização da secagem de cebola (Allium cepa L) em<br />

camada delgada e da reidratação do produto desidratado. Brazilian Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Technology,<br />

6(3), 144-151.<br />

[3]. Marques, L. G.; Prado, M. M. & Freire, J. T. 2009. Rehydration characteristics of freeze-dried<br />

tropical fruits. LWT-<strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 42, 1232-1237.<br />

[4]. Lee, K. T.; Farid, M. & Nguang, S. K. 2006. The mathematical modell<strong>in</strong>g of the rehydration<br />

characteristics of fruits. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 72, 16–23.<br />

2008

Studies on the cook<strong>in</strong>g conditions and mechanical koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g of black beans<br />

Chia-L<strong>in</strong>g Jao a , Wen-Ch<strong>in</strong>g Ko b , Kuo-Chiang Hsu c<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tung-Fang Design University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan,<br />

(e0306@ms7.h<strong>in</strong>et.net)<br />

b<br />

Department of Bio<strong>in</strong>dustry Technology, DaYeh University, ChangHua, Taiwan,<br />

(wcko@mail.dyu.edu.tw)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutrition, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, (kchsu@mail.cmu.edu.tw)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Inyu is a traditionally fermented food product <strong>in</strong> Taiwan. It is made from black bean through<br />

soak<strong>in</strong>g with water, cook<strong>in</strong>g, fungus <strong>in</strong>oculat<strong>in</strong>g, artificial koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g, koji-wash<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubat<strong>in</strong>g, salt add<strong>in</strong>g and outdoor ferment<strong>in</strong>g. Though Inyu has special properties <strong>in</strong> flavours<br />

and qualities, its market share is lower than soy sauce made from soybean with wheat by<br />

automatic koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g due to limitation <strong>in</strong> production scale and labour cost. So, to simplify<br />

and ameliorate the Inyu mak<strong>in</strong>g procedure is necessary. In this study, the physical and<br />

chemical properties of the cooked black beans designedly treated at different soak<strong>in</strong>g time,<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature and time by us<strong>in</strong>g response surface methodology (RSM) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> the optimum soak<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g conditions. Furthermore, mechanically kojimak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

method <strong>in</strong> different thickness of the cooked beans was <strong>in</strong>vestigated to evaluate the<br />

feasibility of koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g method for Inyu.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Black beans were soaked with 10-fold volume water at 25 for 2, 4 or 6 h, then cooked at 116,<br />

124 or 132, for 15, 23 or 31 m<strong>in</strong>. The physical and chemical properties of the cooked black<br />

beans were used as the parameters to obta<strong>in</strong> the optimum conditions by RSM. Furthermore,<br />

mechanical koji mak<strong>in</strong>g was performed with Aspergillus oryzae <strong>in</strong> different thickness of the<br />

cooked black beans (6, 12 and 18 cm) at 32±2 and 95%RH to determ<strong>in</strong>e the am<strong>in</strong>o acid<br />

profiles and proximate compositions.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The moisture content and hardness of the cooked black beans <strong>in</strong>creased and decreased,<br />

respectively, with the soak<strong>in</strong>g time and cook<strong>in</strong>g time elongated, however, they were affected<br />

<strong>in</strong>significantly (p0.05) by cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature. The cook<strong>in</strong>g process dur<strong>in</strong>g Inyu production<br />

is for prote<strong>in</strong> denaturation and starch gelat<strong>in</strong>ization of black beans, and the denatured prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

and the gelat<strong>in</strong>ized starches can be digested by the protease and -, -amylase from A. oryzae.<br />

Therefore, the enzyme susceptibility of the cooked black bean is an important parameter for the<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation of optimum conditions of soak<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g process [1, 2]. The protease<br />

susceptibility reached the highest value at the soak<strong>in</strong>g time of 4 h, cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature of<br />

116 and cook<strong>in</strong>g time of 23 m<strong>in</strong> [3]. The - and -amylase susceptibilities of the cooked<br />

black beans were significantly (p0.05) affected by cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature and reached the<br />

highest value at 132. Therefore, the optimum conditions for soak<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g of black<br />

beans were 4 h for soak<strong>in</strong>g time, 23 m<strong>in</strong> for cook<strong>in</strong>g time and 132 for cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2009

At this condition, the moisture content and hardness of the cooked black beans were 50.7% and<br />

61.6 g, respectively.<br />

The protease and amylase activities of the koji reached the highest value of 525.3 and 1127<br />

unit/g dry koji, respectively with the cooked black bean thickness at 12 cm after the 48-hr koji<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g, and those from the mechanical koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g method were both higher than the<br />

traditional method. The proximate compositions of the raw Inyu made from traditional and<br />

mechanical koji mak<strong>in</strong>g were <strong>in</strong>significantly (p0.05) different, however, the glutamic acid<br />

content was higher <strong>in</strong> the raw Inyu made from mechanical koji mak<strong>in</strong>g than traditional mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Cook<strong>in</strong>g time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

15------------------23----------------31<br />

1.00<br />

0.80<br />

0.60<br />

0.40<br />

0.20<br />

0.00<br />

-0.20<br />

-0.40<br />

-0.60<br />

-0.80<br />

Cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature ()<br />

116 124 132<br />

-1.00<br />

-1.00 -0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00<br />

1.00<br />

0.80<br />

0.60<br />

0.40<br />

0.20<br />

0.00<br />

-0.20<br />

-0.40<br />

-0.60<br />

-0.80<br />

-1.00<br />

-1.00 -0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00<br />

1.00<br />

0.80<br />

0.60<br />

0.40<br />

0.20<br />

0.00<br />

-0.20<br />

-0.40<br />

-0.60<br />

-0.80<br />

-1.00<br />

-1.00 -0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00<br />

2-------------------4-----------------6 2------------------4------------------6 2------------------4-----------------6<br />

Soak<strong>in</strong>g time (hr)<br />

Figure 1 Contour plot of protease susceptibility (mg formal<strong>in</strong> nitrogen / g dry sample)<br />

responded with soak<strong>in</strong>g time and cook<strong>in</strong>g time<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The optimum conditions for mak<strong>in</strong>g cooked black beans were at the soak<strong>in</strong>g time of 4 h,<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g temperature of 132 and cook<strong>in</strong>g time of 23 m<strong>in</strong>. The mechanically koji-mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

method should be performed as the 12-cm thickness of cooked black beans fermented for 48 h.<br />

At this condition, the proximate compositions of the raw Inyu were similar to those made by<br />

traditional method. The mechanical method could <strong>in</strong>crease 3 or 4-fold quantity of koji mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and save labour cost as compared to the traditional method.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fumiyosi, M., Hideyuki, Y., Hideki, N. & Enjiro, K. 1990. Influence of soybean-wheat ratio and<br />

water content <strong>in</strong> koji on the quality of matured koji and its soy-mash. Journal of Japanese Soy Sauce<br />

Research Institution, 16, 133-137.<br />

[2] Yong, F.M. & Wood, B.J.B. 1977. Biochemical changes <strong>in</strong> experimental soy sauce koji. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Technology, 12, 163-175.<br />

[3] Yokotsuka, T. 1986. Soy sauce biochemistry. Advanced <strong>Food</strong> Research, 30, 195-329.<br />

2010

The use of xylanase to improve physicochemical characteristics of nixtamalized corn<br />

flour and tortilla texture obta<strong>in</strong>ed by extrusion<br />

Benjamín. Ramírez-Wong b,f , Luis C. Platt-Lucero a,b , Patricia I. Torres-Chávez b , Jaime López-Cervantes a ,<br />

Dalia I. Sánchez-Machado a , Elizabeth Carvajal-Millán c , Fernando Martínez-Bustos d , Armando Qu<strong>in</strong>tero-<br />

Ramos e , and Ignacio Morales Rosas b<br />

a<br />

Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora. Cd. Obregón, Sonora, México.<br />

b<br />

Depto. de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos. Universidad de Sonora. Hermosillo, Sonora, México.<br />

c<br />

Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A,C. Hermosillo, Sonora, México.<br />

d<br />

C<strong>in</strong>vestav Querétaro. Querétaro, México.<br />

e<br />

Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México.<br />

f<br />

Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author. Phone: (662) 2-59-22-07. E-mail: bramirez@guaymas.uson.mx.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The soften<strong>in</strong>g of most corn pericarp layers is essential to form masa with acceptable sheet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

characteristics [3]. The use of the enzyme xylanase is a novel way to improve the production of<br />

corn tortillas from extruded nixtamalized corn flour. Xylanase hydrolyzes the -1,4-glycosidic<br />

bonds of xylose on the backbone of arab<strong>in</strong>oxylans. The cleavage produces arab<strong>in</strong>oxylans of<br />

lower molecular weight that affect the physicochemical and rheological characteristics of masa<br />

[1]. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of xylanase on the water absorption<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex and water absorption capacity of ENCF. Moreover, the viscoelastic characteristics of<br />

masa, the texture of resultant tortillas and an assessment of tortilla quality via a sensory panel<br />

were <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Commercial white corn, commercial hydrated lime powder and Gr<strong>in</strong>damyl Powerbake 7500,<br />

an un<strong>in</strong>hibited component of xylanase preparation from Bacillus subtilis, with an activity of<br />

163 000 U/g were used. Samples of ground corn were blended <strong>in</strong> a mixer with 0.3% (w/w)<br />

lime. Xylanase, previously diluted <strong>in</strong> water, was immediately added to the mixture to reach a<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al moisture content of 30%. Xylanase concentrations used were 0, 0.05, 0.075 or 0.1%<br />

(w/w). Extrusion was performed <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle-screw laboratory extruder. The extrusion zone<br />

temperatures were 60 °C, 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C. Extrudates were dried. Then, the extrudates<br />

were ground <strong>in</strong> a mill until 61-63% of the accumulated material had passed through the 80<br />

mesh to obta<strong>in</strong> nixtamalized corn flour (ENCF). Tortillas were prepared with ENCF samples<br />

(1.5 kg) with distilled water <strong>in</strong> accordance with the water absorption capacity (WAC). The<br />

water absorption <strong>in</strong>dex (WAI) and WAC were determ<strong>in</strong>ed on each ENCF. Moisture content<br />

and viscoelastic characteristics (G', G'' and Tan ) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the corn masa. Firmness<br />

and rollability were measured at 2, 24 and 48 h after tortillas were made. Firmness was<br />

measured us<strong>in</strong>g the Kramer’s Cell attached to a texture analyzer. Tortillas with the best<br />

treatment (firmness) were evaluated by sensory evaluation. A completely randomized design<br />

was used. An analysis of variance was performed for all data gathered. The Tukey test (P <<br />

0.05) was used to compare specific treatments.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2011

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The ENCF treated with xylanase showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher WAI and WAC than<br />

the ENCF control. This may be attributed to the effect of xylanase on the arab<strong>in</strong>oxylans <strong>in</strong> the<br />

extruded corn flour. The WAI of extruded flour without xylanase was similar to that reported<br />

by Platt et al. [2]. The magnitude of Tan <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g treatments of xylanase <strong>in</strong><br />

comparison to the control without xylanase. This could <strong>in</strong>dicate that corn masas became more<br />

viscous <strong>in</strong> the presence of xylanase because it made the masa softer and changed the<br />

viscoelastic properties. The Tan values of ENCF at 0.075 and 0.1% xylanase showed no<br />

statistical differences (P > 0.05). Tortilla firmness <strong>in</strong>creased with storage time (Fig. 1). The<br />

addition of xylanase decreased the rupture force value <strong>in</strong> tortillas as xylanase concentration<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased. The effect was more significant at 0.075 and 0.1% (w/w) xylanase. Tortillas with<br />

these two levels of xylanase showed no statistical differences (P > 0.05), and they were 15%<br />

less firm (softer) than the tortillas made from ENCF without enzyme. Tortillas made with the<br />

extruded flour conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g xylanase were more flexible, and they ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed high rollability<br />

scores dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. Corn tortillas made with ENCF conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g xylanase enzyme had<br />

acceptable organoleptic characteristics.<br />

Firmness (kPa)<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

ENCF<br />

ENCF with xylanase (0.05 %)<br />

ENCF with xylanase (0.075 %)<br />

ENCF with xylanase (0.1 %)<br />

2 24<br />

Storage Time (h)<br />

48<br />

Figure 1. Firmness of tortillas produced from extruded nixtamalized corn flours (ENCF) dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The tortillas made from extruded flour with xylanase had a softer texture than tortillas made<br />

without the enzyme.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Court<strong>in</strong> C.M. & Delcour J.A. 2001. Relative activity of endoxylanases towards water-extractable and<br />

water-<strong>in</strong>extractable arab<strong>in</strong>oxylan. Journal of Cereal Science, 33, 301-312.<br />

[2] Platt-Lucero L.C., Ramírez-Wong, B., Torres-Chávez, P.I., López-Cervantes, J., Sánchez-Machado,<br />

D.I., Reyes-Moreno, C., Millán-Carrillo, J., & Morales-Rosas, I. 2010. Improv<strong>in</strong>g textural<br />

characteristics of tortillas by add<strong>in</strong>g gums dur<strong>in</strong>g extrusion to obta<strong>in</strong> nixtamalized corn flour. Journal<br />

of Texture Studies, 41, 736-755.<br />

[3] Serna-Saldivar S.O., Almeida-Dom<strong>in</strong>guez H.D., Gomez M.H., Bockholt A.J., & Rooney L.W. 1991.<br />

Methods to evaluate ease of pericarp removal on lime-cooked corn kernels. Crop Science, 31,842.<br />

2012

The design of non-contact automatic shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e of chestnut and the<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation of its effect by means of chestnut shell<strong>in</strong>g experiment<br />

Hong-Wei Xiao a , Zhi-Long Du b , Zheng Lou a ,Li-Hong Wang a , Jun-Wen Bai a , Zhen-Jiang Gao a *<br />

a College of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a (hwxiao82@gmail.com)<br />

b Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences, Beij<strong>in</strong>g 100083 ,Ch<strong>in</strong>a (duzhilong88@163.com)<br />

*Correspond<strong>in</strong>g Author: Zhen-Jiang Gao, Professor, College of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University,<br />

Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a (zjgao@cau.edu.cn)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Presently <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g of chestnut is done manually, which is tedious, time consum<strong>in</strong>g and labor<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensive [1].To overcome the problems that occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g chestnut shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g, the laser cutt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

technique was applied to chestnut shell-cutt<strong>in</strong>g and a new chestnut shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the present<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation. Another objective was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of the power <strong>in</strong>tensity of laser and the<br />

velocity of conveyor on the performance of chestnut shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g and to optimize the process parameters.<br />

The Design Theoretical Basis<br />

Laser cutt<strong>in</strong>g technique was used to replace the rotary blades dur<strong>in</strong>g the chestnut shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g process. It<br />

is known that laser is the high energy particles which were excited out of the high <strong>in</strong>tensity of radiation.<br />

This can make the power density and the temperature of the focus reach up to 107-1012W/cm2 and 104<br />

, respectively [2]. Us<strong>in</strong>g the above characteristics of laser a new chestnut shell cutt<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e was<br />

designed, which formed traces <strong>in</strong> the chestnut shell that is the laser cutt<strong>in</strong>g scratches.<br />

The Whole Structure and Work<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />

The mach<strong>in</strong>e was consisted by the vibration feeder, V-shaped belt, motor drive system, laser generator,<br />

mirrors for laser reflection and focus<strong>in</strong>g, control panel et al. The operat<strong>in</strong>g procedures are as follows: put<br />

the chestnuts <strong>in</strong>to the hopper; slide along the slop<strong>in</strong>g trough to the V-shaped conveyor belt; adjust<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

velocity of conveyor and mirrors for laser reflection and focus<strong>in</strong>g to cut open the chestnut shells and can’t<br />

hurt the flesh.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fresh chestnuts used <strong>in</strong> the present study were purchased from a local supermarket <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g, Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

which were harvested from Huairou a famous chestnut production area.<br />

The experiments were carried out accord<strong>in</strong>g to Table 1. The effects of two <strong>in</strong>dependent parameters power<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity of laser (A) and velocity of conveyor (B) on the shell<strong>in</strong>g rate as presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1 were<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated us<strong>in</strong>g orthogonal design and range analysis [3]. The experiments were repeated twice and the<br />

average values were used. The shell<strong>in</strong>g rate was used to evaluate the cutt<strong>in</strong>g performance follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

methodology described by Gao et al. [1] with sligh modification. The cut chestnuts were spread <strong>in</strong> a<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gle layer <strong>in</strong> an imp<strong>in</strong>gement oven with 180oC and 8m/s as its shell<strong>in</strong>g temperature and hot air velocity,<br />

respectively. After 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes the SR (shell<strong>in</strong>g rate) was calculated us<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g equation (1):<br />

SR= shell<strong>in</strong>g 100%<br />

(1)<br />

total<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2013

Table 1. Experiments were scheduled and analyzed by orthogonal design method<br />

Experiments<br />

number<br />

Factor A<br />

Laser power (W)<br />

Factor B<br />

velocity of conveyor (m/s)<br />

Shell<strong>in</strong>g rate (%)<br />

1 40 0.06 55<br />

2 60 0.06 96<br />

3 80 0.06 98<br />

4 40 0.12 20<br />

5 60 0.12 67<br />

6 80 0.12 97<br />

7 40 0.18 5<br />

8 60 0.18 24<br />

9 80 0.18 73<br />

K1 80 249<br />

Summation of each<br />

K2 187 184<br />

factor <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

K3 268 102<br />

k1=K1/3 26.7 83<br />

k2=K2/3 62.3 61.3<br />

k3=K3/3 89.3 34<br />

Range analyse 62.6 49<br />

Optimum<br />

experimental<br />

condition<br />

A3 (80W) B1 (0.06m/s)<br />

The average of<br />

summation of each<br />

factor <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

Where KX=summation of each factor <strong>in</strong>dex, kx=the average of summation of each factor <strong>in</strong>dex=Kx/3<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

From Table 1, it can be found that the shell<strong>in</strong>g rate of cut chestnuts <strong>in</strong>creased with the <strong>in</strong>crease of the<br />

laser power. When the velocity of chestnut conveyor was kept at 0.06m/s, the chestnut shell<strong>in</strong>g rate was<br />

55%, 96% and 98% at laser power of 40, 60, and 80W, respectively. The effect of the power <strong>in</strong>tensity of<br />

laser on chestnut shell<strong>in</strong>g rate was more dist<strong>in</strong>ct than velocity of conveyor. It also can be observed that<br />

the shell<strong>in</strong>g rate decreased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the transport velocity of chestnut. The optimum process<br />

parameter was 80W and 0.12m/s, the chestnut shell<strong>in</strong>g was about 97%.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The laser cutt<strong>in</strong>g technique was applied to chestnut shell-cutt<strong>in</strong>g and a new chestnut shell-cutt<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />

has been designed. The experiments of chestnut shell-cutt<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g laser <strong>in</strong>dicated that the chestnut<br />

shell<strong>in</strong>g rate <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of the laser power or decreased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of transport<br />

velocity.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Gao Z.J., L<strong>in</strong> H., Xiao H.W. 2008 Air-imp<strong>in</strong>gement De-shell<strong>in</strong>g of Chestnuts(C.mollisima):<strong>Process</strong> Parameter<br />

Optimization. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 4(2), Article 14.<br />

[2] Yan J.X. 2004. Laser Priciples and Technology[M]. Beij<strong>in</strong>g: Higher Education Press. (<strong>in</strong> Chiese)<br />

[3] Yuan Z.F. & Zhou J.Y. 2000. Experimental design and analysis. Beij<strong>in</strong>g: Higher Education Press (<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese).<br />

2014

Relationship between chromatographic profil<strong>in</strong>g by HS-SPME and sensory quality of<br />

mandar<strong>in</strong> juices: effect of squeeze technology<br />

Rafael Alvarez Qu<strong>in</strong>tero a , Catar<strong>in</strong>a Passaro Carvalho b , Oscar Lara Guzmán a , Julian Londono Londoño a<br />

a<br />

Grupo de Investigación en Sustancias Bioactivas (GISB), Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia<br />

(malvarez153@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA), C. I. La Selva, Rio Negro- Antioquia,<br />

Colombia (cpassaro@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The sensory quality is of great importance to the consumer and several studies have shown that the citrus<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial process can affect chemical and sensorial properties of the juice <strong>in</strong>dustry. For citrus flavors,<br />

there have been proposed impact compounds for some sensorial notes. For mandar<strong>in</strong> flavors, methyl-<br />

Nanthranilate and thymol are associated with sensorial notes, with additional contributions from -p<strong>in</strong>ene<br />

and -terp<strong>in</strong>ene. In this study, we determ<strong>in</strong>e the effect of different squeeze technology commonly used <strong>in</strong><br />

tropical countries, on chemical and sensorial quality parameters of mandar<strong>in</strong> Clement<strong>in</strong>e juice, and the<br />

relationship between HS-SPME and sensory analysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Citrus fruits, essential oil and juice extraction<br />

Fruits (Citrus clement<strong>in</strong>a, Hort. Ex. Tanaka) with commercial maturity <strong>in</strong>dex were harvested at Támesis,<br />

Colombia (5º 42'N, 75º 40'W, and 775m above see level) <strong>in</strong> March 2010. The fruits were randomly<br />

divided <strong>in</strong>to three lots of 100 fruit. Hydrodistillation of mandar<strong>in</strong> essential oil was performed by the<br />

method from United States Pharmacopoeia (USP 25). The fruits were squeezed us<strong>in</strong>g two technologies:<br />

(A) like Zumex® and (B) like FMC®. After squeezed, juices were refrigerated until analysis.<br />

HS-SPME and GC/MS analysis<br />

The juices were subjected to HS-SPME analysis us<strong>in</strong>g the fiber<br />

div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane. Extraction time and temperature was 3 h and 40 ºC,<br />

respectively. SPME fibber was <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong>to the GC <strong>in</strong>jector at 260 °C for 1 m<strong>in</strong>. The volatile compounds<br />

were analysed by a Agilent 7890 GC/MS 5975C, and two capillary columns: HP-1MS and HP-5MS.<br />

Temperature of the oven was 200 ºC for 10 m<strong>in</strong>, the <strong>in</strong>jector temperature was 260 ºC and the carrier gas<br />

was He (1.3 mL/m<strong>in</strong>). The MSD temperatures of the ionization chamber and MS Quad were 230 and<br />

150ºC, respectively. Mass spectra were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by automatic scann<strong>in</strong>g at 4.51 scans1 with energy<br />

ionization 70 eV, <strong>in</strong> the mass range m/z 40–350. Identification of the components was based on the<br />

comparison of their retention <strong>in</strong>dex (RI) and by match<strong>in</strong>g with commercial mass spectral libraries<br />

(NIST/EPA/NIH, 2008), The software AMDIS 2.68 and database<br />

(http://www.pherobase.com/database/kovats/kovats-<strong>in</strong>dex.php).<br />

Sensory evaluation<br />

Sensory evaluation, was carried out by a tra<strong>in</strong>ed sensory panel of eight women <strong>in</strong> a certified laboratory<br />

(NTC 3884, same as ISO 8589). A sensorial profile by multidimensional approximation was established<br />

based on the NTC 3925, 3501 and 3932. All descriptors were score on a 6-po<strong>in</strong>t category scale (0 = none<br />

and 5 = strong); and general quality was score on a 3-po<strong>in</strong>t category scale (1 = low and 3 = high). For<br />

each treatment three samples were evaluated, and three replicates for each treatment.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2015

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

All volatile compounds f<strong>in</strong>d for both squeez<strong>in</strong>g technologies, have been previously reported for citrus,<br />

nevertheless, strik<strong>in</strong>g differences were observed <strong>in</strong> volatiles recovered from juice squeezed with<br />

technology A and B (Figure 1). For both technologies (A and B), the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal volatile components were<br />

monoterpenes: cyclics (97.41–88.76%) and non cyclics (1.19-6.95%), no terpenic compounds (0.61–<br />

2.71%) and sesquiterpenes (0.29–0.59%). The limonene content <strong>in</strong> the volatile fraction was 97.51% and<br />

65.49% for juice (A) and (B), respectively. Other substances such as aldehydes, alcohols and<br />

sesquiterpenes reported quantitative differences, and additionally some compounds were not detected. For<br />

both juices, it is important to notice that methyl-N-anthranilate was not present and thymol was

Effect of magnetic fields and ultrasound on aerobic mesophiles and histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> beef lo<strong>in</strong><br />

tuna lo<strong>in</strong> tuna (Thunnus albacares)<br />

Víctor. Manuel. Gélvez, Ordóñez a , Lorenzo Fuentes Berrio a .<br />

a<br />

University de Pamplona-ab University of Cartagena-Colombia<br />

E-mail: vmgelvez@unipamplona.edu.co – lfuentesb@unicartagena.edu.co<br />

a<br />

Group Research <strong>in</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> Technology: GINTAL - Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

University of Pamplona- Colombia<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Tuna as well as other species of fish is a food of high nutritional quality, their prote<strong>in</strong>s conta<strong>in</strong><br />

all essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids required by the Agency, it has an important content <strong>in</strong> vitam<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

m<strong>in</strong>erals. Its consumption has been associated, with a decrease <strong>in</strong> cardiovascular accidents<br />

attributed to the presence of polyunsaturated, fatty acids like Eicosapentaenoic Acid and<br />

decosahexaenoic acid (Omega 3) [1].<br />

It is well known that the tuna produces a series of compounds as histam<strong>in</strong>e is prejudicial to<br />

health, which is formed <strong>in</strong> the State post-mortem of the fish by the bacterial decarboxylation of<br />

the am<strong>in</strong>o acid Histid<strong>in</strong>e. The affected fish are often those with a high content of belong<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

the family Scombridae (tuna and the macarellus) Histid<strong>in</strong>e histam<strong>in</strong>e content is an obstacle to<br />

export species tunidas from the tropics and subtropics <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational markets [2].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Procurement of raw materials<br />

Raw filet tuna species Thunnus albacares, was supplied by the company Atunec S.A.,<br />

Industrial area Barranquilla.<br />

Application of high-<strong>in</strong>tensity ultrasound.<br />

Treatment by ultrasound (US) was used <strong>in</strong> a computer (Elmasonic E, 37 kHz), with regulation<br />

of <strong>in</strong>tensity and temperature, time as transmission medium used de-ionized water of high<br />

purity, the trials were done <strong>in</strong> triplicate. Times of treatments were 0, 3, 4 and 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Application of magnetic fields<br />

In treatment by static magnetic fields (MF) a computer (Scoli, 8A N240, R = 2.8 ohm) was<br />

used with an <strong>in</strong>tensity of 1 Tesla, the trials were done <strong>in</strong> triplicate. Treatment times were 0.3, 4-<br />

5 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of treatment with ultrasound on aerobic mesophiles<br />

Figure 1. Presents the effect of treatments with US on aerobic mesophiles counts <strong>in</strong> beef Lo<strong>in</strong><br />

of tuna. Where control shows more content aerobic, Mesophiles that samples treated with US<br />

where stands the effect of treatment on the microbiota. The statistical analysis conducted,<br />

showed significant differences (p< 0,05) among the all the tuna meat samples. The above<br />

results are attributed to the effect that generates the <strong>in</strong>tracellular cavitation phenomenon which<br />

causes <strong>in</strong>activation or microbial destruction <strong>in</strong> feed, due to the damage <strong>in</strong> the cell walls of<br />

micro-organisms [3],[4], and <strong>in</strong> the cytoplasmic membrane[5] [6] also reported shocks<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2017

generated by cavitation <strong>in</strong>jured structural components and functional cell lysis of the same<br />

extent.<br />

Figure 1. Effect of ultrasound (37 KHz) on aerobic mesophiles <strong>in</strong> beef lo<strong>in</strong> tuna<br />

Effect of treatment with ultrasound on production of histam<strong>in</strong>e<br />

The determ<strong>in</strong>ation of histam<strong>in</strong>e production was effected <strong>in</strong> beef lo<strong>in</strong> tuna lo<strong>in</strong> tuna stored at 4 °<br />

C for five 5 days, and the effect of the US is shown <strong>in</strong> table 1. Results show reduced histam<strong>in</strong>e<br />

production is proportional to the time of treatment and that there is significant difference<br />

between each of the analyzed sample, which can be attributed to the phenomenon of cavitation,<br />

which for very short time can reach temperatures of 5,500 ° C and pressures of 50 MPa [7].<br />

And they agreed, [8], who claim the histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> tuna flesh denatures treatments of 116 ° C for<br />

90 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The content of histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> meat tuna after treatment with US for ever applied is<br />

below the m<strong>in</strong>imum values reported by the Social Security M<strong>in</strong>istry, which is100 mg/kg of<br />

beef and fish [9].<br />

Table 1. Shows the effect of ultrasound (37 KHz) <strong>in</strong> the production of histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> beef lo<strong>in</strong> tuna<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Application of ultrasound, and magnetic fields for 3,4 or 5 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> tuna meat reduces<br />

significantly (p < 0,05) its aerobic mesophiles flora and the production of histam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the five<br />

days of storage <strong>in</strong> cool<strong>in</strong>g. Therefore, this k<strong>in</strong>d of technology can be used as a means of<br />

conservation of the fishery products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] FDA (<strong>Food</strong> and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration). (1998). Scombrotox<strong>in</strong> (histam<strong>in</strong>e) formation. In: Fish and fishery products<br />

hazards and control guide (2nd ed., pp. 73–90). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Public<br />

Health Service, Nutrition, Office of Seafood. [2] Yang, T.S. (1999). A new high-<strong>in</strong>tensity ultrasonic technology for<br />

food dehydration. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 17, 597- 608. [3] Pothakamury, U., Barletta, B., Barbosa, G., Swanson, B.<br />

(1993). Inactivación de microorganismos en alimentos usando campos magnéticos oscilantes. Revista Española de<br />

Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos 33: 479-489.<br />

2018

Relationship between pectic substances and strand separation of cooked spaghetti<br />

squash<br />

Kayoko Ishii a<br />

, Ai Teramoto b<br />

, Hiroko Kuwada a<br />

, Yuri Jibu c<br />

, Mayumi Tabuchi c<br />

, Yasumi Kimura a<br />

, Michiko<br />

a<br />

Fuchigami a<br />

Department of Nutrition and Life Science, Fukuyama University, Fukuyama, Japan<br />

(ishii@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp; kuwada@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp; kimura@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp;<br />

fuchigam@fubac.fukuyama-u.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Department of Health and Nutrition, Kanto Gaku<strong>in</strong> University, Yokohama, Japan (teramoto@kantogaku<strong>in</strong>.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutritional Science, Okayama Prefectural University, Soja, Japan (yjibu@fhw.okapu.ac.jp,<br />

tabuchi@fhw.oka-pu.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Spaghetti squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) is one of the hard-shelled squashes <strong>in</strong> the cucurbit family<br />

and typically grown as a w<strong>in</strong>ter squash. It is an American native vegetable. It is rugby ball<br />

sized and oval-shaped and the r<strong>in</strong>d is hard and ivory colored at maturity. Its center conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />

many large squash seeds. It has a mild taste and crisp texture and may be boiled, steamed,<br />

baked or microwaved. When cooked, the flesh can be pulled apart to form strands that<br />

resemble spaghetti, hence its name.<br />

Pect<strong>in</strong> is the ma<strong>in</strong> component of the middle lamella. It contributes to adhesion between<br />

parenchyma cells of vegetables and mechanical strength of tissues. Maceration of vegetable<br />

tissues seems to be brought about ma<strong>in</strong>ly by the degradation of pect<strong>in</strong> [1]. The soften<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

vegetables dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g is affected by the properties of pectic substances, especially the<br />

degree of esterification [1][2]. The high methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> easily broke down <strong>in</strong> hot neutral<br />

solution and alkal<strong>in</strong>e solutions by -elim<strong>in</strong>ation [3][4].<br />

Therefore, the cause of the separation <strong>in</strong>to strands dur<strong>in</strong>g boil<strong>in</strong>g of spaghetti squash seems to<br />

be pectic substances which play a substantial role <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of <strong>in</strong>tercellular cohesion,<br />

especially high methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> which breaks down by cook<strong>in</strong>g. Thus, the purpose of this<br />

paper is to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the relationship of spaghetti squash pectic substances and the separation<br />

<strong>in</strong>to strands dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Sample preparation, texture and structure measurements<br />

Spaghetti squash was cut <strong>in</strong>to 2 cm long pieces, peeled and the seeds discarded. Flesh samples<br />

were dropped <strong>in</strong>to boil<strong>in</strong>g distilled water and cooked for 15 m<strong>in</strong>, 30 m<strong>in</strong> or soaked <strong>in</strong> 0.01N<br />

HCl solution (pH 2.0) for 24 hrs at 35°C. Texture and histological structures of samples were<br />

measured us<strong>in</strong>g a rheometer (NRM-2002J, Fudo Ltd.) and a cryo-scann<strong>in</strong>g electron microscope<br />

(S-4500, Hitachi Ltd.) , respectively.<br />

Extraction of pect<strong>in</strong> and analysis of extracts<br />

Pectic substances of raw and boiled samples were successively extracted as follows: 0.01N<br />

HCl (at pH 2.0 and 35°C), 0.1M sodium acetate buffer (at pH 4.0 and 35°C) and 2% sodium<br />

hexametaphosphate solution (at pH 4.0 and 90°C) [1][2]. These extracts were designated as<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2019

PA, PB and PC, respectively. The DEAE-cellulose column chromatography of PA, PB and PC,<br />

extracted from both raw and 15 m<strong>in</strong> cooked flesh, was performed by the same method reported<br />

previously [1]. The degree of esterification of PA, PB and PC were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a gaschromatographic<br />

procedure [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> texture and histological structure of spaghetti squash dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Spaghetti squash flesh separated <strong>in</strong>to strands when boiled or soaked <strong>in</strong> a 0.01N HCl solution of<br />

pH 2.0. The shape of cells, which constituted strands, was different from the cells which<br />

surrounded strands. The former was round and the latter was elongated. When cooked, the<br />

shape of the former was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed, but the latter, which contributed to adhesion between<br />

strands, broke down. Thus, flesh separated <strong>in</strong>to strands. After cook<strong>in</strong>g for 15 m<strong>in</strong> or soak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

0.01N HCl solution, cell separation <strong>in</strong> the middle lamella was observed.<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> pectic substances of spaghetti squash dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />

The amount of PA, PB and PC <strong>in</strong> raw samples was 237.4 mg, 99.6 mg and 7.3 mg / 100 g,<br />

respectively. The degree of esterification (DE) of PA, PB and PC was 67.4%, 61.5% and<br />

55.6%, respectively. The percentage of PA, which was high methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong>, was greatest.<br />

Therefore, when squash was cooked for 15 m<strong>in</strong>, about 50% of pectic substances were released,<br />

perhaps because high methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> was broken down by -elim<strong>in</strong>ation. The DE of spaghetti<br />

squash was higher than DE of the other vegetables such as lotus, burdock and bamboo shoot.<br />

Thus, the squash was more easily softened than lotus, burdock and bamboo shoot after<br />

cook<strong>in</strong>g. The amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, lign<strong>in</strong> and pect<strong>in</strong> of spaghetti squash were<br />

similar to Japanese radish root. This suggests that cellulose, hemicellulose and pect<strong>in</strong><br />

rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> strands after cook<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed crisp tender strands.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Spaghetti squash separated <strong>in</strong>to strands when boiled or soaked <strong>in</strong> HCl solution of pH 2.0. High<br />

methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> was degraded by -elim<strong>in</strong>ation dur<strong>in</strong>g boil<strong>in</strong>g and extracted by soak<strong>in</strong>g;<br />

consequently, the flesh separated <strong>in</strong>to strands. This suggests that high methoxyl pect<strong>in</strong> glues<br />

cells together <strong>in</strong> the flesh of spaghetti squash.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]. Fuchigami, M. 1987. Relationship Between Pectic Compositions and the Soften<strong>in</strong>g of the Texture of<br />

Japanese Radish Roots Dur<strong>in</strong>g Cook<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 52(5), 1317-1320.<br />

[2]. Fuchigami, M. & Okamoto, K. 1984. Fractionation of Pectic Substances <strong>in</strong> Several Vegetables by<br />

Successive Extraction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid and Acetic Buffer Solutions. Journal of<br />

Japanese Society for Nutrition and <strong>Food</strong> Science, 37(1), 57-64.<br />

[3]. Albersheim, P., Neukom, H., & Duel, H. 1960. Splitt<strong>in</strong>g of Pect<strong>in</strong> Molecules <strong>in</strong> Neutral Solution.<br />

Archives Biochemistry and Biophysics, 90, 46-51.<br />

[4]. Neukom, H. & Deuel, H. 1960. Uber den Abbau von Pekt<strong>in</strong>stoffen bei Alkalisher Reaction. Beiheft.<br />

zu den Zeitschr. des Schweiz. Forstv. 30, 223-235.<br />

[5]. Baltolome, L.B. & Hoff, J.E. 1972. Gas Chromatographic Methods for the Assay of Pect<strong>in</strong><br />

Methylesterase, Free Methanol, and Methoxy Group <strong>in</strong> Plant Tissues. Journal of Agricultural <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 20(2), 262-266.<br />

2020

Improvement of an enzymatic process to elaborate orange segments <strong>in</strong> syrup<br />

Robles-López R. a *, Dorantes-Nieto A. a , Díaz-Carvajal D. a , Robles-De la Torre R.R. a . Bibb<strong>in</strong>s-Martínez<br />

M.D. a .<br />

a Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicada CIBA–IPN, Tlaxcala, km 1.5 Carretera Tepetitla-<br />

Tecuexcomac, Tepetitla de Lardizabal, CP 90700, México, *(mreynarobles@yahoo.com).<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The production of oranges potential <strong>in</strong> Mexico is <strong>in</strong> some places with<strong>in</strong> the top worldwide<br />

producers, but due to the lack of new technologies, it is necessary to generate higher value<br />

added products. An alternative to orange process<strong>in</strong>g is to obta<strong>in</strong> segments <strong>in</strong> syrup, which<br />

significantly would <strong>in</strong>creases its market value. There exists a variety of methods, to obta<strong>in</strong> the<br />

orange segments <strong>in</strong> syrup, be<strong>in</strong>g the enzymatic method, the most technically and economic<br />

viable. Hence the importance of this project, whose ma<strong>in</strong> objective is to improve the enzymatic<br />

process for orange segments elaboration, giv<strong>in</strong>g sensorial properties resembles those of fresh<br />

fruit.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The orange fruit was characterized physically and chemically, be<strong>in</strong>g the maturity degree 4, the<br />

proposed to obta<strong>in</strong> complete segments with an ideal degree of acidity and sweetness. To<br />

remove the flavedo, thermal (5, 3, y 1.5 m<strong>in</strong> 90-93ºC), mechanic (manually with the help of a<br />

knife), chemical (HCl 1%, NaOH 2%, 93ºC, 1 m<strong>in</strong>, 2 m<strong>in</strong> and 5 m<strong>in</strong>) and enzymatic methods<br />

were evaluated.<br />

Albedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation. The oranges without flavedo were segmented manually and then chemical,<br />

mechanic and enzymatic methods were evaluated with this purpose. The chemical one,<br />

<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>cubation <strong>in</strong> HCl diluted for 20 m<strong>in</strong> at room temperature, 0.75 % NaOH, 20 m<strong>in</strong>, at<br />

55-60ºC and 0.5% sodium bicarbonate. The enzymatic method at pH constant of 5.0 and<br />

different enzymes (Peelzym TM I, IV, Rapidase Prima TM , and Macerex (R) , concentrations (0.1,<br />

0.5, 1, 2, 5 and 10 % v/v), and times (30 to 60 m<strong>in</strong>) were used. sugar concentration was<br />

measured at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g and at the end of albedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation. Thermal <strong>in</strong>activation was used<br />

<strong>in</strong> enzymatic treatment, the residual activity was evaluated spectrophotometrically at 235nm.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

For flabedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation, thermal with pure water at 93°C for 1.5 m<strong>in</strong> was the best treatment<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the fruit without damage and keep<strong>in</strong>g textural and flavor characteristics, (Table 1),<br />

the control of temperature is the most useful and important factor for m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g the defects of<br />

quality. On the other side, chemical 1 m<strong>in</strong>ute treatment at the same conditions was not enough<br />

to facilitate orange peel<strong>in</strong>g and 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes treatment destroyed the fruit. For albedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

the 0.5% enzymatic treatment was the best ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the sugars concentration, sensorial<br />

properties contrast<strong>in</strong>g with chemical method which showed more time consum<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />

affect<strong>in</strong>g the flavor.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2021

Table 1. Resume of results of the different methods for flavedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

Treatment Albedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of chemist residues<br />

H 2 O 90°C; 1.5m<strong>in</strong> Easy There are not chemic contam<strong>in</strong>ant<br />

5% NaOH 100ºC, 1 m<strong>in</strong> Hard With diluted acid<br />

5% NaOH 100ºC, 2 m<strong>in</strong> Very easy With diluted acid, and cold water<br />

5% NaOH 100ºC, 5 m<strong>in</strong> Broken up With diluted acid and cold water<br />

3% Enzyme pH 3.0, 120 m<strong>in</strong> Easy Thermal treatment and cold water, expensive<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g with the sensorial analysis, syrup with 20°Bx, pH 3.5 and 0.05 % sodium benzoate<br />

was the best <strong>in</strong> order to conserve the sensorial characteristics without fresh fruit flavor loss <strong>in</strong> a<br />

period of three mounts.<br />

The orange segments, <strong>in</strong> boil<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t and light syrup stored at 4ºC <strong>in</strong> glass jars, were more<br />

acceptable with respect to the sterilization method and the commercial one. The strong syrup<br />

treatment was pleasant but much sweeter than natural fruit. No microbial activity was present<br />

<strong>in</strong> the products storage at 4ºC after 120 days. Figure 1 shows, segments of the enzimatically<br />

treated segments and the appearance of the bottled product.<br />

Figure 1. Enzymatically treated segments and Orange segments <strong>in</strong> syrup<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

For flavedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation, thermal (95°C) treatment was the best. For albedo elim<strong>in</strong>ation 0.5 %<br />

enzymatic complex at 40ºC by 40 m<strong>in</strong>utes treatment gave best results and kept flavor and sugar<br />

concentrations. Sensorial analysis has shown that developed product received more<br />

acceptability and 100% preference compared to the commercial one.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Janser. E. 1995. Enzymatic Peel<strong>in</strong>g of Fruit. En: Fruit <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Symposium. Parma.<br />

[2] Romajaro. F., Riquelme F., Pretel, M.A., Martínez, G., Serrano, M., Martínez, C., Lozano, P. Segura<br />

P. y Luna, P.A. 1996. Nuevas tecnologías de conservación de frutas y hortalizas. Ediciones Mundi-<br />

Prensa. España. 5: 133- 191.<br />

[3] Torricella. R. G., E. Zamora y H. Pulido. Evaluación sensorial aplicada a la <strong>in</strong>vestigación, desarrollo y<br />

control de la calidad de la <strong>in</strong>dustria alimentaria. Instituto de <strong>in</strong>vestigación para la <strong>in</strong>dustria<br />

alimentaria. La Habana. Cuba. 7: 57- 97.<br />

2022

The Technology of Butters’ enrich<strong>in</strong>g with carrots’ Powder<br />

. Rashevska a professor, .. Vasheka b , assistant<br />

a - National University of <strong>Food</strong> technologies, Kiev, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e, E-mail: rashevsk@nuft.edu.ua<br />

b - National University of <strong>Food</strong> technologies, Kiev, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e E-mail: Oksana.Vasheka@meta.ua<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> scientists of the world consider that the situation of bad health and appear<strong>in</strong>g some chronic<br />

deseases <strong>in</strong> many cases is associated with bad nutrition. Because of this situation one of the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

problems nowadays is new products produc<strong>in</strong>g that are reach for biological active substances. It should be<br />

a harmoniums comb<strong>in</strong>ation of traditional food with natural additions. On the basic of conventional dairy<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es we developed the technologies of functional types of butter with herbal additions. We also provide<br />

<strong>in</strong>sertion additives to the f<strong>in</strong>ished butter dur<strong>in</strong>g its mechanical treatment. The method consist of <strong>in</strong>sertion<br />

the specially prepared suspension of the herbal <strong>in</strong>to the butter dur<strong>in</strong>g its mechanical treatment. The<br />

selection criteria of powders were the functional characteristics and harmonious comb<strong>in</strong>ation with the<br />

taste of the product. Immunemodulatory, oncology and radioprotective properties of carrot are wellknown<br />

and widely used around the world. That is why, the new type of butter with carrot powder was<br />

developed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The subject of research for the microstructure’s study were water suspensions of carrot powders, obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

by thermal, convection and cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g (powder Karotte-100 made by "OBIPEKTIN AG, CH-9220<br />

BISCHOFSZELL", Switzerland). For mak<strong>in</strong>g carrot’s microscopic suspensions’ preparation the powder<br />

was restored <strong>in</strong> water at 30 ... 35 ° C. From the received suspensions a preparation was made for view<strong>in</strong>g<br />

on an optical microscope MIN-8 with light “on pass<strong>in</strong>g" by the standard procedure. Were <strong>in</strong>vestigated the<br />

samples of butter with carrot powder of convective and cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g. The test samples were made by<br />

the described technology of enriched butter produc<strong>in</strong>g. The powder <strong>in</strong>fluence on the phase transformation<br />

<strong>in</strong> butter’s fat has been studied by differential scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimetry methods.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

We analyzed the microstructure of water solution of the additives. It was established that suspension of<br />

the powder, produced by cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>s big and small parts (15-80 micrometers, 1-5<br />

micrometers). Microstructure of recovered particles are similar to particles of fresh vegetable. The<br />

suspension of powder, produced by thermal dry<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong>s of destroyed tissues. Pur<strong>in</strong>g swell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

they stick together. The suspension of powder, produced by convectional dry<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>s recovered parts<br />

with size – 15 micrometers.<br />

The study of phase transformations <strong>in</strong> milk fat of butter samples was performed by us<strong>in</strong>g the thermal<br />

differential scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimeter (DSC). DSC curves showed the melt<strong>in</strong>g peaks of group’s of highmelt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(HMG), medium-melt<strong>in</strong>g glycerides (MMG) and a peak of compatible liquid phase and low-melt<br />

glycerides (LMG). The curves showed their melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature (Figure 1). In Figure 1 the DSC curves<br />

of just prepared samples of butter. In curve (Figure 1 I, a) the control sample we clearly see the <strong>in</strong>terval<br />

with a peak melt<strong>in</strong>g - 32,4 ° C, which corresponds to the group HMG. Melt<strong>in</strong>g peak at 13,2 ° C is <strong>in</strong> the<br />

temperature <strong>in</strong>terval of 8 ° C to 25 ° C and corresponds to a compatible melt<strong>in</strong>g compatible of MMG and<br />

LMG. The largest peak temperature of 3,8 ° C was formed by melt<strong>in</strong>g of LMG and liquid phase of<br />

product. In the curve the jump of devitrifycation at -31 ° C is marked. The process of devitrifycation<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2023

passes without change of phase, and therefore it is not a phase transition. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this process the process<br />

of "unfreez<strong>in</strong>g" of mobility glycerides of milk fat is go<strong>in</strong>g on.<br />

When compar<strong>in</strong>g the DSC curves of fresh made butter<br />

with the carrot powder of convective dry<strong>in</strong>g and the<br />

control sample, we can see that the <strong>in</strong>troduction of<br />

additives leads to the appearance of dist<strong>in</strong>ct melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

peaks diffuse of MMG and HMG. Their melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperatures <strong>in</strong> butter with powder of convective<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g are 1,4 and 0,23 °C lower than melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature of the peaks <strong>in</strong> control sample. The peak<br />

temperature of LMG and liquid phase of product<br />

decreases for 3,6 °C. On the DSC curves of butter with<br />

<br />

Figure 1: Curves of butter’s specific heat<br />

– fresh-made butter; – after storage ( +5 °)<br />

- control sample; b – butter with carrot powder<br />

of convective dry<strong>in</strong>g; c – butter with carrot<br />

powder of cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

powders two peaks of LMG and liquid phase of<br />

product are present. The melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature of peaks<br />

<strong>in</strong> comparison with control sample reduced to 2,8 °C<br />

after add<strong>in</strong>g the powder of CSD. So, there are two<br />

peaks of MMG and LMG with melt<strong>in</strong>g temperatures<br />

of 25,9 and 14,5 °C. The melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature peak of<br />

HMG of 35 °C. It is 2,6 °C more to conformable peak<br />

melt<strong>in</strong>g from control. The general trend for both types of butter with the powder compared to the control<br />

is reduc<strong>in</strong>g the melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature peaks compatible LMG and liquid phase of product. This gives<br />

evidence shows that the powder presence <strong>in</strong> the system promotes differentiated edg<strong>in</strong>g of LMG that are<br />

unable to crystallize dur<strong>in</strong>g the formation of crystall<strong>in</strong>e phases of butter <strong>in</strong> the area of lower temperatures.<br />

We believe this is due to the additives’ presence that and their ties <strong>in</strong> a fatty phase of the product that is<br />

not typical for butter components. Dur<strong>in</strong>g control sample storage the temperature of the melt<strong>in</strong>g peaks of<br />

MMG and HMG grow on 2,6 and 1,9 °C. This is due to glyceride’s recrystallization processes. A decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

of melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature of LMG and liquid phase of product of butter for 2,8 °C also shows that. The<br />

processes of recrystallization of glycerides’ separate groups undergo dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage of butter with<br />

carrot powder of convective dry<strong>in</strong>g. This is evidenced by the growth of the temperature of the melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

peaks of HMG, NMG and LMG with liquid phase of product. In the butter with powder of CSD the<br />

melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature peaks of glycerides <strong>in</strong>dividual groups vary slightly after storage. One melt<strong>in</strong>g peak of<br />

MMG disappears. That’s why, manifested peaks of melt<strong>in</strong>g of LNG and HSV temperatures 14.6 and 35<br />

°C are shown more clearly on the curve.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the microstructural studies it was revealed that production of carrot powder by cold spray<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g contributes to the formation of particles with a size 1-5 micrometers and saves the powder<br />

component properties. The melt<strong>in</strong>g curves of butter showed that the <strong>in</strong>troduction of carrot powder leads to<br />

displacement of fusible glycerides of the solidification front <strong>in</strong>to the zone of lower temperatures. Insertion<br />

of additives of cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g leads to reduc<strong>in</strong>g the temperature melt<strong>in</strong>g peaks of compatible LMG and<br />

liquid phase product to 2,8 ° C and to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature peak of HMG to 2,6 ° C <strong>in</strong> the<br />

fresh butter. Dur<strong>in</strong>g further storage of butter with carrot powder of cold spray dry<strong>in</strong>g the temperature<br />

melt<strong>in</strong>g peaks of glycerides vary slightly. Add<strong>in</strong>g the powder of convective dry<strong>in</strong>g reduces the melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature of compatible LMG and liquid phase product at 4 ° C. Dur<strong>in</strong>g further storage the temperature<br />

melt<strong>in</strong>g peaks of glycerides groups gradually <strong>in</strong>crease and are close to the melt<strong>in</strong>g temperature of the<br />

control sample.<br />

2024

Production of ewe’s milk cheese us<strong>in</strong>g calf rennet and a plant coagulant from flowers of<br />

cardoon Cynara cardunculus: Proteolysis dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

José Fernández-Salguero, Antonio P<strong>in</strong>o & Elena Galán<br />

Tecnología de los Alimentos. University of Córdoba, Spa<strong>in</strong> (e-mail: ao1fecaj@uco.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The crude aqueous extracts from cardoon flowers Cynara cardunculus L. have been traditionally used for<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g many cheese varieties ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Portugal and Spa<strong>in</strong>, some of which have the Appellation d’Orig<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Contrôlée (AOC) status [1, 2]. These acidic enzymes are characterized by high clott<strong>in</strong>g activity like<br />

chymos<strong>in</strong>, cleav<strong>in</strong>g the peptide bond Phe105-Met106 <strong>in</strong> bov<strong>in</strong>e and ov<strong>in</strong>e -case<strong>in</strong>, and highly proteolytic <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of substrate prote<strong>in</strong>s. This plant coagulant can also be used for produc<strong>in</strong>g cheeses aimed at lactovegetarian<br />

consumers and ecological markets.<br />

The aim of this work was to study the effect of three coagulants (calf rennet, 100% CR; a powdered<br />

vegetable coagulant, 100% PVC obta<strong>in</strong>ed by freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g of crude aqueous extracts from the cardoon<br />

flowers C. cardunculus and a blend of those coagulants, 50% CR/50% PVC) on some chemical and<br />

proteolytic parameters of pasteurized ewe’s milk cheese.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Cheeses from pasteurized sheep´s milk (72ºC/20 s) were obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g three different coagulants:<br />

powdered vegetable coagulant (PVC), calf rennet (CR) and a blend of both coagulants (CR/PVC). The<br />

coagulation temperature was 29±1ºC. After press<strong>in</strong>g and salt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>e with NaCl (18%/24 h), the<br />

cheeses (about 3.0 kg weight) were ripened at 12ºC and 80% relative humidity. At 30, 60, 120 and 180<br />

days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g were analyzed the components follow<strong>in</strong>g: moisture, prote<strong>in</strong>, aw, pH, soluble nitrogen<br />

(SN, at pH-4.6), non-prote<strong>in</strong> nitrogen (NPN; 12% TCA), hydrophobic and hydrophilic peptides (RP-<br />

HPLC) and total free am<strong>in</strong>o acids (RP-HPLC) as described elsewhere [3, 4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In moisture, prote<strong>in</strong>, aw, pH (Table 1) and free am<strong>in</strong>o acids (Fig. 1) no differences were observed between<br />

cheeses produced us<strong>in</strong>g the three coagulants assayed. The levels of soluble nitrogen and non-prote<strong>in</strong><br />

nitrogen (Fig. 1) <strong>in</strong> cheeses produced us<strong>in</strong>g plant coagulant were higher than <strong>in</strong> those produced with calf<br />

rennet (P< 0.05). It was noted that the levels of SN <strong>in</strong> cheeses made with PVC were very similar to those<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g CR/PVC. This co<strong>in</strong>cides with results obta<strong>in</strong>ed by O´Mahony et al. [5] <strong>in</strong> M<strong>in</strong>i Cheddar<br />

cheeses. These authors expla<strong>in</strong> that although the ma<strong>in</strong> agent responsible for the production of SN <strong>in</strong><br />

cheese is the residual coagulant, <strong>in</strong> the case of blend of coagulants are C. Cardunculus prote<strong>in</strong>ases that<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ate the process. So it is possible <strong>in</strong> sheep's milk cheeses to use a blend of vegetable coagulant from<br />

C. cardunculus and calf rennet to accelerate the ripen<strong>in</strong>g. The formation of hydrophobic peptides and the<br />

ratio of hydrophobic/hydrophilic (Fig. 1) peptides (as Area count units x 10 7 ) throughout the ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

were higher (P

vegetable coagulant alone or a blend of vegetable coagulant and calf rennet can be feasibly used to<br />

accelerate ripen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sheep milk cheeses.<br />

Table 1. Mean values and standard deviations (±) for moisture and prote<strong>in</strong> (g/100 g cheese), water activity and pH<br />

throughout ripen<strong>in</strong>g of the cheeses obta<strong>in</strong>ed with CR, PVC and a blend of both CR/PVC<br />

30 60 120 180<br />

aw<br />

CR 0.966±0.004 c<br />

CR/PVC 0.970±0.009 c<br />

PVC 0.972±0.012 c<br />

pH<br />

CR 5.21±0.06 a<br />

CR/PVC 5.24±0.02 a<br />

PVC 5.19±0.08 a<br />

Moisture<br />

CR 40.6±0.52 ef<br />

CR/PVC 40.90±1.35 ef<br />

PVC 40.36±0.65 ef<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong><br />

CR 21.49±0.02 ab<br />

CR/PVC 20.53±0.10 ab<br />

PVC 21.21±0.43 ab<br />

0.947±0.011 b<br />

0.941±0.019 b<br />

0.945±0.014 b<br />

5.25±0.10 a<br />

5.32±0.01 a<br />

5.24±0.06 a<br />

38.29±0.64 de<br />

35.91±1.65 de<br />

40.24±2.39 de<br />

21.91±0.17 b<br />

21.54±0.07 b<br />

21.61±0.22 b<br />

0.936±0.005 ab<br />

0.923±0.003 ab<br />

0.935±0.002 ab<br />

5.22±0.01 a<br />

5.25±0.05 a<br />

5.27±0.11 a<br />

34.92±0.1 bc<br />

35.04±1.05 bc<br />

33.56±1.41 bc<br />

23.86±0.05 d<br />

23.69±0.65 d<br />

23.72±0.12 d<br />

0.930±0.004 a<br />

0.923±0.002 a<br />

0.925±0.002 a<br />

5.25±0.05 a<br />

5.25±0.02 a<br />

5.28±0.02 a<br />

33.58±0.88 ab<br />

33.69±2.93 ab<br />

32.88±1.07 ab<br />

24.55±0.52 e<br />

24.59±0.01 e<br />

24.65±0.32 e<br />

a Means of the same parameter <strong>in</strong> the same row without a common superscript letters (a-g) differ significantly (P

Production of ewe’s milk cheese us<strong>in</strong>g calf rennet and a plant coagulant from flowers of<br />

cardoon Cynara cardunculus: Sensory characteristics dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Elena Galán a , Remedios González b & José Fernández-Salguero a<br />

a<br />

Tecnología de los Alimentos. University of Córdoba, Spa<strong>in</strong> (e-mail: ao1fecaj@uco.es)<br />

b Dep. Psicología. University of Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong> (e-mail: gonzalrb@uv.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The use of plant prote<strong>in</strong>ases from flowers of cardoon Cynara cardunculus as milk coagulants is of<br />

particular <strong>in</strong>terest because they are natural enzymes whose strong proteolytic action eventually leads to<br />

the extensive breakdown of case<strong>in</strong>s, thereby giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to cheeses with a soft buttery texture, a genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />

aroma and a slightly piquant and creamy flavour. These cheeses are highly valued for their taste and<br />

quality and can be targeted at the lacto-vegetarian and organic markets. This type of plant coagulant can<br />

also be certified Kosher and Halal.<br />

This paper reports on a study of the effect of three coagulants: calf rennet (100% CR), a powdered<br />

vegetable coagulant (100% PVC) obta<strong>in</strong>ed by freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g of crude aqueous extracts from Cynara<br />

cardunculus L. [1] and a blend of those coagulants (50% CR/50% PVC) on the ma<strong>in</strong>ly sensory<br />

characteristics of pasteurized ewe`s milk cheeses dur<strong>in</strong>g six months of ripen<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIAL & METHODS<br />

The experimental samples of cheese were manufactured as it previously was described and determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

some chemical and biochemical parameters [2]. The cheeses at 60, 90, 120 and 180 days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g were<br />

analysed of the attributes follow<strong>in</strong>g: odour (<strong>in</strong>tensity and acidity), colour of the paste, hardness, firmness,<br />

cream<strong>in</strong>ess, taste <strong>in</strong>tensity and bitter taste, were scored by 12 tra<strong>in</strong>ed panellists, us<strong>in</strong>g a 10-po<strong>in</strong>t scale<br />

with anchor po<strong>in</strong>ts (from “extremely strong” to “extremely mild”) as described elsewhere [3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1 shows the average scores (± standard deviations) awarded by the panel to the various target<br />

attributes of the different cheeses obta<strong>in</strong>ed with CR, PVC and CR/PVC dur<strong>in</strong>g the ripen<strong>in</strong>g period.<br />

Cheeses made with animal rennet displayed less odour <strong>in</strong>tensity and acid odour, a slightly lighter colour<br />

and also they were (P

esults <strong>in</strong> a cheese with higher scores <strong>in</strong> taste <strong>in</strong>tensity and cream<strong>in</strong>ess and also with lower scores <strong>in</strong><br />

hardness and firmness as opposed to use of calf rennet (CR). In consequence, vary<strong>in</strong>g amounts of<br />

vegetable coagulant or blends of vegetable coagulant and calf rennet can be feasibly used to accelerate<br />

ripen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sheep milk cheeses.<br />

Table 1. Average scores (± standard deviations) awarded by the panel to the various target attributes of the different<br />

cheeses obta<strong>in</strong>ed with CR, PVC and CR/PVC dur<strong>in</strong>g the ripen<strong>in</strong>g period<br />

Atribute Coagulant<br />

Days of ripen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

60 90 120 180<br />

CR 5,28±0,52 a 6,01±0,44 ab 5,51±0,19 b 5,61±0,46 b<br />

PVC 4,79±0,19 a 5,17±0,09 ab 6,51±0,21 b 6,81±0,04 b<br />

Odor<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

Acid smell<br />

Color<br />

Hardness<br />

Firmness<br />

Cream<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

Taste <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

Bitter taste<br />

CR/PVC 4,30±0,10 a 5,47±0,21 ab 5,64±0,02 b 5,72±0,12 b<br />

CR 4,74±0,72 a 4,36±0,13 a 4,77±0,50 a 3,96±0,24 a<br />

PVC 2,52±1,17 a 4,85±0,2 a 4,69±0,06 a 4,99±1,01 a<br />

CR/PVC 4,39±0,71 a 4,72±0,06 a 5,04±0,23 a 4,49±0,24 a<br />

CR 5,52±0,36 a 4,86±0,55 a 5,88±0,03 a 5,67±0,26 a<br />

PVC 5,46±0,19 a 5,94±0,21 a 6,62±0,00 a 5,66±0,16 a<br />

CR/PVC 5,21±0,33 a 5,11±0,59 a 5,33±0,49 a 5,83±0,15 a<br />

CR 5,20±0,37 abc 5,27±0,56 bcd 5,95±0,27 cd 6,49±0,44 d<br />

PVC 2,81±0,17 a 3,36±0,21 ab 2,21±0,02 a 3,38±0,38 ab<br />

CR/PVC 3,66±0,07 ab 3,48±0,16 ab 3,81±0,49 ab 4,90±0,39 bcd<br />

CR 5,10±0,23 b 5,61±0,13 b 6,29±0,03 b 6,59±0,36 b<br />

PVC 2,43±0,01 a 3,28±0,02 a 2,10±0,45 a 2,94±0,34 a<br />

CR/PVC 2,93±0,69 a 2,93±0,14 a 3,56±0,21 a 3,86±10,79 a<br />

CR 6,01±0,55 a 3,89±0,72 a 4,36±0,17 a 3,11±0,06 a<br />

PVC 7,28±0,26 b 7,11±0,13 b 7,91±0,34 b 7,80±0,31 b<br />

CR/PVC 6,02±0,08 b 6,92±0,21 b 6,87±0,01 b 6,40±0,23 b<br />

CR 5,57±0,73 a 5,97±0,08 a 5,61±0,91 ab 6,39±0,21 abc<br />

PVC 5,86±0,26 a 6,28±0,05 abc 6,74±0,19 abc 7,28±0,32 c<br />

CR/PVC 5,27±0,40 abc 6,73±0,35 abc 6,80±0,64 abc 7,10±0,07 bc<br />

CR 3,04±0,09 a 4,28±0,05 a 3,11±0,19 a 5,15±1,36 a<br />

PVC 5,27±0,82 b 5,32±0,29 b 5,13±0,15 b 5,38±0,22 b<br />

CR/PVC 4,79±1,02 b 5,30±0,76 b 5,41±0,63 b 5,30±0,45 b<br />

a-d Means of the same row without a common superscript letters, differ significantly (P

Functional Dr<strong>in</strong>k Production through Pomegranate Juice Fermentation<br />

S. Plessas *1 , M. Koulis 1 , A. Alexopoulos 1 and E. Bezirtzoglou 1<br />

1 Democritus University of Thrace, Faculty of Agriculture Development, Laboratory of Microbiology,<br />

Biotechnology and Hygiene, 193 Pantazidou str. GR-68200, Orestiada, Greece, splessas@agro.duth.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The strategy of this research survey was to develop a functional dr<strong>in</strong>k conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fermented<br />

pomegranate juice with kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s. A set of 12 anaerobic fermentation batches of<br />

pomegranate juice were conducted at 3 different temperatures (30, 20 and 10C) employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s. Various analyses were employed <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the f<strong>in</strong>al product with regard<br />

to microbiological, chemical and organoleptic properties. Concern<strong>in</strong>g the chemical analysis,<br />

the stability of the system was efficient at all studied temperatures, reveal<strong>in</strong>g suitability for<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial applications. Conversion varied between 87.9-92.8%, while ethanol was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

at respectable amounts, higher than 6%v/v <strong>in</strong> most cases. Ethanol productivity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

<strong>in</strong> higher levels at the batches conducted at 30C. GC-MS analysis that conducted for the<br />

pomegranate juice fermented at 10 C showed accepted volatile character due to the<br />

identification of important volatile compounds contribut<strong>in</strong>g positively to the aromatic character<br />

of the product. In addition through the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of cell viability at all the studied<br />

temperatures, possible probiotic properties of the fermented pomegranate juice were revealed<br />

due to the survival of lactic acid bacteria of kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s at a concentration of approximately 10 8<br />

cfu/ml.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Microorganisms<br />

Kefir yeast, a commercial product usually used to produce kefir dr<strong>in</strong>k and available at the<br />

Department of Agricultural Development at Democritus University of Thrace, was used.<br />

Anaerobic fermentations<br />

Diluted with sterilized water pomegranate juice (500 ml) and 0.4 g (dry weight) of kefir<br />

biomass and baker’s yeast respectively were dispensed <strong>in</strong>to pre sterilized (with alcohol) conical<br />

flasks glass of 1000ml.. The effect of fermentation temperature (30, 20 and 10°C) on alcohol<br />

production was monitored. Particularly, 5 fermentation batches were conducted at 30°C and<br />

20°C and 2 fermentation batches at 10°C for each microorganism respectively.<br />

Analyses<br />

Ethanol and residual sugar were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by high performance liquid chromatography,<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Plessas et al. 2005.<br />

The volatile compounds of the fermented pomegranate juices with kefir and baker’s yeast at<br />

10 °C respectively, were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by means of gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy<br />

(GC–MS). More specifically, the volatiles were isolated with the headspace solid-phase microextraction<br />

(SPME) technique (Plessas et al. 2008).<br />

Counts of lactobacilli <strong>in</strong> fermented pomegranate juices conducted with kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed as colony form<strong>in</strong>g units (cfu/ml). Results are presented as log of mean colonyform<strong>in</strong>g<br />

units on solid media culture plates conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g between 30 and 300 colonies form<strong>in</strong>g<br />

units per ml (cfu/ml) of fermented pomegranate juice.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2029

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Concern<strong>in</strong>g the chemical analysis, the stability of the system was efficient at all studied<br />

temperatures, reveal<strong>in</strong>g suitability for <strong>in</strong>dustrial applications as it is represented at Table1.<br />

Conversion varied between 87.9-92.8%, while ethanol was determ<strong>in</strong>ed at respectable amounts,<br />

higher than 6%v/v <strong>in</strong> most cases. Ethanol productivity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> higher levels at the<br />

batches conducted at 30°C. GC-MS analysis that conducted for the pomegranate juice<br />

fermented at 10° C showed accepted volatile character due to the identification of important<br />

volatile compounds contribut<strong>in</strong>g positively to the aromatic character of the product.<br />

Through the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of cell viability at all the studied temperatures, possible probiotic<br />

properties of the fermented pomegranate juice were revealed due to the survival of lactic acid<br />

bacteria of kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s at a concentration of above 10 8 cfu/ml at the f<strong>in</strong>al batch of each<br />

temperature studied. This concentration allows us to characterize the f<strong>in</strong>al product as possible<br />

probiotic, s<strong>in</strong>ce there are many references available <strong>in</strong> the literature that verifies the probiotic<br />

properties of kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s (Garrote et al. 2004; Brialy et al. 1995). However molecular<br />

techniques should be applied <strong>in</strong> order to identify specific probiotic bacteria.<br />

Table 1. Ethanol production dur<strong>in</strong>g batch fermentations of pomegranate juice (approximately 100g of<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial sugar concentration) with kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s respectively at various temperatures.<br />

Temp. Batch Ferm. Ethanol Residual Ethanol Conversion<br />

time<br />

sugar productivity<br />

C h % v/v g/l g/l/d %<br />

30 1 75 5.9 8.9 14.9 91.1<br />

30 2 74 6.2 7.4 15.9 92.6<br />

30 3 77 6.2 8.1 15.3 91.9<br />

30 4 79 6.2 8.7 14.9 91.3<br />

30 5 82 6.2 8.8 14.3 91.2<br />

20 6 85 6.2 10.2 13.3 89.8<br />

20 7 80 6.2 7.5 14.7 92.5<br />

20 8 81 6.3 8.6 14.7 91.4<br />

20 9 80 6.4 7.2 15.2 92.8<br />

20 10 79 5.1 9.6 12.2 90.4<br />

10 11 204 5.9 10.8 5.5 89.2<br />

10 12 214 5.9 12.1 5.2 87.9<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Plessas S., Bekatorou A., Kanellaki M., Kout<strong>in</strong>as A. A., Marchant R., & Banat I. M. 2007. Use of Immobilized Cell<br />

Biocatalysts <strong>in</strong> Bak<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>Process</strong> Biochemistry, 42(8), 1244–1249. [2] Plessas, S., Pherson, L., Bekatorou, A., Nigam,<br />

P., & Kout<strong>in</strong>as, A A. 2005. Bread Mak<strong>in</strong>g Us<strong>in</strong>g Kefir Gra<strong>in</strong>s as Baker’s Yeast. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 93(4), 585–589. [3]<br />

Plessas, S., Pherson A. Fischer, K. Koureta, C. Psarianos, P. Nigam and A. A. Kout<strong>in</strong>as 2008. Application of<br />

Kluyveromyces marxianus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus and L. helveticus for sourdough bread mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 106(8), 985-990. [4] Garrote, G.L., Delfederico, L., Bibiloni, R., Abraham, A.G., Perez, P.F.,<br />

Semorile, L. and De Antoni, G.L. 2004. Lactobacilli isolated from kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s: evidence of the presence of S-layer<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s. Journal of Dairy Research, 71, 222-230. [5] Brialy, C., Rivalland, P., Coiffard, L. and de Roeck Holtzhauer,<br />

Y. 1995. Microbiological study of lyophilized dairy kefir. Folia Microbiology, 40,198-200.<br />

2030

Comparative Study of Physico-Chemical Properties and Acceptance Analysis of Different<br />

Formulations of Tapioca Ice Cream<br />

Modesto Antonio Chaves a , Isadora Monteiro Andrade Barreto b , Ronielle Cardoso Reis c<br />

a Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia (UESB),Itapet<strong>in</strong>ga, Brazil (modestrochaves@hotmail.com)<br />

b Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia (UESB),Itapet<strong>in</strong>ga, Brazil (isa_mab@hotmail.com)<br />

c Universidade Federal do Recôncavo Bahiano, Cruz das Almas, Brazil (roniellireis@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Currently, the ice cream <strong>in</strong>dustry has sought creative outlets to entice the consumer among<br />

them one can detach the development of new products. The association of ice cream products<br />

typically l<strong>in</strong>ked to regional dishes such as couscous and tapioca meal both typical of northeastern<br />

Brazil, may be a viable alternative to <strong>in</strong>duce people to consume ice cream throughout<br />

the year, reduc<strong>in</strong>g its seasonality[1,2]. The study of physicochemical properties and sensory<br />

related to tapioca ice cream is very important because the results can be used <strong>in</strong> the formulation<br />

of high quality products that can be accepted by the customers <strong>in</strong> different markets. This study<br />

had the follow<strong>in</strong>g aims: - develop an tapioca ice cream test<strong>in</strong>g different formulations, - study<br />

the use of tapioca starch as an agent <strong>in</strong> tapioca ice cream, - establish the profile of the<br />

consumers of tapioca ice cream <strong>in</strong> South-western of Bahia State – Brazil, -evaluate acceptance<br />

of different formulations of tapioca ice cream.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The tapioca was prepared to make a porridge us<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gredients: milk, tapioca,<br />

coconut milk, condensed milk, coconut, and sugar. The tapioca porridges were prepared by<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g two concentrations of tapioca (6 and 10% w/w) and two cook<strong>in</strong>g temperatures (40 and<br />

60oC). The tapioca was added <strong>in</strong> two dist<strong>in</strong>ct steps of process<strong>in</strong>g (1 - before maturity, 2 - after<br />

maturation. The tapioca ice cream formulations were characterized by perform<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g physical-chemical properties analysis: colour, total solids, moisture (percentage<br />

w.b.), soluble solids (°Brix), pH and acidity, viscosity at 7ºC, overrun, melt<strong>in</strong>g test, and<br />

apparent density. The tapioca ice cream was subjected to an acceptance test <strong>in</strong> which the<br />

sensory attributes of colour, aroma, flavour, and consistency were evaluated by 81 panellists<br />

answer<strong>in</strong>g a hedonic scale of n<strong>in</strong>e po<strong>in</strong>ts. Both data on the physical and chemical properties<br />

and the results of the acceptance test were submitted to analysis of variance at 5% probability<br />

and mean tests.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1 presents the average values of physico-chemical properties of the eight different<br />

formulations of tapioca ice cream. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the<br />

treatments did not differ at 5% significance, by the F test for differences <strong>in</strong> the physico-<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2031

chemical properties evaluated. It was observed that the pH ranged from 6.35 to 6.63 is <strong>in</strong><br />

agreement with the values found by Schmidt et al[3]. The formulation conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 6% of<br />

tapioca (S62) had the highest overrun (49%). It is observed that the viscosities <strong>in</strong> the<br />

formulations conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 6% of tapioca are smaller than those <strong>in</strong> the formulations with 10%.<br />

With regard to the habits and frequency of consumption of, it can be sad that the consumption<br />

of ice cream and tapioca were extremely high (100 and 99% respectively) <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

Among the consumers, 62% had already eaten tapioca ice cream and 38% of consumers had<br />

never consumed.<br />

Table 1. Average values of the physico-chemical properties of tapioca ice cream for all treatments.<br />

S41: 6% of tapioca/40°C/1th Step; S42: 6% of tapioca/40°C/2nd Step; S61: 6% of tapioca/60°C/1th Step; S62: 6% of<br />

tapioca/60°C/2nd Step; D41: 10% of tapioca/40°C/1th Step; D42: 10% of tapioca/40°C/2nd Step; D61: 10% of<br />

tapioca/60°C/1th Step; D62: 10% of tapioca/60°C/2nd Step.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the factors considered most important by consumers when choos<strong>in</strong>g and buy<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

product the attribute considered most important was the taste (31.8%), followed by consistency<br />

(20.9%) and price (20.2%). Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g all the attributes evaluated the best tapioca ice cream<br />

was formulated with 6% of tapioca cooked at 60°C and added before maturation (Step1).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Concern<strong>in</strong>g the acidity, pH, moisture content, total solids, soluble solids and colour, the tapioca<br />

ice cream formulations used here<strong>in</strong>, are equivalent. All formulations of tapioca ice cream had<br />

good acceptance. However, the formulation with 6% of tapioca, cooked at 60 ° C and added<br />

before maturation, was the most acceptable.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Clark, K.B & Wheelwright, S.C. 1993.Manag<strong>in</strong>g new product and process development: text and<br />

cases. New York: The Free Press, 135p<br />

[2] Porter, M. 1989. Vantagem competitiva: criando e sustentando um desempenho superior. Rio de<br />

Janeiro: Editora Campus.<br />

[3] Schmidt, K.; Lundy, A.; Reynolds, J.; Yee, L.N. 1999. Carbohydrate or prote<strong>in</strong> based fat mimicker<br />

effects on ice milk properties. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science,58(4)761-799.<br />

2032

Bread-mak<strong>in</strong>g potential of pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate produced by a novel<br />

ultrafiltration/diafiltration process<br />

Louis-Philippe Des Marchais, Mathieu Foisy, Samuel Mercier, Sébastien Villeneuve, Mart<strong>in</strong> Mondor<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-<strong>Food</strong> Canada, 3600 Casavant Blvd West,<br />

Sa<strong>in</strong>t-Hyac<strong>in</strong>the, Quebec, Canada, J2S 8E3 (sebastien.villeneuve@agr.gc.ca)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>corporation of <strong>in</strong>gredients like legume flour, concentrate or isolate <strong>in</strong> cereal-based<br />

matrices can lead to the production of nutritionally enhanced products like bread with high<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> content. However, many <strong>in</strong>gredients currently available on the market have a large<br />

phytate to prote<strong>in</strong> ratio result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> reduced prote<strong>in</strong> digestibility and m<strong>in</strong>erals bioavailability.<br />

Moreover, substitution of wheat flour with legume-based <strong>in</strong>gredients at a 10% level or more is<br />

generally harmful to the process<strong>in</strong>g of bread. This work aimed to study the potential of<br />

supplement<strong>in</strong>g bread with pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate hav<strong>in</strong>g a low phytate to prote<strong>in</strong> ratio produced by<br />

a novel ultrafiltration/diafiltration (UF/DF) process.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate produced by membrane technologies were made from certified #1 Eclipse<br />

Yellow peas (Churchbridge, SK, Canada). Isolate were produced by extract<strong>in</strong>g pea flour <strong>in</strong><br />

water at room temperature (ratio 1:15 w/w) and pH 7.5 followed by purification with UF/DF<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g 50 kDa hollow fibres membranes. The UF/DF sequence was a UF step with a volume<br />

concentration ratio (VCR) 5 and a discont<strong>in</strong>uous DF step with a re-VCR 5. The result<strong>in</strong>g pea<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> isolate was lyophilized and placed <strong>in</strong> alum<strong>in</strong>ium pouches which were hermetically<br />

sealed and stored at 4°C until used [1]. Commercial wheat flour (Horizon Mill<strong>in</strong>g, Montreal,<br />

QC, Canada) was then substituted at a 10% level (dry basis) with isolate <strong>in</strong> order to produce<br />

bread with prote<strong>in</strong> content over 20%. Both commercial and substituted flour properties, dough<br />

mix<strong>in</strong>g properties and bread characteristics were measured accord<strong>in</strong>g to AACC <strong>International</strong><br />

methods (Damaged Starch, Fall<strong>in</strong>g Number, Far<strong>in</strong>ograph Method for Flour, Optimized<br />

Straight-Dough Bread-Bak<strong>in</strong>g Method). Dough properties were also characterised us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

modified version of the cont<strong>in</strong>uous water addition method developed by Landillon, et al. [2].<br />

Three parameters were determ<strong>in</strong>ed: m<strong>in</strong>imum water content for dough formation, maximum<br />

torque and water content at maximum torque. Color measurements of crust and crumb were<br />

performed us<strong>in</strong>g a colorimeter and expressed <strong>in</strong> terms of L*, a* and b* parameters.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The prote<strong>in</strong> content of the pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate was 96.1±0.2% (dry basis) result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> dough<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> content of about 23% (dry basis). Supplement<strong>in</strong>g wheat flour with pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate<br />

did not affect damaged starch but slightly decreased fall<strong>in</strong>g number (Table 1). Water<br />

absorption was <strong>in</strong>creased for substituted flour while dough stability and development time were<br />

not affected. The addition of isolate caused a dim<strong>in</strong>ution of the m<strong>in</strong>imum water content for<br />

dough formation under cont<strong>in</strong>uous water addition. Furthermore, higher maximum torque was<br />

observed for the substituted flour with correspond<strong>in</strong>g lower water content at maximum torque.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2033

Substitution with pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate allowed to produce bread with prote<strong>in</strong> content over 20%<br />

(20.9±0.1% compared to 14.5±0.0% dry basis) but <strong>in</strong>duced a decrease <strong>in</strong> loaf specific volume<br />

(4.3±0.0 cm 3 g -1 compared to 5.4±0.3 cm 3 g -1 ) compared to unsubstituted flour. A prote<strong>in</strong><br />

content of this magnitude is relatively high consider<strong>in</strong>g that reports <strong>in</strong> the literature conclude<br />

that high prote<strong>in</strong> breads conta<strong>in</strong> up to 15-20% prote<strong>in</strong> [3]. Moreover, the specific volume of<br />

bread substituted with pea prote<strong>in</strong> was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed over 4 g cm -3 , which should be considered<br />

as satisfactory by the consumers. The substitution of wheat flour with isolate <strong>in</strong>duced a<br />

decrease <strong>in</strong> the whiteness and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the yellowness of the crumb, while <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the blackness and a decrease <strong>in</strong> the yellowness of the crust.<br />

Table 1. Prote<strong>in</strong> content, absorption of Iod<strong>in</strong>e, fall<strong>in</strong>g number and mix<strong>in</strong>g properties of dough<br />

Parameters<br />

Dough with<br />

100% flour<br />

(control)<br />

Dough<br />

enriched with<br />

10% pea<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> isolate<br />

Moisture content (% dry matter) 13.5 ± 0.1 12.7 ± 0.1 ***<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> content (% dry matter) 15.2 ± 0.2 23.3 ± 0.2 ***<br />

Absorption of Iod<strong>in</strong>e (%) * 94.85 ± 0.01a 94.82 ± 0.03a<br />

Fall<strong>in</strong>g number (s) ** 358 ± 4a 344 ± 3b<br />

Water absorption (%) ** 59.3 ± 0.1a 62.5 ± 0.1b<br />

Dough development time (m<strong>in</strong>) ** 6 ± 1a 7 ± 1a<br />

Stability (m<strong>in</strong>) ** 6.8 ± 0.9a 8.0 ± 0.7a<br />

Maximum torque (FU) * 867 ± 75a 965 ± 18b<br />

M<strong>in</strong>imum water content for dough formation (mL g-solid -1 ) ** 0.46 ± 0.01a 0.41 ± 0.00b<br />

Water content at maximum torque (mL g-solid -1 ) ** 0.61 ± 0.02a 0.54 ± 0.01b<br />

*Values not shar<strong>in</strong>g a common letter are significantly different (P < 0.05); **Values not shar<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

common letter are significantly different (P < 0.01); ***Calculated values<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Flour substituted with low phytate pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate produced by UF/DF showed a good<br />

bread-mak<strong>in</strong>g potential when compared to unsubstituted flour. Next step will be to assess the<br />

potential improvement <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> digestibility and m<strong>in</strong>eral bioavailability for the bread<br />

substituted with this new pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolate compared to other alternative <strong>in</strong>gredients. This<br />

could lead to the market<strong>in</strong>g of high prote<strong>in</strong> breads with improved health properties.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Taherian, A.R., Mondor M., Labranche J., Drolet H., Ippersiel D. & Lamarche F. 2011. Comparative<br />

study of functional properties of commercial and membrane processed yellow pea prote<strong>in</strong> isolates.<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.01.030 (<strong>in</strong> press).<br />

[2] Landillon V., Cassan D., Morel M.H. & Cuq B. 2008. Flowability, cohesive, and granulation<br />

properties of wheat powders. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 86,178-193.<br />

[3] Mohamed A.A., Rayas-Duarte P., Shogren R.L., & Sessa D.J. 2006. Low carbohydrates bread:<br />

formulation, process<strong>in</strong>g and sensory quality. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 99, 686-692.<br />

2034

Technology of functional public cater<strong>in</strong>g foods with dietary additives<br />

K.V.Svidlo a , M.I.Peresichnyi b<br />

a<br />

Department of Trade, Hotel and Restaurant and Tourism Industry, Kharkiv Institute of Trade<br />

and Economy of Kyiv University of Trade and Economy,Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (kar<strong>in</strong>asvidlo@rambler.ru)<br />

b<br />

Department of Trade, Hotel and Restaurant and Tourism Industry, Kyiv University of Trade<br />

and Economy,Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (frh@knteu.kiev.ua)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The technology of mak<strong>in</strong>g functional foods is based on both traditional <strong>in</strong>gredient<br />

modifications and the ones with useful <strong>in</strong>gredients extended to the level comparable with<br />

physiological consumption rates with<strong>in</strong> the range of 10-50% ( accord<strong>in</strong>g to various sources) of<br />

the average daily consumption. Lately, Ukra<strong>in</strong>ian functional food producers have been scal<strong>in</strong>g<br />

up the use of vegetable dietary additives . The m<strong>in</strong>istry of public health of Ukra<strong>in</strong>e permits the<br />

use of ground vegetable seeds as dietary additives.<br />

Extensive research carried out <strong>in</strong> many countries shows that one of the ma<strong>in</strong> causes of<br />

pathologic processes <strong>in</strong> human organism, which provoke numerous diseases and early ag<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

arise from extensive accumulation of free radicals. Their ru<strong>in</strong>ous effect is safely protected by<br />

ground vegetable seeds which conta<strong>in</strong> biological antioxidants. They are natural non-toxic<br />

phytogenous compounds that neutralize free radicals. Russian and American scientists [1-2] <strong>in</strong><br />

their study of us<strong>in</strong>g ground vegetable seeds <strong>in</strong> bakery, macaroni and confectionary<br />

technologies have commonly acknowledged positive effects of ground flax, holy thistle and<br />

sea-buckthorn seeds on functional and technological properties of foodstuffs, their nutritive and<br />

biological value. They approved of the possibilities of us<strong>in</strong>g ground vegetable seeds for<br />

efficient public cater<strong>in</strong>g and disease prevention.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

To study the character of changes of gluten properties by add<strong>in</strong>g ground seeds <strong>in</strong>to wheat flour<br />

the research was carried out on model samples with vary<strong>in</strong>g content of ground seeds. Wheat<br />

flour of equal quality levels was used for the samples with various k<strong>in</strong>ds of ground seeds.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of the research show that the amount of washed off gluten decreases with <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

of ground flax, pumpk<strong>in</strong> and holy thistle seeds. At the same time, <strong>in</strong> the case of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ground flax seed content the amount of gluten decreases at a higher rate than <strong>in</strong> the case when<br />

we use ground pumpk<strong>in</strong> and holy thistle seeds. The lower content of washed off gluten as<br />

compared to the check can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by seeds hav<strong>in</strong>g a high content of biologically active<br />

components of lipidic nature and nutritive fibers, ma<strong>in</strong>ly cellulose. When <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

wheat flour cellulose they are likely to worsen their ability to create bound gluten paste. This is<br />

confirmed by their decrease <strong>in</strong> quantity. On add<strong>in</strong>g ground oat seeds, the quantity of washed<br />

off gluten <strong>in</strong>creases with<strong>in</strong> the range of 0.5- 6% of the wheat flour weight. Further, decrease of<br />

washed off gluten <strong>in</strong> comparison with the check is observed. This is likely to be related with<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2035

the fact that aleurone oat layer and its shell conta<strong>in</strong> much cellulose, hemi-cellulose (about 55%)<br />

and lign<strong>in</strong> which create a system with high sorption properties.<br />

The results show that ground flax seeds, when swell, hold water one and a half times as much<br />

as ground holy thistle seeds and three times as much as ground pumpk<strong>in</strong> seeds do (Table 1).<br />

This is likely to h<strong>in</strong>der the sufficient swell<strong>in</strong>g of wheat flour and formation of bound gluten.<br />

Table 1. Study of the process of ground seed swell<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st time and hydromodulus<br />

Type of ground seeds Hydro<br />

Swell percentage aga<strong>in</strong>st time, (m<strong>in</strong>.)<br />

modulus 5 15 20 30 45 60<br />

Ground pumpk<strong>in</strong> seeds 1:5 205 223 250 254 255 258<br />

Ground pumpk<strong>in</strong> seeds 1:10 220 237 256 259 266 268<br />

Ground holy thistle seeds 1:5 375 382 389 395 397 400<br />

Ground holy thistle seeds 1:10 421 433 437 440 443 448<br />

Ground flax seeds 1:5 503 573 588 600 612 624<br />

Ground flax seeds 1:10 710 754 776 789 803 817<br />

Our research also <strong>in</strong>dicates that add<strong>in</strong>g ground seeds not only decreases washed off<br />

gluten quantitatively, but deteriorates it qualitatively. Increased quantity of ground pumpk<strong>in</strong>,<br />

flax and holy thistle seeds leads to lower quality of gluten, but add<strong>in</strong>g ground oat seeds with<strong>in</strong><br />

the range of 0.5-6% of the wheat flout weight improves it. Therefore, some seed additives<br />

weaken the ability of gluten to create firm spatial structure. The research results show that<br />

ground flax seeds have far greater <strong>in</strong>fluence on gluten quality properties than <strong>in</strong> the case with<br />

oat seeds. Gluten quality factors (extensibility, elasticity) for ground pumpk<strong>in</strong> and pumpk<strong>in</strong>with-spirul<strong>in</strong>a<br />

seeds are average for gluten properties of ground flux and oat seeds. This is due<br />

to the fact that oats conta<strong>in</strong> phyt<strong>in</strong> acids which tend to make wheat pastry gluten stronger.<br />

Flux seeds conta<strong>in</strong> specific polysaccharides (gum) which affect function-technological<br />

properties of wheat pastry. Their content amounts to 9-12% of the weight of solid seeds.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is evident that <strong>in</strong> order to make high quality yeast and sheet pastry with sound wheat flour,<br />

additives are <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to the pastry to improve gluten elasticity. Therefore, low amounts of<br />

ground oat seeds can be used <strong>in</strong> yeast and sheet pastry from sound flour. Ground flax, pumpk<strong>in</strong><br />

and holy thistle seeds are advisable as additives for plastic-type pastry, particularly for shot<br />

pastry. Further <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>in</strong> this field requires extended studies of effects of replac<strong>in</strong>g wheat<br />

flour on ground seed additives by us<strong>in</strong>g concrete food systems and tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account specific<br />

cul<strong>in</strong>ary and confectionary technology peculiarities.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Manthey F.A., Lee R.E., Hall C.A. <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g effect on lipid content and stability of<br />

alfa-l<strong>in</strong>olenic acid <strong>in</strong> spaghetti conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ground flaxseed // J. agr. <strong>Food</strong> Chem. -2002.-Vol. 50.-N.6.<br />

-P.1668-1671.<br />

[2] / ., ., .//<br />

. -2008. -3.- .38-40.<br />

2036

Production of chromium-chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides after hydrolysis<br />

of silk fibro<strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> with elastase<br />

Hu Changli a Chen Lijun a * Ren Fazheng b<br />

a<br />

Beij<strong>in</strong>g Sanyuan <strong>Food</strong>s Co. Ltd., Technique CenterBeij<strong>in</strong>g 100085, Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(hu_changli@126.com)<br />

b<br />

College of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Nutritional <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Agricultural University, Beij<strong>in</strong>g100083,<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a (renfazheng@263.net)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The beneficial effects of the element on glucose and lipid metabolism have prompted<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigations <strong>in</strong>to the importance of Cr supplementation <strong>in</strong> the human diet. In the recent years,<br />

food <strong>in</strong>take is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g considered not only as a source of nutrients but also as a<br />

source of bioactive compounds, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g bioactive peptides.<br />

Silk is composed of two k<strong>in</strong>ds of prote<strong>in</strong>s: fibro<strong>in</strong>and and seric<strong>in</strong>. These prote<strong>in</strong>s may present<br />

an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g raw material for the production of prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates enriched <strong>in</strong> bioactive<br />

peptides. SF may have strong aff<strong>in</strong>ity for several elements through the chelation of their<br />

hydroxyl and carboxyl groups to the elements. The positive effect of Silk seric<strong>in</strong> peptides on<br />

the <strong>in</strong> vivo and <strong>in</strong> vitro absorption of m<strong>in</strong>erals such as Zn, Fe, Mg and Ca have been reported<br />

[1]<br />

. The production and purification of chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides dur<strong>in</strong>g digestion of SF prote<strong>in</strong> isolates<br />

with elastase and the function of Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides was described <strong>in</strong> the present paper.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Preparation of SF prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysastes<br />

Enzymatic degradation was carried out <strong>in</strong> a reactor us<strong>in</strong>g the pH-stat method. Elastase was<br />

added <strong>in</strong>to the sample at a concentration and term<strong>in</strong>ated by heat<strong>in</strong>g the solution to 100 for 15<br />

m<strong>in</strong>. The supernatant collected for further experiments.<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the Degree of hydrolysis (DH)<br />

The degree of hydrolysis was calculated by determ<strong>in</strong>ation of free am<strong>in</strong>o groups by reaction<br />

with TNBS.<br />

Assay for generation of hydroxyl radicals<br />

The potential of Cr compounds to generate hydroxyl radicals <strong>in</strong> vitro was assessed by the<br />

method of Gutteridge et al. [2] . And the amount of chromogen formed <strong>in</strong> the sample was<br />

measured by its absorption at 520 nm. Ferric-EDTA (100 M) was used as a positive control.<br />

The Sephadex-G-25 Gel Chromatography<br />

Purified Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides were loaded <strong>in</strong>to a Chromatography column (800×20 mm). The<br />

speed of elution was set at about 0.5 mL/m<strong>in</strong>. All the samples were <strong>in</strong>spected with HD-3 type<br />

spectrophotometer under the wavelength 280 nm at the same time automatically.<br />

The mid <strong>in</strong>frared (MIR) Spectroscopy analysis<br />

The construction of the sample was analysis by MIR Detector (ANTARIS, Thermo nicolet<br />

USA) at the range of 4000 - 400 cm -1 .<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2037

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Function of Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g SF prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates<br />

The elastase activity is observed even after 10 h of <strong>in</strong>cubation with the SF prote<strong>in</strong>. Prote<strong>in</strong><br />

hydrolysates obta<strong>in</strong>ed at different times were <strong>in</strong>directly assayed for their Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g capacity<br />

by determ<strong>in</strong>ation their effect on DNA damage. All Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g SF peptides <strong>in</strong>hibited to certa<strong>in</strong><br />

degree of scaveng<strong>in</strong>g effect on free radical, but <strong>in</strong> general hydrolysates obta<strong>in</strong>ed by the action<br />

of elastase were more effective at a long <strong>in</strong>cubation time than a short time. Thus, most<br />

scaveng<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysate was obta<strong>in</strong>ed after 480 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cubation with elastase.<br />

Purification of Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides fractions<br />

In this experiment, the Sephadex G-25 was used as phase vector to separate the Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

SF peptides. Eluted peptides were fractionated <strong>in</strong> four fractions that were assayed for<br />

generation of hydroxyl radicals (Figure 1). The smaller molecular, eluted later, were of the<br />

most scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activities, while the bigger molecular, eluted first, were of less scaveng<strong>in</strong>g<br />

activities such as fraction 4.<br />

Figure 1. The scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activities of fraction 1-4 collected.<br />

The structure analysis of the sample by MIR Detector<br />

The MIR spectra of SF hydrolysates and Cr-chelat<strong>in</strong>g peptides were different evidently.<br />

Compared to SF hydrolysates, changes <strong>in</strong> this region (3,277.31 cm -1 ) can be observed for Crchelat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

SF peptides.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates obta<strong>in</strong>ed after 480 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cubation with elastase was the most<br />

scaveng<strong>in</strong>g free hydroxyl radicals. Thus, food prote<strong>in</strong>s may be responsible of improv<strong>in</strong>g metal<br />

bioavailability after prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysis and release of peptides with chelat<strong>in</strong>g properties as<br />

those obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> our <strong>in</strong> vitro hydrolysis of SF prote<strong>in</strong> with elastase.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

OD(520 nm)<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Fractions collected from Sephadex G-25<br />

[1] Masahiro S., Hideyuki Y. and Norihisa., 2000. Consumption of Silk prote<strong>in</strong>, seric<strong>in</strong> elevates <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al<br />

absorption of Z<strong>in</strong>c, Iron, Magnesium and Calcium <strong>in</strong> rats. Nutrition Research, 20(10), 1505-1511.<br />

[2] Halliwell B., Gutteridge J.M. and Aruoma O.I., 1987. The deoxyribose method: a simple test-tube<br />

assay for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of rate constants for reactions of hydroxyl radicals. Anal. Biochem, 165, 215-<br />

219.<br />

2038

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2039

plants. Only freeze-dried lemon balm exhibited higher content of polyphenols when compared to<br />

fresh plant.<br />

mg GAE/g DM<br />

120.00<br />

100.00<br />

80.00<br />

60.00<br />

40.00<br />

20.00<br />

0.00<br />

Figure 1. Total phenol content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity of plant extracts<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g the ABTS assay<br />

The content of carotenoids decreased after dry<strong>in</strong>g, when compared to fresh plants, which <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />

the susceptibility of these beneficial bioactive compounds to degradation at higher temperatures.<br />

Although it could be expected that fresh plants conta<strong>in</strong> the highest chlorophylls content, the highest<br />

content of chlorophylls was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> freeze-dried plants.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The antioxidant capacity of all evaluated bioactive compounds was <strong>in</strong> agreement with the content<br />

of the attribut<strong>in</strong>g compounds, thus confirm<strong>in</strong>g the high bioactive potential of lemon balm, marigold<br />

and borage. Fresh plants were characterized with the highest contents of carotenoids and<br />

polpyhenols, the highest content of chlorophylls was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> freeze-dried plants, while airdried<br />

plants exhibited the highest content of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s. Microwave dry<strong>in</strong>g resulted with a<br />

significant degradation of all bioactive compounds <strong>in</strong> the exam<strong>in</strong>ed plants.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Garg H.P. & Kumar R. 2001. Developments <strong>in</strong> solar dry<strong>in</strong>g, In: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the Second Asian-Oceania<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g Conference (ADC 2001), Batu Fer<strong>in</strong>ghi, Pulau P<strong>in</strong>ang, Malaysia, 297–319.<br />

[2] Jambor J. & Czosnowska E. 2002. Herbal medic<strong>in</strong>es from fresh plants. Postpy Fitoterapii, 8(1–2), 2–5.<br />

[3] Diplock T.A., Charleux J.L., Crozier-Willi G., Kok F. J., Rice-Evans C., Roberfroid M., Stahl W. & Via-<br />

Ribes J. 1998. Functional food science and defence aga<strong>in</strong>st reactive oxidative species. British Journal of<br />

Nutrition, 80, 77–112.<br />

2040<br />

TPC ABTS<br />

Fresh AD FD MD Fresh AD FD MD Fresh AD FD MD<br />

Lemon balm Borage Marigold<br />

250.00<br />

200.00<br />

150.00<br />

100.00<br />

50.00<br />

0.00<br />

umol Trolox/g DM

Research on Dehydrated Fruit Leathers: A Review<br />

Natalia A. Qu<strong>in</strong>tero Ruiz a , Silvana M. Demarchi a , Sergio A. G<strong>in</strong>er a,b,c<br />

a Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CIDCA), La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

b Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC), La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a (sag<strong>in</strong>er@<strong>in</strong>g.unlp.edu.ar)<br />

c Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fruit leathers are dehydrated fruit-based products that are eaten as candy or snacks, and<br />

presented as flexible stripes or sheets. They receive this name because of the f<strong>in</strong>al product<br />

aspect (it is sh<strong>in</strong>y and has the texture of leather). The orig<strong>in</strong> of fruit leathers may go back to the<br />

Persian Empire. They are known as “Pestil” <strong>in</strong> Turkey, “Bastegh” or “Pastegh” <strong>in</strong> Armenia,<br />

“Qamar al deen” <strong>in</strong> Lebanon, Syria and other arab countries and “Fruit roll” or “Fruit leather”<br />

<strong>in</strong> the United States. The last denom<strong>in</strong>ation is possibly more usual <strong>in</strong> the scientific literature<br />

[1]. Due to its novel and attractive structure, and for be<strong>in</strong>g products that do not require<br />

refrigeration, they constitute a practical way to <strong>in</strong>corporate fruit solids, especially for children<br />

and adolescents. Fruit leathers allow leftover ripe fruits to be preserved. In recent years, their<br />

popularity has <strong>in</strong>creased, transform<strong>in</strong>g from a homemade preparation <strong>in</strong>to an <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

product. The available literature describes two ma<strong>in</strong> methods for prepar<strong>in</strong>g fruit leather<br />

structure: pectic gelation of fruit puree or concentrates <strong>in</strong>duced by dehydration and non-pectic<br />

gelation, us<strong>in</strong>g starch or other gell<strong>in</strong>g agents. This review will consider research works on<br />

leathers arrived at by pectic gelation.<br />

PREPARATION OF FRUIT LEATHERS<br />

The process of pectic gelification lead<strong>in</strong>g to a fruit leather has the follow<strong>in</strong>g requirements: a<br />

soluble solid content greater than 55% w/w, composed of fruit pulp and, optionally, by added<br />

saccharides. Besides, the pH of the formulation must be of 3.5 or below. Pect<strong>in</strong>s with high<br />

degree of esterification are necessary as well [2]. A general flow chart for the production of<br />

fruit leathers is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. This process may vary accord<strong>in</strong>g to the fruit used, the nature<br />

of additives that may be employed and the dry<strong>in</strong>g technology.<br />

Figure 1. Flow-sheet for preparation of fruit leather<br />

A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON FRUIT LEATHERS<br />

The first contributions (1976) describ<strong>in</strong>g the preparation of fruit leathers were written by<br />

extension services of various universities <strong>in</strong> the United States [3]. These techniques were aimed<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2041

at promot<strong>in</strong>g homemade preparation of leathers from several fruits. Scientific production <strong>in</strong> the<br />

topic began around 1978 and, despite the healthy character of fruit solids consumption, has<br />

kept an irregular pace until the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the XXI century, from which fruit leathers began<br />

to receive more attention from researchers. Early work described the physicochemical<br />

properties and sensorial attributes of pectic gels. Subsequent works <strong>in</strong>corporated data on<br />

quality parameters and storage stability [4]. In the last decade, publications <strong>in</strong>cluded subject as<br />

the use of comb<strong>in</strong>ed technologies [5], analysis of dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics, application of the glass<br />

transition temperature (Tg) theory to fruit leathers and evaluations of the <strong>in</strong>fluence of various<br />

additives <strong>in</strong> dry<strong>in</strong>g rate and product quality. Latest research on fruit leathers aimed at study<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the effects of process<strong>in</strong>g on organoleptic and nutritional quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al product.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Fresh fruits and vegetables are known to be excellent sources of energy, m<strong>in</strong>erals, vitam<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

bioactive compounds (phenolics, carotenoids) and fiber. The destruction of the orig<strong>in</strong>al fruit<br />

structure by puree<strong>in</strong>g and its reestructur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> dehydrated sugar-acid-pectic gels called fruit<br />

leathers provides attractive, colored products, on which research is very active nowadays. This<br />

trend towards quality analysis was observed <strong>in</strong> research carried out <strong>in</strong> recent years, especially<br />

as affected by different process and storage conditions. Concern<strong>in</strong>g organoleptic quality, color<br />

is usually selected as quality parameter, because it has a high impact on consumers and is<br />

useful as brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dex. Nutritional quality may be considered as an important parameter<br />

when process<strong>in</strong>g fruits that are source of vitam<strong>in</strong>s and/or antioxidants. Future research should<br />

address the important issue of the effect of process<strong>in</strong>g on quality, not only to def<strong>in</strong>e process<br />

conditions <strong>in</strong> a given technology, but also to compare diverse technologies. This knowledge is<br />

required by <strong>in</strong>dustry as well as by consumers. Conventional hot-air dry<strong>in</strong>g processes, still the<br />

more common technology, produces strong antioxidant loss, though <strong>in</strong>crease the availability of<br />

a microbiological stable product. Quality losses progress dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at ambient<br />

temperatures and the “functional” character of these products may be preserved only if dried<br />

with modern hybrid or comb<strong>in</strong>ed technologies, mostly under vacuum and stored at<br />

refrigeration temperatures to slow down antioxidant loss. There is still not a unified criterion<br />

about the physicochemical characteristics represent<strong>in</strong>g a fruit leather, so that a def<strong>in</strong>ition of its<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> composition or preparation method should be def<strong>in</strong>ed, or standardized to <strong>in</strong>form<br />

consumers and to favor trade at national and <strong>in</strong>ternational level.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Maskan A., Kaya S. & Maskan M. 2002. Hot Air and Sun Dry<strong>in</strong>g of Grape Leather (Pestil). Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 54, 81-88.<br />

[2] Visser J. & Voragen A. 1995. Pect<strong>in</strong>s and Pect<strong>in</strong>ases. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdan, Holand.<br />

[3] Raab C. & Oehler N. 1976. Mak<strong>in</strong>g Dried Fruit Leather, Oregon State University. Extension Service,<br />

Oregon, USA.<br />

[4] Vijayanand P., Yadav A. R., Balasubramanyan N. & Narasimham P. 2000. Storage Stability of Guava<br />

Fruit Bar Prepared Us<strong>in</strong>g a New <strong>Process</strong>. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie, 33(2), 132-<br />

137<br />

[5] Drouzas A. E., Tsami E. & Saravacos G. D. 1999. Microwave/Vacuum Dry<strong>in</strong>g of Model Fruit Gels.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 39(2), 117-122.<br />

2042

Selection of potential probiotic Lactobacillus stra<strong>in</strong>s from human milk<br />

Hatice Yavuzdurmaz a , Sebnem Harsa a<br />

a Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey (haticeyavuzdurmaz@iyte.edu.tr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Probiotics are suggested as food to provide for the balance of <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al flora. Probiotics have<br />

been used for long time <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong>gredients for human and also to feed animals without any<br />

side effects. The human breast milk has been considered to be an attractive source for potential<br />

probiotic stra<strong>in</strong>s. After birth, breast milk becomes the best food for <strong>in</strong>fants because it fulfills all<br />

required nutrients. Based on the microbiological po<strong>in</strong>t, human milk is really an important<br />

factor <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itiation and development and of course, for the composition of the neonatal gut<br />

microflora s<strong>in</strong>ce it constitutes a source of microorganisms to the <strong>in</strong>fant gut for several weeks<br />

after birth. Although there are limited knowledge about the commensal or probiotic bacteria <strong>in</strong><br />

breast milk, bacteria commonly isolated from this biological fluid <strong>in</strong>clude staphylococci,<br />

streptococci, micrococci, lactobacilli and enterococci. The ma<strong>in</strong> scope of this study is to isolate<br />

and identify lactobacilli and search the potential probiotic properties of these isolates.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples were collected from healthy mothers <strong>in</strong> sterile carriers. Pour plate technique was used<br />

to isolate the organisms. Serial dilutions were plated onto Man, Rogosa and Sharp (MRS) agar<br />

(pH 6.2 and 5.5), TPY (Trypticase Phytone Yeast) agar (pH 6.5) and MRS-cyste<strong>in</strong> agar (pH<br />

5.5). Plates were <strong>in</strong>cubated anaerobically at 37 °C for 72 h. Gram-positive and catalasenegative<br />

rods and coccoid shaped ones were randomly selected. Isolated stra<strong>in</strong>s were analyzed<br />

based on their resistance to low pH (3.0), tolerance aga<strong>in</strong>st bile (0.3% bile salt) and<br />

antimicrobial activity. Then, isolates showed potential probiotic characteristics were<br />

characterized phenotypically and identified genetically by us<strong>in</strong>g 16S rDNA sequenc<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />

biochemical characteristics were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by analyz<strong>in</strong>g: CO2 production from glucose,<br />

growth at different temperatures (10, 15, 45 °C), growth at different NaCl concentrations (2%,<br />

6.5%), hydrolysis of arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e and fermentation ability of 17 different carbohydrates. After<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ation of biochemical characteristics genomic DNA was isolated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

protocol of which is modified from the protocol of Card<strong>in</strong>al et al [1]. Amplification of 16S<br />

rDNA region was performed with EGE1 forward primer (5’-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-<br />

3’) and EGE2 reverse primer (5’-CTACGGCTACCTTGTTACGA-3’) [2]. The amplification<br />

conditions were as follows: 94°C for 5 m<strong>in</strong> (<strong>in</strong>itial denaturation); 40 cycles of 94°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong><br />

(denaturation), 56°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong> (anneal<strong>in</strong>g), 72°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong> (elongation); 72°C for 10 m<strong>in</strong> (f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

extension). The amplification conditions were as follows: 94°C for 5 m<strong>in</strong> (<strong>in</strong>itial denaturation);<br />

40 cycles of 94°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong> (denaturation), 56°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong> (anneal<strong>in</strong>g), 72°C for 1 m<strong>in</strong><br />

(elongation); 72°C for 10 m<strong>in</strong> (f<strong>in</strong>al extension). Then PCR products were sequenced and<br />

analyzed by us<strong>in</strong>g the basic local alignment search tool (BLAST,<br />

http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2043

From 200 isolates, 60 isolates rema<strong>in</strong>ed at the end of the isolation, purification after the loss of<br />

unstable isolates dur<strong>in</strong>g purification and subcultur<strong>in</strong>g steps. All of the isolates were gram<br />

positive catalase negative rods and cocci. In order to select the most resistant stra<strong>in</strong>s to low pH<br />

values, PBS buffer adjusted to pH 3.0 was used and cfu (colony form<strong>in</strong>g unit) values were<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g 3 h. Only two bacilli isolates survived <strong>in</strong> pH 3.0 and then these isolates were<br />

screened for their ability to tolerate the bile salt. Stra<strong>in</strong>s were detected <strong>in</strong> 0.3% bile dur<strong>in</strong>g 4 h.<br />

The cfu values showed that both isolates were resistant to bile at this concentration (Figure1).<br />

Afterwards, antimicrobial activity tests were assayed towards Salmonella typhimurium CCM<br />

5445, Escherichia coli O157:H7 NCTC 129000 and Escherichia coli NRRL B-3008. The<br />

diameter of <strong>in</strong>hibition zones <strong>in</strong>dicated that isolates had antibacterial effect on the <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />

microorganisms. Both isolates showed much more efficiency on Escherichia coli NRRL B-<br />

3008. After search<strong>in</strong>g probiotic properties, isolates were characterized by physiological and<br />

biochemical methods. When biochemical experiment f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs were compared with the<br />

literature <strong>in</strong>formation, it was provided that AS17 was like to be Lactobacillus oris; AS83 was<br />

like to be Lactobacillus fermentum. Ultimately, these two stra<strong>in</strong>s were subjected to 16S rDNA<br />

sequenc<strong>in</strong>g and identified as Lactobacillus oris (AS17) and Lactobacillus fermentum (AS83).<br />

Figure 1. Survival <strong>in</strong> pH 3.0 and Tolerance aga<strong>in</strong>st 0.3% bile<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

These two stra<strong>in</strong>s identified as Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactobacillus oris have the<br />

potential to be used as probiotic stra<strong>in</strong>s. They both survive at low pH, resistant to bile salt and<br />

have a considerable antimicrobial effect aga<strong>in</strong>st the tested bacteria. Our results showed<br />

similarity on the base of isolation of Lactobacillus fermentum from human breast milk with the<br />

other isolated stra<strong>in</strong>s from this liquid. However this is the first study for the isolation of<br />

Lactobacillus oris from human breast milk. Therefore, Lactobacillus oris is might be used as<br />

commercial probiotic because it provides the prerequisites for be<strong>in</strong>g probiotic. Human milk is<br />

also a potential natural source may be used to isolate probiotic lactic acid bacteria.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Card<strong>in</strong>al M. J, Meghrous J., Lacroix C. & Simard R. E. 1997. Isolation of Lactococcus lactis stra<strong>in</strong><br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>hibitory activity aga<strong>in</strong>st Listeria. <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology, 11, 129-146.<br />

[2] Mora D., Fort<strong>in</strong>a M. G., Nicastro G., Par<strong>in</strong>i C. & Manach<strong>in</strong>i P. L. 1998. Genotypic characterization of<br />

thermophilic bacilli: a study on new soil isolates and several reference stra<strong>in</strong>s. Research <strong>in</strong><br />

Microbiology, 149, 711-722.<br />

2044

Phenolics, betala<strong>in</strong>s, ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity of Opuntia ficus-<strong>in</strong>dica.<br />

Dulce María Jiménez-Aguilar a . Cármen Hernández-Brenes b . Janet Alejandra Gutierrez-Uribe c . Jorge Welti-Chanes d .<br />

a,b,c,d<br />

Departamento de Biotecnología e Ingeniería de Alimentos, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada<br />

2501 Sur, CP 64849. Monterrey, NL, México. a A00808278@itesm.mx, b chbrenes@itesm.mx, c jagu@itesm.mx,<br />

d jwelti@itesm.mx.<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Prickly pear is one of the most representative fruits <strong>in</strong> Mexican culture, it is a fruit which presents a<br />

thick pericarp with small prickles, enclos<strong>in</strong>g a pulp, which is <strong>in</strong>termixed with a number of small<br />

seeds. Prickly pear fruit is an important source of sugars, m<strong>in</strong>erals, am<strong>in</strong>oacids, phenolic<br />

compounds, betala<strong>in</strong>s, and vitam<strong>in</strong> C. Phenolic compounds have anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory, anti-allergenic,<br />

anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory, anti-atherogenic, and cardioprotective effects, and these are potential<br />

antioxidants.<br />

In Puebla, approximately 41,672 ton/year of prickly pear are harvested, mak<strong>in</strong>g this State one of the<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> producers of this fruit <strong>in</strong> México [1]. However, commercial varieties obta<strong>in</strong>ed from this<br />

location have not been studied. The objective of this study was to quantify the content of total<br />

phenolics, total betala<strong>in</strong>s, ascorbic acid and antioxidant activity found <strong>in</strong> the juice, pulp and r<strong>in</strong>d of<br />

the two commercial varieties of prickly pear orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from Puebla, Mexico.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Biological material and sample preparation. Two commercial types of Prickly pear (Opuntia<br />

ficus-<strong>in</strong>dica) denom<strong>in</strong>ated Red San Martín and Green Villanueva, were harvested dur<strong>in</strong>g 2010, <strong>in</strong><br />

February and May, respectively. Harvest<strong>in</strong>g took place <strong>in</strong> San Sebastián Villanueva, Puebla,<br />

México. The prickly pear pulp was separated from the r<strong>in</strong>d and seeds. The juice was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

the pulp by paper filtration. R<strong>in</strong>d was freeze-dried, and then was crushed for 3 m<strong>in</strong>utes. 1 g of the<br />

dried r<strong>in</strong>d samples was homogenized with 10 mL of methanol (80%). The homogeneized products<br />

were mixed dur<strong>in</strong>g 2.5 h at 250 rpm and 25 ± 0.5 °C (Lab L<strong>in</strong>e model 3526, USA). Afterwards,<br />

samples were centrifuged at 5000 g and 4°C for 10 m<strong>in</strong> (IEC centrifuge model MP4R, USA). R<strong>in</strong>d<br />

extract, juice and pulp were stored at -80 °C<br />

Total phenolics, total betala<strong>in</strong>s, and ascorbic acid. Total phenolic content was evaluated<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Fol<strong>in</strong> Ciocalteau method described by St<strong>in</strong>tz<strong>in</strong>g et al [2]. Total betala<strong>in</strong>s content<br />

was measured accord<strong>in</strong>g to Cassano et al. [3]. The extraction and measurement of ascorbic acid<br />

were performed as described by Gillespie and A<strong>in</strong>sworth [4].<br />

Antioxidant activity. Antioxidant activity was evaluated with the method of Oxygen Radical<br />

Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) described by Huang et al [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Total phenolics. Table 1, summarizes the composition of TP <strong>in</strong> juice, pulp and r<strong>in</strong>d of the<br />

Villanueva and San Martín prickly pears. The juice of San Martín prickly pear had higher levels of<br />

phenolics than Villanueva.<br />

Betala<strong>in</strong>s. The juice and the pulp of the San Mart<strong>in</strong> prickly pear (Table 1) showed higher<br />

concentrations of betacyan<strong>in</strong>s than of betaxanth<strong>in</strong>s. The r<strong>in</strong>d of Villanueva prickly pear showed<br />

lower levels of betala<strong>in</strong>s, meanwhile <strong>in</strong> the juice and the pulp they could not be detected. Ascorbic<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2045

acid (AA). The juice of San Mart<strong>in</strong> prickly pear had the highest levels of AA. In the juice and pulp<br />

of Villanueva, it was found 2.5 times less AA than <strong>in</strong> San Mart<strong>in</strong> juice. The r<strong>in</strong>d had the lowest<br />

concentrations of AA (Table 1).<br />

Antioxidant activity (AOX). In Table 1, it can be observed that both varieties of prickly pear had<br />

higher levels of antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> the r<strong>in</strong>d. Juices and pulps studied showed similar levels;<br />

nevertheless the AOX <strong>in</strong> the r<strong>in</strong>d of Villanueva was higher.<br />

Table 1. Total phenolics, betala<strong>in</strong>s, vitam<strong>in</strong> C and antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> juice, pulp and r<strong>in</strong>d of<br />

commercial varieties of prickly pear harvested <strong>in</strong> Puebla, México<br />

Variety<br />

Total phenolics<br />

(mg GAE/100<br />

Betala<strong>in</strong>s (mg/100 g)<br />

Betacyan<strong>in</strong>s Betaxanth<strong>in</strong>s<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong> C<br />

(mg AA/100<br />

Antioxidant<br />

activity<br />

g)<br />

g) (mol TE/g)<br />

San Martín Juice 68.3 ± 1.3a 26.8 ± 0.5a 17.7 ± 0.4a 58.2 ± 0.6a 9.8 ± 0.5a<br />

Villanueva Juice 53.2 ± 0.7b ND ND 23.5 ± 2.5b 5.3 ± 1.5b<br />

San Martín Pulp 58.1 ± 1.8c 23.2 ± 0.8b 13. 4 ± 0.5b 53. 8 ± 0.8c 7.9 ± 0.6ab<br />

Villanueva Pulp 51.1 ± 0.4d ND ND 22.7 ± 1.6b 5.9 ± 1.1ab<br />

San Martín R<strong>in</strong>d 70.3 ±0.1a 2.0 ± 0.1c 2.1 ± 0.1c 10.8 ± 0.9d 16.2 ± 3.1c<br />

Villanueva R<strong>in</strong>d 126.0 ± 1.4d 0.4 ± 0.1d 0.7 ± 0.1d 9.9 ± 0.4d 39.3 ± 2.0d<br />

Different letters <strong>in</strong> the same row <strong>in</strong>dicate significant differences (P< 0.05). All results were expressed at wet weight.<br />

ND: not detected<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The juice of prickly pear San Martín showed higher concentrations of TP, betala<strong>in</strong>s, AA and AOX,<br />

however, the r<strong>in</strong>d of prickly pear Villanueva has levels of TP 2 times superior and of AOX 4 times<br />

higher than juice and pulp of San Martín. These results suggest that functional compounds present<br />

<strong>in</strong> the r<strong>in</strong>d of the fruit must be extracted and added to the juice, <strong>in</strong> order to elaborate a product as a<br />

beverage that can offer better health benefits to the consumer. The antioxidant activity only<br />

followed the same trend of the content of TP, but it did not seem to be related to the concentration<br />

of betala<strong>in</strong>s and AA present <strong>in</strong> the samples, because of that, it is possible that these compounds are<br />

the ma<strong>in</strong> contributors of the AOX.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1]SAGARPA. Plan Rector. Sistema producto nacional nopal 2004.<br />

http://www.sagarpa.gob.mx/agricultura/Publicaciones/SistemaProducto/Lists/NopalTuna/Attachments/1/pr<br />

n_nopal.pdf. [5 October 2010].<br />

[2] St<strong>in</strong>tz<strong>in</strong>g FC. Herbach KM. Mosshammer MR. Carle R. Yi W. Sellappan S. Akoh CC. Bunch R. & Felker P.<br />

2005. Color, betala<strong>in</strong> pattern, and antioxidant properties of cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) clones. J Agric <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chem 53: 442-451.<br />

[3] Cassano A. Conidi C. Timpone R. Avella M. & Drioli E. 2007. A membrane-based process for the<br />

clarification and the concentration of the cactus pear juice. J <strong>Food</strong> Eng 80: 914-921.<br />

[4] Gillespie KM. & A<strong>in</strong>sworth EA. 2007. Measurement of reduced, oxidized and total ascorbate content <strong>in</strong><br />

plants. Nat Protoc 2: 871-874<br />

[5] Huang D. Ou B. Hampsch-Woodill M. Flanagan JA. & Prior RL. 2002. High-throughput assay of oxygen<br />

radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) us<strong>in</strong>g a multichannel liquid handl<strong>in</strong>g system coupled with a<br />

microplate fluorescence reader <strong>in</strong> 96-well format. J Agric <strong>Food</strong> Chem 50: 4437-4444.<br />

2046

A novel emulsifier from sp<strong>in</strong>ach with appetite regulation abilities<br />

Marilyn Rayner a , S<strong>in</strong>an Cem Emek b , Karol<strong>in</strong>a Gustafsson a,c , Charlotte Erlanson-Albertsson,<br />

Per-Åke Albertsson b<br />

a<br />

Lund University, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Nutrition, Lund Sweden.<br />

(marilyn.rayner@food.lth.se)<br />

b<br />

Lund University, Dept. of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Molecular Prote<strong>in</strong> Science.<br />

c<br />

Lund University, Appetite Control Unit, Dept of Experimental Medical Science, BMC, Lund Sweden<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

See<strong>in</strong>g that high-fat diets are obesity promot<strong>in</strong>g, a strategy that strengthens the control of<br />

appetite with dietary fat could be a means to counter act over consumption. Chloroplast<br />

thylakoid membranes isolated from sp<strong>in</strong>ach have been found to <strong>in</strong>hibit pancreatic<br />

lipase/colipase activity [1] and, when <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> food, <strong>in</strong>duce satiety signals. This effect is due<br />

to their ability to reduce the rate of lipolysis through the <strong>in</strong>hibition of the lipase-colipase<br />

complex. They have a strong aff<strong>in</strong>ity to oil which both prevents the lipolytic enzymes from<br />

com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> close contact with its substrate and at the same time protects the thylakoids form<br />

proteolytic enzymes present <strong>in</strong> gastric juices form digest<strong>in</strong>g the thylakoids as quickly [2]. This<br />

aff<strong>in</strong>ity also imparts thylakoids <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g emulsification properties. The objective of this<br />

study was to characterise thylakoids’ ability to stabilise oil-<strong>in</strong>-water emulsions, and to study<br />

their <strong>in</strong>terfacial properties <strong>in</strong> light of their capacity to <strong>in</strong>hibit pancreatic lipase-co lipase activity<br />

<strong>in</strong> vitro. As lipolysis is an <strong>in</strong>herently <strong>in</strong>terfacial process it is important to quantify their<br />

<strong>in</strong>terfacial properties and to maximize the oil-water <strong>in</strong>terfacial area covered by the thylakoids<br />

<strong>in</strong> future food formulations.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Thylakoids isolated from sp<strong>in</strong>ach were used for emulsification studies us<strong>in</strong>g a lab-scale high<br />

shear homogenizer. 33.3% vv oil-<strong>in</strong>-water emulsions produced had vary<strong>in</strong>g amounts of<br />

thylakoids and result<strong>in</strong>g emulsions were characterized by cream<strong>in</strong>g phase volume, microscopy<br />

and light scatter<strong>in</strong>g to determ<strong>in</strong>e micro structure and droplet size distributions and surface load.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Electron micrographs (figure 1) show that thylakoids are attached to the surface of the oil<br />

droplets <strong>in</strong> the form of <strong>in</strong>tact thylakoids or sub-thylakoid membrane vesicles <strong>in</strong> the size range<br />

1–2m. The result<strong>in</strong>g Emulsions were stable aga<strong>in</strong>st coalescence but were subject to cream<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

There was very little difference between the emulsions at day 1 and after 7 days other than the<br />

serum phase was slightly clearer after storage. The emulsification <strong>in</strong>dex was estimated by<br />

image analysis and there was no significant change <strong>in</strong> the EI after 7days. EI and volume mean<br />

droplet diameter as a function of thylakoids concentration is presented <strong>in</strong> figure 2. Drop size<br />

distributions (d43) determ<strong>in</strong>ed by light scatter<strong>in</strong>g showed very similar sized before and after<br />

storage for all thylakoid concentrations with the exception of 2mg/ml oil, where the emulsions<br />

after 7 days had a significantly smaller mean droplet size. In general, the stored emulsions had<br />

a smaller droplet size which is opposite to what is generally expected. Perhaps there is some re-<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2047

organisation of the thylakoids at the oil-water <strong>in</strong>terface and they become a more compact layer,<br />

decreas<strong>in</strong>g the measured size.<br />

Thylakoid membrane segments /vesicles<br />

are significantly larger than other<br />

common emulsifiers, for example<br />

surfactant molecules are <strong>in</strong> the range of<br />

0.4 to 1 nm, and prote<strong>in</strong> molecules are<br />

between 1 and 5 nm [3]. Thylakoids are<br />

least two orders of magnitude larger<br />

than prote<strong>in</strong> molecules, so it is not<br />

unreasonable that we get surface<br />

coverage <strong>in</strong> the range of 6 to 10 mg/m 2<br />

over the concentration range used. Figure 1: Micrograph of thylakoid stabilized emulsions<br />

Figure 2: Volume mean diameter d43, mm (•) and<br />

surface coverage, Emulsification <strong>in</strong>dex (), as a<br />

function of thylakoid concentrations measured after 7<br />

days storage at 4C. Data po<strong>in</strong>ts labelled with different<br />

letters are significantly different(p

Physico-chemical analysis, antioxidant capacity and vitam<strong>in</strong>s of six ecotypes of Chilean<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>oa (Chenopodium qu<strong>in</strong>oa Willd.)<br />

Margarita Miranda a , Antonio Vega-Gálvez a,b , Elsa Uribe a , Jessica López a , Enrique Martínez b , María José<br />

Rodríguez a , Issis Quispe a , Kar<strong>in</strong>a Di Scala c,d<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile (margmir@gmail.com)<br />

Center for Advanced Studies <strong>in</strong> Arid Zones, CEAZA, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile<br />

(avegag@userena.cl; enrique.a.mart<strong>in</strong>ez@ceaza.cl)<br />

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Research Group, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(kdiscala@fi.mdp.edu.ar)<br />

CONICET (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas). Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>oa (Chenopodium qu<strong>in</strong>oa Willd.) is a native plant of the Andean region [1]. Qu<strong>in</strong>oa has<br />

ga<strong>in</strong>ed an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> recent years due to its nutritional value as well as its<br />

antioxidant capacity and phytochemical content [1,2]. The objective of this work was to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e the physico-chemical properties, vitam<strong>in</strong>s (B1, B2, B3 and E) and the antioxidant<br />

activity of six ecotypes of qu<strong>in</strong>oa (Chenopodium qu<strong>in</strong>oa Willd) cultivated <strong>in</strong> three qu<strong>in</strong>oa<br />

production zones <strong>in</strong> Chile (North Highlands, Center and Southern Chile).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The qu<strong>in</strong>oa seeds were harvested from the three ancestral production areas of Chile <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

samples from the three genetic pools (North Highlands, Central and Southern Chile). The<br />

samples are called Ancov<strong>in</strong>to and Cancosa from the North, Cáhuil and Faro from the Center,<br />

and Regalona and Villarica from the South. Proximate analysis followed the recommendations<br />

of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists [3]. Total phenolic content (TPC) was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed colorimetrically us<strong>in</strong>g the Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteau reagent (FC) accord<strong>in</strong>g to Miranda et<br />

al. [1] with modifications. Free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity of the samples was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the 2,2,-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) method with some modifications [1].<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong> E was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g HPLC with fluorescence detector, follow<strong>in</strong>g the methodology<br />

presented <strong>in</strong> Miranda et al. [1]. Vitam<strong>in</strong> B1 and B2 were extracted by acid hydrolysis and<br />

enzymatic, determ<strong>in</strong>ed Fluorometric method by HPLC, follow<strong>in</strong>g A.O.A.C 942.23 and 970.65<br />

[4] respectively. B3 was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by spectrophotometry, accord<strong>in</strong>g to A.O.A.C. 961.14 [4].<br />

The Statgraphics Plus ® 5.1 software (Statistical Graphics Corp., Herndon, USA) was used to<br />

perform one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) <strong>in</strong> order to determ<strong>in</strong>e significant differences<br />

among samples (=0.05).<br />

RESULTS &DISCUSSION<br />

Physico-chemical composition, total phenolic content (TPC), DPPH free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g<br />

activity (IC50), vitam<strong>in</strong> B1, B2, B3 and vitam<strong>in</strong> E of six qu<strong>in</strong>oa ecotypes from the three genetic<br />

zones (North, Centre and South) are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. Proximate analysis of qu<strong>in</strong>oa seeds<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g moisture, crude prote<strong>in</strong>, fat, crude fiber, ash and available carbohydrates for the six<br />

ecotypes showed differences among samples (p-value

Cáhuil from the Center showed the highest antioxidant capacity (p-value

Optimization Xylitol Production Conditions From Sunflower Stalk<br />

Ozlem Akp<strong>in</strong>ar, Reyhan Sel<strong>in</strong> Uysal, Serdal Sabanc, Burcu Sapci<br />

Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey (oakp<strong>in</strong>ar@gop.edu.tr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Xylitol is a five carbon sugar alcohol, equivalent to sucrose <strong>in</strong> sweetnes and occurs widely <strong>in</strong><br />

nature but it is also produced <strong>in</strong> human metabolism. Unlike sucrose, it is anticariogenic, natural<br />

sweetener and can be consumed by diabetics because it is metabolized by an <strong>in</strong>sul<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

pathway. It gives a pleasant cool and fresh sensation due to its high negative heat<br />

of solution. [1]. Xylitol is used <strong>in</strong> various food products such as chew<strong>in</strong>g gum, candy, soft<br />

dr<strong>in</strong>ks and ice cream. Despite many advantages of xylitol, the use of xylitol as sweetener is<br />

limited. Commercially, xylitol is produced from birch wood tree which is the most expensive<br />

source. Agricultural wastes, widely available <strong>in</strong> Turkey are produced at an annual rate of more<br />

than 50 million tons. These wastes can be used as animal feed, but this use has slight<br />

economical significance. They are usually left to rot or burned <strong>in</strong> the field after harvest<strong>in</strong>g [2].<br />

Nowadays, utilization of these lignocellulosic wastes for <strong>in</strong>dustrial purposes receive enormous<br />

attention due to their huge amount of carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicellulose) contents, low<br />

cost, wide availability and reduction of environmental pollution. The agricultural waste which<br />

is rich <strong>in</strong> lignocellulosic materials is an ideal source for the production of xylitol. Sunflower<br />

stalk is one of the most widely available waste <strong>in</strong> Turkey. The biotechnical production of<br />

xylitol employ<strong>in</strong>g hemicellulose fraction of lignocellulosic materials, <strong>in</strong>stead of pure xylose is<br />

more versatile approach to reduce the cost of production [3]. The aim of this study was to<br />

produce xylose from sunflower stalk and optimization of production conditions of xylitol form<br />

xylose by Candida tropicalis. The present study determ<strong>in</strong>ed the effect of aeration, <strong>in</strong>oculum<br />

and xylose concentration on the yield of xylitol from sunflower stalk and tobacco stalk.<br />

Response surface methodology was used as a statistical design to optimize the formation of<br />

xylitol <strong>in</strong> the hydrolysate.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Xylose Production: Hydrolysis of sunflower stalk was performed <strong>in</strong> a 1 L sta<strong>in</strong>less-steel<br />

pressure batch reactor. The reaction was carried <strong>in</strong> the range of 120 o C under 4% sulfuric acid<br />

concentration and 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes of residence times. Hydrolysate was analysed by HPLC on<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>ex HPX 87H (300 x 7.8 mm) column.<br />

Xylitol Production: The fermentations were performed <strong>in</strong> a 1.5-L fermentor with agitation,<br />

aeration, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen control. Experiments were carried out at 30°C<br />

with 0.5 L of fermentation medium and 300 rpm. Samples were analysed by HPLC on<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>ex HPX 87H (300 x 7.8 mm) column. For optimization study the effects of air, substrate<br />

and cell concentration on the production of yield and xylitol production rate were <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used for the optimization of xylitol production<br />

conditions.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2051

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Composition of sunflower stalk acid hydrolysate is presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The xylose<br />

concentration <strong>in</strong> sunflower stalk hydrolysate, achieved at 120 o C for 30 m<strong>in</strong> with 4% of acid<br />

was 9.82 g/l.<br />

Table 1. Composition of sunflower stalk acid hydrolysate<br />

Component Amount<br />

Xylose (g/l) 9.82+1.06<br />

Glucose (g/l) 0.63+0.12<br />

Arab<strong>in</strong>ose (g/l) 0.14+0.18<br />

Furfural (g/l) 0.22+0.08<br />

Xylose yield (g xylose/ 100g max xylose) 36<br />

Selectivity (g xylose/g glucose) 16<br />

The optimization was conducted with the help of ‘Design-expert’ program. Optimization<br />

method consists of overlay<strong>in</strong>g the contour plots of both models. To optimal work<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

based on high level of xylitol yield and volumetric xylitol production rate were chosen us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the follow<strong>in</strong>g criteria: xylitol yield > 40 g/g (g xylitol produced/g xylose consumed) and rate ><br />

0.15 g/L sa (g/l xylitol/time). The overlay<strong>in</strong>g plot (Figure 1) shows the regions that shaded area<br />

do not fit the optimization criteria while non-shaded area meet the optimization criteria.<br />

Figure 1. Overlay<strong>in</strong>g plots of xylitol yield and volumetric xylitol production rate<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results showed that utilization of this material for production of xylitol does not only<br />

solves the proper disposal of these wastes, but also provides additional <strong>in</strong>come for farmers and<br />

generates employment.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cell concentration (g/l)<br />

Xylose concentration (g/l)<br />

[1] W<strong>in</strong>kelhausen, E. and Kuzmanova, S., 1998. Microbial conversion of d-xylose to xylitol. Journal of<br />

Fermentation and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 86, 1-14.<br />

[2] Bascet<strong>in</strong>celik, A., Ozturk, H.H., Karaca, C., Kacira, M., Ek<strong>in</strong>ci, K., Kaya, D., Banan, A., Gunes, K.,<br />

Komitti, N., Barnes, I. and Niem<strong>in</strong>en, M., 2006. Guide on Exploitation of Agircultural Residues <strong>in</strong><br />

Turkey Life 03 TCY/TR/000061.<br />

[3] Parajo, J.C., Dom<strong>in</strong>gues, H. and Dom<strong>in</strong>guez, J.M., 1998. Biotechnological production of xylitol. Part<br />

1: <strong>in</strong>terest of xylitol and Fundamentals of its biosynthesis. Bioresource Technology, 65, 191-20<br />

2052

1 / C 3<br />

1exp C C 1<br />

2 <br />

l<br />

Effect of fat substitution on the textural properties of cake<br />

Vassiliki Psimouli, Vassiliki Oreopoulou<br />

National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece<br />

(psimouli@chemeng.ntua.gr, vasor@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Ingredients which can substitute fat can be a helpful tool <strong>in</strong> weight control strategies.<br />

Nevertheless fat substitution is a rather complicated matter s<strong>in</strong>ce it affects the structure and the<br />

organoleptic characteristics of the foodstuff. In the present research the effect of different<br />

levels of fat substitution as well as the effect of different types of fat substitutes on the textural<br />

behaviour of cake dur<strong>in</strong>g compression was studied.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Four types of fat mimetic were used: maltodextr<strong>in</strong> of low dextrose equivalent, CdryLight<br />

(Cargill); <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong>, HP (Orafti); microparticulated whey prote<strong>in</strong>, Simplesse and pect<strong>in</strong>, Slendid<br />

(CPkelco). The fat mimetics were dissolved <strong>in</strong> cold water at concentration of 20% wt/wt,<br />

except for Slendid and Simplesse which were dissolved at concentrations of 10% and 35%<br />

respectively. The solutions were stored at 4°C overnight, so as to obta<strong>in</strong> gel formulations. All<br />

fat substitute preparations were used to replace 35%, 65% and 100% of fat <strong>in</strong> cakes.<br />

The textural behaviour was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the texture analyzer (TA-Xti2 Stable Microsystems,<br />

Surrey, UK). Cake samples of 40x40x20mm size were compressed (test speed 1mm/s,<br />

penetration distance 8mm) us<strong>in</strong>g the Sris P/75 alum<strong>in</strong>um plated probe. The measurements were<br />

performed <strong>in</strong> triplicate, 20 hours after the cake preparation and the correspond<strong>in</strong>g stra<strong>in</strong> stress<br />

data were reported. The sensory analysis was conducted by a ten member panel. Cake samples<br />

were evaluated for total acceptance, crumb firmness, crumbl<strong>in</strong>ess and mouthfeel of<br />

decomposition.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The stra<strong>in</strong> stress data corresponded to a sigmoid pattern which was fitted by a mathematical<br />

model reported by Swyngedau & Peleg [1], slightly modified.<br />

l0<br />

Where is the stress, is the stra<strong>in</strong>, which are derived from the force deformation data, and<br />

constants C1, C2, and C3 are related to the shape of the sigmoid curve. The greater the value of<br />

C1 the steeper the stress-stra<strong>in</strong> curve, whereas C2 is a scale factor. The closer the value of C3 is<br />

to 1 the existence of shoulder becomes less pronounced. All samples with fat substitutes<br />

presented greater values of C1 compared to control, which is illustrated by a steeper stressstra<strong>in</strong><br />

curve and <strong>in</strong>dicative of greater hardness and lower crumbl<strong>in</strong>ess of the texture.<br />

Nevertheless the resistance to deformation of the fat substitute samples does not follow the<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease of fat substitution level, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> most cases the sample with 65% of fat mimetic<br />

presented less compressibility than the respective samples of 100% substitution.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2053

65%<br />

Figure 1. Stress-stra<strong>in</strong> curves of cakes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a) <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> HP at different levels of fat replacement and<br />

b) different fat replacers at 100% level of fat substitution.<br />

This does not necessarily contradict the sensory evaluation which <strong>in</strong>dicated that as the level of<br />

substitution <strong>in</strong>creases, the firmness <strong>in</strong>creased, and the perceived crumbl<strong>in</strong>ess and mouthfeel<br />

decomposition decreased. This discrepancy can be attributed to the significantly higher pore<br />

size of samples conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 100% substitutes than the ones of 65%, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a more fractural<br />

structure.<br />

A comparison of the effect of the different fat replacers on cake hardness, as evaluated by<br />

stress-stra<strong>in</strong> curves <strong>in</strong>dicated that there was no significant difference at the level of 35% of fat<br />

substitution whereas the greater differentiations were observed at 100% substitution (Figure<br />

1b). Total fat replacement by Simplesse and Cdry Light lead respectively to the highest and<br />

lowest resistance to deformation, which was also verified by the sensory analysis. The greater<br />

tenderness provided by maltodextr<strong>in</strong> as fat substitute compared to other fat substitutes was also<br />

observed <strong>in</strong> cookies formulation [2]. However, cake formulations of total fat substitution were<br />

not evaluated as acceptable regardless of the fat mimetic.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The fat substitution affected the compressibility of the cake structure, lead<strong>in</strong>g to decreased cake<br />

tenderness. Cakes of 35% of fat substitution demonstrated similar compressive behaviour to<br />

control whereas the cakes of total fat replacement for some types of fat substitutes appeared to<br />

be less resistant to deformation compared to the respective 65% ones, which can be attributed<br />

to the presence of larger pores <strong>in</strong> its structure. The prote<strong>in</strong> based fat substitute presented the<br />

greater differentiation among the other fat mimetics <strong>in</strong> terms of its textural behaviour, by<br />

present<strong>in</strong>g the higher resistance to deformation at total fat substitution.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

100%<br />

Simplesse<br />

[1] Swyngedau S. & Peleg M. 1992. Characterization and prediction of the compressive stress-stra<strong>in</strong><br />

relationship of layered arrays of spongy baked goods. Cereal Chemistry, 69(2), 217-221.<br />

[2] Zoulias E.I., Oreopoulou V. & Tzia C. 2002. Textural properties of low-fat cookies conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

carbohydrate- or prote<strong>in</strong>- based fat replacers. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 55, 337-342.<br />

2054<br />

control<br />

35%<br />

CdLight<br />

<strong>in</strong>HP<br />

Slendid

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) with FT-IR <strong>in</strong> cereals.<br />

Their impact as substitute sweeteners <strong>in</strong> starch based desserts.<br />

S. V. Protonotariou a , C. Pappas b , P.A. Tarantilis b , M. Polissiou b , S. Yanniotis a , V. Evageliou c , I. Mandala a<br />

a<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Preservation of <strong>Food</strong>s, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and<br />

Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece (imandala@aua.gr)<br />

b<br />

Laboratory of Chemistry, Department of Science, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece<br />

(ptara@aua.gr)<br />

c<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Agricultural University of<br />

Athens, Greece (evageliou@aua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are considered alternative sweeteners [1]. Cereals are rich <strong>in</strong><br />

phytochemicals and fibers [2], thus the presence of FOS <strong>in</strong> them could enhance further their<br />

profile. Furthermore, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g FOS amount <strong>in</strong> starch based cream caramel desserts is<br />

desirable, given their high nutritional value. Howver, it is difficult to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> an accurate<br />

way different FOS <strong>in</strong> a food item. The ma<strong>in</strong> objectives of this study were: a) to determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

FOS amount <strong>in</strong> different mill<strong>in</strong>g fractions of wheat flour and b) to partially replace sucrose<br />

with FOS <strong>in</strong> starch based desserts<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Powder-caramel custard mixture, without sugar and milk, supplied by the greek company<br />

JOTIS S.A., commercial sucrose powder by the Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A and high<br />

pasteurization milk supplied by FAGE were used <strong>in</strong> order to prepare the desserts. Actilight<br />

FOS, 95 2%, donated by Begh<strong>in</strong> Meiji was used for sucrose substitution. Wheat mill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fractions were donated by LOULIS S.A. and KAPLANIDIS GROUP.<br />

Measurements <strong>in</strong>volved the characterization and comparison of mill<strong>in</strong>g fractions with respect<br />

to their FOS content by us<strong>in</strong>g Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform spectroscopy<br />

(DRIFTs). Spectra collected between 4000-500 cm- 1 (mid <strong>in</strong>frared), were smoothed and base<br />

l<strong>in</strong>e corrected. A library (Wheat_Bran) was created us<strong>in</strong>g the OMNIC software ver.7.3. Cream<br />

Caramel was made by progressively replac<strong>in</strong>g its sucrose content with FOS (10-50%<br />

substitution). Small-deformation oscillatory measurements were performed us<strong>in</strong>g parallel plate<br />

geometry. Samples were cooled from 85°C to 5°C, at a fixed rate of 2°C/m<strong>in</strong>. G' (elastic<br />

modulus), G" (storage modulus) and * (complex dynamic viscosity) were measured dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g at a fixed frequency of 1 Hz. At the end of cool<strong>in</strong>g was recorded a variation of G', G"<br />

and * with frequency (). Sensory evaluation of these products was also performed by a team<br />

of tra<strong>in</strong>ed panelists. The Triangle test was used as test<strong>in</strong>g method.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Among the bands found, the most important was the one at 1158 cm -1 which is a typical band<br />

ascribed to the stretch<strong>in</strong>g of hydroxyl groups, found <strong>in</strong> oligosaccharides [3]. The characteristic<br />

anomeric region absorption bands for b-l<strong>in</strong>kage (939 cm- 1 ) and a-l<strong>in</strong>kage (898 cm -1 ) can be<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2055

unique for each sugar. The volume (area) of these picks was measured. In all cases the areas<br />

found for wheat flour were greater than the respective ones for bran. Moreover, the spectrum of<br />

FOS was recorded and compared with those of the Wheat_Bran library. All flours match more<br />

than the respective brans with FOS Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results found, wheat flour had a greater<br />

FOS amount than coarse bran. Overall, these results showed that differences <strong>in</strong> FOS content <strong>in</strong><br />

mill fractions might be confirmed <strong>in</strong> a fast and simple way us<strong>in</strong>g DRIFTs.<br />

Small-deformation oscillatory measurements were made <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of<br />

partial replacement of sucrose by FOS on the formation and the quality of the f<strong>in</strong>al products. A<br />

first observation was that for all samples, G’ was greater than G’’ at the load<strong>in</strong>g temperature of<br />

85°C. Thus, the samples, although fluids, already had a substantial gel-like character at high<br />

temperature. Moreover, the samples that sucrose was substituted by 20 and 30% FOS started at<br />

much higher G’ values than the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g two samples, which, on the other hand, exhibited<br />

greater strength at 5°C. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the cool<strong>in</strong>g part of this procedure, both elastic and viscous<br />

characters <strong>in</strong>itially <strong>in</strong>creased rapidly with decreas<strong>in</strong>g temperature followed by a region of a<br />

much slower evolution. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the network became weaker as temperature started to <strong>in</strong>crease.<br />

However, the substitution of sucrose by FOS led to a decrease not only on the gel character of<br />

the gel but also on their strength/ solid-like character.<br />

Differences <strong>in</strong> sweetness were evaluated by eleven tra<strong>in</strong>ed assessors us<strong>in</strong>g triangle tests. Null<br />

hypothesis is that assessors cannot determ<strong>in</strong>e a difference between the samples, <strong>in</strong> a<br />

significance level of 5%, with probability Po=1/3. The difference was not significant between<br />

the samples with 100% sucrose and 70 %sucrose-30% FOS. Thus, a substitution to a smaller<br />

amount has not been <strong>in</strong>vestigated. In a descriptive test obta<strong>in</strong>ed for samples with a substitution<br />

of sucrose at 50%, assessors found differences <strong>in</strong> sweetness <strong>in</strong> comparison to control samples.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Different mill<strong>in</strong>g fractions had different composition of FOS. Among the bands found, the<br />

most important were the one at 1158 cm -1 and those of b and a anomeric. It <strong>in</strong>dicated that wheat<br />

flour had more FOS amount than bran.For all samples at the temperature of 85°C, G’ was<br />

greater than G’’ show<strong>in</strong>g that the sample, although fluid, already had a substantial gel-like<br />

character. The recorded mechanical spectra showed that all samples shared a similar gel-like<br />

character. In fresh samples panelists did not f<strong>in</strong>d significant differences between the samples<br />

with 100% sucrose and 70 %sucrose-30% FOS. A further substitution at 50% resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

dist<strong>in</strong>guish differences to control samples. A substitution of sucrose with FOS at 10% <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />

a sensorial quality stability <strong>in</strong> a short storage period for the cream caramel samples. Thus,<br />

samples of similar sensory quality to the control ones can be produced at low FOS<br />

replacement, which <strong>in</strong> addition have improved storage stability.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Yun, J.W. (1996). Fructooligosaccharides—occurrence, preparation, and application. Enzyme Microb.<br />

Technol. 19, 107–117.<br />

[2] Ranhotra G.S., Gelroth J.A and Astroth K. (1990). Total and Soluble Fiber <strong>in</strong> Selected bakery and<br />

Other Cereal Products, Cereal Chem., Vol. 67, No. 5<br />

[3] Kacurakova, M., Capek, P., Sas<strong>in</strong>kova, V., Wellner, N., & Ebr<strong>in</strong>gerova, A. (2000). FTIR study of<br />

plant cell wall model compounds: Pectic polysaccharides and hemicelluoses. Carbohydrate Polymers, 43,<br />

195–203.<br />

2056

The antioxidant properties of honey beer<br />

Ana Kaluševi, Gordana Uzelac, Mile Veljovi, Saša Despotovi, Mirjana Milut<strong>in</strong>ovi,<br />

Ida Leskošek-ukalovi, Viktor Nedovi<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade,<br />

Nemanj<strong>in</strong>a 6, 11080 Belgrade-Zemun, Serbia<br />

(anakalusevic@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Beer is a worldwide traditional natural dr<strong>in</strong>k which has a higher nutritional value than other<br />

alcoholic beverages. It conta<strong>in</strong>s m<strong>in</strong>erals and vitam<strong>in</strong>s, prote<strong>in</strong>s, organic acids and antioxidant<br />

compounds, such as polyphenols. Among these antioxidants, phenolic compounds are of<br />

particular <strong>in</strong>terest to brewers because they play a key role <strong>in</strong> the brew<strong>in</strong>g process by delay<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

retard<strong>in</strong>g or prevent<strong>in</strong>g oxidation processes [1].<br />

Honey is a natural food product well known for its high nutritional value. It has a wide range of<br />

different constituents, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g polyphenols, with significantly antioxidant properties. The<br />

awareness of the therapeutic potential of honey is gradually grow<strong>in</strong>g and scientific evidences<br />

of its effectiveness <strong>in</strong> several experimental and cl<strong>in</strong>ical conditions are beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to emerge.<br />

The objective of this study was to exam<strong>in</strong>e and compare phenolic profiles and antioxidant<br />

activities of two different types of honey beers.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The wort and bottom-ferment<strong>in</strong>g yeast used <strong>in</strong> this study were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a local<br />

brewery. Two types of honey, sunflower and l<strong>in</strong>den honey, were purchased from local<br />

market. Control beer was produced by ferment<strong>in</strong>g pure wort without add<strong>in</strong>g of honey.<br />

Gallic acid, Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, ammonium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid,<br />

sodium acetate trihydrate, glacial acetic acid, ammonium ferric citrate and sodium carbonate,<br />

carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC), sodium ethylendiam<strong>in</strong>tetraacetate (EDTA) were purchased<br />

from Merck (Germany). Ascorbic acid, 2,4,6-trypyridyl-s-triaz<strong>in</strong>e (TPTZ), ferric chloride<br />

hexahydrate, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2carboxylic<br />

acid, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium hydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride<br />

and potassium persulfate were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Germany).<br />

Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteau method: For the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of total polyphenols the adjusted method<br />

with Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteau reagent was used [2]. After 2 h of reaction at room temperature, the<br />

absorbance at 760 nm was determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

EBC method: Absorbance of samples was measured on the spectrophotometer (Jenway 6400)<br />

at wavelength = 600 nm [3].<br />

DPPH· method: Antiradical activity was measured after the reaction with free stable radical<br />

1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) accord<strong>in</strong>g to Brand-Williams [4]. Absorbance is<br />

measured at wavelength = 515 nm on the spectrophotometer (Jenway 6400).<br />

FRAP assay: Absorbance read<strong>in</strong>gs were made at 593 nm every 4 m<strong>in</strong>. Results were expressed<br />

as mM Fe(II)SO4 x 7H2O [5].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2057

2058

Evaluation of green coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.) pulp for use as milk, fat and emulsifier<br />

replacer <strong>in</strong> ice cream<br />

Inês Aparecida Santana, Eliana Paula Ribeiro, Antonia Miwa Iguti<br />

Maua Institute of Technology, São Caetano do Sul, Brazil (iasantana@maua.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In Brazil, the 4th largest world coconut producer (around 2 billion fruits <strong>in</strong> 2010), green<br />

coconut water (6-8 months) is widely consumed and the consumption reaches around 350<br />

million liters per year <strong>in</strong> fresh and <strong>in</strong>dustrialized form. Despite the benefits of coconut water,<br />

the coconut shell and the edible solid endosperm or pulp are discarded generat<strong>in</strong>g a huge<br />

amount of waste. In our laboratory we have <strong>in</strong>vestigated this pulp as food <strong>in</strong>gredient. In<br />

chocolate ice cream, e.g., it was efficient to replaced fat, milk, emulsifier and stabilizer. The<br />

product was sensory approved by 93% of panelists, who judged its texture and organoleptic<br />

properties very similar to true ice cream. More research is necessary regard<strong>in</strong>g the composition<br />

and properties of this material, to understand its air <strong>in</strong>corporation capacity <strong>in</strong> ice cream. The<br />

objective of this study was to characterize and evaluate functional properties of fresh and<br />

freeze-dried pulp from green dwarf coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), us<strong>in</strong>g umbu ice cream system<br />

to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of lipids on product quality. Umbu (Spondias tuberosa) is a<br />

bittersweet fruit of Brazilian Northeast, was chosen to verify if, at low pH values, the coconut<br />

pulp could give the same good results as those obta<strong>in</strong>ed with chocolate<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Green coconuts (Cocos nucifera L.) were from Brazil Northeast. Fresh pulp (FP) and freezedried<br />

pulp (FD) proximate composition was performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOAC standards. Lipid<br />

content <strong>in</strong> FP and FD was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Bligh Dyer and percolation, respectively. The fatty<br />

acid composition was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by GC after methylation of the oil extracted from FD.<br />

Foam<strong>in</strong>g capacity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for FP, FD and defatted freeze-dried pulp (DFD) by<br />

measur<strong>in</strong>g the volume of foam formed <strong>in</strong> the presence of bak<strong>in</strong>g powder and water at 40 ºC<br />

and compared with egg white. Emulsify<strong>in</strong>g capacity of FP, FD, DFD was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

measur<strong>in</strong>g the volume of oil required to cause the emulsion <strong>in</strong>version <strong>in</strong> water, and compared<br />

with egg yolk. Two formulations of ice cream were prepared: one with 5.5% FD, 20% umbu,<br />

20% sucrose, 54.5% water; <strong>in</strong> the other, FD was replaced by DFD. Hardness [1], meltdown [2]<br />

and overrun were determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The proximate composition were 92.70% and 8.01% moisture, 0.39% and 27.95% fat, 0.97%<br />

and 19.9% prote<strong>in</strong>, 0.75% and 10.72% ash and 5.19% and 33.42% carbohydrate (by<br />

difference), respectively for FP and FD. The ma<strong>in</strong> component of dry matter pulp is<br />

carbohydrate. The low fat content is expected for green dwarf and is <strong>in</strong> accordance with the<br />

studies of Aragão et al. [3].Table 2 gives fatty acidy composition, that is typical for coconut oil,<br />

with predom<strong>in</strong>ance of medium cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acids. The fatty acid profile is similar to results of<br />

Aragão et al. [3] for fruits with 6th to 8th maturity month. Foam expansion or overrun, resulted<br />

<strong>in</strong> 120% for FP, 209% for egg white, 77.6% for FD and 70.8% for DFD. The FD pulp showed<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2059

lower foam<strong>in</strong>g capacity but higher stability than FGP and egg white. The collapse of foams<br />

produced by FP and egg white occurred <strong>in</strong> shorter time, probably because of greater<br />

concentration of prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the FD, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> smaller bubbles and higher viscosity [4].<br />

Table 2. Fatty acid composition of coconut lipids<br />

Fatty Caproic Caprylic Capric Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic L<strong>in</strong>oleic<br />

acid (C6) (C8) (C10) (C12) (C14) (C16) (C18) (C18:1) (C18:2)<br />

% 0.97 5.10 3.58 38.05 20.10 15.20 2.35 12.52 2.13<br />

For emulsify<strong>in</strong>g capacity, the volumes of oil to cause <strong>in</strong>version of the emulsion were 72.7<br />

mL/g (dry basis), 19.17 mL/g, 28.9 mL/g and 28.3 mL/g, respectively for FP, egg yolk, FD and<br />

DFD. The lipids showed no <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> this property, which <strong>in</strong>dicates that the responsible for<br />

emulsify<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>in</strong> this system are prote<strong>in</strong>s, that can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by many factors such as<br />

type of prote<strong>in</strong>, pH, ionic strength, temperature, prote<strong>in</strong> concentration and solubility [4, 5]. Ice<br />

cream. The product made with FD showed 28.36% of overrun and addition of DFD, 17.15% of<br />

overrun. Low values for overrun resulted of lab scale ice cream maker used to process. The<br />

results showed that without lipids a reduction of the overrun value (11%) occurred. When FP<br />

was used <strong>in</strong> ice cream formulation, the overrun was higher than with FD and DFD and similar<br />

to umbu ice cream milk-based (data no shown). The hardness of ice cream made with FD was<br />

51% lower than that made with DFD, so there is a reverse relation between fat content and<br />

hardness. Meltdown showed small differences. The half life time was 48.9 and 45.86 m<strong>in</strong> for<br />

FD and DFD, respectively.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Green coconut pulp has foam<strong>in</strong>g and emulsify<strong>in</strong>g capacities that can be used for production of<br />

ice cream, even at low pH values. As FP is almost tasteless and odorless, it is appropriate to<br />

formulate ice cream-like products. Medium cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acids predom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> coconut oil,<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ly lauric acid. The lipids had more <strong>in</strong>fluence on foam<strong>in</strong>g capacity, overrun and hardness<br />

than <strong>in</strong> emulsify<strong>in</strong>g capacity and meltdown. There are potential applications of green coconut<br />

pulp as milk, fat and emulsifier replacer <strong>in</strong> ice cream and other products, e.g., bakery. It is a<br />

healthy, susta<strong>in</strong>able and economical alternative to countries that are producers of this crop.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Soukoulis, C.; Chandr<strong>in</strong>os, I.; Tzia,C. 2008. Study of the Functionality of Selected Hydrocolloids and Their Blends<br />

with -carragean on Storage Quality of Vanilla Ice Cream. <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 41, 816-1827.<br />

[2] Roland, A. M.; Phillips, L. G.; Boor, K. J. 1999. Effects of Fat Content on the Sensory Properties, Melt<strong>in</strong>g, Color<br />

and Hardness of Ice Cream. Journal of Dairy Science, 82(1), 32-38.<br />

[3] Aragão, W. M.; Cruz, E. M. de O; Tavares, M.; Ribeiro, F. E.; Tup<strong>in</strong>ambá, E. de A.; Pimentel, S. A. &<br />

Takemoto,E. 2004. Teor de Gordura e Composição de Ácidos Graxos em Polpa de Frutos de Coqueiro Anão em<br />

Diferentes Idades de Maturação. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz, 63(2), 159-167.<br />

[4] Damodaran S. 2008. Am<strong>in</strong>o Acids, Peptides and Prote<strong>in</strong>s. In: Damodaran S.; Park<strong>in</strong> K. L. & Fennema O.R. (Eds.).<br />

Fennema’s <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 4th ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida, USA. p.1144.<br />

[5] Kwon, K. S. & Rhee, K. C. 1996. Emulsifyng Capacity of Coconut Prote<strong>in</strong>s as a Function of Salt, Phosphate, and<br />

Temperature. JAOCS, 73(12) 1669-1673.<br />

2060

Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of extracts from different Pterospartum<br />

tridentatum populations grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Portugal<br />

Maria Teresa Coelho a , José Carlos Gonçalves a , Vítor Alves b , Margarida Moldão-Mart<strong>in</strong>s b<br />

a<br />

Escola Superior Agrária de Castelo Branco, Qu<strong>in</strong>ta Sra de Mércules, Apartado 119,<br />

6001-909 Castelo Branco (mteresacoelho@ipcb.pt)<br />

b<br />

CEER – Biosystems <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>. ISA. Technical University of Lisbon. Tapada da Ajuda. 1349-017<br />

Lisboa, Portugal (mmoldao@isa.utl.pt)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Pterospartum tridentatum L. Willk. is an European endemic Legum<strong>in</strong>osae and known as<br />

carqueja <strong>in</strong> Portugal. This small shrub is very common <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of the north of<br />

Portugal. Bioactive compounds, such as alkaloids and flavonoids, have been identified <strong>in</strong><br />

aqueous extracts of those plants [1]. Plants synthesize antioxidant compounds, as secondary<br />

products, which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly phenolic compounds serv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> plant defense mechanisms to<br />

counteract reactive oxygen species (ROS) <strong>in</strong> order to avoid oxidative damage. Researchers are<br />

look<strong>in</strong>g for natural antioxidants as alternative to synthetic antioxidants.<br />

Some authors refer the use of Pterospartum tridentatum <strong>in</strong> popular medic<strong>in</strong>e and cul<strong>in</strong>ary uses.<br />

This plant is an underexploited natural source of compounds with biological activity, which<br />

should be fully characterized aim<strong>in</strong>g to its valorization.<br />

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity<br />

of aqueous extracts of Pterospartum tridentatum samples, collected <strong>in</strong> three locations <strong>in</strong><br />

Portugal, at different vegetative stages.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples of the aerial parts of Pterospartum tridentatum were collected at different vegetative<br />

stages: dormancy period (end of January) and flower<strong>in</strong>g period (<strong>in</strong> May), <strong>in</strong> three locations <strong>in</strong><br />

Portugal: Orvalho, Gardunha mounta<strong>in</strong> and Malcata mounta<strong>in</strong>. Aqueous extractions were<br />

performed by reflux<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g 2 hours <strong>in</strong> a Clevenger apparatus. The extract solutions were<br />

freeze-dried and a solid extract was recovered.<br />

The antioxidant activity of the solid extracts was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity<br />

method us<strong>in</strong>g 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH). The total phenol content (TP) of<br />

the extracts was evaluated by spectrophotometric method and expressed as gallic acid<br />

equivalents (mg/g of dry mass). All trials were carried out <strong>in</strong> triplicate. The data were subjected<br />

to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the differences between means were measured<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g Duncan’s Test through STATISTICA, Version 7 (Copyright © StatSoft, Inc.),pvalues <<br />

0.05 were considered to be significant.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>fluence of the seasonal variation <strong>in</strong> the yield and composition of the extracts was<br />

evaluated, <strong>in</strong> order to select the most appropriate harvest season. The extraction yields<br />

presented some differences with the harvest period and the highest yield extraction was<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2061

obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the flower<strong>in</strong>g period, us<strong>in</strong>g flowers (19.4g/100g plant dry mass <strong>in</strong> Gardunha<br />

mounta<strong>in</strong>) and the lowest extraction yield was also obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the same period but us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

stems (11.3 g extract/100 g plant dry mass <strong>in</strong> Malcata mounta<strong>in</strong>). The extraction yield was<br />

always higher than the commonly used herbs [2].<br />

The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) is widely used to evaluate the antioxidant<br />

capacity of extracts from different plant materials. The stem extracts showed significant<br />

differences between the dormancy and the flower<strong>in</strong>g period. At flower<strong>in</strong>g stage a higher<br />

antioxidant activity was observed <strong>in</strong> the flower extracts.<br />

The total phenolic content of Pterospartum tridentatum (ranged from 270.7 to 402.9 mg gallic<br />

acid equivalents per g dry matter) show very high levels at any time of harvest. The highest<br />

value occurred <strong>in</strong> the dormancy period <strong>in</strong> Malcata mounta<strong>in</strong> and are superior to other species<br />

previously studied, like Harpephyllum caffrum <strong>in</strong> leaf and stem bark and Sclerocarya birrea <strong>in</strong><br />

stems [3]. They also conta<strong>in</strong> much more phenolic compounds when comparable with results <strong>in</strong><br />

Carissa opaca [4] or <strong>in</strong> Australia herbs and spices like Tasmannia pepper leaf, anise myrtle and<br />

lemon myrtle [5]. Plants with high levels of phenolic compounds have demonstrated a high<br />

antioxidant activity of plants extract.<br />

From prelim<strong>in</strong>ary experiments, it is anticipated a significant antimicrobial activity of the solid<br />

extracts aga<strong>in</strong>st bacteria and fungus (data not shown).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The studied Pterospartum tridentatum aqueous extracts present a high extraction yield, an<br />

appreciable level of total phenolic compounds and a significant antioxidant activity. The results<br />

foresee a high potential for the utilization of this plant or its extracts as a new source of safe<br />

natural antioxidants and preservatives for the food <strong>in</strong>dustry with consequent health benefits for<br />

consumers. From the results, it can be conclude that the plants can be harvested at all seasons<br />

of the year, which presents an advantage from an <strong>in</strong>dustrial po<strong>in</strong>t of view.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Vítor, R., Mota-Filipe, H., Teixeira, G., Borges, C., Rodrigues, A., Teixeira, A. & Paulo, A. 2004.<br />

Flavonoids of an extract of Pterospartum tridentatum show<strong>in</strong>g endothelial protection aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

oxidative <strong>in</strong>jury. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 93, 363-370.<br />

[2] Luís, A. Dom<strong>in</strong>gues, F., Gil, C. & Duarte, A.P. 2009. Antioxidant activity of extracts of Portuguese<br />

shrubs: Pterospartum tridentatum, Cytisus scoparius and Erica spp. Journal of Medic<strong>in</strong>al Plants<br />

Research, Vol.3(11), 886-893.<br />

[3] Moyo, M., Ndhlala, A.R., F<strong>in</strong>nie, J.F. & Staden, J.V. 2010. Phenolic composition, antioxidant and<br />

acetylchol<strong>in</strong>esterase <strong>in</strong>hibitory activities of Sclerocarya birrea and Harpephyllum caffrum<br />

(Anacardiaceae) extracts. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 123, 69-76.<br />

[4] Sahreen, S., Khan, M.R. & Khan, R.A.. 2010. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of various solvent<br />

extracts of Carissa opaca fruits. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 122, 1205–1211.<br />

[5] Konczak, I., Zabaras, D., Dunstan, M. & Aguas, P. 2010. Antioxidant capacity and phenolic<br />

compounds <strong>in</strong> commercially grown native Australian herbs and spices. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 122, 260–<br />

266.<br />

2062

Physicochemical Characterization of Monoacylglycerols from Sunflower Oil<br />

Galúcio, C. S. a ; Souza, R. A. a ; Stahl, M. A. b ; Sbaite, P. a ; Benites, C. I. a ; Wolf Maciel, M. R. a<br />

a Laboratory of Separation <strong>Process</strong> Development (LDPS), School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEQ)<br />

b Laboratory of Oils and Fats, School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (FEA)<br />

University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as (UNICAMP), Camp<strong>in</strong>as/SP, Brazil (cley.cie@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The monoacylglycerols (MAG) are emulsifiers with food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic wide<br />

application. In these <strong>in</strong>dustries, MAG represent<strong>in</strong>g about 70% of all synthetic emulsifiers used.<br />

Look<strong>in</strong>g for the replacement of the artificial for natural <strong>in</strong>gredients, new researches are aimed<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> natural emulsifiers from fat and oils with unsaturated fatty acids.<br />

Sunflower oil is dist<strong>in</strong>guished by hav<strong>in</strong>g large amounts of unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic<br />

and l<strong>in</strong>oleic acids (-6). The latter is of great importance because it is considered an essential<br />

fatty acid.<br />

The MAG are obta<strong>in</strong>ed through <strong>in</strong>teresterification or glycerolysis of triacylglycerol (TAG)<br />

with glycerol (GL) excess. In this reaction, the mixture obta<strong>in</strong>ed showed around 40 – 50% of<br />

MAG, besides diacylglycerols, TAG, free fatty acids and GL. The aim of this work is to<br />

characterize sunflower oil and acylglycerols mixture produced by chemical glycerolysis,<br />

evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the product composition and quality.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Chemical glycerolysis of sunflower oil was conducted <strong>in</strong> jacketed glass reactors (2 liters). The<br />

conditions applied <strong>in</strong> these reactors were: 200°C of temperature, 1% of Ca(OH)2 as catalyst<br />

(per reagents mass), GL/TAG molar ratio of 4 and 60 m<strong>in</strong>utes of reaction time [1]. The High<br />

Performance Size Exclusion Chromatography (HPSEC) was used for the Acylglycerols content<br />

[2,3].<br />

Others analyses were accord<strong>in</strong>g AOCS Official Methods [4]: Fatty Acids Composition (Ce1-<br />

62); Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Mass per Unit Volume (Cc10c-95); Iod<strong>in</strong>e Value (Cd1c-85);<br />

Saponification Value (Cd3a-94); Free Fatty Acids (Ca5a-40); Peroxide Value (Cd8b-90);<br />

Moisture (Ca2e-84).<br />

Differential Scann<strong>in</strong>g Calorimetry (DSC): differential scann<strong>in</strong>g calorimeter (823E, Mettler<br />

Toledo). The samples were analyzed under a flow of nitrogen gas (50 mL/m<strong>in</strong>). A dynamic<br />

scan was performed at a heat<strong>in</strong>g rate of 10°C/m<strong>in</strong> over a temperature range of -100 to 600°C.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The acylglycerols mixture showed the follow<strong>in</strong>g composition: TAG (6.9%), DAG (42.3%) and<br />

MAG (48.3%). Free fatty acids weren’t detected and GL corresponded to 2.5%. The content of<br />

MAG <strong>in</strong> the mixture was between 40 and 50% accord<strong>in</strong>g to the references [1].<br />

In relation of fatty acid composition, the unsaturated fatty acids are majority <strong>in</strong> sunflower oil<br />

and the content of the oleic and l<strong>in</strong>oleic acids, before and after the glycerolysis, are<br />

approximate (around 35% of oleic and 51% of l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid), <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that chemical<br />

glycerolysis <strong>in</strong> used conditions were satisfactory.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2063

The results of physicochemical characterization of sunflower oil and glycerolysis product<br />

(characteristics of them) are shown <strong>in</strong> the Table 1. Accord<strong>in</strong>g CODES standard [5], the results<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed to ref<strong>in</strong>ed sunflower oil were used as reference <strong>in</strong> this research, and they are with<strong>in</strong><br />

the standard.<br />

Table 1. Characteristics of sunflower oil and glycerolysis product<br />

Analysis Sunflower oil Mixture of acylglycerols<br />

Mass per Unit Volume (g/cm 3 ) 0.8970 0.9449<br />

Calculated Iod<strong>in</strong>e Value (g I2/100g) 122.8 120.5<br />

Calculated Saponification Value (mg KOH/g) 191.7 191.9<br />

Free Fatty Acid (%) 0.262 1.061<br />

Peroxide Value (mEq O2/kg) 0.669 1.530<br />

Moisture (%) 0.026 0.345<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the thermal analysis, the DSC curve profile (thermogram), showed for sunflower<br />

oil, 2 endothermic peaks: the first one around -25ºC (melt<strong>in</strong>g process), and the second around<br />

425ºC (vaporization process). For acylglycerols mixture, the thermogram shows also 2<br />

endothermic peaks: the first one around -10ºC and the second around 425ºC like as oil.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The acylglycerols mixture from sunflower oil shows 48% of MAG, suitable for this type of<br />

reaction. The results of fatty acid composition were similar to the sunflower oil and to the<br />

product of chemical glycerolysis, not<strong>in</strong>g that the major fatty acids (oleic and l<strong>in</strong>oleic) were not<br />

degraded <strong>in</strong> the reaction.<br />

Follow<strong>in</strong>g the accepted parameters of physicochemical and thermal properties for sunflower<br />

oil, the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed for acylglycerols mixture showed acceptable standards. So, the<br />

chemical glycerolysis is promis<strong>in</strong>g for natural MAG production and studies for further<br />

concentration should be considered, seek<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>dustrial application of this product.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Galúcio, C. S.; Benites, C. I.; Sbaite, P.; Wolf Maciel, M. R. 2010. Monoacylglycerols obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g from<br />

sunflower oil. In: 19th <strong>International</strong> Congress of Chemical and <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> CHISA 2010,<br />

2010, Praga. CD-ROM of Full Texts, 2294-2298.<br />

[2] Schoenfelder, W. 2003. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides and glycerol <strong>in</strong><br />

fats by means of gel permeation chromatography [C-VI 5b(02)]. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol, 105, 45-<br />

48.<br />

[3] Arzamendi, G.; Arguiñarena, E.; Campo, I.; Gandía, L. M. 2006. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g of biodiesel production:<br />

Simultaneous analysis of the transesterification products us<strong>in</strong>g size-exclusion chromatography.<br />

Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Journal, 122, 31-40.<br />

[4] A.O.C.S. Official methods and recommended practices of the American Oil Chemist’s Society, 5th<br />

ed. Champaign: AOCS, 1998.<br />

[5] CODEX - Current Official Standards. CODEX standard for named vegetable oils. Available <strong>in</strong>:<br />

Accessed: February 17, 2010.<br />

2064

Antioxidant activity of the polyam<strong>in</strong>es sperm<strong>in</strong>e and spermid<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> soybean oil<br />

Adriana Correa Mendonça & Maria Beatriz A. Gloria<br />

LBqA – Laboratório de Bioquímica de Alimentos, Faculdade de Farmácia, UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos,<br />

6627, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil (mbeatriz@ufmg.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Lipid oxidation reactions are frequent <strong>in</strong> foods, and are often associated with food<br />

deterioration. Even though it starts <strong>in</strong> the lipid fraction, eventually other food components are<br />

affected, chang<strong>in</strong>g several desirable properties, among them, sensory, nutritional and functional<br />

qualities. Furthermore, undesirable compounds can be formed and affect consumers’ health. It<br />

also limits the shelf life of lipids and of foods conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g significant amounts of lipids.<br />

Soybean oil is widely used <strong>in</strong> Brazil because of its high availability and low price. S<strong>in</strong>ce it<br />

conta<strong>in</strong>s high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, it is susceptible to oxidation. Therefore, it is an<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g matrix to <strong>in</strong>vestigate ways to prevent lipid oxidation, and to determ<strong>in</strong>e which<br />

antioxidants would be effective <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g oxidation. Today, there is a tendency to<br />

substitute synthetic antioxidants by natural ones. Among antioxidants which are natural <strong>in</strong><br />

biological systems, the polyam<strong>in</strong>es sperm<strong>in</strong>e (EPM) and spermid<strong>in</strong>e (EPD) play an important<br />

role. They are soluble <strong>in</strong> aqueous and organic phases what facilitates the application <strong>in</strong><br />

different food matrices [1-3]. The objective of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the antioxidant<br />

activity of sperm<strong>in</strong>e and spermid<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>dividually and to compare the results with those of<br />

traditional synthetic antioxidants and different comb<strong>in</strong>ations us<strong>in</strong>g Rancimat®.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Spermid<strong>in</strong>e (EPD) and sperm<strong>in</strong>e (EPM) were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St Louis,<br />

MO, USA) and BHA and BHT were from Synth (Diadema, SP, Brazil). The antioxidant free<br />

soybean oil was provided by Cargill Agrícola (Mair<strong>in</strong>que, SP, Brazil). The antioxidant activity<br />

of the compounds <strong>in</strong> antioxidant free soybean oil was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a Rancimat® (model<br />

743, Metrohm, Herisau, Swiss), accord<strong>in</strong>g to the AOCS method Cd 12b-92 [4,5]. The standard<br />

solutions were <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the antioxidant free soybean oil us<strong>in</strong>g an ultrasound shaker<br />

(UltraSonic Cleaner, Unique, SP, Brazil). The control was also kept <strong>in</strong> the shaker for the same<br />

time period. The analyses were performed <strong>in</strong> duplicate. The experiments were performed at<br />

110 ºC, at an air flow of 20 L/h, and 60 mL Milli-Q water was used for the collection of the<br />

volatiles. Conductivity curves versus time and the <strong>in</strong>duction periods were automatically<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed. The results were expressed as protection factors (PF = ratio between the <strong>in</strong>duction<br />

periods of the sample conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the antioxidant and the control sample). The results were<br />

analyzed with STATISTICA 8.0 (STATSOFT, USA), at 5% probability. The antioxidant<br />

activity of the polyam<strong>in</strong>es was compared with those of the synthetic antioxidants BHA and<br />

BHT at concentrations of 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05 and 0.06 g/100 g. The antioxidant<br />

activity of different comb<strong>in</strong>ation of EPM, BHA, and BHT at 1:1 (v/v) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The antioxidant activity of the am<strong>in</strong>es EPD and EPM <strong>in</strong> soybean oil was confirmed. The<br />

activity of EPM was higher compared to EPD. These results are similar to those reported by<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2065

Drolet et al. [2] and Løvaas [3], who concluded that the antioxidant activity of these<br />

compounds was associated with the number of am<strong>in</strong>e groups <strong>in</strong> the molecule. There was a<br />

significant l<strong>in</strong>ear correlation (R 2 = 98.16%) between the levels of the am<strong>in</strong>es and the protection<br />

factors. Based on this result, a response surface model was generated and can be used to<br />

predict the shelf life of soybean oil at 110 °C, at concentrations from 0.0059 to 0.0341 g/100 g<br />

oil us<strong>in</strong>g the equation: PF (protection factor) = 2.11 + 0.59EPM + 0.30EPD. With<strong>in</strong> the<br />

concentration range <strong>in</strong>vestigated, there was no synergistic effect, but an additive effect of EPD<br />

and EPM <strong>in</strong> soybean oil. The protection factor obta<strong>in</strong>ed for EPM was higher compared to<br />

those obta<strong>in</strong>ed for BHA, BHT, BHA+BHT, EPM+BHA, and EPM+BHT (Figure 1).<br />

Figure 1. Protection factors for soybean oil at 110 °C determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Rancimat <strong>in</strong> the presence of<br />

different concentrations of BHA, BHT, EPM and their mixtures at 1:1.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The polyam<strong>in</strong>es EPM and EPD <strong>in</strong>creased the oxidative stability of soybean oil. EPM was<br />

more effective than EPD. The polyam<strong>in</strong>es EPM and EPD showed higher antioxidant activity<br />

compared to BHA and BHT. Therefore, the polyam<strong>in</strong>es EPM and EPD are potent antioxidants<br />

<strong>in</strong> soybean oil and provide higher protective factors than some of the traditional synthetic<br />

antioxidants tested.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ramalho V.C. & Jorge N. 2006. Antioxidantes Utilizados em Óleos, Gorduras e Alimentos<br />

Gordurosos. Química Nova, 29, 755-760.<br />

[2] Drolet G., Dumbroff E.B., Legge R.L. & Thompson J.E. (1986). Radical Scaveng<strong>in</strong>g Properties of<br />

Polyam<strong>in</strong>es. Phytochemistry, 25(2), 367-371,<br />

[3] Løvaas E. (1997). Antioxidative and Metal Chelat<strong>in</strong>g Effects of Polyam<strong>in</strong>es. Advances <strong>in</strong><br />

Pharmacology, 38, 119-149.<br />

[4] Antolovich M., Prenzler P.D., Patsalides E., McDonald S. & Robards K. 2002. Methods for Test<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Antioxidant activity. Analyst, 127, 183-198.<br />

[5] AOCS (2008). Method Cd 12b-92. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American<br />

Oil Chemists’ Society, 5 th edition. Champaign, IL: AOCS.<br />

2066

Encapsulation of natural flavors for use <strong>in</strong> dairy products<br />

Santos, Sandra Dias a , Ressurreição, Sandr<strong>in</strong>e Matias a , Marques, Rui Ferreira a ,<br />

Santos,Cristiana Valente a , Silva, Aida Moreira a , P<strong>in</strong>tado, Manuela Estevez b<br />

a<br />

Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra (ESAC), Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Portugal<br />

b<br />

Escola Superior de Biotecnologia (ESB), Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal<br />

Sds@esac.pt<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Over the years, the lifestyle has undergone considerable changes. From the standpo<strong>in</strong>t of food,<br />

it is known that the time spent prepar<strong>in</strong>g meals is markedly reduced. Allied to this situation, we<br />

found consumers are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly demand<strong>in</strong>g about the quality and diversity of products<br />

look<strong>in</strong>g to see associated flavor and properties (biological properties: antioxidant,<br />

antimicrobial) that contribute to their health and quality of life.<br />

Many flavor components are volatile which are susceptible to loss by evaporation, oxidation or<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong>teractions. As a result, it is beneficial to encapsulate the volatile flavors prior to<br />

use <strong>in</strong> foods. Encapsulation can be def<strong>in</strong>ed as any method employed to entrap a flavor <strong>in</strong> a<br />

carrier to convert it to a more useful form or to impart some degree of protection aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

evaporation, reaction or oxidation <strong>in</strong> food (Edris, A. and Bergnsthl, B., 2001). Of the different<br />

types of encapsulation methods (coacervation, extrusion, spray-dry<strong>in</strong>g, multiple emulsions,<br />

molecular <strong>in</strong>clusion, etc.), the use of cyclodextr<strong>in</strong>s (method of molecular <strong>in</strong>clusion), has arouse<br />

great <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the scientific community, both <strong>in</strong> terms of research as the field of applied<br />

technologies (<strong>in</strong>gredients of drugs <strong>in</strong> food or cosmetics). –Cyclodextr<strong>in</strong> (-CD) is a short,<br />

hollow, truncated cone shaped molecule, which is formed by seven (1-4) l<strong>in</strong>ked glucopyranoses<br />

<strong>in</strong> normal chair conformations (Silva et al, 2007) –CD is widely utilized <strong>in</strong> food<br />

and pharmaceutical <strong>in</strong>dustries to encapsulate compounds that are sensitive to the environment,<br />

have a slow solubility <strong>in</strong> water and high volatility.<br />

Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra (ESAC) - Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Portugal, has<br />

a Dairy homemade. In this sense, the fresh aromatic plants and the essential oils encapsulated<br />

were applied to some products produced there like fresh cheese, spread cheese and butter.<br />

Sensorial analyses were made to avail the receptivity of the consumer to these products.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The plants: parsley (Petroselium crispum var. latifolium), Coriander (Coriandrum sativum var.<br />

microcarpum) and bush basil (Ocimum m<strong>in</strong>imum) were obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> ESAC fields.<br />

Fresh leaves of coriander, parsley and bush basil were subjected to hidrodestyllation <strong>in</strong> a<br />

Clevenger apparatus coupled a microwave <strong>in</strong> a m<strong>in</strong>imum of twenty m<strong>in</strong>utes. The essential oils<br />

of parsley and coriander were obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a yield of 0.05% (w/w) and the essential oil of bush<br />

basil was obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a yield of 1%.<br />

The assessment of total antioxidant capacity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by ABTS•+ (Gião et al, 2007),<br />

with modifications (evaluation of antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> essential oil). This method is based on<br />

the decolorization of the radical cation ABTS•+, measured as percentage <strong>in</strong>hibition after<br />

spectrophotometer read<strong>in</strong>gs at 734 nm.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2067

In order to obta<strong>in</strong> an absorbance value (Abs) between 680 nm and 720 nm at a wavelength of<br />

734 nm proceeded to the dilution of ABTS•+ solution <strong>in</strong> ultra-pure water. Each experimental<br />

sample was added to 1 mL of ABTS•+, us<strong>in</strong>g such volume (10 mL), which after 6 m<strong>in</strong>utes of<br />

reaction the percentage of <strong>in</strong>hibition is between 20 and 80%. Measurement (oil dissolved <strong>in</strong> a<br />

mixture 50:50 (ethanol: toluene) was performed <strong>in</strong> triplicate, with the f<strong>in</strong>al value was the<br />

average of three replicas. The total antioxidant capacity was expressed as percentage <strong>in</strong>hibition<br />

(PI), accord<strong>in</strong>g to the equation PI = ((ABTS•+ Abs - Abs sample) / Abs ABTS•+) × 100 where<br />

Abs ABTS•+ is the <strong>in</strong>itial absorbance of diluted ABTS•+ and Abs sample the absorbance of<br />

the sample after 6 m<strong>in</strong>utes of reaction . The calibration curve was prepared <strong>in</strong> parallel us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

standard solutions of ascorbic acid at various concentrations and under the same experimental<br />

conditions. The f<strong>in</strong>al results are expressed as equivalent grams of ascorbic acid per liter of<br />

sample (g/L).<br />

The <strong>in</strong>clusion complex of cyclodextr<strong>in</strong>s powders was prepared <strong>in</strong> a glass beaker. The -<br />

Cyclodextr<strong>in</strong> (KLEPTOSE, was k<strong>in</strong>dly offered by Roquette, France) was weighed and mixed<br />

with distilled water. After dissolution, essential oil was added. The solution was mixed by<br />

magnetic stirrer and stirred at 35 ºC for 1 h. The solution was cooled to refrigerate temperature<br />

for 24 h. The precipitate was dry at room temperature.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The value of total antioxidant activity of coriander essential oil equivalent of ascorbic acid<br />

ranges from 0.025 ± 0.002 g/L, between 0.019 ± 0.002 g/L for the essential oil of parsley and<br />

0,022 ± 0,002 g/L for the essential oil of bush basil.<br />

Fresh cheese and spread cheese with essential oils encapsulated have been preferred <strong>in</strong> respect<br />

products that were added fresh plants. Butter with encapsulated and with fresh plants was also<br />

accepted.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Fresh cheese and spread cheese with essential oils encapsulated have been preferred <strong>in</strong> respect<br />

products that were added fresh plants. Butter with encapsulated essentials oils and fresh plants<br />

was also accepted. The extracts- essential oil with cyclodextr<strong>in</strong>s prepared (“powder”) were<br />

easily homogenized <strong>in</strong> the food product, but with fresh plants uniform size of plants and a<br />

provision <strong>in</strong> homogeneous products has not been achieved.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Edris, A., Bergnsthl, B. (2001). Encapsulation of orange oil <strong>in</strong> a spray dried double emultion.<br />

Nahrung/<strong>Food</strong>, 45, No. 2, pp. 133-137.<br />

[2] Gião, Maria S.; Gonzaléz-Sanjosé, M. L.; Muñiz, Pilar; Rivero-Pérez, M. D.; Kos<strong>in</strong>ska, Monika;<br />

P<strong>in</strong>tado, Manuela E.; Malcata, F. Xavier (2007). Infusions of Portuguese medic<strong>in</strong>al plants:<br />

Dependence of f<strong>in</strong>al antioxidant capacity and phenol content on extraction features. Journal of the<br />

Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 87: 2638-2647.<br />

[3] Silva, J., Galhano, C., Silva, A. (2007). A new sprout <strong>in</strong>hibitor of potato tuber based on carvone/cyclodextr<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>clusion compound, J Incl Phenom Macrocycl Chem, 57, 1-4, 121-124.<br />

2068

Effects of dietary fiber on structure formation <strong>in</strong> bread dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

Annalisa Romano a , Elena Torrieri a,b , Paolo Masi a,b , Silvana Cavella a,b<br />

a CAISIAL-Centre of <strong>Food</strong> Innovation and Development <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Food</strong> Industry -University of Naples<br />

Federico II – Naples, Italy (annalisa.romano@un<strong>in</strong>a.it)<br />

b Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science -University of Naples Federico II –Naples, Italy<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The l<strong>in</strong>k between the <strong>in</strong>take of dietary fiber (DF) and health benefits has prompted the <strong>in</strong>terest<br />

<strong>in</strong> fiber-enriched foods such as fiber-enriched baked goods. A daily <strong>in</strong>take of approximately<br />

30g is encouraged to promote health benefits associated with fiber. However, fiber <strong>in</strong>take is<br />

commonly lower than the recommended one, as consequence the development of foods with<br />

high fiber content should be desirable.<br />

The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential use of two DFs (coffee silversk<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong>)<br />

at elevated content (9.8 %) as <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> breadmak<strong>in</strong>g. The effects of DFs on dough<br />

rheological behaviour, leaven<strong>in</strong>g and bak<strong>in</strong>g performance were studied by means of<br />

rheological characterization of the dough behaviour and Image Analysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

All samples were prepared <strong>in</strong> a Brabender far<strong>in</strong>ograph by mix<strong>in</strong>g wheat flour, water, salt (1.25<br />

g), sugar (0.5 g) and yeast (0.75 g). The DFs used were CS- coffee silversk<strong>in</strong> and LI- long<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> (with DP m<strong>in</strong>imum 23) at 9.8% concentration (w/w).<br />

Doughs were submitted to a lubricated squeez<strong>in</strong>g test by means of an Instron Universal Test<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Mach<strong>in</strong>e. The deformation force was recorded as a function of time. Stress-stra<strong>in</strong> curves for<br />

biaxial extensional flow were derived accord<strong>in</strong>g to [1]. Dynamic mechanic measurements were<br />

carried out by means of a stra<strong>in</strong> controlled rheometer, equipped with parallel-plate geometry.<br />

All measurements were performed <strong>in</strong> oscillatory mode. Temperature ramp tests were<br />

performed between 10 and 90°C, at a heat<strong>in</strong>g rate of 1°C/m<strong>in</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g tests the storage modulus<br />

(G') as a function of temperature was monitored. Dough evolution dur<strong>in</strong>g leaven<strong>in</strong>g and bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

phases was studied by measur<strong>in</strong>g the variation <strong>in</strong> time of the total volume of the sample by<br />

means of image analysis. Statistical analysis (ANOVA and Duncan test) were performed on<br />

volume expansion ratio (volume at time t / <strong>in</strong>itial volume) of samples.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Flour replacement at elevated levels by DFs changes rheological behaviour of dough and<br />

breadmak<strong>in</strong>g performances. Leaven<strong>in</strong>g and bak<strong>in</strong>g processes are characterized by fast biaxial<br />

expansion of gas cells. The effect of DFs on biaxial extensional properties of wheat flour<br />

doughs was <strong>in</strong>vestigated. For all cases detected, the curves can be divided <strong>in</strong>to three sections:<br />

pre-yield, yield and stra<strong>in</strong> harden<strong>in</strong>g. The CS and LI doughs have a higher yield stress and a<br />

higher resistance to flow compared to control. The results reported illustrate that the squeez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

results are greatly depends on fibre source: CS shows the maximum stra<strong>in</strong> harden<strong>in</strong>g. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bak<strong>in</strong>g, the dough undergoes severe irreversible changes that greatly affect its rheological<br />

behaviour. The results prove that when DFs are added to the dough, they <strong>in</strong>teract with water,<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g the liquid water for starch. When CS is added, this phenomenon is related to a<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2069

decrease <strong>in</strong> the water ability due to <strong>in</strong>creased fiber -water <strong>in</strong>teraction. While the behaviour of<br />

doughs with <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> may be attributed to gel-form<strong>in</strong>g property and capability of <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> to delay<br />

starch gelat<strong>in</strong>isation dur<strong>in</strong>g heat<strong>in</strong>g. Experimental evidence shows that the volume expansion<br />

ratios of dough depend on DF type (Fig. 1).<br />

V/Vo<br />

V/Vo<br />

3,5<br />

3,0<br />

2,5<br />

2,0<br />

1,5<br />

1,0<br />

3,5<br />

3,0<br />

2,5<br />

2,0<br />

1,5<br />

1,0<br />

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 1. Variation <strong>in</strong> the volume ratio of: a) control; b) LI and c) CS dur<strong>in</strong>g leaven<strong>in</strong>g and bak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

A negative effect of DFs on volume ratio is observed dur<strong>in</strong>g breadmak<strong>in</strong>g. LI dough shows the<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imum <strong>in</strong>crement volume dur<strong>in</strong>g leaven<strong>in</strong>g, with the fermentation time be<strong>in</strong>g shorter. The<br />

highest volume <strong>in</strong>crease of the baked bread corresponds to the control dough.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Results both dough rheology and bread properties drive on to conclude that the functional role<br />

of a high amount of DF on structure formation <strong>in</strong> bread dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g process greatly depends<br />

on fibre types.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

leaven<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g leaven<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

leaven<strong>in</strong>g<br />

bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

V/Vo<br />

3,5<br />

3,0<br />

2,5<br />

2,0<br />

1,5<br />

a) b)<br />

c)<br />

1,0<br />

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

[1] Steffe J.F. 1992. Rheological methods <strong>in</strong> food process eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g. In Freeman Press, USA. pp 258-<br />

263.<br />

2070

Extraction techniques of red and green propolis: extraction yield of phenolic compounds<br />

Losiane Paviani a , Patricia Sacoda a , Erika Saito a , Fernando Cabral a<br />

a<br />

Departament of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, State University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil<br />

(cabral@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Propolis possesses antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties and many other beneficial<br />

biological activities: anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory, antiulcer, local anaesthetic, hepatoprotective,<br />

antitumos, immunostimulat<strong>in</strong>g [1], anti-HIV, among others. The various biological activities of<br />

propolis have been attributed ma<strong>in</strong>ly to the presence of phenolic compounds, especially<br />

flavonoids and phenolic acids. Solvents with different polarities (hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol<br />

and water) were used for the soxhlet extraction and the supercritical assays were carried out<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the dynamic method to fractionate the dry EEP of red propolis. The supercritical extracts<br />

were obta<strong>in</strong>ed at temperatures of 40, 50 and 60 °C and pressures of 300 and 400 bar. All<br />

extracts were analyzed for total phenols and flavonoids. The supercritical fluid extraction us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

CO2 as solvent has a high selectivity for the fractionation, ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> operational condition of<br />

higher temperature and pressure studied.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Samples of red propolis were obta<strong>in</strong>ed at Ilha do Porto Apiary (Marechal Deodoro, AL).<br />

Samples of green propolis, native to the State of M<strong>in</strong>as Gerais, Brazil, classified as group 12<br />

for Park et al. [2] (Brazil has 13 different groups of propolis, with dist<strong>in</strong>ct characteristics), were<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Bioessens Ltda. (Cotia, São Paulo, Brazil). Soxhlet extraction for green propolis<br />

were caried out us<strong>in</strong>g ethanol, ethyl acetate, n-hexane and distilled water. The experimental<br />

apparatus and procedure for SFE have been described <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> other work [3]. The<br />

operational conditions for SFE with CO2 for red propolis were: 40, 50 and 60 °C and from 300<br />

to 400 bar. The The total polyphenol content and total flavonoids were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

extracts.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of extraction yield (<strong>in</strong> %) are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1 for low pressure extraction<br />

methods: EEP and Soxhlet with different solvents for green propolis: Hex, EtAc, EtOH, H2O<br />

and SFE. The largest yield was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by Sox-EtOH (49.38 ± 1.37) and Sox-EtAc (45.90 ±<br />

1.41), solvents with <strong>in</strong>termediate polarity. The highest yield obta<strong>in</strong>ed by SFE was about 13% at<br />

60°C and 300 bar, which is much lower than Xo by Sox-EtOH (49.38 ± 1.37% w/w). In<br />

general, the extraction yields <strong>in</strong>crease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature and pressure. The extraction<br />

of phenolic compounds from EEP was more efficient than those obta<strong>in</strong>ed by supercritical fluid<br />

extraction, except for the 60°C and 400 bar. For the flavonoids, the EEP is lower than those<br />

found <strong>in</strong> supercritical extraction <strong>in</strong> all conditions analyzed.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2071

Table 1. Global yield (X0 % w/w) of propolis extract obta<strong>in</strong>ed by conventional techniques and<br />

supercritical fluid extraction (SFE).<br />

Extraction method Solvent Solvent Xo Total Total<br />

polarity <strong>in</strong>dex (% w/w) polyphenolics flavonoids<br />

(mg GAE/g) (mg CE/g)<br />

EEP- Green propolis EtOH 5.2 36.78 138.59 36.78<br />

EEP- Red propolis EtOH 5.2 45.00 215.44 45.00<br />

Sox- Green propolis Hex 0.0 10.52 ± 1.18 93.75 10.52<br />

Sox- Green propolis EtAc 4.4 45.90 ± 1.41 192.68 45.90<br />

Sox- Green propolis EtOH 5.2 49.38 ± 1.37 147.39 49.38<br />

Sox- Green propolis Water 9.0 15.75 ± 0.99 94.96 15.75<br />

SFE - 40 °C/ 300 bar CO2 3.56 147.27 3.56<br />

SFE - 40 °C / 400 bar CO2 5.00 116.19 5.00<br />

SFE - 50 °C / 300 bar CO2 6.57 114.48 6.57<br />

SFE - 50 °C / 400 bar CO2 9.74 142.72 9.74<br />

SFE - 60 °C / 300 bar CO2 12.86 117.46 12.86<br />

SFE - 60 °C / 400 bar CO2 12.26 229.90 12.26<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of the extraction of raw green and red propolis different solvents showed high<br />

extraction yields, especially when ethyl acetate and ethanol were used as solvent. The phenolic<br />

content was higher <strong>in</strong> the extraction of red propolis (EEP-Red propolis) than green propolis<br />

(EEP-Green propolis). All supercritical extracts presented higher flavonoids concentration to<br />

the <strong>in</strong>itial value found <strong>in</strong> EEP, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that SFE has a tendency to focus on flavonoids,<br />

which makes supercritical fluid extraction very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to fractionate compounds of<br />

propolis, which accord<strong>in</strong>g to several authors, have higher biological activity.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Burdock G. A.. 1998. Review of the biological properties and toxicity of bee propolis (propolis).<br />

<strong>Food</strong> and Chemical Toxicology, 36, 347–363.<br />

[2] Park Y. K., Alencar S. M., Aguiar C. L. 2002. Botanical orig<strong>in</strong> and chemical composition of Brazilian<br />

propolis, Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 50, 2502-2506.<br />

[3] Mart<strong>in</strong>ez-Correa H. A, Magalhães P. M., Queiroga C. L., Peixoto C. A., Oliveira, A. L., Cabral F. A.<br />

(2011). Extracts from pitanga (Eugenia Uniflora L.) leaves: Influence of extraction process on<br />

antioxidant properties and yield of phenolic compounds. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 55, 998-<br />

1006.<br />

2072

Correlation of hydro-thermal process<strong>in</strong>g with rut<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> tartary buckwheat flour<br />

Jiyoung Yoo a , Seung Mi Lee a , Soojung Heo a , Sang-Ho Yoo a , and Suyong Lee a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research Center, Sejong<br />

University, 98 Gunja-dong, Gwangj<strong>in</strong>-gu, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea (suyonglee@sejong.ac.kr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Recently, buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp) that belongs to the family Polygonaceae has been<br />

receiv<strong>in</strong>g great attentions as an alternative crop due to its nutritional superiority to cereals.<br />

Especially, rut<strong>in</strong> that is the primary phenolic compound of buckwheat, is shown to reduce the<br />

risk of arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure, antagonize the <strong>in</strong>crease of capillary fragility<br />

associated with hemorrhagic disease. It is however <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to note that the reduction of rut<strong>in</strong><br />

content is generally observed when buckwheat seeds are ground <strong>in</strong>to flour or mixed with water<br />

due to rut<strong>in</strong>-degrad<strong>in</strong>g enzymes (RDEs) [1]. Therefore, the reduced amount of rut<strong>in</strong> as well as<br />

bitter taste may play a negative role <strong>in</strong> consumer preferences, consequently discourag<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

food <strong>in</strong>dustry to develop a variety of buckwheat-based foods. Thus, the goals of this study were<br />

to apply several hydro-thermal process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to buckwheat flour and to establish the<br />

experimental procedures to m<strong>in</strong>imize the rut<strong>in</strong> loss dur<strong>in</strong>g buckwheat process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum) flour (40 g) was subjected to three different hydro-thermal<br />

treatments – steam<strong>in</strong>g, autoclav<strong>in</strong>g, and boil<strong>in</strong>g. For steam<strong>in</strong>g, buckwheat flour was placed on<br />

a plate <strong>in</strong> a steam cooker with a lid and steamed over boil<strong>in</strong>g water for 10 m<strong>in</strong>. In case of<br />

autoclav<strong>in</strong>g, buckwheat flour was placed <strong>in</strong>to an autoclave for 10 m<strong>in</strong> at 120. Also,<br />

buckwheat flour was immersed <strong>in</strong> boil<strong>in</strong>g water for 10 m<strong>in</strong> and then freeze-dried. Raw and<br />

hydro-thermally treated buckwheat (6 g) samples were mixed with distilled water (4 ml) for 0,<br />

2, 5, 10, 30, 60 m<strong>in</strong> and freeze-dried. Buckwheat flour (1 g) was treated with 20 ml of<br />

methanol at 80followed by cool<strong>in</strong>g overnight at 4 After filter<strong>in</strong>g through Whatman filter<br />

paper (No. 41) and 0.45 filter paper, the amounts of rut<strong>in</strong> and quercet<strong>in</strong> were quantitatively<br />

measured by us<strong>in</strong>g HPLC (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, U.S.A.) with a UV detector (350 nm) and<br />

Capcell Pak C18 column[2]. The mobile phase for HPLC consisted of methanol/ acetic acid<br />

(95: 5, v/v) (solvent A) and water (solvent B). A l<strong>in</strong>ear gradient of the solvent A was applied<br />

from 10% to 60% for 40 m<strong>in</strong>, followed by an <strong>in</strong>crease to 100% <strong>in</strong> 5 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The contents of rut<strong>in</strong> and quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> steamed buckwheat flour were measured and compared<br />

with those of raw buckwheat flour. As shown <strong>in</strong> Fig.1, 46.06 mg/g of rut<strong>in</strong> was conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

raw buckwheat flour while the rut<strong>in</strong> content dramatically decreased when the buckwheat flour<br />

was mixed with distilled water. On the other hand, the quercet<strong>in</strong> content significantly <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

from 0.52 mg/g to 31.2 mg/g. Therefore, it seemed that mix<strong>in</strong>g with water caused rut<strong>in</strong>degrad<strong>in</strong>g<br />

enzymes <strong>in</strong> buckwheat flour to easily be accessible to rut<strong>in</strong>, which consequently was<br />

degraded <strong>in</strong>to quercet<strong>in</strong> These results are <strong>in</strong> a good agreement with those reported by Suzuki et<br />

al [3]. However, as also can be seen <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1, the rut<strong>in</strong> loss by the addition of water was not<br />

observed <strong>in</strong> the steamed buckwheat flour and also quercet<strong>in</strong> was hardly detected.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2073

Figure 1. Effect of mix<strong>in</strong>g time with water on the rut<strong>in</strong> (a) and quercet<strong>in</strong> (b) contents of raw and steamed<br />

buckwheat flours<br />

The contents of rut<strong>in</strong> and quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> autoclaved buckwheat flour were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. The<br />

autoclaved buckwheat samples conta<strong>in</strong>ed 45.27 mg/g of rut<strong>in</strong> and 0.7 mg/g of quercet<strong>in</strong> which<br />

were similar to those of the control before mix<strong>in</strong>g with water. It thus seemed that autoclav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

caused rut<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> buckwheat flour to rema<strong>in</strong> constant even though mixed with water. The<br />

amounts of rut<strong>in</strong> and quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> boiled buckwheat flour were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Boil<strong>in</strong>g treatment<br />

also resulted <strong>in</strong> the similar pattern of rut<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> buckwheat flour to the steam<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

autoclav<strong>in</strong>g treatments. However, the content of quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> boiled buckwheat flour (2.48<br />

mg/g) was 3 to 4 fold higher than that of two other hydro-thermally treated samples, which was<br />

however not varied over mix<strong>in</strong>g times. The results <strong>in</strong>dicate that the rut<strong>in</strong>-degrad<strong>in</strong>g enzyme<br />

became deactivated by hydro-thermal treatments, consequently prevent<strong>in</strong>g the rut<strong>in</strong> loss <strong>in</strong><br />

buckwheat flour by the addition of water.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this study, tartary buckwheat flour was subjected to three different hydro-thermal process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to prevent rut<strong>in</strong> loss by rut<strong>in</strong>-degrad<strong>in</strong>g enzymes. The addition of water to raw<br />

buckwheat flour led to a dramatic decrease <strong>in</strong> rut<strong>in</strong> content and <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> quercet<strong>in</strong> content<br />

probably s<strong>in</strong>ce it made rut<strong>in</strong> susceptible to the attack of rut<strong>in</strong>-degrad<strong>in</strong>g enzymes. However, the<br />

rut<strong>in</strong> contents <strong>in</strong> buckwheat flour after steam<strong>in</strong>g, autoclav<strong>in</strong>g, and boil<strong>in</strong>g were not changed by<br />

water addition, which also did not produce quercet<strong>in</strong>. Therefore, the use of hydro-thermally<br />

treated buckwheat flour can provide more health benefits derived from a high amount of rut<strong>in</strong>,<br />

probably encourag<strong>in</strong>g the food <strong>in</strong>dustry to develop various buckwheat-based food products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Yasuda T. & Nakagawa H. 1994. Purification and Characterization of the Rut<strong>in</strong>-Degrad<strong>in</strong>g Enzymes<br />

<strong>in</strong> Tartary Buckwheat Seeds. Phytochemistry, 37(1), 133-136.<br />

[2] Terada H. & Miyabe M. 1993. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Rut<strong>in</strong> and Quercet<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Process</strong>ed <strong>Food</strong>s by Fast<br />

Semi-Micro High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Journal of the <strong>Food</strong> Hygienic Society of<br />

Japan, 34(5), 385-391.<br />

[3] Suzuki T.,Honda Y.,Funatsuki W. & Nakatsuka K. 2002. Purification and Characterization of Flavonol<br />

3-Glucosidase, and Its Activity Dur<strong>in</strong>g Ripen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Tartary Buckwheat Seeds. Plant Science, 163(3),<br />

417-423.<br />

2074

Study of the <strong>in</strong>fluence of berry-blanch<strong>in</strong>g on syneresis <strong>in</strong> blueberry purées<br />

Ada Brambilla a , Dario Maffi b , Anna Rizzolo a<br />

a<br />

Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione <strong>in</strong> Agricoltura, Unità di ricerca per i processi dell’<strong>in</strong>dustria<br />

agroalimentare (CRA-IAA), Milan, Italy (adaelisabetta.brambilla@entecra.it; anna.rizzolo@entecra.it)<br />

b<br />

Università degli Studi di Milano, Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale, Sezione di Patologia Vegetale,<br />

Milan, Italy (dario.maffi@unimi.it)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The need to supply convenience food preserv<strong>in</strong>g health-related compounds, moves research<br />

towards the application of mild technologies and the <strong>in</strong>troduction of <strong>in</strong>novative solutions for<br />

the consumer. Frozen blueberry purée, processed without pomace loss, is a versatile product<br />

potentially rich <strong>in</strong> all the bioactive compounds characteristic of the whole berry. The ability of<br />

a steam blanch<strong>in</strong>g pre-treatment to improve anthocyan<strong>in</strong> yield and recovery from pomace has<br />

been assessed <strong>in</strong> blueberry juice and it has been related to thermal <strong>in</strong>activation of fruit<br />

oxidative enzymes [1] and to structural alterations of pigmented epidermal cells. This work<br />

aimed at study<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fluence of blueberry blanch<strong>in</strong>g pretreatment on the k<strong>in</strong>etic of frozen<br />

purée syneresis and on colour parameters and phenolic composition of the separated serum.<br />

Correlation between thermal treatment and tissue localization of pigments <strong>in</strong> whole berries was<br />

highlighted by macro- and micrographs and implications on purée quality attributes discussed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Highbush blueberries cv Brigitta were IQF and stored at –20°C till process<strong>in</strong>g and analyses.<br />

Before purée<strong>in</strong>g, one half of the berries was thawed at 20°C for 3h (NB), while the other half<br />

was steam-blanched for 3m<strong>in</strong> and tap water-cooled <strong>in</strong> a pilot steam blanch<strong>in</strong>g tunnel (BL).<br />

Then 300g aliquots of purées were packed <strong>in</strong> plastic vessels, sealed under partial vacuum,<br />

frozen and stored at 20°C up to analyses. Formic acid extracts [2] of berries and purées were<br />

prepared and frozen (20°C) till phenolics analysis. NB and BL berries were evaluated for<br />

monomeric anthocyan<strong>in</strong> pigments (MAP), total phenolic compounds (TPC), percent polymeric<br />

colour (%PC), <strong>in</strong>dex of brown<strong>in</strong>g (IB) and for macro- and micrographs on half berries us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

digital camera and on berry sections by light microscope. On frozen NB and BL purées the<br />

syneresis k<strong>in</strong>etics have been studied at 20°C for 24h, weigh<strong>in</strong>g the juice from syneresis at 30<br />

m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervals up to 6 hours upon thaw<strong>in</strong>g, and then after 24h. A model fitt<strong>in</strong>g weight data was<br />

elaborated us<strong>in</strong>g the Simple Regression procedure (Statgraphics). NB and BL purées thawed<br />

overnight (4°C) and collected juice from syneresis were analysed for MAP, TPC, %PC and IB,<br />

and only juice for colour parameters.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Steam blanch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>duced a marked anthocyan<strong>in</strong> diffusion from pigmented epidermal layers<br />

down to the core of berries, due to thermal <strong>in</strong>duced plasmolysis and wall soften<strong>in</strong>g phenomena<br />

(Figure 1). Pigments flow was correlated to a decrease <strong>in</strong> MAP <strong>in</strong> BL berries (17.6%), due to<br />

a direct heat-<strong>in</strong>duced damage on berry pigments. Nevertheless, BL purées achieved a higher<br />

content <strong>in</strong> MAP (91.7 vs. 82.4 mg/100g) and TPC (276.9 vs. 182 7 mg/100g) and a lower %PC<br />

compared to NB purées, evidenc<strong>in</strong>g a protective effect of blanch<strong>in</strong>g along the purée process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2075

cha<strong>in</strong>. Liquid-hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity was higher <strong>in</strong> BL purées dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 180 m<strong>in</strong> after thaw<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

then it was higher <strong>in</strong> NB ones till 340 m<strong>in</strong> of time. The best model fitt<strong>in</strong>g both BL and NB<br />

syneresis data is reported <strong>in</strong> Eq. 1.<br />

W a b t<br />

(1)<br />

where W is the weight of serum, t is the syneresis time, and a and b are the estimated<br />

parameters of the model. Although the NB and BL serum weights were the same after 24 h at<br />

20°C, BL samples had a higher content <strong>in</strong> TPC (175.9 vs. 104.0 mg/100ml) and triple the<br />

amount <strong>in</strong> MAP compared to NB samples; <strong>in</strong> addition BL syneresis liquids had higher<br />

lightness (L*) and red colour component (a*). As a consequence, a strong phenolic-enrich<strong>in</strong>g<br />

effect of blanch<strong>in</strong>g on the liquid portion of blueberry purées, especially concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />

anthocyan<strong>in</strong> compounds, can be argued. This effect, together with heat solubilisation of tissue<br />

pect<strong>in</strong>s, could account for the different liquid-hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity of BL and NB purées.<br />

Figure 1. Effect of steam blanch<strong>in</strong>g on pigments diffusion <strong>in</strong> V. corymbosum L. (A, not blanched; B,<br />

blanched). 1-Berries longitud<strong>in</strong>al sections. 2-Epidermis panoramic views. 3-Epidermis cross-sections<br />

(Bars=30 μm).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>troduction of a berry-blanch<strong>in</strong>g step <strong>in</strong> the process<strong>in</strong>g of ready-to-eat frozen blueberry<br />

purées would enhance nutritional and sensory qualities, preserv<strong>in</strong>g phenolic compounds,<br />

limit<strong>in</strong>g syneresis phenomena and improv<strong>in</strong>g colour properties. Enrich<strong>in</strong>g effect of blanch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

on the liquid portion of blueberry purées, supported by biochemical and microscopy evidences,<br />

may have further nutritional and technological implications to be better <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Rossi M., Giussani E., Morelli R., Lo Scalzo R., Nani R.C. & Torreggiani D. 2003. <strong>Food</strong> Research<br />

<strong>International</strong>, 36, 999-1005.<br />

[2] Brambilla A.; Lo Scalzo R.; Bertolo G.; Torreggiani D. 2008. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 56 , 2643-2648.<br />

2076

Quality properties of corn-based extrudates enriched with dietary fibers<br />

A. N. Giann<strong>in</strong>i a , M. K. Krokida a , N. P. Zogzas b<br />

a Laboratory of <strong>Process</strong> Analysis and Design, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece,<br />

e-mail: mkrok@ chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

b Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Technological Educational Institute<br />

(TEI) of Athens, Agiou Spyridonos St., 122 10, Egaleo, Athens, Greece, e-mail: nzogzas@ teiath.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Dietary fiber-rich materials have ga<strong>in</strong>ed popularity as food <strong>in</strong>gredients for health benefits <strong>in</strong><br />

recent years [1]. However, relatively little is known about the effects of process<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

on structural properties of fiber conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g foods. Extrusion is a unique and versatile thermal<br />

process, where the raw materials are subjected to direct mix<strong>in</strong>g and cook<strong>in</strong>g, result<strong>in</strong>g to ready<br />

to eat expanded snacks. The <strong>in</strong>corporation of dietary fibers <strong>in</strong>to extruded products plays an<br />

important role on their structural characteristics. High levels of fiber have often resulted <strong>in</strong> a<br />

compact, tough, non-crisp and undesirable texture [2]. The purpose of this study was the<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation of the effect of process conditions (temperature, feed rate) and raw material<br />

characteristics (moisture content, fiber to corn ratio) on structural and mechanical properties of<br />

corn based extrudates enriched with apple and oat fibers. Simple power models were<br />

developed, to predict porosity and stress of compression as functions of process conditions and<br />

material characteristics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Oat and apple fibers were mixed with corn flour, with fiber to corn ratio rang<strong>in</strong>g from 10 to<br />

30%. The moisture content of the feed was adjusted from 13 to 19% wet basis, by add<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

necessary distilled water. A prism Eurolab conical, counter-rotat<strong>in</strong>g tw<strong>in</strong> screw extruder, model<br />

KX-16HC, with a process rotation speed of 200 rpm was used. The screw geometry was:<br />

length 40 cm, diameter 16 mm and die diameter 3 mm. Extrusion temperatures and mass rates<br />

of feed were regulated from 150 to 230ºC and 0.5 to 2.0 g/s respectively. Apparent density,<br />

true density and porosity of extrudates were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by measur<strong>in</strong>g the actual dimensions of<br />

the samples, along with their true volume, us<strong>in</strong>g a Quantacrome stereopycnometer (model<br />

SPV-3) with ±0.001 cm 3 accuracy. Expansion ratio was calculated by the extrudate’s over the<br />

die’s diameter and mechanical properties were evaluated through compression tests us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

Zwick Universal Test<strong>in</strong>g Mach<strong>in</strong>e 1120.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The follow<strong>in</strong>g parametric model was proposed to predict porosity as a function of process<br />

conditions and material composition [3]:<br />

n T n F n X n C<br />

T F X C<br />

o<br />

Tr<br />

Fr<br />

Xr<br />

C <br />

r<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

(1)<br />

<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2077

Where, is the porosity of the extrudate, T is the extrusion temperature (ºC), F is the feed rate<br />

(gr/s), X is the feed moisture content (kg/100kg wb) and C is the materials ratio (kg fiber/kg<br />

corn), Tr, Fr, Xr and Cr are their reference values and , nT, nF, nX, nC, are the respective five<br />

parameters that were evaluated through regression analysis.<br />

The mechanical stress of compression was modeled by the follow<strong>in</strong>g equation:<br />

p<br />

E e<br />

( <br />

max<br />

E e<br />

max<br />

)( e / e<br />

max<br />

)<br />

(2)<br />

Where, is the stress of compression and max the disruption stress <strong>in</strong> (kPa), e is the stra<strong>in</strong><br />

(l/lo) and emax the disruption stra<strong>in</strong>, is the elasticity parameter <strong>in</strong> (kPa) and p is the<br />

viscoelastic exponent. The values of E, max and emax can be related to process conditions and<br />

material composition by us<strong>in</strong>g parametric models similar to that of equation (1).<br />

The estimated values of porosity parameters for both types of extrudates are shown <strong>in</strong> table 1,<br />

where SR and SE are the standard deviation and standard error respectively.<br />

Table 1. Results of Parameters’ Estimation<br />

Extrudate o nT nF nX nC SR SE Corn/apple fiber 0.92 -0.31 0.097 -0.16 -0.085 0.032 0.039<br />

Corn/oat fiber 0.87 -0.13 0.02 -0.17 -0.065 0.032 0.047<br />

As it can be seen from the above table and equation (1), the <strong>in</strong>fluence of feed rate, as it is<br />

expressed by the exponent nF, is positive for both types of extrudates. That is, the extrudates’<br />

porosity <strong>in</strong>creases with the <strong>in</strong>crease of feed rate. On the contrary, the negative values of nT, nX<br />

and nC <strong>in</strong>dicate the opposite behavior. That is, the <strong>in</strong>crease of temperature, <strong>in</strong>itial material<br />

moisture content and fiber to corn ratio, leads to lower porosity values. Lower porosity values<br />

have also been observed for the case of oat fiber to corn extrudates, someth<strong>in</strong>g which is<br />

justified by the lower value found for . As far as the stress of compression is concerned, it<br />

was found that the <strong>in</strong>fluence of process conditions and material composition had the opposite<br />

effects from those of porosity, <strong>in</strong> contrast with the expansion ratio that revealed the same<br />

behavior. Similar results to this work have also been reported by other researchers [2].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Structural and mechanical properties of expanded corn-fiber snacks, produced on a tw<strong>in</strong> screw<br />

extruder, depend on several process conditions (extrusion temperature, feed rate, feed moisture<br />

content and corn to fiber ratio). The addition of dietary fibers <strong>in</strong> feed results to more dense<br />

products, while the use of apple fibers, leads to products with greater porosity and lower<br />

compression stress values compared to those of oat fibers. It is possible to predict porosity and<br />

mechanical properties of extrudates as functions of process and material composition variables.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Trowell, H., Burkitt, D. & Heaton, K. eds. 1985. Dietary fiber, fiber-depleted foods and disease.<br />

Academic Press, New York.<br />

[2] Lue, S., Hsieh, F., Huff, H.E., 1991. Extrusion Cook<strong>in</strong>g of Corn Meal and Sugar Beet Fiber: Effects<br />

on Expansion Properties, Starch Gelat<strong>in</strong>ization and Dietary Fiber Content, Cereal Chem, 68, 227-234.<br />

[3] Krokida, M.K., Zogzas N.P., Maroulis Z.B., 1997. Modell<strong>in</strong>g Shr<strong>in</strong>kage and Porosity dur<strong>in</strong>g Vacuum<br />

Dehydration. Int. J. <strong>Food</strong> Sci. Technol., 32, 445–458.<br />

2078

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g of berries<br />

Ingegerd Sjöholm a , Jitmanee Pullawan b , Marilyn Rayner c<br />

Lund University, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Nutrition, Lund, Sweden<br />

a (<strong>in</strong>gegerd.sjoholm@food.lth.se), b (jitmanee.pullawan.935@student.lu.se), c (marilyn.ra<strong>in</strong>er@food.lth.se)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Fresh berries have often a very short shelf life and are preserved by freez<strong>in</strong>g, dry<strong>in</strong>g, and heat<br />

treatment and often with some additional sugar. One way to <strong>in</strong>crease the utilization of berries is<br />

to start from frozen berries, thaw them and then use a comb<strong>in</strong>ed osmotic treatment and<br />

convection dry<strong>in</strong>g procedure. To describe the quality of these processed berries is a challenge<br />

as the water content will be of economical <strong>in</strong>terest and will also <strong>in</strong>fluence the texture and the<br />

water activity will decide the safety and the storability of the product. One way to describe and<br />

be able to predict these quality parameters of the f<strong>in</strong>al product is to measure the moisture<br />

sorption isotherm, MSI of the product. MSI of each food is unique and it depends on<br />

microstructure of the food, physical chemical state of the food components and composition<br />

[1]. Many model equations are described <strong>in</strong> literature [2]. The aim of this study was to screen<br />

different levels of pre-treatments, osmotic treatment and convection dry<strong>in</strong>g procedures to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> data to develop sorption isotherms for different berries.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Trials are performed on commercial frozen strawberries (Möllers, Denmark), blueberries<br />

(Willys, Axfood), raspberries (Polarica Sweden) and blackcurrants (Bri9568-10). Each berry is<br />

selected to have similar size, measured by length or diameter. Strawberries, 3-4 cm,<br />

blackcurrants, 1-1.5 cm, blueberries, 0.5 to 0.8 cm and raspberries 1.7-2.1 cm. Granular sugar<br />

(Dan sukker, Danisco Sugar) is used as osmotic medium <strong>in</strong> all trials. Osmotic treatment of<br />

berries is done <strong>in</strong> closed glass jars <strong>in</strong> room temperature (20 ºC), each batch around 50 grams.<br />

Sugar amount <strong>in</strong> osmotic treatment are varied from berries per sugar weight 2:1(33% sugar),<br />

3:1(25% sugar) and 4:1(20% sugar). Blackcurrants and strawberries are used <strong>in</strong> this trial to<br />

represent berry samples. Frozen blackcurrants are steamed 90 seconds, strawberries are cut <strong>in</strong>to<br />

halves.<br />

The efficiency of osmotic treatment process is evaluated by water loss (WL), solid ga<strong>in</strong> (SG)<br />

and mass reduction (MR). Calculation of MR, WL and SG used equations below.<br />

MR = 100- M ; WL = (100* b1) – M * b2 ; SG = WL – MR Where M is weight after<br />

osmotic treated (based on 100 g <strong>in</strong>itial weight), b1 is moisture content of fresh berries /100 and<br />

b2 is moisture content after osmotic treated /100 [3].<br />

The osmotic treated berries are dried <strong>in</strong> a convection oven, 3 m/s and 60ºC. Temperatures and<br />

weight are monitored cont<strong>in</strong>uously dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g operation. The osmotic treated berries are<br />

dried until different levels of water content. Water content of the dried samples are measured <strong>in</strong><br />

a vacuum oven, 60 ºC until constant weight and the water activity is measured <strong>in</strong> a Aqualab T2<br />

set up. The different moisture sorption isotherms of the dried berries were fitted <strong>in</strong>to different<br />

models [2].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2079

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results showed that pre-treatment is not needed for strawberries, raspberries and<br />

blueberries; however blackcurrants require a 90 second steam treatment before the osmotic<br />

treatment step. Whole strawberries were cut <strong>in</strong> halves <strong>in</strong> order to shorten the convective dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time. The used osmotic treatment conditions, granular sugar ratio berries per sugar<br />

4:1(20%sugar) for 24 hours were suitable for all 4 berries. Moisture sorption isotherms were<br />

generated based on dry matter and water activity of each berry. The moisture sorption isotherm<br />

of the dried berries were tested <strong>in</strong> the different models; Halsey's equation, GAB (Guggenheim-<br />

Anderson-de Boer) equation, Henderson's equation respectively Kuhn equation by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

statistical software [2]. The fitt<strong>in</strong>g showed that GAB(Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer) equation<br />

fits the best to the <strong>in</strong>dividual isotherms and can be used to predict equilibrium moisture of all<br />

four berries when water activity aw is <strong>in</strong> the range up to 0.94, see table 1.<br />

Table 1. GAB constant parameters for each berry<br />

Berries Constant Parameters<br />

R 2<br />

Raspberries 13,3376 -26,4919 13,8101 0,9623<br />

Blueberries -5,1126 2,38279 2,8885 0,9708<br />

Strawberries 10,0876 -21,5269 12,0734 0,9096<br />

Blackcurrants 17,0593 -31,9357 15,4811 0,9871<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The moisture sorption isotherm can be of benefit for food producers to design their dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

processes to meet the moisture conditions <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product and give the possibility to use<br />

these healthy and natural <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> a wider range of food products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Rockland A.B., Beuchat L.R.(1987). Water activity : Theory and applications to food Marcel<br />

Dekker, New York, pp.215-231.<br />

[2] Heldman D.R.& Lund D.B. (1992). Handbook of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>. Marcel Dekker, New York,<br />

pp.437-562.<br />

[3] Welti Chanes J.,Velez-Ruiz J.F., Barbosa Canovas G.V. (2003). Transport Phenomena <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g. CRC Press. pp.83-94.<br />

2080

Aroma Release and Sensory Perception of Fruit Candies Model Systems<br />

Piccone Pierpaolo a , Rastelli Simon Luca b , Paola Pittia a,<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, University of Teramo Mosciano S.Angelo (TE), Italy (ppittia@unite.it)<br />

b Gelco s.r.l. (Perfetti van Melle Group), Castelnuovo Vomano (TE), Italy<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The release of volatile compounds from food matrices is governed by k<strong>in</strong>etic and thermodynamic<br />

phenomena [1]. The rate of release of volatiles and their partition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the gas phase is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />

<strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic, extr<strong>in</strong>sic factors as well as the <strong>in</strong>teraction with non volatile compounds <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

matrix..Gummy candies are confectionery products and their texture is achieved by us<strong>in</strong>g various gell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agents; the most important <strong>in</strong>gredients are the sweeteners i.e. sucrose, glucose and corn syrups. The<br />

objective of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the composition (i.e. gell<strong>in</strong>g agents - gelat<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

starch pect<strong>in</strong>- and sugars) on the release and sensory perception of aroma compounds from candy model<br />

systems added with a standard strawberry flavour.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The follow<strong>in</strong>g model candies were prepared follow<strong>in</strong>g recipes mimick<strong>in</strong>g those used for commercial<br />

products: gelat<strong>in</strong>e (G), aerated gelat<strong>in</strong>e (GA), gummy gelat<strong>in</strong>e (Ggo), gelat<strong>in</strong>e and starch (GA), extruded<br />

starch (Aes), pect<strong>in</strong> (P). All samples were added with the same concentration of a strawberry aroma<br />

(0.25% db) and with the exception of Aes, all models, after sett<strong>in</strong>g, were dried under the same process<br />

conditions and stored <strong>in</strong> HDPE bags until analysis. Evaluations of the release of aroma compounds under<br />

equilibrium conditions were carried out by Head Space Gas Chromatography both on the model candies<br />

and the same submerged <strong>in</strong> water to mimic the dissolution <strong>in</strong> the mouth. In the latter case, the k<strong>in</strong>etics of<br />

the aroma release from the models dur<strong>in</strong>g dissolution to reach the equilibrium were also <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

Electronic nose (EN) measurements and sensory evaluations under standardised procedure were also<br />

carried out.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The candy model systems differently prepared are characterised by a moisture content <strong>in</strong> the range of 16.9<br />

%(Gar) and 23.2 % (GA), whilst Aes, due to the preparation process showed the lowest moisture content<br />

(12%). Different were also the textural properties (compression and penetration test) be<strong>in</strong>g GA the more<br />

firm and tough. Among the 16 volatiles of the strawberry flavour, 4 out of them were selected (ethyl<br />

hexanoate-EH, ethyl butyrate-EB, methyl c<strong>in</strong>namate-MC, ethyl acetate-EA) to represent volatiles with<br />

different polarity. The partition<strong>in</strong>g of strawberry aroma compounds from the candy model systems at<br />

equilibrium <strong>in</strong> the head space was highly affected by the gell<strong>in</strong>g agent type and sugar content. In Figure 1,<br />

the ratio of the GC area of EH and EA <strong>in</strong> the model systems to the GC area of the same compounds <strong>in</strong> the<br />

pure strawberry aroma is reported and considered as <strong>in</strong>dex of the volatile retention. The aff<strong>in</strong>ity of the<br />

aroma compound for the biopolymer/s of the candy model system and structural properties are implied <strong>in</strong><br />

the different release <strong>in</strong> the vapour phase of EA (more polar) and EH (more apolar). The k<strong>in</strong>etics of the<br />

volatiles release from the candies <strong>in</strong> water varied depend<strong>in</strong>g on the aroma nature and the physical<br />

properties of the systems as affected by the gell<strong>in</strong>g agent. In particular a lower aroma release rate<br />

occurred for all the aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> the starch-gelat<strong>in</strong>e model systems while the highest occurred <strong>in</strong><br />

pect<strong>in</strong>- and gelat<strong>in</strong>e- based candies. The latter results are <strong>in</strong> agreement with the sensory analysis results<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2081

that showed a higher <strong>in</strong>tensity of the pect<strong>in</strong> made samples upon dissolution and chew<strong>in</strong>g. EN analysis<br />

discrim<strong>in</strong>ated samples based on composition and sugars content.<br />

Acaramella/Aaromapuro<br />

0.30<br />

0.25<br />

0.20<br />

0.15<br />

0.10<br />

0.05<br />

0.00<br />

Acaramella/Aaromapuro<br />

0.30<br />

0.25<br />

0.20<br />

0.15<br />

0.10<br />

0.05<br />

0.00<br />

EH<br />

EA<br />

P G Gar Ggo GA Aes<br />

Modelsystem<br />

P G Gar Ggo GA Aes<br />

ModelSystem<br />

compounds <strong>in</strong> the candies and their release when dissolved <strong>in</strong> water..<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Figure 1. Ratio of the<br />

GC area of EH and EA <strong>in</strong><br />

the differently prepared<br />

candy model systems to<br />

the GC area of the same<br />

compounds (EA, EH) <strong>in</strong><br />

the pure strawberry<br />

aroma.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Composition, type of<br />

biopolymers and physical<br />

properties affect the<br />

retention of the aroma<br />

[1] Voilley A, Souchon I (2006). Flavour retention and release from food matrix: an overview. Flavour <strong>in</strong> foods.<br />

Cambridge: Woodhead Publish<strong>in</strong>g Ltd, 31, 305 – 316<br />

2082

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2083

fermented sausages was detected by Muthukumarasamy et al. [3]. S. xylosus numbers<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed on the level of 6 log cfug -1 dur<strong>in</strong>g 14 days of dry<strong>in</strong>g, and dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage they<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased to the level of about 1 log cfug -1 <strong>in</strong> all treatments. Similar trends were detected <strong>in</strong> dry<br />

fermented sausages produced with S. carnosus [3].<br />

Figure 1. Survival of probiotic bacteria dur<strong>in</strong>g ripen<strong>in</strong>g and storage of dry fermented sausages<br />

In both variants (2, 3) of probiotic sausages, the <strong>in</strong>itial counts of probiotic bacteria were<br />

approximately 6 log cfug -1 (Fig.1). Dur<strong>in</strong>g 3 days of sausage dry<strong>in</strong>g, the probiotic bacteria<br />

counts <strong>in</strong>creased by 2 log units and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed on the level of 8 log cfug -1 until the end of the<br />

storage period. Fermented sausages were sensory evaluated on days 14 and 40. After 14 days,<br />

all quality parameters were evaluated relatively high, with grades over 7, without significant<br />

differences between sausage variants. After 40 days, variants 1 and 2 were very similar with<br />

grades over 7.6, but variant 3 received somewhat lower grades for aroma (6.75), taste (6.0) and<br />

texture (6.25). All samples were evaluated as acceptable.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It can be concluded that probiotic Lactobacillus helveticus RO52 and Bifidobacterium longum<br />

RO175 (Lallemand, France) seem to be suitable for the production of dry sausages. The<br />

survival of probiotic bacteria was on a high level of 8 log cfug- 1 at the end of storage period <strong>in</strong><br />

both probiotic sausage variants. Chemical composition and pH values were similar <strong>in</strong> control<br />

and probiotic samples of sausages. Sensory quality was acceptable <strong>in</strong> all sausage variants, but<br />

somewhat better aroma, taste and texture were detected <strong>in</strong> sausages produced with<br />

Lactobacillus helveticus RO52.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Erkkilä S., Suihko M.L., Eerola S., Petäjä E., Mattila-Sandholm S. 2001. Dry Sausage Fermented by<br />

Lactobacillus rhamnosus stra<strong>in</strong>s. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 64, 205-210.<br />

[2] Kl<strong>in</strong>gberg T.D. & Budde B.B. 2006. The Survival and Persistence <strong>in</strong> the Human Gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al<br />

Tract of Five Potential Probiotic Lactobacilli Consumed as Friez-Dried Culture or as Probiotic<br />

Sausage. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbilogy, 109, 157-159.<br />

[3] Muthukumarasamy P. & Holley R.A. 2006. Microbiological and Sensory Quality of Dry Fermented<br />

Sausages Conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Alg<strong>in</strong>ate-Microencapsulated Lactobacillus reuteri. <strong>International</strong> Journal of food<br />

Microbilogy, 111, 164-169.<br />

2084

Evaluation of probiotic conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g microcapsules stability <strong>in</strong> different media<br />

Luciano Avallone Bueno a* , Maria de Fátima Fonseca b , Djalma Marques b , Fernanda Branco Sh<strong>in</strong>agawa b ,<br />

Amanda Qu<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>o b , Gabriel Locatelli b , Cedenir Pereira Quadros b<br />

a<br />

University Rural of Pernambuco, Physical Department, Recife, Brazil; *(avallonebueno@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

BioLogicus – Research Center of Probiotics, Technology Institute of Pernambuco, Recife,<br />

Brazil;(www.biologicus.com.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Probiotics are viable microorganisms preparation which have beneficial effects on the host<br />

health. Various health benefits have been attributed to probiotics such as antimutagenic and<br />

anticarc<strong>in</strong>ogenic properties, anti<strong>in</strong>fection, immune system stimulation, lactose <strong>in</strong>tolerance.<br />

Successful probiotic microorganisms are able to survive <strong>in</strong> gastric conditions and colonize the<br />

<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>e by adher<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al epithelium [1]. Microencapsulation of microorganism is<br />

one of the newest and most efficient methods, has recently been under especial consideration<br />

and <strong>in</strong>vestigation. Alg<strong>in</strong>ate is often used as an encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g material because it has the<br />

benefits of be<strong>in</strong>g non-toxic and be<strong>in</strong>g readily available. Chitosan polymers can further<br />

polymerize by means of cross-l<strong>in</strong>k formation <strong>in</strong> the presence of anions and polyanions [2]. The<br />

aim of this work was to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of substances polymeric on the physicochemical<br />

stability of microencapsulated microorganisms stored <strong>in</strong> two k<strong>in</strong>ds of media, as well as the<br />

microencapsulated resistance aga<strong>in</strong>st treatment with different ranges of pH.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The process of microencapsulation was carried out by method of coacervation which was used<br />

as encapsulate material the fermented soybean beverage BioLogicus® as probiotic<br />

microorganism. After this, were resuspended <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral water and 0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution and<br />

stored at 5ºC until analysis. For stability tests, pH, acidy evaluation, % mass variation and total<br />

soluble solid was analysed, dur<strong>in</strong>g 84 days. For the resistance test, 10 g of alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan<br />

free were immersed <strong>in</strong> 100 mL of acid solution conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g KCl buffer pH 2.0 for 3 h at 37°C.<br />

For alkal<strong>in</strong>e system, was used KH2PO4 pH 7.4 for 3 h at 37°C.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Generally, total titratable acidity <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> two storage media which were submitted the two<br />

types of encapsulation. In contrast to the acidity, pH profile decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g the 84 days.<br />

Media composed by 0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution, that stored the alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan and alg<strong>in</strong>atechitosan<br />

free microcapsules, shows an upward trend to titratable acidity and decreas<strong>in</strong>g for pH<br />

measure. On the other hand, the two media, which stored alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan microcapsules, had<br />

the titratable acidity variation s<strong>in</strong>ce the first week. The decrease of the pH is expla<strong>in</strong>ed due to<br />

the presence of substrate that acts as means of development of microorganism. Results of these<br />

reactions were expected consider<strong>in</strong>g that the array can be used as the substrate for development<br />

of microorganisms, which as a result of metabolism, produc<strong>in</strong>g lactic acid. In relation to total<br />

soluble solids variation <strong>in</strong> storage media, the variation was very <strong>in</strong>significant, around of the 0.1<br />

a 0.2°Brix. Although the values were relatively constant, it was seen a higher <strong>in</strong>itial value for<br />

0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution assay. For mass variation determ<strong>in</strong>ation, were weighed <strong>in</strong> the same time<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2085

<strong>in</strong>terval, four aliquots stored <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral water or 0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution. It was observed that, <strong>in</strong><br />

the first week, alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan free obta<strong>in</strong>ed a mass ga<strong>in</strong> of the 8 and 29% for m<strong>in</strong>eral water<br />

and sal<strong>in</strong>e solution respectively. Result was very similar with sal<strong>in</strong>e solution medium, but <strong>in</strong><br />

case for alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan microcapsules the mass ga<strong>in</strong> was 16%. The acid aqueous solution<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed clear dur<strong>in</strong>g all time of the analysis. This is suggests that microcapsules are resistant<br />

to gastric juice. However, the microcapsules that were submitted to alkal<strong>in</strong>e treatment,<br />

demonstrated a complete dissolution after 3 h. It can be noted the dissolution process of the<br />

microcapsules <strong>in</strong> acid and alkal<strong>in</strong>e solution. These results demonstrate that alg<strong>in</strong>ate and<br />

alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan microcapsules have an ideal behaviour <strong>in</strong> the human organisms.<br />

A<br />

Figure 1. (A) Matrix alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan free microcapsules, (B) matrix alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan microcapsules on<br />

m<strong>in</strong>eral water medium and (C) matrix alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan free microcapsules, (D) matrix alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan<br />

microcapsules on 0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution dur<strong>in</strong>g 84 days.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was concluded that development of alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan free and alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan<br />

microcapsules for probiotic microorganism immobilization can be storage both <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />

water, as well as <strong>in</strong> 0.85% sal<strong>in</strong>e solution for long period. In addition, alg<strong>in</strong>ate microcapsules<br />

show resistance to acid treatment and susceptibility to alkal<strong>in</strong>e, ideal for liberation of the<br />

bioactive agents <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al system.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fuller R. 1991. Probiotics <strong>in</strong> human medic<strong>in</strong>e. Gut 32(4), 439-442.<br />

[2] Klien J., Stock J., Vorlop K.D. 1983. Pore size and properties of spherical calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

biocatalysts. European Journal Applied Microbiology Biotechnology, 18, 86-91.<br />

2086<br />

C<br />

B<br />

D

Effect of Dry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Aloe’s Functional Components<br />

. Krokida 1 , A. Pappa 2 , M. Agalioti 1<br />

1<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Process</strong> Analysis and Design, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical University of<br />

Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece.<br />

2<br />

Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical University of Athens, 9<br />

Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece.,<br />

athpappa@chemeng.ntua.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Aloe vera is a member of the Liliacea. Aloe is widely used as a natural treatment and alternatively<br />

therapy for various types of diseases. The plant can be separated <strong>in</strong>to two products: aloe latex , a bitter<br />

yellow exudates from the pericyclic tubules <strong>in</strong> the outer sk<strong>in</strong> of the leaves and aloe gel. The gel consists<br />

primarily of water (>98%) and polysaccharides. Acemannan is considered the ma<strong>in</strong> functional component<br />

of aloe vera and is composed of a long cha<strong>in</strong> of acetylated mannose [1]. The potential use of aloe vera<br />

products often <strong>in</strong>volves some type of process<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g among others dry<strong>in</strong>g, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> powdered<br />

samples, which can further mix with other <strong>in</strong>gredients to form a great variety of dietary, cosmetics and<br />

pharmaceuticals products. However, food products are sensitive to dry<strong>in</strong>g temperatures, which can be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>duce degradation (e.g. oxidation, loss of texture, functional properties etc). Vacuum and freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

were also tested as dry<strong>in</strong>g methods to provide powder samples with the least deterioration The aim of this<br />

study was to evaluate the effect of freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g, along with vacuum and air dry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the preservation of<br />

some aloe’s functional substances, such as, polysaccharides and m<strong>in</strong>erals.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Fresh aloe vera leaves, of between 30 and 50 cm length, corresponded to a 4-year old plant, obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

Peloponnisos district <strong>in</strong> Greece, were used as the raw material. Whole leaves were washed with distilled<br />

water and the epidermis was separated from the parenchyma by a scalpel–shaped knife. The filets were<br />

washed with distilled water to remove the exudates from their surfaces, diced to 1cm 3 cubes and<br />

dehydrated either <strong>in</strong> a coventional air drier at 70 o C (AD samples) or <strong>in</strong> a vacuum drier at 0 o C (VD<br />

samples). Aloe filets were also freeze dried (FD sample), and used as reference samples <strong>in</strong> NMR and FT-<br />

IR analyses. Gel was collected from the <strong>in</strong>ner part of aloe leaf and frozen at -30 o C for two days. Prior to<br />

freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g it was treated with liquid nitrogen for 1 h. 1 H NMR spectra at 300 MHz were recorded.<br />

Approx. 10 mg of dried Aloe vera samples were dissolved <strong>in</strong> 2 ml of 99.9% deuterium oxide, and<br />

transferred <strong>in</strong> NMR tubes. No <strong>in</strong>ternal shift standard was added. Fourier Transformed Infrared (FT-IR)<br />

spectra were obta<strong>in</strong>ed, after prepar<strong>in</strong>g a KBr disc conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 2 mg of freeze, air and vacuum dried<br />

samples. The s<strong>in</strong>gle beam travers<strong>in</strong>g each sample was rationed with the s<strong>in</strong>gle beam of the correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />

background. The <strong>in</strong>organic residues of the dried samples, as well as of fresh filets were determ<strong>in</strong>ed after<br />

heat<strong>in</strong>g at 550 o C overnight. Then the residues were dissolved <strong>in</strong> HNO3. M<strong>in</strong>erals K, Na, Ca, Mg were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g an atomic absorption spectrometer. Heavy metals like Pb, Cr, Ni, Mn, Fe and Cu were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by an Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer. The P content was<br />

estimated us<strong>in</strong>g the phoshoro-vanadium-molybdenum complex at 466 nm by a portable spectrometer.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Acemannan is a l<strong>in</strong>ear polysaccharide composed by -(14)-l<strong>in</strong>ked mannan partially acetylated <strong>in</strong><br />

positions 2,3 or 6. In a 1 H NMR spectrum these acetyl groups generate a characteristic signal (2.00 to<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2087

2.26 ppm) that can be considered as the f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t of aloe vera [2]. In the 1 H NMR of FD sample, a clear<br />

signal <strong>in</strong> the above mentioned ppm range is presented, which shows that dur<strong>in</strong>g freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g the features<br />

of fresh gel concern<strong>in</strong>g the acemannan are rema<strong>in</strong>ed. On the contrary, <strong>in</strong> AD samples, a remarkable<br />

decrease of the signal of acemannan is observed and this decrease is more <strong>in</strong>tense dur<strong>in</strong>g the air dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The absence of signal at 1.33 ppm is a negative <strong>in</strong>dication for the formation of lactic acid, show<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

the air and vacuum processes do not <strong>in</strong>duced enzymatic degradation <strong>in</strong>to aloe vera gel. In Fig. 1 the FT-<br />

IR spectra of FD, VD and AD samples are presented. FTIR spectra of VD and AD samples revealed<br />

remarkable decreases of the bands of 1740 and 1250 cm -1 , which correspond to the C=O and C-O-C<br />

stretches of the acetyl groups, <strong>in</strong> comparison with FD samples.<br />

Figure 1. FT-IR spectra of freeze dried, vacuum dried, and air dried samples<br />

The predom<strong>in</strong>ant m<strong>in</strong>eral elements <strong>in</strong> fresh and dried samples are K, Na, Ca and Mg and secondly Mn,<br />

Fe, Cu, Zn was <strong>in</strong> the range of a few mg/100 g dried material, d.m., whereas the toxic metals like Pb, Cr,<br />

Cd was lower than 1 mg/100 g d.m. <strong>in</strong> all samples. The level of Ca was high <strong>in</strong> all samples. In<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ation with other ions such as, Na, K, and Mg provides an ionic balance for the vascular membrane,<br />

promot<strong>in</strong>g vasorelaxation and a reduction <strong>in</strong> blood pressure [3]. The dry<strong>in</strong>g processes lead to small<br />

differences <strong>in</strong>to m<strong>in</strong>eral content due to differences <strong>in</strong> solubility, through harden<strong>in</strong>g process dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally the P content was at low level unaffected from dry<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Concentration of polysaccharides was affected at some extent from dry<strong>in</strong>g process, such as air and<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g, through detoration of acemannan polysaccharides as the NMR and FT-IR analyses<br />

showed. On the other hand, m<strong>in</strong>erals concentration rema<strong>in</strong>ed practically constant.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] J. H. Hamman, Composition and Applications of Aloe vera Leaf Gel, Molecules, 13 (2008) 1599-1612.<br />

[2] A. Bozzi, C. Perr<strong>in</strong>, S. Aust<strong>in</strong>, F. Arce Vera, Quality and authenticity of commercial aloe vera gel powders, <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 103(2007) 22-30.<br />

[3] M. Miranda, H. Maureira, K. Rodriguez, A. Vega-Galvez, Influence of temperature on the dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics,<br />

physicochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of Aloe Vera (Aloe Barbadensis Miller) gel, Journal of <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>. 91 (2009) 297-304.<br />

2088

Functional foods enriched <strong>in</strong> aloe vera. Effects of vacuum impregnation and temperature<br />

on the respiration rate and the respiratory quotient of some vegetables<br />

Sigrid Sanzana a ; María Luisa Gras a ; Daniel Vidal-Brotóns a<br />

a<br />

Instituto Universitario de Ingeniería de Alimentos para el Desarrollo (IUIAD), Universidad Politécnica<br />

de Valencia, Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong> (mgrasro@tal.upv.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>clusion of physiologically active natural components with beneficial effects on health<br />

strengthens the nutritional value of fresh vegetables. Many scientific studies have been made<br />

about aloe vera and have discovered some potential health benefits of its components. The<br />

vacuum impregnation (VI) technique [1, 2, 3] makes it possible to produce functional foods<br />

from fruits and vegetables, keep<strong>in</strong>g their “fresh” physical and sensorial characteristics and<br />

fortify<strong>in</strong>g their nutritional value, by <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g liquids with dissolved or suspended substances<br />

directly <strong>in</strong>to the vegetable porous structure, <strong>in</strong> a controlled way, allow<strong>in</strong>g fast compositional<br />

changes. Aside from transpiration, respiration is undoubtedly the most important factor<br />

contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the deterioration of vegetables after harvest. Information on respiration rates is<br />

needed for the solution of practical problems concerned with storage and transportation of<br />

fresh or m<strong>in</strong>imally processed vegetables. The objectives of this work were to analyze the<br />

effects (i) of VI, (ii) of the presence of aloe vera <strong>in</strong> VI solutions, and (iii) of temperature, on the<br />

respiration rate and the respiratory quotient of some vegetables.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The vegetables used <strong>in</strong> the experiments were endive (Cichorium <strong>in</strong>tybus L.), cauliflower<br />

(Brassica oleracea var. Italica), broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis L.) and carrot (Daucus<br />

carota L. var. Nantesa).<br />

Vacuum impregnation (VI) experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> a specially designed equipment<br />

[2]. The vacuum period of the VI process was performed at 50 mbar dur<strong>in</strong>g 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes, and<br />

samples rema<strong>in</strong>ed immersed <strong>in</strong>to the solution of impregnation (SI) dur<strong>in</strong>g 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes at<br />

atmospheric pressure. Three types of SI were prepared: SucSI (used as VI reference SI), were<br />

aqueous sucrose solutions, isotonic with each of the four raw materials; AV5SI and AV30SI<br />

were aloe vera aqueous dispersions prepared with 5 g/L and 30 g/L of aloe vera powder,<br />

respectively. CO2 production and O2 consumption were determ<strong>in</strong>ed, and respiratory quotient<br />

calculated, at 5 and 20ºC, for fresh and impregnated vegetables, us<strong>in</strong>g a static procedure [5].<br />

Four groups of samples from each vegetable were obta<strong>in</strong>ed and their respiration rates<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed and compared: F (fresh, not submitted to VI), VISuc (VI with SucSI), VIAV5 and<br />

VIAV30 (VI with AV5SI and AV30SI, respectively).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The amount of VI SI reta<strong>in</strong>ed by the vegetables, expressed as % of samples <strong>in</strong>itial volume, was<br />

37-46% for broccoli, 7.1-15.0% for cauliflower, 17% for endive, and 10.4-14.7% for carrot.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2089

The three controlled factors (VI, presence of aloe vera, and temperature) had significant effects<br />

on the respiration rate and the respiratory quotient of the studied vegetables.<br />

Respiration rate values were lower at 5ºC than at 20ºC.<br />

For vegetables submitted to VI us<strong>in</strong>g the isotonic sucrose solution, and <strong>in</strong> comparison with<br />

fresh samples, respiration rates at 5ºC were higher for broccoli, endive and carrot, but lower for<br />

cauliflower. At 20ºC, they were higher <strong>in</strong> the case of broccoli, endive and cauliflower, but<br />

lower for carrot.<br />

As compared with fresh samples, respiration rates at 5ºC were lower for all vegetables<br />

impregnated us<strong>in</strong>g the SI with 30 g/L of aloe vera powder. At 20ºC, they were lower for<br />

cauliflower, but higher for broccoli, endive and carrot. The values obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the respiratory<br />

quotient were near 1, though the samples impregnated with AV30SI exceeded this value, both<br />

to 5 and to 20ºC.<br />

As an example, Table 1 shows the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the case of broccoli, the most<br />

impregnated of the four studied vegetables.<br />

Treatment<br />

O 2 consumption<br />

mL O 2 kg -1 h -1<br />

Table 1. Respiration data for broccoli<br />

CO2 production<br />

mL CO 2 kg -1 h -1<br />

Respiratory Quotient<br />

5ºC 20ºC 5ºC 20ºC 5ºC 20ºC<br />

F 82 ± 20 82 ± 20 71 ± 17 172 ± 51 0.90 ± 0.05 0.99 ± 0.08<br />

VISuc 148 ± 28 148 ± 28 149 ± 30 258 ± 62 1.00 ± 0.02 1.07 ± 0.06<br />

VIAV5 152 ± 18 152 ± 18 153 ± 13 128 ± 15 1.00 ± 0.02 1.0 ± 0.2<br />

VIAV30 106 ± 5 106 ± 5 105 ± 4 318 ± 40 1.00 ± 0.02 1.03 ± 0.06<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Vacuum impregnation and the presence of aloe vera <strong>in</strong> vacuum impregnation solutions affect<br />

differently the respiration rate and the respiratory quotient of the different studied vegetables.<br />

This must be taken <strong>in</strong>to account regard<strong>in</strong>g the design of <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes of production.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fito P., Chiralt A., Betoret N., Gras M.L., Cháfer M., Martínez-Monzó J., Andrés A. & Vidal D.<br />

2001. Vacuum impregnation and osmotic dehydration <strong>in</strong> matrix eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g: application <strong>in</strong> functional<br />

fresh food development. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 49, 175-183.<br />

[2] Salvatori D., Andrés A., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 1998. The response of some properties of fruits to<br />

vacuum impregnation. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 21, 59-73.<br />

[3] Gras M.L., Vidal D., Betoret N., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 2002. The response of some vegetables to<br />

vacuum impregnation. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science & Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 3, 263-269.<br />

[4] Gras M.L., Vidal D., Betoret N., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 2003. Calcium fortification of vegetables by<br />

vacuum impregnation. Interactions with cellular matrix. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 56(2-3), 279-<br />

284.<br />

[5] Castelló M. L., Fito P. J. & Chiralt A. 2006. Effect of osmotic dehydration and vacuum impregnation<br />

on respiration rate of cut strawberries. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie, 39, 1171-1179.<br />

2090

Production of 4th range Iceberg lettuce enriched with calcium. Evaluation of some<br />

quality parameters<br />

María Luisa Gras a ; Daniel Vidal-Brotóns a ; Fresia Alejandra Vásquez-Forttes a<br />

a<br />

Instituto Universitario de Ingeniería de Alimentos para el Desarrollo (IUIAD), Universidad Politécnica<br />

de Valencia, Valencia, Spa<strong>in</strong> (mgrasro@tal.upv.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

This project is part of an updat<strong>in</strong>g study on the process of production of 4th range Iceberg<br />

lettuce leaves enriched with Ca us<strong>in</strong>g the vacuum impregnation (VI) technique. The objectives<br />

of this work were (i) to verify if it is possible that a 250 g portion of impregnated lettuce leaves<br />

provides the same quantity of Ca (300 mg) as a 250 mL glass of milk, which is the 37.5% of<br />

the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) (800 mg/day), and (ii) to analyze the effects of VI and<br />

of the enrichment with Ca on some quality parameters of the lettuce leaves: water activity (aw),<br />

humidity (water mass fraction, Xw), soluble solids content (Brix), real and apparent densities<br />

(r, a), pH, color (CIEL*a*b* coord<strong>in</strong>ates), mechanical properties (maximum stress and stra<strong>in</strong>,<br />

work performed and number of peaks up to maximum stress), and respiration rate.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Less than 2 days harvested Iceberg lettuces (Lactuca sativa) were used. For the study, three<br />

zones of the whole lettuce leaf were differentiated (on a longitud<strong>in</strong>al axis), because of the<br />

different distribution of the vascular system: apical (A), medium (M) and basal (B). Vacuum<br />

impregnation (VI) experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> a specially designed equipment [1]. The<br />

vacuum period of the VI process was performed at 500 mbar dur<strong>in</strong>g 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes, and samples<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed immersed <strong>in</strong>to the solution of impregnation (SI) dur<strong>in</strong>g 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes at atmospheric<br />

pressure. Two SI (SucSI and CaSI) were prepared. SucSI was a sucrose aqueous solution of the<br />

same aw than lettuce leaves, used as a VI reference SI. CaSI (also isotonic with the raw<br />

material) was prepared with 62.5 g of Ca lactogluconate per liter of water, and presented the<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g characteristics: Ca content = 5.4 g Ca/L; aw = 0.986±0.003; Brix = 4.13±0.03;<br />

density = 1020±4 kg/m 3 ; pH = 7.3±0.1. Three groups of samples from each zone (A, M, B)<br />

were obta<strong>in</strong>ed and their properties compared: F (fresh, not submitted to VI), VISuc (VI with<br />

SucSI), VICa (VI with CaSI). Analytical determ<strong>in</strong>ations were performed as described <strong>in</strong><br />

previous papers [2, 3; 4].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Fresh samples from A, M and B zones showed no differences <strong>in</strong> aw (0.992) and Xw (0.950-<br />

0.953), but differences <strong>in</strong> porosity (A: 6.4±0.4%; M: 6.1±0.8%; B: 5.9±0.2%) confirmed the<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest to carry out the study with leaf zone as a controlled factor.<br />

The operation of VI with CaSI led to obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Iceberg lettuce with a global content of 169 mg<br />

of Ca <strong>in</strong> 250 g of impregnated product (200, 156 and 106 mg, for A, M and B zones,<br />

respectively), that is to say the 21% of the RDI. It is probable that the use of more concentrated<br />

solutions of Ca will allow reach<strong>in</strong>g the objective. A fresher, sh<strong>in</strong>ier product is obta<strong>in</strong>ed without<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2091

present<strong>in</strong>g differences <strong>in</strong> color. Ca enrichment of the vegetable doesn’t affect significantly its<br />

mechanical behavior, though a light <strong>in</strong>crease of the maximum strength and of the shear work<br />

was detected for B samples, probably due to the <strong>in</strong>teraction of Ca with the wall pect<strong>in</strong>s and<br />

cellular membranes that causes a bigger adhesion between the cells. VI with CaSI doesn’t<br />

modify the respiration rates nor the respiratory quotient of the zone A lettuce samples. For zone<br />

M samples, the <strong>in</strong>take of O2 <strong>in</strong>creases lightly, without change <strong>in</strong> the production of CO2,<br />

therefore slightly decreas<strong>in</strong>g the respiratory quotient. For zone B samples, both respiratory<br />

rates <strong>in</strong>crease notably, with an important decrease <strong>in</strong> the respiratory quotient, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

the reaction seems to prevent the fermentative anaerobic routes.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The study shows it seems possible to obta<strong>in</strong> a Ca enriched product that provides the quantity of<br />

said m<strong>in</strong>eral as a glass of milk, be<strong>in</strong>g a possible alternative to dairy products. The <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

application of this process should <strong>in</strong>clude the control of the hydric state of the vegetable<br />

material, with abundant vascular tissue, to <strong>in</strong>crease impregnation capacity and reduce its<br />

variability.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Salvatori D., Andrés A., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 1998. The response of some properties of fruits to<br />

vacuum impregnation. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 21, 59-73.<br />

[2] Gras M.L., Vidal D., Betoret N., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 2002. The response of some vegetables to<br />

vacuum impregnation. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science & Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 3, 263-269.<br />

[3] Gras M.L., Vidal D., Betoret N., Chiralt A. & Fito P. 2003. Calcium fortification of vegetables by<br />

vacuum impregnation. Interactions with cellular matrix. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 56(2-3), 279-<br />

284.<br />

[4] Castelló M. L., Fito P. J. & Chiralt A. 2006. Effect of osmotic dehydration and vacuum impregnation<br />

on respiration rate of cut strawberries. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie, 39, 1171-1179.<br />

2092

Microencapsulation of Probiotic Bacteria with Alg<strong>in</strong>ate and Prebiotic and Evaluation of Survival <strong>in</strong><br />

Ice Cream<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Cynthia Jurkiewicz a , Milena P. M. Boscarioli a , Rubia G. Ferreira a , Eliana P. Ribeiro a , Leo Kunigk a<br />

a Maua Institute of Technology, São Caetano do Sul, Brazil (cynthia@maua.br)<br />

Functional foods are those that promote health benefits beyond basic nutritional functions, when consumed <strong>in</strong> usual<br />

diet. Prebiotics and probiotics are current examples of functional food <strong>in</strong>gredients (1). Probiotics are def<strong>in</strong>ed as live<br />

microorganisms, which adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host. Species of Lactobacillus<br />

and Bifidobacterium, normal components of the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al microbiota, are usually employed <strong>in</strong> many probiotic foods.<br />

Prebiotics are non-digestible food <strong>in</strong>gredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulat<strong>in</strong>g the growth<br />

and/or activity of populations of bacteria <strong>in</strong> the colon. Prebiotics might also enhance the growth and survival of<br />

probiotics <strong>in</strong> foods. Due to de wide range of therapeutic benefits associated with the consumption of probiotic<br />

microorganisms, there has been an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the variety of probiotics foods, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fermented milk, many tips of<br />

cheese, juice, chocolate and also ice cream. Although dairy ice cream seems to be a good vehicle for probiotic cultures<br />

due to its composition and pH near to 6.0, the viability of these microorganisms can be affected by freez<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

and oxygen toxicity. In order to overcome these problems, microencapsulation methods can be applied to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />

survival of probiotic cultures <strong>in</strong> frozen dairy products (2).<br />

The aim of this study was to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of prebiotics, resistant starch and acacia gum, <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />

alg<strong>in</strong>ate beads, on the survival of microencapsulated probiotic bacteria <strong>in</strong> ice cream over a period of 180 days of<br />

storage at -18 º C.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Encapsulation procedure<br />

Freeze-dried Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and Bifidobacterium lactis BI-04, were provided by Danisco, Brazil.<br />

The prebiotics, acacia gum Fibregum B, was provided by Colloides Naturels, Brazil, and resistant starch, Hi Maize<br />

260, was provided by National Starch, Brazil. Alg<strong>in</strong>ate beads were produced us<strong>in</strong>g a modified extrusion technique<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>ally reported by Liserre et al. (3). Solutions of sodium alg<strong>in</strong>ate (1% w/v) conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g approximately 10 9 cfu/mL of<br />

Bifidocacterium lactis and Lactobacillus acidophilus, with or without 2% of prebiotic (acacia gum, or resistant<br />

starch,), were atomized <strong>in</strong> 0.1 M calcium chloride.<br />

Ice cream production and enumeration of probiotic bacteria<br />

Dairy ice cream was formulated with the follow<strong>in</strong>g composition (w/w): 59% of pasteurized milk, 17% cream, 8.0%<br />

skim milk powder, 12% sucrose, 3.0% glucose and guar gum and carrageenan. The mixture was ripened for 24 h at<br />

5 °C and microencapsulated probiotics were added before freez<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to achieve approximately 10 8 cfu . g -1 . As<br />

controls, ice cream with free probiotics and microencapsulated probiotics without prebiotics were produced. Each type<br />

of ice-cream was produced <strong>in</strong> triplicate.<br />

The enumerations of probiotic microorganisms were performed before freez<strong>in</strong>g and at 1, 30, 60, 90,120 and 180 days<br />

of storage at -18°C. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan test were applied for determ<strong>in</strong>ation of significant<br />

difference (p < 0.05) between means of cell counts.<br />

Sensory analyses<br />

Sensory analysis to compare ice cream with free microorganisms (SA) and ice cream with microorganisms<br />

encapsulated <strong>in</strong> calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate (SB) was performed with 74 untra<strong>in</strong>ed panelists us<strong>in</strong>g a 9 po<strong>in</strong>ts hedonic scale (1 =<br />

dislike extremely and 9 = like extremely). The sensory data were analyzed by ANOVA.<br />

Physical and chemical analysis<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2093

The mean composition of ice creams (dry matter, ash, fat and prote<strong>in</strong> content) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g with standard<br />

methods (4). All measurements were replicated four times. The pH and overrun were also determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Bifidobacterium lactis counts had no significant reduction (p > 0.05) after freez<strong>in</strong>g and dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at -18ºC of all<br />

types of ice creams. Encapsulation <strong>in</strong> calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate with and without prebiotics (acacia gum and resistant starch)<br />

had no effect on survival of B. lactis <strong>in</strong> ice cream. At the end of 180 days of storage, ice cream with free<br />

microorganism revealed mean counts of B. lactis of 8.19 ± 0.06 log cfu/g, and no significant difference (p > 0.05) were<br />

detected between population of B. lactis <strong>in</strong> ice cream with free and encapsulated bacteria. With regard to L.<br />

acidophilus population, no significant reduction (p> 0.05) dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g of ice cream was observed for all types of<br />

ice creams. However, L. acidophilus counts was significantly reduced (p < 0.05), by approximately 0.6 Log cfu/g,<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g 180 days of storage at – 18ºC <strong>in</strong> all types of ice creams. Although significant differences (p < 0.05) were<br />

detected between L. acidophilus counts <strong>in</strong> ice cream with free and encapsulated microorganisms on days 120, 150 and<br />

180, the difference were less than 0.5 Log cfu/g. To provide health benefits, a m<strong>in</strong>imum of 10 6 -10 7 cfu g -1 of probiotic<br />

bacteria must be presented <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong> the moment of consumption (FAO). After 180 days of storage, the number of B.<br />

lactis and L. acidophilus <strong>in</strong> all types of ice creams were above 10 8 and 10 7 cfu/g, respectively. This results shows that<br />

the dairy ice cream is an adequate vehicle for probiotic <strong>in</strong>corporation even without microencapsulation of<br />

microorganisms. Contrary to what was observed <strong>in</strong> the present study, Homayouni et al. (5) reported that encapsulation<br />

<strong>in</strong> calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>creased approximately 30% the survival of L. acidophilus and B. lactis <strong>in</strong> ice cream stored for<br />

180 days at -20ºC. However <strong>in</strong> the present study the overrun value was 41%, while <strong>in</strong> Hamayouni et al. (5), the overrun<br />

was 95%. The greater <strong>in</strong>corporation of air could be responsible for the decrease of viable counts of free<br />

microorganisms <strong>in</strong> ice cream dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. The high rate of survival of probiotic microorganisms <strong>in</strong> this study,<br />

especially free cells, can be justified by the high total solids (33.6%), prote<strong>in</strong> (3.4%) and fat (6.7%), that could protect<br />

or even encapsulate the probiotics. Furthermore, the ice cream pH (6.28), is considered favorable for the survival of<br />

probiotic microorganisms. The sensory score (mean of 74 panelists) of ice cream with free probiotics and ice cream<br />

with encapsulated probiotic was 7.61 and 7.75, respectively. Encapsulation had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on<br />

sensorial acceptability of probiotic ice cream.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study showed that encapsulation of Bifidobacterium lactis and Lactobacillus acidophilus <strong>in</strong> calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate and<br />

<strong>in</strong> calcium alg<strong>in</strong>ate with acacia gum or resistant starch did not <strong>in</strong>terfere <strong>in</strong> the survival of microorganisms <strong>in</strong> ice cream<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g 180 days of storage at -18ºC. Moreover encapsulation had no effect on sensorial acceptability of probiotic ice<br />

cream. The numbers of probiotic bacteria <strong>in</strong> all types of ice cream were above 10 7 cfu/g at the end of 180 days of<br />

storage. Dairy ice cream can be considered a suitable vehicle for <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g probiotic microorganisms.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Siró, I.; Kápolna, E.; Kápolna, B.; Lugasi, A.; 2008. Functional food. Product development, market<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

consumer acceptance – a review. Appetite, 51(3), 456 – 467.<br />

[2] Anal, K. A.; S<strong>in</strong>gh, H. 2007. Recent advances <strong>in</strong> microencapsulation of probiotics for <strong>in</strong>dustrial applications and<br />

targeted delivery. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology, 18, 240-251.<br />

[3] Lisere, A.M; Ré, M.I.; Franco, B.D.G.M. 2007. Microencapsulation of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis <strong>in</strong><br />

modified alg<strong>in</strong>ate-chitosan beads and evaluation of survival <strong>in</strong> simulated gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al conditions. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Biotechnology, 21(1), 1-16.<br />

[4] Instituto Adolfo Lutz. Métodos físico-químicos para análise de alimentos. 4. ed. Brasília, DF: M<strong>in</strong>istério da Saúde,<br />

2005. p.1018.<br />

2094

The <strong>in</strong>fluence of operational parameters <strong>in</strong> the pect<strong>in</strong> agglomeration<br />

Talita Akemi Medeiros Hirata a , Vanessa Goulart Machado b , Gustavo César Dacanal c , Florencia Cecília<br />

Menegalli a,b<br />

a,b<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, FEA - UNICAMP, 13083-970, Camp<strong>in</strong>as,<br />

São Paulo, Brazil (fcm@fa.unicamp.br)<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of São Paulo, FZEA - USP, 13635-900, Pirassununga, São<br />

Paulo, Brazil. (gdacanal@usp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The agglomeration is usually carried out at equipment where the powder is wetted by a liquid<br />

that promotes adhesion between a particle and the other by l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g bridges, lead<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

formation of larger particles [1]. Fluid bed agglomeration is commonly used to improve the<br />

<strong>in</strong>stant properties of f<strong>in</strong>e and cohesive food powders. However, the fluidization of f<strong>in</strong>e and<br />

cohesive particles is characterized by cracks and channels. The pulsed fluid bed has some<br />

advantages over the conventional fluid bed equipment, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g easy fluidization of irregular<br />

particles of different sizes [2, 3, 4]. Pect<strong>in</strong> is widely used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustries as a gell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agent and has been used <strong>in</strong> powder form. Thus, the aim of this work was to study the <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

of some operational parameters <strong>in</strong> the agglomeration process of pect<strong>in</strong> and to determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

optimal process conditions which lead to a higher size <strong>in</strong>crease.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The product used <strong>in</strong> this study was commercial high ester pect<strong>in</strong>, extracted from citrus peel,<br />

(brand Genu type 105 rapid set CP Kelco). The runs were performed <strong>in</strong> a pulsed fluidized bed.<br />

The experimental runs were done accord<strong>in</strong>g to a full factorial design 2 4 . The <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

variables at the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terval levels were: fluidiz<strong>in</strong>g air temperature (60 to 90 °C),<br />

fluidiz<strong>in</strong>g air velocity (0.36 to 0.68 m/s), b<strong>in</strong>der flow rate (0.0 to 1.6 ml/m<strong>in</strong>) and air pulsation<br />

frequency (0 to 800 rpm). The dependent variables or experimental responses were: process<br />

yield (Yld), calculated as the ratio between the mass of samples of raw and agglomerated<br />

product; product moisture (Mst), powder samples were dried under vacuum at 70 ° C until the<br />

weight becomes constant; flow<strong>in</strong>g out fluidiz<strong>in</strong>g air relative humidity (rhout), obta<strong>in</strong>ed from wet<br />

and dry bulb temperatures measurement; and mean particle diameter (dpm) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the equivalent diameter, calculated by the projected area of the particles. The m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />

fluidiz<strong>in</strong>g air velocity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed visually observ<strong>in</strong>g the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of movement of the<br />

bed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results of the experimental design were statistically analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g the software<br />

STATISTICA v.7.0 (StatSoft, Inc., USA). The results for mean particle diameter showed that<br />

the b<strong>in</strong>der flow rate is the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependent variable that <strong>in</strong>fluences the results. When b<strong>in</strong>der<br />

flow rate was higher the particles surface become most sticky, then the adhesion mechanisms<br />

were enhanced. Lower temperatures of dry<strong>in</strong>g that preserves higher moisture content of<br />

particle surfaces and higher b<strong>in</strong>der flow provide higher adhesion among a greater number of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2095

particles, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the diameter of the cluster formed at these conditions. The statistical<br />

analysis for air pulsation frequency did not show significant effects on responses, when<br />

compared with others <strong>in</strong>dependent variables. In relation to the raw material, the mean particle<br />

diameter <strong>in</strong>creased from 59.28 μm to 259.15 μm. The product moisture rema<strong>in</strong>ed low at 7.96%<br />

db, but higher than the moisture content of the raw material (6.7% db.). <strong>Process</strong> yield was<br />

above 80% and the flow<strong>in</strong>g out fluidiz<strong>in</strong>g air relative humidity rema<strong>in</strong>ed low (51.2%). The<br />

distribution of particle size can be observed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />

Figure 1. Experimental and simulated time temperature profile.<br />

Figure 1. Particle size distribution for raw material and product cluster obta<strong>in</strong>ed at optimum process.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It can be concluded that the variable most important was the flow of b<strong>in</strong>der, s<strong>in</strong>ce the higher<br />

values provokes higher process yields (81.85%), <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> particle size. Moreover, the<br />

product loss for <strong>in</strong>crustation on the wall of the bed and lump formation at conditions tested can<br />

be considered negligible due to the moisture content of the particles rema<strong>in</strong> at a low value.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ax, K., Feise, H., Sochon, R., Hounslow, M., Salman, A. 2008. Influence of liquid b<strong>in</strong>der dispersion<br />

on agglomeration <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tensive mixer. Powder Technology, 179, 190-194.<br />

[2] Dacanal, G.C. 2009. Agglomeration of acerola powder and soy prote<strong>in</strong> isolate <strong>in</strong> a conical pulsedfluid<br />

bed. PhD Thesis, College of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, UNICAMP, Brazil,<br />

202p.<br />

[3] Gawrzynski, Z.; Glaser, R.; Kudra, T. 1999. Dry<strong>in</strong>g of powdery materials <strong>in</strong> a pulsed fluid bed dryer.<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 17 (7-8), 1523–1532.<br />

[4] Reyes, A., N. Herrera and R. Vega 2008, Dry<strong>in</strong>g suspensions <strong>in</strong> a pulsed fluidized bed of <strong>in</strong>ert<br />

particles. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 26, 122-131.<br />

2096

Antioxidant activity of microcapsules of Rubus sp. juice us<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Jimenez M. a , Azuara E. a , Vernon-Carter J. b , Luna-Solano G. c , Berista<strong>in</strong> C.I. a<br />

a Instituto de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa Ver, México (maribjimenez@uv.mx)<br />

b Universidad Autónoma de México, Distrito Federal, México<br />

c DEPI, Instituto Tecnológico de Orizaba, Orizaba, Veracruz, México<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Blackberries (Rubus fruticosus) conta<strong>in</strong> large amounts of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s, and these flavonoid<br />

pigments give blackberries their characteristic red to blue color [1]. There are many factors<br />

which affect the stability and <strong>in</strong>tensity of colorants dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g and storage. It is reported<br />

that its stability is affected dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g and storage [2]; therefore encapsulation by spray<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g was used to avoid the colorant degradation. The storage stability of powdered<br />

antioxidants for extended periods is of <strong>in</strong>terest to manufacturers and consumers of food<br />

packaged for long-term storage. In view of the forego<strong>in</strong>g, the objective of the present work was<br />

to develop and characterize a powder by spray dry<strong>in</strong>g that is derived from Rubus fruticosus<br />

juice and to evaluate its antioxidant stability.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The fruits were purchased at three of the local markets dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter and transferred to the<br />

University. The total solid content and pH was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOAC [3]. Juice was<br />

added at a 1:3 ratio (w/w) with respect to the GA conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the solution. The mixture was<br />

homogenized and then it was dried <strong>in</strong> a M<strong>in</strong>i Spray Dryer model Büchi 190 with <strong>in</strong>let and<br />

outlet air temperatures of 160 + 5 °C and 90 + 5 °C, respectively. The anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s content<br />

was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to Elisia et al. [4]. The L, a, b color values of the samples were<br />

measured us<strong>in</strong>g a spectral photometer (Color Flex CX1115 HunterLab USA). The moisture<br />

content of the powder was determ<strong>in</strong>ed gravimetrically by oven-dry<strong>in</strong>g at 60 º C until constant<br />

weight was atta<strong>in</strong>ed [3]. The antioxidant properties were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by DPPH radical<br />

scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity, redox potential, reduc<strong>in</strong>g power and optical density [5-7]. The samples<br />

were exam<strong>in</strong>ed by a JSM-5600LV scann<strong>in</strong>g electron microscope.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The characteristics from Rubus juice are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. In the present work, the pH for the<br />

natural juice of fruit was 3.8 and 4.5 for the capsules. The soluble solids <strong>in</strong> the natural juice<br />

were 15 %. The anthocyan<strong>in</strong> content was similar to that reported for others authors (420 mg/L).<br />

The antioxidant activity express by DPPH radical activity was 75%. The results obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

showed that there was a dim<strong>in</strong>ution of 74% <strong>in</strong> the antioxidant activity when samples were<br />

encapsulated. In regard to the concentration of antocian<strong>in</strong>s a decrement of 66% was observed<br />

<strong>in</strong> the concentration <strong>in</strong> microcapsules (280 mg/L) compared with the natural juice of Rubus sp.<br />

On the other hand, the redox potential <strong>in</strong> juice (480 mV) was similar to microcapsules (450<br />

mV), thus <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the probable formation of compounds able to promote the transference of<br />

electrons. Reduc<strong>in</strong>g power was similar <strong>in</strong> juice and microcapsules, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a good<br />

antioxidant activity for microcapsules obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2097

Table 1 Initial values of analysis performed on natural Rubus sp. juice and capsules obta<strong>in</strong>ed by aspersion<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation Juice Capsules<br />

Total solid content<br />

Moisture content (%)<br />

Water activity<br />

% antioxidative activity (DPPH)<br />

pH<br />

Reduc<strong>in</strong>g power<br />

15<br />

85<br />

0.997<br />

75<br />

3.80<br />

0.82<br />

30<br />

11<br />

0.576<br />

56<br />

4.50<br />

0.987<br />

Anthocyan<strong>in</strong> concentration (mg/L) 420 280<br />

Redox Potential (mV)<br />

480<br />

450<br />

Polyphenol content (mg/100 g)<br />

850<br />

1230<br />

Color L*=7.92<br />

L*=3.78<br />

a* = 16<br />

a* = 8.50<br />

b* = 4.9<br />

b* = 2.35<br />

The microcapsules were equilibrated at water activity of 0.576 and exhibited a very good<br />

homogeneous morphology: spherical shaped, smooth surfaced particles that varied greatly <strong>in</strong><br />

size and were free of visible cracks and pores. The presence of surface dents may be due to<br />

uneven shr<strong>in</strong>kage dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present study <strong>in</strong>dicates that the fruit from Rubus sp. is rich source of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>, phenols<br />

and antioxidants, demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g its potential use as a food additive. Spray dry<strong>in</strong>g and the used<br />

of Gum Arabic as wall material provid<strong>in</strong>g an effective protection to antioxidant compounds<br />

present <strong>in</strong> Rubus sp. juice. Therefore, the microcapsules described <strong>in</strong> this study represent an<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g food additive for <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to functional foods, both as an antioxidant and as a<br />

colorant.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Koca I. & Karadeniz B. 2009. Antioxidant properties of blackberry fruit grown <strong>in</strong> the black sea<br />

region of turkey. Scientia Horticulturae, 121, 447-450.<br />

[2] Attoe E.L. & von Elbe J.H. 1982. Degradation k<strong>in</strong>etics of betan<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> solutions as <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />

oxygen. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 30, 708-712.<br />

[3] AOAC. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis, CUNNIF, P. (Ed). Association of Official<br />

Analytical Chemists <strong>International</strong>, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, Virg<strong>in</strong>ia, USA.<br />

[4] Elisia I., Hu C., Popovich D. & Kitts D. 2007. Antioxidant assessment of an anthocyn<strong>in</strong>enriched<br />

blackberry extract. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 101, 1052-1058.<br />

[5] Kitts D.D., Wijewickreme A.N. & Hu C. 2000. Antioxidant properties of a North American<br />

g<strong>in</strong>seng extract. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 203, 1–10.<br />

[6] Manzocco L., Anese M. & Nicoli C. 1998. Antioxidant properties of tea extracts as affected by<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g. Lebensmittel Wissenchaft und Technologie, 31, 694-698.<br />

[7] Oyaizu M. 1986. Studies on products of brown<strong>in</strong>g reaction prepared from glucose am<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Japanese Journal of Nutrition, 44, 307-315.<br />

2098

Novel ways to control enzymatic hydrolysis as a tool to produce functional peptides<br />

Elena Leeb a , Ulrich Kulozik b , Seronei Cheison a<br />

a<br />

Technische Universität München, Junior Research Group: Bioactive Peptides and Prote<strong>in</strong> Technology,<br />

Freis<strong>in</strong>g Weihenstephan, Germany (Elena.Leeb@wzw.tum.de)<br />

b<br />

Technische Universität München, Chair for <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and Dairy Technology, Freis<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Weihenstephan, Germany<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

To date, processes to obta<strong>in</strong> and enrich functional peptides <strong>in</strong> several foods are not feasible, though<br />

different milk prote<strong>in</strong>s are known to be potential sources for functional peptides. Particularly -<br />

Lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> (-Lg) is a source for several peptides with different biofunctionalities like<br />

antibacterial and hypocholesterolemic activity as well as angiotens<strong>in</strong>-I convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme (ACE)<strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

properties . Currently, the release of peptides by means of enzymatic hydrolysis results <strong>in</strong><br />

a mixture of numerous different peptides. A new approach to control enzymatic hydrolysis to<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease the release of desired peptides is the pre-treatment of the substrate. Thereby conformational<br />

changes with<strong>in</strong> the prote<strong>in</strong> structure prevent the hydrolysis of undesired, and <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />

accessibility of the enzyme to desired peptide bonds. The <strong>in</strong>fluence of conformational changes<br />

<strong>in</strong>duced by high hydrostatic pressure [1] and thermal treatment [2] on the hydrolysis performance<br />

has already been <strong>in</strong>vestigated. However, to date there is still no specific <strong>in</strong>formation about a thermal<br />

pre-treatment of the substrate on the released peptides dur<strong>in</strong>g hydrolysis.<br />

Therefore the aim of this study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the <strong>in</strong>fluence of thermal denaturation of -Lg on<br />

the release of functional peptides by subsequent controlled enzymatic hydrolysis.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Bov<strong>in</strong>e -Lg with a purity of 95.7 % was prepared out of whey prote<strong>in</strong> isolate as described by<br />

Gezan-Guizou et al. [3] us<strong>in</strong>g an optimised method. Aqueous -Lg solutions (50 g/L) were adjusted<br />

to pH 8 and completely denatured by thermal treatment at 80°C. The native as well as the denatured<br />

-Lg was hydrolysed with tryps<strong>in</strong> (T9201 from bov<strong>in</strong>e pancreas, activity of 7500 units/mg solid,<br />

Sigma-Aldrich) at the enzyme optimal conditions (38°C, pH 8) with an Enzyme-to-Substrate-Ratio<br />

= 0,1 %. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the hydrolysis experiments the pH was kept constant by addition of 0.5 M NaOH<br />

and thus, the Degree of Hydrolysis (DH) could be calculated, based on the consumption of Base [4].<br />

The peptide composition of the sampled aliquots at DH 1 %, 5 % and maximum possible DH<br />

(DH max) were analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight tandem mass<br />

spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS/MS) as already described <strong>in</strong> our earlier work [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

It was shown that thermal denaturation of -Lg at pH 8 results <strong>in</strong> the formation of the so-called nonnative<br />

monomers. At subsequent tryptic hydrolysis of the native and the non-native -Lg monomers,<br />

differences <strong>in</strong> the released peptides were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The MS analysis exhibited that denaturation<br />

decreased the susceptibility of Tryps<strong>in</strong> to possible cleavage sites dur<strong>in</strong>g the hydrolysis. Look<strong>in</strong>g at<br />

the order of cleaved peptide bonds with<strong>in</strong> the native prote<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g tryptic hydrolysis, no<br />

exceptional specificity towards <strong>in</strong>dividual peptide bonds could be estimated. In contrast,<br />

denaturation led to the restricted cleavage of the peptide bonds Arg 40 , Lys 69 , Lys 70 , Lys 141 and Arg 148<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2099

at DH 1%. This limitation can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the unfold<strong>in</strong>g of the monomer and the <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

exposure of these regions. Due to these thermal <strong>in</strong>duced structural changes the peptide f(142-148)<br />

with known ACE <strong>in</strong>hibitory activity was released already at the outset of hydrolysis.<br />

Table 1. Identified cleaved peptide bonds with<strong>in</strong> the native and non-native monomer of -Lg<br />

Tryps<strong>in</strong> specific<br />

cleavage sites<br />

Identified cleaved peptide bonds with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

native -Lg monomer non-native -Lg monomer<br />

DH 1 % DH 5 % DHmax DH 1 % DH 5 % DHmax<br />

Lys 8 <br />

Lys 14 <br />

Arg 40 <br />

Lys 47 <br />

Lys 60 <br />

Lys 69 <br />

Lys 70 <br />

Lys 75 <br />

Lys 77 <br />

Lys 83 <br />

Lys 91 <br />

Lys 100 <br />

Lys 101 <br />

Arg 124 <br />

Lys 135 <br />

Lys 138 <br />

Lys 141 <br />

Arg 148 <br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results of this study demonstrate that a thermal pre-treatment of -Lg is an effective way to<br />

control and steer enzymatic hydrolysis. By appropriate choice of denaturation conditions the<br />

accessibility of the enzyme to <strong>in</strong>dividual peptide bonds can be controlled and thereby the release of<br />

desired peptides promoted.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] J.C. Knudsen, J. Otte, K. Olsen, L.H. Skibsted. 2002. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on the conformation of<br />

[beta]-lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> A as assessed by proteolytic peptide profil<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 10, 791–803. [2] N.<br />

Stanciuc, A. H<strong>in</strong>toiu, S. Stanciu, G. Rapeanu. 2010. Thermal treatment can modify the susceptibility of whey prote<strong>in</strong><br />

concentrate to enzymatic hydrolysis. Innovative Romanian <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology, Vol. 7, Issue of September, 30–36. [3]<br />

G. Gesan-Guiziou, G. Dauf<strong>in</strong>, M. Timmer, D. Allersma, C. van der Horst. 1999. <strong>Process</strong> steps for the preparation of<br />

purified fractions of -lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> from whey prote<strong>in</strong> concentrates. Journal of Dairy Research, 02, 225–236. [4] J.<br />

Adler-Nissen. Enzymic hydrolysis of food prote<strong>in</strong>s, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers; Sole distributor <strong>in</strong> the USA<br />

and Canada; Elsevier Science Pub. Co., London ;, New York, New York, NY, USA. 1986. [5] S.C. Cheison, M.-Y.<br />

Lai, E. Leeb, U. Kulozik. 2011. Hydrolysis of [beta]-lactoglobul<strong>in</strong> by tryps<strong>in</strong> under acidic pH and analysis of the<br />

hydrolysates with MALDI-TOF-MS/MS. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 4, 1241–1248.<br />

2100

Influence of the structure and composition of the País grape proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s on the<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme<br />

Susana Godoy, Marlene Roeckel, Estrella Aspé, Kather<strong>in</strong>a Fernández<br />

Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, University of Concepción, Chile (kfernandeze@udec.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Previous works developed <strong>in</strong> our laboratory showed that the País grapes from the Itata Valley,<br />

Chile, have high amounts of Proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s (PAs) when compared with another varieties,<br />

like Carmenere or P<strong>in</strong>ot Noir [1]. The PAs are located ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> the sk<strong>in</strong> and seeds of the<br />

grapes and they are phenolic compounds of high complexity, with molecular weight over 500.<br />

They are part of the flavonols family and are polymers composed by flavan-3-ol subunits<br />

connected by C-C bonds. Their sizes get higher as the grape gets mature, and it has be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

reported that their bioactive properties are determ<strong>in</strong>ate by molecular composition and size [2].<br />

A bioactivity reported for the PAs had been the <strong>in</strong>hibitory effect on Angiotens<strong>in</strong>-Convert<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Enzyme, ACE [3]. The understand<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>in</strong>fluence of PAs composition and size on ACE<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition by PAs is still not very clear. This <strong>in</strong>formation is highly relevant when try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ate the <strong>in</strong>hibition mechanism and to enhance its use and to develop a natural medic<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> objective of this work was to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the number of subunits (mDP)<br />

and the type of subunits (C, EC, ECG, EGC) of the PAs extracted from the seed and sk<strong>in</strong> of<br />

País grapes over ACE activity, for which the PAs of different molecular sizes present <strong>in</strong> the<br />

seed and sk<strong>in</strong> extracts were separated, then the composition and size of each group was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ate, after which their <strong>in</strong>hibitory activity over ACE was confirmed and determ<strong>in</strong>ate, to<br />

f<strong>in</strong>ally f<strong>in</strong>d dependences between the fractions properties and their <strong>in</strong>hibitory ability.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The grapes were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Quillón Valley, Bio Bio Region, Chile. The PAs extraction was<br />

based on Villarroel [1]. Both extracts were separately <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to a gel permeation<br />

chromatography column packed with Toyopearl HW-40F res<strong>in</strong>, follow<strong>in</strong>g the protocol<br />

described by Kennedy and Taylor [4]. Five fractions from sk<strong>in</strong> and 5 fractions from seeds were<br />

isolated, which were concentrated <strong>in</strong> rotary evaporator, and lyophilized to a dry powder for<br />

further analysis (Labconco, Freezer Dry System, USA). The composition of each fraction was<br />

study by acid-catalysis <strong>in</strong> the presence of excess Phlorogluc<strong>in</strong>ol. The PAs <strong>in</strong>hibition on ACE<br />

(Sigma-Aldrich, rabbit-lung ACE; A6778, USA) was carried out, test<strong>in</strong>g crude extracts, each<br />

purified fraction and Enalapril Maleato (Laboratorios Chile, Enalapril Maleato 10mg, Chile) as<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitors.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The PAs <strong>in</strong>hibitory capacity over ACE was studied by determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the IC50 (μM) by data<br />

extrapolation. Then, the activity of each fraction was related to their mDP and structural<br />

characteristics. For the sk<strong>in</strong> fractions (Table 1), it can be observed that FP-A and FP-B were<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2101

the less effective <strong>in</strong>hibitors, while the higher polymers had an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

capacity. In relation to composition, it can be noticed an <strong>in</strong>verse correlation between the<br />

amount of C and the <strong>in</strong>hibitory capacity of the fractions and a strong predom<strong>in</strong>ance of the EC<br />

and EGC subunits <strong>in</strong> the fractions with higher mDP, which could contribute to its better<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitory ability, s<strong>in</strong>ce this last mentioned monomer has be<strong>in</strong>g reported form strong<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions with prote<strong>in</strong>s because of its 3 hydroxyl groups.<br />

Table 1. IC 50 of each fraction related to their subunits compositions and mDP for sk<strong>in</strong> fractions.<br />

IC 50<br />

(μM)<br />

mDP<br />

Extension subunits<br />

(phlorogluc<strong>in</strong>ol adducts)<br />

Term<strong>in</strong>a subunits<br />

EGC C EC ECG C EC ECG<br />

FP-A 4.108 2.49 8.0 6.6 45.0 0.0 40.32 0.0 0.0<br />

FP-B 7.208 2.7 10.3 5.7 47.2 0.0 36.67 0.0 0.0<br />

FP-C 0.014 9.4 14.9 3.5 67.6 10.7 3.43 0.0 0.0<br />

FP-D 0.048 16.14 26.0 1.4 66.3 0.0 6.20 0.0 0.0<br />

FP-E 0.0164 58.85 30.8 1.6 65.9 0.0 1.70 0.0 0.0<br />

When compar<strong>in</strong>g seed and sk<strong>in</strong> fraction, fractions FP-B and FS-B with similar mDP, the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

difference was the amount of EC, be<strong>in</strong>g higher <strong>in</strong> the last one. Also, this sample had the better<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitory capacity, which can <strong>in</strong>dicate a relation between both factors. For the chemical<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitor Enalapril, a commonly used antihypertensive medic<strong>in</strong>e, on ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition, the results<br />

show an EC50=0.107 μM value of <strong>in</strong>hibitory capacity higher than the small fractions (FP-A,<br />

FP-B and FS-A), similar to the medium-sized fractions (FS-B and FS-C) and worst than the big<br />

fractions (FP-C, FP-D, FP-E, FS-D and FS-E).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

All the fractions obta<strong>in</strong>ed from sk<strong>in</strong> and seed extract of País grapes had a verified <strong>in</strong>hibitory<br />

activity over ACE, be<strong>in</strong>g the FP-C the most effective one.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Villarroel M. 2009. Caracterización del contenido de Proantocianid<strong>in</strong>as en las uvas País Negra (Vitis<br />

v<strong>in</strong>ífera L) del Valle del Itata. Memoria de Titulo en Departamento de Ingeniería Química,<br />

Universidad de Concepción: Concepción. p. 63.<br />

[2] B<strong>in</strong>don K.A., Smith P.A., Holt H., Kennedy J.A. 2010. Interaction between Grape-Derived<br />

Proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s and Cell Wall Material. 2. Implications for V<strong>in</strong>ification. Journal of Agricultural<br />

and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 58(19), 10736-10746.<br />

[3] Actis-Goretta L., Ottaviani J.I. & Fraga C.G. 2006. Inhibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme<br />

activity by flavanol-rich foods. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 54(1), 229-234.<br />

[4] Kennedy J.A. & Taylor A.W. 2003. Analysis of proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s by high-performance gel<br />

permeation chromatography. J Chromatogr A, 995(1-2), 99-107.<br />

2102

K<strong>in</strong>etic characterization of <strong>in</strong>hibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme by<br />

proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s extracted from vitis v<strong>in</strong>ífera L. cv. País<br />

Karen Álvarez, Marlene Roeckel, Estrella Aspé, Kather<strong>in</strong>a Fernández<br />

Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile (kfernandeze@udec.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Hypertension is considered one of the most important and common global public health,<br />

associated to high mortality affect<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly the developed countries. Its treatment usually<br />

<strong>in</strong>volves pharmaceutical drugs to control the patient's systemic change, where specific<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitors of angiotens<strong>in</strong>-convert<strong>in</strong>g enzyme (ACE) are used [1]. The existence of ACE<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitors from natural foods, rich <strong>in</strong> phenolic compounds, have been demonstrated,<br />

specifically flavan-3-ols [2]. The flavan-3-ols polymerized to form the proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s<br />

(PAs), which are cha<strong>in</strong>s of monomers catech<strong>in</strong>, epicatech<strong>in</strong> and gallic acid esters [3]. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />

objective of this study was to characterize the ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition type us<strong>in</strong>g extracts rich <strong>in</strong> PAs<br />

from grape Vitis v<strong>in</strong>ifera L. País obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the sk<strong>in</strong> and seed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The sk<strong>in</strong> and seeds of 200 grapes were manually separated and extracted separately <strong>in</strong><br />

Erlenmeyer flasks with 250 mL of acetone: water (2:1 v/v) for 15 h with cont<strong>in</strong>uous stirr<strong>in</strong>g at<br />

35 °C and <strong>in</strong> the absence of light to reduce oxidation. The raw extracts were purified separately<br />

by size exclusion chromatography us<strong>in</strong>g as pack<strong>in</strong>g Toyopearl HW-40F res<strong>in</strong>. The k<strong>in</strong>etics<br />

assays of ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition by PAs purified extracts from sk<strong>in</strong> and grape seed, were performed as<br />

follows: a 50 mM buffer Tris-HCl was used with 300 mM NaCl and pH 8.3 to prepare a<br />

reaction volume consist<strong>in</strong>g of an aliquot of 60L of HHL (0.5-5 mM) and 10L of ACE mixed<br />

with sk<strong>in</strong> or seed extract (60L, 0-1 mg/mL), pre-<strong>in</strong>cubated separately for 10 m<strong>in</strong>utes at 37 °C.<br />

Reaction was carried out <strong>in</strong> polyethylene tubes of 1.5 mL, the HHL was added to the ACE<br />

mixture and kept for 80 m<strong>in</strong>utes at 37 °C. The reaction was stopped with 170 L of HCl (1 M)<br />

and the samples filtered with PTFE disposable filters (0.45 m). The analysis was performed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a previously described HPLC method [4]. The data were adjusted to l<strong>in</strong>earization of<br />

Michaelis Menten k<strong>in</strong>etic and they were evaluated by equation L<strong>in</strong>eweaver-Burk, Eadie-<br />

Hofstee and Lagmuir.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The experimental data for seed and sk<strong>in</strong> extracts were adjusted to Michaelis Menten k<strong>in</strong>etic<br />

model, Figure 1A y Figure 1B, respectively. The plots showed a dose-dependent behaviour <strong>in</strong><br />

which the HA production <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g of substrate concentration. Also, for both<br />

extracts when <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the PA concentration a higher ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition was observed, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />

curves were positioned under the control curve (assay performed without <strong>in</strong>hibitor). It can be<br />

seen that the sk<strong>in</strong> extract (B) <strong>in</strong>hibited more than the seed (A), show<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itial rates under 1.4<br />

(uM HA/m<strong>in</strong>) versus 1.7 (uM HA/m<strong>in</strong>), respectively.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2103

Figure 1. Data adjusted to Michaelis Menten k<strong>in</strong>etic on ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition k<strong>in</strong>etics by (A) seed and (B) sk<strong>in</strong><br />

extracts. Inhibitor concentrations of (+) control, () 0.001 mg/mL, () 0.005 mg/mL, (×)0.01 mg/mL,<br />

() 0.1mg/mL and () 1mg/mL<br />

L<strong>in</strong>ear adjustments of the three models predicted a mixed <strong>in</strong>hibition for both extracts, s<strong>in</strong>ce a<br />

variation considerable <strong>in</strong> the maximum enzyme rate (vmaxapp), and <strong>in</strong> the Michaellis-Menten<br />

constant (Kmapp) was observed. Thus, <strong>in</strong> the range of concentration studied, the <strong>in</strong>hibitor (PAs)<br />

affected both k<strong>in</strong>etic parameters.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study showed a mixed k<strong>in</strong>etic <strong>in</strong>hibition for seed and sk<strong>in</strong> extracts on ACE <strong>in</strong>hibition. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition constants (Km y vmax) were <strong>in</strong> the same range and comparable to previous studies.<br />

These results might <strong>in</strong>dicate that PAs from this grape variety allows an adequate <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />

with ACE due to the PAs cha<strong>in</strong> size and conformation. It was established that sk<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>hibits<br />

much better than the seed for their structural differences and availability of OH groups.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Chobanian A.V., Bakris G.L., Black H.R., et al. 2003. Seventh Report of the Jo<strong>in</strong>t National<br />

Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure.<br />

Hypertension, 42, 1206-1252.<br />

[2] Actis-Goretta L., Ottaviani J.I., Keen C.L. & Fraga C.G. 2003. Inhibition of angiotens<strong>in</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g<br />

enzyme (ACE) activity by flavan-3-ols and procyanid<strong>in</strong>s. Febs Letters, 555, 597-600.<br />

[3] Schofield P., Mbugua D.M., & Pell A.N. 2001. Analysis of condensed tann<strong>in</strong>s: a review. Animal<br />

Feed Science and Technology, 91, 21-40.<br />

[4] Eriz G., Sanhueza V., Roeckel M., & Fernández K. 2011. Inhibition of the angiotens<strong>in</strong>-convert<strong>in</strong>g<br />

enzyme by grape seed and sk<strong>in</strong> proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s extracted from Vitis v<strong>in</strong>ífera L. cv. País. LWT-<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology. LWT - <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology 44, 860-865.<br />

2104<br />

A<br />

B

Enzymatic depolymerisation of oat -glucan<br />

Aliki-Ilona N<strong>in</strong>ios a , Juhani Sibakov b , Ioanna Mandala a , Konstant<strong>in</strong>os Fasseas a , Kaisa Poutanen b , Emilia<br />

Nordlund b , Pekka Leht<strong>in</strong>en b<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855,<br />

Athens, Greece (alik<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>iou@gmail.com, imandala@aua.gr)<br />

b<br />

VTT Technical Research Centre of F<strong>in</strong>land, P.O.Box 1000, Tietotie 2, Espoo, FI-00244, VTT<br />

(juhani.sibakov@vtt.fi)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The aim of the present study was to modify the molecular weight and viscosity properties of glucan<br />

<strong>in</strong> oat bran by hydrolytic enzymatic treatment. Water content, enzyme type and dosage<br />

and reaction time were used as variables <strong>in</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g and optimiz<strong>in</strong>g the reaction conditions for<br />

-glucan hydrolysis. Oat bran fractions with 20.0 and 28.5 % of -glucan were treated with<br />

commercial enzyme mixtures and with purified Trichoderma reesei endo-glucanase II. After<br />

the hydrolysis reaction, -glucan was extracted with hot water at 80 ºC. The solids were<br />

removed by centrifugation, and the supernatant stored at 5 ºC. Rheological properties and<br />

molecular weight distribution of the enzyme-treated -glucan, as well as the stability of the<br />

solution were then measured. The tested reaction parameters significantly affected the<br />

hydrolysis of -glucan, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that careful optimization of the reaction conditions is<br />

needed when aim<strong>in</strong>g at specific hydrolysis products.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Two oat bran concentrates were used as raw materials. They were manufactured either from<br />

non-heat-treated whole oat kernels (OBC-1) or from commercial heat-treated oat bran (OBC-2)<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Sibakov et al. [1]. The -glucan concentrations of OBC-1 and OBC-2 were 28.5<br />

% and 20.0 (dw), respectively. The oat bran concentrates were enzymatically hydrolysed either<br />

at 50 % (low) or at 94 % (high) water content. The process <strong>in</strong> low water content was based on<br />

the efficient mix<strong>in</strong>g of OBC and enzyme, and subsequent <strong>in</strong>cubation of the dough-like mass at<br />

50 ºC for 10 m<strong>in</strong> – 4 h. The hydrolysis at higher water content was performed by us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uous mix<strong>in</strong>g of the OBC-enzyme suspension at 45 ºC for 1 or 4 h (Figure 1). After both<br />

processes, the enzyme was <strong>in</strong>activated by high temperature (115 or 100 ºC) treatment. Both a<br />

commercial enzyme Depol 740 L (Biocatalyst Ltd, Wales, UK) and a purified Trichoderma<br />

reesei endo-glucanase II (EGII, VTT, F<strong>in</strong>land) were <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2105

Low water content<br />

Water<br />

Enzyme<br />

and water<br />

A<br />

Precondition<strong>in</strong>g at 40 ºC<br />

for 30m<strong>in</strong>, 25 % moisture<br />

Hydrolysis <strong>in</strong> extruder at<br />

45 ºC for 1–2 m<strong>in</strong>,<br />

50 % moisture<br />

Incubation at 50ºC for<br />

10 m<strong>in</strong>–4 h, 50% moisture<br />

Inactivation <strong>in</strong> extruder<br />

at 115ºC for 1–2 m<strong>in</strong><br />

Oat bran concentrate (O BC)<br />

Water<br />

Extraction<br />

Separation of<br />

solids<br />

Stabilisation &<br />

Pasteurisation<br />

Low viscosity<br />

ß-glucan solution<br />

B<br />

High water content<br />

Suspension of oat<br />

bran concentrate<br />

Mix<strong>in</strong>g of the solution<br />

<strong>in</strong> flasks at 45 ºC<br />

for 30–120 m<strong>in</strong><br />

Separation of solids<br />

InactivatIon<br />

of enzymes at boil<strong>in</strong>g<br />

water for 10 m<strong>in</strong><br />

Low viscosity<br />

ß-glucan solution<br />

Water<br />

Enzyme<br />

Figure 1. The flow chart of the enzymatic depolymerisation of -glucan by extrusion process at low (A)<br />

and high water content (B).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Enzymatic hydrolysis at high water content<br />

A 1.0 % solution of oat bran concentrate OBC-1 was hydrolysed by different commercial<br />

enzyme mixtures and by the purified T. reesei EG II. After the hydrolysis at 94 % water<br />

content, the concentrations of over 10 kDa -glucans were reduced by as much as 90 %.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results, the time of enzymatic treatment is essential, as a long time (4 h)<br />

resulted <strong>in</strong> extensive -glucan degradation.<br />

Enzymatic hydrolysis at low water content<br />

By us<strong>in</strong>g the lower water content, lower degradation of -glucan and higher average molecular<br />

weights compared to the high water content were obta<strong>in</strong>ed. For example, after 4 h hydrolysis<br />

with Depol 740 L preparation, the molecular weight at low water content was about 2-fold<br />

greater compared to the hydrolysis at high water content.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This study showed an efficient way to tailor the molecular weight of oat bran -glucan by<br />

enzymatic hydrolysis at limited water content. The suitable range of -glucan molecular weight<br />

was obta<strong>in</strong>ed when the oat bran concentrate was treated at 50 % moisture content at 50 ºC for<br />

more than 3 hours by hydrolytic Depol 740 L enzyme preparation. The peak average molecular<br />

weight of -glucan after such hydrolysis was 47 kDa. The highest concentration of -glucan<br />

which did not convert <strong>in</strong>to gel dur<strong>in</strong>g the 18 days storage at 5 ºC was 2.0 %. In spite of the<br />

uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty of LMW -glucan’s cholesterol lower<strong>in</strong>g affect, the results could be used as a base<br />

for development of dietary fibre-enriched liquid products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Sibakov, J., Myllymäki, O., Hietaniemi, V., Pihlava, J.-M., Kaukovirta-Norja, A., Poutanen, K.,<br />

Leht<strong>in</strong>en, P., 2010, Comb<strong>in</strong>ation of defatt<strong>in</strong>g and dry fractionation technologies to produce oat<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients with high -glucan concentration In: Dietary Fibre: New frontiers for food and health,<br />

van der Kamp, J., McCleary, B. & Topp<strong>in</strong>g, D. (Eds.), Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen Academic Publishers, The<br />

Netherlands, pp. 79–89.<br />

2106

Parameters evaluation of fructooligosaccharides production by sucrose<br />

biotransformation us<strong>in</strong>g an osmophilic Aureobasium pullulans stra<strong>in</strong><br />

Juliana Bueno da Silva a , Ana Elizabeth Cavalcante Fai a , Rosângela dos Santos a , Luis Carlos<br />

Basso b , Gláucia Maria Pastore a<br />

a University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, College of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil<br />

b University of São Paulo, ESALQ, Piracicaba, Brazil (jubueno@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The fructooligosaccharides (FOS) belong<strong>in</strong>g to the prebiotics group that are “non-digestible<br />

oligosaccharides food <strong>in</strong>gredients but fermentable by the bacteria <strong>in</strong> the gut microbiota. They<br />

selectively promote growth of the beneficial bacteria (lactobacilli and bifidobacteria) and<br />

provide a series of benefits to the human health. Such effects <strong>in</strong>clude activation of the human<br />

immune system, ma<strong>in</strong>tenance the <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al microbiota, resistance to <strong>in</strong>fection, enhanced<br />

m<strong>in</strong>eral absorption by the gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al tract, synthesis of B complex vitam<strong>in</strong>, lower<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

serum cholesterol and prevent<strong>in</strong>g carc<strong>in</strong>ogenic tumors [1]. Industrial production of this<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredient was ma<strong>in</strong>ly done us<strong>in</strong>g the enzyme fructosyltransferase of Aspergillus niger and<br />

Aureobasidium sp. reach<strong>in</strong>g yield value around 60% and 53-59% respectively [2]. In our study,<br />

the synthesis of FOS was performed from sucrose metabolized by the role cells of<br />

Aureobasidium pullulans, isolated from honeycomb through RSM (Response Surface<br />

Metodology) us<strong>in</strong>g a Plackett-Burman matrix with 16 assays (PB-16) to evaluate 12 variables:<br />

concentration of sucrose, <strong>in</strong>oculum, yeast extract, urea, K2HPO4, (NH4)2SO4, MgSO4, ZnSO4,<br />

MnSO4. This method is a screen<strong>in</strong>g approach used to statistically select the signicant<br />

variables of numerous factor-experiments [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The culture of Aureobasidium pullulans was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> YEPD slants, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g glucose<br />

2% (w/v), yeast extract 1% (w/v), peptone 1% (w/v), agar 1.5 % (w/v) at 4°C. For the pre<strong>in</strong>oculum<br />

cultive a loopful of cells was streaked <strong>in</strong>to YEPD plate, for 48h at 30°C. This was<br />

transferred to 150 mL culture medium of cane molasses conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 6% (w/v) of total reduce<br />

sugars for 48h, 150 rpm at 30°C. The suspension was centrifuged at 10.000 rpm for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes<br />

and the cells were used for <strong>in</strong>itial <strong>in</strong>oculum for the experiments that were done accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

strategy Plackett-Burman . The levels of each variable (%) were sucrose: 20 a 40; yeast extract:<br />

0 a 0.5; <strong>in</strong>oculum: 1 a 20; K2HPO4: 0 – 0.0435; urea: 0 – 0.015; (NH4)2SO4: 0 – 0.033;<br />

MgSO4.7H2O: 0 – 0.0245; ZnSO4: 0.0015; MnSO4.7H2O: 0 – 0.001, pH: 4.5 a 6.0; temperature<br />

(°C): 27 a 30; agitation (rpm): 150 a 250. Fermentations proceeds <strong>in</strong> 125 mL flasks with 20 mL<br />

of medium and the sampl<strong>in</strong>g were done at 0, 24, 48 and 72 hours. The sugar mesur<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

dones by HPLC, column Lichrospher 100 NH2, 26°C, 1 mL/m<strong>in</strong> with acetonitrile:water 70:30<br />

(v:v) as mobile phase.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The effects of the above 12 variables on yield, which were calculated through formula: Y=<br />

[total FOS]*100/ [<strong>in</strong>itial sucrose] and concentration of total FOS % (g/100 mL were shown <strong>in</strong><br />

Table 1. The statistical analysis were conducted by the software STATISTICA ® 7.0<br />

consider<strong>in</strong>g a significant level of 10% (P

Table 1. Experiments results <strong>in</strong> Plackett-Burman<br />

Treat-ment (T)<br />

0 hour<br />

FOS %<br />

24 hour<br />

Yield<br />

48 hour<br />

FOS %<br />

72 hour<br />

Yield FOS % Yield FOS % Yield<br />

1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />

2 6.58 16.45 7.71 18.03 8.49 18.35 3.60 7.32<br />

3 11.81 29.52 15.03 32.32 8.63 16.27 8.42 16.51<br />

4 0.00 0.00 20.52 49.97 10.22 21.78 11.2 23.94<br />

5 6.91 34.57 2.98 14.91 0.53 2.63 0.00 0.00<br />

6 0.00 0.00 7.05 14.45 3.55 8.86 3.63 6.65<br />

7 4.86 24.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />

8 7.68 19.20 12.67 31.78 9.77 24.44 5.46 13.64<br />

9 4.00 10.00 9.57 22.60 22.30 54.70 4.22 9.05<br />

10 6.70 33.49 1.63 8.15 1.21 6.09 1.27 6.36<br />

11 1.35 6.76 3.87 19.33 2.82 14.09 0.72 3.61<br />

12 1.42 3.55 20.34 49.34 16.96 38.16 14.5 30.46<br />

13 0,00 0,00 1,00 5,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00<br />

14 0,03 0,14 9,60 45,94 5,94 29,49 3,49 13,76<br />

15 0,15 0,74 7,05 35,26 3,13 15,64 3,70 18,51<br />

16 1,05 5,24 6,14 30,73 5,88 29,40 6,51 32,53<br />

PC1 3,62 12,07 8,19 27,29 3,76 12,52 1,61 5,37<br />

PC2 3,62 12,07 8,40 27,96 3,48 11,62 3,69 12,30<br />

PC3 3,62 12,07 9,23 30,76 3,60 12,01 3,34 11,15<br />

The results showed that high yields reach values of 54.7% at 48h of reaction <strong>in</strong> T9, 49.97% at<br />

24h <strong>in</strong> T4 and 49.34% <strong>in</strong> 24h <strong>in</strong> T12. For the FOS Yield data showed significance at 24h the<br />

variables agitation, with negative effect -16.32 and p-value 0.016; MnSO4, with positive effect<br />

15.33 and p-value 0.020. At 48h the variable was significant only agitation with negative effect<br />

-14.94. The <strong>in</strong>oculum level showed significance at 0h with positive effect 14.08, however it<br />

was negative at 24 and 48. Regard<strong>in</strong>g total FOS Concentration, sucrose levels displayed pvalues<br />

of 0.0085 at 24h, 0.028 at 48h and 0.046 at 72h<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

These results are show<strong>in</strong>g that this process is very promis<strong>in</strong>g for the FOS <strong>in</strong>dustry consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that the conditions still not have optimized and more research has been done to evaluate and<br />

optimize this process. This <strong>in</strong> turn can provide a focus for effective use of Aureobasidium<br />

pullulans to synthesize fructooligosaccharide through bioconversion us<strong>in</strong>g entire cells to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

the product by direct manner.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Gibson, G.R., Roberfroid, M. B. 1995. Dietary modulations of the human colonic microbiota –<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduction and concept of prebiotics. Journal of Nutrition, 125: 1401-1412.<br />

[2] Yun, J.W. 1996. Fructooligosaccharides—Occurence, preparation, and application. Enzyme Microbiol<br />

Technology,19, 107-117.<br />

[3] Rodrigues MI, Iemma AF (2005) Planejamento de experimentos e otimização de processos: uma<br />

estratégia sequêncial de plane-jamentos. Editora Casa do Pão, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil.<br />

2108

Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and characterization of mango peel powder and its use as a source of fiber and<br />

a functional <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> natural yogurt<br />

C. Ruiz, C. Ramírez, C. Gutiérrez de Piñeres c , M. Ángulo, J. Hedreira<br />

a Carlos Alberto Ruiz Galván, Valledupar, Colombia (carlosruizg67@yahoo.es)<br />

b Carlos Arturo Ramírez Guzmán, Valledupar, Colombia (ramirezc16@hotmail.com)<br />

c Carlos Alberto Gutiérrez de Piñeres (walframio@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The mango (Mangifera <strong>in</strong>dica L) is a tropical fruit of high production and consumption <strong>in</strong><br />

Valledupar and the entire Atlantic Coast, which is characterized by a high nutritional value.<br />

However, its use is limited to the pulp. In this research, it was decided to use ripe mango peel<br />

variety yarn by mak<strong>in</strong>g a powder for use dual functional <strong>in</strong>gredient and additive, due to its high<br />

content of fiber and phytochemicals. The powder was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from mango variety yarn us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the follow<strong>in</strong>g processes: selection, wash<strong>in</strong>g, peel<strong>in</strong>g, dry<strong>in</strong>g, gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g, packag<strong>in</strong>g and heavy.<br />

Among the physicochemical characteristics are: moisture 6.24%, 2.24% fat, 2.82% prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />

10.35% neutral fiber, ash 4.23%, 2.82% citric acid, pH 4.69, ascorbic acid 0.032%, reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sugars 14.25% and 12.80% starch.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The powder was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from mango variety yarn through processes of selection, wash<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

peel<strong>in</strong>g, dry<strong>in</strong>g, gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g, packag<strong>in</strong>g and heavy. Physicochemical analysis were performed<br />

respectively: Moisture, Fat, Crude, Prote<strong>in</strong>, Fiber neutral, Ash, Citric Acid, pH, Ascorbic acid,<br />

Reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugar, Starch.<br />

We used healthy and ripe, with its characteristic color (yellow), the variety of yarn, from the<br />

estate of the Caribbean Biotech Center, located <strong>in</strong> the city of Valledupar, Colombia, dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

period of April and May 2010. The degree of maturity was shown by the color, fruit firmness<br />

to the touch, and was considered at the same time the absence of physical damage and plant.<br />

Natural yogurt was elaborated with<strong>in</strong> the parameters of asepsis and hygiene and was added<br />

different concentrations: 3%, 5%, 7% and 10% of mango peel powder, to note that the<br />

physicochemical and sensory characteristics had the yogurt with the addition of this dust.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Mango powder obta<strong>in</strong>ed was analyzed <strong>in</strong> the laboratory analysis of food Biotechnology Center<br />

of the Caribbean, the follow<strong>in</strong>g results:<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2109

Table 1. Physicochemical analysis of mango<br />

Analyses Results<br />

Moisture 6,24%<br />

Fat 2,24%<br />

Crude Prote<strong>in</strong> 2,82%<br />

Fiber neutral 10,35%<br />

Ash 4,23%<br />

Citric Acid 2,82%<br />

pH 4,69<br />

Ascorbic acid 0,032%<br />

Reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugar 14,25%<br />

Starch 12,80%<br />

Source: Authors<br />

The yield of mango peel powder after all process<strong>in</strong>g, gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g and siev<strong>in</strong>g was 40%. The<br />

natural yogurt made with addition of 10% of mango peel powder before <strong>in</strong>oculation, showed a<br />

good texture, flavor and color characteristic handle and had a shelf life of 1 month without<br />

add<strong>in</strong>g preservatives.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The mango peel powder has a yield of 40%, has very good sensory characteristics, such as taste<br />

and characteristic yellow color, showed a 70% solubility <strong>in</strong> yogurt also provid<strong>in</strong>g its<br />

characteristic smell and color of mango, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>in</strong> addition to behav<strong>in</strong>g functional<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredient due to its high fiber content also acts as a flavor<strong>in</strong>g and color<strong>in</strong>g. The significant<br />

content of beta carotene <strong>in</strong> the peel of mango yogurt offers a natural preservative system, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

this was a useful life of 30 days.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ajila, C., Leelavathi, K. and Prasada, U. 2007. Improvements of dietary fiber content and antioxidant<br />

properties <strong>in</strong> soft dough biscuits with the <strong>in</strong>corporation of mango peel powder. Journal of Cereal<br />

Science, 1 – 8. This article <strong>in</strong> press.<br />

[2] A.O.A.C. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis. 16th Ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists.<br />

Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, VA, USA.<br />

[3] Campbell L, Keteisen S and Antenuci R. 1994. Formulat<strong>in</strong>g oatmeal cookies with calories spar<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients. <strong>Food</strong> Technology, 48 (5): 101-105.<br />

[4] Chau, C., Huang, F. 2003. Comparison of the chemical composition and physicochemical properties<br />

of different fibers prepared from the peel of Citrus s<strong>in</strong>ensis L. Cv. Liucheng. Journal of Agricultural<br />

and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 51: 2615 - 2618.<br />

[5] Vega y León, S., Vega y Rojo A., Pérez F. y Coronado, H. 2002. Alimentos e <strong>in</strong>gredientes<br />

funcionales. Industria Alimentaria, 24 (1): 13-18.<br />

2110

Influence of gamma radiation on sprout<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>hibition of the rhizomes and on the quality<br />

of turmeric<br />

Lucia Peret-Almeida & Maria Beatriz A. Gloria<br />

LBqA – Laboratório de Bioquímica de Alimentos, Faculdade de Farmácia, UFMG, Av.<br />

Antônio Carlos, 6627, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil (mbeatriz@ufmg.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Interest <strong>in</strong> turmeric has <strong>in</strong>creased significantly recently. Turmeric has many nutritional and<br />

functional properties, among them, antimicrobial, anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory, antioxidant and<br />

anticarc<strong>in</strong>ogenic. It is widely used <strong>in</strong> Indian and Ch<strong>in</strong>ese medic<strong>in</strong>e, for the treatment of liver<br />

and gallbladder disorders, anorexia, rheumatism and s<strong>in</strong>usitis [1]. Furthermore, turmeric has<br />

been widely used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry as a natural colorant [4]. Immediately after harvest,<br />

turmeric rhizomes have to be processed to avoid sprout<strong>in</strong>g, which can cause a decrease on<br />

quality [5]. By <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g sprout<strong>in</strong>g of the rhizomes, it is possible to <strong>in</strong>crease its shelf life and<br />

to warrantee the quality of turmeric powder. Several chemicals have been used to <strong>in</strong>hibit<br />

germ<strong>in</strong>ation. However, there is concern regard<strong>in</strong>g the accumulation of residues <strong>in</strong> the rhizome.<br />

Irradiation is an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g alternative to prevent sprout<strong>in</strong>g. It offers advantages, among them,<br />

short application time, no temperature change dur<strong>in</strong>g the process, and lower toxicological risk<br />

[2]. The objective of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of gamma radiation on the<br />

prevention of sprout<strong>in</strong>g and on the quality of the turmeric powder dur<strong>in</strong>g storage.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The rhizomes were washed and classified accord<strong>in</strong>g to size. The samples were submitted to<br />

gamma radiation at doses of 0.0, 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 kGy <strong>in</strong> a gamma cell chamber (Atomic<br />

Energy of Canada Limited, Canada) from CDTN, CNEN, UFMG. The source was Cobalt 60<br />

with a potential of 0.0341 kGy/h. After irradiation, the rhizomes were stored at 26 ± 1 ºC at<br />

85% relative humidity for up to 135 days. In 45 day <strong>in</strong>tervals samples were collected and<br />

evaluated for the presence and number of sprouts. The samples were also processed <strong>in</strong>to<br />

turmeric powder which was analyzed for curcum<strong>in</strong> and color characteristics [3]. The results<br />

were submitted to analysis of variance and the means were compared by the Duncan test at 5%<br />

probability<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage of the irradiated rhizomes at 26 ± 1 ºC and 85% RH, the presence of sprouts<br />

was observed on the 45 th storage day <strong>in</strong> controls and also <strong>in</strong> samples submitted to 0.05 kGy.<br />

However, when irradiated with 0.10 kGy, sprouts were only observed on the 90 th storage day,<br />

whereas no sprouts were observed on rhizomes irradiated with 0.15 kGy up to 135 storage<br />

days. Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage of the rhizomes (control), there was a significant loss of curcum<strong>in</strong><br />

pigments on 135 days of storage (20% loss). The irradiation doses used did not affect the loss<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2111

of curcum<strong>in</strong>, which followed changes similar to controls (Figure 1). Irradiation of the<br />

rhizomes did not affect the color characteristics of the rhizomes. Storage time did not affect<br />

the color parameters L* (lightness) values, chroma and hue of the turmeric. However, there<br />

was a decrease on a* (<strong>in</strong>tensity of red) and b* (<strong>in</strong>tensity of yellow) values with storage time,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent on the irradiation dose used.<br />

Figure 1. Loss of curcum<strong>in</strong> (%) dur<strong>in</strong>g storage of turmeric submitted to gamma radiation at 0.00, 0.05,<br />

0.10 and 0.15 kGy for up to 135 days.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Gamma radiation at 0.15 kGy was effective <strong>in</strong> the prevention of sprout<strong>in</strong>g for 135 days of<br />

storage at 26 ± 1 ºC and 85% RH, whereas doses of 0.10 kGy prevented sprout<strong>in</strong>g for 90 th day.<br />

Irradiation did not affect significantly the levels of curcum<strong>in</strong> and the CIE L*a*b* color<br />

characteristics. Therefore, gamma radiation at 0.15 kGy can be used to delay sprout<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />

rhizome without affect<strong>in</strong>g turmeric quality.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ammon H.P.T. & Wahl, M.A. 1991. Pharmacology of Curcuma longa. Planta Medica, 57, 1-7.<br />

[2] Dhanya R., Mishra B.B., Khaleel K.M. & Cheruth A.J. 2009. Shelf life Extension of Fresh Turmeric<br />

(Curcuma longa L.) us<strong>in</strong>g Gamma Radiation. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 78(9), 791-795.<br />

[3] Péret-Almeida L., Cherub<strong>in</strong>o A.P.F., Alves R.J., Dufossé, L. & Gloria M.B.A. 2005. Separation and<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the Physic-chemical Characteristics of Curcum<strong>in</strong>, Demethoxicurcum<strong>in</strong> and<br />

Bidesmetoxicurcum<strong>in</strong>. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 38, 1039-1044.<br />

[4] Safford R.J. & Goodw<strong>in</strong> B.F.J. 1985.Immunological Studies on Tartraz<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>International</strong> Archives of<br />

Allergy and applied Immunology, 77(3), 331-336.<br />

[5] Van Kooij J.G. 1986. <strong>International</strong> Trends <strong>in</strong> Uses of <strong>Food</strong> Irradiation. <strong>Food</strong> Reviews <strong>International</strong>,<br />

2(1), 1-18.<br />

2112

Antioxidant dyes and pigment extraction us<strong>in</strong>g a home-made pressurized solvent<br />

extraction system<br />

Diego T. Santos, Carol<strong>in</strong>a L. C. Albuquerque, M. Angela A. Meireles<br />

LASEFI/DEA/FEA (School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>)/UNICAMP (University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as) – R. Monteiro<br />

Lobato, 80; 13083-862, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (meireles@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g reports of health hazards and toxicity of synthetic pigments are driv<strong>in</strong>g the food<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry towards application of natural colorants <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of processed food<br />

products. Commonly, conventional extraction methods are used to extract these compounds<br />

from natural sources, nevertheless, these methods are, <strong>in</strong> general, time and solvent consum<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and may promote the degradation of these compounds.<br />

In order to overcome these drawbacks short time extraction conditions us<strong>in</strong>g pressurized<br />

solvent methods, such as Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) and Pressurized Liquid<br />

Extraction (PLE) methods have been used successfully to obta<strong>in</strong> antioxidant pigments-rich<br />

extracts [1, 2].<br />

Carotenoids and anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s are two of the most widely used dyes <strong>in</strong> food, pharmaceutical<br />

and cosmetic <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />

In this work we designed and built a home-made pressurized solvent extraction system, <strong>in</strong><br />

which pure supercritical CO2 (SFE) and GRAS solvent (PLE) can be used, <strong>in</strong>dependently. SFE<br />

was used for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Annatto seed extract and PLE for Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong> extract. Home-made<br />

SFE results were compared to those obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a commercial SFE us<strong>in</strong>g the same<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g conditions. Moreover, fractionated extractions of Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s were performed<br />

<strong>in</strong> two steps: i) a first step (PLE), where<strong>in</strong> pressurized ethanol was used <strong>in</strong> order to extract<br />

polar compounds like anthocyan<strong>in</strong> pigments; ii) a second step, where<strong>in</strong> supercritical CO2 was<br />

used <strong>in</strong> order to recovery low polarity CO2-soluble compounds. The chemical compositions of<br />

both extracts were characterized.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Extraction Procedures<br />

The cell conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a 4.51 g of plant material (whole Annatto seeds or dried/cut Jabuticaba<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>s) was first loaded <strong>in</strong>to the extraction cell, filled with extraction solvent (CO2 or ethanol)<br />

and then pressurized. Dur<strong>in</strong>g 5 m<strong>in</strong> the sample was placed <strong>in</strong> the heat<strong>in</strong>g system to ensure that<br />

the extraction cell will be at the desired temperature at the fill<strong>in</strong>g and pressurization procedure.<br />

After pressurization, the sample with pressurized solvent was kept statically at the desired<br />

pressure for a desired time (static extraction time). Thereafter, carefully the block<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

micrometric valve were opened keep<strong>in</strong>g the pressure constant to the desired flow rate be<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

extraction cell r<strong>in</strong>sed with fresh extraction solvent dur<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> time (dynamic extraction<br />

time).<br />

For SFE process, liquid CO2 99.9 % (Gama Gases Especiais Ltda., Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil) was fed<br />

from the cyl<strong>in</strong>der through a thermostatic bath at -10 °C to ensure the liquefaction of the gas and<br />

to prevent cavitation, and then it was pumped by the CO2 pump to the extraction cell<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Annatto seeds or Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s previously extracted with pressurized ethanol.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2113

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1 shows that the behavior of the extraction curves was very similar, <strong>in</strong>dependently of<br />

the system used. Nobre et al. [3] us<strong>in</strong>g a similar SFE apparatus observed analogous extraction<br />

curves for pigment extraction us<strong>in</strong>g also pure supercritical CO2 and whole Annatto seeds.<br />

Figure 1. Recovery of pigments from Annatto seeds as a function of time us<strong>in</strong>g different SFE<br />

systems/configurations: Commercial SFE; Home-made SFE.<br />

Fractionated extractions of Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s were performed <strong>in</strong> two steps: i) a first step (PLE),<br />

where<strong>in</strong> pressurized ethanol was used <strong>in</strong> order to extract polar compounds like anthocyan<strong>in</strong><br />

pigments; ii) a second step, where<strong>in</strong> supercritical CO2 was used <strong>in</strong> order to recovery low<br />

polarity CO2-soluble compounds.<br />

The chemical composition the PLE extract was characterized to the present of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Visually the extract solution presented a purple color. The anthocyan<strong>in</strong> content of the PLE<br />

extract was 2.489 ± 0.544 mg cyanid<strong>in</strong>-3-glucoside/g dry material. Otherwise, dur<strong>in</strong>g the reextraction<br />

of the Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s previously extracted by PLE us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical CO2 an<br />

extract present<strong>in</strong>g a yellow-green color, with <strong>in</strong>significant anthocyan<strong>in</strong> content, was obta<strong>in</strong>ed at<br />

the process<strong>in</strong>g conditions employed.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this work we validated a home-made pressurized solvent extraction system that can be used<br />

for Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) and Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) processes,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependently, us<strong>in</strong>g Annatto seed and Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong> as model plant materials.<br />

Fractionated extractions of Jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s were performed us<strong>in</strong>g our apparatus with success,<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g two valuable extracts.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Silva G.F., Gamarra F.M.C., Oliveira A.L. & Cabral F. A. 2008. Extraction of bix<strong>in</strong> from annatto<br />

seeds us<strong>in</strong>g supercritical carbon dioxide.Brazilian Journal of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 25, 419-426.<br />

[2] Arapitsas P. & Turner C. 2008. Pressurized solvent extraction and monolithic column-HPLC/DAD<br />

analysis of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> red cabbage. Talanta, 74, 1218-1223.<br />

[3] Nobre B.P., Mendes R.L., Queiroz E.M., Pessoa F.L.P., Coelho J.P. & Palavra A.F. 2006.<br />

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of pigments from bixa orellana seeds (experiments and<br />

model<strong>in</strong>g). Brazilian Journal of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 23, 251-258.<br />

2114

Comparative study of the physicochemical characteristics of an economic Buffalo<br />

(Bubalus bubalis) meat product and an economic Beef (Bos <strong>in</strong>dicus) meat product with<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporation of bov<strong>in</strong>e hemoglob<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> powder <strong>in</strong> both formulations<br />

J.F. Rey 1 , C.L. Martínez 2 , A. Urrea 3<br />

1<br />

Profesor del Programa de Ingeniería de Alimentos de la Universidad de la Salle, Bogotá, Colombia<br />

(javierrey79@yahoo.com )<br />

2<br />

Egresada del Programa de Ingeniería de Alimentos de la Universidad de la Salle, Bogotá, Colombia<br />

(anifmc@hotmail.com)<br />

3<br />

Egresada del Programa de Ingeniería de Alimentos de la Universidad de la Salle, Bogotá, Colombia<br />

(<strong>in</strong>g.adrianaurrea@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Low dietary <strong>in</strong>take of bioavailable iron is the major cause of iron deficiency and anemia deficiency. The<br />

food-based approaches to <strong>in</strong>crease iron <strong>in</strong>take through fortification food and dietary diversification are<br />

also important strategies to prevent low levels of iron (WHO, 2004). Several studies have demonstrated<br />

that buffalo meat has higher iron proportions than other species, prote<strong>in</strong> content and low fat values<br />

becom<strong>in</strong>g a raw material of high potential for <strong>in</strong>dustry (Cedres, 2003).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The product was made follow<strong>in</strong>g sausage meat emulsions formulation (Ranken 2003). Were designed<br />

and developed three buffalo meat sausages (B) with 200 mg / kg of hemoglob<strong>in</strong><br />

of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> (range selected from Aleppo research and Duke, 2009), and three beef (R) with the same<br />

hemoglob<strong>in</strong> concentration. To evaluate the physicochemical characteristics of the sausages, were<br />

tested: Total ash (NTC 1668), Humidity (NTC 1663), Prote<strong>in</strong> (NTC 1556), Total fat (NTC 1162) iron<br />

AOAC 944.02. Also, difference between the samples with bilateral Dunet test (ICS 95%). The<br />

statistical comparison was performed with a standard deviation confidence <strong>in</strong>terval of 95% was used.<br />

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with significance (P

Variable<br />

Table 1. Physicochemical characterization of B and R samples<br />

Samples<br />

R B<br />

Fat (%) 14,2352 ± 12,312 9,7446 ± 3,916<br />

Moisture (%) 64,9434 ± 8,045 65,3612 ± 4,036<br />

Ash (%) 1,7572 ± 0,476 2,8013 ± 0,274<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> (%) 13,5347 ± 6,98 14,0219 ± 3,419<br />

pH 7,01466 ± 0,273 6,7163 ± 0,273<br />

Iron (mg/100 g) 2,52 ± 0,125 2,82 ± 0,236<br />

For ash, values there was a significant difference between the two results, the product made<br />

from buffalo meat, has more m<strong>in</strong>erals, and has higher quantities of iron.<br />

Statically was determ<strong>in</strong>ed that the sample B is significantly different from the sample A,<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g a higher iron content of the sample B <strong>in</strong> relation to R.<br />

Also, data obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> both samples exceed the limits from Colombia and Lat<strong>in</strong> American typical food,<br />

with a portion of 100mg, both products. The beef sausage, would provide<br />

approximately 36% more than 100g of conventional product per serv<strong>in</strong>g g (levels of absorption<br />

<strong>in</strong>to the body are not considered).<br />

The quantity of absorption is variable and depends on various factors such as <strong>in</strong>dividual's age, sex, type of<br />

food accord<strong>in</strong>g to FAO (2007). Buffalo meat has 53% more iron than required by current regulations.<br />

Buffalo product (B) was selected with the best physicochemical and nutritional characteristics, as<br />

well as a partial solution to low iron consumption <strong>in</strong> the population. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

the FAO m<strong>in</strong>imum daily <strong>in</strong>take should be at least 6 mg.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Aviable Iron contents are significantly affected with the addition of bov<strong>in</strong>e hemoglob<strong>in</strong> (200mg/Kg) to an<br />

economic sausage made by select quality cuts from beef and buffalo, especially contents of the buffalo<br />

one.<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> levels were <strong>in</strong>creased and saturated fat decreased <strong>in</strong> relation with beef meet, mak<strong>in</strong>g it a<br />

candidate for <strong>in</strong>dustrial economic products like "healthy ", "high iron" or "low fat".<br />

Buffalo product presents healthy physicochemical characteristics respect to Beef product, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of prote<strong>in</strong>, fat and iron contributions aga<strong>in</strong>st securities FAO and ICBF requirements.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

CEDRES, J. (2002). Chemical composition and physical characteristics of buffalo meat extensively bred <strong>in</strong> the<br />

prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Formosa. UNNE. Faculty of veter<strong>in</strong>ary science. Corrientes.<br />

ELLAS et al. (2007). Effect of different b<strong>in</strong>ders on the quality of enrobed buffalo meat cutlets and their shelf life at<br />

refrigeration storage (4 ± 1 ºC). Meat Science 75 (2007) p. 451–459.<br />

OMS. (2004). Consultada el 05 de Febrero de 2010. Anemia as a center of attention. Available<br />

at:http://www.paho.org/Spanish/AD/FCH/NU/OMS04_Anemia.pdf.Accessed on 05 February 2010<br />

CARRASCO, R. (2008). Evaluation of powder of hemoglob<strong>in</strong> as a substitute of synthetic red dye Ponceau 4R <strong>in</strong><br />

the development of economic sausage. (pp. 1-106). La Salle University. <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Program. Bogotá.<br />

FAO. Table of food composition Sausage F451 Lat<strong>in</strong> America. Available<br />

onl<strong>in</strong>e: http://www.rlc.fao.org/es/bases/alimento/pr<strong>in</strong>t.asp?dd=3259.Accessed May 20 2010:<br />

GUERRERO, R. (2006). The impact of iron deficiency on psychomotor development. Available<br />

at:http://www.utp.edu.co/facies/educacioncont<strong>in</strong>ua/materno<strong>in</strong>fantil/EL_IMPACTO_DE_LA_DEFICIENCIA_DE<br />

_HIERRO_EN_EL_DESARROLLO.pdf.Accessed May 5, 2010.<br />

2116

Production of Turkish delight (lokum) with its additives and quality<br />

Ali Batu<br />

Tunceli University, <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Faculty, <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, 62100 Tunceli Turkey<br />

(ali_batu@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In this study, a brief evaluation will be made on Turkish delight (lokum) that is a starch jelly a<br />

traditional Turkish food product and has importance for the Turkey. The functions of the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients such as sugar, starch and water on the overall lokum quality will be discussed.<br />

Then production problems and some additives have been used <strong>in</strong> lokum production will be<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated. Coconut, peanut, pistachio, almond and etc. are used nuts <strong>in</strong> Lokum production. The<br />

orig<strong>in</strong> of Lokum dates back to the time of the Ottoman. Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of production of lokum is<br />

estimated at 15th century and its production is reached today’s form at 19th century. In 19th<br />

century lokum was brought to England by a English tourist, then it called “Turkish delight” <strong>in</strong><br />

Europe and “Lokoum” <strong>in</strong> France and Balkans, lokumania <strong>in</strong> Greece and <strong>in</strong> Cyprus, and then<br />

lokum took place <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational candy literature. Lokum is produced by mix<strong>in</strong>g of sugar, corn<br />

starch and water<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> fraction and fruits or nuts are added to the mixture. This mixture is<br />

heated for certa<strong>in</strong> time at certa<strong>in</strong> temperature <strong>in</strong> open vessel or steam jacketed tank with<br />

agitator. Heat<strong>in</strong>g time changes 1 to 2 hours accord<strong>in</strong>g to vessel’s type. Hot lokum fluid is<br />

dripped <strong>in</strong> wooden table or steel tray, which some starch is on, with lower edges, after<br />

spr<strong>in</strong>kl<strong>in</strong>g some starch lokum are cut as small particles. Powder sugar is added on this lokum<br />

particles and they are stored and sold. Keywords: Acid, sugar, lokum, modified starch,<br />

confectionary, Turkish delight<br />

THE HISTORY AND INVENTION OF LOKUM<br />

An old Turkish aphorism tells one to “eat sweetly and speak sweetly”. The orig<strong>in</strong> of Lokum<br />

dates back to the time of the Ottoman. Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of production of lokum is estimated at 15th<br />

century and its production is reached today’s form at 19th century [1]. Lokum is a sugar based<br />

jelly-like confection conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g starch with the gel former. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to legend, Turkish<br />

Delight, one of the oldest and most delectable sweets <strong>in</strong> the world, was created some 500 years<br />

ago when a Turkish sultan asked his confectioner to produce someth<strong>in</strong>g sweet to keep on his<br />

family and friends [2]. Lokum was unveiled to the west <strong>in</strong> the 19th century. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his travels<br />

to Istanbul, an unknown British traveler became very fond of the Turkish delicacies, purchased<br />

cases of lokoum and he shipped them to Brita<strong>in</strong> under the name Turkish delight. Today,<br />

Lokum rema<strong>in</strong>s the sweet of choice <strong>in</strong> many Turkish homes and enjoyed worldwide [3].<br />

Picasso used to eat lokum on a daily basis for concentration on his work while W<strong>in</strong>ston<br />

Churchill and Napoleon's favorite Turkish Delight was with pistachio fill<strong>in</strong>g [2]. One major<br />

commercial producer <strong>in</strong> the Northwestern U.S. is Liberty Orchards, founded by Armenian<br />

immigrants, which markets the candy under the name "Aplets and Cotlets" and "Fruit<br />

Delights." It is also the basic foundation of the Big Turk chocolate bar commonly found <strong>in</strong><br />

Canada. Another North American company is the Bayco is the manufacturer of authentic<br />

Lokum <strong>in</strong> North America [4].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2117

THE RAW MATERIALS<br />

Sugar: Sugar is the one of the most important raw material <strong>in</strong> Lokum production. Starch is the<br />

major component of gra<strong>in</strong>s and a common <strong>in</strong>gredient used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. Understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the relationship between the structure of starch and rheological properties of lokum will<br />

improve the ability to manipulate texture and could result <strong>in</strong> identification and development of<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es and mutants of starch with abilities to resist breakdown. Starch used <strong>in</strong> lokum production<br />

as a basic raw material has important quality criterions [5]. Acid. Citric and tartaric acid are<br />

used <strong>in</strong> Lokum production <strong>in</strong> Turkey. Manufacturers often determ<strong>in</strong>e acid amount to be added<br />

by themselves. At the end of the researches, us<strong>in</strong>g 5g tartaric acid or 3g citric acid results the<br />

godd quality of lokum. Water is also the one of the most important raw material effect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

quality after sugar. Especially soft water <strong>in</strong>creases quality, on the contrary water with high lime<br />

content destroys the structure [6].<br />

LOKUM PRODUCTION PROCESS IN TURKEY<br />

Prepar<strong>in</strong>g sugar syrup and starch milk: First of all, syrup is made from sugar with enough<br />

water to melt it. Practically, this mix is called as starch milk. Starch milk is added to boil<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sugar syrup. In this step of boil<strong>in</strong>g acid is added to <strong>in</strong>vert sugar [7]. Cook<strong>in</strong>g: Once the water<br />

has boiled the sugar is added and the solution is boiled for an hour, stirred cont<strong>in</strong>uously by an<br />

electric paddle. Next the starch is added, and the mixture brought back to the boil, for another<br />

five to six hours until it is smooth and sh<strong>in</strong>y. The mixture is allowed to cool for a while, before<br />

the various flavors are added. After the flavor<strong>in</strong>gs have been carefully added, the mixture is<br />

poured <strong>in</strong>to large wooden trays to set. About five hours later it is ready to be cut <strong>in</strong>to squares,<br />

liberally dusted with ic<strong>in</strong>g sugar and packed <strong>in</strong>to small boxes l<strong>in</strong>ed with greaseproof paper<br />

ready for sell<strong>in</strong>g. Lokum production process is given [3]. Cool<strong>in</strong>g: Lokum is cooled <strong>in</strong> room<br />

conditions for 24hrs after pour<strong>in</strong>g. Recently cool<strong>in</strong>g may be done <strong>in</strong> 3-4 hours with water<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g systems. Both cool<strong>in</strong>g methods and time may lower quality. Cooled Lokum is put on<br />

cutt<strong>in</strong>g tables. In our country, cutt<strong>in</strong>g of Lokum is done by hand or mach<strong>in</strong>e. Sugar powder or<br />

coconut is found on table. Cut Lokum’s are fitted <strong>in</strong> boxes <strong>in</strong> desired weight and transported to<br />

storage rooms to sell. Generally, Lokum which is sold <strong>in</strong> Turkey is packed <strong>in</strong> 5kg wooden<br />

boxes. To prevent stick<strong>in</strong>g of lokum to box polyethylene, greasy and waxy paper are used [7].<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Batu, A. and Krmac, B. 2009. Production of Turkish delight (lokum). <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong><br />

42 (2009) 1–7<br />

[2] Anon, A. http://pedia.nodeworks.com/L/LO/LOK/Lokum<br />

[3] Batu, B. 2006. Türk lokumu Üretim Teknii ve Kalitesi. Gda Teknolojisi Elektronik Dergisi. 2006<br />

(1) 35-46.<br />

[4] Anonymous, 2006. Turkish Delight, Bayco confectionery Inc., Canada, Manufacturer' Of Authentic<br />

Turkish Delight http://www.turkish-delight.com/<br />

[5] Saldaml, . 1998. Gda Kimyas. Karbonhidratlar. 2. Bölüm. S:37-105. Hacettepe Üniversitesi.ISBN<br />

No: 9758339001, Ankara<br />

[6] Gönül, M. 1985. Türk Lokumu Yapm Teknii Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Aratrmalar. 1. Bask. Ege Mühendislik<br />

Fakültesi. Ders Kitaplar Yayn No: 8, Bornova, zmir<br />

[7] Anonymous, E. Ar Lokum. http://www.arilokum.com.tr/lokum_imalat.asp<br />

2118

Effect of fermented okara (bean curd lees) <strong>in</strong>take on TNCB<br />

(2, 4, 6-tr<strong>in</strong>itrochlorobenzene)-<strong>in</strong>duced chronic dermatitis <strong>in</strong> NC/Nga mice<br />

Toshiki Enomoto a , Masato Nishi a , Flor<strong>in</strong> Barla a , Nana Murata a , Hiroshi Matsui b , Hidehiko Kumagai b ,<br />

Harumi Take c , Toshihide Michihata c , Shizuo Nakamura c , Masao Kawashima d , Eiji Fujihara d<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Ishikawa 921-8836, Japan<br />

(enomoto@ishikawa-pu.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi,<br />

Ishikawa 921-8836, Japan (hidekuma@ishikawa-pu.ac.jp)<br />

c<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g, Industrial Research Institute of Ishikawa, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-<br />

8023, Japan (take@irii.jp)<br />

d<br />

Habutaetoufu Co.,Ltd, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 921-8054, Japan (fujihara@habutae.co.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complex eczematous sk<strong>in</strong> disease accompanied by severe itch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and frequently repeated episodes. The prevalence of AD has <strong>in</strong>creased steadily <strong>in</strong> recent<br />

decades. Anti-allergic functional food has been attract<strong>in</strong>g attention, and lactic acid bacteria has<br />

been one of the ma<strong>in</strong> focus of reports.In East Asian countries, tofu is a popular food. Okara is<br />

produced as a by-product of tofu manufactur<strong>in</strong>g. Although okara is a rich source of nutrient<br />

which might be beneficial for human health, the most of it is disposed and unused. Therefore<br />

the development of a process<strong>in</strong>g way for utilization is expected. The aim of the study was to<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of fermented okara <strong>in</strong>take on TNCB (2, 4, 6-tr<strong>in</strong>itrochlorobenzene)<strong>in</strong>duced<br />

chronic dermatitis <strong>in</strong> NC/Nga mice.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Four weeks-old NC/Nga male mice which have a predisposition to spontaneously develop ADlike<br />

dermatitis were purchased from Japan SLC, Inc. Control feed, MF was purchased from<br />

Oriental Yeast Co. Ltd. Water and food were available ad libitum. Next, they were randomly<br />

divided <strong>in</strong>to three groups (n=6/group). The control group was fed a standard MF and the<br />

experimental groups were fed a mixture of the standard MF plus fermented okara to give a<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al fermented okara concentration of 1% (1% FO) and 2% (2% FO), respectively. Then, mice<br />

were sensitized <strong>in</strong>itially, at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of experiment, with about 20 μl of TNCB 5%<br />

solution onto ventral zone and feet. The follow<strong>in</strong>g weeks, the TNCB 1% solution was applied<br />

to sensitized ears and scruff zone once per week. The animals were fed these diets for 5 weeks<br />

and ear thickness was measured with an electronic calliper every week just before sensitization.<br />

The whole blood was collected from <strong>in</strong>ferior vena cava, under anaesthesia with diethyl ether,<br />

and placed immediately <strong>in</strong>to ice. Serum samples were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by centrifugation, and were<br />

used to quantify the level of cytok<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Ear thickness of mice was measured weekly and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the thickness was observed <strong>in</strong><br />

all groups. However, mice <strong>in</strong> the fermented okara-adm<strong>in</strong>istrated groups had a significantly<br />

smaller ear thickness compared with the control group. Oral adm<strong>in</strong>istration of fermented okara<br />

to NC/Nga mice <strong>in</strong>hibited the development of AD-like sk<strong>in</strong> lesions based on the total sk<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2119

severity scores, while the scores considerably <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the control group (Fig.1A and B).<br />

These results suggest that the symptoms of mice fed a diet conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fermented okara were<br />

markedly reduced. Furthermore, the IFN- level of serum was not affected by fermented okara<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong> both mice groups but <strong>in</strong> contrast the IL-4 level was significantly decreased,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the Th1/Th2 balance <strong>in</strong> fermented okara groups was higher than the control.<br />

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<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

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B<br />

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Figure 1. Effect of okara adm<strong>in</strong>istration on sensitized ears thickness (A) and on the total cl<strong>in</strong>ical score<br />

(B) <strong>in</strong>duced by TNCB application <strong>in</strong> NC/Nga mice. Results are expressed as the meanSD of six mice<br />

per group. Means with the different letters are significantly different at the 5% level (Tukey’s multiple<br />

range test). :control diet, : 1% FO diet, : 2% FO diet<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

From the results, fermented okara exerts an anti-allergic action through suppression of Th2type<br />

immune response. Thus, okara fermented by Bacillus coagulans might be effective dietary<br />

supplement for the prevention of AD.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Matsumoto, K., Watanabe, Y. and Yokoyama, S. 2007. Okara, soybean residue, prevents obesity <strong>in</strong> a<br />

diet-<strong>in</strong>duced mur<strong>in</strong>e obesity model, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 71, 720-727.<br />

[2] Prestamo, G., Ruperez, P., Esp<strong>in</strong>osa-Martos, I., Villanueva, M. J. and Lastuncion, M.A. 2007. The<br />

effects of okara on rat growth, cecal fermentation, and serum lipids, Eur.<strong>Food</strong> Res.Technol., 225,<br />

925-928.<br />

[3] Kitagai, H., Fujisawa, S., Watanabe, K. and Shiohara, T. 1995. Immediate-type hypersensitivity<br />

response followed by a late reaction is <strong>in</strong>duced by repeated epicutaneous application of contact<br />

sensitiz<strong>in</strong>g agents <strong>in</strong> mice, J. Invest. Dermatol., 105, 749-755.<br />

2120<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

a<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

b<br />

a<br />

b<br />

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b<br />

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a<br />

b<br />

b

Development of a dehydrated and lam<strong>in</strong>ated probiotic product with B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and L.<br />

acidophilus us<strong>in</strong>g goat sweet whey<br />

Grissel Trujillo de Santiago a , Carlos Sáenz Coll<strong>in</strong>s b , Cecilia Rojas de Gante c<br />

a Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. (A00279913@itesm.mx)<br />

b Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. (A00802349@itesm.mx)<br />

c Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. (crd@itesm.mx)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

To promote the health benefits, the <strong>International</strong> Dairy Federation (IDF) suggests that probiotic<br />

products must have a m<strong>in</strong>imum concentration of 10 7 CFU/g [1]. Besides, whey is a by-product<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>der from cheese manufacture that has high potential to be transformed <strong>in</strong>to a surplus<br />

good, such as probiotic products. The current work presents the development of a new product<br />

consist<strong>in</strong>g of a dehydrated and lam<strong>in</strong>ated probiotic dairy product that employs a by-product of<br />

cheese manufacture and avoids the high energy costs of cold cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The stra<strong>in</strong>s L. acidophilus and B. <strong>in</strong>fantis were reactivated <strong>in</strong> MRS broth and then adapted to<br />

pasteurized goat’s sweet whey (GSW) through successive transfers until lag phase was<br />

elim<strong>in</strong>ated. Incubation took place <strong>in</strong> a vacuum <strong>in</strong>cubator (Sheldon Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g Inc.,<br />

Cornelius, OR) at 38± 2°C and a vacuum of 20mm Hg. Growth k<strong>in</strong>etics were constructed<br />

through count<strong>in</strong>g plate us<strong>in</strong>g MRS agar (DIFCO) and the same <strong>in</strong>cubation conditions<br />

previously mentioned. Lactose consumption and lactic acid k<strong>in</strong>etics were determ<strong>in</strong>ed through<br />

HPLC- RI us<strong>in</strong>g an Am<strong>in</strong>ex HPx87H column and H2SO4 as mobile phase. Inul<strong>in</strong> (<strong>in</strong> a 15% p/v<br />

solution), resistant corn starch (RS) (<strong>in</strong> a 6% p/v suspension), and gelat<strong>in</strong> (<strong>in</strong> a 10% p/v<br />

solution) were used as additives to get the DLP formulation. Two levels of each additive (8.33<br />

and 16.66% of the f<strong>in</strong>al volume) were evaluated us<strong>in</strong>g a factorial 2 3 experimental design. N<strong>in</strong>e<br />

judges evaluated three quality characteristics (film formation, homogeneity, and smoothness)<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a scale from 1 to 5. The process for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the DLP consisted of five stages: (1)<br />

fermentation of the GSW with B. <strong>in</strong>fantis or L. acidophilus; (2) formulation of the fermented<br />

GSW with <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong>, RS, and gelat<strong>in</strong>; (3) pour<strong>in</strong>g the formulation onto a non-stick pan; (4) dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

it <strong>in</strong> a convection oven with an airflow of 0.212±0.03m/m<strong>in</strong>; and (5) dehydrat<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> a<br />

dessicator at ~0% relative humidity (RH) dur<strong>in</strong>g 22h. Three dry<strong>in</strong>g temperatures (40, 55, and<br />

70°C) were evaluated as a function of the bacterial survival. The bacterial viability was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed through plate counts, us<strong>in</strong>g MRS agar and the same <strong>in</strong>cubation conditions as<br />

fermentation. The viability of microorganisms was also evaluated after dehydration at 0% RH.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

No lag phase is observed on k<strong>in</strong>etics, as the stra<strong>in</strong>s were properly adapted to the GSW. Both<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>s started the fermentation with 10 7 CFU/ml and reached the next magnitude order at the<br />

first hour of fermentation, achiev<strong>in</strong>g concentrations of 5.8×10 8 CFU/ml and 5.2×10 8 CFU/ml<br />

for B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and L. acidophilus, respectively. B. <strong>in</strong>fantis ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a logarithmic phase<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 6 hours and reach the stationary phase at 6 to 8.5 hours, followed by the dead<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2121

phase. L. acidophilus had logarithmic phase dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 6.2 hours; from this po<strong>in</strong>t to 8.3 a<br />

stationary phase occurred, followed by the dead phase. max and td were were 0.28h -1 and 2.25h,<br />

respectively for B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and 0.31h -1 and 2.22h for L. acidophilus. The greatest slopes of<br />

lactose consumption and lactic acid production occurred from 2 to 4 hours (0.26g/L·h -1 and<br />

0.35g/L·h -1 respectively for B. <strong>in</strong>fantis, and 0.27g/L·h -1 and 0.53g/L·h -1 for L. acidophilus), the<br />

same as <strong>in</strong> growth and pH k<strong>in</strong>etics. It can be <strong>in</strong>ferred that at mid log phase the stra<strong>in</strong>s not only<br />

had their maximum growth rate, but also presented an accelerated metabolic activity. Although<br />

the reported optimum growth pH for B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and L. acidophilus is 6-7 and 5.4-6.0<br />

respectively [2], these stra<strong>in</strong>s were able to growth at lower pHs. Fermented GSW <strong>in</strong> the mid<br />

log phase was used <strong>in</strong> the formulation to get DLP, because <strong>in</strong> this stage the bacteria are able to<br />

produce “stress prote<strong>in</strong>s” that allows them to create a homeostasis system to new conditions<br />

[3]. The graphics derived from statistical analysis were used to choose the best formulation.<br />

The formulation that achieved the highest averages of the three quality characteristics was the<br />

one with the high levels of gelat<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> and low level of RS. High level of <strong>in</strong>ul<strong>in</strong> was<br />

always desired, as it impacts positively on every quality characteristic; low levels of RS<br />

favored smoothness and film formation; gelat<strong>in</strong> seems to have a positive effect on homogeneity<br />

at a high level. The feasibility of the process was highly determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the <strong>in</strong>fluence of dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

conditions on the viability of probiotic bacteria. The concentration of viable probiotic bacteria<br />

was higher than 10 7 UFC/g after the dry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all cases studied; nevertheless, the highest<br />

concentrations were achieved at 55±5°C for both stra<strong>in</strong>s After dry<strong>in</strong>g, a product with<br />

9.47±1.2% of moisture was obta<strong>in</strong>ed; this moisture content conferred plasticity to the matrix<br />

and allowed a proper detachment. A f<strong>in</strong>al dehydration step was necessary to decrease the<br />

moisture content from 9.47% to 3.5% <strong>in</strong> order to get a dry-crispy lam<strong>in</strong>ated product; therefore,<br />

after dry<strong>in</strong>g, the product was subjected to a 0% RH environment. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this process, the<br />

concentration was dim<strong>in</strong>ished by 86.29±2.52% and 73.51±4.13% for B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and L.<br />

acidophilus, respectively, but enough concentration to develop probiotic effects rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the f<strong>in</strong>al products<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A process to develop a DLP with viable probiotic bacteria (B. <strong>in</strong>fantis and L. acidophilus) was<br />

successfully achieved. Even when the probiotic bacteria were exposed to high temperatures<br />

(55±5°C) and arid conditions (0%RH) dur<strong>in</strong>g the process, the concentration of viable bacteria<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed above the m<strong>in</strong>imum effective concentration (10 7 CFU/g) <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product. Besides<br />

the technological functions of the <strong>in</strong>gredients used <strong>in</strong> the formulation, it is <strong>in</strong>ferred that they<br />

played an important role to protect the bacteria from hostile conditions. Further studies are<br />

needed to evaluate the viability of probiotic bacteria dur<strong>in</strong>g DLP shelf life.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kailasapathy K. 2002. Microencapsulation of probiotic Bacteria: Technology and Potential<br />

Applications. Current Issues <strong>in</strong> Intest<strong>in</strong>al Microbiology, 3(2), 39-48.<br />

[2] Gomes A.M.P. & Malcata, F.X. 1999. Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus acidophilus: biological,<br />

biochemical, technological and therapeutical properties relevant for use as probiotics. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

Science and Technology, 10(4-5), 139-157.<br />

[3] Shah N.P. 2000. Probiotic Bacteria: Selective Enumeration and Survival <strong>in</strong> Dairy <strong>Food</strong>s. Journal of<br />

Dairy Science, 83(4), 894–907.<br />

2122

Lentil-based snacks: Structural and textural evaluation<br />

Andriana Lazou a , Magdal<strong>in</strong>i Krokida a , Nikolaos Zogzas b , Vaios Karathanos c<br />

a<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Process</strong> Analysis and Design, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece<br />

(alazou@central.ntua.gr, mkrok@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

b<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Technological Educational Institute<br />

of Athens, Agiou Spyridonos St., 122 10, Egaleo, Athens, Greece (nzogzas@teiath.gr)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutrition, Harokopio University, 70 El. Venizelou St., 17671 Kallithea, Athens, Greece<br />

(vkarath@hua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Gra<strong>in</strong> legumes are important sources of food prote<strong>in</strong>s and dietary fibers, as well as, basic<br />

constituents of the Mediterranean diet [1]. Extrusion cook<strong>in</strong>g technology is a versatile and efficient<br />

method for the production of direct expanded snacks. Their acceptability by consumers depends on<br />

both structural and textural characteristics [2]. Extrusion conditions and feed composition affect<br />

structural and textural characteristics of extruded snacks. The extrusion behavior of prote<strong>in</strong>-starch<br />

systems has been reported previously [3], but there is still a lack of knowledge of extrudate<br />

properties conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g whole gra<strong>in</strong> legumes.<br />

The purpose of this study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the <strong>in</strong>fluence of extrusion conditions, along with raw<br />

material composition, on textural (modulus of elasticity and number of peaks dur<strong>in</strong>g compression),<br />

structural (apparent density and expansion ratio) and sensory characteristics of the extruded cornlentil<br />

mixtures. The <strong>in</strong>strumental and sensory attributes were correlated and differentiations among<br />

extruded snacks, produced under various conditions, were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Simple empirical models<br />

were developed for the prediction of the <strong>in</strong>strumental properties as a function of process conditions<br />

and feed composition.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Lentil/corn flour mixtures (ratios of 0, 10, 30, and 50%) were used, while their moisture content was<br />

adjusted (13, 16, and 19% wet basis). A co-rotat<strong>in</strong>g tw<strong>in</strong> screw extruder with a die diameter of 3<br />

mm was used, operated at 200 rpm. Extrusion temperature and feed rate were regulated, at 170, 200,<br />

and 230C and 2.52, 4.86 and 6.84 kg/h, respectively. Apparent density of extrudates was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the actual dimensions of the sample. Expansion ratio was calculated by the<br />

diameters’ ratio of extrudate over die. Compression tests were performed at room temperature<br />

(25C) us<strong>in</strong>g a UTM, with a 100N load cell. The extrudates cellular structure was <strong>in</strong>vestigated with<br />

SEM, operated at 15V and x35 magnification. A ten-member tra<strong>in</strong>ed panel participated <strong>in</strong> the<br />

descriptive analysis of extrudates, while the evaluated attributes <strong>in</strong>cluded diameter, crunch<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />

crispness, hardness, cohesiveness and melt<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The mathematical model used to predict <strong>in</strong>strumental properties, was a simple power model. The<br />

proposed equation has the form:<br />

nTM , nFM , nXM , nCM<br />

,<br />

(1)<br />

T F X 100C <br />

<br />

MM0 <br />

T0 F0 X0 100C0<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2123

where M is the property, M 0 is the property at reference conditions, T is the extrusion temperature, F<br />

is the feed rate, X is the feed moisture content and C is the lentil to corn ratio. The symbols with<br />

zero <strong>in</strong>dexes <strong>in</strong>dicate the respective values at reference conditions. The reference conditions are<br />

200°C temperature, 4.68 kg/h feed rate, 16 % wb feed moisture content and material ratio 30%.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The parameter estimates of <strong>in</strong>strumental properties, apparent density ( app) expansion ratio<br />

(Exp.Ratio), modulus of elasticity (E) and number of peaks dur<strong>in</strong>g compression (N) are summarized<br />

<strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

Table 1. Results of parameters estimation of <strong>in</strong>strumental properties.<br />

app Exp. Ratio E N<br />

M 0 0.146 ± 0.001 2.251 ± 0.014 1.151 ± 0.013 10.007±0.191<br />

n T, M -0.537 ± 0.026 0.251 ± 0.021 -0.122 ± 0.035 -3.029±0.054<br />

n F,M 0.075 ± 0.053 -0.282 ± 0.046 -0.061 ± 0.073 0.716±0.100<br />

n X,M 0.741 ± 0.063 -1.086 ± 0.045 1.177 ± 0.083 -0.406±0.135<br />

n C,M -0.615 ± 0.019 0.414 ± 0.025 -0.498 ± 0.025 0.100±0.045<br />

R 2 0.888 0.923 0.817 0.880<br />

Structural properties were significantly affected by the process conditions (p

The study on SFLAB GanedenBC30 viability on bak<strong>in</strong>g products dur<strong>in</strong>g storage<br />

Chia-L<strong>in</strong>g Jao a , Shih-Li Huang b , Shao-Chi Wu a , Hsu Kuo-Chiang c<br />

a<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Tung-Fang Design University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan,<br />

R.O.C. (cljao@mail.tf.edu.tw)<br />

b<br />

Department of bak<strong>in</strong>g technology and management, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and<br />

Tourism, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C. (hsl@mail.nkuht.edu.tw)<br />

c<br />

Department of Nutrition, Ch<strong>in</strong>a Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.<br />

(kchsu@mail.cmu.edu.tw)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

SFLAB (spore form<strong>in</strong>g lactic acid produc<strong>in</strong>g bacteria) are a group of Gram-positive<br />

bacteria, shar<strong>in</strong>g characteristics common to the genera Bacillus and Lactobacillus. This group<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes B. coagulans, B. racemilacticus, B. laevolacticus, and members of the genus<br />

Sporolactobacillus. Many factors make SFLAB good candidates for a probiotic use: (i) they<br />

are easily cultured <strong>in</strong> ‘bulk’; (ii) they produce organic acids; and (iii) they posse the capacity to<br />

sporulate [1]. In addition, <strong>in</strong> the spore form, SFLAB are more resistant to heat, which<br />

facilitates the pellet<strong>in</strong>g process used <strong>in</strong> the mass production of probiotic animal feeds. On the<br />

other hand, SFLAB also have the advantage to have lower nutritional requirements, a good<br />

resistance to different environmental stress [1]. SFLAB GanedenBC 30 is the trademarked<br />

name for the patented stra<strong>in</strong> of probiotic bacteria, Bacillus (B.) coagulans GBI-30, 6086.<br />

GanedenBC 30 is a natural supplement that can help support your digestive health and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />

your immune system [2].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For understand the GanedenBC 30 used different way could affect their viability after bak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The 8 different bak<strong>in</strong>g products were made from 0.5% GanedenBC 30 that added <strong>in</strong> their dough<br />

by two ways: (a) flour powder or (b) egg yolk. And then the (a) pH value, (b) titratable acidity,<br />

(c) GanedenBC 30 counts, and (d) viability GanedenBC 30 of 8 different bak<strong>in</strong>g products were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed after storage at 4 o C for 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 days, or 25 o C for 0, 3, 6 days.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The 8 type’s dough had relatively lower pH value and rise after bak<strong>in</strong>g. As titratable acidity<br />

of the 8 type’s dough appear relatively higher amount and descend after bak<strong>in</strong>g. However, pH<br />

value and titratable acidity <strong>in</strong> the 8 bak<strong>in</strong>g products were ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the same without change<br />

after 9 days under 4 o C. On the other hand, the GanedenBC 30 counts <strong>in</strong> the 8 bak<strong>in</strong>g products<br />

were reduc<strong>in</strong>g than their raw dough conta<strong>in</strong>s GanedenBC 30 . Both storage at 4 and 25 o C, the<br />

results show the GanedenBC 30 viability of bak<strong>in</strong>g products were decreas<strong>in</strong>g with storage days,<br />

and storage at 25 o C had relatively decreas<strong>in</strong>g on viability of GanedenBC 30 than 4 o C. And the<br />

dough made by flour powder and bak<strong>in</strong>g that show higher GanedenBC 30 viability than by egg<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2125

Table 1. pH values, titratable acidities (TA), GanedenBC 30 counts (log CFU/mL), and viability of the<br />

chrysanthemum cookies conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g GanedenBC 30 dur<strong>in</strong>g storage under refrigeration temperature or at<br />

room temperature<br />

Raw Dough Day<br />

Refrigeration<br />

Temperature<br />

Room<br />

Temperature<br />

0<br />

3<br />

6<br />

9<br />

12<br />

15<br />

0<br />

3<br />

6<br />

pH<br />

value<br />

5.52 <br />

0.01 e<br />

5.87 <br />

0.01 bc<br />

5.85 <br />

0.02 cd<br />

5.84 <br />

0.02 d<br />

5.89 <br />

0.02 b<br />

5.88 <br />

0.02 bc<br />

5.87 <br />

0.02 bc<br />

5.86 <br />

0.01 cd<br />

5.87 <br />

0.02 bc<br />

5.94 <br />

0.02 a<br />

GanedenBC 30 <strong>in</strong> Powder GanedenBC 30 <strong>in</strong> Egg Yolk<br />

TA<br />

0.17 <br />

0.02 a<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.10 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.02 b<br />

log<br />

CFU/g<br />

7.12 <br />

0.03 a<br />

6.96 <br />

0.01 b<br />

6.94 <br />

0.02 bc<br />

6.90 <br />

0.01 cd<br />

6.89 <br />

0.01 d<br />

6.86 <br />

0.02 ef<br />

6.84 <br />

0.03 ef<br />

6.90 <br />

0.01 cd<br />

6.87 <br />

0.03 de<br />

6.82 <br />

0.02 f<br />

Viability<br />

(%)<br />

100.0<br />

68.9<br />

65.9<br />

59.8<br />

58.3<br />

54.5<br />

52.3<br />

59.8<br />

56.1<br />

50.0<br />

pH<br />

value<br />

5.44 <br />

0.01 d<br />

5.61 <br />

0.01 c<br />

5.65 <br />

0.02 ab<br />

5.64 <br />

0.01 b<br />

5.65 <br />

0.01 ab<br />

5.65 <br />

0.02 ab<br />

5.65 <br />

0.02 ab<br />

5.67 <br />

0.01 a<br />

5.67 <br />

0.02 a<br />

5.64 <br />

0.02 b<br />

TA<br />

0.19 <br />

0.02 a<br />

0.13 <br />

0.01 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.01 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.01 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.01 b<br />

0.11 <br />

0.02 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.01 b<br />

0.12 <br />

0.01 b<br />

log<br />

CFU/g<br />

7.46 <br />

0.19 a<br />

6.74 <br />

0.01 b<br />

6.63 <br />

0.10 bc<br />

6.60 <br />

0.03 bc<br />

6.56 <br />

0.03 bc<br />

6.50 <br />

0.04 bc<br />

6.46 <br />

0.17 cd<br />

6.47 <br />

0.12 cd<br />

6.25 <br />

0.07 d<br />

5.75 <br />

0.07 e<br />

Viability<br />

(%)<br />

100.0<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The GanedenBC 30 are good candidates for bak<strong>in</strong>g products us<strong>in</strong>g, both <strong>in</strong> lactic acid<br />

production and probiotic preparations for 8 test bak<strong>in</strong>g products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Hyronimus B., Le Marrec C., Hadj Sassi A. & Deschamps A. 2000. Acid and bile tolerance of sporeform<strong>in</strong>g<br />

lactic acid bacteria. <strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 61(2-3): 193-197.<br />

[2] Maathuis A.J.H., Keller D. & Farmer S. 2010. Survival and metabolic activity of the GanedenBC 30<br />

stra<strong>in</strong> of Bacillus coagulans <strong>in</strong> a dynamic <strong>in</strong> vitro model of the stomach and small <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Beneficial Microbes, 1(1): 31-36.<br />

2126<br />

18.3<br />

14.3<br />

13.3<br />

12.0<br />

10.7<br />

10.0<br />

10.0<br />

6.0<br />

1.9

Formulation and characterization of biocompatible microemulsions as nutraceutics.<br />

Aristotelis Xenakis, Vassiliki Papadimitriou, Theodore G. Sotiroudis<br />

National Hellenic Research Foundation, Institute Of Biological Research & Biotechnology,<br />

Athens, Greece. arisx@eie.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Emulsion preparation <strong>in</strong> conventional food <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>in</strong>volves the application of energy to<br />

mixtures of oil, water, and emulsifier that stabilizes the <strong>in</strong>terfacial layer between the dispersed<br />

and cont<strong>in</strong>uous phases. These macroemulsions are turbid, hav<strong>in</strong>g droplet sizes rang<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

0.2 to 10 μm and may rema<strong>in</strong> k<strong>in</strong>etically stable. Microemulsions, on the other hand, are<br />

thermodynamically stable, transparent isotropic solutions with particle sizes rang<strong>in</strong>g from 5 to<br />

100 nm, and form spontaneously. Application of microemulsions <strong>in</strong> foods is limited by the<br />

types of surfactants which are used. Many surfactants are not permissible <strong>in</strong> foods or may be<br />

added at low levels. Microemulsions can be considered as delivery systems as they can<br />

solubilize simultaneously hydrophilic, lipophilic and amphiphilic substances. Many studies <strong>in</strong><br />

the pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields reported enhanced solubilization of poorly soluble<br />

compounds and improved bioavailability follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to microemulsions. A<br />

similar case could be the solubilization of compounds with bioactive capability isolated from<br />

vary<strong>in</strong>g food sources.<br />

In the present study the use of olive oil for the formulation of lecith<strong>in</strong> based microemulsions is<br />

suggested. Virg<strong>in</strong> olive oil (VOO) conta<strong>in</strong>s a variety of m<strong>in</strong>or components such as free fatty<br />

acids, phospholipids (endogenous amphiphiles), polyphenols and partial glycerides [1]. Studies<br />

from this laboratory have shown the presence of prote<strong>in</strong>s and enzymes <strong>in</strong> VOO [2]. As a<br />

consequence VOO itself can be considered a f<strong>in</strong>e emulsion of a water phase <strong>in</strong> a cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

non-polar phase [3].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Extra virg<strong>in</strong> olive oil samples (from olives of cv. Koroneiki) were from oil mills of Filiatra,<br />

Greece. Ref<strong>in</strong>ed olive oil was donated by Elais -Unilever S.A., Greece. Soybean lecith<strong>in</strong><br />

(Emulmetic 930) conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 92% phosphatidylchol<strong>in</strong>e, was supplied from Lucas Meyer<br />

Cosmetics SAS, France. 1-Propanol was from Merck, Darmstadt, Germany. High-purity water<br />

was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a Millipore Milli Q Plus system.<br />

A typical olive oil based w/o microemulsion was prepared by mix<strong>in</strong>g olive oil with a mixture<br />

of lecith<strong>in</strong>/1-propanol (1:3) result<strong>in</strong>g a solution conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 85% w/w oil and 15% w/w<br />

emulsifiers. Then appropriate amounts of water were added to obta<strong>in</strong> a clear reverse micellar<br />

solution. The composition of the microemulsions used was chosen to correspond to the<br />

monophasic area of the pseudoternary phase diagrams of the system determ<strong>in</strong>ed at 25° C [4].<br />

Traces of water present <strong>in</strong> olive oil and lecith<strong>in</strong> were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Karl Fischer titration and<br />

taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration <strong>in</strong> the calculation of the total water content of the system.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Four component microemulsions consist<strong>in</strong>g of VOO or ref<strong>in</strong>ed olive oil (ROO) as non-polar<br />

solvent, lecith<strong>in</strong> as surfactant, propanol as cosurfactant and water were prepared. The choice of<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2127

the compositions of the microemulsions used was based on the pseudo-ternary phase diagrams<br />

of the four-component system determ<strong>in</strong>ed at 25° C for different weight ratios of the<br />

components [4]. Alternative formulations us<strong>in</strong>g limonene and a series of biocompatible<br />

alcohols were also tested. The structure of VOO microemulsions was studied by means of<br />

various techniques, such as Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, Fluorescence Quench<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

Dynamic Light Scatter<strong>in</strong>g, Differential Scann<strong>in</strong>g Calorimetry and Conductivity.<br />

Figure 1. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams for the four-component systems olive<br />

oil/lecith<strong>in</strong>/propanol/water conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g extra virg<strong>in</strong> olive oil (EVOO).The phase separation l<strong>in</strong>es<br />

correspond to the <strong>in</strong>itially fixed weight ratio of lecith<strong>in</strong>/propanol: 2:1 () and 1:3 (). Compositions are<br />

<strong>in</strong> weight ratios. The temperature was 25C. [4]<br />

It was found that the water molecules of the dispersed phase are bound to the amphiphiles.<br />

When VOO was used, the size of the droplets was significantly smaller than the ones of ROO<br />

due to the presence of the endogenous amphiphiles [5]. At water content above 3% (w/w) and a<br />

high lecith<strong>in</strong>/propanol weight ratio a sharp <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> conductivity was observed, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

structural transition <strong>in</strong> the bicont<strong>in</strong>uous form. The structure of the <strong>in</strong>terface was <strong>in</strong>fluenced by<br />

the concentration of the various components of the microemulsion system.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Microemulsions, as a food delivery system, may be a potential candidate to improve the<br />

solubility and <strong>in</strong>crease the bioavailability of food derived bioactive compounds.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Boskou D. Olive Oil: Chemistry and Technology; AOCS Press, Champaign IL USA, 1996.<br />

[2] Georgalaki M.D. et.al J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1998, 75, 155-159.<br />

[3] Xenakis A. et.al 2010 Curr.Op<strong>in</strong>ion Colloid Interface Sci. 15, 55-60<br />

[4] Papadimitriou V. et.al Langmuir 2007, 23, 2071-2077<br />

[5] Papadimitriou V. et.al J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2005, 82, 335-340.<br />

2128

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g and technological characterization of extruded breakfast cereal obta<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

a mix of broken rice and common bean flour<br />

Carvalho, A.V. a , Bass<strong>in</strong>ello P.Z. b , Rios, A. de O. c<br />

a Embrapa Eastern Amazon, Belém, Brazil (anavania@cpatu.embrapa.br)<br />

b Embrapa Rice and Beans, Goiânia, Brazil (pzbass<strong>in</strong>@cnpaf.embrapa.br)<br />

c Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil (alessandro.rios@ufrgs.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Consider<strong>in</strong>g that the lack of good quality prote<strong>in</strong> and calories <strong>in</strong> a diet can result <strong>in</strong> a<br />

generalized malnutrition, then there is the possibility of exploit<strong>in</strong>g the rice and beans through<br />

the process<strong>in</strong>g by extrusion cook<strong>in</strong>g, with the possibility of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g products with good<br />

quality technological, nutritional and sensory. The aim of this work was to evaluate the<br />

functional technological properties of breakfast cereal obta<strong>in</strong>ed with a mix of broken rice and<br />

common bean flour, by the analyses of expansion <strong>in</strong>dex, water absorption <strong>in</strong>dex, water<br />

solubility <strong>in</strong>dex, apparent density, viscosity and <strong>in</strong>strumental texture.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The breakfast cereal was elaborated with a rice and common bean mixed flour, us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

proportion of 70% broken rice flour and 30% of broken common bean flour. The tested<br />

formulation was processed <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle-screw extruder. The extrusion parameters were set us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

three extrusion zones with temperatures of 40°C (1 st zone), 60°C (2 nd zone) e 80°C (3 rd zone);<br />

mixture moisture dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g set at 14%; screw speed set at 177 rpm; feed<strong>in</strong>g rate of<br />

290g/m<strong>in</strong>ute and circular matrix of 3.85mm. The developed breakfast cereal was spr<strong>in</strong>kled<br />

with a sufficient quantity of a 70 ºBrix sucrose solution to make a f<strong>in</strong>al product with<br />

approximately 35% sugar. The processed formulation was manually collected, submitted to a<br />

forced air circulation oven dry<strong>in</strong>g and, afterwards, it was stored <strong>in</strong> polyethylene bags until<br />

analyses. In order to characterize some technological performance of the breakfast cereal the<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g analyses were performed: apparent density [1], radial expansion <strong>in</strong>dex [2], water<br />

absorption and water solubility <strong>in</strong>dexes [3], pasta viscosity (RVA), and <strong>in</strong>strumental texture<br />

(texture analyzer Stable Micro Systems model TA.XT Plus).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results for the technological characterization of the breakfast cereal of rice and beans are<br />

presented on Table 1.<br />

Table 1. Results of means and standard deviation for apparent density, expansion <strong>in</strong>dex and<br />

<strong>in</strong>strumental texture of the breakfast cereal of rice and beans.<br />

Apparent Expansion Water<br />

Water<br />

Texture (g.f)<br />

density<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex absorption solubility <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex (g/g)<br />

(%)<br />

0.25±0.00 8.89±0.14 6.41±0.13 44.50±0.14 1,087.44±220.44<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2129

The breakfast cereal of broken rice and common beans showed an apparent density of 0.25<br />

similar to the values related by Ascheri et al. [4], who studied expanded products made of<br />

whole amaranths and broken rice flours, and depend<strong>in</strong>g on the process conditions, reported<br />

values vary<strong>in</strong>g from 0.13 to 0.68. The expansion <strong>in</strong>dex is a measure that allows one, at first, to<br />

predict how severe or light the extrusion process was. The rice and beans breakfast cereal<br />

showed an expansion <strong>in</strong>dex of 8.89, a value superior to those related by Vernaza et al. [5] for<br />

breakfast cereal formulated with passion fruit bran. The water absorption (WAI) and water<br />

solubility (WSI) <strong>in</strong>dexes are parameters that help to measure the transformation degree<br />

suffered by the amylaceous fraction of the extruded materials. The rice and beans breakfast<br />

cereal had a WAI of 6.41g/g and WSI of 44.50% (Table 1). The texture is a critical factor for<br />

the quality of crispy and expanded products. The rice and beans breakfast cereal had a hardness<br />

value of 1087.44g.f. On the other hand, Vernaza et al. [5] studied different process conditions<br />

to elaborate breakfast cereal of passion fruit bran and corn flour and found a wide range for<br />

hardness, from 954g.f to 2623.73g.f The paste viscosity is an important attribute to study the<br />

functional properties of starchy food, be<strong>in</strong>g one of the ways to evaluate the degradation degree<br />

that occurs <strong>in</strong> these materials dur<strong>in</strong>g thermal treatment. Severe treatments destroy the starch<br />

granular structure, reduc<strong>in</strong>g the paste viscosity, what can be observed <strong>in</strong> this work through<br />

viscosity values below 130cP.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It is possible produce extruded breakfast cereal us<strong>in</strong>g the proportion of 70% broken rice flour<br />

and 30% of broken common bean flour and the f<strong>in</strong>al product shows good technological<br />

properties.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ramirez, J.L.A.; Wanderley, C.P. 1997. Effect de los parametros de extrusion, caracteristicas de pasta<br />

y textura de pellets (snacks de terceira generacion) producidos a partir de trigo y maiz. Alimentaria,<br />

279(1), 93-98.<br />

[2] Alvarez-Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, L.; Kondury, K.P.; Harper, J.M. 1988. A general-model for expansion of extruded<br />

products. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 53, 609-615.<br />

[3] Anderson, R.A.; Conway, H.F.; Pfeifer, V.F.; Griff<strong>in</strong>, L. 1969. Gelat<strong>in</strong>ization of corn grits by roll and<br />

extrusuion cook<strong>in</strong>g. Cereal Science Today, 14(1), 4-11.<br />

[4] Ascheri, J. L.; Mendonça, X. M. F. D.; Ascheri, D. P. R.; Maia, M. C. A. 2005. Extrusão de har<strong>in</strong>a<br />

mixta de amranto <strong>in</strong>tegral y arroz: Parte I. Caracterización físico-química. Alimentaria, 367, 74-83.<br />

[5] Vernaza, M.G.; Chang, Y.K.; Steel, C.J. , 2009. Efeito do teor de farelo de maracujá e da umidade e<br />

temperatura de extrusão no desenvolvimento de cereal mat<strong>in</strong>al funcional orgânico. Brazilian Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, 12(2), 145-154.<br />

2130

Cereal bar development us<strong>in</strong>g exotic fruit<br />

Edmilson Rabelo Torres a , Everton Santana Castro a , Roneval Felix de Santana b , Juliana Cordeiro<br />

Cardoso a,b , Cleide Mara Faria Soares a,b , Álvaro Silva Lima a,b,*<br />

a Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brasil<br />

b Instituto de Tecnologia e Pesquisa, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brasil, * E-mail: alvaro_lima@unit.br<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Nowadays, the consumption of fast-foods and snacks has <strong>in</strong>creased, but the desire for healthy<br />

and functional foods <strong>in</strong>creased at the same rate. In this sense the development of cereal bars<br />

formulation presents itself as an emerg<strong>in</strong>g force for this niche market. Cereal bars are a popular<br />

and convenient food and, therefore, would be an ideal food format to deliver fruit-derived<br />

phenolic antioxidants and fibre [1]. Some <strong>in</strong>gredients can be used for the formulation of cereal<br />

bars, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g exotic fruits and organic residues are still <strong>in</strong> the enrichment of this product.<br />

Papers report the use of cashew nut, passion fruit and amaranth. The goal of this research is<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed cereal bars us<strong>in</strong>g exotic fruit (jenipapo and jack fruit seeds) <strong>in</strong> different composition<br />

and compare sensorial and physic-chemically the cereal bars developed with standard and<br />

commercial formulations.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Materials: The jenipapo pulp, jackfruit seed and all the raw materials to produce the cereal<br />

bars was purchased of local market from Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil. The chemicals were acquired<br />

from Labsynth (Brazil) and had analytical grade. Cereal bar formulation: The cereal bars was<br />

formulated us<strong>in</strong>g dry raw material (bran of oat -35% and rice – 15%) and agglut<strong>in</strong>ative<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients (glucose syrup – 25% and honey – 25%). The exotic fruit was added to the base<br />

formulation at different <strong>in</strong>corporation percentages. The agglut<strong>in</strong>ative <strong>in</strong>gredients were heated<br />

to 95 o C and added to the dry <strong>in</strong>gredients, and then the bars were moulded (9x3x1, 5cm) and<br />

cooled to -20 o C for 10 m<strong>in</strong>, packaged <strong>in</strong> alum<strong>in</strong>ium and stored <strong>in</strong> a cool dry place at 25 o C.<br />

Centesimal composition: The cereal bars were evaluated for their physical-chemistry<br />

characteristics, <strong>in</strong> triplicate (n=3) accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOAC [2].Texture analysis: After 4 days of<br />

storage, the hardness and crispness were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a texture analyzer. Sensorial<br />

evaluation: A panel of 60 consumers was <strong>in</strong>structed to evaluate the sensorial attributes such as<br />

appearance, taste, flavor, texture and overall l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. A 9-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic scale with 1= dislike<br />

extremely, 5= neither like nor like dislike and 9= like extremely was used. Statistical analysis:<br />

Sensory data were analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g the Statistical Analysis System (SAS).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The cereal bars were formulated with jenipapo and jack fruit seeds <strong>in</strong> different concentration<br />

(5, 10 and 15%) and evaluated by sensorial analyze of acceptability. The notes of attributes<br />

sensorial to cereal bars decreased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>corporation of jenipapo from<br />

approximately 7.0 (like moderately) to 5 (neither liked nor disliked). Statistical analysis<br />

showed that the cereal bars with 5% of jenipapo were different from those conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 10% and<br />

15%, which were statistically similar (p 0.05) among themselves. It was also observed that<br />

all cereal bars formulated with jack fruit seed did not differ significantly (p < 0.05) for all<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2131

sensory parameters analyzed. In most cases, the notes for the sensory attributes were<br />

approximately 7.0. Thus, the formulations with 15% of jack fruit seeds and 5% of jenipapo<br />

were chosen to compare the sensorial, physico-chemical and texture characteristics among<br />

cereal bars standard, commercial and formulated with exotic fruits. The cereal bar standard and<br />

those formulated with jenipapo and jack fruit seed were extremely similar, the appearance<br />

attribute did not significant difference (p < 0.05) for all cereal bars. In general, the cereal bars<br />

had similar acceptance, with sensory note above 6.17. Freitas and Moretti [3] obta<strong>in</strong>ed average<br />

scores for sensory evaluation of cereal bars banana flavor below of all score observed <strong>in</strong> this<br />

work. The hardness values ranged between 942.01 (g) and 1900.04 (g), but the values did not<br />

statistically different (p 0.05) among themselves. For the crispness attribute the change was<br />

156.27 (g.s -1 ) 456.58 (g.s -1 ). The bars with jenipapo 5% and standard were similar when<br />

compared with commercial cereal bars. Compar<strong>in</strong>g the sensory analysis for attribute texture<br />

and the <strong>in</strong>strumental value for this parameter, we can see that the cereal bar namely<br />

commercial 1 had the highest score for texture, but the value for hardness and crispness were<br />

the lowest values. As conclusion, the values of hardness and crispness <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> the<br />

acceptance of the cereal bars. It is verified that the content total fiber of cereal bars formulated<br />

with jenipapo (5%) and jack fruit seeds (15%) were 19.2 and 25.5 times, respectively, higher<br />

than the cereal bar standard, and above 13.8 and 6.0 times when compare with cereal bars<br />

commercial 1 and 2, respectively. Therefore, the cereal bars formulated <strong>in</strong> this work could be<br />

considered as foods rich <strong>in</strong> fiber. The prote<strong>in</strong> content was very low (approximately 0.05 for all<br />

bars). The <strong>in</strong>corporation of exotic fruits allows smaller amounts of carbohydrates, a reduction<br />

of approximately 14% of energy. Some authors report their research <strong>in</strong> the physical-chemical<br />

values of cereal bars. Lima [4] us<strong>in</strong>g cashew to produce cereal bars, verified 7.40% of<br />

moisture, 9.73% of prote<strong>in</strong> 1.63% of ash, 9.70% of lipids and 5.84% of fiber, Freitas and<br />

Moretti [3] produced cereal bars on the basis of textured soy prote<strong>in</strong> and wheat germ, toasted,<br />

with values of 10.71% moisture, 15.31% prote<strong>in</strong>, ash 2 20%, lipid 5.64%, 5.17% fiber and<br />

60.97 carbohydrates.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The highest <strong>in</strong>corporation of jenipapo and jackfruit seed <strong>in</strong> cereal bars, with greater sensory<br />

acceptance, were 5% and 15% respectively. The comparison of the textures, physic-chemical<br />

and sensory characteristics of the cereal bars formulated with exotic fruits and the standard and<br />

commercial cereal bars <strong>in</strong>dicate that the exotic raw materials can be use to formulated cereal<br />

bars, besides the reduction approximately 14% of caloric value and <strong>in</strong>crease the content fiber <strong>in</strong><br />

the cereal bar.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Sun-Waterhouse, D., Teoh, A., Massarotto, C., Wibisono, R. & Wadhwa, S. 2010. Comparative<br />

analysis of fruit-based functional snack bars. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 119, 1369–1379.<br />

[2] AOAC. 1998. Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemistry, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton,<br />

USA.<br />

[3] Freitas. G.C. & Moretti, R.H. 2006. Caracterização e avaliação sensorial de barra de cereais funcional<br />

de alto teor protéico e vitamínico. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 26, 318-324.<br />

[4] Lima, A.C. 2004. Estudo para a agregação de calor aos produtos de caju: elaboração de formulações<br />

de frutas e castanha em barras. PhD Thesis. UNICAMP, Camp<strong>in</strong>as- SP, Brazil.<br />

2132

Substitution of Ingredients by Green Coconut (Cocos nucifera L) Pulp <strong>in</strong> Ice Cream<br />

Formulation<br />

A. M. Iguti a , A. C. I. Pereira a , L. Fabiano a , R. A. F. Silva a ; E. P. Ribeiro a<br />

a Maua Institute of Technology, Sao Caetano do Sul, Brazil (amiguti@maua.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Brazil is a great producer of coconut. Despite the volume of mature coconut consumed, an<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand for green coconut has been observed to extract its water, that is a very<br />

popular dr<strong>in</strong>k, consumed either <strong>in</strong> natura or after cartoon packag<strong>in</strong>g. Beaches are places where<br />

coconut water is consumed ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> natura. As each fruit generates about 1.5 kg of residue, a<br />

very serious environmental problem has to be solved because, accord<strong>in</strong>g to estimative, of all<br />

the garbage collected from the beaches, about 70% comes from green coconut. Two aspects are<br />

more concern<strong>in</strong>g: the big volume and the slow degradation [1]. Although many green coconut<br />

water and husk researches have been developed lately, only a few about green coconut pulp are<br />

found <strong>in</strong> scientific publications. This study <strong>in</strong>tended to demonstrate that green coconut pulp can<br />

replace milk, gums and emulsifiers <strong>in</strong> ice cream-like product formulation.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Green coconut from Paraiba State, Brazil, was purchased at Ceasa (Supply Centre of Santo<br />

Andre, Sao Paulo). Fruits had the water extracted and the pulp separated. It was homogenized<br />

and stored at -18 C. To the process, liquid <strong>in</strong>gredients and the pulp were stirred and heated to<br />

45-50 ºC. The powdered <strong>in</strong>gredients were added. The mixture was pasteurized at 87 °C for two<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes and, after cool<strong>in</strong>g, the age<strong>in</strong>g lasted 24 hours. Whipp<strong>in</strong>g and freez<strong>in</strong>g were done <strong>in</strong> a<br />

shaved surface heat exchanger. The product was kept at -18 ºC. Moisture, ash, sugar and<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> content were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> triplicate accord<strong>in</strong>g to methods described <strong>in</strong> AOAC. Lipid<br />

content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Bligh Dyer method. Overrun was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the % decrease <strong>in</strong><br />

weight of the product compared to the weight of same volume of mix used to produce it.<br />

Melt<strong>in</strong>g time was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by measur<strong>in</strong>g the time to thaw 10 g of the product at 25 C.<br />

Acceptance test<strong>in</strong>g was used to measure magnitude of like/dislike for f<strong>in</strong>al formulation, based<br />

on a 9 po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic scale for overall lik<strong>in</strong>g. The seven different formulations tested <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />

the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gredients, used all together or not: coconut pulp, cocoa powder, sucrose, water,<br />

carrageenan gum, guar gum and hydrogenated vegetable fat. The f<strong>in</strong>al formulation had cocoa<br />

powder (11%), green coconut pulp (41%), sucrose (17%) and water (31%). It is called sorbet.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Green coconut pulp is a very smooth material that changes accord<strong>in</strong>g to maturation stage. The<br />

more mature the fruit, harder and coarser is its pulp. In early development stages, the pulp is<br />

jellylike; when completely mature, it becomes thicker, fibrous and hard, as reported <strong>in</strong><br />

literature [2]. The proximate composition of green coconut pulp also presents broad variation,<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ly because composition changes dur<strong>in</strong>g nut development [2]. Most of its composition is<br />

water. In dry basis, pulp used <strong>in</strong> this work presented 4.7% prote<strong>in</strong>, 14% lipid, 4.1% ash and<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2133

77.1% carbohydrates. After process, the sorbet composition was 65.0% moisture, 2.4% prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />

1.0% lipid, 0.36% ash and 31.2% carbohydrate. It is lactose and cholesterol free and low fat<br />

product. The product, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Brazilian law, cannot be called ice cream because it does<br />

not conta<strong>in</strong> milk or solids from milk. It would be classified as sorbet because it conta<strong>in</strong>s more<br />

than 20% total solids, and is prepared with fruit pulp.<br />

The overrun result was 19.9%, much lower than values of overrun <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale ice cream<br />

production, which can be partially expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the equipment. It did not permit overrun or air<br />

cell size control, which are important parameters to ice cream quality [3].<br />

In spite of low overrun results, the sorbet presented good cream<strong>in</strong>ess, got from green coconut<br />

pulp. It presented good sensory evaluation too. For this analysis, panellists were told that a<br />

chocolate ice cream-like product was be<strong>in</strong>g evaluated. Almost 90% of the responses were “like<br />

extremely” or “like very much”, which is a good evaluation of the product. About 93% of the<br />

panellists would buy the product.<br />

Ice cream is a system that conta<strong>in</strong>s air bubbles distributed <strong>in</strong> a frozen mix of water, fat, prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />

sweeteners, stabilizers and emulsifiers. Each component has its function <strong>in</strong> the system and,<br />

besides its presence and proportions, the distribution, state of crystallization, droplet size and<br />

spatial arrangement are critical for structure development of f<strong>in</strong>al product. That is why process<br />

conditions are important. Studies have shown the importance of fat and emulsifier <strong>in</strong> ice cream<br />

characteristics [4,5]. As the sorbet f<strong>in</strong>al formulation had no fat, stabilizers or emulsifiers added,<br />

the good characteristics of the product should be attributed to coconut pulp and cacao<br />

components. However, <strong>in</strong> our laboratory, we could verify that an ice cream-like product could<br />

be formulated without cacao powder and that green coconut pulp has emulsify<strong>in</strong>g and foam<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capacity (data not shown). To cont<strong>in</strong>ue this research, it is necessary to f<strong>in</strong>d the <strong>in</strong>gredient<br />

proportions to get the best results and verify how the development stage affects the product.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Components <strong>in</strong> green coconut pulp, probably prote<strong>in</strong>s and carbohydrates, have emulsifier and<br />

stabilizer properties, respectively. These properties permit development of cholesterol and<br />

lactose free, low fat ice cream-like deserts.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária. Embrapa Agro<strong>in</strong>dústria Tropical. Aproveitamento da<br />

Casca de Coco Verde. Available at:<br />

http://hotsites.sct.embrapa.br/diacampo/programacao/2005/aproveitamento-da-casca-de-coco-verde.<br />

[2] Grimwood, B.G. 1975. Coconut Palm Products – Their <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g In Develop<strong>in</strong>g Countries. <strong>Food</strong> and<br />

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fao. Rome.<br />

[3] Sofjan, R.P. & Hartel, R.W. 2004. Effects Of Overrun On Structural And Physical Characteristics Of<br />

Ice Cream. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal, 14, 255–262.<br />

[4] Aime, D.B.; Arntfield, S.D.; Malcolmson, L.J. & Ryland. D. 2001. Textural Analysis Of Fat Reduced<br />

Vanilla Ice Cream Products. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong> 34(2-3), 237-246.<br />

[5] Segall, K.I. & Goff, H.D. 2002 A Modified Ice Cream <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Rout<strong>in</strong>e That Promotes Fat<br />

Destabilization In The Absence Of Added Emulsifier. <strong>International</strong> Dairy Journal 12, 1013–1018.<br />

2134

Evaluation of Dry<strong>in</strong>g Green Coconut Pulp for Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a Snack-Like Product<br />

W. H. Prieto; E. A. G. Seravalli; A. M. Iguti; M. Nitz<br />

Mauá Institute of Technology, São Caetano do Sul, Brazil (wh.prieto@terra.com.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The consumption of fresh or <strong>in</strong>dustrialized coconut water (Cocos nucifera L) <strong>in</strong> Brazil has been<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. A serious environmental problem has come up due to the <strong>in</strong>appropriate disposal of<br />

the husks. It is estimated that 350 million liters of green coconut water are consumed <strong>in</strong> Brazil<br />

every year and this consumption produces approximately 2 million tons of green coconut husk.<br />

Barroso (2005) [1] showed that 70% of the waste generated <strong>in</strong> Brazilian coastal urban centers<br />

is green coconut husk. Studies done <strong>in</strong> our laboratories show that the pulp rejected with the<br />

husk presents <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g properties and can be used as an <strong>in</strong>gredient with potential applications<br />

<strong>in</strong> food formulations. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />

snack-like product by means of dry<strong>in</strong>g green coconut pulp. Dry<strong>in</strong>g will be performed <strong>in</strong> both a<br />

cab<strong>in</strong>et dryer and a pulsed fluid bed dryer, assess<strong>in</strong>g the product quality parameters and<br />

relat<strong>in</strong>g them to the process variables.<br />

MATERIAL & METHODS<br />

Dry<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics under different temperatures (60 °C, 70 °C and 80 °C) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed with a<br />

cab<strong>in</strong>et dryer produced by Armfield, UK. It consists of a 28 cm × 28 cm square duct and a fan<br />

with adjustable speed, which blows the air through electric resistances, controlled by a PID<br />

controller. The four-section pulsed fluid bed dryer used <strong>in</strong> this work has a total cross sectional<br />

area of 0.18 m² (0.30 m × 0.60 m). Besides, the follow<strong>in</strong>g characteristics were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the raw and dried material: enzymatic activity (Polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase - method<br />

described by CAMPOS & SILVEIRA (2003) [2]), water activity (was measured with a<br />

Hygrometer (Aqualab Decagon Devices, Model Serie 3TE) at 25 °C)), moisture content (was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed as described <strong>in</strong> A.O.A.C (1984) [3].), texture (analyses were performed us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

Texture Analyzer (TA- TA-XT2i, Stable Microsystems Ltd., UK) and color (parameter L -<br />

were performed us<strong>in</strong>g the colorimeter COLOR EYE XTH).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

In both dryers, dry<strong>in</strong>g was faster at 80 °C although there is no significant difference between<br />

the profiles at 80 and 70 ºC. At 60 ºC, the dry<strong>in</strong>g rate is considerably lower, especially <strong>in</strong> the<br />

cab<strong>in</strong>et dryer. The dry<strong>in</strong>g time required for both processes to reach equilibrium moisture<br />

content was approximately 480 m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>in</strong> all tests. In Table 1 the <strong>in</strong>itial and f<strong>in</strong>al moisture<br />

contents, lum<strong>in</strong>osity and water activity are presented. The temperature impacted the<br />

equilibrium moisture content. Higher equilibrium values were obta<strong>in</strong>ed at lower temperatures,<br />

which was expected for the equilibrium moisture content depends on the relative humidity. The<br />

variations are due to the changes <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions. The variation of the water activity<br />

values are expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the different equilibrium moisture contents and the material lack of<br />

uniformity. Values below 0.54 were obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> all dry<strong>in</strong>g conditions. One can see clearly that<br />

the parameter L*F decreased with the <strong>in</strong>crease of temperature. An important consideration<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2135

egard<strong>in</strong>g the brown<strong>in</strong>g is that this is not caused by peroxidase and poliphenoloxidase content,<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce these were not found <strong>in</strong> sufficient quantities to cause changes <strong>in</strong> color. Changes <strong>in</strong> the<br />

color of coconut pulp are probably caused by the Maillard reaction, because the color, taste and<br />

odor presented <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product are typical of this reaction. In cab<strong>in</strong>et dryer to f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

crispness (Force 1) was 5 ± 1 N and <strong>in</strong> PFB (Force 1) was 2 ± 1 N.<br />

Cab<strong>in</strong>et Dryer<br />

PFB<br />

Table 1. Quality parameters <strong>in</strong> cab<strong>in</strong>et and PFB dryer.<br />

T(°C) X0(db) Xe(db) Aw0 AwF L*0 L*F<br />

60 (6.7 ± 0.4) a (0.277 ± 0.02) a (0.991 ± 0.001) a (0.38 ± 0.02) a (79 ± 2) a (72 ± 2) a<br />

70 (6.5 ± 0.1) a (0.159 ± 0.004) b (0.993 ± 0.001) a (0.353 ± 0.002) b (83 ± 2) a (67 ± 1) b<br />

80 (6.5 ± 0.1) a (0.160 ± 0.003) b (0.994 ± 0.002) a (0.47 ± 0.02) c (80.9 ± 0.7) a (65 ± 2) b<br />

T(°C) X0(db) Xe(db) Aw0 AwF L*0 L*F<br />

60 (3.4 ± 0.4) a (0.07 ± 0.01) a (0.997 ± 0.001) a (0.54 ± 0.04) a (83 ± 3) a (71 ± 1) a<br />

70 (3.19 ± 0.08) a (0.040 ± 0.004) b (0.994 ± 0.001) a (0.42 ± 0.01) b (85 ± 1) a (73 ± 3) a<br />

80 (3.0 ± 0.5) a (0.036 ± 0.002) b (0.995 ± 0.001) a (0.42 ± 0.02) b (84 ± 2) a (63 ± 2) b<br />

Means followed by same letters <strong>in</strong> column did not differ (p>0.05) accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Duncan’s test.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Of the three process temperatures used (60, 70 and 80 ° C) that led to a more appreciated<br />

product was 70 °C <strong>in</strong> 480 m<strong>in</strong>utes of dry<strong>in</strong>g. Both process used resulted <strong>in</strong> a f<strong>in</strong>al product with<br />

very similar characteristics to a snack, but due to the high fat content and lack of sample<br />

homogeneity, only a few f<strong>in</strong>al pieces of the pulp showed the texture characteristic of chips. For<br />

a <strong>in</strong>dustrial production of snack that would be require a study of green coconut pulp<br />

maturation for chose the best maturation stage, because, <strong>in</strong> general, the higher the degree of<br />

ripeness of the coconut, higher the fat content [4] and this directly <strong>in</strong>fluences the quality of the<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al snack. For one low production, the results showed that the cab<strong>in</strong>et dryer is sufficient for<br />

the manufacture of snack, s<strong>in</strong>ce every time the tray contents are homogenized to prevent the<br />

pulp stick<strong>in</strong>g to the surface of the tray. In case of high demand, the <strong>in</strong>dicated equipment is PFB<br />

dryer because it has great productivity by allow<strong>in</strong>g the dry<strong>in</strong>g of large amounts of green<br />

coconut pulp.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Barroso, T. Fortaleza Ganha primeira Unidade de Beneficiamento de Casca de Coco Verde do<br />

Nordeste. Início. Imprensa. Notícias. 30 jun. 2005. Disponível em: . Acesso<br />

em: 19 mar. 2008.<br />

[2] CAMPOS, A. D.; SILVEIRA, E. M. da L. Metodologia para Determ<strong>in</strong>ação de Peroxidase e da<br />

Polifenoloxidase em Plantas. Comunicado Técnico EMBRAPA, 87, Pelotas, RS, p. 1-3, Abril, 2003.<br />

[3] A. O. A. C. (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). Official Methods of Analysis. 14. ed.<br />

Arl<strong>in</strong>gton: A.O.A.C., 1984. 1141p.<br />

[4] Aragão, W. M.; Cruz, E. M. de O.; Tavares, M.; Ribeiro, F. E.; Tup<strong>in</strong>ambá, E. de A.; Pimentel, S. A.;<br />

Takemoto, E. Teor de Gordura e Composição de Ácidos Graxos em Polpa de Frutos de Coqueiro<br />

Anão em Diferentes Idades de Maturação. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz. São Paulo, v. 63, n. 2, p.<br />

159-167, 2004.<br />

2136

Physical-Chemistry and Microbiological Analysis of Probiotic Dairy Beverage<br />

Fermented with Kefir<br />

Luiz Rodrigo Ito Morioka 1 ; Maria de Fátima Fonseca 1 ; Luciano Avallone Bueno 2 *; Djalma Marques 1 ;<br />

Graciliane Cruz Ximenes 3 ; Cynthia Souza 1 ; Marcos Antônio de Morais Jr 3<br />

1 BioLogicus – Research Center of Probiotics, Technology Institute of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco,<br />

Brazil;(www.biologicus.com.br)<br />

2<br />

University Rural of Pernambuco, Physical Department, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil;<br />

*(bueno@biologicus.com)<br />

3<br />

University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The concern with respect to food has been chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> recent decades, thus the concept of<br />

functional foods made science such as nutrition and medic<strong>in</strong>e can be associated, earn<strong>in</strong>g extra<br />

dimension <strong>in</strong> the XXI century. Probiotics are described as live microorganisms which when<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> adequate amounts confer benefits to its consumers. The <strong>in</strong>corporation of<br />

probiotics as dietary adjuncts <strong>in</strong> different dairy products has strengthened its functional<br />

properties, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased consumption, along with excellent sensory characteristics.<br />

The cheese whey, called sweet (pH between 6 and 7), besides be<strong>in</strong>g a secondary product of the<br />

cheese factory <strong>in</strong>dustry, is result<strong>in</strong>g from the enzymatic coagulation of milk. This secondary<br />

product <strong>in</strong> addition to represent<strong>in</strong>g approximately 85 - 95% of the <strong>in</strong>itial volume of milk used<br />

to manufacture cheese it conta<strong>in</strong>s approximately 55% of the nutrients <strong>in</strong> milk. The conversion<br />

of liquid whey <strong>in</strong> dairy beverages fermented or not, it would be one of the most attractive<br />

options for the <strong>in</strong>dustries due to the simplicity of process, the possibility of us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

equipment already <strong>in</strong> the milk process<strong>in</strong>g; the replac<strong>in</strong>g the use of whey powder, reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

costs; besides the reduction of problems relat<strong>in</strong>g to their disposal. The aim of this study was to<br />

evaluate the physical-chemical characteristics and microbiological characteristics of fermented<br />

dairy beverages made with 50% of pasteurized milk and 50% of whey added to the culture of<br />

kefir.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g fermented dairy beverages it was used whey from the production of m<strong>in</strong>as fresh cheese<br />

and pasteurized milk from Faco´s Dairy, located <strong>in</strong> Ribeirão-PE. Probiotic culture utilized was<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed by kefir milk. Reagents used <strong>in</strong> the physical-chemistry analysis were all analytical<br />

grade. Preparation of dairy beverages, obta<strong>in</strong>ed from milk and cheese whey, was based on<br />

methodology with modifications. Mixture of milk and whey (1:1) supplemented with sucrose<br />

(10g/100g mixture of milk and whey), Estabgem 83 (0.45%), modified starch (1.3%) and<br />

sorbate (0.03%) was pasteurized at 74°C for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Fermentation was conducted until pH<br />

around 4.6, and stored at 5 ± 1ºC for overnight. F<strong>in</strong>ally, there was clot break<strong>in</strong>g and after that<br />

natural pulp, natural color<strong>in</strong>g and natural strawberry flavour were added. Dairy beverages were<br />

assessed for lactic acid bacteria viability (CFU/g), Salmonella spp/25g, coliforms at 45°C<br />

(MPN/g) and yeasts (CFU/g) [1, 2]. After <strong>in</strong>oculations, dairy beverages were <strong>in</strong>cubated for<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2137

fermentation at 42°C until pH 4.6 was reached. The beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of fermentation was represented<br />

by time 0 m<strong>in</strong> and control fermentation process was monitored by analyz<strong>in</strong>g pH measure <strong>in</strong> a<br />

digital potentiometer [3] and acidity levels were carried out by titration alkalimetric acid, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

phenolphthale<strong>in</strong> as <strong>in</strong>dicator. When pH of dairy beverage approached 4.6 the fermentation was<br />

stopped by cool<strong>in</strong>g and stored under refrigeration (4°C) for 22 days. Dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation<br />

samples were collected for physical-chemistry analysis.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Presumptive test for coliforms at 45°C and Salmonella spp proved negative for presence of the<br />

same. Due to the low pH of the product it is known that these microorganisms can suffer stress<br />

and not be detected <strong>in</strong> the analysis. Lower amount of coliforms at 45°C expressed as < 3.0<br />

NMP/g represents no growth, consider<strong>in</strong>g limit of the method. Thus, the absence of coliforms<br />

at 45°C <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product may also be <strong>in</strong>dicative of good hygienic and sanitary conditions,<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the preparation of dairy beverage. However, it is not detected the presence of yeasts <strong>in</strong><br />

beverages analysed. The result for the lactic acid bacteria was with<strong>in</strong> the standard scores based<br />

on the Normative Instruction n° 36, 21/12/2000 (M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture) and RDC Resolution<br />

n° 12[4], 02/01/2001 (ANVISA)[5] establish<strong>in</strong>g the m<strong>in</strong>imum 10 6 CFU/mL of lactic acid<br />

bacteria <strong>in</strong> fermented dairy beverages. The stability, aroma, flavor and texture of fermented<br />

dairy products depend on the pH. The results obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the fermentation of dairy beverage,<br />

showed a gradual decrease <strong>in</strong> pH and acidity of the product. Decrease <strong>in</strong> pH dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fermentation can be attributed to symbiotic relationship between microorganisms present and<br />

<strong>in</strong> the culture probiotic kefir. The associated growth of these microorganisms results <strong>in</strong> shorter<br />

clott<strong>in</strong>g fermentation, <strong>in</strong>creased production of lactic acid and <strong>in</strong>creased stability, aroma, flavor<br />

and texture <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al product.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Dairy beverage analyzed attends item 8Fb RDC 12/2001 - ANVISA, regard<strong>in</strong>g the parameters<br />

required for the sample <strong>in</strong>dicative. Thus, show<strong>in</strong>g good hygienic and sanitary conditions, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

not detected coliform at 45°C and Salmonella spp. Study of fermentation cultures for probiotic<br />

dairy dr<strong>in</strong>k kefir had good results with respect to fermentation time of only 4.5 hours. Total<br />

number lactic acid bacteria <strong>in</strong> fermented beverage stored at 5°C rema<strong>in</strong>ed above 10 7 CFU/g<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g 22 days, values that are consistent with the required probiotic products legislation.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] American Public Health Association. 2001. Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological<br />

Exam<strong>in</strong>ation of <strong>Food</strong>s. 4ª ed. APHA.<br />

[2] Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 17 th Edition, 2002. AOAC (967.26); AOAC (966.24);<br />

AOAC (997.02).<br />

[3] Instituto Adolfo Lutz. 2005. Normas Analíticas do Instituto Adolfo Lutz. 4º ed. Brasília.<br />

[4] Instrução Normativa N.º 36 de 31 de outubro de 2000. Aprova o Regulamento Técnico de Identidade<br />

e Qualidade de Bebidas Lácteas. http://extranet.agricult<br />

[5] Brasil, Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária RDC nº. 12, de 02 de janeiro de 2001. Regulamento<br />

Técnico sobre os Padrões Microbiológicos para Alimentos. Disponível em: http://anvisa.gov.br/legis<br />

2138

Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange (Citrus s<strong>in</strong>ensis L.)<br />

Zamantha Escobedo-Avellaneda a , V<strong>in</strong>icio Serment-Moreno a , Aurora Valdez-Fragoso a , Hugo Mujica-<br />

Paz a , and Jorge Welti-Chanes a<br />

a Department of Biotechnology and <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, ITESM, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico<br />

(zamantha.avella@gmail.com, vsermentm@gmail.com, a.valdez@itesm.mx, hmujicap@yahoo.com,<br />

jwelti@itesm.mx)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Orange is an important source of phytochemicals that due to an antioxidant mechanism can<br />

reduce the <strong>in</strong>cidence of chronic illness. Both juice and peel conta<strong>in</strong> phytochemicals, but they<br />

are more abundant <strong>in</strong> peel. “Comm<strong>in</strong>uted” is a product obta<strong>in</strong>ed by gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g peel and orange<br />

juice, and ma<strong>in</strong>ly used as a natural basis to enhance sensory properties of soft dr<strong>in</strong>ks.<br />

Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of comm<strong>in</strong>uted must be evaluated <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e the level <strong>in</strong> which this product is a source of these compounds and can provide<br />

antioxidant activity. Thus, the aim of this work was to quantify phenolic compounds, vitam<strong>in</strong><br />

C, total carotenoids, and antioxidant activity of comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange preparation: Juice, flavedo and albedo (71.6, 16.0 and 12.4% w/w<br />

respectively) of commercially mature Valencia oranges were gr<strong>in</strong>ded to obta<strong>in</strong> a homogenous<br />

paste. Phenolic compounds: 250 mg of comm<strong>in</strong>uted were mixed with either 5 mL of<br />

methanol: water (1:1 v/v) (for free phenolics (FP)) or 1.2 M HCl <strong>in</strong> (1:1 v/v) methanol/water<br />

(for total phenolics (TP)). The mixture was heated at 90 °C/ 3 h and then centrifuged. 50 L FP<br />

or TP extracts were mixed with 650 L of water and 50 L of the Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteau reagent.<br />

After 5 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cubation at room temperature, 250 L of 1 N Na2CO3 were added and aga<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>cubated (37 °C/2 h). Absorbance was read at 765 nm. Vitam<strong>in</strong> C: 0.25 g of comm<strong>in</strong>uted and<br />

1 ml of 6% TCA were centrifuged. 25 L of 75 mM potassium phosphate buffer and 50 L of<br />

supernatant were added to microcentrifuge tubes for both reduced (RA) and total ascorbate<br />

(TA). 25 l of 10 mM DTT were added to the TA tubes and then <strong>in</strong>cubated at room<br />

temperature/10 m<strong>in</strong>. 25 l of 0.5% NEM were added to the same tubes and 50 l of water to<br />

the RA tubes. 125 l 10% TCA, 100 l 43% H3PO4, 100 l 4% ´-bipyridyl and 50 l 3%<br />

FeCl3 were added to all tubes and then <strong>in</strong>cubated at 37 °C/1 h. Absorbance was read at 525<br />

nm. Total carotenoids: 75 mg of comm<strong>in</strong>uted were mixed with 1.5 ml of ethanol: THF (1:1<br />

v/v). An ultrasound treatment at 45 W/10 m<strong>in</strong> was applied. Samples were centrifuged and<br />

absorbance was read at 450 nm. Antioxidant activity: 25 l of adequate dilution of<br />

comm<strong>in</strong>uted was placed <strong>in</strong> black plates with 96 wells. A microplate reader was used to<br />

automatically dispense 150 l of 1 M fluoresce<strong>in</strong>. After 30 m<strong>in</strong> of <strong>in</strong>cubation/37 °C, 25 l of<br />

153 M AAPH were dispensed. Fluorescence (485 nm ex and 528 nm em) was read at 37 °C.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Phytochemicals analyzed <strong>in</strong> this work are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The amount of TP and FP was<br />

found as 285.5±9.0 and 181.1±7.4 mg GAE/100 g respectively. FP were subtracted from TP,<br />

and 36.6% of conjugated phenolics were calculated, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that most phenolics are <strong>in</strong> free<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2139

form. Concentration of TP <strong>in</strong> comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange is similar to that reported by the USDA [1]<br />

for navel orange (337 mg GAE/100 g wb). Comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange could be considered as an<br />

important source of phenolics when compared with foodstuffs widely recognized by their high<br />

phenolic content, such as blackberry and blueberry (447 and 311 mg GAE/100 g wb<br />

respectively) [1]. L-ascorbic acid (reduced form) and dehydroascorbic (oxidized form) account<br />

for total vitam<strong>in</strong> C. 48.8±1.5 and 44.9±1.1 mg L-AAE/100 g for TA and RA were found<br />

respectively for comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange. Only 8% was found as dehydroascorbic acid. The USDA<br />

[1] reported 50 and 136 mg L-AAE/100 g wb of total vitam<strong>in</strong> C for juice and peel orange<br />

respectively. Total carotenoids <strong>in</strong> comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange was 3.3±0.2 mg CE/100 g wb, while <strong>in</strong><br />

dry basis this value corresponds to 21.0±1.1 mg CE/100 g db. 8 mg CE/100 ml freeze dried<br />

orange juice, and 44.5 mg CE/100 g freeze dried peel were reported by Yuan-Chuen et al. [2]<br />

and Yuan-Chuen et al. [3] respectively. Us<strong>in</strong>g data from these authors, and consider<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

orange juice and flavedo plus albedo (peel) proportions used <strong>in</strong> comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange<br />

formulation, the total carotenoid content calculated is 18.4 mg CE/100 g db, value similar to<br />

21.0±1.1 mg CE/100 g db. Because phenolics are 86.5 times higher than total carotenoids, they<br />

are the ma<strong>in</strong> phytochemicals <strong>in</strong> the product. Antioxidant capacity, ma<strong>in</strong>ly attributed to<br />

hydrophilic compounds such as phenolics and vitam<strong>in</strong> C, was 3606.6±154.9 mol TE/100 g, this<br />

value is much higher than that reported by the USDA [4] for orange juice (726 mol TE/100 g).<br />

Compared with other foodstuffs widely recognized as sources of antioxidants such as<br />

blackberry and blueberry with 5802 and 3463 mol TE/100 g respectively [4], the antioxidant<br />

capacity of comm<strong>in</strong>uted could be considered as high.<br />

Table 1. Concentration (<strong>in</strong> wet basis) of some phytochemicals of comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange.<br />

Phenolics (mg GAE/100 g) Vitam<strong>in</strong> C (mg L-AAE/100 g) Carotenoids Antiox. activity<br />

Total Free Total Reduced (mg-CE/100 g) mol TE/100 g)<br />

285.5±9.0 181.1±7.4 48.8±1.5 44.9±1.1 3.3±0.2 3606.6±154.9<br />

GAE, gallic acid equivalents; L-AA, L-ascorbic acid equivalents; CE, carotene equivalents; TE, trolox<br />

equivalents.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Knowledge of the concentration of phytochemicals <strong>in</strong> comm<strong>in</strong>uted orange is fundamental for<br />

evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the level <strong>in</strong> which this product is a source of these compounds, and can provide<br />

antioxidant activity. This is also important for design<strong>in</strong>g the most adequate method to preserve<br />

it without reduc<strong>in</strong>g phytochemicals availability and functionality. Results show that orange<br />

comm<strong>in</strong>uted can be recognized as an important source of phytochemicals like foodstuffs such<br />

as blackberry and blueberry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp<br />

[2] Yuan-Chuen W., Yueh-Chueh C. & Yu-Hua K. 2007. Quantitation of Bioactive Compounds <strong>in</strong> Citrus Fruits<br />

Cultivated <strong>in</strong> Taiwan. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 102, 1163–1171.<br />

[3] Yuan-Chuen W., Yueh-Chueh C. & Hs<strong>in</strong>g-Wen H. 2008. The Flavonoid, Carotenoid and Pect<strong>in</strong> Content <strong>in</strong> Peels of<br />

Citrus Cultivated <strong>in</strong> Taiwan. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 106, 277–284.<br />

[4] U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2010. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity<br />

(ORAC) of Selected <strong>Food</strong>s, Release 2. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page: www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata/orac<br />

2140

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2141

2142

Sensory and antioxidant properties of beer with Juniperus communis L.<br />

Mile Veljovic 1 , Sasa Despotovic, Radovan Djordjevic, Sonja Pecic, Ana Kalusevic, Ida Leskosek-<br />

Cukalovic, Viktor Nedovic<br />

1 Faculty of Agriculture-University of Belgrade, Belgrade-Zemun, Serbia (mileveljovic@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Juniperus communis L. is a coniferous shrub with fruits described as berries or berry-like<br />

cones. The berry or fruit of this species have a aromatic, spicy aroma, and a slightly bittersweet<br />

flavour. Juniper berries have long been used for flavour<strong>in</strong>g foods and beverages and as a<br />

remedy for many health problems. The medieval pre-hops brewers used different herbs or<br />

mixtures of herbs (called grut) to flavor their beers. The most common of these were sweet<br />

gale, juniper, yarrow, rosemary, mugwort, and woodruff. In this study <strong>in</strong>vestigated were<br />

sensory and antioxidant properties of beers produced with three different concentrations of<br />

juniper berries. The goal was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the <strong>in</strong>fluence of add<strong>in</strong>g of juniper berries on sensory<br />

characteristic and antioxidant properties of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed beers.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Juniper berries were cut <strong>in</strong>to two pieces and added to the wort <strong>in</strong> 3 different concentrations:<br />

0.24, 0.48 and 0.72 g/L. The mixtures of wort and juniper berries were sterilized and seeded<br />

aseptically. The fermentation process was completed after 25 days. The control beer was<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed by fermentation of pure wort. The physico-chemical properties of the beers were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g Alcolyzer Beer ME Analyz<strong>in</strong>g System, Anton Paar GmbH – AUSTRIA.<br />

The total phenolic content of samples was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteu method [1]. The<br />

FRAP assay was performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to the procedure described by Benzie and Stra<strong>in</strong> [2].<br />

Aqueous solutions of known ascorbic acid concentrations were used for calibration. The<br />

DPPH-reduc<strong>in</strong>g activity was estimated follow<strong>in</strong>g the procedure described by Kaneda et al [3].<br />

The TEAC assay was conducted us<strong>in</strong>g method described by Re at al [4]. A sensory evaluation<br />

of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed products was conducted, assess<strong>in</strong>g: fragrance, taste, aroma, body, bitterness,<br />

freshness and general impression. A commercial lager beer was used as a reference for the<br />

assessment. The experimental results were analyzed with the student’s t-test for dependent<br />

samples.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The physico-chemical characteristics of the beers are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of beers<br />

Parameter Cb K1 K2 K3<br />

Orig<strong>in</strong>al gravity (°Plato) 11.91 11.91 11.91 11.91<br />

Real extract (% w/w) 2.80 3.17 3.80 3.66<br />

Real degree of fermentation (% w/w) 77.60 74.00 69.69 70.28<br />

Alcohol (% v/v) 5.00 4.37 4.23 4.18<br />

Calories (kJ/100 mL) 148.00 174.60 180.69 177.02<br />

Cb – control beer; K1, K2, K3 – beers with 0.24, 0.48 and 0.72 g/L of juniper berries, respectively<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2143

Phenolic compounds are generally considered as one of the very important antioxidant sources<br />

<strong>in</strong> beer. Total phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity of beer samples are shown <strong>in</strong> Table<br />

2. In the beer samples with juniper, the total amount of phenolic compounds was significantly<br />

higher than <strong>in</strong> the control beer. However, mutual comparison of samples K1, K2 and K3 were<br />

shown statistically significant difference only between samples K1 and K3.<br />

Sample<br />

Table 2. Total antioxidant capacity of beers<br />

Assay<br />

TPC (mg GAE /l) a FRAP (mM AC) b<br />

TEAC (mM TE) c<br />

DPPH (%) d<br />

Cb 385,6 ± 6,6 3,61 ± 0,04 3,27 ± 0,04 50,59 ± 0,88<br />

K1 416,2 ± 7,3 3,73 ± 0,07 3,71 ± 0,02 64,70 ± 1,27<br />

K2 432,8 ± 5,4 3,84 ± 0,03 4,37 ± 0,02 69,00 ± 1,08<br />

K3 450,0 ± 3,1 3,90 ± 0,03 4,45 ± 0,03 69,56 ± 1,40<br />

Each value is the mean ± standard deviation of three replicate experiments. Bolded numbers <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

significantly different values (p < 0,05) compared with control beer; Cb – control beer; K1, K2, K3 –<br />

beers with 0.24, 0.48 and 0.72 g/L of juniper berries, respectively; a total phenolic content, expressed as<br />

milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per liter of beer; b total antioxidant capacity expressed as mmol of<br />

ascorbic acid equivalents; c total antioxidant capacity expressed as mmol of Trolox equivalents; d % of<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibited of DPPH free radical after 30 m<strong>in</strong>utes.<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g the TEAC and DPPH assays, it was found statistically significant difference between<br />

control beer and juniper beers. However, the FRAP method was shown significant difference<br />

only between control beer and sample K3. The results of the sensory evaluation are presented<br />

<strong>in</strong> Figures 1. Sensory analysis suggests that beers produced with juniper berries have more than<br />

satisfactory sensory properties, even better than a common lager beer.<br />

Figure 1. The results of sensorial evaluation of beer samples<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results suggest that beers produced with different proportion of juniper berries<br />

have very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g and pleasant sensory properties. The addition of juniper berries can give<br />

very pleasant taste and flavor to beer but also <strong>in</strong>crease its antioxidant capacity.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] S<strong>in</strong>gleton V.L. & Rossi J.A. Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagent.<br />

American Society for Enology and Viticulture, 16(3), 144-158.<br />

[2] Benzie I.F.F. & Stra<strong>in</strong> J.J. 1996. The ferric reduc<strong>in</strong>g ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of ”antioxidant power”:<br />

The FRAP assay. Analytical Biochemistry, 239(1), 70-76.<br />

[3] Kaneda H., Kobayashi N., Furusho S., Sahara H. & Kosh<strong>in</strong>o S. 1995. MBAA Technical Quarterly, 32(2), 90-94.<br />

[4] Re R., Pellegr<strong>in</strong>i N., Proteggente A., Pannala A., Yang M. & Rice-Evans C. 1999. Antioxidant activity applay<strong>in</strong>g<br />

an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radical Biology & Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 26(9-10), 1231-1237.<br />

2144

Influence of phytosterols addition <strong>in</strong> the rheology and sensory attributes of dark<br />

chocolate<br />

Priscilla Efraim a ; Gabriela C. Marson a ; Denise C.P. Jardim b ; Al<strong>in</strong>e O. Garcia b ; Katumi Yotsuynagi b<br />

a<br />

Universidade Estadual de Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (efraim@fea.unicamp..br,<br />

gabrielacmarson@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (ITAL), Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil (djardim@ital.sp.gov.br,<br />

al<strong>in</strong>egarcia@ital.sp.gov.br, katumyot@ital.sp.gov.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Chocolate is a food consumed and enjoyed worldwide by people of varied ages and social<br />

classes. It is considered a non-Newtonian fluid, pseudoplastic, and its rheological behavior<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>es the process conditions adopted <strong>in</strong>dustrially. Phytosterols are plant sterols found <strong>in</strong><br />

vegetables and have proven to be effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g levels of total cholesterol and LDLcholesterol<br />

through <strong>in</strong>hibition of cholesterol absorption [1]. Studies about the application of<br />

phytosterols <strong>in</strong> chocolate and its <strong>in</strong>fluence on sensory characteristics and technological<br />

performance are scarce. Thus, this study evaluated the <strong>in</strong>fluence of phytosterols <strong>in</strong> dark<br />

chocolate on rheological and sensory properties, <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> products with suitable<br />

technological and sensory levels, also provid<strong>in</strong>g health benefits.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

From a basic formulation conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 55.0% of natural cocoa liquor, 39.9% sugar, 5.0% cocoa<br />

butter deodorized and 0.1% of vanilla flavor were produced 6 samples of chocolate with 3<br />

types of phytosterol and 6 samples of free-phytosterol chocolate (standard for comparisons), <strong>in</strong><br />

which the levels of the emulsifiers lecith<strong>in</strong> and polyglycerol poliric<strong>in</strong>oleate were varied from<br />

0,0 to 0,5% (sum of both). It was used the follow<strong>in</strong>g phytosterols <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g amounts<br />

(correspond<strong>in</strong>g to 0,8g of phytosterols/40g of chocolate): Encapsulated p<strong>in</strong>e phytosterol<br />

powder (A), 2.7 g/100g of chocolate; Oil-based soy phytosterol (B), 3.6 g/100g of chocolate;<br />

Powder soy phytosterol (C), 2.1 g / 100g of chocolate.<br />

The rheological determ<strong>in</strong>ations were performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to Vissotto et al. [2] at 40°C. The<br />

sensory evaluation consisted of an acceptability test with 60 consumers [3] of the global<br />

acceptability, aroma, flavor, melt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the mouth and greasy feel <strong>in</strong> the mouth after<br />

consumption by 9-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic scale (9: extremely like and 1: extremely dislike); force<br />

required to break the chocolate us<strong>in</strong>g an scale of the ideal of 7 po<strong>in</strong>ts (7: requires much more<br />

strength than I like, and 1: requires much less force than I like) and purchase <strong>in</strong>tention (5:<br />

def<strong>in</strong>itely would buy and 1: def<strong>in</strong>itely wouldn’t buy). For the statistical analysis, data<br />

underwent ANOVA and Tukey test to compare means [4].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2145

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Plastic viscosity (Pa.s)<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

(a) (b)<br />

Figure 1. Casson plastic viscosity (a) and yield value (b) of the chocolates with and without phytosterols<br />

after the conch<strong>in</strong>g step<br />

The addition of the oil-based phytosterol (B) did not affect the sensory attributes of dark<br />

chocolate and affected positively the plastic viscosity and the yield value, reduc<strong>in</strong>g their<br />

values. On the other hand, the addition of the encapsulated phytosterol (A) affected the sensory<br />

acceptability and <strong>in</strong>fluenced negatively the plastic viscosity and the yield value of the<br />

chocolates. The addition of phytosterol <strong>in</strong> the powder form (C) also <strong>in</strong>fluenced negatively the<br />

rheological parameters, but did not <strong>in</strong>fluence the sensory attributes.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was demonstrated that the different type of phytosterols added to chocolate <strong>in</strong>fluenced its<br />

sensory properties and its rheological behaviour <strong>in</strong> a different way, but the technological<br />

feasibility of the application was also proved. This study will be improved assess<strong>in</strong>g the shelf<br />

life of the chocolates with the phytosterols and if there is any loss or oxidation of the<br />

phytosterols dur<strong>in</strong>g this period.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Plastic viscosity (Pa.s) x Emulsifier content<br />

0,5 : 0 0,4 : 0,1 0,3 : 0,2 0,2 : 0,3 0,1 : 0,4 0,0 : 0,5<br />

% Lecith<strong>in</strong> : % PGPR<br />

Standard<br />

A<br />

B<br />

C<br />

Chocolate yield value (Pa) x Emulsifier content<br />

[1] Cercaci, L.; et al. (2007). Phytosterol oxidation <strong>in</strong> oil-<strong>in</strong>-water emulsions and bulk oil. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemistry, 102,161-167.<br />

[2] Vissotto, F. Z. et al. (1999). Caracterização físico-química e reológica de chocolates comerciais<br />

elaborados com gorduras alternativas. Brazilian J. <strong>Food</strong> Techn., 2(1), p.139-148.<br />

[3] Meilgaard, M.; Civille, G.V.; Carr. B.T. 1987. Sensory Evaluation Techniques. CRC Press. New<br />

York. NY. 281p. [4] SAS Institute Inc. Sas/STAT User’s Guide. Release. Cary, NC: SAS Institute<br />

Inc, 1028p. 1993.<br />

2146<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

0,5 : 0 0,4 : 0,1 0,3 : 0,2 0,2 : 0,3 0,1 : 0,4 0,0 : 0,5<br />

% Lecith<strong>in</strong> : % PGPR<br />

Standard<br />

A<br />

B<br />

C

Address<strong>in</strong>g new functional fillo products through nutrition and healthy <strong>in</strong>gredients: Hi<br />

omega-3 fatty acids and phytosterol esters<br />

Varzakas, T. a , Labropoulos, A b , and Anestis, S. b<br />

a Technological Institute of Kalamata, Hellas (tvarzakas@teikal.gr)<br />

b Technological Institute of Athens, Hellas (athanlab@teiath.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Hi Flaxseed Oils and other microencapsulated Hi omega-3 mar<strong>in</strong>e oriented products are<br />

excellent sources of Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Omega-3 (alpha-l<strong>in</strong>olenic acid),<br />

Omega-6 (l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid) and Omega-9 (oleic acid). Athens <strong>Food</strong>s has launched an omega–3<br />

fortified fillo dough aimed at health and wellness oriented customers with the follow<strong>in</strong>g health<br />

claim as def<strong>in</strong>ed for foods conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g any level of EPA and DHA which meet the qualify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

criteria. This study has been designed to <strong>in</strong>corporate new functional (fortified) foods <strong>in</strong>to fillo<br />

dough products. It reviews all the key issues addressed, key problems to be solved and methods<br />

to achieve success.<br />

The development process will be expla<strong>in</strong>ed and more specifically how the functional<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients were chosen, how they were presented to the consumer, recipes <strong>in</strong>corporated,<br />

claims made, brand<strong>in</strong>g made, product liability with unknown risks and how all these will be<br />

communicated with the consumers. Two case studies will be presented.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Two formulas for omega-3 FA and plant sterols fillo doughs are given. Torsion test, Kramer<br />

shear test and Texture profile analysis (TPA) were the methods used to determ<strong>in</strong>e texture.<br />

Kramer shear test and TPA are empirical tests whereas Torsion test is a fundamental test for<br />

texture accord<strong>in</strong>g to Kim et al. [1]. Shear stress and shear stra<strong>in</strong> of cooked gels (fillo dough<br />

products) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g torsion test [2, 3].<br />

Colour properties were determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a M<strong>in</strong>olta Chroma Meter CR-400 colorimeter. A CIE<br />

color system us<strong>in</strong>g L ,a b tristimulus color values was employed.<br />

Score cards with five l<strong>in</strong>es have been provided for sensory evaluation (appearance, odour,<br />

texture, flavour and overall acceptability) for each sample.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Texture profile analysis (Table 1) revealed no differences (P>0.05) <strong>in</strong> the six texture<br />

parameters of the cooked fillo dough products compared to fillo dough products with added<br />

neutraceuticals. Similar TPA values have been reported by Kassis et al. [3]. Stabilization might<br />

have occurred due to yolk phospholipids and soybean lecith<strong>in</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> omega-3 and<br />

phytosterol esters.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally all products with or without neutraceuticals had similar Kramer shear force (P>0.05)<br />

averag<strong>in</strong>g approximately 140 N/g. However, it should be noted that fat emulsification results <strong>in</strong><br />

stabilization of food products which <strong>in</strong> turn requires more shear force to fracture a sample. This<br />

is also confirmed by torsion shear stress and TPA hardness values. F<strong>in</strong>ally there was no<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2147

difference (P>0.05) <strong>in</strong> shear stra<strong>in</strong> between the tested samples rang<strong>in</strong>g from 0.93 to 1.1<br />

confirm<strong>in</strong>g the TPA cohesiveness values s<strong>in</strong>ce shear stra<strong>in</strong> is a measure of gel cohesiveness.<br />

Table 1. Texture profile analysis of cooked fillo dough products with added omega-3 fatty acids and<br />

phytosterol esters compared to fillo dough products with noth<strong>in</strong>g added<br />

Fillo dough Fillo dough with Fillo dough with<br />

omega-3 FA phytosterol esters<br />

Spr<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>ess 2.02 1.97 1.92<br />

Hardness 1400 1405 1423<br />

Cohesiveness 0.65 0.67 0.69<br />

Gumm<strong>in</strong>ess 985 992 994<br />

Chew<strong>in</strong>ess 1520 1600 1585<br />

Resilience 0.33 0.34 0.35<br />

Figure 1. Different uses of<br />

fillo dough<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Functional food conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g neutraceuticals is highly encouraged. However, attention needs to<br />

be paid at the level of concentrations added s<strong>in</strong>ce there is no Recommended Daily Allowance<br />

and the concentrations <strong>in</strong> the tablets or capsules are not clear. However, questions arise from<br />

consumers regard<strong>in</strong>g credibility and price, new brands, product formats and health claims.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kim, B.Y., Park, J.W., and Yoon, W.B. 2005. Rheology and texture properties of surimi gels. In J.W.<br />

Park (ed.) Surimi and surimi seafood (2 nd edition). Pp. 491-582, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis<br />

Group.<br />

[2] Taskaya, L., Chen, Y.C., Beamer, S., and Jaczynski, J. 2009A. Texture and colour properties of<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s recovered from whole gutted silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) us<strong>in</strong>g isoelectric<br />

solublization/precipitation. Journal of the Science of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 89 (2), 349-358.<br />

[3] Kassis, N., Drake, S.R., Beamer, S.K., Matak, K.E., Jaczynski, J. 2010. Development of<br />

neutraceutical egg products with omega-3-rich oils. LWT-<strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 43, 777-<br />

783.<br />

2148

The non–starch polysaccharides quantity changes <strong>in</strong> pastry products where Jerusalem<br />

artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) added<br />

Ilga Gedrovica a , Da<strong>in</strong>a Karkl<strong>in</strong>a a , Anna Fras b , Olga Jablonka b , Danuta Boros b<br />

a<br />

Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia (Ilga.Gedrovica@llu.lv)<br />

b<br />

Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Plant Materials, Institute of Plant Breed<strong>in</strong>g and Acclimatization,<br />

Radzikow, Poland (postbox@ihar.edu.pl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In recent years people around the world and also <strong>in</strong> Latvia have become more and more<br />

<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> healthy food. <strong>Food</strong>s conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g dietary fiber (DF) constitute a major component of<br />

a healthy, balanced diet. A good source of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) fiber is vegetable<br />

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) that may be useful for treatment of various<br />

gastro<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al disorders. Jerusalem artichoke (JA) consumption helps lower<strong>in</strong>g cholesterol<br />

levels, reduc<strong>in</strong>g the risk of colon cancer, and los<strong>in</strong>g weight [1]. The addition of Jerusalem<br />

artichoke powder (JAP) to pastry products is one more possibility of mak<strong>in</strong>g a healthier food<br />

and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g DF <strong>in</strong>take, however, JAP concentration <strong>in</strong> products is limited from<br />

technological and sensory aspects. More important is the consumer sensory evaluation, which<br />

showed that people liked cakes, honey biscuits and butter biscuits with 30 % JAP and part of<br />

the consumers agree to use pastry products with 50 % of JAP. The aim of the study was to<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e changes <strong>in</strong> quantity of <strong>in</strong>dividual NSP <strong>in</strong> raw JAP and such pastry products as cakes,<br />

butter biscuits and honey biscuits with JAP added.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> the Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Plant Materials at<br />

the Institute of Plant Breed<strong>in</strong>g and Acclimatization at Radzikow <strong>in</strong> Poland. Analyzed cakes,<br />

honey biscuits and butter biscuits baked us<strong>in</strong>g classic recipe and technology, were used as a<br />

control samples. In samples with JA part of wheat flour was substituted with JAP <strong>in</strong><br />

concentrations 30 % and 50 %. The Upsala method <strong>in</strong>cludes preparation of a residue after<br />

treatment with thermostable –amylase and amyloglucosidase and then ethanol precipitation of<br />

solubilized DF components [2]. After acid hydrolysis of total residue <strong>in</strong> two steps, neutral<br />

polysaccharide residues are quantified as alditol acetates by gas–liquid chromatography, uronic<br />

acid residues determ<strong>in</strong>ed by colorimetry, and the ash–free acid <strong>in</strong>soluble residue is determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

gravimetrically. With this method, total DF, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g starch resistant to the enzymatic<br />

treatment used, is calculated as the sum of analyzed polysaccharides and Klason lign<strong>in</strong>. Fructan<br />

is not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the analysis.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Results of this study showed that the major NSP monomers of JAP and pastry products are, <strong>in</strong><br />

decreas<strong>in</strong>g manner, hexoses: glucose, galactose, mannose, and pentoses: arab<strong>in</strong>ose, xylose,<br />

rhamnose, and fucose. Total amount of NSP is 9.2 % <strong>in</strong> JAP; out of them 6.3 % composes of<br />

hexoses – and 2.9 % of pentoses (Fig.1, A). <strong>International</strong> Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) declares<br />

that to claim as “source of DF”, a food must conta<strong>in</strong> at least 3 g of DF per 100 g for a solid<br />

food [3]. The NSP amount <strong>in</strong> classical cake and butter biscuits is less than 3 g per 100 g, only<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2149

honey biscuits has higher level of NSP. Add<strong>in</strong>g JAP to pastry products significantly <strong>in</strong>creases<br />

the amount of NSP (p0.05). The concentration 30 % of JAP <strong>in</strong> total amount of flour <strong>in</strong>creases<br />

NSP amount <strong>in</strong> cakes by 52.3 %, <strong>in</strong> honey biscuits by 49.3 %, but <strong>in</strong> butter biscuits by 48.4 %,<br />

also permits to say that these pastry products are “source of DF”. When JAP added <strong>in</strong> quantity<br />

of 50 %, the NSP contents go up <strong>in</strong> cakes by 86.2 %, <strong>in</strong> honey biscuits by 68.9 %, but <strong>in</strong> butter<br />

biscuits by 69.4 % as compared with control samples (Fig.1, B).<br />

pentose hexose<br />

Total pentoses and hexoses<br />

Total hexoses<br />

glucose<br />

galactose<br />

mannose<br />

Total pentoses<br />

arab<strong>in</strong>ose<br />

xylose<br />

rhamnose<br />

fucose<br />

Figure 1. Amount of non-starch polysaccharides <strong>in</strong> Jerusalem artichoke powder (A);<br />

total amount of non-starch polysaccharides <strong>in</strong> pastry products (B).<br />

All pastry products used conta<strong>in</strong> the mostly arab<strong>in</strong>ose and xylose, represent<strong>in</strong>g pentose sugars,<br />

which occur <strong>in</strong> flour as pentosans, or more precisley arab<strong>in</strong>oxylans. These polysugars <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

on quality parameter of flour, such as water absorption. With <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g JAP concentration<br />

moisture of pastry products significantly <strong>in</strong>creases, which can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

amount of arab<strong>in</strong>ose follow by <strong>in</strong>creased product’s water–hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity. Xylose is<br />

decreas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cakes (14 %), honey biscuits (30%) and butter bicuits (22 %) with added JAP <strong>in</strong><br />

concentrations 50 % and negatively affects the gas retention and loaf volume <strong>in</strong> the products.<br />

However, the water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity of the dough and the freshness of the pastry products<br />

made of wheat and JAP are much dependent upon their content of NSP, mostly of arab<strong>in</strong>ose<br />

and xylose [1].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

1. The addition of Jerusalem artichoke powder significantly (p0.05) <strong>in</strong>fluenced the amount<br />

of non-starch polysaccharides <strong>in</strong> pastry products.<br />

2. Glucose, galactose, mannose, arab<strong>in</strong>ose, xylose, rhamnose, fucose are found as the nonstarch<br />

polysaccharides monomers <strong>in</strong> Jerusalem artichoke powder and <strong>in</strong> pastry products<br />

with Jerusalem artichoke powder.<br />

3. Pastry products with added 30 % Jerusalem artichoke powder are permitted to call “source<br />

of DF”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

4.1<br />

1.4<br />

0.8<br />

2.9<br />

2.0<br />

0.4<br />

0.4<br />

0.1<br />

6.3<br />

9.2<br />

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0<br />

Amount of NSP <strong>in</strong> % of DM<br />

3.0<br />

2.0<br />

3.8<br />

[1] Kays S. J. & Nott<strong>in</strong>gham S. F. 2008. Biology and Chemistry of Jerusalem Artichoke Helianthus<br />

tuberosus L. Boca Raton, CRC Taylor & Francis Group. p. 459.<br />

[2] Boros D. & Aman P. 2009. Total Dietary Fiber. In: Shewry P. R. & Ward J. L. (Eds.). Healthgra<strong>in</strong><br />

Methods. Analysis of Bioactive Components <strong>in</strong> Small Gra<strong>in</strong> Cereals. Inc. AACC <strong>International</strong>, St.<br />

Paul, M<strong>in</strong>nesota, U. S. A, 167 – 176.<br />

[3] Nielsen S. S. 2010. <strong>Food</strong> Analysis. Fourth edition. Spr<strong>in</strong>ger, New York, p.602.<br />

2150<br />

Total amount of NSP<br />

<strong>in</strong> g per 100 g<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

control 30 % of JAP 50 % of JAP<br />

A B<br />

3.4<br />

5.1<br />

5.7<br />

3.6<br />

2.4<br />

Cake Honey biscuits Butter biscuits<br />

4.0

Characterization of cookies formulated with rice and black bean extruded flours<br />

Bass<strong>in</strong>ello, P. Z. a ; Freitas, D. De G. C. b ; Ascheri, J. L. R. b ; Takeiti, C. Y. b ; Carvalho, R. N. a ; Koakuzu, S.<br />

N. a ; Carvalho, A. V. c<br />

a Embrapa Rice and Beans, Santo Antônio de Goiás, Brazil (pzbass<strong>in</strong>@cnpaf.embrapa.br;<br />

rosangela@cnpaf.embrapa.br; selma@cnpaf.embrapa.br)<br />

b Embrapa <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (daniela@ctaa.embrapa.br;<br />

ascheri@ctaa.embrapa.br; crist<strong>in</strong>a@ctaa.embrapa.br)<br />

c Embrapa Eastern Amazon, Belém, Brazil (anavania@cpatu.embrapa.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

White rice and common beans are considered staple food <strong>in</strong> Brazilian diet as an important<br />

source of good prote<strong>in</strong> quality and energy. However, few actions are made with the byproducts<br />

released from the rice mill<strong>in</strong>g or bean process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries. Recently this concern has been<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the country s<strong>in</strong>ce other successful examples can be observed <strong>in</strong> different parts of<br />

the world and our consumers are becom<strong>in</strong>g more demand<strong>in</strong>g for food diversity and quality.<br />

Extrusion cook<strong>in</strong>g technology is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g used for the development of food<br />

<strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong> order to promote the use of <strong>in</strong>dustrial wastes.<br />

In order to utilize valuable components of the broken rice and the aged bean gra<strong>in</strong>s, which have<br />

low commercial value, to produce different bakery products, this study aimed to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the<br />

addition of a rice and black bean pre-gelat<strong>in</strong>ized flour by extrusion on cookies formulations.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Mixtures of rice and peeled black bean (70:30) or whole black bean (60:40) were extruded on<br />

Inbramac extruder <strong>in</strong> order to produce a pre-gelat<strong>in</strong>ized flour (PBF and WBF respectively).<br />

Four cookies samples (15% and 30% PBF; 15% and 30% WBF replac<strong>in</strong>g corn starch) were<br />

evaluated on nutritional composition, anti-nutrient contents, texture (TA-Hdi texture analyzer -<br />

Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) and color (Color Quest XE) measurements, and appearance<br />

and global acceptability by 104 consumers on 9-po<strong>in</strong>t hedonic scales. The thiam<strong>in</strong> (vitam<strong>in</strong> B1)<br />

and riboflav<strong>in</strong> (vitam<strong>in</strong> B2) were evaluated by HPLC accord<strong>in</strong>g to the European Standard<br />

methods. Tann<strong>in</strong>s concentration was determ<strong>in</strong>ed based on Deshpande and Cheryan (1985)<br />

method description, us<strong>in</strong>g a methanol extraction and vanill<strong>in</strong> reaction with a catech<strong>in</strong> standard<br />

curve. Phytate content was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to Haug and Lantzsch (1973) us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

spectrophotometer (Femto) calibrated to visible absorbance range. The rice-black bean pregelat<strong>in</strong>ized<br />

flour was also characterized for some of those parameters. The data were<br />

statistically analyzed and significant differences among samples were assessed us<strong>in</strong>g ANOVA<br />

(p

probably due to their less fat content. This is considered a high value and so, the cookies can be<br />

applied <strong>in</strong> the diet as energetic products. The prote<strong>in</strong> content was significantly higher (about 2fold)<br />

for all samples <strong>in</strong> comparison to control. Based on Brazilian Ord<strong>in</strong>ance nº 33, January 13,<br />

1998, the average prote<strong>in</strong> content found for rice and bean cookies (3.64%) allows us to affirm<br />

that these products are a source of prote<strong>in</strong> for children, because they attend the demanded<br />

m<strong>in</strong>imum percent of 20% of reference Recommended Daily Ingestion for each 100 g of food.<br />

The lipid content was lower <strong>in</strong> the rice-bean cookies than control, especially for 30% of corn<br />

starch substitution and when whole beans were used. Vitam<strong>in</strong> B content was slightly changed.<br />

There was no tann<strong>in</strong> content detected <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al products and the level of phytate was very<br />

low with no significant difference between products. This observation <strong>in</strong>dicates that extrusion<br />

process contributed to reduce anti-nutritional factors. There was significant difference between<br />

products for some colour parameters. The sensory analyses (Table 1) showed that it can be<br />

considered that consumers “liked lightly” the cookies with 15% and 30% PBF and 15% WBF.<br />

Cookies formulated with WBF had lower acceptance by consumers <strong>in</strong> terms of appearance and<br />

only those with 30% WBF had an <strong>in</strong>termediate score (”neither like, neither dislike”) for global<br />

acceptability. Regard<strong>in</strong>g texture, the cookies prepared with 30% WBF had their hardness and<br />

brittleness <strong>in</strong>creased. In general, when a higher amount of both flour (PBF and WBF) was<br />

applied it was observed an <strong>in</strong>crease of cookie hardness and brittleness values.<br />

Table 1. Average lik<strong>in</strong>g scores (± standard deviations) for cookies<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rice and black bean extruded flour.<br />

Appearance Overall lik<strong>in</strong>g<br />

15% PBF 6.14±1.84ª 6.25±1.92ª<br />

30% PBF 6.21±2.01ª 6.17±1.70ª<br />

15% WBF 4.33±2.17 b 6.09±2.17 a<br />

30% WBF 4.41±2.22 b 5.39±2.15 b<br />

PBF: rice and peeled black bean pre-gelat<strong>in</strong>ized flour;<br />

WBF: rice and whole black bean pre-gelat<strong>in</strong>ized flour.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The obta<strong>in</strong>ed results <strong>in</strong>dicate that both PBF and WBF flours may be adequate for cookies<br />

formulat<strong>in</strong>g, although they need to be optimized, especially when whole bean gra<strong>in</strong> was used <strong>in</strong><br />

the flour, regard<strong>in</strong>g their effect on sensory characteristics. The cookies us<strong>in</strong>g rice and black<br />

bean extruded flours can be considered a good source of prote<strong>in</strong>, fibre, energy and presented<br />

reduced anti-nutritional factors and lipid content, mak<strong>in</strong>g possible to diversify the application<br />

of by-products generated by rice and black bean process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Brasil, M<strong>in</strong>istério Da Saúde. Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária. Portaria nº 27 de 13 de janeiro<br />

de 1998. Disponível em: < http://e-legis.anvisa.gov.br/leisref/public/showAct.php?id=97>. Acesso<br />

em: 18 outubro 2010.<br />

[2] Deshpande, S.S.; Cheryan, M. (1985). Evaluation of vanill<strong>in</strong> assay for tann<strong>in</strong> analysis of dry beans.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 50, 905-910.<br />

[3] Haug W, Lantzsch H (1983) Sensitive Method for the Rapid Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of Phytate <strong>in</strong> Cereals and<br />

Cereals Products. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Agricultural 34, 1423-1426.<br />

2152

Isolation of lactic acid bacteria <strong>in</strong> Marajoara cheese, Amazon, Brazil<br />

Hamilton Mendes de Figueiredo, Cleidiane Gonçalves e Gonçalves, Paula Carol<strong>in</strong>a de Moura Guimarães,<br />

Adilson Mendes de Figueiredo Júnior<br />

Engeneer<strong>in</strong>g Of <strong>Food</strong>, University Of Pará (hamiltonmendes1@hotmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The Amazon, for its climatic and environmental conditions, has great agricultural potential,<br />

with opportunities to excel <strong>in</strong> agribus<strong>in</strong>ess, as supply center for domestic and foreign markets,<br />

generat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>come and jobs. Here the regional cheeses are still produced with artisanal methods<br />

<strong>in</strong> micro-enterprises typically family members, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> poor quality of products available<br />

to consumers, and could affect their health. This problem stems primarily from <strong>in</strong>efficient<br />

methods used <strong>in</strong> the clean<strong>in</strong>g of equipment and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of the f<strong>in</strong>al product, besides the<br />

lack of selected microorganisms and pure for use <strong>in</strong> the production of such cheeses.<br />

Marajoara cheese, a typical product of Marajo-Amazon-Brazil, has been ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g market share<br />

rapidly, which can be seen from this large consumption. So it becomes necessary to establish a<br />

standard of identity and quality of this product, which may fix the m<strong>in</strong>imum quality<br />

requirements to be met for this cheese. The problem is that due to a craft like this is done,<br />

hardly the quality standard will be <strong>in</strong> accordance with the law. This is ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to lack of<br />

pasteurization of milk results <strong>in</strong> the presence of fecal bacteria that contam<strong>in</strong>ate the product<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the steps of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g this. The development of these microorganisms <strong>in</strong> cheese leads to<br />

a number of defects <strong>in</strong> the product, <strong>in</strong> addition to changes <strong>in</strong> flavor of it.<br />

The objective this work is isolation and characterization of bacteria <strong>in</strong> Marajó cheese to former<br />

a typical bank of lactic cultures <strong>in</strong> the Amazon.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The methodology was to collect three samples of cheese with one day and a serum when it is<br />

still dripp<strong>in</strong>g cheese on a micro-<strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> the region of the Marajó Archipelago followed by<br />

transport to the microbiology laboratory of the Federal University of Para <strong>in</strong> Belem. The<br />

samples were plated <strong>in</strong> deep agar medium M17 (Terzaghi and Sand<strong>in</strong>o, 1975) and MRS and<br />

<strong>in</strong>cubated at 32 ° C for 72 hours. After this period was selected plates conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g between 25<br />

and 100 colonies for perform<strong>in</strong>g Gram sta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and catalase test (Speck, 1984). The selected <strong>in</strong><br />

the previous tests were tested for hydrolysis of arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e (Silva, 2007), growth at 40 and 45 ° C<br />

<strong>in</strong> skim milk and reconstituted (LEITE, 1993), gas production <strong>in</strong> MRS medium and growth at 4<br />

and 6.5% salt <strong>in</strong> broth Bacto Lactose (Holt, et al 1994).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2153

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The results (Table 1) showed similar numbers of cells isolated on MRS or M17.<br />

Table 1: Microbial count (log CFU / g or ml) and standard deviation<br />

Amostra Ágar MRS Ágar M17<br />

A

The physico-chemical and microbiological aspects <strong>in</strong> ice-cream of buffalo milk added for<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

fiber food<br />

Gerla C. B. CHINELATE a , Dorasílvia F. PONTES b , Roberto R. de A. BEZERRA c<br />

a UFCG, Pombal, Brazil (gerla@ccta.ufcg.edu.br)<br />

b UFC, Fortaleza, Brazil (dora@ufc.br)<br />

c UFCG, Pombal, Brazil (robson-aveiro@hotmail.com)<br />

Functional foods are now among the great progress made by man <strong>in</strong> order to promote and<br />

provide health and quality of life. These foods, which naturally br<strong>in</strong>gs benefits to health have<br />

been developed recently by tak<strong>in</strong>g advantage of recent knowledge acquired by eng<strong>in</strong>eers, food<br />

technologists, chemists, nutritionists and health professionals. (CRAVEIRO e CRAVEIRO,<br />

2003). [1]<br />

Flaxseed is a plant food shop offer<strong>in</strong>g potential benefits for cardiovascular health by be<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

important source of -l<strong>in</strong>olenic acid (omega 3) and lignans, a class of phytoestrogens. Chitosan<br />

- a naturally occurr<strong>in</strong>g biopolymer, found <strong>in</strong> the shells of crustaceans and other natural sources,<br />

is composed of repeat<strong>in</strong>g units of D-glucosam<strong>in</strong>e. It is considered a dietary fiber, s<strong>in</strong>ce it has a<br />

chemical structure very similar to cellulose, is also not digested by digestive enzymes<br />

(MUZZARELI, 1996). [2]<br />

Buffalo milk has higher concentrations of fat, prote<strong>in</strong>, total solids and some m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> relation<br />

to bov<strong>in</strong>e milk. For this reason, great importance is the transformation of food <strong>in</strong>to their<br />

products, s<strong>in</strong>ce its peculiar composition offers high performance <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

In this context, we developed this study <strong>in</strong> order to associate a functional ice cream formulation<br />

based on buffalo milk supplemented with flaxseed and chitosan, <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> products<br />

with an alternative source of fiber, analyz<strong>in</strong>g the physical and chemical <strong>in</strong>teractions, chemical<br />

and microbiological.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The first formulation was developed without the addition of flaxseed meal and chitosan, then<br />

the others were added as an <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> Chitosan percentage set at 2%. This value was<br />

def<strong>in</strong>ed by prelim<strong>in</strong>ary test<strong>in</strong>g and balanced with the addition of flaxseed meal <strong>in</strong> different<br />

proportions (0%, 5%, 10% and 15%), ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the standard 5% fat, 12% SNGL 15% sugar,<br />

2% chitosan and 62% water, coded SQL-0 (ice cream with 2% chitosan and 0% flaxseed),<br />

SQL-5 (ice cream with 2% chitosan and 5% flaxseed), SQL -10 (ice cream with 2% chitosan<br />

and 10% flaxseed) and SQL-15 (ice cream with 2% chitosan and 15% flaxseed). For Physical,<br />

physicochemical and chemical properties: moisture, prote<strong>in</strong>, ash, lipids, carbohydrates, pH,<br />

total acidity and iod<strong>in</strong>e. For microbiological analysis was performed for Salmonella detection,<br />

enumeration of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus and fecal coliform (BRASIL, 2001). [3]<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2155

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Samples<br />

The ice creams were analyzed and processed results are presented <strong>in</strong> the table below.<br />

Table1. Results of physico-chemical, physical and chemical properties.<br />

SQL-0 70,17 ± 0,2 a<br />

SQL-5 63,00 ± 0,24 b<br />

SQL-10 60,29 ± 0,18 c<br />

SQL-15 60,19 ± 0,22 d<br />

Moisture Prote<strong>in</strong>s Ashes Carbohydrates Lipidis<br />

6,49 ± 0,40 a<br />

6,55 ± 0,15 a<br />

6,69 ± 0,34 a<br />

7,00 ± 0,57 a<br />

0,97 ± 0,01 a<br />

1,10 ± 0,02 a<br />

1,21 ± 0,02 a<br />

1,30 ± 0,01 a<br />

13,57 ± 1,21 a<br />

13,82 ± 1,32 a<br />

14,43 ± 1,20 a<br />

12,78 ± 1,89 a<br />

4,80 ± 0,53 a<br />

5,24 ± 0,54 a<br />

5,40 ± 0,41 a<br />

6,40 ± 0,68 a<br />

The ice cream had moisture between 60.19 to 70.21%. This large variation is due to the<br />

considerable addition of flaxseed meal to the formulations of ices (5%, 10% and 15%),<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the soluble solids content, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a more consistent product. The prote<strong>in</strong><br />

content ranged from 6.49 to 7.00%, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with the addition of flaxseed oil, thus improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the nutritional characteristics of food. The ash content ranged from 0.97 to 1.30%, these<br />

proportions guaranteed by add<strong>in</strong>g the highest percentage of flaxseed. The <strong>in</strong>crease of ash<br />

content means a higher content of m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> food, of great importance to their quality. The<br />

percentage of carbohydrate was determ<strong>in</strong>ed rang<strong>in</strong>g from 12.78 to 14.43%, rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

samples of four formulations developed a pattern of sugar content did not differ significantly at<br />

5% of each other. The lipid content ranged from 4.80 to 6.40%. Due to the total replacement of<br />

hydrogenated vegetable fat by oil meal <strong>in</strong> the formulation SQL-15, we observed a significant<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> content of lipid fraction <strong>in</strong> the product. This fact justified by the presence of a<br />

higher percentage of oil meal <strong>in</strong> the formulation<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The application of flaxseed meal and ice cream <strong>in</strong> the process<strong>in</strong>g of chitosan <strong>in</strong> different<br />

proportions studied showed satisfactory results <strong>in</strong> relation to the physical-chemical,<br />

microbiological, and nutritional and technological fit <strong>in</strong>to the concepts of functional foods.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] CRAVEIRO, A.A.; CRAVEIRO A.C.; QUEIROZ, D.C. Quitosana: A fibra do futuro. 1ª Edição,<br />

281p. Fortaleza/CE, Editora Eletrônica Sandro Vasconcelos, 2003.<br />

[2] MUZZARELI, R. A. A.; TANFANI, F.; EMANUELLI, M.; MARIOTTI, S. N-<br />

(CABOXYMETHYLIDENE) Chitosans: Novel Chelat<strong>in</strong>g polyampholytes obta<strong>in</strong>ed from chitosan<br />

glyoxylate. Carboydr. Res., v. 107, p. 199 – 210, 1983.<br />

[3] BRASIL. Resolução RDC nº 12 de 02 de janeiro de 2011. Agencia Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária.<br />

ANVISA, 2011.<br />

2156

<strong>Process</strong> Optimisation of Egg Replacer <strong>in</strong> Sponge Cake Bak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Levan Mai a , Tom Norton b , Weili Li a , Brijesh Tiwari a , Charles Brennan a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong>, Manchester Metropolitan University, Holl<strong>in</strong>gs Faculty, Manchester, UK<br />

b Department of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Harper-Adams University College, Shropshire, UK<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Heath risk associated with the consumption of eggs [1] and consumer preference for vegan diet<br />

had lead researchers to <strong>in</strong>vestigate for egg replacers. The partial or total substitution of egg <strong>in</strong><br />

cake formulation appears <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g for people who suffer from cholesterol-diseases. The<br />

replacement of egg <strong>in</strong> bakery products such as cake is a challeng<strong>in</strong>g task. Presence of egg<br />

white prote<strong>in</strong>s plays a significant role <strong>in</strong> foam formation by allow<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>corporation of large<br />

volumes of air <strong>in</strong>to the batter. Subsequent bak<strong>in</strong>g allows trapped air bubbles to expand lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the volume of cake after the coagulation of egg prote<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g bak<strong>in</strong>g [2].<br />

Response surface methodology has previously been used to optimise the process<strong>in</strong>g variables<br />

<strong>in</strong> partial or complete replacement of egg <strong>in</strong> cakes. For example, Arozarena et al., [3] employed<br />

central composite design to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effect of several <strong>in</strong>gredients on physicochemical<br />

characteristics of lup<strong>in</strong>e. The objective of this study was to optimise the bak<strong>in</strong>g process<br />

parameters such as mix<strong>in</strong>g time, bak<strong>in</strong>g time and temperature us<strong>in</strong>g Box-Benhken design.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Cakes were prepared us<strong>in</strong>g a standard recipe as outl<strong>in</strong>ed by AACC. Cakes samples were<br />

analysed for texture, colour values (L*,a*,b*), specific volume, specific gravity, symmetry of<br />

cake samples as per AACC. The effects of the three <strong>in</strong>dependent process<strong>in</strong>g parameters on<br />

quality parameters were <strong>in</strong>vestigated us<strong>in</strong>g Box-Behnken designs. The <strong>in</strong>dependent variables<br />

were; X1 (4 – 10 m<strong>in</strong>), X2 (160 – 200 o C) and X3 (10 – 30 m<strong>in</strong>). Experimental data from the<br />

Box-Behnken design was analysed and fitted to a second-order polynomial model.<br />

3<br />

3<br />

2<br />

Y 0 i X i ii X i ij<br />

X i X<br />

[1]<br />

j<br />

i1<br />

i1<br />

i ji1<br />

where Y is the predicted response, 0, i, ii and ij are the <strong>in</strong>tercept, l<strong>in</strong>ear, quadratic and cross<br />

product coefficients. Xi and Xj are <strong>in</strong>dependent variables.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

SG, texture, L*, a*, b* and Sym responses fluctuated between 0.74 to 0.64, 194.06 to 300.12,<br />

50.03 to 77.30, 4.04 to 15.60, 16.86 to 33.64 and 0.15 to 1.80 respectively. The models<br />

presented showed high regression coefficients (R 2 > 0.80) for SG and colour values (L*, a*,b*)<br />

whereas low regression coefficients (R 2 = 0.47) laws observed for Sym of the cakes. The<br />

predicted models were found to be significant with p values

200<br />

190<br />

180<br />

170<br />

0.68<br />

0.68<br />

0.67<br />

0.66<br />

160<br />

10<br />

12<br />

0.69<br />

0.70<br />

14<br />

0.71<br />

16<br />

0.68<br />

18<br />

0.67<br />

Bak<strong>in</strong>g temperature ( o C) a) b)<br />

20<br />

Figure 1. Contour plots show<strong>in</strong>g the effect of bak<strong>in</strong>g temperature ( o C) and bak<strong>in</strong>g time (m<strong>in</strong>) at mix<strong>in</strong>g<br />

time of 7 m<strong>in</strong> on specific gravity (a), texture (b) of cakes.<br />

Both l<strong>in</strong>ear and quadratic models were significant (p

Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g functional fermented beverages by us<strong>in</strong>g the kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Balabanova T. a , P. Panayotov b<br />

a<br />

Department “Technology of milk and dairy products”, University of food technology, Plovdiv, Bulgaria<br />

(tbg_georgieva@yahoo.com)<br />

b<br />

Department “Technology of milk and dairy products”, University of food technology, Plovdiv, Bulgaria<br />

( panayotov_p@yahoo.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>terest to <strong>in</strong>dustrial dairy manufacture br<strong>in</strong>g to full use of milk component, a<br />

fuller and more rational use of separate secondary raw materials from process<strong>in</strong>g. This<br />

rationalization correlated from one side to ensure susta<strong>in</strong>ability on production and high quality<br />

of products, and from other side environmental protection through better utilization of<br />

productive resources through the development and implementation of effective technological<br />

systems to dairies for manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of secondary raw materials [1]. It is known to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

fermented by kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s milk with high biological value. Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g large quantities of milk<br />

serum from the cheese manufactur<strong>in</strong>g and separately after membrane process<strong>in</strong>g-filtrate is a<br />

prerequisite for search<strong>in</strong>g a different ways for their recovery.<br />

The aim of this article is to obta<strong>in</strong>, exam<strong>in</strong>e and analyze fermented by kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s beverage<br />

from whey, produced <strong>in</strong> the manufacture of Bulgarian br<strong>in</strong>e cheese and ultrafiltrate.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The raw materials accompany<strong>in</strong>g the experimental part are-milk, whey and ultrafiltrate. Milk is<br />

used like a control sample, the whey is separated after the production of Bulgarian br<strong>in</strong>e<br />

cheese, cooled and stored refrigerated at t = 4-6C. Filtrate obta<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g membrane<br />

technology-ultrafiltration. The fermentation process for whey and filtrate are lead at 20-22C<br />

with 10% kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s and duration for 360 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The experiments are realized <strong>in</strong> off-l<strong>in</strong>e<br />

mode with ultrasound sensors of type UST40/UST40R from Nippon Ceramic Company [2,3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The dynamics of the change <strong>in</strong> pH dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation <strong>in</strong> raw materials (milk, whey and<br />

filtrate), <strong>in</strong>oculated with kefir gra<strong>in</strong>s. Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the qualitative and quantitative<br />

composition of raw materials and exist<strong>in</strong>g microflora are observe a gradual variation of pH <strong>in</strong><br />

the process of lactic fermentation <strong>in</strong> common cultivate of lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Fig.1).<br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> content of the raw materials also reflects on the changes <strong>in</strong> pH value. The control milk<br />

sample is characterized by a higher buffer<strong>in</strong>g capacity, due to higher levels of prote<strong>in</strong><br />

substance (3,4%). From the data <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 is observed gradual decrease <strong>in</strong> pH dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fermentation. Up to 120 m<strong>in</strong>utes to reach pH 5,18, which co<strong>in</strong>cides with izoyonic po<strong>in</strong>t of milk<br />

and then are destabilize the case<strong>in</strong>. The filtrate and whey as opposed to the control sample<br />

characterized by low buffer<strong>in</strong>g capacity (no prote<strong>in</strong> substances), which allows for a short time<br />

(20 m<strong>in</strong>utes) the formation of small amounts of lactic acid, cause lower<strong>in</strong>g the value on pH at<br />

5,00 to 5,20.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2159

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

pH<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

Fig.1. Variation of pH dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation by kefir<br />

gra<strong>in</strong>s<br />

filtrate whey milk<br />

The duration of the fermentation process of milk is about 4 hours, but for whey and filtrate is<br />

45 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Characteristic of the control milk levels at the end of the fermentation process for<br />

pH rang<strong>in</strong>g from 4,5 to 4,6 and reached about 300-360 m<strong>in</strong>utes, but for others raw materials<br />

that period is five times shorter.<br />

Non-contacts ultrasound method is beside on the effect of reflection. When pass<strong>in</strong>g through a<br />

medium the ultrasound reduces its <strong>in</strong>tensity, lead<strong>in</strong>g to its weaken<strong>in</strong>g. The absorption of<br />

ultrasound energy <strong>in</strong> which ultrasound is spread depends on the characteristics of the mediumdensity<br />

and elasticity. Thus, the ultrasonic signal carries <strong>in</strong>formation about the characteristics<br />

of the medium between the transmitter and the receiver.<br />

0<br />

30<br />

60<br />

90<br />

120<br />

150<br />

180<br />

210<br />

240<br />

270<br />

300<br />

330<br />

360<br />

a b<br />

Figure.6. Experimental data from measurements of beverages beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g coagulation-pH 5,2 (a), end of<br />

fermentation-pH 4,5 (b)<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The experimental technology and received laboratory results can be summarized several<br />

important conclusions, one of which is the deployment of technologies for utilization of byproducts<br />

of milk production and seek alternative ways to create beverages milk-based foods<br />

with certa<strong>in</strong> nutrients and biological properties.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] .., . . , „ ”, 5, 2004<br />

[2] Shopov, N., R. Ilarionov, I. Simeonov, H. Kilifarev. Non-contact ultrasound method for identification<br />

of yogurt accord<strong>in</strong>g to its butter content. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the <strong>International</strong> Conference on Computer<br />

Systems and Technologies, CompSysTech’09, Rousse, Bulgaria, 18-19 June 2009, pp. I.1-1 – I.1-6.<br />

[3] N. Shopov, R. Ilarionov, I. Simeonov. „Generat<strong>in</strong>g symptoms' spaces by wavelets for automatic<br />

classification of yogurt accord<strong>in</strong>g to its butter content”, Scientific works of University of <strong>Food</strong><br />

Technologies, Plovdiv, volume LVI, issue 2, 2009.<br />

2160

Effect of Synthesis Conditions of Short-Cha<strong>in</strong> Fructooligosaccharides to Obta<strong>in</strong> High<br />

Yield and Volumetric Productivity<br />

Roberto Vega a , María Elvira Zúniga-Hansen a,b<br />

a<br />

School of Biochemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso, Valparaiso, Chile<br />

(rovegapa@gmail.com)<br />

b<br />

Regional Centre for the Study of Healthy <strong>Food</strong>s (CREAS), Valparaiso, Chile (mzuniga@ucv.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Short cha<strong>in</strong> Fructooligosaccharides (sc-FOS) are a mixture of 1-kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3)<br />

and 1 F -fructofuranosylnystose (GF4), which are regarded as prebiotics s<strong>in</strong>ce the middle of 90’s.<br />

This recognition has allowed them to <strong>in</strong>crease their demand <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. Currently,<br />

they are produced from sucrose by the action of fructosyltransferases, but with commercial<br />

enzyme formulations of low cost have not been widely reported.<br />

In this paper, we report the optimal conditions for production of sc-FOS from sucrose <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to obta<strong>in</strong> high percentage of 1-kestose <strong>in</strong> syrups us<strong>in</strong>g a commercial enzyme preparation as a<br />

source of food grade fructosyltransferase.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The commercial enzyme formulation, Rohapect ® , was obta<strong>in</strong>ed from AB Enzymes GmbH<br />

(Comercial Dimerco Ltda., Chile). Experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> 20 mL of sucrose solution<br />

<strong>in</strong> acetate buffer (50 mM, pH 5.5) and <strong>in</strong> stirred at 150 rpm. The conditions of temperature,<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial concentration of sucrose and enzyme concentration were studied. Sc-FOS and other<br />

sugars were analyzed by HPLC.<br />

The responses were yield (YP/S, g sc-FOS/100 g <strong>in</strong>itial sucrose), 1-kestose <strong>in</strong> sc-FOS (GF2,<br />

g/100 g sc-FOS) and volumetric productivity (QP, g/L.h), which were reported at 3 h reaction<br />

time. The differences were statistically significant at p-values

Table 1. Full factorial central composite design of three variables with natural and coded units<br />

Run<br />

Variables<br />

T Sucrose<br />

(°C) (M)<br />

Enzyme<br />

(UT/mL)<br />

Coded variables<br />

x1 x2 x3 YP/S sc-FOS GF2 Qp sc-FOS<br />

1 50 2.1 4.2 -1 1 -1 42.9 ±0.4 87.7±0.1 102.9±1.0<br />

2 50 1.7 6.6 -1 -1 1 59.9±1.1 72±0.0 115.8±2.2<br />

3 60 1.7 4.2 1 -1 -1 44.2±0.8 83.5±0.1 85.4±1.6<br />

4 55 1.9 7.4 0 0 1.682 62.2±0.5 67.6±0.0 134.8±1.1<br />

5 55 2.2 5.4 0 1.682 0 47.3±0.1 83.5±0.8 121±0.3<br />

6 55 1.9 5.4 0 0 0 51.7 76.4 112.1<br />

7 60 1.7 6.6 1 -1 1 55.4±0.9 73.9±1.5 107.1±1.7<br />

8 63.4 1.9 5.4 1.682 0 0 41.2± 1.6 84.8± 0.7 89.3± 3.6<br />

9 55 1.9 5.4 0 0 0 52.5 76.9 113.7<br />

10 60 2.1 6.6 1 1 1 57.7±0.2 72±0.3 138.5±0.5<br />

11 60 2.1 4.2 1 1 -1 47.4±0.1 81.9±0.3 113.8±0.4<br />

12 50 2.1 6.6 -1 1 1 54.8±1.3 79.9±0.1 131.6±3.0<br />

13 55 1.6 5.4 0 -1.682 0 60.4±1.0 73.7±0.5 107.2±1.7<br />

14 55 1.9 3.4 0 0 -1.682 45.8±0.0 84.9±0.1 99.3±0.1<br />

15 46.6 1.9 5.4 -1.682 0 0 45.8±0.0 84.1±0.1 99,2±0.1<br />

16 50 1.7 4.2 -1 -1 -1 51.4±0.1 82.1±0.3 99.3±0.3<br />

17 55 1.9 5.4 0 0 0 53.1 77.6 115.1<br />

(Mean ± standard deviation, n=2)<br />

The second effect on productivity was the <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of sucrose (l<strong>in</strong>ear effect),<br />

followed by temperature (quadratic effect) and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, the <strong>in</strong>teraction between temperature<br />

and <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of sucrose. The other effects were negligible at the 0.05 level of<br />

significance and pooled <strong>in</strong>to error. The highest p-value of significant effects was 0.014. The<br />

ANOVA showed that the models are highly significant, which is evident from the low values<br />

of probability of the null hypothesis. The lack of fit of models was not significant.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was possible to determ<strong>in</strong>e the optimum condition for temperature, <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of<br />

sucrose and enzyme concentration <strong>in</strong> the reaction medium to obta<strong>in</strong> high percentage of 1kestose<br />

<strong>in</strong> sc-FOS from sucrose. The temperature was 49.6 °C, the <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of<br />

sucrose was 1.89 M and the enzyme concentration was 5.3 TU/mL. The sc-FOS YP/S reached<br />

48% based on <strong>in</strong>itial concentration of sucrose; GF2 reached 81% based on sc-FOS and QP<br />

reached 103 g/L.h, all they under the above conditions at 3 h reaction time. The experimental<br />

values to prediction values were 94.8% for yield of sc-FOS, 100.9% for 1-kestose <strong>in</strong> sc-FOS<br />

and 95.1% for volumetric productivity.<br />

The results <strong>in</strong>dicate that the commercial enzyme formulation produces high content of 1-<br />

ketoses, and presents a potential as biocatalyst <strong>in</strong> view of an <strong>in</strong>dustrial process for the<br />

conversion of sucrose to syrup with high content of 1-ketose.<br />

2162

Effect of pH culture on growth and fatty acid profile of Lactobacillus plantarum bacteria<br />

C.Soto<br />

Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables, Valparaíso, Chile<br />

Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile<br />

(carmensoto@creas.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Bacteria such as Lactobacillus are used <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry to produce fermentable vegetable;<br />

also, they are recognized as probiotics [3]. Some of these microorganisms are capable of<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g conjugated l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid (CLA) [4], an isomer of l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid, which is considered a<br />

good fat and is used <strong>in</strong> prevention and control of cardiovascular disease and cancer treatment,<br />

among others [2]. An important variable <strong>in</strong> microbial growth is the pH, affect<strong>in</strong>g among other<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs, the specific growth rate and formation of secondary products.<br />

The aim of this study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effect of pH on growth and fatty acid profile of L.<br />

plantarum, when this stra<strong>in</strong> is grown <strong>in</strong> a supplemented medium with oils rich <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid,<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to establish the viability of obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g prebiotic biomass with a nutraceutical fatty acid.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS:<br />

Lactobacillus plantarum NRRL - B4496 was donated by ARS-USDA. The culture medium<br />

used was Man-Rogosa-Sharpe (MRS) <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 2.67 mL/L of corn oil or grape seed oil.<br />

Lactobacillus culture was carried out <strong>in</strong> an aerobic environment by batch. Three pH were<br />

tested: 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5. A phosphate buffer (200 mM) was used to keep the pH. Microbial<br />

growth was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by spectrophotometry and by gravimetry. Glucose consumption was<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g a specific enzymatic kit.<br />

Intracellular and extracellular fatty acid profiles were determ<strong>in</strong>ed after reach<strong>in</strong>g a steady state.<br />

Lipids were extracted us<strong>in</strong>g isopropyl alcohol and n-hexane from the culture media; then, lipids<br />

were methylated <strong>in</strong> a derivatization process. Lipids from biomass were trans-methylated from<br />

the cell. Methyl fatty acids were recovered with n-hexane and <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the gas<br />

chromatograph (Perk<strong>in</strong> Elmer Clarus 600) with FID detector.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1 shows the effect of pH on Lactobacillus plantarum growth and on the glucose uptake<br />

when the culture was supplemented with grape seed oil (Figure 1a) and corn oil (Figure 1b). As<br />

it is possible to observe <strong>in</strong> both cases the maximum cell concentration was the same us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

either a buffer pH 5.5 or 6.5 (3.2 g/L and 2.7 g/L us<strong>in</strong>g grape seed and corn oil respectively).<br />

After 20 hours of fermentation, L.plantarum reached a stationary phase of growth at pH 6.5,<br />

whereas at pH 5.5 this phase was achieve after 25 hours. For glucose decrease, a similar<br />

behavior was observed with both pHs, with a total consumption after 20-23 hours. The specific<br />

growth rate <strong>in</strong>crease from 0.089 h -1 to 0.141 h -1 when the pH <strong>in</strong>creased from 5.5 to 6.5. When<br />

pH of 7.5 was applied growth was not observed.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2163

Biomass(g/L)<br />

4,0<br />

3,5<br />

3,0<br />

2,5<br />

2,0<br />

1,5<br />

1,0<br />

0,5<br />

0,0<br />

0 10 20 30 40<br />

Figure 1: Effect of pH culture on L.plantarum growth. Culture conditions: MRS medium supplemented<br />

with grape seed oil (a) or corn oil (b). 2.67 mL / L; 37ºC; pH: 6.5 (), 5.5 ()<br />

As it is possible to observe, <strong>in</strong> both cases (corn and grape seed oil supplementation)<br />

Lactobacillus plantarum is able to adapt to different pHs.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the effect of pH on fatty acid profile, vaccenic and CLA fatty acids were observed<br />

only <strong>in</strong>side the microorganism. If grape seed oil was <strong>in</strong>corporated, a similar CLA content was<br />

observed when pH 5.5 or 6.5 were used, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g about 20% of this fatty acid. In the case of<br />

LA a higher content is reported <strong>in</strong> depleted culture media. It is important to mentioned that LA<br />

hydrogenation by microorganism enzymatic system have as f<strong>in</strong>al product stearic acid pass<strong>in</strong>g<br />

through vaccenic acid generation; also, some rum<strong>in</strong>al microorganism are able to produce CLA<br />

from oleic and vaccenic acids by 9-desaturase enzyme [1]. Due to this fact, these results<br />

suggest a mechanism active by oil richest presence and satisfactory growth pH.<br />

When compar<strong>in</strong>g corn and grape seed oil, the last one is the best accord<strong>in</strong>g L. plantarum<br />

growth and <strong>in</strong>tracellular CLA concentration.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

pH dur<strong>in</strong>g the culture of Lactobacillus plantarum bacteria can affect the growth rate and the<br />

fatty acid profile. These effects depend markedly on the culture medium used.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Time(h)<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

[1] Banni, S., Angioni, E., Murru, E., Carta, G., Melis, M.P., Bauman,D., Dong, Y. & Ip, C.2001.<br />

Vaccenic Acid Feed<strong>in</strong>g Increases Tissue Levels of Conjugated L<strong>in</strong>oleic Acid and Suppresses<br />

Development of Premalignant Lesions <strong>in</strong> Rat Mammary Gland. Nutrition and Cancer, 41(1&2), 91-97<br />

[2] Bhattacharya, A., Banu. J., Rahman. M., Causey. J. & Fernandes, G. 2006. Biological effects of<br />

conjugated l<strong>in</strong>oleic acids <strong>in</strong> health and disease. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 17,789-810.<br />

[3] Maragkoudakis, P.A., Zoumpopoulou, G., Miaris, C., Kalantzopoulo, G., Pot, B., & Tsakalido, E.<br />

2006. Probiotic potential of Lactobacillus stra<strong>in</strong>s isolated from dairy products. <strong>International</strong> Dairy<br />

Journal, 16,189–199.<br />

[4] Ogawa, J.; Kish<strong>in</strong>o, S., Ando, A., Sugimoto, S.; Mihara, K., & Shimuzu, S. 2005. Production of<br />

conjugated fatty acids by lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioeng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 100, 355-64.<br />

2164<br />

4,0<br />

3,5<br />

3,0<br />

2,5<br />

2,0<br />

1,5<br />

1,0<br />

0,5<br />

0,0<br />

0 10 20 30 40<br />

Time(h)<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

glucose(g/L)

Quality decay and viability of Lactobacillus acidophilus free and encapsulated <strong>in</strong> buffalo milk yogurt<br />

A.S. Shoji a ; A.C. Oliveira b ; M.A. Tr<strong>in</strong>dade a ; O. Freitas b , M. Thomaz<strong>in</strong>i a ,<br />

R.J.B. He<strong>in</strong>emann a ; C.S. Favaro-Tr<strong>in</strong>dade a,*<br />

a Universidade de São Paul.. Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimento. Rua Duque de Caxias Norte, 225,<br />

Pirassununga-SP, Brazil, CEP 13593-900 *Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author: carmenft@usp.br<br />

b Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto. Avenida do Café, s/n°,<br />

Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil, CEP 14040-903<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The viability of the microbial content and the general quality of many probiotic-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g products is still under<br />

question. Several reports have shown that the survival and viability of probiotic bacteria is often low <strong>in</strong> yoghurt [1],<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> counts lower than 10 7 –10 8 CFU/g of the daily. Innovative technologies have <strong>in</strong>vestigated the <strong>in</strong>stability<br />

problems of these microorganisms. Microencapsulation is one of the approaches that have presented excellent results<br />

[2, 3]. Thus, the aim of this work was to evaluate the quality decay and the viability of L. acidophilus <strong>in</strong> buffalo milk<br />

yogurt.<br />

MATERIAL & METHODS<br />

Materials: A citrus pect<strong>in</strong> GENU R (REF. 13596) esterification degree of 68% (CP Kelco, Brazil) and Bov<strong>in</strong>e case<strong>in</strong><br />

(Katuffmann, Germany) were used as encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g agents. The Lactobacillus acidophilus Lac-04 culture was k<strong>in</strong>dly<br />

donated by Danisco (Brazil) <strong>in</strong> a pure, freeze-dried form and kept at -18 o C. Buffalo milk and a traditional culture for<br />

yoghurt (L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus from Christian-Hansen, Brazil) were used to prepare the yoghurts.<br />

Microencapsulation: The microcapsules were prepared <strong>in</strong> accordance with the method described by Oliveira et al.<br />

[13] and freeze dried.<br />

Application of microcapsules <strong>in</strong> yoghurt: For yoghurt preparation, buffalo milk was pasteurised as described by<br />

Marcatti et al. [4], cooled to 40°C and <strong>in</strong>oculated with a traditional culture of yoghurt and (1.5g/100g of yogurt) for<br />

probiotics (1.5g/100g of yogurt). The fill<strong>in</strong>g was carried out <strong>in</strong> packs of 100 mL <strong>in</strong>cubated at 40°C until the product<br />

reached pH levels of 5.0 and 4.5. Four pilot-scale yoghurt manufactur<strong>in</strong>g protocols (designated T1, T2, T3, and T4)<br />

were carried out (n=4). Yoghurts T1 were manufactured with a traditional culture of yoghurt followed by add<strong>in</strong>g<br />

encapsulated L. acidophilus and ferment<strong>in</strong>g it to pH 5.0. Yoghurts T2 were manufactured with a traditional culture of<br />

yoghurt by add<strong>in</strong>g free L. acidophilus ferment<strong>in</strong>g it to pH 5.0. Yoghurts T3 were manufactured with a traditional<br />

culture of yoghurt by add<strong>in</strong>g encapsulated L. acidophilus and ferment<strong>in</strong>g it to pH 4.5. Yoghurts T4 were manufactured<br />

with a traditional culture of yoghurt by add<strong>in</strong>g free L. acidophilus and ferment<strong>in</strong>g it to pH 4.5. All yoghurts were kept<br />

<strong>in</strong> refrigeration for 28 days for storage evaluation. The samples were analysed by pH, acidity and viability of probiotic<br />

cultures dur<strong>in</strong>g 28 days for refrigerated storage.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1 presents physicochemical data for buffalo yoghurts prepared with the addition of L. acidophilus. There was an<br />

overall decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> pH dur<strong>in</strong>g refrigerated storage of all yoghurts, be<strong>in</strong>g more pronounced <strong>in</strong> the early days. The<br />

yoghurts prepared with free form of the probiotics (T2 and T4) resulted <strong>in</strong> a more accentuated decl<strong>in</strong>e of pH than the<br />

yoghurts prepared with microencapsulated probiotics. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>al fermentation pH or <strong>in</strong>itial pH <strong>in</strong> the storage<br />

of the yoghurts with microencapsulated probiotics of 5.0, the decrease was from 5.02 to 4.17 with<strong>in</strong> 28 days of<br />

refrigerated storage and 4.9 to 4.0 <strong>in</strong> the yoghurts with free cultures at the same conditions. The same profile was<br />

observed for yoghurts with a pH at 4.5 at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the storage conditions. Thus, it can be <strong>in</strong>ferred that the<br />

microencapsulation of L. acidophilus <strong>in</strong> buffalo yoghurt results <strong>in</strong> lower post-acidification values, <strong>in</strong>dependent of the<br />

pH at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of storage. Also, the pH, both 4.5 and 5, did not show a significant effect on the variables<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2165

evaluated. The results from the pH decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the free and encapsulated forms can be an <strong>in</strong>dication that the<br />

encapsulation process results <strong>in</strong> lower metabolic activity.<br />

Table 1. pH and titrable acidity of yoghurts conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g probiotics dur<strong>in</strong>g refrigerated storage for 28 days.<br />

Day 1 Day 14 Day 28<br />

Treatment ** pH Acidity pH Acidity pH Acidity<br />

T1 5.02±0.01 aA 0.82±0.015 aA 4.14±0.01 aB 0.94±0.015 aA 4.17±0.01 aB 0.96±0.022 aA<br />

T2 4.99±0.01 aA 1.23±0.013 bA 3.99±0.01 bB 1.35±0.011 bA 4.01±0.01 bB 1.40±0.005 bA<br />

T3 4.53±0.01 bA<br />

0.93±0.020 aA 4.14±0.01 aB 0.98±0.020 aA 4.20±0.02 aC 1.06±0.018 aA<br />

T4 4.51±0.01 bA<br />

1.25±0.031 bA 3.97±0.02 bB 1.36±0.018 bAB 4.01±0.02 bB 1.45±0.018 bB<br />

* Results presented as a mean (n=3) standard error of mean (n=3)<br />

a,b,c: Means with different small letters <strong>in</strong> the same column differ (p < 0.05) A,B,C: Means with different capital<br />

letters <strong>in</strong> the same l<strong>in</strong>e differ (p < 0.05)<br />

** T1: Yoghurt with encapsulated L. acidophilus ferment<strong>in</strong>g to pH 5.0. T2: Yoghurts with free L. acidophilus<br />

ferment<strong>in</strong>g to pH 5.0. T3: Yoghurts with encapsulated L. acidophilus ferment<strong>in</strong>g to pH 4.5. T4: Yoghurts with L.<br />

acidophilus free ferment<strong>in</strong>g to pH 4.5<br />

The viability of the probiotic cultures <strong>in</strong> the buffalo yoghurt was also determ<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage period of 28 days<br />

as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 2. For L. acidophilus <strong>in</strong> free and microencapsulated forms, there was a decay <strong>in</strong> the number of<br />

viable cells throughout the refrigerated storage period, reach<strong>in</strong>g values between 4.4 and 4.9 log CFU/g for the<br />

probiotics <strong>in</strong> free form (T2 and T4) and 7.9 and 7.5 log CFU/g for the encapsulated probiotics (T1 and T3) after 28<br />

days. Treatment T1, with a pH of 5.0 at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of storage, presented the highest number of viable cells after<br />

storage time, while T2 presented the lowest count<strong>in</strong>g among the treatments. These results differ from those from the<br />

evaluation of the survival of L. acidophilus at pH 1 and 3. This suggests that the microencapsulated L. acidophilus<br />

resisted the processes employed (encapsulation, fermentation and cool<strong>in</strong>g) was not affected by <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic conditions (pH,<br />

acidity and the potential for oxidation-reduction) of yoghurt, as well as those of storage (refrigeration temperature) and<br />

had a better performance than the free probiotic culture.<br />

Table 2. Effect of f<strong>in</strong>al fermentation pH and form of probiotics on the viability of L. acidophilus (counts of L.<br />

acidophilus <strong>in</strong> log cfu g -1 ) <strong>in</strong> buffalo yoghurt<br />

Treatment ** Storage (days) *<br />

1<br />

14<br />

28<br />

T1 9.24±0.02 aA<br />

9.14±0.04 aA<br />

7.99±0.01 aB<br />

T2 9.34± 0.02 aA 8.54±0.02 bB<br />

4.38±0.07 dC<br />

T3 9.20±0.01 aA<br />

8.46±0.07 bB<br />

7.51±0.06 bC<br />

T4 9.31±0.03 aA<br />

9.04±0.04 aA<br />

4.95±0.04 cB<br />

*<br />

Results presented as a mean (n=3) standard error of mean (n=3)<br />

a,b,c A,B,C<br />

: Means with different small letters <strong>in</strong> the same column differ (p < 0.05) : Means with different capital letters <strong>in</strong><br />

the same l<strong>in</strong>e differ (p

Supercritical fluid extraction with modifier of antioxidant compounds from jabuticaba<br />

(Myrciaria cauliflora) by-product: economic viability<br />

Rodrigo N. Cavalcanti, Priscilla C. Veggi, M. Angela A. Meireles*<br />

LASEFI/DEA/FEA (School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>)/UNICAMP (University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as) – R. Monteiro<br />

Lobato, 80; 13083-862, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (meireles@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) is a Brazilian grape-like fruit with extensive occurrence <strong>in</strong><br />

the country. A part of production of these fruits is explored by local populations, but the<br />

majority is wasted dur<strong>in</strong>g harvest and processes. Thus, the application of <strong>in</strong>novative<br />

technologies such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process<strong>in</strong>g by-products is important to<br />

obta<strong>in</strong> high quality products add<strong>in</strong>g value to these products. Besides, by-products processes<br />

currently represents an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g niche of market ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to its ecological, economic and<br />

social implications. Indeed it is necessary a critical analysis of chemical composition and<br />

economic viability of the extracts obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate the <strong>in</strong>dustrial applicability [1].<br />

The objective of this work is to evaluate the feasibility of antioxidants recovery by supercritical<br />

fluid extraction (SFE) with co-solvent us<strong>in</strong>g different conditions of pressure and temperature.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Jabuticaba jelly residue was provided by Santa Maria farm (Camp<strong>in</strong>as, São Paulo, Brazil)<br />

gr<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> knife mill (Tecnal TE-631 model series 01071, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil),<br />

packed <strong>in</strong> plastic bag, and stored <strong>in</strong> domestic freezer (Metalfrio, HC-4, Sao Paulo, Brazil) at -<br />

18 °C. The SFE assays were carried out us<strong>in</strong>g a system with a 415 cm 3 extraction vessel (3.4 ×<br />

10 -2 m of diameter and 37.5 × 10 -2 m of height) performed <strong>in</strong> two temperatures (323 and 333<br />

K) and three pressures (10, 20, and 30 MPa) us<strong>in</strong>g ethanol as modifier at 20% v/v. The global<br />

yield (X0) was calculated as ratio of extract mass (mextract) and mass of raw material (mRM)<br />

loaded <strong>in</strong> the extraction vessel as shown <strong>in</strong> the equation 1:<br />

mextract<br />

% X 0 100<br />

(1)<br />

m RM<br />

Radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g activity us<strong>in</strong>g DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) was performed<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method of Kordali et al. [2] at 517 nm <strong>in</strong> UV-vis spectrophotometer (Hitachi,<br />

model U-3010, Tokyo, Japan). Antioxidant activity of the extracts was calculated by<br />

scaveng<strong>in</strong>g ability (%SA) at 0.2 mg/cm 3 extract concentration accord<strong>in</strong>g to equation 2 as<br />

follows:<br />

Control Sample<br />

Abs Abs 100<br />

% SA (2)<br />

Control<br />

Abs<br />

SuperPro Designer 6.0® was used for process simulation and economical evaluation. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />

costs that compose the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g costs (COM) are similar to the ones described by Turton<br />

et al. [3].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2167

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature shown to have a significantly <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the global yield<br />

of the supercritical extracts but decreas<strong>in</strong>g antioxidant compounds recovery. Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

costs of the antioxidant compounds (COM CA ) showed high variability with the variation of<br />

temperature, pressure and size of the cell extraction. The COM CA <strong>in</strong>creased with temperature<br />

probably due to energetic costs. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> pressure showed a decrease (10 to 20 MPa)<br />

followed by a pronounced <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> manufactur<strong>in</strong>g costs (20 to 30 MPa). This phenomenon<br />

is closely related to antioxidant compounds recovery and energetic costs.<br />

Table 1. Global yield, antioxidant activity and cost of manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of extract and antioxidant<br />

compounds obta<strong>in</strong>ed by SFE with ethanol at different operational conditions.<br />

Sample<br />

Global<br />

Yield<br />

(% d.b.)<br />

Antioxidant<br />

Activity<br />

(% d.b.)<br />

COM X0 (US$/kg) COM CA (US$/kg)<br />

0.05 m 3 0.3 m 3 0.05 m 3 0.3 m 3<br />

323K-10MPa 8,321 13,01 18,17 8,99 139,70 69,12<br />

323K-20MPa 15,20 15,10 18,13 8,98 120,08 59,48<br />

323K-30MPa 10,15 7,971 18,18 9,01 228,08 113,04<br />

333K-10MPa 25,46 8,754 18,37 9,26 209,85 105,78<br />

333K-20MPa 20,85 12,35 18,42 9,28 149,20 75,17<br />

333K-30MPa 24,72 4,188 18,40 9,28 439,38 221,60<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Thus, evaluat<strong>in</strong>g extract and the antioxidant compounds yield as well as the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

costs for each condition of temperature and pressure it is possible to conclude that the<br />

extraction condition at 323 K and 20 MPa had the highest yield of antioxidant compounds and<br />

lower cost of manufactur<strong>in</strong>g (COM-CA) be<strong>in</strong>g selected as the best choice by supercritical fluid<br />

extraction with ethanol to obta<strong>in</strong> antioxidants from jabuticaba jelly residue.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Arts I.C.W. & Hollman P.C.H. 2005. Polyphenols and disease risk <strong>in</strong> epidemiologic studies.<br />

American Journal of Cl<strong>in</strong>ical Nutrition, 81(1), 317–325.<br />

[2] Kordali S., Kotan R., Mavi A., Cakir A., Ala A., & Yildirim A. 2005. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the chemical<br />

composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Artemisia dracunculus and of the<br />

antifungal and antibacterial activities of Turkish Artemisia abs<strong>in</strong>thium, A. dracunculus, Artemisia<br />

santonicum, and Artemísia spicigera essential oils. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 53,<br />

9452–9458.<br />

[3] Turton R., Bailie R. C., Whit<strong>in</strong>g W. B. & Shaeiwitz J. A. 1998. Analysis, synthesis, and design of<br />

chemical process. 1st ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998. p. 848.<br />

2168

Microencapsulation of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil with ze<strong>in</strong><br />

Sócrates Quispe-Condori a,b , Marleny D.A. Saldaña b<br />

a<br />

School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Universidad Peruana Unión, Ñaña, Lima, Perú (socrates@upeu.edu.pe)<br />

b<br />

Department of Agricultural, <strong>Food</strong> and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta<br />

(marleny@ualberta.ca)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA’s) has ga<strong>in</strong>ed great importance due to<br />

the variety of health benefits. Fish, flax and algae are the commonly sources of PUFA’s.<br />

Recently, sacha <strong>in</strong>chi seeds (Plukenetia volubilis L.) has been commercialized as an alternative<br />

source. Sacha <strong>in</strong>chi tree is a millenarian legacy, of the Inca civilization, that is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

extensively cultivated <strong>in</strong> the Peruvian Amazon. Sacha <strong>in</strong>chi seeds are valued for their high oil<br />

(35-60%) and prote<strong>in</strong> (27-33%) content. Furthermore, its oil is an excellent source of<br />

polyunsaturated fatty acids, ma<strong>in</strong>ly l<strong>in</strong>olenic acid (C18:3 -3) and l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid (C18:2 -6)<br />

[Hamaker et al., 1992]. However, one of the major drawbacks of oils conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a high amount<br />

of PUFA’s is their rapid oxidation. The use of encapsulation technologies to retard the<br />

oxidation of these oils has drawn considerable attention [Sanguansri & August<strong>in</strong>, 2007]. Ze<strong>in</strong>,<br />

the prolam<strong>in</strong> fraction of corn prote<strong>in</strong>, has long be<strong>in</strong>g recognized for its coat<strong>in</strong>g ability and<br />

mechanical and barrier properties. Encapsulation of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil us<strong>in</strong>g ze<strong>in</strong> as a carrier has<br />

not been reported <strong>in</strong> the literature. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the<br />

physical properties of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi microcapsules produced by spray dry<strong>in</strong>g. The microcapsules<br />

were analyzed for their particle yield, microencapsulation efficiency, flow<strong>in</strong>g properties,<br />

particle size distribution and morphological characteristics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Factorial design (Table 1) was used to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the physical properties with respect to ze<strong>in</strong><br />

(x1) and sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil (x2) concentrations. The microencapsulation of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil and the<br />

physical chemistry analysis were carried out accord<strong>in</strong>g to Quispe-Condori et al. [2011].<br />

Table 1. Experimental matrix (actual values and coded levels) for the factorial design and particle yield,<br />

microencapsulation efficiency (MEE) and flow<strong>in</strong>g properties of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil - ze<strong>in</strong> microcapsules<br />

# Ze<strong>in</strong><br />

(%)<br />

Oil<br />

(%)<br />

Ze<strong>in</strong>:oil<br />

Ratio<br />

Particle<br />

Yield<br />

(%)<br />

MEE (%)<br />

Bulk density<br />

(kg/m 3 )<br />

Flow<strong>in</strong>g properties<br />

Hausner<br />

ratio<br />

Carr Index<br />

Mean diameter<br />

(m)<br />

1 10 (0) 1 (1) 10:1 76.93 79.95±0.59 206.91±2.93 1.48±0.02 32.37±0.97 n.d.<br />

2 10 (0) 0.5 (-1) 20:1 66.57 84.50±0.84 203.37±10.51 1.52±0.08 34.10±3.55 n.d.<br />

3 8 (-1) 1 (1) 8:1 62.55 78.81±0.09 245.26±5.20 1.41±0.05 29.17±2.26 207.44<br />

4 12 (1) 1 (1) 12:1 75.59 88.53±0.38 243.66±20.65 1.55±0.10 35.16±4.22 22.63±1.49<br />

5 8 (-1) 0.5 (-1) 16:1 59.15 84.98±0.14 274.78±11.60 1.48±0.06 32.28±2.87 84.46±16.01<br />

6 12 (1) 0.5 (-1) 24:1 92.73 86.23±0.16 209.21±10.38 1.61±0.03 37.93±1.25 52.85±13.77<br />

7 10 (0) 0.75 (0) 13.3:1 80.56 90.41±0.74 194.73±19.35 1.55±0.19 34.69±8.72 n.d.<br />

8 10 (0) 0.75 (0) 13.3:1 78.41 86.60±0.65 216.35±17.09 1.58±0.11 36.42±4.30 40.64±28.45<br />

9 21 (-) 0.75 (0) 28:1 92.84 86.54±0.85 183.70±9.82 1.51±0.12 33.45±5.54 n.d.<br />

n.d. = not determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2169

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Particle yield, microencapsulation efficiency, flow<strong>in</strong>g properties and particle size distribution<br />

of sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil microcapsules are presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The response surface contour plots<br />

for particle yield and microencapsulation efficiency are presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />

Sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil concentration (%)<br />

1<br />

0<br />

-1<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

-1 0<br />

Ze<strong>in</strong> concentration (%)<br />

1<br />

Sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil concentration (%)<br />

1<br />

0<br />

-1<br />

94<br />

90<br />

86<br />

82<br />

78<br />

-1 0 1<br />

Ze<strong>in</strong> concentration (%)<br />

Figure 1. Estimated contour plot <strong>in</strong> the factorial design experiment obta<strong>in</strong>ed by plott<strong>in</strong>g the sacha <strong>in</strong>chi<br />

oil and ze<strong>in</strong> concentration for (a) Particle yield, (b) Microencapsulation efficiency.<br />

Morphological analysis showed that there were not significant differences <strong>in</strong> the morphologies<br />

of the sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil microcapsules at different ze<strong>in</strong>:oil ratios (Figure 2)<br />

Run 4 Run 6<br />

Figure 2. Scann<strong>in</strong>g electron micrographs of microcapsules at different operational conditions.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

It was demonstrated that particle yield was significantly affected by the ze<strong>in</strong> concentration,<br />

while microencapsulation efficiency and flow<strong>in</strong>g properties were not affected by ze<strong>in</strong> and<br />

sacha <strong>in</strong>chi oil concentration. Particle size distribution and morphology of the microcapsules<br />

depend on the ze<strong>in</strong>:flax oil ratio.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Hamaker B.R., Valles C., Gilman R., Hardmeier R.M., Clark D., Garcia H.H., Gonzales A.E.,<br />

Kohlstad I., Castro M., Valdivia R., Rodriguez T. & Lescano M. 1992. Am<strong>in</strong>o acid and fatty acid<br />

profiles of the Inca Peanut (Plukenetia volubilis L.). Cereal Chemistry, 6(4), 461-463.<br />

[2] Sanguansri L. & August<strong>in</strong> M.A. 2007. Microencapsulation and delivery of Omega-3 fatty acids. In:<br />

Shi, J. (Ed.), Functional <strong>Food</strong> Ingredients and Nutraceuticals: <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Technologies. Taylor &<br />

Francis, Florida, USA.<br />

[3] Quispe-Condori S., Saldaña M.D.A., Temelli F. 2011. Microencapsulation of flax oil with ze<strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

spray and freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g. LWT – <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, In press.<br />

2170

Encapsulation of Curcum<strong>in</strong> Loaded Oil Droplets by Cryotropic Gel Formation from<br />

O/W Emulsion<br />

Kyuya Nakagawa 1* , Nataporn Sowasod 2 , Tawatchai Char<strong>in</strong>panitkul 3 , Ap<strong>in</strong>an Soottitantawat 3<br />

and Wiwut Tanthapanichakoon 3<br />

1<br />

Research Centre for Nano-Micro Science and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Hyogo, Japan<br />

2<br />

Nanoscience and Technology Program, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand<br />

3<br />

Center of Excellence <strong>in</strong> Particle Technology, Faculty of <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Chulalongkorn University,<br />

Thailand ( * e-mail to Nakagawa: nakagawa@eng.u-hyogo.ac.jp)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Nowadays, nano-micro encapsulation is a key technology to stabilize active food <strong>in</strong>gredients such as<br />

vitam<strong>in</strong>, polyphenol, peptide etc., and to put a controlled release function onto a matrix. Hydrogel is a<br />

widely accepted encapsulant, as naturally used <strong>in</strong> many traditional gel foods. These gel structures usually<br />

possess nano-scale holes formed by polymeric cha<strong>in</strong>s, and the sizes of these holes are determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the<br />

characteristics of the polymers and the degree of gel formation. It is a reasonable strategy to design a<br />

controlled release system <strong>in</strong> a hydrogel by controll<strong>in</strong>g the gelation manners. But it is not always easy to<br />

realise it because of the difficulty of sol-gel transition management <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dustrial process. The authors<br />

believe that these problems would be overcome by us<strong>in</strong>g cryotropic gel formation where the network<br />

formation could be controlled by a freez<strong>in</strong>g operation. Cryotropic gelation is a sol-gel transition <strong>in</strong>duced<br />

by the concentration <strong>in</strong>crease of the substrates due to the dehydration by freez<strong>in</strong>g (ice formation).<br />

Loz<strong>in</strong>sky et al. have reported a lot of <strong>in</strong>tensive studies on cryotropic gelation [1, 2]. This cryotropic<br />

gelation would also be a useful tool for oil encapsulation, however, the number of reports on the relevant<br />

topics is still lack<strong>in</strong>g. The present study was aimed to encapsulate an oil phase <strong>in</strong>to cryogel matrices<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a ternary system of chitosan, -carrageenan, and carboxy methylcellulose sodium salt<br />

(NaCMC). Triole<strong>in</strong> oil that conta<strong>in</strong>ed curcum<strong>in</strong> was selected as the oil phase, and o/w emulsions were<br />

prepared with suspended chitosan (emulsifier). A suspension of -carrageenan and NaCMC was added to<br />

this emulsion to convert them <strong>in</strong>to cryogels after freez<strong>in</strong>g. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed frozen cryogels were<br />

subsequently freeze-dried to obta<strong>in</strong> dried gels that conta<strong>in</strong> curcum<strong>in</strong> oil. Release behavior of curcum<strong>in</strong><br />

was <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> an aqueous buffer solution, and the <strong>in</strong>fluence of freez<strong>in</strong>g conditions on the release<br />

characteristics was reported.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

A triole<strong>in</strong> solution conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 0.3 wt% of curcum<strong>in</strong> (oil phase) was mixed with a 3 wt% chitosan aqueous<br />

suspension conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 2 wt% of acetic acid and 5 wt% of Tween80. The ratio of the oil phase to the<br />

aqueous phase was set at 10 %(v/v), and this mixture was emulsified with a high-speed homogenizer at<br />

12,000 rpm for 5 m<strong>in</strong>. 5 %(w/v) of sodium chloride was added to the prepared o/w emulsion, then mixed<br />

with another polymer suspension consist<strong>in</strong>g of 1 wt% of polymer (-carrageenan and NaCMC mixture)<br />

and 5% of sodium chloride. Two sets of the suspensions were prepared by vary<strong>in</strong>g the ratio of<br />

carrageenan to NaCMC (set A: 1:9, set B: 4:6). The mixture of the prepared o/w emulsion and this<br />

polymer suspension was homogenized at 12,000 rpm for 5 m<strong>in</strong> to obta<strong>in</strong> a homogeneous colloidal<br />

suspension. The prepared suspension was frozen by cool<strong>in</strong>g with a contact plate heat exchanger at -40°C,<br />

where the cool<strong>in</strong>g rates were controlled, namely; -0.5, -1.0, -2.0 K/m<strong>in</strong>, respectively. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed frozen<br />

samples were subsequently freeze-dried for 24 hours. A piece of the cyl<strong>in</strong>drical freeze-dried cryogel<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2171

sample (dia. 10 mm, height 10 mm) was set <strong>in</strong> a test tube with 5 ml of the buffer solution, and the test<br />

tube was <strong>in</strong>stalled <strong>in</strong> a shak<strong>in</strong>g bath where the temperature was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at 37ºC. The released amounts<br />

of curcum<strong>in</strong>s were evaluated by HPLC analysis to obta<strong>in</strong> release curves.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

First of all, we should note that the present formulations successfully enabled the preparation of<br />

irreversible gel formation merely due to freez<strong>in</strong>g. The freeze-thawed specimens were fragile, however,<br />

they possessed enough strength to be removed from the test tube and held directly by hand. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

freeze-dried cryogels were spongy and their structural hardness depended on their formulation and<br />

freez<strong>in</strong>g condition. These differences were appeared on their release characteristics as listed <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

The total released amount of curcum<strong>in</strong> (for four days) was almost determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the freez<strong>in</strong>g conditions.<br />

They <strong>in</strong>creased as <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the cool<strong>in</strong>g rates dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Table 1. Sample IDs and the total released amount of curcum<strong>in</strong><br />

Sample S-1 S-2 M-1 M-2 F-1 F-2<br />

Mixed polymer suspension set A B A B A B<br />

Cool<strong>in</strong>g rate dur<strong>in</strong>g freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

[°C/m<strong>in</strong>]<br />

-0.5 -0.5 -1.0 -1.0 -2.0 -2.0<br />

Total amount released<br />

for 4 days [%]<br />

41.1 43.3 48.7 48.3 58.05 59.9<br />

The release curves, as depicted <strong>in</strong> Fig. 1, were mostly burst type curves. A curve obta<strong>in</strong>ed from F-2,<br />

however, was first order release type. It was worth not<strong>in</strong>g that S-2, M-2 and F-2 were prepared from the<br />

same suspension, but their characteristics were greatly dependent on their freez<strong>in</strong>g history. It means that<br />

the gel network structures <strong>in</strong> the present cryogel system were greatly controlled by their gel formation<br />

k<strong>in</strong>etics dur<strong>in</strong>g sol-gel transition. And this structural modification consequently affected to the<br />

diffusivities of the core <strong>in</strong>gredient (i.e. curcum<strong>in</strong>). This cryogel based technique holds big potential for<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g various types of hydrogel structures from a certa<strong>in</strong> suitable formulation simply by chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

their process<strong>in</strong>g parameters.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

% Release<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

S-1<br />

S-2<br />

20<br />

M-1<br />

M-2<br />

10<br />

0<br />

F-1<br />

F-2<br />

0 500 1000 1500<br />

Time [m<strong>in</strong>]<br />

2000 2500 3000<br />

Figure 1. Release curves of curcum<strong>in</strong> from freeze-dried cryogels (<strong>in</strong> PBS pH 7.4)<br />

[1] Loz<strong>in</strong>sky, V. I. et al. (1986) Acta Polymerica, 37, 142-146<br />

[2] Loz<strong>in</strong>sky, V. I., & Damshkaln, L. G. (2000) Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 77, 2017-2023.<br />

2172

Effect of different ratios of maltodextr<strong>in</strong>/gelat<strong>in</strong> and ultrasound <strong>in</strong> the<br />

microencapsulation efficiency of turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong><br />

Cassia Roberta Malacrida a , Vânia Reg<strong>in</strong>a Nicoletti Telis a<br />

a<br />

São Paulo State University – UNESP, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil (cmalacrida@terra.com.br,<br />

vanianic@ibilce.unesp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Encapsulation is a process <strong>in</strong> which one or more <strong>in</strong>gredients or additives are coated with a<br />

small and edible capsule. This technique seems to be useful to solve problems regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

limitations <strong>in</strong> the use of food <strong>in</strong>gredients, as turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong>, which despite hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

numerous advantages over the turmeric powder, is sensitive to light, heat, oxygen and pH<br />

variations. The ma<strong>in</strong> emphasis of microencapsulation has been concentrated on improv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

encapsulation efficiency and extend<strong>in</strong>g shelf-life of the products. The properties of the wall and<br />

core material as well as the emulsion characteristics and dry<strong>in</strong>g parameters are the factors that<br />

can affect the efficiency of encapsulation [1].<br />

The objective of this work was to study the <strong>in</strong>fluence of different ratios of maltodextr<strong>in</strong>/gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

used as wall materials and the effect of ultrasound application dur<strong>in</strong>g the emulsification step on<br />

the encapsulation efficiency of turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong> by freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Different concentrations of maltodextr<strong>in</strong> 10 DE (12.0 - 29.7 %) and bov<strong>in</strong>e gelat<strong>in</strong>, bloom<br />

value 240, (0.5 - 6.0 %) were dispersed <strong>in</strong> distilled water. The turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong> was added to<br />

the mixtures at a fixed ratio of 15 %, based on the mass of carrier materials, and emulsified <strong>in</strong> a<br />

shear homogenizer for 15 m<strong>in</strong> at 18,000 rpm. Sonication was applied by immers<strong>in</strong>g samples <strong>in</strong><br />

an ultrasonic bath for 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. The homogenized mixtures were frozen at -38 ºC for 24<br />

hours and freeze dried at < -40 °C for 48 hours. The encapsulation efficiency was calculated<br />

based on the curcum<strong>in</strong> content [2] reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the microcapsules after freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g. Moisture<br />

[3] and solubility <strong>in</strong> water [4] of the encapsulated powder were also determ<strong>in</strong>ed. All<br />

experiments were carried out <strong>in</strong> duplicate and average values are reported.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Moisture contents varied from 1.1 to 4.1 % (wet basis) and it is possible to observe that the<br />

samples with the highest gelat<strong>in</strong> content (6 %) presented the highest moisture percentages.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g to solubility experiments, only the samples with higher gelat<strong>in</strong> percentage (6 %)<br />

were not soluble <strong>in</strong> water with<strong>in</strong> 5 m<strong>in</strong>utes of agitation. The application of ultrasound was only<br />

significant for the encapsulat<strong>in</strong>g matrix consist<strong>in</strong>g of 18 % maltodextr<strong>in</strong> and 6 % gelat<strong>in</strong>,<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g the time of solubilisation from 15.5 m<strong>in</strong>utes (without ultrasound) to 12 m<strong>in</strong>utes (with<br />

ultrasound).<br />

The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g gelat<strong>in</strong> concentration <strong>in</strong> the polymeric matrix <strong>in</strong>creased the encapsulation<br />

efficiency of turmeric oil (p < 0.05), whereas the maltodextr<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> the wall material did<br />

not show significant effect at a 5 % level of significance. The effectiveness of ultrasound to<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2173

improve encapsulation efficiency was more pronounced for a higher content of maltodextr<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

the wall material: for an encapsulant matrix formulated with 18 % maltodextr<strong>in</strong> and 6 %<br />

gelat<strong>in</strong>, the encapsulation efficiency <strong>in</strong>creased from (81.1 ± 0.4) % without ultrasound to (90.4<br />

± 1.4) % when apply<strong>in</strong>g ultrasound. In the case of an encapsulant matrix formulated with 12 %<br />

maltodextr<strong>in</strong> and 6 % gelat<strong>in</strong>, the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the encapsulation efficiency was lower: (77.6 ±<br />

0.6) % without ultrasound to (80.6 ± 0.1) % when apply<strong>in</strong>g ultrasound.<br />

Table 1. Influence of the wall material formulation on turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong> encapsulation efficiency<br />

Formulation Maltodextr<strong>in</strong><br />

(%)<br />

Gelat<strong>in</strong><br />

(%)<br />

Moisture*<br />

(wt %)<br />

Solubilization time*<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

EE%*<br />

1 20.6 0.9 1.8 ± 0.13 1.2 ± 0.20 57.8 ± 0.30<br />

2 20.6 2.6 2.2 ± 0.12 3.0 ± 0.00 79.7 ± 0.30<br />

3 28.1 0.9 1.2 ± 0.10 2.0 ± 0.13 50.8 ± 2.00<br />

4 28.1 2.6 1.1 ± 0.07 3.6 ± 0.34 64.1 ± 0.30<br />

5 19 1.8 1.5 ± 0.05 2.5 ± 0.09 58.6 ± 1.50<br />

6 29.7 1.8 1.3 ± 0.06 3.8 ± 0.50 62.5 ± 2.50<br />

7 24.4 0.5 1.4 ± 0.06 2.3 ± 0.11 65.3 ± 1.20<br />

8 24.4 3 1.8 ± 0.00 1.3 ± 0.26 56.3 ± 3.10<br />

9 24.4 1.8 1.4 ± 0.02 3.0 ± 0.00 54.8 ± 1.00<br />

10 12 6 3.6 ± 0.04 15.1 ± 0.19 77.6 ± 0.40<br />

11 18 6 4.1 ± 0.01 15.5 ± 0.22 81.1 ± 0.30<br />

12** 12 6 4,0 ± 0.07 14.8 ± 0.15 80.6 ± 0.10<br />

13** 18 6 4.2 ± 0.04 12.0 ± 0.40 90.4 ± 1.00<br />

*Mean values ± standard error (n=2)<br />

**Samples with ultrasound application<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The encapsulation efficiency was significantly affected by gelat<strong>in</strong> content, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

effectiveness of gelat<strong>in</strong> as an encapsulant for turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong>. The application of ultrasound<br />

<strong>in</strong> the emulsification step of turmeric oleores<strong>in</strong> and maltodextr<strong>in</strong>/gelat<strong>in</strong> appeared to improve<br />

emulsion quality and stability, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the curcum<strong>in</strong> retention <strong>in</strong> the freeze-dried powders.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Jafari S.M., Assadpoor E., He Y. & Bhandari B. 2008. Encapsulation efficiency of food flavours and<br />

oils dur<strong>in</strong>g spray dry<strong>in</strong>g. Dry<strong>in</strong>g Technology, 26, 816-835.<br />

[2] Chauhan S., S<strong>in</strong>gh B. & Agarwal S. 1999. Estimation of curcum<strong>in</strong>oids <strong>in</strong> Curcuma longa by HPLC<br />

and spectophotometric methods. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61, 58-60.<br />

[3] AOAC. 1995. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists.<br />

AOAC, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton.<br />

[4] Wang Y., Lu Z., Lv F. & Xiaomei B. 2009. Study on microencapsulation of curcum<strong>in</strong> pigments by<br />

spray dry<strong>in</strong>g. European <strong>Food</strong> Research Technology, 229, 391-396.<br />

2174

Encapsulation of Melissa Offic<strong>in</strong>alis leaf’s active compounds <strong>in</strong> -cyclodextr<strong>in</strong><br />

and modified starch<br />

Ioannis Mourtz<strong>in</strong>os 1 , Spyridon E. Papadakis 2 , Panagiotis Igoumenidis 3 & Vaios T. Karathanos 3<br />

1<br />

Apivita SA, Natural Products & Cosmetics, Koletti 3, 144 52, Metamorfosi, Athens, Greece<br />

2<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Packag<strong>in</strong>g, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Technological Educational Institute of<br />

Athens 12210, Egaleo, Athens, Greece<br />

3<br />

Laboratory of Chemistry & Physical Chemistry of <strong>Food</strong>s, Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Harokopio<br />

University, 17671, Kallithea, Athens, Greece<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Melissa offic<strong>in</strong>alis (lemon balm) is a perennial herb <strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong>t family Lamiaceae, native to<br />

southern Europe and the Mediterranean region [1]. Its ma<strong>in</strong> active compounds are phenolic acids,<br />

which are well known antioxidants [2]. Phenolic acids also possess antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal<br />

properties, and are known to stimulate the immune and blood circulatory systems [3]. In<br />

order to use lemon balm leaf extract as a nutraceutical, effective methods of extraction and<br />

encapsulation of phenolic acids are required. The aim of this work was to prepare encapsulated<br />

forms of lemon balm leaf extract <strong>in</strong> -cyclodextr<strong>in</strong> and modified starch <strong>in</strong> solid state. Another<br />

objective was to verify the encapsulation via Differential Scann<strong>in</strong>g Calorimetry (DSC) and to study<br />

the stability of the free and encapsulated extract under <strong>in</strong>ert and oxidative conditions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A Semi-automatic extraction equipment for the simulation of a percolation of the type Timatic was<br />

used. The encapsulated forms of lemon balm constituents <strong>in</strong> -Cyclodextr<strong>in</strong> (-CD) and <strong>in</strong><br />

modified starch were prepared. A Differential Scann<strong>in</strong>g Calorimeter was employed to study the<br />

thermo-oxidation stability of the samples. The antioxidant activity of the extract and also those,<br />

which were extracted <strong>in</strong> presence of -cyclodextr<strong>in</strong>, was also studied with antioxidant radical<br />

scaveng<strong>in</strong>g methodology.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The formation of <strong>in</strong>clusion complex of an extract <strong>in</strong> -CD can be confirmed by obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g DSC<br />

thermograms <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>ert atmosphere for: (a) pure extract (b) pure -CD, (c) physical mixture of<br />

extract with -CD, and (d) the encapsulated extract.<br />

In Figure 1 the DSC oxidation curves of (a) pure lemon balm extract, (b) the <strong>in</strong>clusion complex of<br />

lemon balm with -CD and (c) lemon balm encapsulated <strong>in</strong> modified starch are presented. The<br />

exothermic peak <strong>in</strong>itiated at 146°C for pure lemon balm is related to lemon balm’s constituent’s<br />

oxidation. This peak was not present <strong>in</strong> the DSC scan of the lemon balm/-CD complex <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2175

that constituents of lemon balm are protected from oxidation be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>side the -CD cavity. Similar<br />

results were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by DSC of the lemon balm/ MS sample under oxidative conditions at the<br />

same temperatures, (Figure 1c), <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that lemon balm’s constituents are also more stable<br />

when it is encapsulated <strong>in</strong> MS.<br />

Figure 1. DSC thermograms of (a) pure<br />

lemon balm extract, (b) complex of<br />

lemon balm/-CD and (c) lemon<br />

balm/modified starch under oxidative<br />

conditions.<br />

The assessment of the <strong>in</strong> vitro antiradical activity showed that the antioxidant activity of the extract<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased when the extraction was performed <strong>in</strong> presence of -CD. The <strong>in</strong>crement can be attributed<br />

to the <strong>in</strong>crement of the solubility of lemon balm constituents <strong>in</strong> water due to the <strong>in</strong>clusion complex<br />

formation with -CD.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The encapsulated molecules are protected from oxidation, as depicted from oxidative DSC studies.<br />

Therefore, the encapsulated forms can be used as additives to foods. Moreover the dissolution of -<br />

CD <strong>in</strong> the extraction solvent <strong>in</strong>creased the antioxidant activity of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed extract.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kim S., Yun E.J., Bak J.S., Lee H., Lee S.J., Kim C.T., Lee J.H., Kim K.H. 2010. Response surface<br />

optimised extraction and chromatographic purification of rosmar<strong>in</strong>ic acid from Melissa offic<strong>in</strong>alis leaves.<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 12, 521–526.<br />

[2] Herodez S.S., Hadol<strong>in</strong>b M., Skergeta M., Kneza Z. 2003. Solvent extraction study of antioxidants from<br />

Balm (Melissa offic<strong>in</strong>alis L.) leaves. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 80, 275–282<br />

[3] Dastmalchia K., Damien Dormana H.J., Darwisd Y., Laakso I., Hiltunena R. 2008. Chemical<br />

composition and <strong>in</strong> vitro antioxidative activity of a lemon balm (Melissa offic<strong>in</strong>alis L.) extract. LWT-<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology 41, 391–400.<br />

2176

Deployment of Response Surface Methodology to Optimize Recovery of Grape<br />

(Vitis v<strong>in</strong>ifera) Stem and Seed Polyphenols<br />

Evangelia Karvela 1 , Dimitris P. Makris 2 , Nick Kalogeropoulos 1 , Vaios T. Karathanos 1<br />

1<br />

Department of Science of Dietetics-Nutrition, Harokopio University, 70, El. Venizelou, 17671, Kallithea, Athens, GREECE<br />

2.<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science & Nutrition, University of the Aegean, 2, Mitr. Ioakim, 81400, Myr<strong>in</strong>a, Lemnos, GREECE<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Industrial w<strong>in</strong>e production is accompanied by the generation of large quantities of waste streams, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>organic<br />

material (e.g. bentonite clay) and by-products composed of bio-organic substances (sk<strong>in</strong>s, seeds and stems). In Europe,<br />

it is estimated that 14.5 million tonnes of grape by-products are produced, on an annual basis, deriv<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

w<strong>in</strong>emak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry. Thus the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand for environmentally compatible production, coupled with ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operational and waste treatment cost, has started to move w<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>dustry towards adoption of <strong>in</strong>tegrated waste<br />

preventive approaches. The <strong>in</strong>vestigations carried out on the efficient retrieval of polyphenols from w<strong>in</strong>ery wastes have<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ly been focused on red pomace, which is characterised by relatively high burden <strong>in</strong> phenolics and pigments.<br />

Grape stems, which represent a fraction of the total grape waste generated dur<strong>in</strong>g the v<strong>in</strong>ification process, is a tissue<br />

that has been given relatively little attention, <strong>in</strong> spite of recent reports on its polyphenolic composition that appears to<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporate substances not encountered <strong>in</strong> other by-products, e.g. flavonols and stilbenes, <strong>in</strong> addition to monomeric and<br />

oligomeric flavanols. Furthermore, the polyphenolic content of stems was shown to be approximately 5.8% on a dry<br />

weight basis, and therefore stems may be a source of bioactive phenolics that should not be overlooked.<br />

Ethanol is a bio-solvent, which is food compatible, reusable and cheap and it has become the solvent of preference for<br />

quite a few recent studies perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to the recovery of phenolics from various plant tissues. In the case of w<strong>in</strong>ery<br />

wastes, there is a scarcity of data concern<strong>in</strong>g the use of ethanol-based solvents for extract<strong>in</strong>g phenolic phytochemicals.<br />

This be<strong>in</strong>g the conceptual basis, the study presented here<strong>in</strong> provided some novel aspects perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to polyphenol<br />

retrieval from grape stems, us<strong>in</strong>g factorial design and response surface methodology.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Stems and seeds from three widely cultivated w<strong>in</strong>e grape varieties were chosen; one white (Savatiano), one red used<br />

for white w<strong>in</strong>e production (Moschofilero) and one red used for red w<strong>in</strong>e production (Agiorgitiko). Extraction<br />

procedure was carried out as described by [5]. A 2 3 full-factorial experimental design was used to identify the<br />

relationship exist<strong>in</strong>g between the response functions and process variables as well as to determ<strong>in</strong>e those conditions that<br />

optimised the extraction process <strong>in</strong> relationship with ethanol concentration, extraction time and pH. Several <strong>in</strong>dices of<br />

the polyphenolic composition, such as total polyphenol (TP) [4], total flavanol (TFl) [4], total flavone (TFn) [2],<br />

proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong> (PC) [4] and their antioxidant capacity, such as Antiradical Activity (AAR) [1] and Reduc<strong>in</strong>g Power<br />

(PR) [4], were determ<strong>in</strong>ed as they are described to the related articles.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The experimental screen<strong>in</strong>g performed was designed to assess the <strong>in</strong>fluence of three factors (ethanol concentration, pH<br />

and extraction time). The experimental data obta<strong>in</strong>ed showed a good fit with the equations, which most of them were<br />

statistically significant (p=0.05). The trends revealed <strong>in</strong> each case were recorded <strong>in</strong> the form of three-dimensional plots<br />

(Figs. 1-2), where on the left is illustrated the effect of simultaneous variation of pH and EtOH, and on the right the<br />

effect of simultaneous variation of time and EtOH. The trends recorded <strong>in</strong> each case, as well as the discrepancies<br />

revealed regard<strong>in</strong>g the optimum EtOH level, suggested that optimisation of polyphenol recovery from tissues with<br />

different polyphenolic composition should be based on case experimentation, and that there is not a universal model<br />

describ<strong>in</strong>g the optimal conditions that should be deployed. From the optimisation process it became evident that the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2177

A<br />

B<br />

C<br />

extraction of flavanols requires an EtOH level of 60%, as opposed to flavones, which can be efficiently recovered with<br />

40% EtOH. For proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s (PC), which represent flavanol oligomers and polymers, <strong>in</strong>termediate EtOH<br />

concentrations rang<strong>in</strong>g from 44.2 to 53.1% were the most satisfactory. Significant differences were also caused by<br />

alter<strong>in</strong>g the pH. While flavanol extractions gave higher yields at pH 2-3, flavones were better extracted at pH 4.5-6.<br />

The results for PC were absolutely consistent, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a pH 2 as the optimal. Such a consistency for PC was also<br />

observed for the duration of the extraction, where for all samples the time required for optimal yields was 5 hours. On<br />

the other hand, optimal extraction times for TFl and TFn were 1-3.5 and 1-5 hours, respectively, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that, <strong>in</strong><br />

general, extraction of higher TFn amounts required extended extraction time, compared with TFl.<br />

A<br />

B<br />

C<br />

Fig. 1: Response-surface plot show<strong>in</strong>g the effect of EtOH /<br />

pH (left) and EtOH / time (right) co-variance on the total<br />

polyphenol (TP) yield. A, Moschofilero; B, Savatiano; C,<br />

Agiorgitiko (stems).<br />

Fig. 2: Response-surface plot show<strong>in</strong>g the effect of EtOH<br />

/ pH (left) and EtOH / time (right) co-variance on the<br />

total polyphenol (TP) yield. A, Moschofilero; B,<br />

Savatiano; C, Agiorgitiko (seeds).<br />

Extraction of TP from Agiorgitiko seeds required higher EtOH levels compared with the Moschofilero and Savatiano<br />

counterparts, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that this tissue conta<strong>in</strong>ed less polar substances. Further, it has been supported that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pH values might enhance polyphenol solubility by promot<strong>in</strong>g dissociation of the most acidic phenolic –OH groups,<br />

which would render polyphenols higher solubility <strong>in</strong> a hydroalcoholic medium. Such a hypothesis would expla<strong>in</strong> why<br />

TP and TFl optimal extraction from Agiorgitiko seeds required higher pH. The time necessary to atta<strong>in</strong> optimum levels<br />

was, on average, shorter for PC (1.14 h) and almost the double for TFl (2.33 h). The correlations between antioxidant<br />

activity and polyphenols differed for grape sk<strong>in</strong>s and seeds. Careful <strong>in</strong>terpretation of the data given for stems shows<br />

that <strong>in</strong> Moschofilero and Savatiano extracts, the only statistically significant correlations were those established<br />

between PC concentration and PR, while for Agiorgitiko a significant l<strong>in</strong>k was found between PC and AAR. For<br />

Moschofilero, the correlation of TP was also significant but low. The correlations established for grape seeds suggested<br />

that <strong>in</strong> Moschofilero extracts, which conta<strong>in</strong>ed higher amounts of TFl and PCs, l<strong>in</strong>ks were statistically significant with<br />

both AAR and PR, but for Agiorgitiko this held true only for the correlations of TP, TFl and PCs with AAR; for Savatiano<br />

only TP and TFl gave high correlations with AAR. This outcome does not display any consistency and might <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

that <strong>in</strong>teractions among the various flavanol forms rather def<strong>in</strong>e the overall antioxidant potency.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The exam<strong>in</strong>ation presented here<strong>in</strong> demonstrated that the set of conditions employed to optimise extraction of phenolics<br />

from plant material may vary substantially, even for the same tissue orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from different varieties [3]. Grape<br />

stems were shown to conta<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ly flavanols and flavonol glycosides, but it appeared that flavanol oligomers and or<br />

polymers (proanthocyanid<strong>in</strong>s) def<strong>in</strong>e the antioxidant magnitude of the extracts obta<strong>in</strong>ed. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that extraction of<br />

different polyphenol classes from grape stems requires different set of conditions might be of value <strong>in</strong> selective<br />

recovery, for the generation of extracts enriched <strong>in</strong> particular components. Grape seeds were shown to conta<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

flavanols and flavanol dimers, which rather def<strong>in</strong>e the antioxidant magnitude of the extracts generated. If seeds<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>ate from red pomace used <strong>in</strong> red w<strong>in</strong>e production, then partial exhaustion of phenolics is to be anticipated. This<br />

variation <strong>in</strong> the composition as a result of process<strong>in</strong>g might fundamentally affect the polyphenolic profile and<br />

consequently the conditions required for effective retrieval. These crucial differences <strong>in</strong> the conditions should be<br />

carefully considered when extractions are not directed and recovery of as many phenolics as possible is sought.<br />

2178

Production of 1-octen-3-ol by Neurospora species isolated from beiju<br />

<strong>in</strong> different culture medium<br />

D. S. de Carvalho a , A. P. Dionísio a , R. dos Santos a , S. Boguzs Jr b , H. T. Godoy b , G. M. Pastore a<br />

a<br />

Laboratory of Bioflavours, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6121,<br />

13083-862 Camp<strong>in</strong>as-SP, Brazil (danisc31@gmail.com.)<br />

b<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Analysis, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6121,<br />

13083-862 Camp<strong>in</strong>as-SP, Brazil<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Flavors and fragrances are key impact substances <strong>in</strong> the food and fragrance <strong>in</strong>dustry and these compounds are commonly<br />

produced chemically. However, the grow<strong>in</strong>g market share of flavoured and fragranced products requires novel strategies for<br />

aroma chemicals. Biotechnological options comprise s<strong>in</strong>gle-step biotransformations, bioconversions and de novo synthesis<br />

with microorganisms, plant cells and enzymes. Some fungal species are able to produce the unsatured alcohol 1-octen-3-ol,<br />

known as “mushroom-like flavor” and “raw mushroom”, as a product of its secondary metabolism, <strong>in</strong> a procedure known as<br />

de novo synthesis. One of these microorganisms is Neurospora sp., and some works showed a production of 1-octen-3-ol<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g this specie (Pastore et al, 1995 and Yamauchi et al, 1991). In this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate the<br />

production of 1-octen-3-ol <strong>in</strong> different culture medium by some Neurospora species.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Production of mushroom aroma<br />

Four culture medium were used for the production of aroma: malt extract broth (50 g.L -1 ); yeast malt broth (YM:10 g.L -1 of<br />

glucose, 5 g.L -1 of peptone, 3 g.L -1 of yeast extract and 3 g.L -1 of malt extract); fructose (50 g.L -1 )/yeast extract (5 g.L -1 );<br />

and Czapeck medium standard, with some modifications (40.6 g.L -1 of NH4H2PO4,10 g.L -1 of K2HPO4, 5 g.L -1 of<br />

MgSO4.7H2O, 5 g.L -1 of KCl, 0.01 g.L -1 of FeSO4.7H2O and 30 g.L -1 of sucrose).<br />

Preparation of pre-<strong>in</strong>oculum and fermentation<br />

Neurospora sp. stra<strong>in</strong>s were <strong>in</strong>oculated <strong>in</strong>to slant tube of potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 30°C for 72h. After, 10 mL of sterile<br />

water were added <strong>in</strong>to tube and transferred for 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL of YM medium at 30°C, 200<br />

rpm for 24h. Then the culture broth was filtered through a membrane of acetate filter (pore size: 0.45 μm) and the mycelia<br />

were washed with sterile water. The <strong>in</strong>oculum occurred us<strong>in</strong>g 1 g of the biomass added <strong>in</strong> a flask conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 50 mL of each<br />

medium described above and homogenized under sterile conditions us<strong>in</strong>g an Ultra-Turrax ® T18 (Ika, Wilm<strong>in</strong>gton, NC,<br />

USA). The flasks were <strong>in</strong>cubated on a rotary shaker at 30°C for until 144 h under agitation (200rpm). Each 24h samples<br />

were collected and analyzed <strong>in</strong> gas chromatography (GC-FID).<br />

GC-FID conditions and GC-MS conditions<br />

The volatile compound, extracted with diethyl ether, was analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g an Agilent GC (Model 7890A) equipped with a<br />

flame ionization detector (FID) and a HP-5 columm (Agilent Tecnhologies i.d. = 0.320 mm, length = 30 m, film thickness =<br />

0.25μm, USA). Injector ( mode splitless) and detector were 250°C. GC-MS analyses were carried out <strong>in</strong> a GC-MS system<br />

(Shimadzu GC-17A/QP-5000 high performance quadrupole, Japan) <strong>in</strong> the same conditions of GC-FID. Transfer l<strong>in</strong>e<br />

temperature: 240°C, energy of impact: +70 eV, 35-350m/z). The identification of components was made by mass spectrum<br />

an retention <strong>in</strong>dex agreed whit standards and compar<strong>in</strong>g spectra (Adams, 2007 and NIST, 2005).<br />

Statistical analysis<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2179

The data obta<strong>in</strong>ed were analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g ANOVA/Tukey (p

Characterisation of a non-alcoholic beverage made of residues from k<strong>in</strong>g palm<br />

(Archontophoenix alexandrae) <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

Kar<strong>in</strong>a Cardoso Tramonte, João Gustavo Provesi, Iolanda Moreira Dutra Albuquerque E Silva, Aureanna<br />

Nairne Negrão Murakami, Marcelo Marasch<strong>in</strong>, Renata Dias De Mello Castanho Amboni And Edna<br />

Reg<strong>in</strong>a Amante*<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catar<strong>in</strong>a, Rodovia Admar<br />

Gonzaga 1.346, 88034-001 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil<br />

Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author: Fax: (55) (48) 3721 99 43. Telephone: (55) (48) 3721 53 71. E-mail:<br />

eamante@cca.ufsc.br<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The exploration of palm trees for the production of canned palmito generates large amounts of<br />

solid residue because it requires the fell<strong>in</strong>g of the whole plant, where only the <strong>in</strong>ner sheath is<br />

exploited, and the leaves, the stems, and the external and the median sheaths are discarded [1].<br />

The objectives of this study were: to propose a suitable procedure for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and preserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the juice of k<strong>in</strong>g palm leaf sheaths; to study the chemical composition of the juice; to develop a<br />

non-alcoholic beverage with this juice and assess its acceptability by potential consumers.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The leaf sheaths were washed <strong>in</strong> potable water and immersed <strong>in</strong> 0.3 M citric acid solution to<br />

prevent brown<strong>in</strong>g and then they were blanched by immersion <strong>in</strong> boil<strong>in</strong>g water for 3 m<strong>in</strong>utes for<br />

enzyme <strong>in</strong>activation. This material was pressed us<strong>in</strong>g a roller mill with sta<strong>in</strong>less steel clamps.<br />

For each 100 mL of juice, were added 5 g of citric acid and 12.5 mg of ascorbic acid.<br />

Centesimal composition was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to the methods recommended by the<br />

AOAC [2]. Total phenolic content (TPC) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteu method [3].<br />

The free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g capacity of the extracts of the leaf sheathes of k<strong>in</strong>g palm was<br />

analyzed by the DPPH • (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical) [4]. Identification and<br />

quantification of phenolic compounds was performed by HPLC [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The extract, or juice, has high contents of carbohydrates and m<strong>in</strong>erals. The total polyphenol<br />

content was 19.91 ± 0.07 g GAE 100 g -1 . The juice of k<strong>in</strong>g palm leaf sheaths showed EC50 of<br />

3.50 ± 0.01 mg . g -1 DPPH. The DPPH radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g capacity, represented by the<br />

percentage of <strong>in</strong>hibition, was 86.54 ± 0.09 %. The <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> antioxidants from natural sources<br />

has grown because of their high capacity to scavenge free radicals, l<strong>in</strong>ked to reduced risk of<br />

several diseases and of their greater food safety <strong>in</strong> comparison with synthetic antioxidants,<br />

butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Table 1 shows phenolic<br />

compounds <strong>in</strong> juice from leaf sheath of k<strong>in</strong>g palm.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2181

Table 1. Phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> juice from leaf sheath of k<strong>in</strong>g palm<br />

Phenolic compounds<br />

Retention time<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Concentration<br />

(g/100 g - dry basis) a<br />

Gallic acid 4.85 3219.87 ± 377.12<br />

3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid 7.2 4170.90 ± 585.44<br />

Chlorogenic acid 9.39 3393.58 ± 315.76<br />

Syr<strong>in</strong>gic acid 11.30 1834.08 ± 151.16<br />

Caffeic acid<br />

a<br />

Data are mean ± SD (n = 3).<br />

12.90 10781.21 ± 916.87<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The juice from k<strong>in</strong>g palm leaf sheathes showed <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g nutritional characteristics, with high<br />

values of m<strong>in</strong>erals, such as magnesium and potassium, and of total polyphenols and also high<br />

DPPH free radical scaveng<strong>in</strong>g capacity, which suggest a high antioxidant activity. The<br />

presence of caffeic, chlorogenic, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic, gallic and syr<strong>in</strong>gic acids <strong>in</strong> this new<br />

juice, suggest new studies about it functional properties.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Vieira, M. A., Podestá, R., Tramonte, K. C., Amboni, R. D. M. C., Simas, K. N., Avanc<strong>in</strong>i, S. R. P. &<br />

Amante, E. R. (2009). Chemical composition of flours made of residues from the k<strong>in</strong>g palm<br />

(Archontophoenix alexandrae) <strong>in</strong>dustry. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 52, 973-<br />

980.<br />

[2] AOAC. Association of Official Analytical Chemists (2005). Official methods of analysis, 18th ed.<br />

Maryland, USA: The Association.<br />

[3] S<strong>in</strong>gleton, V. L. & Rossi, R. J. A. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdicphosphotungstic<br />

acid reagents. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 16, 144-158.<br />

[4] Brand-Williams, W., Cuvelier, M. E. & Berset, C. (1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate<br />

antioxidant activity. LWT – <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 28, 25-30.<br />

[5] Schuldt, E. Z., Bet, A. C., Hort, M. A., Ianssen, C., Marasch<strong>in</strong>, M., Ckless, K. & Ribeiro-do-Valle, R.<br />

M. (2005). An ethyl acetate fraction obta<strong>in</strong>ed from a southern brazilian red w<strong>in</strong>e relaxes rat<br />

mesenteric arterial bed through hyperpolarization and NO-cGMP pathway. Vascular Pharmacology,<br />

43, 62-68.<br />

2182

Composition of aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> fermented apple juice: effect of apple variety,<br />

fermentation temperature and <strong>in</strong>oculated yeast concentration<br />

Riekst<strong>in</strong>a-Dolge R. a , Kruma Z. a , Karkl<strong>in</strong>a D. a , Segl<strong>in</strong>a D. b<br />

a Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> Technology,<br />

Liela iela 2, LV – 3001 (rita.riekst<strong>in</strong>a@llu.LV)<br />

b Latvia State Institute of Fruit Grow<strong>in</strong>g, Graudu iela 1, Dobele, LV-3701 (dalija.segl<strong>in</strong>a@lvai.lv)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Apple juice is the raw material of different fermented dr<strong>in</strong>ks, like apple w<strong>in</strong>e and cider. Aroma<br />

plays significant role <strong>in</strong> the quality of cider, and composition of volatiles depends on used<br />

technology, maturation and storage conditions [1]. Cider maturation significantly <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />

the chemical composition of cider distillates. The concentrations of ethyl esters of the major<br />

organic acids of cider (lactic, acetic and succ<strong>in</strong>ic), as well as the contents of aromas produced<br />

by the bacteria activity (2-butanol, 2-propen-1-ol, 4-ethylguaiacol and eugenol) <strong>in</strong>creased with<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g levels of cider maturation [2]. The aim of current research was to evaluate aroma<br />

composition of fermented apple juice, depend<strong>in</strong>g on used apple variety, fermentation<br />

temperature and yeast concentration <strong>in</strong> must.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

For analysis two apple varieties ‘Auksis’ (Streif <strong>in</strong>dex 0,16, starch <strong>in</strong>dex 8,4) and ‘Lietuvas<br />

Pep<strong>in</strong>s’ (Streif <strong>in</strong>dex 0,24, starch <strong>in</strong>dex 6,2 ) were used. Apples were grown <strong>in</strong> the Latvia State<br />

Institute of Fruit Grow<strong>in</strong>g and harvested <strong>in</strong> autumn 2010. Juice was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by press Voran<br />

Basket press 60K. For stabilization of juice Tannisol (Enartis, Italy) were used. Fermentation<br />

was performed us<strong>in</strong>g commercial Saccharomyces bayanis yeast EC-1118 (Lalv<strong>in</strong>, Canada)<br />

(three concentrations <strong>in</strong> juice and two fermentation temperatures). Volatiles from apple juice<br />

and fermented dr<strong>in</strong>ks were extracted us<strong>in</strong>g solid phase microextraction (SPME) us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

div<strong>in</strong>ylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane fiber (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA).<br />

SPME parameters were: <strong>in</strong>cubation time 30 m<strong>in</strong>, extraction temperature 22±2 °C, extraction<br />

duration 30 m<strong>in</strong>, desorption 15 m<strong>in</strong>, 250 °C. For the analysis of the SPME extracts, a Perk<strong>in</strong><br />

Elmer Clarus 500 GC/MS and a Elite-Wax ETR (60 m x 0.25 mm i.d.; DF 0.25 m) was used.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

A total of seven volatile compounds (total peak AU 2999,93 ×10 5 ) were detected <strong>in</strong> ‘Auksis’<br />

apple juice and aroma is ma<strong>in</strong>ly composed of aldehydes (60,5%) and esters (35%). The ma<strong>in</strong><br />

volatile compounds of ‘Auksis’ is 2-hexenal (50,1 %), 1 butanol, 2- methyl acetate (13,1%)<br />

and hexanal (10,5%). In ‘Lietuvas pep<strong>in</strong>s’ juice, compared to ‘Auksis’ apple juice, higher<br />

content of aroma compounds were detected (6 volatile compounds and total peak AU<br />

4490,35×10 5 ). The ma<strong>in</strong> volatile compounds of ’Lietuvas Pep<strong>in</strong>s’ apples juice were acetic acid<br />

butylester (35,3%), acetic acid hexylester (24,2%) and 1 butanol, 2- methyl acetate (15,6%).<br />

Some compounds found <strong>in</strong> apple juice were not possible to identify <strong>in</strong> fermented apple juices,<br />

namely aldehydes hexanal and 2-hexenal and alcohols 2-hexen-1-ol. A total of 16 volatile<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2183

compounds were detected <strong>in</strong> ‘Auksis‘ apples fermented juice at the early stage of fermentation<br />

and 13 at the 28 day of fermentation. As major groups of juice have been identified alcohols<br />

(67, 5%), esters (31%) and acids (1,6%) after 8 day fermentation and alcohols (54,1%), esters<br />

(42,8%) and acids (3,2%) after 28 day fermentation. Acetic acid, phenylethyl alcohol and 3methyl-1-butanol<br />

were characteristic compounds of yeasts. Among higher alcohols determ<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />

all the stra<strong>in</strong>s produced 3- methyl-1-butanol that is the major higher alcohol <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>e [3,4]. ndecanoic<br />

acid, hexanoic acid ethylester, decanoic acid ethylester, 9-Decenoic acid, ethyl ester<br />

were detected after 8 day fermentation of ‘Auksis’, but were not detected after 28 day<br />

fermentation. Whereas opposite tendency were observed for hexanoic acid hexylester and 8heptadecanol.<br />

They were detected after 28 day fermentation, but wasn’t at the early stage of<br />

fermentation. Characteristic apple aroma compound acetic acid butylester were detected <strong>in</strong><br />

fermented juice only at the <strong>in</strong>itial stage of fermentation. Hydroxyethylhydraz<strong>in</strong>e was found as a<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> volatile aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> all fermented apple juices. It is possible to identify higher<br />

concentrations of apple juice aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> fermented juices with lower concentration<br />

of <strong>in</strong>oculated yeast. Acetic acid, 1-butanol, 3-methyl phenylethyl alcohol found <strong>in</strong> fermented<br />

juices, are typical yeast aromas aroma compounds. Others aroma develops dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation<br />

process. The highest content of aroma compounds was detected <strong>in</strong> LP4 (with lower<br />

concentration of yeast), followed by LP3 (fermented with lower concentration of yeast).<br />

Content of acetic acid <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation, and the highest content was detected with<br />

the lowest concentration of <strong>in</strong>oculated yeast.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> aroma compound of ‘Auksis’ apple juice is 2-hexenal, whereas for ‘Lietuvas Pep<strong>in</strong>s’<br />

acetic acid butyl ester. Typical used yeast aroma compounds are acetic acid, phenylethyl<br />

alcohol and 3-methyl-1-butanol. The ma<strong>in</strong> aroma compounds <strong>in</strong> fermented juices were 2hydroxyethylhydraz<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

3-methyl-1-butanol, and hexanoic acid ethyl ester, acetic acid hexyl<br />

ester. Typical apple aroma compounds acetic acid hexylester and 1- hexanol better ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

<strong>in</strong> juices fermented with lower concentration of yeast at lower temperature. Ethyl acetate and<br />

acetic acid butylester concentration <strong>in</strong> fermented juice was higher <strong>in</strong> samples fermented at<br />

higher temperature. Others esters group (octanoic and decanoic acid ethyl esters), that<br />

developed dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation process, showed the highest concentrations <strong>in</strong> samples<br />

fermented at lower temperatures.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Mangas J.J., Gonzalez M.P., Rodriguz, R., Blaco, D.(1996). Solidphase extraction and determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of trace aroma and flavour components <strong>in</strong> cider by GC-MS. Chromotorapia, 42,101-105.<br />

[2] Rodríguez Madrera R., Pic<strong>in</strong>elli Lobo A., Mangas Alonso J. J. (2009). Effect of cider maturation on<br />

the chemical and sensory characteristics of fresh cider spirits. <strong>Food</strong> Research <strong>International</strong>, 70-78.<br />

[3] Romano, P., Capece, A., Seraf<strong>in</strong>o, V., Romaniello, R., Poeta, C., 2008. Biodiversity of wild stra<strong>in</strong>s of<br />

Saccharomyces cerevisiae as tool to complement and optimiz w<strong>in</strong>e quality. <strong>World</strong> J. Microbiol.<br />

Biotechnol. 24, 1797–1802.<br />

[4] Garde-Cerda´ n, T., Anc´n-Azpilicueta, C., 2007. Effect of SO2 on the formation and evolution of<br />

volatile compounds <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>es. <strong>Food</strong> Control 18, 1501–1506.<br />

2184

Mode of Inhibition of -Glucosidase and -Amylase by Polyphenol-Enriched Extracts of<br />

Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis)<br />

Francisca Acevedo a , Mónica Rubilar a,b* , Barbara Palma a , Carol<strong>in</strong>a Shene a,b<br />

a<br />

Center of <strong>Food</strong> Biotechnology and Bioseparations, BIOREN, Universidad de La Frontera, Casilla 54-D,<br />

Temuco, Chile (mrubilar@ufro.cl)<br />

b<br />

Technology and <strong>Process</strong>es Unit, CGNA, Universidad de La Frontera, Casilla 54-D, Temuco, Chile<br />

(mrubilar@ufro.cl)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Polyphenolic compounds are known to be useful <strong>in</strong> formulat<strong>in</strong>g of nutritional or medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />

supplements for the treatment of several diseases. An important activity of polyphenols is the<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition of digestive enzymes, especially carbohydrate-hydrolyz<strong>in</strong>g enzymes such as -amylase<br />

and -glucosidase. Inhibitors of these enzymes are able to retard carbohydrate digestion, thus<br />

caus<strong>in</strong>g a reduction <strong>in</strong> glucose absorption rate. Effective -amylase and -glucosidase polyphenoltype<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibitors from natural resources have been reported to be useful <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g postprandial<br />

hyperglycemia [1]. To our knowledge, the <strong>in</strong>hibition mode of maqui leaf crude extract aga<strong>in</strong>st glucosidase<br />

and -amylase has not been reported yet.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Leaves of maqui was collected from the Andes mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the Araucanía Region (Chile). The<br />

collected material was dried at 35 °C, ground and sieved. The sample (5 g) was macerated with<br />

ethanol (50% v/v <strong>in</strong> water, solvent-to-solid ratio of 5:1) at room temperature and filtered. Filtrate<br />

was concentrated <strong>in</strong> a rotary evaporator at 35°C and lyophilized. The dry powder was dissolved <strong>in</strong><br />

ethanol 50% v/v. In order to exam<strong>in</strong>e the <strong>in</strong>hibition mode of maqui leaf crude extract, –amylase<br />

and -glucosidase activities were measured with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concentrations of substrate <strong>in</strong> the<br />

absence and presence of maqui leaf extract at different concentrations. Alpha-amylase activity was<br />

quantified by measur<strong>in</strong>g the maltose equivalents released from starch at 540 nm. Alpha-glucosidase<br />

activity was quantified by measur<strong>in</strong>g the para-nitrophenol equivalents released from pNPG at 400<br />

nm. The Michaelis-Menten constant (Km), maximum enzyme reaction rate (Vmax) and the <strong>in</strong>hibition<br />

mode of maqui leaf crude extract on the -amylase-catalyzed hydrolysis of starch and on the glucosidase-catalyzed<br />

reaction of pNPG were estimated us<strong>in</strong>g L<strong>in</strong>eweaver–Burk plots. In this<br />

study, the <strong>in</strong>itial velocity ‘v’ of the hydrolysis reactions catalyzed by - amylase was measured at<br />

various substrate concentrations [S] (0.2 – 1% starch) <strong>in</strong> the absence and presence of several maqui<br />

leaf crude extract concentrations [I] (10 – 100 ppm).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2185

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Km value for -amylase was found to be 1.8% starch with a Vmax value of 6.8 μM m<strong>in</strong> -1 . The results<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicate that maqui leaf crude extracts act as mixed-type <strong>in</strong>hibitors, b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to either -amylase (E)<br />

or enzyme-substrate (ES) complex, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a decrease <strong>in</strong> the apparent aff<strong>in</strong>ity of -amylase for<br />

starch (<strong>in</strong>crease Km) and a decrease <strong>in</strong> the apparent Vmax. A similar type of Acarbose <strong>in</strong>hibition and<br />

for the two Acarbose analogues for porc<strong>in</strong>e pancreatic -amylases was reported by Yoon and<br />

Robyt [5]. Similar behavior appears reported <strong>in</strong> literature for f<strong>in</strong>ger millet seed coat phenolics,<br />

which behave as non-competitive <strong>in</strong>hibitors on pancreatic -amylase, be<strong>in</strong>g Km value for this<br />

enzyme about 1% starch [3].<br />

The v of the hydrolysis reactions catalyzed by -glucosidase was measured at various substrate<br />

concentrations [S] (2-5 – 15-0 mM pNPG) <strong>in</strong> the absence and presence of several maqui leaf crude<br />

extract concentrations [I] (0.05 – 5-0 ppm). The Km for -glucosidase was found to be 3.5 mM<br />

starch with a Vmax value of 0.25 mM m<strong>in</strong> -1 . The results of this study <strong>in</strong>dicate that b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

phenolic compounds to enzyme affected the velocity of -glucosidase reaction rate, proportionally<br />

to the concentration of the phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> the reaction mixture, not modify<strong>in</strong>g Km value.<br />

Thus, a non-competitive <strong>in</strong>hibition by maqui leaf crude extracts upon -glucosidase-catalyzed<br />

pNPG hydrolysis was found <strong>in</strong> this study. Reversible non-competitive <strong>in</strong>hibition of -glucosidase is<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> literature for aqueous extracts from the gall of Rhus ch<strong>in</strong>ensis [2]. Alpha-glucosidase<br />

<strong>in</strong>hibition by several flavonoids has been reported as mixed-type and almost non-competitive [4].<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Furthermore, the evaluation of digestive enzyme <strong>in</strong>hibition <strong>in</strong> the extract represents a prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

approach to the potential biological properties of maqui leaves, which are used <strong>in</strong> traditional<br />

medic<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Gao H., Huang Y.N., Gao B., Xu P.Y, Inagaki C.; Kawabata J. 2008. -glucosidase <strong>in</strong>hibitory effect by the<br />

flower buds of Tussilago farfara L. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 106, 1195-1201.<br />

[2] Shim Y.-J., Doo H.-K., Ahn S.-Y., Kim Y.-S., Seong J.-K., Park I.-S., M<strong>in</strong> B.-H. 2003 Inhibitory effect of<br />

aqueous extract from the gall of Rhus ch<strong>in</strong>ensis on alpha-glucosidase activity and postprandial blood<br />

glucose. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 85, 283-287.<br />

[3] Shobana, S.; Sreerama, Y.N., Malleshi, N.G. 2009. Composition and enzyme <strong>in</strong>hibitory properties of<br />

f<strong>in</strong>ger millet (Eleus<strong>in</strong>e coracana L.) seed coat phenolics: mode of <strong>in</strong>hibition of a-glucosidase and<br />

pancreatic amylase. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry 115, 1268–1273.<br />

[4] Tadera K.; M<strong>in</strong>ami Y.; Takamatsu K.; Matsuoka T. 2006.Inhibition of -glucosidase and -amylase by<br />

flavonoids. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitam<strong>in</strong>ology. 52, 149-153.<br />

[5] Yoon S.-H.; Robyt J.F. 2003Study of the <strong>in</strong>hibition of four alpha amylases by acarbose and its 4IV-amaltohexaosyl<br />

and 4IV-a-maltododecaosyl analogues. Carbohydrate Research, 338, 1969-1980.<br />

2186

Influence of pH variation dur<strong>in</strong>g propolis extraction with the use of water as solvent<br />

Beatriz C.B.S.Mello a , Paula M. Kakuda b , Miriam D. Hub<strong>in</strong>ger a<br />

a<br />

Dept. of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil<br />

(mhub@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Propolis is a substance that shows a variable and complex chemical composition with<br />

antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiviral properties, associated to its high concentration of<br />

flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Due to these characteristics, which can br<strong>in</strong>g health<br />

benefits, propolis is considered a functional <strong>in</strong>gredient and has attracted much attention <strong>in</strong><br />

recent years as an important substance that can be used <strong>in</strong> foodstuffs, beverages, cosmetics and<br />

medic<strong>in</strong>e to improve health and prevent diseases. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the widespread use of propolis,<br />

the objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of pH variation on propolis extraction,<br />

prepared with water as solvent. Six different pHs were tested to each solvent and were<br />

compared with samples without pH variation. F<strong>in</strong>al extracts were quantified regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

flavonoids and phenolic contents to verify the relation between the pH and solvent <strong>in</strong> the<br />

extraction efficiency. Moreover, analyses of antimicrobial and antioxidant activities were<br />

carried out for all the extracts.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Aqueous propolis extracts was prepared from crude propolis previously comm<strong>in</strong>uted <strong>in</strong> a bench<br />

blender, homogenized, weighed and mixed to deionized water (20% propolis and 80%<br />

solvent). After five days at room temperature, <strong>in</strong> the dark, the sample was centrifuged at 8800g<br />

for 20 m<strong>in</strong>. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the result<strong>in</strong>g extract was stored under refrigeration (4°C) <strong>in</strong> a closed<br />

recipient <strong>in</strong> the dark. It was used HCl 1M and NaOH 1M to change the extraction pH.<br />

Total flavonoid content of the propolis solutions was determ<strong>in</strong>ed spectrophotometrically by the<br />

alum<strong>in</strong>ium complexation method [1]. The polyphenols <strong>in</strong> the propolis solutions were<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Fol<strong>in</strong>-Ciocalteau colorimetric method [2]. Antimicrobial activity of the<br />

propolis samples was <strong>in</strong>vestigated by the disc diffusion method, us<strong>in</strong>g Staphylococcus aureus<br />

[3]. Antioxidant activity was measured by FRAP and DPPH methods.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Table 1 shows the quantification of the extracted compounds for each sample and their<br />

antioxidant activities. For the aqueous extracts, the results for flavonoid concentration showed<br />

that all samples presented statistical differences compared to the <strong>in</strong>itial solution (extracted<br />

without pH variation) at 95% significance. However, only the samples with a more basic pH<br />

(6.0 and 8.0) had an <strong>in</strong>crease on concentration of the ma<strong>in</strong> functional compounds. This<br />

behaviour was the same for phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> the samples at pH 6.0 and 8.0, which had<br />

statistical difference from the <strong>in</strong>itial solution, at pH 4.3. Flavonoids and phenolic quantitative<br />

results were compared <strong>in</strong> order to choose which comb<strong>in</strong>ation of solvent and pH is the best one<br />

to produce a novel propolis extract.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2187

Table 1. Flavonoids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> extracts<br />

prepared with different pHs<br />

Solution Flavonoids (mg/g)* Polyphenols (mg/g)** FRAP value a<br />

DPPH scaveng<strong>in</strong>g b<br />

pH 2.0 12.08 ± 0.54 (a) 36.96 ± 0.04 (a) 42,44 ± 0,78 304,76 ± 7,41<br />

pH 3.0 11.41 ± 1.56 (a) 35.48 ± 0.44 (b) 45,48 ± 1,33 385,71 ± 22,22<br />

pH 4.3 23.67 ± 2.14 (d) 36.57 ± 0.35 (a.b) 24,17 ± 1,66 180,95 ± 7,41<br />

pH 6.0 33.21 ± 2.62 (b) 40.37 ± 0.27 (c) 44,17 ± 0,57 190,48 ± 19,60<br />

pH 8.0 61.42 ± 1.51 (c) 45.41 ± 0.40 (d) 44,44 ± 1,01 414,29 ± 46,26<br />

Values are represented by mean ± S.D of three experiments<br />

* quercet<strong>in</strong> equivalents<br />

** gallic acid equivalents<br />

a 2+<br />

In mol Fe /mg dry weight of extract<br />

b<br />

(%Inhibition)<br />

Means with different superscript letters with<strong>in</strong> a column are significantly different at p< 0.05<br />

Antimicrobial activity was higher to aqueous extract at pH 8.0 and ethanolic extract. Despite of<br />

the <strong>in</strong>crease on flavonoids and phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> the basic aqueous samples, they did not<br />

show the same activity aga<strong>in</strong>st Staphylococcus aureus when compared to the ethanolic extract.<br />

The aqueous sample without base addition and the sample at pH 6.0 had no activity aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />

microorganism, while the sample at pH 8.0 showed a little activity, 62% lower than the activity<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the ethanolic sample.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results overview, the studied propolis extracts represent an important<br />

functional product, rich <strong>in</strong> flavonoids and polyphenols. By us<strong>in</strong>g alkal<strong>in</strong>e water as the<br />

extraction solvent, the amount of extracted compounds <strong>in</strong>creased as so their antimicrobial<br />

activity compar<strong>in</strong>g with the extract prepared without pH modification. In conclusion, water<br />

could be used as an alternative solvent for propolis extraction, with a similar behaviour than the<br />

ethanolic one and without its disadvantages.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Marcucci, M.C., Woisky, R.G. & Salat<strong>in</strong>o, A. 1998. Use of alum<strong>in</strong>ium chloride <strong>in</strong> the flavonoids<br />

quantification of propolis samples. Mensagem Doce 46, 3-9. (In Portuguese)<br />

[2] Kumazawa, S., Hamasak, T. & Nakayama, T. 2004. Antioxidant activity of propolis of various<br />

geographic orig<strong>in</strong>s. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 84, 329 – 339.<br />

[3] Br<strong>in</strong>dley Morgan, W.J. (1990). Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for surveillance and control of antimicrobial resistances.<br />

WHO/Zoonoses/90, 167, 15-17.<br />

2188

Modifier effects on Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) of some Brazilian plants:<br />

Antioxidant activity and Economical evaluation<br />

Priscilla C. Veggi, Rodrigo N. Cavalcanti, M. Angela A. Meireles<br />

LASEFI/DEA/FEA (School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>)/UNICAMP (University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as) – R. Monteiro<br />

Lobato, 80; 13083-862, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (meireles@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Many Brazilian plants were found to be rich sources <strong>in</strong> antioxidant activities [1]. Pyrostegia<br />

venusta (common names: flame v<strong>in</strong>e, flam<strong>in</strong>g trumpet, golden shower), Heteropterys<br />

aphrodisiaca (nó-de-cachorro), Inga edulis (<strong>in</strong>gá-cipó), Hymenaea courbaril stilbocarpa<br />

(jatobá) and Phaseolus vulgaris L. (beans) have been reported great natural antioxidant<br />

properties. The important role of antioxidants <strong>in</strong> human health has been demonstrated, thus<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> such products and their demand by consumers. Supercritical fluid<br />

extraction (SFE) is a promis<strong>in</strong>g technology proved to obta<strong>in</strong> extracts with high quality by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

CO2. However, only CO2 is not sufficient to obta<strong>in</strong> the extracts with antioxidant properties due<br />

to its low polarity. Then, the use of a modifier (or a co-solvent), can viabilize the extraction of<br />

antioxidants via SFE. Concern<strong>in</strong>g that, the use of simulation software to estimate the cost of<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g (COM) of a product allows substantial cost, labor and time reduction <strong>in</strong> the<br />

study<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes, mak<strong>in</strong>g possible great capacity of analysis of the process.The<br />

aim of this work is to evaluate the quality of the Brazilian plants extracts selected through the<br />

antioxidant activity and perform the economical evaluation of the SFE process by estimat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the COM of the extracts.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

To evaluate the effectiveness of SFE <strong>in</strong> obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g extracts rich <strong>in</strong> antioxidant, the global yields<br />

of these plants were determ<strong>in</strong>ed at 323 K and 35 MPa by us<strong>in</strong>g CO2 and CO2 + ethanol (10%)<br />

as a modifier. The antioxidant activity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g capability of the free<br />

radical DPPH (1,1-difenil-2-picrilidrazil). The software SuperPro designer 6.0 ® was used to<br />

simulate the process and to estimate COM of extracts. The software considers the total capital<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestment (FCI), raw materials (CRM), utilities (CUT), operat<strong>in</strong>g labor (COL) and so on. The<br />

process was designs to run 7920-h per year, which corresponds to 330 days per year of<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uous 24-h per day operation. For the scale-up, the procedure assumed that the <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

scale unit has the same performance as the laboratorial scale unit; this study considered setups<br />

with extractor of 0.3m 3 .<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Figure 1a, b show the results of global yields (% X0) and antioxidant activity (% SA) for SFE<br />

with CO2 and CO2 + ethanol (EtOH). Antioxidant activities are expressed as the percentage of<br />

potential antioxidant compounds present <strong>in</strong> the extract. Look<strong>in</strong>g at Figure 1a it is possible to<br />

notice that for SFE with CO2 the greatest amount of global yield was obta<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>in</strong>gá-cipó<br />

(IC) followed by jatobá (JB), nó-de-cachorro (NC), cipó-de-são-joão (CSJ), and bean (FJ). This<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2189

demonstrates that a higher recovery of extract is not always associated with a higher recovery<br />

of antioxidant compounds. On the other hand, the highest value of antioxidant activity per<br />

extract was achieved for jatobá followed by cipó-de-são-joão, bean, <strong>in</strong>gá-cipó, and nó-decachorro.<br />

However, the highest antioxidant activity percentage was obta<strong>in</strong>ed for jatobá and had<br />

the second best global yield as well.<br />

In Figure 1b, it can be verified that the addition of ethanol as cosolvent <strong>in</strong> SFE process had a<br />

positive <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> the extraction efficiency of all raw materials, the addition of ethanol as<br />

modifier showed a great enhancement <strong>in</strong> antioxidant activity of SFE extracts for the samples<br />

jatobá, <strong>in</strong>gá-cipó, and nó-de-cachorro; represent<strong>in</strong>g better antioxidant compounds sources<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g SFE with ethanol than, us<strong>in</strong>g pure CO2, while bean and cipó-de-são-joão achieved better<br />

antioxidant activity results by SFE with pure CO2.<br />

(a) (b)<br />

Figure 1. Global yields (X 0) and antioxidant activities (%) of SFE extracts from cipó-de-são-joão (CSJ),<br />

<strong>in</strong>gá-cipó (IC), nó-de-cachorro (NC), jatobá (JB), and bean (FJ) with CO 2 (a) and CO 2 + ethanol.<br />

The specific costs obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the antioxidant compounds (COM AC ) for SFE process us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

CO2 + EtOH were a lot lower than those assessed for the process us<strong>in</strong>g only CO2. And also, the<br />

COM was directly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the global yield (X0) of extracts; <strong>in</strong> extractions with CO2 the<br />

lower X0 of extracts lead to higher COM. the COM was directly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the global yield<br />

(X0) of extracts; <strong>in</strong> extractions with CO2 the lower X0 of extracts lead to higher COM.<br />

<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The results <strong>in</strong>dicated that all the global yields <strong>in</strong>creased with the use of ethanol as co-solvent<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead of CO2 pure to obta<strong>in</strong> rich antioxidants extracts by SFE. Compar<strong>in</strong>g all the extracts,<br />

jatobá showed the highest antioxidant activity. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the simulation process, all the<br />

extracts obta<strong>in</strong>ed with the addition of co-solvent showed a lower COM.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Leal, P. F., Braga, M. E. M., Sato, D. N., Carvalho, J. E., Marques, M. O. M., & Merieles, M. A. A.<br />

2003. Functional properties of spice extracts obta<strong>in</strong>ed via supercritical fluid extraction. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chem. 51: 2520-2525.<br />

2190

Anthocyan<strong>in</strong> Extraction From Jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) Sk<strong>in</strong>s by Different<br />

Techniques: Economical Evaluation<br />

Priscilla C. Veggi, Diego T. Santos, M. Angela A. Meireles<br />

LASEFI/DEA/FEA (School of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>)/UNICAMP (University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as) – R. Monteiro<br />

Lobato, 80; 13083-862, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, SP, Brazil (meireles@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s are a type of functional pigment responsible for a wide range of colors present <strong>in</strong><br />

vegetables, flowers, fruits, and derived products. It is known that anthocyan<strong>in</strong> pigments act as<br />

strong antioxidants and are anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory, with antimutagenic and cancer chemopreventive<br />

activities [1].<br />

Grape peels, grape by-products (constituted ma<strong>in</strong>ly by peels) and berries are well known for<br />

their antioxidant properties due to the presence of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s and other phenolic compounds.<br />

Many studies have been done to extract and evaluate these compounds on the <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale.<br />

In Brazil another source seems promis<strong>in</strong>g; jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) is grape-like <strong>in</strong><br />

appearance and texture, although its sk<strong>in</strong> is thicker and tougher. This fruit has a dark purple to<br />

almost black sk<strong>in</strong> color due to a high content of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s that cover a white gelat<strong>in</strong>ous<br />

flesh <strong>in</strong>side [2].<br />

As the extraction procedure is of great importance for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g natural colorants, different<br />

research groups have made an effort to develop an efficient extraction procedure. An efficient<br />

extraction should maximize anthocyan<strong>in</strong> recovery with m<strong>in</strong>imal degradation and result <strong>in</strong> an<br />

extract with high antioxidant activity us<strong>in</strong>g environmentally friendly technologies and low-cost<br />

raw materials. For this purpose different techniques were evaluated <strong>in</strong> terms of economical<br />

feasibility for extraction of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s from sk<strong>in</strong>s of jabuticaba. Ultrasound assisted (UAE),<br />

agitated bed (ABE), soxhlet and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) methods were<br />

economically compared. Ethanol was used as extraction solvent for all extraction techniques.<br />

The simulation was conducted us<strong>in</strong>g the software SuperPro designer 6.0®.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Plant Material<br />

Jabuticaba fruits (Myrciaria cauliflora) harvested from a plantation <strong>in</strong> the State of São Paulo,<br />

Brazil, were acquired from a fruit and vegetable market center (CEASA-Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil).<br />

Immediately after acquisition, the fruits were stored <strong>in</strong> the dark <strong>in</strong> a domestic freezer (-10ºC)<br />

(Double Action, Metalfrio, São Paulo, Brazil) until sample preparation. Before extraction, the<br />

fruits were manually peeled.<br />

Economical Evaluation<br />

The estimation of the cost of manufactur<strong>in</strong>g (COM) was done for the crude extract obta<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

UAE, ABE, soxhlet and PLE. The ma<strong>in</strong> costs that compose the COM are similar to the ones<br />

described by Turton et al. [3], which are given by total capital <strong>in</strong>vestment cost and operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cost. The total capital <strong>in</strong>vestment cost represents the fixed capital <strong>in</strong>vestment (FCI), work<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capital and start-up cost. The first one <strong>in</strong>volves expenses with equipment, <strong>in</strong>stallation,<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2191

territorial taxes, eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, etc., while the second one represents operat<strong>in</strong>g liquidity available<br />

to a bus<strong>in</strong>ess, and f<strong>in</strong>ally, the start-up cost is associated with the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of operation and the<br />

validation of the process. The operat<strong>in</strong>g cost represents direct costs that are directly dependent<br />

on the production rate; it is composed of the cost of raw materials (CRM), the cost of the lost<br />

solvent dur<strong>in</strong>g the process, utilities cost (CUT), which represents the demand for steam and<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g water required for the evaporator and condenser, electricity, and operational labor cost<br />

(COL).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The COM obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the extract from jabuticaba sk<strong>in</strong>s extraction <strong>in</strong> UAE, ABE, soxhlet and<br />

PLE processes for extractor capacities of 0.05, 0.1 and 0.3 m 3 can be observed <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

Table 1. COM for extract´s global yield estimated for UAE, ABE, soxhlet and PLE<br />

Extraction Technique<br />

Extractor<br />

Capacity (m 3 )<br />

Global yield<br />

(%)<br />

COM for Crude Extract<br />

(US$/kg)<br />

UAE 0.05 794.46<br />

0.10 11.93 530.22<br />

0.30 401.21<br />

ABE 0.05 1016.88<br />

0.10 9.01 666.50<br />

0.30 422.18<br />

soxhlet 0.05 3020.00<br />

0.10 9.92 1800.00<br />

0.30 778.42<br />

PLE 0.05 19.26<br />

0.10 13.01 17.24<br />

0.30 15.53<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the results, PLE resulted <strong>in</strong> higher extraction efficiency followed by UAE,<br />

soxhlet and ABE. PLE process also was the most economically viable method to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

extracts rich <strong>in</strong> anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s due to the use of less solvent and time.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Kong, J., Chia, L., Goh, N., Chia, T., & Brouillard, R. 2003. Analysis and biological activities of<br />

anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s. Phytochemistry, 64(5), 923-933.<br />

[2] Santos, D.T., & Meireles, M.A.A. 2009. Jabuticaba as a Source of Functional Pigments.<br />

Pharmacognosy Reviews, 3(5), 127-132.<br />

[3] Turton, R., Bailie, R.C., Whit<strong>in</strong>g, W.B. & Shaeiwitz, J.A. 2003. Analysis, Synthesis and Design of<br />

Chemical <strong>Process</strong>, Prentice Hall-PTR, New Jersey.<br />

2192

Study of clean<strong>in</strong>g efficiency of organic microfiltration membranes by attenuated total<br />

reflectance <strong>in</strong>frared microspectroscopy<br />

Tilahun K. Gelaw a , Alexandre Trent<strong>in</strong> a , Carme Güell a , Montse Ferrando a , Sílvia de Lamo-Castellví a,*<br />

aDepartament<br />

d'Eng<strong>in</strong>yeria Quimica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av<strong>in</strong>guda Païssos Catalans, 26 campus<br />

Sescelades, 43007 Tarragona, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In membrane emulsification process, there are two different methods of operation, direct<br />

membrane (DME) and premix membrane emulsification (PME). For DME, the to-be-dispersed<br />

phase is pressed through a microporous membrane while the cont<strong>in</strong>uous phase flows along the<br />

membrane surface. However, for the case of PME, a coarse premix is prepared and pushed<br />

through a membrane produc<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>er droplets [1]. The ma<strong>in</strong> problem of PME is membrane<br />

foul<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>ce both the cont<strong>in</strong>uous phase (with the emulsifier) and the disperse phase pass<br />

through the membrane [2]. Foul<strong>in</strong>g occurs due to the <strong>in</strong>teraction between the membrane and<br />

the components <strong>in</strong> the emulsion [3]. To reuse the membrane, it is necessary to clean it.<br />

Membrane clean<strong>in</strong>g can be performed by a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of water and air <strong>in</strong> either the forward<br />

or background direction or apply<strong>in</strong>g chemical clean<strong>in</strong>g [4]. Moreover, it is also possible to<br />

clean the membranes us<strong>in</strong>g chemicals like Tween 20 and Derquim + at specific concentration<br />

and operat<strong>in</strong>g pressure. The objective of this work was to study the efficiency of different<br />

clean<strong>in</strong>g protocols applied to reduce foul<strong>in</strong>g phenomena produced dur<strong>in</strong>g membrane<br />

emulsification on nylon micromembrane by us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frared microspectroscopy (IRMS)<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ed with multivariate analysis, specifically soft <strong>in</strong>dependent modell<strong>in</strong>g of class analogy.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Oil/Water (O/W) emulsions were prepared us<strong>in</strong>g commercial sunflower oil (10% v/v, disperse<br />

phase), MiliQ water (cont<strong>in</strong>uous phase) and whey prote<strong>in</strong> solution (1% w/w) (WPC,<br />

Lactalbum<strong>in</strong>® 75 L, from Milei - Stuttgart, Germany, emulsifier) us<strong>in</strong>g a two-step<br />

emulsification process (premix emulsification procedure). After three emulsification cycles, the<br />

membranes were cleaned us<strong>in</strong>g a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of different concentration of Tween 20<br />

(polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, from Sigma-Aldrich, Spa<strong>in</strong>) and pressure of N2 on a<br />

backflush mode. In this experiment five different clean<strong>in</strong>g protocols were tested by comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

different concentrations of Tween 20 (2, 3 and 4%) and N2 pressure (150 – 700 kPa). The<br />

composition of different samples present on the nylon membrane were analyzed by ATR-FTIR<br />

equipment (Illum<strong>in</strong>ate IR, Smiths detection, 64 Clarendon Road, Watford, Herts WD17 1DA,<br />

UK) <strong>in</strong>terfaced with mercury-cadmium-telluride (MCT) photoconductive detector and<br />

equipped with a microscope with a motorized x-y stage, 20x and 50x objectives, and slide-on<br />

attenuated total reflection (ATR) diamond objective (Smiths detection, The Genesis Centre<br />

Science Park South Birchwood Warr<strong>in</strong>gton, WA3 7BH, England). IRMS spectra of 10% (w/v)<br />

whey prote<strong>in</strong> solution, sunflower oil and Tween 20 were taken after the samples were placed<br />

on the nylon membrane and dried. The spectrum was acquired from 800 to 4000 cm -1<br />

wavelength with 4 cm -1 resolution. A background scan was taken before every sample. The<br />

spectrum of each sample was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by tak<strong>in</strong>g the average of 128 scans to improve the<br />

signal-to-noise ratio. Raw spectra were exported to Pirouette multivariate analysis software for<br />

soft <strong>in</strong>dependent model<strong>in</strong>g of class analogy (SIMCA) analysis.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2193

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Spectra of new and fouled membranes were analyzed by SIMCA.The <strong>in</strong>frared spectra analysis<br />

(1800-900 cm -1 ) us<strong>in</strong>g SIMCA classification models of new and fouled membranes, sunflower<br />

oil and 10% whey prote<strong>in</strong> solution, permitted tight cluster<strong>in</strong>g, clear differentiation and zero<br />

misclassifications among samples. Discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g power of SIMCA of new and fouled<br />

membranes, sunflower oil and 10% whey prote<strong>in</strong> solution, showed four strong spectral bands<br />

at 1550, 1516, 1099 and 1057 cm -1 (data not shown). The discrim<strong>in</strong>ation power is a measure of<br />

variable importance <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frared frequency and contributes to the development of the<br />

classification models [5]. The first two IR bands at 1550 and 1516 cm -1 , were associated to N-<br />

H bend<strong>in</strong>g and carbonyl stretch<strong>in</strong>g bands, respectively [5]. These two bands are diagnostic of<br />

secondary amides (whey prote<strong>in</strong> and nylon membrane). The last two IR bands, 1099 and 1057<br />

cm -1 , were related with asymmetric and symmetric stretch<strong>in</strong>g modes of C-O-C<br />

(polysaccharides) of esters presents <strong>in</strong> sunflower oil and whey prote<strong>in</strong>. These four bands<br />

clearly differentiate between fouled and new membrane spectra. Moreover, the <strong>in</strong>terclass<br />

distance (ICD) of the SIMCA classification model ranged from 6.1 to 39.7 (data not shown)<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g chemical differences among the membrane samples. In the other hand, the <strong>in</strong>frared<br />

spectra analysis (1800-900 cm -1 ) of different clean membrane samples showed tight cluster<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and clear differentiation among the different clean<strong>in</strong>g protocols applied and fouled membrane<br />

(data not shown). From the ICD data, the membranes cleaned with 4 or 3 % Tween 20<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ed with 500 kPa or 700 kPa of nitrogen pressure had the highest values, 9.7 and 9.6<br />

respectively. The discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g power of SIMCA classification model of fouled and clean<br />

membranes showed a band at 1629 cm -1 l<strong>in</strong>ked to the presence of prote<strong>in</strong> from whey prote<strong>in</strong> or<br />

the nylon membrane.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

ATR-IRMS comb<strong>in</strong>ed with multivariate analysis is a valuable tool to obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation about<br />

membrane surface. It was simple and easy to differentiate between membrane samples (new,<br />

fouled and cleaned) and also to detect the most effective membrane clean<strong>in</strong>g protocols among<br />

those tested <strong>in</strong> this experiment. IRMS comb<strong>in</strong>ed with multivariate data analysis has not been<br />

used for membrane characterization and with this research we show that could be an efficient<br />

and rapid technique.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Suzuki K., Fujiki I. and Hagura Y.1998. Preparation of corn oil/water and water/corn oil emulsions<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g PTFE membranes. <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology <strong>International</strong>, Tokyo 4 (2), 164-167.<br />

[2] Trent<strong>in</strong> A., Güell C., López F. and Ferrando M. 2010. Microfiltration membranes to produce BSAstabilized<br />

O/W emulsions by premix membrane emulsification. Journal Membrane Science 356.<br />

[3] Belfort G., Davis R.H. and Zydney A.L. 1994. The behavior of suspensions and macromolecular<br />

solutions <strong>in</strong> crossflow microfiltration. Journal Membrane Science 96, 1–58.<br />

[4] Kuzmenk D., Arkhangelsky E., Belfer S., Freger V. and Gitis V. 2005. Chemical clean<strong>in</strong>g of UF<br />

membranes fouled by BSA. Desal<strong>in</strong>ation 179, 323-333.<br />

[5] Helm D., Labisch<strong>in</strong>ski H. and Naumann D. 1991. Elaboration of a procedure for identification of<br />

bacteria us<strong>in</strong>g Fourier-Transform IR spectral libraries: a stepwise correlation approach. Journal of<br />

Microbiological Methods 14, 127-142.<br />

2194

Comparative study on quality evaluation of buffalo meat slices <strong>in</strong>corporated with f<strong>in</strong>ger millet, oats<br />

and chickpea<br />

Mahjabeen Siddiqui a , Mohammad Ali Khan b<br />

a<br />

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India (mahjab<strong>in</strong>111@yahoo.co.<strong>in</strong>)<br />

b Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India (makamu4@gmail.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A buffalo meat is a major and cheapest source of prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> India, especially for those consum<strong>in</strong>g a nonvegetarian<br />

diet. It is also a major source of healthy iron <strong>in</strong> the Indian diet. [1]. Meat and meat products are<br />

essential for a balanced diet, although it must also be remembered that they are susceptible to<br />

modifications to give them a “healthier” appearance. Other non meat additives used as fillers/b<strong>in</strong>ders<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude wheat flour <strong>in</strong> chicken nuggets [2], texturized soy prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> chicken kebab [3], cowpea and<br />

peanut flour <strong>in</strong> chicken nuggets [4], Bengal gram flour and maida <strong>in</strong> chicken patties, and green and black<br />

gram flours <strong>in</strong> buffalo meat burger. Ragi or f<strong>in</strong>ger millet (Eleus<strong>in</strong>e coracana) is a low-cost cereal and is a<br />

rich source of calcium, iron and phosphorous. Chickpeas are high <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> and a helpful source of z<strong>in</strong>c<br />

and folate. Oats (Avena sativa L.) is a typical cereal conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ß-glucans, which have an effect on blood<br />

cholesterol levels and control of lipoprote<strong>in</strong> metabolism [5]. The object of this paper is to evaluate the<br />

effect of add<strong>in</strong>g functional <strong>in</strong>gredients such as chickpea, f<strong>in</strong>ger millet and oats on the physicochemical,<br />

microbiological and sensory characteristics of buffalo meat slices.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The preparation of buffalo meat slices <strong>in</strong>corporated with chickpea, f<strong>in</strong>ger millet and oats are the same and<br />

the composition selection of all the <strong>in</strong>gredients are mentioned <strong>in</strong> Table 1 on the basis of prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

organoleptic trails. These <strong>in</strong>gredients were weighed and mixed properly, wet-ground and prepared <strong>in</strong> the<br />

form of dough, which was filled <strong>in</strong> sta<strong>in</strong>less steel brick shaped moulds.<br />

S.No<br />

Table1:- Ingredients of buffalo meat slices <strong>in</strong>corporated with chickpea, f<strong>in</strong>ger millet and oats<br />

Ingredients Control Chickpeas based F<strong>in</strong>ger millet Oats based<br />

Quantity (gm/kg)<br />

1 Buffalo lean meat 540g 540g 540g<br />

2 Chickpea 400g -- --<br />

3 F<strong>in</strong>ger millet -- 400g --<br />

4 Oats -- -- 400g<br />

5 Big cardamom 4g 4g 4g<br />

6 C<strong>in</strong>namon 3g 3g 3g<br />

7 Black pepper 3g 3g 3g<br />

8 Garlic paste 5g 5g 5g<br />

9 G<strong>in</strong>ger paste 5g 5g 5g<br />

10 Turmeric powder 6g 6g 6g<br />

11 Red chilly powder 14g 14g 14g<br />

12 Table salt 20g 20g 20g<br />

Note: not added (--)<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2195

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Variation of pH, Moisture content, TBA number, ash, prote<strong>in</strong>, fat, TPC and Yeast and mould count of<br />

chickpea, f<strong>in</strong>ger millet and oats <strong>in</strong>corporated buffalo meat slices dur<strong>in</strong>g storage have been shown Figures<br />

1 to 8.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Based on the above results, the follow<strong>in</strong>g conclusions can be drawn: A control buffalo meat slice which<br />

were prepared without fortification of any cereal or millet flour. The fortification with f<strong>in</strong>ger millet, oats<br />

and chickpea <strong>in</strong> the development of buffalo meat slices could impart multi-pronged beneficial attributes<br />

together with a host of beneficial physiological effects. Keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> view the many promis<strong>in</strong>g health<br />

effects, such food adjuncts could be regarded as ‘neutraceuticals’, which makes the food healthier.<br />

Thus, among the processed meat slices with fortification have the advantage of a longer shelf life (120<br />

days) and low cost of process<strong>in</strong>g. The longer shelf life of these products at refrigerated temperature and<br />

good nutritive/medic<strong>in</strong>al values may add great convenience to many meat consumers. F<strong>in</strong>ger millet, oats<br />

and chickpea <strong>in</strong>corporated samples are lower <strong>in</strong> fat and higher <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> content and ash content, which<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates that the f<strong>in</strong>ger millet, oats and chickpea <strong>in</strong>corporated samples are rich <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral source <strong>in</strong><br />

comparison to control samples.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Fernández-G<strong>in</strong>és JM, Fernández-López J, Sayas-Barberá E, & Pérez-Alvarez Ja. 2005. Meat Products as<br />

Functional <strong>Food</strong>s: A Review—Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 70(2), 37-43. [2] Rao K.H., S<strong>in</strong>gh R.P., Anjaneyulu A.S.R.,<br />

Rao K.V.S.S. & Yadav P.L. 1997. Effects of case<strong>in</strong>ases and ref<strong>in</strong>ed wheat flour on the quality of chicken nuggets from<br />

spent hens. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 67, 1004–1006. [3] Mir Salahudd<strong>in</strong>, Kondaiah N. & Anjaneyulu A.S.R. 1991. Effect of<br />

maida, potato and texturized soya prote<strong>in</strong> as b<strong>in</strong>ders on the quality of chicken and mutton kababs. J. <strong>Food</strong> Sci.<br />

Technol., 28, 301–303. [4].Pr<strong>in</strong>yawiwatkul W., Mcwatters K.H., Beuchat L.R. & Phillips R.D. 1997. Physicochemical<br />

and sensory properties of chicken nuggets extended with fermented cowpea and peanut flours. J. Agric. <strong>Food</strong> Chem.,<br />

45, 1891–1899. [5] Braaten J. T., Wood P. J., Scott F. W., Wolynetz M. S., Lowe M. K., Bradley-White P., & Coll<strong>in</strong>s<br />

M. W. 1994. Oats ß-glucan reduces blood cholesterol concentration <strong>in</strong> hypercholesterolemic subjects. Eur. J. Cl<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Nutr., 48, 465.<br />

2196

INTRODUCTION<br />

Microencapsulation of tocopherols <strong>in</strong> lipid matrix by spray chill<strong>in</strong>g method<br />

Oscar Diaz Gamboa, Aparecida Lireny Guaraldo Gonçalves, Raymundo Carlos Grosso<br />

Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, University of Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Camp<strong>in</strong>as, Brazil<br />

(oscarw07@fea.unicamp.br)<br />

Vitam<strong>in</strong>s are essential micronutrients that contribute to normal growth and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of health, however, vitam<strong>in</strong> E is<br />

very unstable because it is slowly oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Microencapsulation is a technology for coat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

substances for protection and/or controlled release of them. Likewise, microencapsulation us<strong>in</strong>g lipids have great flexibility<br />

regard<strong>in</strong>g packag<strong>in</strong>g material and size of the particles.This project aimed to evaluate the stability of the microcapsules of tocopherol<br />

<strong>in</strong> different storage conditions of temperature <strong>in</strong> a period of time.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Raw Material. Interesterified fat (cottonseed oil and fully hydrogenated palm oil), fully hydrogenated soybean oil (OSTH),<br />

and as active <strong>in</strong>gredient to be encapsulated -tocopherol. To obta<strong>in</strong> microcapsules of the lipid matrices were melted at a<br />

temperature of 65 º C. The -tocopherol was added followed by homogenization <strong>in</strong> ultra-Turrax for 5 m<strong>in</strong>. The lipid<br />

microparticles suffered <strong>in</strong> spray atomizer heated fluid also double to 65 ° C and air pressure of 0.25 MPa, with atomization<br />

performed <strong>in</strong>side a chamber cooled to 10°C. Four trials were prepared, four trials coded A, B, C, D respectively, which were<br />

submitted by 180 days storage at three different temperatures (BOD at 22°C and -18°C freezer, <strong>in</strong> the absence of light and<br />

temperature of 25 ± 3°C with light). Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of encapsulation efficiency. Performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOCS method Ce<br />

8-89 [1]. Thermal Analysis.Performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOCS method Cj 1-94, 2004 [2]. X-ray diffraction Polymorphic forms<br />

of the fat on the microcapsules were analyzed accord<strong>in</strong>g to AOCS Method Cj 2-95, 2004 [2].The Index of Relative<br />

Crystall<strong>in</strong>ity (Ic) was quantitatively estimated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method proposed by Rabek (1980) [3].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Encapsulation efficiency values determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> tests, one day after production were above 90%. Likewise the values for the<br />

retention of -tocopherol (Table 1) of the microcapsules after 180 days of storage at three temperatures were considerably<br />

higher for the systems studied ranged from 99.7 to 94.1%. The small variation observed over time <strong>in</strong> each test <strong>in</strong>dividually<br />

assessed <strong>in</strong>dicates that the lipid matrix us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>teresterified fat and FHSO, may have functioned as agents for prevent<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

expulsion of the core material over time and creat<strong>in</strong>g a good accommodation microstructure for the drug.<br />

Thermal behavior. The results of thermal properties of melt<strong>in</strong>g and crystallization of lipid microcapsules obta<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

Differential Scann<strong>in</strong>g Calorimetry (DSC) at time zero was evaluated with the objective of verify possible differences <strong>in</strong><br />

relation to different proportions of lipid / core material because it could have different crystallization and melt<strong>in</strong>g behaviors<br />

for obta<strong>in</strong>ed peaks. The values obta<strong>in</strong>ed for the peaks recorded <strong>in</strong> both the curve of melt<strong>in</strong>g and crystallization <strong>in</strong>dicated as<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g directly related to the proportion of lipid / core material used for the production of microcapsules. The melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature "endset" occurred over a range of 62.2 °C to 64.0 °C correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the tests B and C respectively, which<br />

showed lower and higher amount of lipid matrix. Similarly the values of crystallization temperature curve <strong>in</strong>dicate also be<br />

related to the amou lipid <strong>in</strong> the matrix, because these values varied over a range of -2.5 °C to -7.5 °C correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

tests C and B respectively with higher and lower amounts of lipid matrix present <strong>in</strong> the microcapsules. So even if these<br />

effects also showed an association with the respective reduction and <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the values of melt<strong>in</strong>g and crystallization<br />

enthalpy (H). The melt<strong>in</strong>g curve was characterized by the formation of two dist<strong>in</strong>ct endothermic peaks separated by an<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2197

exothermic peak could be attributed to the polymorphism of FHSO. For crystallization curves the thermograms obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

were characterized by the formation of two peaks of a smaller magnitude that appears close to 0 ° C and another large peak<br />

near 40 ° C represents the crystallization of FHSO. Regard<strong>in</strong>g the presence of -tocopherol on the microcapsules, the results<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicate that it did not affect the melt<strong>in</strong>g and crystallization of microcapsules <strong>in</strong> the tests, due to solubility that exists <strong>in</strong> the<br />

lipid matrix.<br />

Table 1. Retention values of tocopherol <strong>in</strong> the microcapsules after 180 days.<br />

Temperature of storage Trials % Retention SD<br />

22°C (BOD)<br />

25 ± 3 °C (Environment)<br />

-18 ° C (Frezzer)<br />

A 99.0 ± 0.42 to 0.45<br />

B 99.0 ± 3.89 a 4.20<br />

C 98.5 ± 7.35 to 7.16<br />

D 99.1 ± 3.25 to 5,04<br />

A 94.8 ± 2.05 to 2,21<br />

B 94.1 ± 0.283 a 0,34<br />

C 98.8 ± 2.55 a 2,90<br />

D 94.8 ± 1.28 to 1,34<br />

A 99.4 ± 1.41 to 0,46<br />

B 99.7 ± 4.17 to 1,27<br />

C 99.1 ± 6.50 a 7,32<br />

D 99.7 ± 0.78 to 0,80<br />

A: (ratio of lipid / core material 90/10), B: (ratio of lipid / core material 80/20), C: (ratio of lipid / core material 95 / 5), D:<br />

(ratio of lipid / core material 85/15).<br />

X-ray Diffraction. Diffractograms of the test capsules stored for 180 days at different temperatures showed similar specter<br />

and shpae of the obta<strong>in</strong>ed curves.The results demonstrated the presence of three major peaks detected <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

angles 2 = 19.3 ° d = 4.6A, 2 = 22.8 ° d = 3.8A and 2 = 23.1 ° d = 3.7A. The standards were similar and literature<br />

usually associate it with the polymorphic form , characteristic of most triacylglycerols and fatty acids.While the<br />

percentages of crystall<strong>in</strong>ity of the trials of lipid microcapsules were relatively lower than 30% without significant difference<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g storage time. The low crystall<strong>in</strong>ity observed for the formulations have been driven by the presence of amorphous<br />

solids which are lipid but not crystall<strong>in</strong>e that contribute to <strong>in</strong>crease the retention of core material <strong>in</strong>side the matrix. Although<br />

there are no quantitative data <strong>in</strong> the literature, the benefits of amorphous structures on microencapsulation efficiency of<br />

products are well known.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The production of lipid microparticles conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g -tocopherol is possible us<strong>in</strong>g lipid matrices us<strong>in</strong>g spray chill<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

good efficiency and high levels of retention of the active product, rang<strong>in</strong>g from 94.1 to 99.7%.The lipid microparticles<br />

showed good stability over time and temperature.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] AOCS 1989.American Oil Chemists' Society. Official methods and recommended practices of the AOCS. 4th. ed. Champaign.<br />

[2] AOCS 2004.American Oil Chemists' Society. Official methods and recommended practices of the AOCS. 4th. ed. Champaign.<br />

[3] Rabek, JF 1980.Experimental Methods <strong>in</strong> Polymer Chemistry: Applications of Wide-Angle X-Ray Difraction (WAXD) to the<br />

Study of the Structure of Polymers, Wiley-Interscience Chichester, UK p. 505.<br />

2198

Am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile of Sous vide cooked poultry breast meat products<br />

Krist<strong>in</strong>e Ramane a , Ruta Galoburda a , Viesturs Kreicbergs a , Ilona Vanaga b<br />

a<br />

Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Jelgava, Latvia<br />

e-mail: ramane.krist<strong>in</strong>e@gmail.com<br />

b<br />

Research Institute of Biotechnology and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Medic<strong>in</strong>e “Sigra”,<br />

Latvia University of Agriculture, Sigulda, Latvia<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Am<strong>in</strong>o acid composition greatly determ<strong>in</strong>es the nutritive value of meat product. Chicken meat<br />

is characterized by a high content of lys<strong>in</strong>e, leuc<strong>in</strong>e, aspartic acid and glutamic acid [1]. Creed<br />

& Reeve described that Sous vide cook<strong>in</strong>g reduces heat damage to prote<strong>in</strong>s, dim<strong>in</strong>ishes the loss<br />

of liquids and aroma compounds at the same time provid<strong>in</strong>g longer shelf life compar<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

traditional cook<strong>in</strong>g methods [2]. The improvement of tenderness <strong>in</strong> meats is ma<strong>in</strong>ly caused by<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> structure of connective tissues solubilised by heat, while at the same time heatdenaturation<br />

of myofiblrillar prote<strong>in</strong>s generally causes meats toughen<strong>in</strong>g. In order to enhance<br />

nutritional value of the meat product – vegetable-and-fruit additive can be used [3]. When the<br />

transverse shr<strong>in</strong>kage to the fibre axis occurs ma<strong>in</strong>ly at 40–60 ºC this widens the gap already<br />

present at rigor between the fibres and their surround<strong>in</strong>g endomysium. At 60–70 ºC the<br />

connective tissue network and the muscle fibres co-operatively shr<strong>in</strong>k longitud<strong>in</strong>ally. It is then<br />

presumed that water is expelled by the pressure exerted by the shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g connective tissue on<br />

the aqueous solution <strong>in</strong> the extracellular void [4]. As a result am<strong>in</strong>o acid composition <strong>in</strong> cooked<br />

meat is changed compared to raw product. The aim of this research was to evaluate am<strong>in</strong>o acid<br />

profile of four mar<strong>in</strong>ated, sous vide cooked poultry meat products made from broiler’s fillet<br />

(A); broiler’s fillet with vegetable-and-fruit additive (B); mature hen’s fillet (C); mature hen’s<br />

fillet with vegetable-and-fruit additive (D).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Carcasses of slaughtered broilers of the cross Ross 308 and parents’ stock hens after reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />

rigor mortis were randomly selected for separat<strong>in</strong>g a fillet (musculus pectoralis). The obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>less fillets together with other <strong>in</strong>gredients were packaged <strong>in</strong> polyamide/polyethylene<br />

(PA/PE) pouches (film thickness 90 μm, pouch size 230×145 mm), vacuum sealed, mar<strong>in</strong>ated<br />

and sous vide cooked accord<strong>in</strong>g to the technology described <strong>in</strong> the patent of Republic of Latvia<br />

no. 14095 [3]. The am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile was determ<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g HPLC-MS by method LVS ISO<br />

13903:2005. Am<strong>in</strong>o acid content is reported as average of three replications <strong>in</strong> g 100 g -1 dry<br />

weight (DW).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Chemical composition showed significant differences (p

Table 1. Content of essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids <strong>in</strong> broiler’s fillet, hen’s fillet, and their products, g 100 g -1 DW<br />

Broiler’s fillet Mature hen’s fillet<br />

Chilled A B Chilled C D<br />

Total am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

acids<br />

Incl. essential<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />

52.58±0.42 50.82±0.26 44.78±0.51 49.43±0.12 44.56±0.25 43.94±0.25<br />

Phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e 3.01±0.29 2.93±0.09 2.63±0.01 3.20±0.03 2.92±0.12 2.97±0.19<br />

Isoleuc<strong>in</strong>e 2.17±0.18 2.03±0.07 1.83±0.02 2.22±0.04 2.16±0.12 2.13±0.18<br />

Leuc<strong>in</strong>e 4.33±0.36 4.05±0.15 3.65±0.04 4.52±0.02 4.25±0.23 4.14±0.36<br />

Lys<strong>in</strong>e 2.76±0.01 2.72±0.05 2.57±0.02 1.80±0.01 1.76±0.12 1.79±0.18<br />

Methion<strong>in</strong>e 2.53±0.13 2.32±0.05 2.11±0.34 1.51±0.02 1.41±0.03 1.22±0.05<br />

Threon<strong>in</strong>e 2.92±0.28 2.73±0.02 2.52±0.04 2.58±0.02 2.54±0.15 2.44±0.20<br />

Val<strong>in</strong>e 4.04±0.42 4.00±0.10 3.54±0.19 3.03±0.03 2.72±0.09 2.63±0.20<br />

The highest content of total am<strong>in</strong>o acids among studied samples was detected <strong>in</strong> raw broiler<br />

fillet 52.16 g 100 g -1 . It was reduced to 50.82 g 100 g -1 after heat treatment or to 44.78 g 100 g -1<br />

when it was heat treated together with vegetable-and-fruit additive. Similar loss of am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />

was observed <strong>in</strong> hen’s fillet after cook<strong>in</strong>g, but it was not significantly different <strong>in</strong> both<br />

thermally treated products (without/with vegetable-and-fruit additive (p>0.05). Among<br />

essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids the highest relative decrease is observed for methion<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> thermally<br />

treated broiler’s fillet either without or with additive, as well as <strong>in</strong> hen’s fillet with additive. It<br />

can be related to the high activity of sulfide group of this am<strong>in</strong>o acid, for example, it is readily<br />

oxidized <strong>in</strong>to the sulfoxide and further <strong>in</strong> the sulfone.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In cross Ross 308 broiler’s fillet significantly higher content of essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids –<br />

methion<strong>in</strong>e, lys<strong>in</strong>e, and val<strong>in</strong>e was observed compar<strong>in</strong>g to parent’s stock hen’s fillet of the<br />

same breed. Relative decrease <strong>in</strong> essential and non-essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid content of broiler’s<br />

fillet product sous vide cooked together with vegetable-and-fruit additive is more than two<br />

times higher compar<strong>in</strong>g to relative decrease <strong>in</strong> the same product cooked without additive. In<br />

thermal treatment process the highest relative decrease among studied am<strong>in</strong>o acids was<br />

observed for methion<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Sales J. & Hayes J. P. 1996. Proximate, am<strong>in</strong>o acid and m<strong>in</strong>eral composition of ostrich meat. <strong>Food</strong><br />

Chemictry, 56(2), 167-170.<br />

[2] Creed P. G. & Reeve W. 1998. Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and applications of sous vide processed foods, In: Ghazala<br />

G. (Ed.) Sous vide and cook-chill process<strong>in</strong>g for food <strong>in</strong>dustry. Aspen Publishers Inc, Gaithersburg,<br />

Maryland, 25-56.<br />

[3] Dukalska L., Ramane K., Galoburda R. & Segl<strong>in</strong>a D. 2010. <strong>Process</strong> to prepare chicken fillet with<br />

vegetable and fruit said dish by Sous vide packag<strong>in</strong>g. The Official Gazette of the Patent Office of the<br />

Republic of Latvia - "Patenti un precu zimes", 20 March, 2010, pp. 431.–432.<br />

[4] Tornberg E. 2005. Effects of heat on meat prote<strong>in</strong>s – Implications on structure and quality of meat<br />

products. Meat Science, 70, 493-508.<br />

2200

Antioxidant activity and porphyran content <strong>in</strong> hydrothermal extracts of Porphyra<br />

Yezoensis (Susab<strong>in</strong>ori)<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ami Goto a , Siti Machmudah b , Mitsuru Sasaki a , Motonobu Goto b ,<br />

Kiyoka Okai c , Yasuji Okai d , Shoji Kondo e<br />

a<br />

Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan<br />

(106d8205@st.kumamoto-u.ac.jp)<br />

b<br />

Bioelectrics Research Center, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan<br />

c Department of <strong>Food</strong> and Nutritional Environment, K<strong>in</strong>jo Gaku<strong>in</strong> University, Nagoya, Japan<br />

d<br />

Department of Human Life Science, Osaka Kun-Ei Women's College, Setsu, Japan<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

There is a mechanism that produces active oxygen <strong>in</strong> the human body. The active oxygen<br />

damages the cell function and causes many chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes and<br />

arteriosclerosis. At the same time, various defense functions exist <strong>in</strong> our human body that<br />

elim<strong>in</strong>ate and control aga<strong>in</strong>st the production of the active oxygen. However, s<strong>in</strong>ce these<br />

functions decrease with age it is thought to be important to take foods which conta<strong>in</strong><br />

antioxidation effect to prevent from the chronic diseases. Porphyra yezoensis (Susab<strong>in</strong>ori),<br />

which is a k<strong>in</strong>d of seaweed mar<strong>in</strong>e biomass, has been eaten s<strong>in</strong>ce early times <strong>in</strong> Japan.<br />

Nonetheless, most of the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g after the harvest of the seaweed is sent to the waste.<br />

Sulfated polysaccharide such as Porphyran (POR), antioxidant activity substance, fat and<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>s are conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> seaweed conta<strong>in</strong>. These components <strong>in</strong> Porphyra yezoensis are<br />

thought to be produce antioxidant activity. It is useful to develop a technology to produce<br />

valuable materials from unused part of mar<strong>in</strong>e biomass.<br />

The aim of this study was set to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effective extraction method of useful<br />

components from Porphyra yezoensis <strong>in</strong> order to use the seaweed effectively [1, 2]. Thus, POR<br />

and others are extracted from the seaweed us<strong>in</strong>g subcritical water and the effects of extraction<br />

temperature and time on extraction rate was <strong>in</strong>vestigated as well as molecular weight<br />

distribution and measur<strong>in</strong>g the antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong> the extract.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A sample was made by reduc<strong>in</strong>g the seaweed (Porphyra yezoensis without heat treatment) to<br />

powder with particles less than 3 mm diameter us<strong>in</strong>g a blender. 0.1 g of seaweed powder and 5<br />

ml of distilled water were placed <strong>in</strong>to a batch extractor with volume of 8.8 ml and seal after<br />

replac<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>side with argon gas. When the heater of the extractor reached the desired<br />

temperature, place the reactor and start mix<strong>in</strong>g. The experimental conditions of extraction were<br />

temperature 140-220 o C and time 35-200 m<strong>in</strong>. Then, immediately cool down the reactor with<br />

water after the reaction and separate the extract and the residue us<strong>in</strong>g a centrifuge.<br />

Moreover, the measurement of antioxidant activity was taken us<strong>in</strong>g DPPH method where each<br />

extract was measured. Also, TOF-MS was used to analyze the molecular weight distribution.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Antioxidant material is affected by the extraction temperature and the time, and the extract<br />

shows a higher antioxidant activity with temperature more than 200 o C. Compar<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2201

extracts extracted below 180 o C, the temperatures above 200 o C has higher activity at any<br />

extraction time and shows a drastic <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> activity. However, the temperature condition<br />

below 200 o C also shows an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the antioxidant activity with the extraction temperature.<br />

From the TOF-MS results, it was found that the smaller molecular weight components <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

with a higher extraction temperature and a longer extraction time. Furthermore, the higher the<br />

extraction temperature, more the extracts with smaller molecular weight components were<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a shorter time. Consequently, the results of antioxidant activity and molecular<br />

weight show that the antioxidant activity <strong>in</strong>creases with the extracts with smaller molecular<br />

weight.<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

(a) (b)<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Figure 1 A yield of the sugar of every extraction time at each temperature<br />

(a)D-galactose (b)3,6-anhydrogalactose<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Figure 2 Antioxidant activity of the extracts<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

By subcritical water treatment, POR was successfully recovered <strong>in</strong> high yield, where the<br />

optimal temperature was 160 o C. The molecular weight of POR depends on the temperature<br />

and time. The highest antioxidant activity was obta<strong>in</strong>ed at 160 o C.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Goto C., Ooga S., Izumi J., Machmudah S., Sasaki M., Goto M., Okai K., Okai Y. & Kondo S. 2010.<br />

Antioxidant activity and porphyran content <strong>in</strong> the extracts of Porphyra yezoensis (Susab<strong>in</strong>ori) us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

hydrothermal treatment. Pacifichem, Honolulu.<br />

[2] Oga S., Tanaka M., Kondou S., Sasaki M. & Goto M. 2009. Characterization of porphyran extracted<br />

from Porphyra yezoensis (Nori) us<strong>in</strong>g subcritical water, Proc. Supergreen, Sendai, 2P-308.<br />

2202

Effect of frozen storage on the quality of camu camu (Myrciaria dubia (H. B.K.)<br />

McVaugh,) pulp<br />

Souza, A.L.R. a , Pagani, M.M. b , Gomes, F. S. b , Cabral, L.M.C. b<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology/ UFRRJ, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil (hoglan@bol.com.br)<br />

b Embrapa <strong>Food</strong> Technolog,. Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil (lcabral@ctaa.embrapa.br)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Camu camu (Myrciaria dubia (H. B.K.) McVaugh, Myrtaceae) fruit has a high economical<br />

potential as a natural source of vitam<strong>in</strong> C. Its pulp has the vitam<strong>in</strong> C content rang<strong>in</strong>g from 1000<br />

to 3000mg/100g [1], higher than the all citrus and acerola fruit, considered one of the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

sources of vitam<strong>in</strong> C. Moreover, the recent <strong>in</strong>terest of polyphenols <strong>in</strong> plants has focused on its<br />

great potential to benefit human health, with special reference to polyphenols <strong>in</strong> fruits and<br />

vegetables [2]. Fresh fruits and vegetables, when harvested, cont<strong>in</strong>ue to undergo chemical<br />

changes which can cause spoilage and deterioration of the product. Freez<strong>in</strong>g is a simple, quick<br />

way to preserve foods. Fruits freeze well and reta<strong>in</strong> their dist<strong>in</strong>ct fruit flavor. Texture is usually<br />

softened somewhat by freez<strong>in</strong>g, but serv<strong>in</strong>g partially frozen fruit with ice crystals will<br />

compensate for texture changes. Lighter colored fruits may require special treatment to reta<strong>in</strong><br />

color, texture and flavor. The process<strong>in</strong>g of camu camu as frozen pulp is an alternative for its<br />

conservation, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g its shelf life, while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g their nutritional characteristics [3].<br />

Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of freez<strong>in</strong>g on the functional quality<br />

of the camu camu pulp.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Camu-camu fruits were obta<strong>in</strong>ed at the experimental fields of Embrapa Western Amazonia,<br />

located at Manaus - Amazonas state, Brazil. The fruits were frozen and transported to Rio de<br />

Janeiro where they were extracted us<strong>in</strong>g a pulper mach<strong>in</strong>e with a 0.6 mm diameter sieve. The<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed pulp was homogenized and stored <strong>in</strong> plastic pack<strong>in</strong>g’s of 0.5kg at -18°C for 15<br />

months. Samples were analyzed regard<strong>in</strong>g acidity, pH, soluble and total solids, anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s<br />

and antioxidant capacity [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

It was observed that the vitam<strong>in</strong> C content rema<strong>in</strong>ed quite high, as cited by Rodrigues et al. [9]<br />

and Ruf<strong>in</strong>o et al. [7].<br />

The different vitam<strong>in</strong> C content <strong>in</strong> the camu-camu is a function of its maturity stage. The<br />

vitam<strong>in</strong> C content found for the frozen camu camu pulp storage for 15 months was higher than<br />

many fruits known for their high content of this vitam<strong>in</strong> like acerola and citrus.<br />

Regard<strong>in</strong>g the phenolic concentration and antioxidant activity, the values were also with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

expected range, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the frozen camu camu pulp had a high level of phenolic<br />

compounds and antioxidant activity even after 15 months storage. Barreto [10] determ<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />

acidity rang<strong>in</strong>g from 1.94 to 2.07 g citric acid /100g, from 2.87 to 2.90 for pH and 5.30 to<br />

5.75°Brix to the soluble solids content.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2203

1 Mean ± Standard Deviation<br />

Table 1. Characterization of camu-camu pulp 1<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Storage at -18 ° C reta<strong>in</strong>ed the ma<strong>in</strong> functional characteristics of the camu camu pulp even<br />

after a period of 15 months, suggest<strong>in</strong>g the efficiency of freez<strong>in</strong>g on the preservation of the<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> physicochemical characteristics of this fruit.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Rodrigues, R. B., Marx, F. 2006. Camu camu [Myrciaria dúbia (H. B. K.) Mc Vaugh]: a promis<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fruit from the Amazon Bas<strong>in</strong>. Nutrition, 30 (9), 376-381.<br />

[2] Clemente, C. R., da Silva, D. F. 1994. Amazonian small fruits with commercial potential. Fruit Var.<br />

J., 48, 152-158.<br />

[3] Rodrigues, R.B., Menezes, H.C., Cabral, L.M.C, Dornier,M., Rios, G.M., Reynes, M. 2004. Evalution<br />

of reverse osmosis and osmotic evaporation to concentrate camu-camu juice (Myrcyaria dubia). Journal<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 63, 97-102.<br />

[4] AOAC. American Official of Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis of AOAC<br />

<strong>International</strong>. 17. ed. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, 1997.<br />

[5] Wrolstad, R. E. & Giusti, M. M. Characterization and mesasurement of anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s by UV-visible<br />

spectroscopy. In WROLSTAD, R. E. (Ed.). Current Protocols <strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Analytical Chemistry. New York:<br />

Wiley, 2001.<br />

[6] Re, R.; Pellegr<strong>in</strong>i, N.; Proteggente, A. Pannala, A.; Yang, M.; Rice-Evans, C. Antioxidant acitivity<br />

applt<strong>in</strong>g an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radical Biology.1999.<br />

[7] Ruf<strong>in</strong>o, M.S.M., Alves, R.E., Brito, E.S., Jiménez, J.P., Calixto, F.S., Filho, J.M. 2010. Bioactive<br />

compounds and oxidant capacities of 18 non-traditional tropical fruits from Brazil. <strong>Food</strong> chemistry. 121,<br />

996-1002.<br />

[8] Georgé, S., Brat, P, Alter, P., AMIOT, M.J. 2005 Rapid determ<strong>in</strong>ation of polyphenols and vitam<strong>in</strong> C<br />

<strong>in</strong> plant-derived products Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 53, 1370-1373.<br />

[9] Rodrigues, R. B., Menezes, H. C., Cabral, L. M. C., Dornier, M., Rios, G. M., Reynes, M. 2001<br />

Amazonian fruit with a high potential as a natural source of vitam<strong>in</strong> C: the camu-camu (Myrciaria dúbia).<br />

Fruit, 56, 345-354.<br />

[10] Barreto, A. G., Carvalho, R. A., Cabral, L. M. C., Matta, V. M. , Freitas, S. P. 2009. Concentration<br />

by reverse osmosis of camu camu juice. In: 3rd <strong>International</strong> Simposium on Huaman Health Effects of<br />

Fruits and Vegetables. 1, 254-254.<br />

2204

Effect of semol<strong>in</strong>a particle size on the cook<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and quality of spaghetti<br />

Giampiero Sacchetti a , Giuseppe Cocco b , Domenico Cocco b , Lilia Neri a , D<strong>in</strong>o Mastrocola a<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science, University of Teramo, Italy (gsacchetti@unite.it)<br />

b Pastificio Cav. Giuseppe Cocco, Fara S. Mart<strong>in</strong>o, Chieti, Italy (<strong>in</strong>fo@pastacocco.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Semol<strong>in</strong>a particle size is a key factor <strong>in</strong> pasta mak<strong>in</strong>g and f<strong>in</strong>e semol<strong>in</strong>a is preferred by the<br />

pasta <strong>in</strong>dustry s<strong>in</strong>ce it gives a higher yield upon mill<strong>in</strong>g and shows a high hydration rate, thus<br />

facilitat<strong>in</strong>g the mix<strong>in</strong>g and further extrusion process.<br />

However the reduction process required for f<strong>in</strong>e semol<strong>in</strong>a mak<strong>in</strong>g could determ<strong>in</strong>e adverse<br />

effects on quality due to starch damage such as: a higher reduc<strong>in</strong>g sugar content, lower starch<br />

gelat<strong>in</strong>ization temperature and solute leakage from the starch granule, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> higher pasta<br />

stick<strong>in</strong>ess and tendency to clump. Starch damage is more likely to occur when hard wheat<br />

(Triticum durum, Desf.) varieties with hard kernels are used for pasta production.<br />

This work was aimed to study the effect of semol<strong>in</strong>a particle size on the chemical composition<br />

and cook<strong>in</strong>g quality of spaghetti.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A hard wheat (Triticum durum, var. Kronos) with high hardness value (162 N) was milled <strong>in</strong><br />

order to reach an average particle size of 275, 375 and 475 m correspond<strong>in</strong>g to medium,<br />

medium coarse and coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a respectively.<br />

Semol<strong>in</strong>a particle-size distribution was determ<strong>in</strong>ed with a sifter (Bühler, Uzwil, Switzerland)<br />

by us<strong>in</strong>g 100 g of semol<strong>in</strong>a and a 5 m<strong>in</strong> sift<strong>in</strong>g time.<br />

Moisture, ash and prote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> kernels were determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to the official EU<br />

methods of analysis [1]. Spaghetti were produced with all of the three different semol<strong>in</strong>as by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the same operat<strong>in</strong>g conditions: recipe, mix<strong>in</strong>g, extrusion process and low-temperature<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g process. The dried spaghetti were characterized for their diameter, hardness and colour.<br />

The optimum cook<strong>in</strong>g time (OCT) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the white core disappearance [2].<br />

Weight <strong>in</strong>crease, diameter <strong>in</strong>crease, cook<strong>in</strong>g loss and total organic matter released <strong>in</strong> r<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>g<br />

water were determ<strong>in</strong>ed at different times dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g [2] and overcook<strong>in</strong>g (OCT + 25%).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The semol<strong>in</strong>as with lower particle size showed higher ash, prote<strong>in</strong> and gluten content, a higher<br />

gluten extensibility but a lower gluten <strong>in</strong>dex and yellow colour than coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a (Table 1).<br />

Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of semol<strong>in</strong>as<br />

Particle Ash Prote<strong>in</strong> Gluten Gluten Gluten Colour<br />

size (m) (g/100gdw) (g/100gdw) (g/100gdw) <strong>in</strong>dex extensibility (mm) b*<br />

275 0.88a 14.17a 11.54 91 28 27.1<br />

375 0.58c 13.48b 10.50 94 6 34.6<br />

475 0.65b 13.25b 9.70 95 3 35.9<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2205

\<br />

Figure 1. Hardness of spaghetti from different semol<strong>in</strong>as dur<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g and overcook<strong>in</strong>g time.<br />

Spaghetti from coarse and medium-coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a showed higher optimum cook<strong>in</strong>g time (18<br />

m<strong>in</strong>) than spaghetti from medium semol<strong>in</strong>a (15 m<strong>in</strong>). Cook<strong>in</strong>g time be<strong>in</strong>g equal, the weight<br />

and diameter <strong>in</strong>crease was higher <strong>in</strong> spaghetti from coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

With<strong>in</strong> the optimum cook<strong>in</strong>g time the hardness (maximum shear stress) of spaghetti from<br />

coarse and medium-coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a (Figure 1) were higher than those from medium semol<strong>in</strong>a;<br />

on the contrary the latter were harder than the former <strong>in</strong> overcook<strong>in</strong>g, likely due to the higher<br />

gluten content of medium semol<strong>in</strong>a. When the shear stress was expressed as a function of the<br />

normalized weight <strong>in</strong>crease no differences were observed between the different samples.<br />

No differences <strong>in</strong> cook<strong>in</strong>g loss and total organic matter released after r<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>g were found<br />

among samples. The colour of cooked spaghetti from coarse semol<strong>in</strong>as were lighter and less<br />

saturated than those from medium semol<strong>in</strong>a due to the higher water uptake of the formers.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The high OCT, hardness and shear stress (before OCT) of the semi-cooked pasta obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

coarse and medium coarse semol<strong>in</strong>a could be useful <strong>in</strong> two-step cook<strong>in</strong>g processes <strong>in</strong> which<br />

pasta is pre-cooked and cooled before the f<strong>in</strong>al cook<strong>in</strong>g step. These are cook<strong>in</strong>g processes<br />

widely used <strong>in</strong> restaurants and cater<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] EEC 2000. Commission Regulation 824/2000. Procedures for the tak<strong>in</strong>g-over of cereals by<br />

<strong>in</strong>tervention agencies and lay<strong>in</strong>g down methods of analysis for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the quality of cereals.<br />

Official Journal of the European Community, L100/3(20.4.2000), 31.<br />

[2] Cocci E., Sacchetti G., Vallicelli M., Angioloni A. & Dalla Rosa, M. 2008. Spaghetti cook<strong>in</strong>g by<br />

microwave oven: cook<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics and product quality. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 85(4), 537-546.<br />

2206

K<strong>in</strong>etics of heterogeneous amylolysis <strong>in</strong> oat flour and characterization of hydrolyzates<br />

Anna Patsioura *a , Vassilis Gekas b , Ath<strong>in</strong>a Lazaridou c , Costas Biliaderis c<br />

a<br />

Department of Environmental <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece, email:<br />

annapatsioura@yahoo.gr<br />

b<br />

Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and <strong>Food</strong> Science, Cyprus University of<br />

Technology, Lemesos, Cyprus, e-mail: vassilis.gekas@cut.ac.cy<br />

c<br />

Department of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki,<br />

Greece, e-mail: athlazar@agro.auth.gr, biliader@agro.auth.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Oat-based products with desirable sensorial properties contribute to the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of human health;<br />

their important nutritional attributes have been related to control of blood glucose and cholesterol levels.<br />

As a nutrient source, oat gra<strong>in</strong>s offer a balance between carbohydrates, prote<strong>in</strong> and fat, thus meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

human nutritional needs very well; as a result, there are several types of newly developed oat-based<br />

products with enhanced health properties on the market. For example, ‘oat milk’, a hydrolysis product of<br />

oat flour, is offered as an alternative to soya or cow’s milk, particularly for people suffer<strong>in</strong>g from lactose<br />

<strong>in</strong>tolerance or for <strong>in</strong>dividuals aim<strong>in</strong>g at a better control through their diet of the blood serum cholesterol<br />

and the postprandial glucose and <strong>in</strong>sul<strong>in</strong> levels.<br />

In the case of oat flour aqueous dispersions, studies on their enzyme hydrolysis k<strong>in</strong>etics <strong>in</strong> conjunction<br />

with the rheological characterization are of major <strong>in</strong>terest for a thorough understand<strong>in</strong>g of their<br />

technological and physiological functionality. The objective of this work was to evaluate the enzyme<br />

hydrolysis k<strong>in</strong>etics of oat flour aqueous dispersions under vary<strong>in</strong>g conditions and to characterize the<br />

respective hydrolyzates.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Oat flour samples and two commercial enzyme preparations, -amylase and -amylase (OATLY AB,<br />

Landskrona, Sweden), were employed for the starch hydrolysis studies. The hydrolysis k<strong>in</strong>etics of the oat<br />

flour dispersions were exam<strong>in</strong>ed at a solids concentration of 10% (w/w) under cont<strong>in</strong>uous mechanical<br />

stirr<strong>in</strong>g at 60 o C (for 3 h). The oligosaccharides produced (glucose, maltose, maltotriose and<br />

maltotetraose) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed at various sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervals us<strong>in</strong>g an HPLC method, as described by<br />

Hatzikamari et al. [1]. Steady shear rheological measurements at 200 s -1 were performed to monitor the<br />

time dependence of viscosity changes dur<strong>in</strong>g enzymic hydrolysis us<strong>in</strong>g a rotational Paar Physica MCR<br />

300 rheometer.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The hydrolysis data <strong>in</strong>dicated that maximum conversion of starch to maltose (~60 g maltose/ 100 g<br />

starch) occurs when both - and -amylases are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the enzymic reaction mixture (Fig. 1); the<br />

second major oligosaccharide produced was maltotriose (~ 10 % w/w starch basis). Instead, by the action<br />

of -amylase alone, the ma<strong>in</strong> products were maltose (35% starch basis) and maltotriose (25% w/w starch<br />

basis), and only m<strong>in</strong>or amounts of glucose and maltotetraose were present <strong>in</strong> the hydrolyzates after the<br />

first hour of hydrolysis (data not shown).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2207

(a)<br />

g oligosaccharides/<br />

100g of oat starch<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 1. Enzyme hydrolysis k<strong>in</strong>etics of oat flour aqueous dispersions (200 mL of 10 % w/w flour slurries) at 60 o C,<br />

by the action of: -amylase (4.16 FAU) and -amylase (57 o L) (Symbols - :maltose; :maltotriose).<br />

Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the enzyme(s) type and concentration used, a reduction <strong>in</strong> viscosity was observed<br />

throughout hydrolysis, with the -amylase alone exhibit<strong>in</strong>g a greater th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g impact on the heated oat<br />

flour slurries (Fig. 2). The viscosity profiles reflect a composite result of gelat<strong>in</strong>ization (granule swell<strong>in</strong>g)<br />

– solubilization of the starch granules (viscosity rise, first 30 m<strong>in</strong>) and th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the flour dispersion due<br />

to enzyme hydrolysis of the solubilized starch components.<br />

(a)<br />

(Pa s)<br />

0.08<br />

0.07<br />

0.06<br />

0.05<br />

0.04<br />

0.03<br />

0.02<br />

0.01<br />

0<br />

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200<br />

Time (m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Figure 2. Comparison of the viscosity profiles dur<strong>in</strong>g enxymic hydrolysis (60 o C, 200 s -1 ) of oat flour aqueous<br />

dispersions (200 mL of 10 % w/w flour slurries) at 60 o C, with -amylase (8.3 FAU), -amylase (6 o L) & both amylase<br />

(0.416 FAU) and -amylase (5.7 o L).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The k<strong>in</strong>etic profiles of sugars presented above exhibit that maltose production ma<strong>in</strong>ly happens when the<br />

two amylases are both <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the enzymic reaction. The rheological measurements have shown an<br />

extensive reduction <strong>in</strong> viscosity when the -amylase alone was applied. On the contrary, when -amylase<br />

(exo-act<strong>in</strong>g hydrolase) was used either by itself or <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with -amylase the reduction <strong>in</strong><br />

viscosity was milder and reached a steady value after the 1 st hour of hydrolysis.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

-amylase<br />

-amylase : -amylase<br />

-amylase<br />

[1] Hatzikamari M., Kyriakidis D.A., Tzanetakis N., Biliaderis C.G. & Litopoulou-Tzanetaki E. 2007. Biochemical changes<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g a submerged chickpea fermentation used as a leaven<strong>in</strong>g agent for bread production. European <strong>Food</strong> Research and<br />

Technology, 224, 715-723.<br />

[2] Nascimento J.R.O., Junior A.V., Bass<strong>in</strong>ello P.Z., Cordenunsi B.R., Ma<strong>in</strong>ardi J.A., Purgatto E. & Lajolo F.M. 2006. Betaamylase<br />

expression and starch degradation dur<strong>in</strong>g banana ripen<strong>in</strong>g. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 40, 41-47.<br />

2208

se<br />

K<strong>in</strong>etics of Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304 lipase-mediated synthesis of isoamyl<br />

acetate <strong>in</strong> n-hexane<br />

Dharmendra .S. Dheeman a , Jesús M. Frías b , Gary T.M. Henehan a<br />

a School of <strong>Food</strong> Science & Environmental Health, Dubl<strong>in</strong> Institute of Technology, Cathal Brugha Street,<br />

Dubl<strong>in</strong> 1, Ireland (dheeman@gmail.com, jesus.frias@dit.ie, gary.henehan@dit.ie )<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Esters of short-cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acids are important flavour and fragrance compounds that are widely<br />

used <strong>in</strong> the food and beverage <strong>in</strong>dustries. Isoamyl acetate is the character impact compound of<br />

banana flavour and pear drops. It is one of the most highly employed compounds (74 tonnes<br />

per annum) <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustries [1]. Consequently, enzymatic synthesis of isoamyl acetate<br />

and other aroma active esters is of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g relevance to the food <strong>in</strong>dustry [2]. A number of<br />

commercial lipases have been employed for direct esterification and transesterification <strong>in</strong><br />

organic solvents to produce isoamyl acetate [3]. However, few attempts have been made to<br />

synthesize isoamyl acetate us<strong>in</strong>g non-commercial lipases [4]. The objective of the present<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigation was to test the performance of a Celite-immobilized A. mediterranei lipase<br />

(AML) for the synthesis of isoamyl acetate <strong>in</strong> n-hexane and model its k<strong>in</strong>etics.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

AML catalysed synthesis of isoamyl acetate was carried out <strong>in</strong> a batch stirred reactor with a<br />

spherical geometry and 50 mL capacity. The reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer,<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 300 mM of isoamyl alcohol and 750 mg immobilized lipase as catalyst <strong>in</strong> n-hexane<br />

were placed <strong>in</strong> a thermostatic water bath at 37± 0.1 °C and a stirrer speed of 200 rpm. Acetic<br />

acid (300 mM) was then added to <strong>in</strong>itiate the reaction. The concentration k<strong>in</strong>etics were fitted to<br />

the k<strong>in</strong>etic models us<strong>in</strong>g the Levenberg-Marquardt nonl<strong>in</strong>ear regression from ODRPACK. The<br />

differential equations result<strong>in</strong>g from the different ester synthesis mechanism proposed were<br />

simulated us<strong>in</strong>g the ODEPACK library [5].<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

A sequential strategy of experimental design proved to be useful <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the conditions<br />

for maximiz<strong>in</strong>g the equilibrium conversion <strong>in</strong> n-hexane us<strong>in</strong>g Celite-immobilized AML as a<br />

catalyst. Optimum conversion was obta<strong>in</strong>ed at an acetic acid/isoamyl alcohol molar ratio of 2,<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial addition of 1.0% (v/v) of water and 7.5% (w/v) of enzyme (i.e. 2.5 g of enzyme mol-1 of<br />

alcohol) at 50 °C. Under these conditions, a 12 h reaction time was sufficient to reach the<br />

equilibrium molar conversion of 59%; however under non-optimized operational conditions the<br />

equilibrium molar conversion reached was 21% after 36 h of reaction time.<br />

Widely different conversion yields of isoamyl acetate <strong>in</strong> organic solvent systems have been<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> the literature. A maximum conversion yield of 100% was reported by Romero et al.<br />

[2] us<strong>in</strong>g C. antarctica Novozyme 435 at 13.8 g mol -1 of substrate <strong>in</strong> n-hexane, whereas<br />

Liaquat and Owusu Apenten [4] used n-hexane dur<strong>in</strong>g esterification to obta<strong>in</strong> a conversion<br />

yield of

<strong>in</strong>vestigation a non-commercial Celite-immobilized AML at 2.5 g mol -1 of substrate was<br />

employed to achieve a conversion yield of 59% <strong>in</strong> 12 h, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a significant esterification at<br />

a much lower enzyme concentration.<br />

Esterifications of various organic acids with different alcohols by a variety of commercial<br />

lipases are often modelled us<strong>in</strong>g the so called P<strong>in</strong>g Pong Bi Bi mechanism, a well known and<br />

widely accepted mechanism for lipase-catalyzed reactions [3, 4]. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the methodology<br />

of Paiva et al. [4], the Michaelis-Menten dissociation constant terms for each of the compounds<br />

from the enzyme complex were considered for model reduction.Each proposed models was<br />

separately fitted to the experimental data and F-tests were performed with the aim of<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g the statistical likelihood of such simplifications. The result<strong>in</strong>g rate expression is<br />

described by Eq. (1).<br />

where r is rate constant (mol L -1 h -1 ), [Et] is total enzyme concentration (g L -1 ), [Ac], [IAA],<br />

[IAAc] are acetic acid (M), isoamyl alcohol (M) and isoamyl acetate (M), respectively. kcatf and<br />

kcatr are forward and reverse catalytic efficiency (h -1 ) of the AML and keq is the equilibrium<br />

constant (dimensionless) of the reaction.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The present study is the first report del<strong>in</strong>eat<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>etics of direct esterification reaction between<br />

a short-cha<strong>in</strong> acid and isoamyl alcohol to synthesise isoamyl acetate us<strong>in</strong>g a non-commercial<br />

Celite®545 immobilized lipase from an act<strong>in</strong>omycete stra<strong>in</strong>. Optimized conditions for the<br />

synthesis of isoamyl acetate were 7.5% (w/v) of Celite-immobilized AML, an acid/alcohol<br />

molar-ratio of 2 with an <strong>in</strong>itial addition of 1% (v/v) water at 50 °C and 200 rpm. Under these<br />

conditions the equilibrium conversion yield obta<strong>in</strong>ed was 59% <strong>in</strong> 12 h. A simplified model,<br />

based on a postulated P<strong>in</strong>g Pong Bi Bi mechanism, adequately described the k<strong>in</strong>etics of Celiteimmobilized<br />

AML catalysed direct esterification of isoamyl alcohol with acetic acid. Future<br />

experiments, exploit<strong>in</strong>g statistical process optimization designs, are likely to be able to raise<br />

productivity further, mak<strong>in</strong>g this lipase a potential candidate for the production of isoamyl<br />

acetate.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

{( k cat f [ E t ]) ( k<br />

r <br />

( k [ E ])<br />

cat r<br />

t<br />

cat r<br />

c <br />

<br />

[ Et<br />

])} c<br />

<br />

<br />

k eq<br />

2<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

( k [ E ])<br />

cat f t<br />

c + c [1] Welsh F.W., Murray W.D., Williams R.E. 1989. Microbiological and enzymatic production of flavor<br />

and fragrance chemicals. Critical Reviews <strong>in</strong> Biotechnology 19, 105–169.<br />

[2] Romero M.D., Calvo L., Alba C., Daneshfar A. 2007. A k<strong>in</strong>etic study of isoamyl acetate synthesis by<br />

immobilized lipase-catalyzed acetylation <strong>in</strong> n-hexane. Journal of Biotechnology, 127, 269–277.<br />

[3] Liaquat M. & Owusu Apenten R.K. 2000. Synthesis of low molecular weight flavour esters us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

plant seedl<strong>in</strong>g lipases <strong>in</strong> organic media. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 65, 295–299.<br />

[4] Paiva A.L., Van Rossum D., Malcata F.X. 2002. K<strong>in</strong>etics of lipase-mediated synthesis of butyl<br />

butyrate <strong>in</strong> n-hexane. Biocatalysis & Biotransformation, 20, 43–51.<br />

[5] Radhakridhnan K. & H<strong>in</strong>dmarsh A. 1993. Description and Use of LSODE, the Livermore Solver for<br />

Ord<strong>in</strong>ary Differential Equations. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory report UCRL-ID-113855.<br />

2210<br />

k<br />

eq<br />

2<br />

( 1)

PROBIOLIVES: Table olive fermentation with selected stra<strong>in</strong>s of probiotic lactic acid<br />

bacteria. Towards a new functional food (FP7-SME-2008- 2 project)<br />

Chrysoula C. Tassou a , Efstathios Z. Panagou b , Antonio Garrido- Fernandez c , Cidalia Peres d , Luca<br />

Cocol<strong>in</strong> e & Nadia Chammem f<br />

a National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Technology of Agricultural Products, Athens,<br />

Greece (ctassou@nagref.gr)<br />

b Agricultural University of Athens, Dept. of <strong>Food</strong> Science & Technology, Lab. Of Microbiology &<br />

Biotechnology of <strong>Food</strong>s, Athens, Greece (stathispanagou@aua.gr)<br />

c Instituto de la Grasa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científica, Seville, Spa<strong>in</strong> (garfer@cica.es)<br />

d Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológico, Lisbon, Portugal (cperes@itqb.unl.pt)<br />

e University of Tur<strong>in</strong>, Faculty of Agriculture, Sector of Microbiology and <strong>Food</strong> Science, Tur<strong>in</strong>, Italy<br />

(lucasimone.cocol<strong>in</strong>@unito.it)<br />

f L'Institut National des Sciences Appliqées et de Technologie,Tunis, Tunisia (chnadia@yahoo.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The current project is a collaborative action of 14 participants. There are 4 SME-AGs<br />

(PEMETE -Greece, ASEMESA - Spa<strong>in</strong>, APABI - Portugal, AIFO - Italy) compris<strong>in</strong>g of table<br />

olive produc<strong>in</strong>g SMEs and 4 <strong>in</strong>dustries produc<strong>in</strong>g fermented olives from the ma<strong>in</strong> olive<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g countries (OLYMP-Greece, JOLCA-Spa<strong>in</strong>, AZAGAP-Italy and PROBEIRA-<br />

Portugal), 3 Research Institutions from Greece (NAGREF), Spa<strong>in</strong> (IG-CSIC) and Portugal<br />

(INRB); and 3 Universities from Greece (AUA), Italy (UNITO) and Tunisia (INSAT), all of<br />

which are selected for their multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong>dividual expertise <strong>in</strong> the proposed research as<br />

well as for their ability to provide expert facilities to perform the various tasks.<br />

The concept of this project is to provide to the SME Associations and their members SMEs<br />

with tools to <strong>in</strong>crease their technological level, competitiveness and profits by the production<br />

of olives, fermented with probiotic bacteria, preferably isolated among the lactic acid bacteria<br />

coloniz<strong>in</strong>g the olives. Lactic acid bacteria bacteria from the olive microbiota are the dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />

microorganisms <strong>in</strong> natural fermentations and there will be studied if some of them possess<br />

probiotic properties. The selected probiotic bacteria will be <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to the br<strong>in</strong>es at the<br />

onset of fermentation, to act as starters [1,2], to be able to dom<strong>in</strong>ate and ensure a proper<br />

fermentation <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g the growth and survival of undesirable microorganisms.<br />

The goal is the production of a functional product, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g probiotic bacteria <strong>in</strong> adequate<br />

amounts to improve consumer’s health, without alter<strong>in</strong>g the quality characteristics of fermented<br />

olives. Consumer acceptance studies will be essential for the exploitation and the <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />

of the new food <strong>in</strong>to the EU and <strong>in</strong>ternational market. At the same time a better control of the<br />

fermentation process, early detection of faulty fermentation and spoilage and assessment of the<br />

time needed for fermentation completion will be achieved by monitor<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>in</strong>dices<br />

[3] throughout the process with the use of advanced and emerg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struments and tools<br />

(mathematical models) [4].<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2211

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The work plan of the project <strong>in</strong>cludes the follow<strong>in</strong>g: a) Characterization of the olive microbiota<br />

and selection of probiotics. b) Use of the selected stra<strong>in</strong>s as starters <strong>in</strong> olive fermentations. c)<br />

Evaluation of the shelf life of the f<strong>in</strong>al fermented product under different storage conditions. d)<br />

Application of mathematical tools to predict the fermentation k<strong>in</strong>etics and survival of the<br />

probiotic lactic acid bacteria. e) Safety of the probiotic fermented olives and risk analysis. f)<br />

Consumer studies and g) application of the most suitable stra<strong>in</strong>s and processes <strong>in</strong> test field<br />

studies.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The PROBIOLIVES project is <strong>in</strong> progress runn<strong>in</strong>g its second year. The results so far are very<br />

promis<strong>in</strong>g. A great number of lactic acid bacteria has been isolated from different cultivars <strong>in</strong><br />

Greece, Spa<strong>in</strong>, Portugal, Italy and Tunisia. The tests that have been performed <strong>in</strong> vitro for their<br />

probiotic potential have <strong>in</strong>dicated that certa<strong>in</strong> lactic acid bacteria have shown probiotic<br />

properties. The most promis<strong>in</strong>g ones have been used as starters <strong>in</strong> olive fermentations <strong>in</strong> each<br />

participat<strong>in</strong>g country. The fermentations have been monitored with microbiological and<br />

physicochemical analyses performed at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals and the data are under study.<br />

Molecular techniques have also been used to detect the potential probiotic stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

fermented product. Packag<strong>in</strong>g and safety studies are also <strong>in</strong> progress.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

There are very promis<strong>in</strong>g results regard<strong>in</strong>g the isolation of new probiotic stra<strong>in</strong>s of lactic acid<br />

bacteria from olives that are suitable to be used as starter cultures <strong>in</strong> olive fermentation.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Panagou, E.Z., Tassou, C.C. and Katsaboxakis, K.Z. 2003. Induced lactic acid fermentation of<br />

untreated green olives of the Conservolea cultivar by Lactobacillus pentosus. Journal of the Science<br />

of <strong>Food</strong> and Agriculture, 83,667-674.<br />

[2] P<strong>in</strong>tado, C., Brito, D., Catulo, L., Peres, F., & Peres, C. 2008. Lactobacillus pentosus DSM 16366<br />

starter added to br<strong>in</strong>e as freeze-dried and as culture <strong>in</strong> the nutritive media for Spanish style green<br />

olive production. Grasas y Aceites 59(3), 232-236.<br />

[3] Arroyo López, F.N., Bautista Gallego, J., Chiesa, A., Durán Qu<strong>in</strong>tana, M.C., Garrido Fernández, A.<br />

2009. Use of a D-optimal mixture design to estimate the effects of diverse chloride salts on the<br />

growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus. <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology 26, 396-403.<br />

[4] Panagou, E.Z., Tassou, C.C., Saravanos, E. and Nychas, G.-J.N. 2007. Application of neural<br />

networks to simulate the growth profile of lactic acid bacteria <strong>in</strong> green olive fermentation. Journal of<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Protection, 70, 1909-1916<br />

2212

Effect of vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g on blackcurrant’s antioxidant components<br />

Mónika Stéger-Máté, Beatrix Nót<strong>in</strong>, Réka Juhász, Balázs Verasztó, Dávid Jakab, Judit Monspart-Sényi,<br />

József Barta<br />

Corv<strong>in</strong>us University of Budapest, Faculty of <strong>Food</strong> Science, Department of <strong>Food</strong> Preservation, Budapest,<br />

Hungary (monika.stegernemate@uni-corv<strong>in</strong>us.hu)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

<strong>Food</strong> components (vitam<strong>in</strong>s, color<strong>in</strong>g agents, antioxidants, m<strong>in</strong>eral components etc.) are<br />

essential for healthy function of human organism, for prevention or medication of certa<strong>in</strong><br />

diseases. Black currant fruit (Ribes nigrum L.) conta<strong>in</strong>s high amount of biologically active<br />

components (vitam<strong>in</strong> C, anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s, polyphenols, m<strong>in</strong>erals, etc.) beneficial for human health.<br />

Fresh consumption of black currant is not typical, it is ma<strong>in</strong>ly distributed as processed food<br />

(concentrate, jam, frozen, dried powder etc.). For these reasons effect of preservation<br />

technologies on changes of valuable components has primarily importance [1,2,3].<br />

Aim of present study was to <strong>in</strong>vestigate changes of antioxidant compounds (vitam<strong>in</strong> C, total<br />

polyphenol, total anthocyan<strong>in</strong>,) and antioxidant activity of black currant dur<strong>in</strong>g vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

at different temperature levels (40-50-60 o C). As for control atmospheric dry<strong>in</strong>g at 60°C was<br />

also performed.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) var. Titania grown <strong>in</strong> Hungary <strong>in</strong> 2010 was used for the<br />

experiments. Samples were dried at three temperature levels (40-50-60 o C at 10 mbar) as long<br />

as they reached a wet content lesser than 10%. Vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was performed by an <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

Memmert V 200 vacuum dryer. As a control, atmospheric dry<strong>in</strong>g was performed at 60°C us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

an atmospheric dryer. Dur<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g process were determ<strong>in</strong>ed the dry material content, total<br />

polyphenol (TPC), total anthocyan<strong>in</strong> (TAC), ascorbic acid (AA) and antioxidant activity<br />

(FRAP). Statistical evaluation was performed us<strong>in</strong>g Statistica 9. Software.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Initial wet content was 79.62 %. In case of atmospheric dry<strong>in</strong>g at 60°C took 16 hours to reach<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al value, while us<strong>in</strong>g vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g at same temperature level it was only 8 hours. When<br />

vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g was performed decreas<strong>in</strong>g dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature (60-50-40°C) resulted <strong>in</strong> longer<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g time (8-10-12 hours).<br />

Total polyphenol, total anthocyan<strong>in</strong>, and ascorbic acid content and antioxidant activity of black<br />

currant expressed <strong>in</strong> mg g -1 dry material decreased compared to <strong>in</strong>itial values dur<strong>in</strong>g each<br />

dry<strong>in</strong>g method.<br />

Antioxidant compounds and antioxidant activity of black currant were affected by dry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

temperature and pressure. Lowest FRAP values of end product were measured <strong>in</strong> case of 40°C<br />

and 60°C vacuum dried samples (0.04 mg g -1 dry material and 0.08 mg g -1 dry material,<br />

respectively), while at 50°C vacuum and atmospheric dry<strong>in</strong>g there was no significant<br />

difference between <strong>in</strong>itial and f<strong>in</strong>al FRAP values (Table 1).<br />

50°C vacuum dry<strong>in</strong>g proved to be the optimal for preserve antioxidant compounds among the<br />

dehydration methods <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2213

Table 1. Antioxidant activity and compounds of black currant dur<strong>in</strong>g different dry<strong>in</strong>g methods<br />

Sample Time (h) FRAP<br />

mg As g -1 TPC<br />

DM mg g -1 TAC<br />

DM mg g -1 AA<br />

DM mg g -1 DM<br />

X±SD X±SD X±SD X±SD<br />

Fresh 0 0.13±0.00 20.26±0.03 3.62±0.14 7.6±0.11<br />

2 0.09±0.01 10.43±0.45 2.67±0.01 3.2±0.01<br />

4 0.07±0.02 8.44±0.01 2.06±0.07 3.3±0.02<br />

40 ºC 6 0.09±0.01 5.88±0.16 1.74±0.08 2.6±0.02<br />

8 0.06±0.01 6.19±0.28 1.39±0.07 3.2±0.01<br />

10 0.04±0.01 5.62±0.31 1.43±0.08 3.7±0.02<br />

12 0.04±0.00 5.39±0.13 1.64±0.05 3.9±0.00<br />

2 0.13±0.00 18.70±0.31 4.52±0.05 4.5±0.00<br />

4 0.14±0.03 17.34±0.21 5.78±0.09 2.2±0.03<br />

50 ºC 6 0.12±0.01 16.49±0.25 4.64±0.15 1.8±0.10<br />

8 0.12±0.01 12.33±0.14 4.16±0.02 2.2±0.00<br />

10 0.11±0.02 11.79±0.56 .<br />

3.69±0.31 2.6±0.06<br />

2 0.09±0.01 16.78±0.78 3.78±0.02 4.9±0.01<br />

4 0.10±0.03 13.42±0.16 3.99±0.69 2.3±0.03<br />

60 ºC 6 0.08±0.00 15.79±0.09 3.44±0.02 2.9±0.06<br />

8 0.08±0.00 15.58±0.07 3.72±0.16 2.6±0.04<br />

2 0.10±0.00 15.79±0.20 4.65±0.13 6.6±0.20<br />

4 0.12±0.01 15.68±0.76 4.29±0.07 4.5±0.46<br />

6 0.12±0.00 15.79±0.31 3.49±0.14 5.2±0.05<br />

60 ºC atm. 8 0.13±0.01 16.70±0.49 3.14±0.06 4.1±0.03<br />

10 0.14±0.00 16.55±0.56 3.19±0.09 3.8±0.00<br />

12 0.14±0.01 15.61±5.03 2.96±0.28 3.4±0.14<br />

14 0.14±0.01 17.76±0.10 2.24±0.16 3.2±0.10<br />

16 0.14±0.00 17.79±0.58 1.95±0.12 3.0±0.02<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Based on our results it was concluded that dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature affects dry<strong>in</strong>g duration, rate of<br />

wet decrease and amount of antioxidant compounds. Dry<strong>in</strong>g temperature at 50°C proved to be<br />

the optimum. Black currant products made by moderate dry<strong>in</strong>g technology are suited for<br />

production of functional food products (for example: mueslies, teamixes, sauces with fruit<br />

pieces, jams etc.) due to their high antioxidant content.<br />

The authors acknowledge the f<strong>in</strong>ancial help of the TÁMOP 4.2.1./B-09/1/KMR-2010-0005 grant.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Souci S.W., Fachmann W. & Kraut H. 2008. Die Zusammensetzung der Lebensmittel Nährwert-<br />

Tabellen 7. Revidierte Auflage, Medpharm Scienctific Publishers, Stuttgart, Deutschland, 1071.<br />

[2] Slimestad R. & Solheim H. 2002. Anthocyan<strong>in</strong>s From Black Currants (Ribes nigrum L.). Journal of<br />

Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 50, 3228-3231.<br />

[3] Mcdougall G.J., Gordon S. & Brennan R. 2005. Anthocyan<strong>in</strong>-Flavanol Condensation Products From<br />

Black Currant (Ribes nigrum L.). Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 53, 7878-7885.<br />

2214

Production of Bioactive Metabolites with Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Interest by<br />

Submerged Fermentation of Pleurotus ostreatus <strong>in</strong> a Batch Stirred Tank Bioreactor<br />

Lefki-Maria Papaspyridi a , Nektarios Aligiannis b , Paul Christakopoulos a , Alexios-Leandros Skaltsounis b<br />

Nikolas Fokialakis b,<br />

aBIOtechMASS<br />

Unit, Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou Street, Zografou Campus, 15700 Athens, Greece,<br />

leriapap@mail.ntua.gr<br />

b<br />

Department of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of<br />

Athens, Panepistimioupolis, 15771, Athens, Greece,<br />

fokialakis@pharm.uoa.gr<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Mushrooms comprise a vast and yet largely untapped source of powerful new pharmaceutical<br />

products hav<strong>in</strong>g potential as functional foods and sources of novel molecules [1]. Pleurotus<br />

ostreatus (Jacq.:Fr.) P. Kumm., also known as the oyster mushroom is a basidiomycete<br />

belong<strong>in</strong>g to the family Pleurotaceae (Agaricales, Agaricomycetes). In the last decade, the<br />

scientific <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> this species has <strong>in</strong>creased considerably because of its gastronomic value<br />

and its nutraceutical and pharmaceutical properties [2]. Natural products from mushrooms are<br />

mostly obta<strong>in</strong>ed through the field-cultivation of the fruit<strong>in</strong>g bodies. However, the submerged<br />

fermentation of their mycelial form has received much attention as a promis<strong>in</strong>g alternative for<br />

efficient production of their biomass and active metabolites [3]. The aim of this study was the<br />

isolation and identification of bioactive metabolites derived from biomass produced by<br />

submerged fermentation of the edible mushroom P. ostreatus (stra<strong>in</strong> ATHUM 4438) <strong>in</strong> a batch<br />

stirred tank bioreactor.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The composition of culture medium and fermentation conditions of P. ostreatus ATHUM 4438<br />

(obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the ATHUM Culture Collection of Fungi of University of Athens) <strong>in</strong> bioreactor<br />

used, was the suggested for maximum biomass production, reported <strong>in</strong> our previous study [4].<br />

The mycelia biomass was extracted us<strong>in</strong>g the method of Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE).<br />

The crude dichloromethane extract (DCM) was <strong>in</strong>itially fractioned by means of medium<br />

pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC). In order to extract efficiently the phenolic<br />

compounds of the <strong>in</strong>itial methanolic extract (MeOH), an adsorption-desorption process us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

XAD-4 type res<strong>in</strong> as efficient sorbent, was performed. The isolation procedure of the result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

phenolic fraction was carried out by Fast Centrifugal Partition Chromatography (FCPC).<br />

Further analysis of all the result<strong>in</strong>g fractions was conducted by means of Sephadex LH-20<br />

column chromatography, preparative HPLC and TLC. All isolates were identified by 1D/2D<br />

NMR-spectroscopic analyses, NMR data comparisons, comparison with literature data and<br />

chemical correlations comb<strong>in</strong>ed with GC/MS and LC/MS experiments.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2215

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> metabolite chemotypes present <strong>in</strong> extracts of mycelia biomass produced by<br />

submerged fermentation process of P. ostreatus ATHUM 4438 <strong>in</strong> a stirred tank bioreactor were<br />

fatty acids, phenolic metabolites, nucleotides, and alkaloids. Specifically, the compounds<br />

afforded by the DCM extract were identified as l<strong>in</strong>oleic acid (1), oleic acid (2), stearic acid (3),<br />

palmitic acid (4) and their correspond<strong>in</strong>g methyl esters (5, 6, 7 and 8, respectively), benzoic<br />

acid (9), trans 3, 4-dihydro-3, 4, 8-trihydroxynapthalen-1(2H)-one (10), 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde<br />

(11), <strong>in</strong>dolo-3-carboxylic acid (12) and uracil (13).<br />

Consider<strong>in</strong>g the phenolic compounds <strong>in</strong> the MeOH extract, it was observed that almost 14% of<br />

it consists of such compounds. The <strong>in</strong>vestigation of the phenolic extract (POXM), based on the<br />

effective fractionation by FCPC analysis, afforded 3-formyl-pyrrole (14), 4-hydroxy-benzoic<br />

acid (15), urid<strong>in</strong>e (16), nicot<strong>in</strong>ic acid (17) and nicot<strong>in</strong>amide (18).<br />

Based on exist<strong>in</strong>g literature data, compounds (1-8), (17) and (18) are regarded as functional<br />

food <strong>in</strong>gredients, exert<strong>in</strong>g numerous health benefits (e.g. lower<strong>in</strong>g heart attack risk and<br />

arteriosclerosis and aid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cancer prevention), while the other metabolites obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this<br />

study are considered of great pharmaceutical <strong>in</strong>terest, demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g great biological activities<br />

(e.g. exhibit<strong>in</strong>g anti-<strong>in</strong>flammatory and antioxidant properties). An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g observation was<br />

that compounds (10), (12), (14) and (15) have not been reported aga<strong>in</strong> from this mushroom<br />

stra<strong>in</strong>, reveal<strong>in</strong>g its potential for the development of powerful new pharmaceutical or<br />

nutraceutical products.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

From the data presented here<strong>in</strong>, it is proved that P. ostreatus ATHUM 4438 may be used as<br />

potential source of bioactive metabolites for food supplements or <strong>in</strong> the development of<br />

pharmaceuticals. Most importantly, it is demonstrated that the established fermentation process<br />

of the studied P. ostreatus stra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a batch stirred tank bioreactor is viewed promis<strong>in</strong>g for this<br />

objective to be carried out on <strong>in</strong>dustrial scale.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Ferreira I.C.F.R., Vaz J.A., Vasconcelos M.H. & Mart<strong>in</strong>s A. 2010. Compounds from wild edible<br />

Mushrooms with Antitumor Potential. Anti-cancer Agents <strong>in</strong> Medic<strong>in</strong>al Chemistry, 10(5), 424-436.<br />

[2] Gregori A., Švagelj M. & Pohleven J. 2007. Cultivation Techniques and Medic<strong>in</strong>al Properties of<br />

Pleurotus spp. <strong>Food</strong> Technology and Biotechnology, 45(3), 238-249.<br />

[3] Tang Y.Z., Zhu, L.W., Li H.M. & Li D.S. 2007. Submerged culture of mushrooms <strong>in</strong> bioreactorschallenges,<br />

current-state-of-the-art, and future. <strong>Food</strong> Technology and Biotechnology, 45(3), 221-229.<br />

[4] Papaspyridi L.-M., Katapodis P, Gonou-Zagou Z., Kapsanaki-Gotsi E. & Christakopoulos P. (2010).<br />

Optimization of biomass production with enhanced glucan and dietary fibres content by Pleurotus<br />

ostreatus ATHUM 4438 under submerged culture. Biochemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Journal, 50(3), 131-138.<br />

2216

Effects of High Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields or Thermal Treatments on Carotenoid<br />

Profile of a Fruit Juice-Soymilk Beverage along Chilled Storage<br />

Laura Salvia-Trujillo, Mariana Morales-de la Peña, Ma. Alejandra Rojas-Graü, Olga Martín-Belloso<br />

University of Lleida, Lleida, Spa<strong>in</strong> (lsalvia@tecal.udl.cat)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Carotenoids are considered potential antioxidants and free radical scavengers which modulate<br />

the pathogenesis of cancers [1] and coronary heart diseases [2]. Daily consumption of products<br />

rich on these compounds, such as fruits and vegetables, is highly recommended. Nowadays,<br />

mixed beverages conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fruit juices and soymilk are receiv<strong>in</strong>g considerable attention due to<br />

their high content of functional <strong>in</strong>gredients such as vitam<strong>in</strong> C and isoflavones; hav<strong>in</strong>g, at the<br />

same time, high antioxidant capacity [3, 4]. Moreover, be<strong>in</strong>g a blend of different fruit juices<br />

and soymilk, they could conta<strong>in</strong> considerable amounts of carotenoids.<br />

Thermal pasteurization is known to effectively <strong>in</strong>activate microorganisms and deleterious<br />

enzymes of fruit beverages. Nevertheless, the high temperature achieved dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

destroys most desirable health-compounds. Hence, high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric fields (HIPEF)<br />

have be<strong>in</strong>g under cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>in</strong>vestigation as a potential food preservation technology. It has<br />

been demonstrated that microbial and enzymatic <strong>in</strong>activation levels achieved by HIPEF can be<br />

as high as those reached by heat and, <strong>in</strong> addition, HIPEF process<strong>in</strong>g leads to better retention of<br />

bioactive compounds <strong>in</strong> fruit and vegetable juices [3, 4, 5]. Unfortunately, there is no current<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation related to carotenoid composition of FJ-SM beverages and how HIPEF or thermal<br />

process affects it. The aim of this study, therefore, was to identify the carotenoid composition<br />

of a fruit juice-soymilk (FJ-SM) beverage and evaluate the effects of HIPEF (35 kV/cm, 4 sbipolar<br />

pulses at 200 Hz dur<strong>in</strong>g 800 or 1400 s) or thermal (90 ºC, 60 s) treatments over these<br />

compounds dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage at 4ºC.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The FJ-SM beverage was prepared accord<strong>in</strong>g to Morales-de la Peña et al. (4). Carotenoids were<br />

extracted and quantified by HPLC, follow<strong>in</strong>g a procedure validated by Cortés et al. (5).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Carotenoids identified <strong>in</strong> fresh and treated FJ-SM beverages were cis-violaxanth<strong>in</strong> +<br />

anteraxanth<strong>in</strong>, cis-anteraxanth<strong>in</strong>, anteraxanth<strong>in</strong>, lute<strong>in</strong>, zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>, - and -cryptoxanth<strong>in</strong>, and<br />

- and -carotene. Among them, lute<strong>in</strong> (0.066-0.108 mg/100mL), zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> (0.056-0.076<br />

mg/100mL) and -carotene (0.012-0.021 mg/100mL) were present <strong>in</strong> the highest<br />

concentration. Just after process<strong>in</strong>g, a significant decrease of lute<strong>in</strong> (16-39%), zeaxanth<strong>in</strong><br />

(26%) and -cryptoxanth<strong>in</strong> (23-43%) content was observed, while -carotene concentration<br />

rose (6-17%) only <strong>in</strong> HIPEF beverages. Hence, total carotenoid concentration, obta<strong>in</strong>ed by the<br />

sum of <strong>in</strong>dividual carotenoid content, was significantly dim<strong>in</strong>ished after process<strong>in</strong>g (Fig 1).<br />

Throughout storage, anteraxanth<strong>in</strong>, lute<strong>in</strong>, zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> and -carotene content of untreated and<br />

treated beverages tended to decrease so that total carotenoid concentration dim<strong>in</strong>ished with<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2217

time (Fig 1). Even though there were no significant differences between samples, HIPEF<br />

beverages for 800 or 1400 s showed slightly higher carotenoid concentration than that heat<br />

processed. The degradation of carotenoid content <strong>in</strong> the FJ-SM beverage could be due to<br />

oxidation or enzymatic reactions occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g and storage.<br />

<br />

TCC (mg /100 mL)<br />

0.4<br />

0.35<br />

0.3<br />

0.25<br />

0.2<br />

0.15<br />

0.1<br />

0.05<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />

Storage time (days)<br />

Figure 1. Total carotenoid compounds (TCC) of untreated (), high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric field (35<br />

kV/cm with 4 s bipolar pulses at 200 Hz for 800 () or 1400 s ()) and thermal () (90 ºC, 60 s)<br />

treated fruit juice-soymilk beverages throughout storage at 4ºC.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

N<strong>in</strong>e carotenoids were identified <strong>in</strong> the FJ-SM beverage, be<strong>in</strong>g lute<strong>in</strong>, zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> and carotene<br />

those present <strong>in</strong> higher concentrations. HIPEF and heat treatments caused a significant<br />

decrease of <strong>in</strong>itial carotenoid concentration of the FJ-SM beverage. Overtime, it tended to<br />

decrease regardless of the treatment applied. However, HIPEF treated beverages always had<br />

higher carotenoid concentration than the heat treated ones. The application of HIPEF could be<br />

a good alternative to obta<strong>in</strong> FJ-SM beverages with similar carotenoid profile than fresh<br />

beverages.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Giovanucci E. 1999. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene and cancer: a review of the<br />

epidemiological literature. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 91, 317-331.<br />

[2] Kritechevsky S.B. 1999. -carotene, carotenoids and the prevention of coronary hearth disease.<br />

Journal of Nutrition, 129, 5-8.<br />

[3] Morales-de la Peña M., Salvia-Trujillo L., Rojas-Graü M.A. & Martín-Belloso O. 2010. Impact of<br />

high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric field son antioxidant properties and quality parameters of a fruit juicesoymilk<br />

beverage <strong>in</strong> chilled storage. LWT – <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 43 (6), 872-881.<br />

[4] Morales-de la Peña M., Salvia-Trujillo L., Rojas-Graü M.A. & Martín-Belloso O. 2010. Isoflavone<br />

profile of a high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric field or thermally treated fruit juice-soymilk beverage<br />

stored under refrigeration. Innovative <strong>Food</strong> Science and Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies, 11 (4), 604-610.<br />

[5] Cortés C., Esteve M.J., Frígola A. & Torregrosa F. 2004. Identification and quantification of<br />

carotenoid <strong>in</strong>cluid<strong>in</strong>g geometrical isomers and vegetable juices by liquid chromatography with<br />

ultraviolet-diode array detection. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 52, 2203-2212.<br />

2218

Am<strong>in</strong>o Acid Composition of a Fruit Juice-Soymilk Beverage as Affected by High<br />

Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields or Thermal Treatments dur<strong>in</strong>g Storage<br />

Mariana Morales-de la Peña a , Laura Salvia-Trujillo a , Teresa Garde-Cerdán b , Ma. Alejandra Rojas-Graü a ,<br />

Olga Martín-Belloso a<br />

a University of Lleida, Lleida, Spa<strong>in</strong> (mmorales@tecal.udl.cat)<br />

b Public University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Nowadays, fruit juice consumption has been <strong>in</strong>creased ma<strong>in</strong>ly because their nutritional<br />

properties and bioactive pr<strong>in</strong>ciples (vitam<strong>in</strong>s, m<strong>in</strong>erals, phenolic compounds, carotenoids and<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids). Additionally, soymilk has been appreciated as a good source of am<strong>in</strong>o acids (AA)<br />

necessaries for optimal wellness (1). AA not only have a nutritive value, but also provide<br />

several health benefits such as antimutagenicity and reduction of blood sugar and coronary<br />

hearth diseases (2). At present, development of mixed beverages conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fruit juices and<br />

soymilk has been attempted to overcome the typical beany-flavor of soy-based products.<br />

Commonly, this type of beverages is preserved by heat pasteurization. However, the high<br />

temperature achieved <strong>in</strong> the process generally causes undesirable health-attributes losses.<br />

Hence, <strong>in</strong> order to avoid the detrimental effects caused by heat, non-thermal technologies, such<br />

as high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric fields (HIPEF), are becom<strong>in</strong>g potential alternatives for liquid<br />

food preservation. It has been reported that HIPEF process has m<strong>in</strong>imal impact on nutritional<br />

and sensory properties of foods and can extend their shelf-life by <strong>in</strong>hibit<strong>in</strong>g microorganisms<br />

and enzymes (3). Nevertheless, up to now there is no available literature regard<strong>in</strong>g AA<br />

composition of FJ-SM beverages and the effects of HIPEF or thermal process could have over<br />

them. Hence, this work attempts to evaluate and compare the AA profile of a fruit juicesoymilk<br />

(FJ-SM) immediately after HIPEF (35 kV/cm, 4 s-bipolar pulses at 200 Hz dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

800 or 1400 s) or thermal (90 ºC, 60 s) treatments and dur<strong>in</strong>g storage at 4ºC.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The FJ-SM beverage was prepared accord<strong>in</strong>g to Morales-de la Peña et al. (4). AA determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

was carried out follow<strong>in</strong>g the procedure described by Garde-Cerdán et al. (5).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Regardless of the treatment applied, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, ser<strong>in</strong>e, histid<strong>in</strong>e, glyc<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

threon<strong>in</strong>e, arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e, alan<strong>in</strong>e, prol<strong>in</strong>e, tyros<strong>in</strong>e, val<strong>in</strong>e, methion<strong>in</strong>e, isoleuc<strong>in</strong>e, leuc<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e and lys<strong>in</strong>e represented the <strong>in</strong>itial free AA profile of the FJ-SM beverage.<br />

Arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e (22 - 24 %) and prol<strong>in</strong>e (17 - 19 %) were the most abundant AA present <strong>in</strong> the<br />

untreated and treated beverages, while isoleuc<strong>in</strong>e (0.88 – 1.1%) was considered the limit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

AA. Just after process<strong>in</strong>g, HIPEF-800 s did not alter the <strong>in</strong>dividual AA content of the<br />

beverage, although val<strong>in</strong>e concentration <strong>in</strong>creased. Otherwise, HIPEF-1400 s and thermal<br />

treatments significantly affected the concentration of various AA. Thus, HIPEF-800 s<br />

beverage showed a similar total AA content than the untreated one (64.5 - 64.79 mg/100mL),<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2219

whereas HIPEF-1400 s and heat processes dim<strong>in</strong>ished it up to 61.82 and 60.25 mg/100mL,<br />

respectively. Overall, changes on the <strong>in</strong>dividual AA content of untreated and treated beverages<br />

overtime led to an augment of the total AA concentration as storage time <strong>in</strong>creased (Fig. 1).<br />

Proteolysis reactions <strong>in</strong> the untreated and treated beverages might have occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

storage allow<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>crease on the concentration of most AA.<br />

TFAA (mg/100 mL)<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />

Storage time (days) <br />

Figure 1. Total free am<strong>in</strong>o acid (TFAA) content of untreated (), high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric field (35<br />

kV/cm with 4 s bipolar pulses at 200 Hz for 800 () or 1400 s ()) and thermal () (90 ºC, 60 s)<br />

treated fruit juice-soymilk beverages throughout storage at 4ºC.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Among the sixteen AA identified <strong>in</strong> the FJ-SM beverage, arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e and prol<strong>in</strong>e were present <strong>in</strong><br />

higher concentrations. Individual AA content was not affected by HIPEF (800 s) however,<br />

immediately after HIPEF (1400 s) or heat treatments, the concentration of some am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />

decreased. Along storage, most of the AA tended to <strong>in</strong>crease, irrespectively of the treatment<br />

applied, allow<strong>in</strong>g that total AA content of the FJ-SM beverages gradually augmented with time.<br />

Nonetheless, at the end of the storage HIPEF beverages had higher concentrations of AA than<br />

that thermally processed. Hence, HIPEF is a potential process to obta<strong>in</strong> FJ-SM beverages with<br />

stable shelf-life and similar AA composition than fresh samples.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Yang H. & Zhang L. 2009. Changes <strong>in</strong> some components of soymilk dur<strong>in</strong>g fermentation with the<br />

basidiomycete Ganoderma lucidum. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 112, 1-5.<br />

[2] Dajanta K., Apichartsrangkoon A., Chukeatirote E. & Frazier R. 2011. Free-am<strong>in</strong>o acid of thua nao,<br />

a Thai fermented soybean. <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 125, 342-347.<br />

[3] Toepfl S., He<strong>in</strong>z V. & Knorr D. 2005. Overview of pulsed electric field process<strong>in</strong>g for food. In: Da-<br />

Wen Sun (ed) Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Technologies for <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />

[4] Morales-de la Peña M., Salvia-Trujillo L., Rojas-Graü M.A. & Martín-Belloso, O. 2010. Impact of<br />

high <strong>in</strong>tensity pulsed electric field son antioxidant properties and quality parameters of a fruit juicesoymilk<br />

beverage <strong>in</strong> chilled storage. LWT – <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 43 (6), 872-881.<br />

[5] Garde-Cerdán T., Lorenzo C., Lara J.F., Pardo F., Ancín-Azpilicueta C., & Sal<strong>in</strong>as M. R. (2009).<br />

Study of the evolution of nitrogen compounds dur<strong>in</strong>g grape ripen<strong>in</strong>g. Application to differentiate<br />

grape varieties and cultivated systems. Journal of Agricultural and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry, 57, 2410-2419.<br />

2220

Challenges and essentials for re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D <strong>in</strong> an open <strong>in</strong>novation ecosystem<br />

I. Sam Saguy<br />

The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, <strong>Food</strong> and Environment, The Hebrew University of<br />

Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel (ssaguy@agri.huji.ac.il)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Innovation is a company's lifel<strong>in</strong>e to meet<strong>in</strong>g the challenges imposed by global economic pressure,<br />

unstable f<strong>in</strong>ancial markets, and exponentially accelerat<strong>in</strong>g growth of scientific knowledge and<br />

technological complexity, as well as consumers' needs and expectations. Innovation has a wide<br />

spectrum of def<strong>in</strong>itions and a multidimensional nature, touch<strong>in</strong>g upon every aspect of modern life.<br />

Here, <strong>in</strong>novation is def<strong>in</strong>ed as the application of ideas, technology and processes <strong>in</strong> new ways to<br />

ga<strong>in</strong> a competitive advantage and create value [1]. Open <strong>in</strong>novation (OI) is a relatively new form of<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction that that made significant <strong>in</strong>roads open<strong>in</strong>g organizations to acquire, <strong>in</strong>tegrate and process<br />

knowledge and to collaborate on co-development with external sources [2]. It offers acceleration by<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g the burden of time pressure, while shar<strong>in</strong>g human and physical resources and ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />

critical mass of talented and highly skilled experts. It also benefits from embrac<strong>in</strong>g cultural<br />

openness, networks, social impact and shar<strong>in</strong>g the development risk [1,3]. This new m<strong>in</strong>dset allows<br />

knowledge to diffuse across company borders. However, despite OI's widespread application and<br />

impact among large companies, small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), particularly <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

sector, are still struggl<strong>in</strong>g with its full implementation. The possibility that only 10% of all<br />

companies have adapted themselves to OI [4] is alarm<strong>in</strong>g and highlights the significant challenges<br />

we face <strong>in</strong> knock<strong>in</strong>g down real and perceived roadblocks for re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D and re<strong>in</strong>novat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation process itself. The ma<strong>in</strong> objectives of this paper are to: underl<strong>in</strong>e some relevant OI<br />

barriers and challenges, del<strong>in</strong>eate essential changes and elements that should be adopted by both<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry and academia, and advocate a new approach to creat<strong>in</strong>g a "pull" force and platform for the<br />

promotion and enhancement of collaborations and partnerships. Specific recommendations are<br />

provided, with special emphasis on academia-<strong>in</strong>dustry's role and enhanced social responsibility.<br />

DISCUSSION<br />

Europe's competitiveness and its capacity to create new jobs, promote future growth and improve<br />

standards of liv<strong>in</strong>g depend on its ability to drive <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> products, services, bus<strong>in</strong>ess and<br />

social processes and models. This places <strong>in</strong>novation at the heart of the Europe 2020 strategy. It is<br />

not surpris<strong>in</strong>g that the European Commission has identified <strong>in</strong>novation as the best means of<br />

successfully tackl<strong>in</strong>g major societal challenges such as climate change, energy and resource<br />

scarcity, health care and age<strong>in</strong>g. The untapped potential and full adaptation of the recently<br />

burgeon<strong>in</strong>g OI are relevant for the EU <strong>Food</strong> and Dr<strong>in</strong>k sector (F&D), especially for its SMEs.<br />

Recent EU F&D 2008 data show that although SMEs comprise 99.1% of 308,000 companies and<br />

62.8% of the employment, they generate only 48.2% of the turnover<br />

(http://smes.ciaa.eu/php/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?doc_id=2). R&D <strong>in</strong>vestment represents 0.37% of F&D output,<br />

lower than <strong>in</strong> most developed countries. Expand<strong>in</strong>g the spectrum of companies that are able to<br />

benefit from OI is a therefore significant challenge that calls for immediate action, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g several<br />

paradigm shifts. One such paradigm is the pivotal role that academia should play <strong>in</strong> driv<strong>in</strong>g and co-<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2221

pursu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>novation, enhanc<strong>in</strong>g collaboration with <strong>in</strong>dustry and add<strong>in</strong>g a new metrics of social<br />

responsibility. Shar<strong>in</strong>g-is-W<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples [3] furnish <strong>in</strong>dustry and academia with an opportunity<br />

to seek improved means and tools for the development of platforms that will maximize mutual<br />

efforts lead<strong>in</strong>g to the creation of an <strong>in</strong>novation ecosystem. Academia needs to realize that<br />

fundamental research is no longer susta<strong>in</strong>able as sole driv<strong>in</strong>g force. Applied research and becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

"organic" members of the <strong>in</strong>dustrial efforts and teams are needed. Enhanced academia-<strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong>teraction also calls for new approaches toward creat<strong>in</strong>g a bridge over the "Valley of<br />

Death" (VoD) that exists between basic research and commercialization [5]. Academia management<br />

must develop a strategy for susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a culture of promot<strong>in</strong>g collaborations and enhanc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

status of applied R&D. Assess<strong>in</strong>g the overall impact of research and <strong>in</strong>ventions through the lens of<br />

social contribution, and develop<strong>in</strong>g adequate metrics to quantify it are also recommended. Industry<br />

also has a major role <strong>in</strong> this transformation. As most OI tools, know-how and practices have been<br />

improved <strong>in</strong> the last decade, they are no longer an impediment. Management m<strong>in</strong>dset, on the other<br />

hand, can be, and as such it plays a vital role. In addition, to br<strong>in</strong>g the process to fruition, <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

needs to clearly identify its needs at the outset, as well as the reasons why OI is the appropriate<br />

model. Some po<strong>in</strong>ts to consider <strong>in</strong>clude: benefits, cost, bus<strong>in</strong>ess model, people and expertise,<br />

<strong>in</strong>tellectual property (IP), time to market, and legal ramifications. SMEs should also consider the<br />

unique obstacles that allow only partial utilization or complete blockage of OI: these can be related<br />

to technology, product spectrum, ability to <strong>in</strong>teract with large companies, adequate <strong>in</strong>frastructure,<br />

available manpower, educational backgrounds, bus<strong>in</strong>ess functions, IP, etc. It is important to note<br />

that although large <strong>in</strong>dustry is adept at implement<strong>in</strong>g OI with or without academia, to make a<br />

significant impact and/or improve SMEs' chances to be substantial OI players, academia needs to<br />

serve as a catalyst.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D <strong>in</strong> an OI ecosystem and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g success rates <strong>in</strong> a grow<strong>in</strong>g competitive<br />

marketplace require implement<strong>in</strong>g significant new steps. The need for co-<strong>in</strong>novation with<br />

complementary partners, alliances, enhanced collaboration, and the pivotal role of academia <strong>in</strong><br />

remov<strong>in</strong>g roadblocks for re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D are highlighted. These steps should re<strong>in</strong>novate the<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation process itself. OI is part of the <strong>in</strong>novation ecosystem and it is here to stay. Academia<br />

should play a proactive role as <strong>in</strong>novation catalyst, bridg<strong>in</strong>g over real and perceived stumbl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

blocks and establish<strong>in</strong>g competence match<strong>in</strong>g for co-development of <strong>in</strong>novation. Re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D<br />

requires passionate people, committed executives and organizations, an <strong>in</strong>novation culture and<br />

m<strong>in</strong>dset, and communication. Mutual academic and <strong>in</strong>dustrial lenses will be utilized to draw<br />

specific paradigm shifts, steps, and hands-on recommendations.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Traitler H., Watzke H.J. & Saguy I.S. 2011. Re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g R&D <strong>in</strong> an Open Innovation Ecosystem.<br />

Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 76(2), R62-R68. [2] Chesbrough, H.W. 2003. Open Innovation: The New<br />

Imperative for Creat<strong>in</strong>g and Profit<strong>in</strong>g from Technology. Harvard Bus<strong>in</strong>ess School Press, Boston, MA,<br />

USA. [3] Traitler H. & Saguy I.S. 2009. Creat<strong>in</strong>g Successful Innovation Partnerships. <strong>Food</strong> Technology,<br />

63(3), 22-35. [4] L<strong>in</strong>dergaard S. 2010. The Open Innovation Revolution: Essentials, Roadblocks and<br />

Leadership Skills. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA. [5] Markham S.K., Ward S.J., Aiman-Smith<br />

L. & K<strong>in</strong>gon A.I. 2010. The Valley of Death as Context for Role Theory <strong>in</strong> Product Innovation. Journal<br />

of Product Innovation Management, 27(3), 402-417.<br />

2222

Philosophy of an open R&D system<br />

Kamel Chida<br />

Generall Mills<br />

Creat<strong>in</strong>g value for SMEs <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry through open <strong>in</strong>novation - Examples from<br />

Norway<br />

Øyv<strong>in</strong>d Fyll<strong>in</strong>g-Jensen<br />

Nofima AS<br />

Open Innovation at Mars: Jo<strong>in</strong>-up, speed-up, scale-up<br />

Olivier Fleurot<br />

Mars GmbH<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2223

Innovation shar<strong>in</strong>g by cooperative R&D<br />

Dieter Albers<br />

Frutarom Savory Solutions GmbH, Korntal-Münch<strong>in</strong>gen, Germany<br />

(dalbers@frutarom.com)<br />

The change <strong>in</strong> eat<strong>in</strong>g habits and consumers’ <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g expectations <strong>in</strong> terms of food quality<br />

and safety also makes Frutarom Savory Solutions face ever new challenges if it wants to<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ue to assert the significant market position it has obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

Frutarom Savory Solutions GmbH, as a Frutarom Group bus<strong>in</strong>ess unit, develops customised<br />

solutions for the meat-,fish- and convenience food <strong>in</strong>dustry. The product portfolio comprises<br />

spicy aromas, spice blends and starter cultures. Frutarom pursues acquisitions on a global basis<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to further expand its technological know-how, product portfolio and its bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

divisions‘ reach. It is Frutarom Savory Solutions GmbH’s express objective to become a<br />

globally lead<strong>in</strong>g manufacturer <strong>in</strong> the market for spicy aromas and <strong>in</strong>gredients for meat-, fish-,<br />

snack- and convenience food products.<br />

Competitive products are the result of a careful and detailed development. The better the<br />

analytic method, technology, process, and quality and safety management, the more successful<br />

the company is with its customers. Therefore, Frutarom has recently decided to cooperate with<br />

a strategic research partner, which is a non-profit research organisation, who is able to support<br />

the company on an exclusive basis right from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all research and development<br />

areas – be it the latest market trends or our customers’ special requests.<br />

Driv<strong>in</strong>g force for this decision was not to call <strong>in</strong>to question the companies own R&D<br />

department but rather the question by how can Frutarom <strong>in</strong>corporate faster and more efficient<br />

external knowledge <strong>in</strong> companies’ own products? How to establish a strategic cooperation with<br />

external scientist with whom problems and needs have to be communicated without endanger<br />

companies’ valuable own knowledge?<br />

Therefor a prerequisite for the R&D cooperation was trust <strong>in</strong> the ability, expertise and<br />

reliability of the external research and development provider. The cooperation with a nonprofit<br />

research organisation seems excellent as both parties collaborated before on project<br />

level. The staff of the cooperat<strong>in</strong>g research <strong>in</strong>stitute also th<strong>in</strong>ks outside their own box and use<br />

diverse resources of knowhow and state-of-the-art equipment to f<strong>in</strong>ally be able to present<br />

<strong>in</strong>novative solutions.<br />

What is so special about this research collaboration is that the companies feel really connected.<br />

The comb<strong>in</strong>ation of the Frutarom Savory Solutions’ experts’ knowledge and the R&D provider<br />

makes for practically relevant, directly applicable scientific research. Jobs at hand are<br />

processed without any delay and the results are immediately fed <strong>in</strong>to the product development<br />

process. The time expended on new developments is much reduced: there is a much faster and<br />

straighter response to market trends.<br />

Steps towards this cooperation, expectations and first experiences will be presented show<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the benefit of knowledge and <strong>in</strong>novation shar<strong>in</strong>g for both, the company as well as the external<br />

research provider.<br />

2224

HighTech Europe Interactive Technology Portal – new tool<br />

for <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Deutsches Institut für Lebensmitteltechnik e.V., Quakenbrueck, Germany (k.lienemann@dil-ev.de,<br />

n.ay@dil-ev.de) (Lienemann Kerst<strong>in</strong> and Ay Nevaf), Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen UR - <strong>Food</strong> & Biobased Research,<br />

Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen, The Netherlands (roos.groeneveld@wur.nl, don.willems@wur.nl) (Groeneveld Roos and<br />

Willems Don), Katholieke Universiteit, Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Technology, Leuven, Belgium<br />

(Iesel.VanderPlancken@biw.kuleuven.be) (Van der Plancken Iesel)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

22 partners from academia and <strong>in</strong>dustry are collaborat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Network of Excellence HighTech<br />

Europe (HTE, www.hightecheurope.eu) to develop tools for the stimulation of R&D and to boost<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> the food process<strong>in</strong>g sector. The overall aim of the network is the establishment of a<br />

European Institute for <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g (EU-IFP). One of the important build<strong>in</strong>g blocks of the EU-<br />

IFP is the Interactive Technology Portal (ITP). The onl<strong>in</strong>e portal will provide access to answers to<br />

<strong>in</strong>quiries from <strong>in</strong>dustry, and demonstrate and communicate potential <strong>in</strong>novations <strong>in</strong> food process<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The build-up of the portal makes use of the Science Cube, which is an approach to describe relations<br />

between <strong>in</strong>novation sources, food process<strong>in</strong>g operations, and underly<strong>in</strong>g scientific pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. The<br />

ITP is one of the novel approaches of HighTech Europe foster<strong>in</strong>g open <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g. Open <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> this context means identify<strong>in</strong>g and us<strong>in</strong>g opportunities for<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation beyond the competences and resources available <strong>in</strong> ones’ own company or <strong>in</strong>stitute. The<br />

objective of the HighTech Europe ITP is to transform complexity <strong>in</strong>to simplicity and to provide a<br />

portal that can and will be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed after the end of the project.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

An onl<strong>in</strong>e portal is <strong>in</strong> general a s<strong>in</strong>gle entry po<strong>in</strong>t for all k<strong>in</strong>ds of <strong>in</strong>formation; a tool for br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />

people together and for provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation and solutions. The requirements for the HighTech<br />

Europe ITP necessitated two ma<strong>in</strong> activities:<br />

Technical implementation of the ITP: Which semantic software provides the best solution for a<br />

user-friendly knowledge portal? (A)<br />

Description and implementation of the screen<strong>in</strong>g procedure: How to identify the knowledge<br />

<strong>in</strong>put to the portal; how to illustrate and implement it; and how to describe a clear procedure<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g the Science Cube approach? (B)<br />

A) The ITP consists of three different build<strong>in</strong>g blocks: i) The SemanticMediaWiki software<br />

<strong>in</strong>clusive SemanticForms [1], which is the backbone of the ITP. It is a free and very flexible openended<br />

software application, written <strong>in</strong> the programm<strong>in</strong>g language PHP. ii) An ontology, which is a<br />

formal representation of knowledge <strong>in</strong> the form of concepts from the projects target doma<strong>in</strong> [2]. It<br />

def<strong>in</strong>es, furthermore, relationships between these concepts. An ontology can be used as a thesaurus,<br />

it may be used to support <strong>in</strong>formation retrieval or <strong>in</strong>formation extraction, or even for automatic<br />

reason<strong>in</strong>g. iii) The thesaurus-based full text search is an application used with<strong>in</strong> the ITP<br />

MediaWiki that uses the ontology as a thesaurus to support the user while search<strong>in</strong>g through both<br />

ITP and external documents. When a user of the ITP enters a term <strong>in</strong> the search box of the media<br />

wiki, appropriate terms from the ontology are suggested <strong>in</strong> a drop down box and a full text search is<br />

then performed on <strong>in</strong>dexed documents. In addition, search terms are expanded us<strong>in</strong>g, broader and<br />

narrower terms from the thesaurus/ontology.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2225

B) The HTE consortium considers <strong>in</strong> its screen<strong>in</strong>g procedure conventional and <strong>in</strong>novative food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g technologies. On the one hand, the knowledge identified is used to further build up the<br />

ontology, on the other hand, it is used to create technology, profile and <strong>in</strong>frastructure datasheets,<br />

which are based on comprehensive literature searches (focus: review papers) and tacit knowledge<br />

available at the beneficiaries’ <strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />

The Science Cube approach is used to characterize the knowledge <strong>in</strong> three different ways: i) by the<br />

scientific pr<strong>in</strong>ciple it is based on (physical, chemical and biological), ii) by the food process<strong>in</strong>g<br />

operation it can be applied to (separation, stabiliz<strong>in</strong>g, structure form<strong>in</strong>g and conversion processes<br />

and packag<strong>in</strong>g), and iii) by the <strong>in</strong>novation sources it can be attributed to (nanotechnology,<br />

biotechnology, <strong>in</strong>formation and communication technology).<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The ITP has been implemented (www.hightecheurope-portal.eu) and is now cont<strong>in</strong>uously updated.<br />

Templates of datasheets have been created that meet the needs of the future user. Datasheets have<br />

28 different entry fields (e.g. ’work<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple’ or ‘risk or hazards’) whereas each entry field<br />

presents a ‘property’ that facilitates a targeted search by the semantic search application of the ITP.<br />

At the moment, technology datasheets (64), profile datasheets (205, not all complete), event and<br />

<strong>in</strong>frastructure datasheets (be<strong>in</strong>g built up currently) are available. The ontology consists already of<br />

more than 2,000 terms, which are grouped <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> concepts like “methods”, “products” or<br />

“product characteristic”. The full text search function is implemented and gives the user suggestions<br />

for broader, narrower or related terms. The user-friendl<strong>in</strong>ess and quality of the search function will<br />

be <strong>in</strong>creased by also offer<strong>in</strong>g a more detailed search us<strong>in</strong>g search and browse functions of the<br />

MediaWiki software.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The MediaWiki based HighTech Europe Interactive Technology Portal is a promis<strong>in</strong>g portal for the<br />

transfer and distribution of knowledge and technologies <strong>in</strong> the food process<strong>in</strong>g area. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

current implementation phase it is updated <strong>in</strong> content, quality, search functionality and userfriendl<strong>in</strong>ess.<br />

Although access to the portal is restricted at the moment to project beneficiaries, it will<br />

be opened to externals (members of the Associated Membership Platform) to test it, for further<br />

<strong>in</strong>put, and also to suggest improvements. The ITP will become an important tool for the European<br />

food process<strong>in</strong>g area to facilitate <strong>in</strong>novation. A next step <strong>in</strong> the network will be an open discussion<br />

with stakeholders from <strong>in</strong>dustry, academia and policy how to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> and improve it beyond the<br />

end of the project.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We wish especially acknowledge our colleagues of the HighTech Europe<br />

consortium from CENTIV (DE), INRA (FR), IRTA (ES), SIK (SE), TTZ (DE), UTCN (RO) and VÚPP<br />

(CZ). Furthermore we acknowledge Prof. Dr. Andreas Schmidt from the University of Applied Science <strong>in</strong><br />

Osnabrueck (DE) for provid<strong>in</strong>g us his expertise and experience <strong>in</strong> IT management.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] http://semantic-mediawiki.org/wiki/Semantic_MediaWiki and<br />

http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Semantic_Forms<br />

[2] Gruber T. R. 1993, A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. Knowledge<br />

Acquisition 5(2), 199–220.<br />

2226

<strong>Food</strong> Microstructure: a 3-D experience<br />

B. Nicolai<br />

Possibilities of X-ray nano-CT for <strong>in</strong>ternal quality assessment of food products<br />

E. Herremans a * , S. Chassagne-Berces b , H. Chanvrier b , A. Atoniuk c , R. Kusztal c , E. Bongaers d , B.E.<br />

Verl<strong>in</strong>den e , E. Jakubczyk f , P. Estrade g , P. Verboven a , B. Nicolaï a,e<br />

a Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Willem de Croylaan 42, 3001 Leuven, Belgium<br />

b NESTEC SA, Nestle PTC. Route de Chavornay 3, 1350 Orbe, Switzerland<br />

c CHABER ltd, Prymasa Tysiclecia 83, 01242 Warsaw, Poland<br />

d SkyScan NV, Kartuizersweg 3b, 2550 Kontich, Belgium<br />

e VCBT, Flanders Centre of Postharvest Technology, Willem de Croylaan 42, 3001 Leuven, Belgium<br />

f SGGW, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Dep. <strong>Food</strong> Eng. & <strong>Process</strong> MGMT, 02776 Warsaw, Poland<br />

g VSG, Visualization Sciences Group SAS, Avenue Kennedy 87, Mérignac Cedex 33708, France<br />

* Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author electronic mail: els.herremans@biw.kuleuven.be<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Knowledge of food microstructure and how it changes dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g operations is essential<br />

to produce high quality food. X-ray CT (Computed Tomography) uses X-rays to look <strong>in</strong>side<br />

materials and produces 3D images. While micro-CT (X-ray imag<strong>in</strong>g at micrometer resolution)<br />

has become feasible over the last decade, many foods conta<strong>in</strong> structural features (such as air<br />

spaces, cells, cell walls) that are manifested over a large range of dimensions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

nanometer range. Up to date it has been nearly impossible to visualize structures on the<br />

nanoscale <strong>in</strong> 3D with X-ray CT. As a consequence, it has been difficult to quantify the effects<br />

of these nanoscale features on important quality attributes such as texture or rehydration<br />

properties. While nano-CT (X-ray imag<strong>in</strong>g at nanometer resolution) has recently become<br />

available, the applicability of this new method rema<strong>in</strong>s to be explored. The aim of this work<br />

was to visualize the 3D structure of selected moist and dry food products by advanced X-ray<br />

imag<strong>in</strong>g at micro- and nanometer resolution. In particular, we wanted to determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

achievable representative sample size, resolution and contrast for imag<strong>in</strong>g different types of<br />

foods by quantitative comparison of images acquired at different spatial resolutions.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Sugar foams were produced <strong>in</strong> the lab by a standardized procedure (SGGW, Warsaw, Poland).<br />

Apples (Malus domestica Borkh., cv `Braeburn') were picked on October 27 th 2010 <strong>in</strong> an<br />

orchard <strong>in</strong> S<strong>in</strong>t-Truiden (Belgium), and stored <strong>in</strong> Controlled Atmosphere (CA) coolrooms<br />

(VCBT, Heverlee, Belgium). Nestlé and Chaber manufactured extruded cereal products by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g a model recipe of commercially available products. Extrusion conditions as well as<br />

composition of the cereals could be modified. The samples were scanned us<strong>in</strong>g a SkyScan<br />

1172 high resolution X-ray micro-CT system and/or the SkyScan 2011 nanotomograph<br />

(SkyScan, Kontich, Belgium), operat<strong>in</strong>g at rather low energies rang<strong>in</strong>g between 30 and 59 keV,<br />

best suited for scann<strong>in</strong>g these soft food materials. Reconstructed images, with pixel resolutions<br />

at and below 1 μm, were processed us<strong>in</strong>g CTAn (SkyScan, Kontich, Belgium) and Avizo<br />

(VSG, Bordeaux, France). In order to quantify the microstructures (Figure 1), CT images were<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2227

segmented by def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a threshold value separat<strong>in</strong>g different structures based on the greyscale,<br />

which correlates to the attenuation of the X-rays.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Projection images of the samples (Figure 1-top) show the presence of a microstructural features<br />

<strong>in</strong> the foods, with contrast<strong>in</strong>g elements such as high-density <strong>in</strong>clusions (black), strongly<br />

attenuat<strong>in</strong>g the X-rays, and low-density regions (lighter) through which the X-ray beam passes<br />

more easily. A more detailed <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong> the microstructure is obta<strong>in</strong>ed by study<strong>in</strong>g the virtual<br />

cross-sections (Figure 1-bottom). Crispy breads show a highly connected bread matrix network<br />

with air <strong>in</strong>clusions from μm to mm-sizes, lead<strong>in</strong>g to porosities as high as 91,79%. High density<br />

<strong>in</strong>clusions can also be discerned (white). Reconstructed apple tissue images clearly show<br />

clustered cells, surrounded by air voids, of critical importance for gas transport <strong>in</strong> the fruit.<br />

Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the sample location <strong>in</strong>side the fruit, different porosities were measured: highest<br />

porosities occur <strong>in</strong> the fruit cortex (20,18% ± 3, 28), followed by tissue under the sk<strong>in</strong> (18,94% ±<br />

1,19), whereas the least porous tissue is situated <strong>in</strong> the centre of the fruit (14,61% ± 3,4). The<br />

foam was scanned at a range of resolutions, strongly affect<strong>in</strong>g scan results. Increas<strong>in</strong>g imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

resolution causes smaller bubbles to be detected, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a rise of measured porosity: from<br />

1,63% at 70 μm pixel resolution to 64,45% at 1,35 μm pixel resolution. The cereal sample<br />

scanned at 450 nm pixel resolution shows the presence of micro-cracks. Further morphometric<br />

parameters such as local pore and structure diameters, connectivity and anisotropy were<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed, which <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with 3D visualisation (Figure 1E), provide a comprehensive<br />

<strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong> the microstructure of these foods.<br />

Figure 1. X-ray radiographic (top) and reconstructed (bottom) images of crispy bread (A), apple (B),<br />

foam (C) and cereal (D). 3D visualization of segmented air bubbles <strong>in</strong> foam (E).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

X-ray CT was very effective for imag<strong>in</strong>g the microstructure of these porous products. The<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>ct phases of the food (solid matrix, dense <strong>in</strong>clusions and air spaces) could be segmented<br />

due to a high contrast <strong>in</strong> X-ray absorption. Nano-CT provided complementary structural<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation (<strong>in</strong> particular the pore size distribution) to micro-CT but care had to be taken to<br />

provide representative samples. Nevertheless, X-ray nano-CT enabled the <strong>in</strong>vestigation of the<br />

3-D microstructure of samples <strong>in</strong> a near-native state at unprecedented resolutions. On a longer<br />

term, this knowledge will contribute to improv<strong>in</strong>g nutritional quality (sugar- and gluten-free<br />

cereal products), sensory quality (texture) and safety (foreign material detection) of foods.<br />

2228

Optical coherence tomography for quality control and microstructure analysis <strong>in</strong> food<br />

Michael Leitner a,* , Günther Hannesschläger a , Attila Saghy a , Alexandra Nemeth a , Sophie Chassagne-<br />

Berces b , Hélène Chanvrier b , Els Herremans c , and Bert E. Verl<strong>in</strong>den d<br />

a<br />

RECENDT – Research Center for Non Destructive Test<strong>in</strong>g GmbH , Hafenstrasse 47-51, 4020 L<strong>in</strong>z,<br />

Austria<br />

b<br />

NESTLE SA, Nestle PTC. Route de Chavornay 3, Orbe, Switzerland<br />

c<br />

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Willem de Croylaan 42, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium<br />

d<br />

VCBT, Flanders Centre of Postharvest Technology, Willem de Croylaan 42, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium<br />

*Correspond<strong>in</strong>g author electronic mail: michael.leitner@recendt.at<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Quality control and analysis of microstructure are of utmost importance <strong>in</strong> food <strong>in</strong>dustry. Pome<br />

fruit, for example, are often stored for several months under special conditions, and the<br />

thickness and homogeneity of the wax layer <strong>in</strong> the par<strong>in</strong>g determ<strong>in</strong>es the apple´s protection<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st liquid and therefore weight loss. In the case of extruded cereals the thickness and<br />

homogeneity of sugar coat<strong>in</strong>gs, as well as the pore size distribution of the uncoated cereals, are<br />

of special <strong>in</strong>terest, s<strong>in</strong>ce these determ<strong>in</strong>e the rehydration properties and the crisp- and<br />

crunch<strong>in</strong>ess, respectively. To control and monitor these quality <strong>in</strong>dicators dur<strong>in</strong>g the storage<br />

and production processes of foods there is a need for fast and non-<strong>in</strong>vasive assessment<br />

techniques.<br />

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) [1-4] is an emerg<strong>in</strong>g purely optical, non destructive, and<br />

contactless high resolution imag<strong>in</strong>g technique, which allows acquisition of two or three<br />

dimensional image data <strong>in</strong> situ and <strong>in</strong> real time. OCT is the two and three dimensional<br />

extension of low coherence <strong>in</strong>terferometry and therefore well suited to image layered and<br />

micro-structured specimens. The image contrast is due to <strong>in</strong>homogeneities <strong>in</strong> the refractive<br />

<strong>in</strong>dex of the sample materials, and thus OCT provides complementary <strong>in</strong>formation to other<br />

high resolution imag<strong>in</strong>g techniques, like X-ray computed tomography (CT) and magnetic<br />

resonance imag<strong>in</strong>g (MRI).<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The experiments presented here were performed with two different OCT set-ups, which are<br />

available at the labs of RECENDT, a time-doma<strong>in</strong> ultra-high resolution (TD-UHR) OCT<br />

system and a spectral-doma<strong>in</strong> (SD) OCT system.<br />

Braeburn apples were grown at an experimental station, S<strong>in</strong>t-Truiden, Belgium. Harvest date<br />

was on 27/10/2010 which is <strong>in</strong> the optimal commercial pick<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>dow for long storage of<br />

Braeburn <strong>in</strong> Belgium determ<strong>in</strong>ed by Flanders Centre of Postharvest technology, Belgium. The<br />

day after pick<strong>in</strong>g apples were sorted for size and kept at 1°C at normal air.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Pome fruit like apples are often stored for several months, and the quality and thickness of the<br />

wax layer is one important parameter throughout the stor<strong>in</strong>g process [5]. To show the ability of<br />

optical coherence tomography for the analysis and the control of wax layer thickness we<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2229

performed OCT imag<strong>in</strong>g sessions on Braeburn apples. Figure 1 a) shows an OCT cross-section<br />

image, as acquired with the SD-OCT system. The image size is 4 x 1.25 mm² and several<br />

layers of the par<strong>in</strong>g can clearly be dist<strong>in</strong>guished. Other <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g features for the storage life<br />

of apples are the lenticels, which act as a bypass medium for the exchange of gases between the<br />

fruit flesh and the ambient. However, also bacteria and funguses can penetrate the fruit through<br />

the lenticels. Panel 1 b) shows an OCT image of a lenticel, as acquired with the TD-UHR-OCT<br />

set-up, and depicts a cross section with an image size of 3 x 0.3 mm². The lenticel is clearly<br />

visible <strong>in</strong> the lateral centre of the image, as <strong>in</strong>dicated by the arrow. The full paper also<br />

describes OCT applications for microstructure analysis <strong>in</strong> extruded breakfast cereals.<br />

Figure 1: OCT images of Braeburn apples; a) Cross section image acquired with the SD-OCT system.<br />

Image size: 4 x 1.25 mm²; b) Cross-section image of a lenticel, acquired with the TD-UHR OCT system.<br />

Image size: 3 x 0.3 mm²;<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

In this work we <strong>in</strong>troduced optical coherence tomography as a new tool for microstructure<br />

analysis and quality control <strong>in</strong> food. We showed the capability of this fast and non <strong>in</strong>vasive<br />

optical imag<strong>in</strong>g technique for a real time assessment and monitor<strong>in</strong>g of microstructures, and<br />

therefore as a promis<strong>in</strong>g tool for at l<strong>in</strong>e quality control of food.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This work has been carried out with f<strong>in</strong>ancial support from Inside<strong>Food</strong> -<br />

Integrated sens<strong>in</strong>g and imag<strong>in</strong>g devices for design<strong>in</strong>g, monitor<strong>in</strong>g and controll<strong>in</strong>g microstructure of foods<br />

(FP7-226783).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Huang D, Swanson EA, L<strong>in</strong> CP, Schuman JS, St<strong>in</strong>son WG, Chang W, Hee MR, Flotte T, Gregory K, Puliafito CA,<br />

Fujimoto JG 1991. Optical Coherence Tomography. Science 254(5035):1178-1181. [2] Stifter D 2007. Beyond<br />

biomedic<strong>in</strong>e: a review of alternative applications and developments for optical coherence tomography. Applied Physics<br />

B: Lasers and Optics 88(3):337-357. [3] Wiesauer K, Pircher M, Götz<strong>in</strong>ger E, Hitzenberger CK, Oster R, Stifter D<br />

2007. Investigation of glass-fibre re<strong>in</strong>forced polymers by polarisation-sensitive, ultra-high resolution optical coherence<br />

tomography: Internal structures, defects and stress. Composites Science and Technology 67(15-16):3051-3058. [4]<br />

Wiesauer K, Pircher M, Gotz<strong>in</strong>ger E, Bauer S, Engelke R, Ahrens G, Grutzner G, Hitzenberger CK, Stifter D 2005.<br />

En-face scann<strong>in</strong>g optical coherence tomography with ultra-high resolution for material <strong>in</strong>vestigation. Optics Express<br />

13(3):1015-1024. [5] E. A. Veraverbeke, N. Van Bruaene, P. Van Oostveldt, and B. M. Nicolaï, Non destructive<br />

analysis of the wax layer of Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) by means of confocal laser scann<strong>in</strong>g microscopy. Planta<br />

213(4), 525-533 (2001).<br />

2230

Effect of Fibres and Whole Gra<strong>in</strong> Content on Quality Attributes of Extruded Cereals<br />

Sophie Chassagne-Berces a , Michael Leitner b , Angela Melado c , Pila Barreiro c , Eva Crost<strong>in</strong>a Correa c , Imre<br />

Blank a , Jean-Claude Gumy a , Hélène Chanvrier a<br />

a<br />

NESTEC SA, Nestle PTC Orbe, 1350 Orbe, Switzerland (sophie.chassagne@rdor.nestle.com,<br />

helene.chanvrier@rdor.nestle.com)<br />

b<br />

RECENDT, 4020 L<strong>in</strong>z, Austria (michael.leitner@recendt.at)<br />

c<br />

UPM, 28040 Madrid, Spa<strong>in</strong> (angela.melado@upm.es, pilar.barreiro@upm.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Health and nutritional policies are currently promot<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>crease of dietary fibre content <strong>in</strong><br />

food, especially <strong>in</strong> cereal-based products. However, <strong>in</strong>corporation of fibre <strong>in</strong> cereals may lead<br />

to quality issues [1-2], thus decreas<strong>in</strong>g consumer acceptance. This is partially due to<br />

deterioration of the microstructure, one of the primary quality attributes of cereals [3-5].<br />

Consequently, the production of fibre-enriched extruded cereals rema<strong>in</strong>s a challenge, <strong>in</strong><br />

particular when ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g functional and quality properties.<br />

The objective of this study was to better understand the mechanisms by which dietary fibres<br />

affect the quality of cereal products dur<strong>in</strong>g extrusion-cook<strong>in</strong>g, by quantify<strong>in</strong>g the effect of<br />

source and amount of fibre and whole gra<strong>in</strong> on (i) texture, (ii) structure, and (iii) rehydration<br />

properties of extruded cereals. New <strong>in</strong>novative methods were applied and comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

traditional techniques to characterize both the structure and the rehydration properties.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Studies were carried out on starch-based (wheat, whole wheat) recipes. Two sources of fibres<br />

were added: oat bran concentrate and wheat bran for their high soluble (-glucans) and<br />

<strong>in</strong>soluble (arab<strong>in</strong>oxylans) fibre levels, respectively. The oat and wheat bran levels used <strong>in</strong> this<br />

study were 0, 10, 20%. The different recipes were extruded <strong>in</strong> a pilot tw<strong>in</strong>-screw extruder<br />

BC21 (Clextral) and then sugar coated after dry<strong>in</strong>g. The follow<strong>in</strong>g extrusion parameters were<br />

kept constant: die design, screw speed (400 rpm), product temperature (135°C) and moisture<br />

content (20%).<br />

Mechanical properties of extruded cereals were <strong>in</strong>vestigated by compression test. The cellular<br />

structure was observed by X-ray tomography. Information on porosity, cell size and cell wall<br />

thickness distributions were extracted from 3D image analysis. The quality of coat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(thickness, homogeneity) was analysed by optical coherence tomography. The rehydration<br />

properties of the extruded cereals <strong>in</strong> milk were evaluated by magnetic resonance imag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(MRI) and optical coherence tomography.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Whatever the type of fibre (oat bran concentrate or wheat bran), the modifications of<br />

mechanical properties after addition of fibres or whole gra<strong>in</strong>s are similar:<br />

Without addition of fibres (0%), the maximum force and the number of peak do not<br />

significantly change when the whole gra<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong>creases.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2231

Conversely, add<strong>in</strong>g fibres <strong>in</strong>creases significantly the maximum force (Fmax), whereas the<br />

number of peak (Npeak) decreases, thus show<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>crease of hardness and a decrease of<br />

“crispness”, when the fibres are added.<br />

The modifications of texture parameters (Fmax and Npeak) seem to be more important with oat<br />

bran concentrate than with wheat bran.<br />

Modifications of mechanical properties were l<strong>in</strong>ked with variations of cell size and cell walls<br />

structure.<br />

Without addition of fibres, no modification of porosity and the cell size is observed when<br />

the whole gra<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong>creases.<br />

Conversely, add<strong>in</strong>g fibres decreases the expansion of extruded cereals and thus the cell<br />

size and the porosity decreases while the thickness of cell wall <strong>in</strong>creases.<br />

A loss of hardness and crispness is observed after immersion <strong>in</strong> milk. The hardness of dry<br />

products is well correlated with those of the soaked products, thus show<strong>in</strong>g the effect of fibres<br />

addition on “keep<strong>in</strong>g hardness” when poured <strong>in</strong> milk. This is confirmed by MRI measurements<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g a slower penetration of the milk with<strong>in</strong> the pellets conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fibres.<br />

OCT made possible to visualize the quality of coat<strong>in</strong>g and to follow the rehydration process of<br />

extruded cereals <strong>in</strong> milk: the collapse of the structure that is immerged <strong>in</strong> milk can be followed<br />

and quantified. Furthermore, MRI reveals that the differences of rehydration properties<br />

between coated and non coated extruded cereals seem to be dependent on the content and<br />

composition of the cereal base.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

This work revealed that structure assessment of extruded cereals may lead to a better<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g of the effect of fibre addition on texture and rehydration properties. The<br />

application of <strong>in</strong>novative methods, such as Optical Coherence Tomography and Magnetic<br />

Resonance Imag<strong>in</strong>g, was found to be useful to quantify the structural properties. In the future,<br />

the relationships between quantitative analysis of expanded structure changes <strong>in</strong> extruded<br />

cereals with high fibre content and the f<strong>in</strong>al texture properties will be used to def<strong>in</strong>e optimized<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g conditions and recipe for an improved consumer satisfaction.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Yanniotis S., Petraki A., Soumpasi E. (2007). Effect of pect<strong>in</strong> and wheat fibers on quality attributes<br />

of extruded cornstarch. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 80(2), 594-599.<br />

[2] Brennan M. A., Merts I., Monro J., Woolnough J. & Brennan C.S. (2008). Impact of Guar and Wheat<br />

Bran on the Physical and Nutritional Quality of Extruded Breakfast Cereals. Starch – Stärke, 60(5),<br />

248-256.<br />

[3] J<strong>in</strong> Z., Hsieh F. & Huff H.E. (1995). Effects of soy fiber, salt, sugar and screw speed on physical<br />

properties and microstructure of corn meal extrudate. Journal of Cereal Science, 22(2), 185-194.<br />

[4] Yao N., Jann<strong>in</strong>k J.L., Alavi S. & White P.J. (2006). Physical and sensory characteristics of extruded<br />

products made from two oat l<strong>in</strong>es with different -glucan concentrations. Cereal Chemistry, 83(6),<br />

692-699.<br />

[5] Rzedzicki Z. & Blaszczak W. (2005). Impact of microstructure <strong>in</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g physical properties of<br />

cereal extrudates. <strong>International</strong> Agrophysics, 19(2), 175-186.<br />

2232

NMR microscopy and NMR HR-MAS on apples of different qualities after different<br />

storage conditions<br />

Dieter Gross a , Manfred Spraul a , E. Humpfer, H. Schaefer, A. Melado, T. Defraeye, P. Verboven<br />

a Bruker Biosp<strong>in</strong>, Germany<br />

A Digital Laboratory for visual analysis of materials microstructure<br />

Pascal Estrade<br />

VSG,France<br />

<br />

Cryo scann<strong>in</strong>g electron microscopy: enabl<strong>in</strong>g nano-imag<strong>in</strong>g of food products<br />

Frederic Depypere a , D. Van de Walle, K. Dewett<strong>in</strong>ck<br />

a UGent, Belgium<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2233

2234

The Application of Acoustic Emission to Measure Texture of <strong>Food</strong> Foams<br />

Ewa Jakubczyk, Ewa Gondek<br />

a Department of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Process</strong> Management, Warsaw University of Life Sciences,<br />

Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland, ewa_jakubczyk@sggw.pl, ewa_gondek@sggw.pl<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Bubbles are <strong>in</strong>tegral to many classic confectionery products such as marshmallow, nougat, and<br />

mer<strong>in</strong>gue [2]. Candy-foam like structures can be obta<strong>in</strong>ed by blow<strong>in</strong>g gas through a nozzle to<br />

the product or mechanical agitation of sugar-agar-foam<strong>in</strong>g agent solutions [1].<br />

The texture measurement of candy foams was presented by a typical force-deformation<br />

response for aerated material <strong>in</strong> tension [2]. The mechanical parameters of an aerated gel<br />

system were also analysed us<strong>in</strong>g a compression test.<br />

Acoustic emission is a method that enables characterization of texture of the materials because<br />

the sound wave conta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>formation about the microstructure and micromechanical properties<br />

of the product. In acoustic emission (AE) the sound wave produced dur<strong>in</strong>g mechanical<br />

deformation of an object such as a food is captured us<strong>in</strong>g a sensor. Acoustic emission was<br />

successfully used to measure the differences <strong>in</strong> texture of different products [3].<br />

The aim of this work was to evaluate the possibilities of apply<strong>in</strong>g the acoustic emission method<br />

to determ<strong>in</strong>e the texture of aerated food gels.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The agar-fructose solution with addition of album<strong>in</strong> from chicken egg was foamed us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

kitchen mixer. The effects of different whipp<strong>in</strong>g time on mechanical and acoustic properties<br />

were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The solution was aerated for 1, 3, 5, 8, 10 and 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Apparent density<br />

of foams was calculated based on mass of aerated gel divided by occupied volume.<br />

The measurement of acoustic emission was carried out while compress<strong>in</strong>g prepared samples<br />

diced <strong>in</strong>to 13 mm cubes. Aerated gels were compressed with a speed of 50 mm/m<strong>in</strong>. Acoustic<br />

emission was registered <strong>in</strong> the range 0.1-16 kHz us<strong>in</strong>g a piezoelectric accelerometer type<br />

(Bruel & Kjaer). The recorded AE signal was amplified <strong>in</strong> the external low noise amplifier and<br />

recorded. The selected acoustic descriptors were analysed.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The aeration of sugar-agar solution affected the density and acoustic properties of gelled<br />

material. The density of aerated gel after 1 m<strong>in</strong>ute of whipp<strong>in</strong>g was reduced by about 34% <strong>in</strong><br />

comparison to non-foamed agar gel. The <strong>in</strong>crease of whipp<strong>in</strong>g time from 1 to 3 m<strong>in</strong>utes caused<br />

a significant decrease of sample density (Table 1). It is evident that the density of foams<br />

slightly decreased with whipp<strong>in</strong>g time. However, there was a marked <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> density<br />

observed between 10 and 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Overbeat<strong>in</strong>g may lead to damage of the structure of<br />

aerated material.<br />

The texture of aerated gels was also measured us<strong>in</strong>g the acoustic emission method (Table 1).<br />

There was a significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the number of acoustic events observed between 1 and 10<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes. Longer aeration resulted <strong>in</strong> a decrease of the number of acoustic events and average<br />

energy of a s<strong>in</strong>gle acoustic event. The total acoustic energy of the material gradually <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2235

with whipp<strong>in</strong>g time. The porous structure of gels had a significant effect on acoustic emission<br />

of the gel system. Damage to many pores dur<strong>in</strong>g compression may lead to emission of an<br />

acoustic signal. The decrease of number of acoustic events and acoustic energy of s<strong>in</strong>gle events<br />

and after 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes of whipp<strong>in</strong>g may <strong>in</strong>dicate changes <strong>in</strong> bubble size and <strong>in</strong> distribution of air<br />

voids <strong>in</strong> the material.<br />

Table 1. Acoustic descriptor and apparent density of foams after different whipp<strong>in</strong>g times<br />

Whipp<strong>in</strong>g time<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

Apparent density<br />

(g/cm 3 )<br />

Acoustic energy of<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gle event (mV)<br />

Number of<br />

acoustic events<br />

Total acoustic energy<br />

(a.u.)<br />

1 0.839 0.020 142.42 33.65 96.78 3.61<br />

3 0.523 0.001 307.65 78.65 107.68 2.20<br />

5 0.469 0.001 249.10 149,95 131.48 7.59<br />

8 0.490 0.009 246.65 175.20 130.92 8.19<br />

10 0.460 0.009 260.19 210.25 148.33 8.07<br />

15 0.482 0.001 206.35 198.00 150.90 8.25<br />

The decrease of density after aeration was a result of air <strong>in</strong>corporation. The results of many<br />

authors have shown that with whipp<strong>in</strong>g time the size of bubbles decreased but the number of<br />

bubbles progressively <strong>in</strong>creased. The more acoustic events observed with longer whipp<strong>in</strong>g time<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated that more bubbles were deformed dur<strong>in</strong>g compression. The decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the number of<br />

acoustic events may be a result of higher density of foams probably caused by overbeat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

1. The density of sugar-gel foam decreased with whipp<strong>in</strong>g time (1-5 m<strong>in</strong>). The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

density observed between 10 and 15 m<strong>in</strong>utes may be a result of structural changes and<br />

agglomeration of bubbles.<br />

2. The foam structure of sugar gels had a significant effect on acoustic emission of the gel<br />

system. Damage to pores dur<strong>in</strong>g compression may lead to emission of an acoustic signal.<br />

3. A higher total number of acoustic events <strong>in</strong>dicated a larger number of bubbles deformed<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g compression.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This study was funded with<strong>in</strong> the framework of the European project Inside<strong>Food</strong> (FP7-226783<br />

‘Integrated sens<strong>in</strong>g and imag<strong>in</strong>g devices for design<strong>in</strong>g, monitor<strong>in</strong>g and controll<strong>in</strong>g<br />

microstructure of foods’).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Campbell G. M. & Mougeot E. 1999. Creation and Characterisation of Aerated <strong>Food</strong> Products. Trends<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 10, 283-296.<br />

[2] Decker N. R. & Ziegler G. R. 2003. Mechanical Properties of Aerated Confectionery. Journal of<br />

Texture Studies, 34, 437-448.<br />

[3] Lewicki P. P., Marzec A. & Ranachowski Z. 2009. Acoustic Properties of <strong>Food</strong>s. In: Rahman S. M.<br />

(Ed.). <strong>Food</strong> Properties Handbook. 2nd Ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group., Boca Raton, USA.<br />

2236

Non destructive detection of brown heart <strong>in</strong> ‘Braeburn’ apples by time-resolved<br />

reflectance spectroscopy<br />

M. Vanoli a,b , A. Rizzolo a , M. Grassi a , A. Far<strong>in</strong>a b , A. Pifferi b , L. Sp<strong>in</strong>elli c , B. E. Verl<strong>in</strong>den d , A. Torricelli b<br />

a<br />

CRA-IAA, Milan, Italy (maristella.vanoli@entecra.it)<br />

b<br />

Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, Milan, Italy (alessandro.torricelli@polimi.it)<br />

c<br />

Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie – CNR, Milan, Italy (lorenzo.sp<strong>in</strong>elli@fisi.polimi.it)<br />

d<br />

Flanders Centre of Postharvest Technology (VCBT), Leuven, Belgium<br />

(Bert.Verl<strong>in</strong>den@biw.kuleuven.be)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Brown Heart (BH) is an <strong>in</strong>ternal disorder related to CO 2 <strong>in</strong>jury, which is characterized by brown<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of the pulp and formation of cavities, and it is visible only when fruit are cut open. The<br />

susceptibility of Braeburn apples to BH is related to their structural characteristics, as they have a<br />

relative dense and firm tissue, poor flesh gas diffusivity and low sk<strong>in</strong> gas-permeance. The<br />

unpleasant nature of BH is not acceptable to consumers and causes economic losses. As external<br />

symptoms are not evident, a reliable non-destructive method for on-l<strong>in</strong>e detect<strong>in</strong>g and segregat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

damaged from healthy fruit would be readily accepted by large co-operatives and commercial<br />

pack<strong>in</strong>g-houses. Previous studies have shown that time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS) is<br />

able to detect BH <strong>in</strong> pears, <strong>in</strong>ternal brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Granny Smith apples, watercore <strong>in</strong> Fuji apples and<br />

meal<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> Braeburn apples, show<strong>in</strong>g higher absorption coefficients <strong>in</strong> the range 720-850 nm <strong>in</strong><br />

fruit affected by disorders [1]. In the present work, the optical properties measured by TRS were<br />

evaluated <strong>in</strong> order to test whether TRS can be used to detect BH <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tact “Braeburn” apples.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

‘Braeburn’ apples, picked at commercial harvest <strong>in</strong> Belgium, were stored at 1°C for 3 and 6 months<br />

<strong>in</strong> BH <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g (1% O 2 + 5% CO 2, BH storage) and not-<strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g (2.5% O 2 + 0.7% CO 2 with a 3<br />

week delay of CA, OPT storage) conditions. At each storage time, sixty apples/storage were<br />

measured by a broadband TRS setup [2] at 670 nm and <strong>in</strong> the spectral range 740-1100 nm on four<br />

po<strong>in</strong>ts (A-D) around the equator, ranked on the basis of decreas<strong>in</strong>g μ a670 (<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g maturity) and<br />

divided <strong>in</strong>to 2 batches correspondent to 2 times of shelf life at 18°C (day 0 and day 14). At d14<br />

apples were measured by TRS <strong>in</strong> the same spectral range and po<strong>in</strong>ts as at d0. Afterwards, each fruit<br />

was cut open and evaluated for disorders (brown<strong>in</strong>g, cavity) record<strong>in</strong>g the position (brown core, BC;<br />

brown pulp, BP) and the association with cavities (brown<strong>in</strong>g alone, BA; brown<strong>in</strong>g plus cavities,<br />

BCV), and the severity score (1=healthy, 2=very slight, 3=slight, 4=moderate and 5=severe). All<br />

fruit were measured for flesh firmness, <strong>in</strong>tercellular space volume (RISV) and pulp colour (L*, a*,<br />

b*, C* and H°, spectrophotometer CM-2600d, at 18 mm from the sk<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> correspondence of A-D<br />

po<strong>in</strong>ts of TRS measurements). The average of all po<strong>in</strong>ts/fruit were computed before submitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

optical and colour data to ANOVA. Correlations between optical and colour data were studied us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the PROC CORR procedure.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Internal brown<strong>in</strong>g and cavities were already present after 3 m <strong>in</strong> BH storage, while <strong>in</strong> OPT storage<br />

no disorder was found. After 6 m and at the end of shelf life, <strong>in</strong> BH storage there was the highest<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2237

<strong>in</strong>cidence of brown<strong>in</strong>g (90%) and cavities (42%), while <strong>in</strong> OPT storage the brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cidence was<br />

55% and the cavity ones 7%. Brown<strong>in</strong>g was localized ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> the core region <strong>in</strong> both<br />

atmospheres; the <strong>in</strong>cidence of BP <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g shelf life time, ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> BH storage<br />

after 3 m and <strong>in</strong> OPT storage after 6 m.<br />

Overall, fruit affected by <strong>in</strong>ternal brown<strong>in</strong>g showed significantly higher μ a <strong>in</strong> the 740-900 nm<br />

spectral range respect to those of healthy ones, with the highest difference recorded at 740 nm. With<br />

the development of <strong>in</strong>ternal brown<strong>in</strong>g, μ a740 <strong>in</strong>creased, more <strong>in</strong> BP than <strong>in</strong> BC fruits, and more <strong>in</strong><br />

BCV than BA ones (Table 1). There was no difference <strong>in</strong> μ a740 between pulp without brown<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

pulp affected by very slight and slight brown<strong>in</strong>g, whereas it significantly <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> fruit with<br />

moderate and severely affected fruit. L* and a* <strong>in</strong>creased and H° decreased <strong>in</strong> fruit with moderate<br />

and severe brown<strong>in</strong>g. Firmness did not change with respect to brown<strong>in</strong>g score, brown<strong>in</strong>g position<br />

and cavities, whereas RISV showed the lowest percentage <strong>in</strong> healthy apples and the highest <strong>in</strong><br />

browned fruit scored as moderate and severe, and when cavities were associated to brown<strong>in</strong>g. As<br />

the TRS measurement po<strong>in</strong>ts did not always corresponded to the brown<strong>in</strong>g area <strong>in</strong> the pulp, <strong>in</strong> order<br />

to study the correlations between μ a740 and colour parameters, for each browned fruit only the<br />

measurement po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> which TRS analysis was carried out <strong>in</strong> correspondence of the defect were<br />

chosen. High correlations were found between μ a740 and L* (r=0.95), a* (r=0.88) and H°<br />

(r=0.88). From the correlation between μ a740 and pulp L* at μ a740 0.08 cm 1 only severely browned pulp can be found.<br />

Table 1. Mean values of μa740 and of pulp colour parameters <strong>in</strong> healthy and browned Braeburn apples<br />

(brown core, BC; brown pulp, BP; brown fruit without cavities, BA; brown fruit with cavities=BCV).<br />

μa740 (cm -<br />

1<br />

)<br />

L* a* b* C* H°<br />

Healthy 0.033 c C 82.83 a A 0.40 b B 23.30 b A 23.34 b A 90.98 a A<br />

BC 0.037 b 81.52 b 0.21 b 23.12 b 23.18 b 90.56 a<br />

BP 0.064 a 74.08 c 2.92 a 24.51 a 24.84 a 83.44 b<br />

BA 0.040 B 80.81 B 0.09 B 23.23 A 23.33 A 89.86 A<br />

BCV 0.047 A 78.35 C 1.10 A 23.76 A 23.90 A 87.60 B<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

small letters refer to brown<strong>in</strong>g position, capital letters refer to brown<strong>in</strong>g and cavities<br />

The absorption coefficient measured at 740 nm was able to segregate healthy fruit from those<br />

hav<strong>in</strong>g moderate and severe BH. However, when brown<strong>in</strong>g affects only the region near the pith,<br />

TRS was not able to detect the disorder due to its depth, which was greater than 2cm. Furthermore,<br />

when <strong>in</strong>ternal brown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volves only part of the pulp, the four equidistant measurement po<strong>in</strong>ts used<br />

<strong>in</strong> this research were not enough to make certa<strong>in</strong> the detection of the disorder.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Vanoli M., Rizzolo A., Eccher Zerb<strong>in</strong>i P., Sp<strong>in</strong>elli L. & Torricelli A. 2009. Non-destructive detection of<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal defects <strong>in</strong> apple fruit by Time-resolved Reflectance Spectroscopy. Int. Conf. COST 924<br />

“Enviromentally Friendly and Safe Technologies for Quality of Fruits and Vegetables”, Faro, Portugal, 14-16<br />

January, 2009, <strong>in</strong> press.<br />

[2] D’Andrea C., Nev<strong>in</strong> A., Far<strong>in</strong>a A., Bassi A. & Cubeddu R. 2009. Assessment of variations <strong>in</strong> moisture content<br />

of wood us<strong>in</strong>g time-resolved diffuse optical spectroscopy. Applied Optics, 48(4), B87-B9.<br />

2238

Non-destructive Characterization of <strong>Food</strong> Microstructure and Composition by Spatially-<br />

Resolved Spectroscopy<br />

N. Nguyen Do Trong a , M. Tsuta a, b , E. Herremans a , R. Watté a , C. Erk<strong>in</strong>baev a , E. Verhoelst a ,<br />

P. Verboven a , B. M. Nicolaï a , W. Saeys a<br />

a Division of Mechatronics, Biostatistics and Sensors (MeBioS), Department of Biosystems, K.U.Leuven,<br />

Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.<br />

Email: nghia.nguyendotrong@biw.kuleuven.be<br />

b National <strong>Food</strong> Research Institute, 2-1-12 Kan-nondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Quality of foods strongly depends on their microstructure and composition. Examples <strong>in</strong>clude<br />

spong<strong>in</strong>ess of bread, crispness or crunch<strong>in</strong>ess of crackers, firmness or sweetness of fruits.<br />

<strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g of foods also affects their microstructure and composition: exist<strong>in</strong>g structures are<br />

destroyed and new ones are formed; some constituents are changed and new ones are created.<br />

Therefore, rapid and accurate measurement of food microstructure and composition and how<br />

they change dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g operations is essential for the production of high quality foods.<br />

Microstructure and composition (and their changes) strongly determ<strong>in</strong>e light propagation<br />

behavior (e.g. diffuse reflectance) <strong>in</strong> the illum<strong>in</strong>ated food samples, mostly attributed by<br />

scatter<strong>in</strong>g and absorption phenomena. However, multiple light scatter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creases photon<br />

pathlengths <strong>in</strong>side the biological structure result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased absorbance for the same<br />

concentration level, such that the measured reflectance or transmittance spectra result from the<br />

<strong>in</strong>terplay of both scatter<strong>in</strong>g and absorption. S<strong>in</strong>ce the traditional NIR spectroscopy technique<br />

only measures the diffuse reflectance (or transmission), which is a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of scatter<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and absorption effects, further improvements could be implemented for resolv<strong>in</strong>g this problem.<br />

This research was performed <strong>in</strong> the context of the EU project Inside<strong>Food</strong> (FP7-226783). In this<br />

study, the potential of spatially resolved spectroscopy for non-<strong>in</strong>vasively characteriz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

microstructure and composition of the microstructured foods (model foods) by means of their<br />

optical properties (absorption and reduced scatter<strong>in</strong>g coefficients) has therefore been<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A setup for SRS measurements <strong>in</strong> the 400-1100 nm range has been built. This setup consists of<br />

a contact probe with accurately placed fibers which is l<strong>in</strong>ked to a spectrograph for<br />

simultaneous measurement of the reflectance at the different distances by a CCD camera. The<br />

optical probe has been designed and assembled at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology<br />

(EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland). The fibers used are Thorlabs multimode silica fibers (FVP-200<br />

PF) with a numerical aperture of 0.22 and a core diameter of 200 m. The 7 detection fibers<br />

are placed at various distances from the illum<strong>in</strong>ation fiber, rang<strong>in</strong>g approximately from 0.3 to<br />

1.2 mm with a step of about 0.15 mm. The illum<strong>in</strong>ation fiber of the probe is connected to a<br />

AvaLight-DHc (Avantes, Eerbeek, The Netherlands) halogen lamp through an optical switch.<br />

The detection fibers from the SRS probe and a fiber from the optical switch of the light source<br />

are aligned <strong>in</strong> the entrance slit of a CP200 133 g/mm spectrograph (Horiba Job<strong>in</strong>-Yvon, New<br />

Jersey, USA) which splits the light from each of these fibers <strong>in</strong>to its spectral components and<br />

projects these onto a Hamamatsu C7041 CCD camera with a S7041-1008 detector<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2239

(Hamamatsu, Louva<strong>in</strong>-La-Neuve, Belgium). The signal from this camera is transferred to a<br />

computer by means of a PCI MIO-16E-4 data acquisition card. Control of the light source,<br />

optical switch and camera is performed <strong>in</strong> LabView software (National <strong>in</strong>struments, TX, USA)<br />

Several model foods with clearly different microstructure properties have been designed. A<br />

first food model is made by mix<strong>in</strong>g agarose and gelat<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> water to create an emulsion or a gel.<br />

Two mixtures are considered: 1% agarose with 1% gelat<strong>in</strong> (Gel 1) and 1% agarose with 2.5%<br />

gelat<strong>in</strong> (Gel 2). A second model food are the candy foams. These are produced by mix<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fructose, dextrose agar-agar, album<strong>in</strong> and water. Two mixtures have been considered <strong>in</strong> this<br />

study: One without dextrose (Foam 1) and one with dextrose (Foam 2). The third model food<br />

considered <strong>in</strong> this study is a chocolate mousse which was created by mix<strong>in</strong>g cold swell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

starch with cocoa, sugar, oil and water.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The optical properties of the different model foods are then estimated:<br />

Gel 1 Gel 2<br />

Foam 1 Foam 2 Chocolate Mousse<br />

Figure 1. Fitted μ s’ (upper left) and fitted μ a (upper right) of 5 model foods. The cont<strong>in</strong>uous and dotted<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es represent the mean and 95% confidence <strong>in</strong>tervals of the fitted values respectively. (Bottom)<br />

Microstructure images of the model foods by microscopy (the scales <strong>in</strong> the images are 10 μm).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

A spatially-resolved spectroscopy setup based on a fiber-optic probe was successfully<br />

elaborated <strong>in</strong> the lab and validated for its measurement accuracy. A logical correlation was<br />

found between the estimated reduced scatter<strong>in</strong>g coefficient spectra and the designed<br />

microstructures of these model foods, verified by light microscopy. The estimated absorption<br />

coefficients also showed good agreement with the designed <strong>in</strong>gredients. This research clearly<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates the potential of spatially-resolved spectroscopy methods for non-<strong>in</strong>vasive food quality<br />

<strong>in</strong>spection and process monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

2240

New Tools, concepts and solutions for improv<strong>in</strong>g technologies along the<br />

European food cold cha<strong>in</strong>: the FRISBEE project<br />

Graciela Alvarez a , A. Geeraerd b , D. Leducq a , J.Evans c , E. Wiss<strong>in</strong>k d , E. Indergård e<br />

C. Cotillon f , P. Taoukis g<br />

a CEMAGREF, France (graciela.alvarez@cemagref.fr)<br />

b BIOSYST-MeBioS, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium c LSBU, Langford, UK, d TNO, Apeldoorn, The<br />

Netherlands, e SINTEF Energy Research, Norway f ,ACTIA, , France<br />

g Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, NTUA, Athens, Greece<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

FRISBEE is a <strong>Food</strong> Refrigeration Innovation for Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> Research IP European project.<br />

The four-year, 6 M euro project is funded ma<strong>in</strong>ly through the EU’s 7th Framework<br />

Programme, and has 26 partners; 13 of which are companies, 11 research <strong>in</strong>stitutes or<br />

universities, and 2 nongovernmental organisations. FRISBEE will provide new tools, concepts<br />

and solutions for improv<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies along the European food cold cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

The project will develop new <strong>in</strong>novative mathematical modell<strong>in</strong>g tools that comb<strong>in</strong>e food<br />

quality and safety together with energy, environmental and economic aspects to predict and to<br />

control food quality and safety <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong>. Many <strong>in</strong>novative and high-tech food<br />

refrigeration technologies such as advanced control, thermal storage, nanoparticles, super<br />

chill<strong>in</strong>g and magnetic refrigerator will be studied. Disruptive new technology will be<br />

developed for a new energy-efficient refrigerator which would use magnetic refrigeration<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead of the vapour-compression cycle currently universally used.<br />

FRISBEE ma<strong>in</strong> objectives and expected results<br />

Frisbee will develop, first, a comprehensive database of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Europe, identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

refrigeration needs and available current technologies <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry, and <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

consumer needs and expectations with respect to the food cold cha<strong>in</strong>. We will compile product<br />

temperatures exist<strong>in</strong>g data <strong>in</strong> Europe.<br />

The project will establish the development of novel Quality and Energy/Environment<br />

assessment Tools: The QEEAT. These tools are models, sensors, equipment, protocols and<br />

methodologies that comb<strong>in</strong>e food quality and safety together with energy, environmental and<br />

economic aspects to manage food quality and safety <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong> and energy optimisation.<br />

These tools will allow assess<strong>in</strong>g and improv<strong>in</strong>g exist<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies and<br />

emerg<strong>in</strong>g new technologies. Particular effort will be performed on:<br />

a) Quality models Considerable efforts have been made <strong>in</strong> the last twenty years to develop<br />

mathematical models to predict quality attributes of refrigerated foods. These attributes can be<br />

referr<strong>in</strong>g to microbial quality, and physicochemical quality attributes. Obviously, temperature<br />

is one of the most important controll<strong>in</strong>g factors with<strong>in</strong> this context. Most research has been<br />

performed under stationary temperature conditions to obta<strong>in</strong> model parameters of the quality<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2241

degradation k<strong>in</strong>etics. By record<strong>in</strong>g temperature conditions of the product cont<strong>in</strong>uously by a<br />

temperature sensor, (e.g., <strong>in</strong>expensive robust time–temperature sensors), consistent estimation<br />

of the quality status and the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g shelf life of the products could be achieved based on<br />

models for quality tracers. Quality models under variable conditions will be developed for<br />

FRISBEE.<br />

b) Stochastic aspects of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g thermal determ<strong>in</strong>istic and stochastic models<br />

approaches has to be studied <strong>in</strong> food process eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g due to the variation of product<br />

biological properties under uncerta<strong>in</strong> process conditions. The ma<strong>in</strong> goal for these studies is the<br />

optimization of cost, product quality and safety. Different methods have been proposed <strong>in</strong> these<br />

studies to quantify the effects of the uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty of model parameters on the output of the<br />

studied system. One widely used method is the Monte Carlo, which requires a large number of<br />

repetitive simulations to obta<strong>in</strong> an acceptable level of accuracy.<br />

Very few research work has been performed to take <strong>in</strong>to account stochastic aspects dur<strong>in</strong>g cold<br />

storage, although the product is often exposed to uncerta<strong>in</strong> environmental conditions such as<br />

ambient temperature for variable, product position and durations <strong>in</strong> refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g equipment.<br />

The methodology to be developed needs to focus on the prediction of the evolution and<br />

variability of product temperature, microbial load and total energy needed for conservation<br />

along the cold cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

c)Energy use quality and susta<strong>in</strong>ability .Advanced predictive control of refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g plants<br />

<strong>World</strong>wide, refrigeration consumes 8 % of all energy and is responsible for 2.5 % of<br />

greenhouse gas emissions, therefore any reduction to those figures will be a big improvement.<br />

To improve exist<strong>in</strong>g technologies we will use new concepts such thermal energy storage<br />

devices, nanoparticules of phase change materials (PCM) together with new advanced control<br />

methods. Multiobjective optimisation approach will be performed to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> food quality<br />

reduce energy consumption, environmental impact <strong>in</strong> refrigeration process.<br />

Model predictive control (MPC) will be developed <strong>in</strong> FRISBEE to predict the future response<br />

of the system tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account scenarios such as energy availability and price, weather<br />

forecast, provisional load of the production l<strong>in</strong>e. We will take <strong>in</strong>to account several difficulties<br />

such as <strong>in</strong>teraction between nonl<strong>in</strong>ear dynamics and discrete events, on/off manipulated<br />

variables, cont<strong>in</strong>uous controlled variables such as temperatures set po<strong>in</strong>ts and f<strong>in</strong>ally, several<br />

operation constra<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />

d) Emerg<strong>in</strong>g new refrigeration technologies<br />

If we will be able to develop such QEEAT Quality Energy, Environment Tools, and advanced<br />

control algorithm the next step will be to develop new emerg<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies,<br />

such as nanofluids, air refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e or magnetic refrigeration. We will be able to<br />

develop as well new refrigeration processes such as superchill<strong>in</strong>g and supercool<strong>in</strong>g and f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

to transfer and dissem<strong>in</strong>ate these <strong>in</strong>novations to all sector <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> particular to endusers<br />

such as: <strong>in</strong>dustrial and stakeholders and consumers associations<br />

REFERENCES<br />

http://www.frisbee-project.eu<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the European Community‘s<br />

Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 245288.<br />

2242

Management and Optimization of the Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> and the development of<br />

Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> Data Base<br />

Petros Taoukis, George Katsaros, T. Tsironi, E. Dermesonluoglu, E. Gogou<br />

Laboratory of <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, National Technical<br />

University of Athens, Greece, (taoukis@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> shelf-life determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g post-process<strong>in</strong>g parameter <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong> of chilled and<br />

frozen food products is temperature. A modern quality and safety assurance system should rely<br />

on prevention through monitor<strong>in</strong>g, record<strong>in</strong>g and controll<strong>in</strong>g of critical parameters dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

entire product’s life cycle that <strong>in</strong>cludes the post-process<strong>in</strong>g phase and extends to the time of<br />

use by the f<strong>in</strong>al consumer. Increas<strong>in</strong>g attention is focused on the role and the logistics of<br />

transport, storage and handl<strong>in</strong>g, and the benefits of tak<strong>in</strong>g a supply cha<strong>in</strong> perspective are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

appreciated and pursued. Temperature conditions <strong>in</strong> the chilled distribution cha<strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

risk potential, the shelf life and f<strong>in</strong>al quality of chilled products processed and packed under<br />

Good Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g Practices and Good Hygiene Practices. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> practice significant<br />

deviations from specified conditions often occur, temperature monitor<strong>in</strong>g and record<strong>in</strong>g is a<br />

prerequisite for cha<strong>in</strong> control and any logistics management system that aims on product<br />

quality optimisation at the consumer’s end [1, 2].<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

A systematic data collection for identification and evaluation of the weak l<strong>in</strong>ks of the cold<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> for different types of chilled and frozen products is necessary. A web-based platform<br />

(hosted <strong>in</strong> the l<strong>in</strong>k http://frisbee-wp2.chemeng.ntua.gr/) has been built for data collection,<br />

maximiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation retrieval with user friendl<strong>in</strong>ess. At all stages of the cold cha<strong>in</strong>, the<br />

needs of consumer and European <strong>in</strong>dustry will be considered, ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a greater <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to<br />

deviations between real cold cha<strong>in</strong> data and targeted specifications.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Data from <strong>in</strong>dustry, cold cha<strong>in</strong> parties (distributors, retailers) and consumer surveys, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

all stages of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> (from production to consumption) are collected. All contributors<br />

have privileged access to this database (by log<strong>in</strong> and password) and the access to the database<br />

is secured. This platform consists of a menu driven web-based software retriev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

to accompany the contributed food product time-Temperature data. Some of the most<br />

important questions to be answered from the user <strong>in</strong>clude the stages of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> (i.e.<br />

production warehouse, transportation etc.), the country of orig<strong>in</strong> and the dest<strong>in</strong>ation country of<br />

the products and some descriptive <strong>in</strong>formation of the product such as the food storage<br />

temperature range (chilled, frozen etc.), the characterization (fresh unprocessed, processed<br />

ready to eat etc.) and type of food (meat and meat product, vegetable etc.), the packag<strong>in</strong>g (air<br />

packaged, vacuum packaged etc.) and the recommended food storage conditions. Some details<br />

are asked with regards the data collect<strong>in</strong>g equipment, such as the type and accuracy, date of last<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2243

Add Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> Data 0<br />

Stage/step of cold cha<strong>in</strong><br />

Required Field Production warehouse<br />

Country of orig<strong>in</strong><br />

Required Field<br />

Transportation<br />

Distribution warehouse<br />

Retail warehouse<br />

Hypermarket<br />

Supermarket<br />

Hard discounter<br />

Grocery<br />

Retail display<br />

Consumer domestic refrigerator<br />

Complete cold cha<strong>in</strong><br />

Other<br />

Please select an item<br />

Dest<strong>in</strong>ation country Please select an item<br />

Sample Date 15/02/2011<br />

Time data logger started<br />

collect<strong>in</strong>g data (hrs:m<strong>in</strong>)<br />

<strong>Food</strong> storage temperature<br />

range<br />

Characterization of food<br />

Required Field<br />

Please select an item<br />

Please select an item<br />

Please select an item<br />

Type of food Please select an item<br />

calibration and position dur<strong>in</strong>g temperature<br />

record<strong>in</strong>g (top of the food, below the food<br />

etc.). Dur<strong>in</strong>g on-l<strong>in</strong>e data submission, it may<br />

be mentioned whether the data are<br />

confidential or not. Any <strong>in</strong>put will be<br />

valuable <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g a comprehensive and<br />

extensive database which will serve as a<br />

valuable tool to people and organizations<br />

that have contributed and are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> as researchers or <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

players. To enter the platform the user has to<br />

log<strong>in</strong> after creat<strong>in</strong>g his own account. After<br />

enter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the platform, a screen with the<br />

uploaded files of the user is shown (<strong>in</strong> the<br />

first log<strong>in</strong> there are no files, s<strong>in</strong>ce no file has<br />

been uploaded yet). To upload a file the user<br />

has to click on the “Add Cold Cha<strong>in</strong> data”<br />

button and he is driven to a new screen<br />

where all the necessary <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

(metadata) for the uploaded timetemperature<br />

profiles are shown. After fill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> the available <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the boxes, he<br />

can upload the file with the time-temperature<br />

data (<strong>in</strong> .xls format or any other format<br />

available). After fill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the boxes and<br />

select<strong>in</strong>g the file for upload<strong>in</strong>g, he has to<br />

click on the "Apply" button. Then, the software drives him to the first screen where now he<br />

may see the uploaded file and all its metadata (double-click on the file).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The developed FRISBEE cold cha<strong>in</strong> web based platform offers the potential to effectively<br />

manage and improve cold cha<strong>in</strong> weak l<strong>in</strong>ks. The platform will offer concepts and solutions for<br />

improv<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies along the European food cold cha<strong>in</strong>. The contributed data<br />

of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> will allow one to run simulations and distribution scenarios based on real cold<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> data. Further <strong>in</strong>formation with regards the web based platform and the data <strong>in</strong>put<br />

procedure may be provided by contact<strong>in</strong>g frisbee@chemeng.ntua.gr.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Giannakourou M & Taoukis P. 2003. Application of a TTI-based distribution management system<br />

for quality optimization of frozen vegetables at the consumer end. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science, 68(1),<br />

201-209.<br />

[2] Koutsoumanis, K., Taoukis, P.S., Nychas, G.J.E. 2005. Development of a Safety Monitor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

Assurance System for chilled food products. Int. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Microbiology, 100(1-3), 253-260.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the European Community‘s<br />

Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 245288.<br />

2244

Towards a framework for evaluation of energy consumption, susta<strong>in</strong>ability and<br />

associated food quality <strong>in</strong> the European cold cha<strong>in</strong><br />

Sunny George Gwanpua a , Bert Verl<strong>in</strong>den b , Sietze van der Sluis c , Edo Wess<strong>in</strong>k d ,<br />

Judith Evans e , Tim Brown e , Denis Leducq f , Graciela Alvarez f , Petros Taoukis g , George Katsaros g ,<br />

Valérie Stahl h , Dom<strong>in</strong>ique Thuault i , Ingrid Claussen j , Erlend Indergård j ,<br />

Pieter Verboven a , Bart Nicolaï a , Annemie Geeraerd a<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

a BIOSYST-MeBioS, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (annemie.geeraerd@biw.kuleuven.be)<br />

b VCBT, Leuven, Belgium (bert.verl<strong>in</strong>den@biw.kuleuven.be)<br />

c SAINT TROFEE, Renesse, The Netherlands (s.m.vandersluis@gmail.com)<br />

d TNO, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands (edo.wiss<strong>in</strong>k@tno.nl)<br />

e LSBU, Langford, UK (j.a.evans@lsbu.ac.uk)<br />

f CEMAGREF, Antony, France (graciela.alvarez@cemagref.fr)<br />

g Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Department, NTUA, Athens, Greece (taoukis@chemeng.ntua.gr)<br />

h Aérial, ACTIA Centre, Illkirch, France (v.stahl@aerial-crt.com)<br />

i ADRIA, ACTIA Centre, Quimper, France (dom<strong>in</strong>ique.thuault@adria.tm.fr)<br />

j SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway (Ingrid.C.Claussen@s<strong>in</strong>tef.no)<br />

Many models have been developed to expla<strong>in</strong> temperature evolution and result<strong>in</strong>g food product quality and<br />

safety along cold cha<strong>in</strong>s, but they have not yet been comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>to a user-friendly software. Moreover, although<br />

refrigeration is very important <strong>in</strong> extend<strong>in</strong>g the shelf life of perishable products, it has a setback of be<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

major user of energy and a contributor to global warm<strong>in</strong>g. Reduc<strong>in</strong>g energy usage by refrigeration will<br />

contribute <strong>in</strong> atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the EU Commission’s objective of reduc<strong>in</strong>g energy consumption by 20% by 2020.<br />

Models for refrigeration cycles can be used to predict the energy usage. Also, quantify<strong>in</strong>g CO2 emission is<br />

important <strong>in</strong> order to quantify the impact of a refrigeration technology on the environment. This FRISBEE<br />

presentation focuses on a framework that is currently be<strong>in</strong>g developed to evaluate energy consumption,<br />

environmental impact and associated food quality and safety attributes <strong>in</strong> the European cold cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

As a first step, a reference product needs to be chosen for different product categories and the most important<br />

quality and safety <strong>in</strong>dicators for the different products are selected. For each reference product, both physical<br />

(e.g. mass, geometry, diameter) and thermophysical properties (e.g. density, heat capacity, thermal<br />

conductivity) are be<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ed. A reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>, start<strong>in</strong>g from when the food is<br />

harvested/catched/slaughtered, to when it reaches the f<strong>in</strong>al consumer is currently be<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ed and quantified<br />

for each product. Further elements of the framework are described below.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Reference food products, quality and safety <strong>in</strong>dicators & reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>s<br />

The reference food products were selected based on their economic importance <strong>in</strong> the EU market and are listed<br />

<strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2245

Table 1. Safety and quality <strong>in</strong>dicators for selected food products & start of the reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

Category Reference Safety <strong>in</strong>dicator Quality <strong>in</strong>dicator Start of the reference<br />

Chilled<br />

food product<br />

cold cha<strong>in</strong><br />

Fruit Apple - Firmness, colour, Batch cool<strong>in</strong>g of box<br />

aroma<br />

pallets after harvest<br />

Meat Raw, salted L. monocytogenes Texture, odour Slaughter<br />

and smoked and spoilage lactic<br />

ham & cooked<br />

ham and paté<br />

acid bacteria<br />

Fish Salmon fillets specific spoilage Texture Drum chill<strong>in</strong>g of liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

organisms<br />

salmon<br />

Super chilled/super cooled<br />

Fish Salmon fillets specific spoilage Texture Drum chill<strong>in</strong>g of liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

organisms<br />

salmon<br />

Meat Pork neck L. monocytogenes Texture Slaughter<br />

cutlet<br />

and spoilage lactic<br />

acid bacteria<br />

Frozen<br />

Milk Ice cream - Texture, ice crystal Ag<strong>in</strong>g of pasteurized,<br />

products<br />

size,<br />

evaluation<br />

sensory mixed <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />

Meat Pork meat - Texture, odour Slaughter<br />

Vegetables Sp<strong>in</strong>ach - Vitam<strong>in</strong> C, texture, Freez<strong>in</strong>g of sp<strong>in</strong>ach<br />

colour,<br />

evaluation<br />

sensory pellets<br />

Heat transfer, energy usage and CO2 emissions along the reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>s<br />

For each block of the reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>, process values (such as <strong>in</strong>let/outlet temperature, block duration, air<br />

velocity) and cool<strong>in</strong>g technologies <strong>in</strong>volved are be<strong>in</strong>g listed. The best available technology (BAT) is chosen for<br />

the different blocks of each reference cold cha<strong>in</strong>. Data from the European cold cha<strong>in</strong> will be used to l<strong>in</strong>k energy<br />

usage and CO2 emission to the different technologies. Furthermore, a heat and mass transfer model for the room<br />

air temperature needs to be coupled to the product heat and mass transfer model to enable prediction of product<br />

temperature along the cold cha<strong>in</strong>. The predicted product temperature is used as an <strong>in</strong>put to k<strong>in</strong>etic models of the<br />

different quality and safety <strong>in</strong>dicators predict<strong>in</strong>g quality and safety dynamics. The set po<strong>in</strong>t temperature and<br />

process duration are used as <strong>in</strong>puts for BAT energy models to predict energy usage and refrigerant leakage<br />

along the cold cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

The framework will be used to specify the requirements of the user-friendly software, enabl<strong>in</strong>g to calculate the<br />

effect of improv<strong>in</strong>g exist<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies or <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies <strong>in</strong> European cold<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> on the result<strong>in</strong>g energy usage, emissions and food quality and safety attributes.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the European<br />

Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 245288.<br />

2246

Influence of room temperature on food safety <strong>in</strong> refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et<br />

Laguerre O. a , Hoang M. a , Alvarez G. a , Flick D. b<br />

a Refrigeration <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Cemagref, 92160 Antony, France<br />

(onrawee.laguerre@cemagref.fr;hong-m<strong>in</strong>h.hoang@cemagref.fr; graciela.alvarez@cemagref.fr)<br />

b AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France (denis.flick@agroparistech.fr)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

A survey carried out by our team [1] showed that 30% of products presented <strong>in</strong> refrigerated<br />

display cab<strong>in</strong>et were subjected to temperature abuse (more than 2°C higher than recommended<br />

preservation temperature). Willocx et al [2] carried out a survey on processed vegetables <strong>in</strong><br />

Belgian retail display cab<strong>in</strong>ets. This study also showed that retail display cab<strong>in</strong>ets are a critical<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the cold cha<strong>in</strong>. Evans et al [3] observed that <strong>in</strong> open front display cab<strong>in</strong>et, the majority<br />

of high temperature packs (97%) were located at the front and the largest number (60%) of<br />

them was at the front base.<br />

This work was carried out to; firstly, experimentally study the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the room<br />

temperature on the product temperature <strong>in</strong> an open refrigerated display cab<strong>in</strong>et. Then, these<br />

product temperatures were used <strong>in</strong> a predictive microbiological model to estimate the growth<br />

of Listeria monocytogenes.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Figure 1 shows the side view of the display cab<strong>in</strong>et used <strong>in</strong> our study which was equipped with<br />

one air curta<strong>in</strong> and 5 shelves. It was loaded with packages of test product made of<br />

methylcellulose. Some packages were <strong>in</strong>strumented by calibrated thermocouples (T-type).<br />

The display cab<strong>in</strong>et was located <strong>in</strong> a test room <strong>in</strong> which the room temperature was controlled at<br />

20, 25 and 30°C. The temperature of air and test packages was measured every m<strong>in</strong>ute until the<br />

steady state was reached.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The average temperature was calculated over 3h of the steady state period and reported <strong>in</strong><br />

figure1. The rise of room temperature leads to <strong>in</strong>crease the air and the load temperatures<br />

particularly at the front of the display cab<strong>in</strong>et.<br />

A simple predictive model was used assum<strong>in</strong>g a first order growth rate. The growth of Listeria<br />

monocytogenes was estimated at various product temperatures after 4 days storage (Table 1).<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Higher room temperature leads to higher air and product temperatures particularly the one<br />

located at the front. This can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the external air <strong>in</strong>filtration and the heat loss from<br />

the display cab<strong>in</strong>et. The product temperature was used <strong>in</strong> a predictive microbiological model to<br />

estimate the Listeria monocytogenes growth. This approach can be used as a tool of risk<br />

evaluation.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2247

a-Troom = 20°C b-Troom = 25°C c-Troom = 30°C<br />

Figure 1. Product and air temperatures <strong>in</strong> the studied display cab<strong>in</strong>et.<br />

bold and italic=air temperature, underl<strong>in</strong>ed= surface temperature of package, not underl<strong>in</strong>ed = centre<br />

temperature of package<br />

Table 1. Influence of product temperature on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes after 4 days storage.<br />

Temperature Log[N(t)/N0)] 1.3°C (lowest observed product temperature) 0.13<br />

4.0°C (maximal recommended storage temperature) 1.2<br />

7.0°C 3.8<br />

9.9°C (highest observed product temperature) 7.4<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Cemagref & ANIA 2004. La cha<strong>in</strong>e du froid du fabricant au consommateur: résultats de l'audit<br />

ANIA/Cemagref. Revue Générale du Froid, 1042, 29-36.<br />

[2] Willocx, F., Hendrick, M., Tobback, P., 1994. A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary survey <strong>in</strong>to the temperature conditions<br />

and residence time distribution of m<strong>in</strong>imally processed MAP vegetables <strong>in</strong> Belgian retail display<br />

cab<strong>in</strong>ets. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Refrigeration, 17(7), 436-444.<br />

[3] Evans, J.A., Scarcelli S. & Swa<strong>in</strong> M.V.L. 2007. Temperature and energy performance of<br />

refrigerated retail display and commercial cater<strong>in</strong>g cab<strong>in</strong>ets under test conditions.<br />

<strong>International</strong> Journal of Refrigeration, 30, 398-408.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the European Community’s<br />

Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 245288.<br />

2248

Improvement of exist<strong>in</strong>g concepts and refrigeration technologies: advanced control and<br />

thermal energy storage applied to food Refrigeration<br />

Denis Leducq a , P. Shalbart a , F. Tr<strong>in</strong>quet a , A. Graciela a , B. Verl<strong>in</strong>den b , S. van der Sluis c , E. Wess<strong>in</strong>k d , J.<br />

Evans e Tim Brown e , j Bart Nicolaï f , Annemie Geeraerd f. P. Verboven f , J. M Lagaron g , F. Jay h , M. Pirani i , ,<br />

E. Indergård j<br />

a CEMAGREF, Antony, France (denis.leducq@cemagref.fr), b VCBT, Leuven, Belgium c SAINT TROFEE,<br />

Renesse, The Netherlands d TNO, , Apeldoorn, The Netherlands, e LSBU, Langford, UK, f BIOSYST-<br />

MeBioS, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium , g CSIC, Spa<strong>in</strong>, h CRISTOPIA Energy Systems, France i SPES,<br />

Fabriano, Italy, j SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In a context of greenhouse gas emissions, oil price ris<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>termittent renewable energy<br />

sources, energy storage, and more specifically thermal energy storage is one of the best<br />

candidates to reduce and optimize the energy use of refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g systems. Moreover, the<br />

temperature stability and the autonomy of those systems <strong>in</strong> case of power failure, related to the<br />

use of thermal energy storage devices, is also an important factor of food quality and security<br />

enhancement. The thermal energy storage (TES) technology has already attracted a number of<br />

applications. From short-term storage <strong>in</strong> food conta<strong>in</strong>ers to long-term storage <strong>in</strong> low<br />

temperature warehouses, food eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g should also take a full advantage of its potential.<br />

Coupled with control strategies as predictive control approach, it can lead to a drastic reduction<br />

of energy consumption and a significant product quality enhancement. Through two cases, this<br />

paper proposes to show the potential of those technologies for food applications.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Household refrigerator with thermal energy storage<br />

The orig<strong>in</strong>al experimental device is a s<strong>in</strong>gle-compartment refrigerator. A phase change material<br />

(PCM) slab is located on the back side of the evaporator. Temperatures were measured at<br />

various locations on the refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g system, <strong>in</strong> the TES device and the cab<strong>in</strong>et. The<br />

experiments have been realized <strong>in</strong>side an environmental chamber with temperature and<br />

humidity controlled with<strong>in</strong> 0.1°C and 1% fluctuations respectively. The value of the overall<br />

heat transfer coefficient for the refrigerator is 0.44 W/m².K.<br />

Dairy chiller with thermal energy storage capacity and advanced control<br />

The second experimental device is an <strong>in</strong>dustrial dairy chiller with ice and chilled water storage<br />

capacities. The refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g plant is split <strong>in</strong>to three dist<strong>in</strong>ct systems. Two of them are dedicated<br />

to water cool<strong>in</strong>g and one to ice mak<strong>in</strong>g. An advanced controller reads any measurement on<br />

every programmable controller connected to the systems, and analyse the behaviour of the<br />

global plant. Its action is based on modify<strong>in</strong>g set po<strong>in</strong>ts or directly controll<strong>in</strong>g the ma<strong>in</strong><br />

actuators (for example, compressors), depend<strong>in</strong>g on the process.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2249

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

Household refrigerator with thermal energy storage<br />

To evaluate the energy performance and the cool storage capacity of the refrigerator with and<br />

without latent heat storage, the experiments have been performed for various thermal loads,<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g no PCM, and water or an eutectic mixture as PCMs. For some specific runs, an<br />

additional thermal load has been imposed us<strong>in</strong>g electric heaters, equipped with rheostat control<br />

units for heat adjustment.<br />

A first result observed was that the cycl<strong>in</strong>g period has changed from 180 mn without PCM to<br />

540 mn with only a 5 mm PCM. This is a significant enhancement of the security for the<br />

product s<strong>in</strong>ce the <strong>in</strong>tegration of latent heat storage allows 5–9 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous operation<br />

without electrical supply (to be compared to 1–3 h without PCM). Another consequence is the<br />

damp<strong>in</strong>g role for the food product temperature which has already been <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong><br />

literature, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a food product quality enhancement.<br />

A second significant result was a 10–30% <strong>in</strong>crease of the coefficient of performance,<br />

depend<strong>in</strong>g on the thermal load, ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to a higher evaporation temperature and thus a<br />

higher cool<strong>in</strong>g capacity.<br />

Dairy chiller with thermal energy storage capacity and advanced control<br />

Model predictive control (MPC) will be developed <strong>in</strong> FRISBEE to predict the future response<br />

of the system tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account scenarios such as energy availability and price, weather<br />

forecast, provisional load of the production l<strong>in</strong>e, and the thermal <strong>in</strong>ertia caused by the phase<br />

change material.<br />

A previous experiment on a dairy chiller has already shown the potential of the predictive<br />

control approach. It consisted to implement a predictive controller us<strong>in</strong>g a physical model of<br />

the plant, a criteria based on energy consumption and refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g demand, and f<strong>in</strong>ally a<br />

possibility for the controller to modify remotely the set-po<strong>in</strong>ts of the plant. After activation of<br />

the controller, a 8% enhancement of the energy consumption has been observed, ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to<br />

a much more adequate use of the three dist<strong>in</strong>ct systems.<br />

In the last example, there was no model predict<strong>in</strong>g the behaviour of the PCM, no foreseeable<br />

events taken <strong>in</strong>to account and the criteria, restricted to the energy consumption, did not take<br />

<strong>in</strong>to account any product impact. All these limitations will be overtaken <strong>in</strong> FRISBEE project.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

By us<strong>in</strong>g a predictive control approach or us<strong>in</strong>g phase change material <strong>in</strong> refrigeration systems,<br />

previous experiments have already shown significant enhancements on energy consumption.<br />

By anticipat<strong>in</strong>g on the refrigeration demand, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account foreseeable scenarios, us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

criteria <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g quality of the product and energy performance, implement<strong>in</strong>g a predictive<br />

control approach and thermal energy storage devices, the FRISBEE project should allow to<br />

develop an <strong>in</strong>novative and safer approach of controll<strong>in</strong>g the refrigerat<strong>in</strong>g systems <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />

the cold cha<strong>in</strong> application.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the European Community‘s<br />

Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 245288.<br />

2250

Emerg<strong>in</strong>g Refrigeration Technologies at Laboratory Scale To Improve <strong>Food</strong> Quality And<br />

Reduce Environmental Impact And Energy Consumption<br />

Judith Evans a , Tim Brown a , Denis Leducq b , Graciela Alvarezb b , Pieter Verboven c , Bart Nicolaï c ,<br />

Annemie Geeraerd c , Edo Wess<strong>in</strong>k d , Ingrid Claussen e , Erlend Indergård e , José Maria Lagarón f,h , Rocio<br />

Pérez Masiá f,h , Stephane Mousset g , Alper Soysal e , Marie-Christ<strong>in</strong>e Zelem j and Neil Wilson k .<br />

a<br />

LSBU, Langford, UK (j.a.evans@lsbu.ac.uk)<br />

b<br />

CEMAGREF, Antony, France (graciela.alvarez@cemagref.fr)<br />

c<br />

BIOSYST-MeBioS, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (annemie.geeraerd@biw.kuleuven.be)<br />

d<br />

TNO, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands (edo.wiss<strong>in</strong>k@tno.nl)<br />

e<br />

SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway (Ingrid.C.Claussen@s<strong>in</strong>tef.no)<br />

f<br />

CSIC, Burjassot, Spa<strong>in</strong> (lagaron@iata.csic.es)<br />

g<br />

Costan S.p.A, Limana, Italy (stephane.mousset@eptarefrigeration.com)<br />

h<br />

NanoBioMatters, Burjassot, Spa<strong>in</strong> (lagaron@nanobiomatters.com)<br />

e<br />

Arcelik, Istanbul, Turkey (alper.soysal@arcelik.com)<br />

j<br />

CNRS, Toulouse, France (zelem@univ-tlse2.fr)<br />

k<br />

Camfridge, Cambridge, UK (nwilson@camfridge.com)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The Frisbee project (<strong>Food</strong> Refrigeration Innovations for Safety, consumers’ Benefit, Environmental<br />

impact and Energy optimisation along the cold cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Europe) will develop new tools and technologies<br />

for use throughout the food cold cha<strong>in</strong>. In work package 5 the Frisbee team will develop new and<br />

emerg<strong>in</strong>g refrigeration technologies for representative cold cha<strong>in</strong>s selected for application <strong>in</strong> the<br />

European food <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

TECHNOLOGIES BEING CONSIDERED<br />

There are a huge number of technologies that are be<strong>in</strong>g developed that may have applicability <strong>in</strong> the<br />

refrigeration of foods. An evaluation of the available technologies that had applicability <strong>in</strong> the next 5-7<br />

years resulted <strong>in</strong> the technologies listed <strong>in</strong> Table 1 be<strong>in</strong>g selected for development. Most of the<br />

technologies are more suited to a certa<strong>in</strong> sector of the cold cha<strong>in</strong> and will be applied to the selected food<br />

types be<strong>in</strong>g considered with<strong>in</strong> the project (pork, salmon, apples, sp<strong>in</strong>ach or ice cream).<br />

Table 1. Technologies be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> work package 5.<br />

Sector Technology Sector of cold cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>Food</strong><br />

<strong>Food</strong> Superchill<strong>in</strong>g Primary chill<strong>in</strong>g Pork<br />

based Supercool<strong>in</strong>g Primary chill<strong>in</strong>g Pork<br />

Smart packag<strong>in</strong>g Retail/domestic All<br />

<strong>Process</strong> Magnetic refrigeration Domestic All<br />

based Air cycle refrigeration Blast freez<strong>in</strong>g Pork, salmon, sp<strong>in</strong>ach,<br />

ice cream<br />

Nanoparticle refrigeration All Non specific<br />

VIPs (Vacuum Insulated Panels) All Non specific<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2251

A short overview of each technology is conta<strong>in</strong>ed below.<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g and supercool<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g and supercool<strong>in</strong>g have great potential to enable safe, high quality and long term storage of<br />

foods without the consumer perceived detrimental effects of freez<strong>in</strong>g. Superchill<strong>in</strong>g allows 10-15% of the<br />

free water <strong>in</strong> a product to be frozen whereas supercoool<strong>in</strong>g enables all water to rema<strong>in</strong> unfrozen. These<br />

technologies are be<strong>in</strong>g considered by LSBU and SINTEF and will be comb<strong>in</strong>ed with perfusion chill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

for meat where the additional benefits of rapid cool<strong>in</strong>g, low weight loss and novel products are envisaged.<br />

Smart packag<strong>in</strong>g and VIPs<br />

Work package 5 will develop 2 novel packag<strong>in</strong>g technologies. LSBU will <strong>in</strong>vestigate VIPs for enhanced<br />

thermal <strong>in</strong>sulation for refrigeration systems and CSIC, Nanobiomatters and Cemagref will work on<br />

nanoencapsulated PCMs (phase change materials) for food packag<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

VIPs have conductivities 5 times less than standard polyurethane <strong>in</strong>sulation. However, their application<br />

needs skill and the costs of panels still restricts uptake. With<strong>in</strong> work package 5 LSBU will develop<br />

models and <strong>in</strong>vestigate reduc<strong>in</strong>g manufactur<strong>in</strong>g costs. The work to develop PCMs with<strong>in</strong> food packag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

will use composite nano-structured PCMs <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to packag<strong>in</strong>g to provide thermal storage<br />

capacity and to prevent unwanted temperature abuse of perishable food.<br />

Magnetic refrigeration<br />

Magnetic refrigeration exploits the magnetocaloric effect (the temperature change observed when certa<strong>in</strong><br />

materials are exposed to a rapidly chang<strong>in</strong>g magnetic field) found <strong>in</strong> for example<br />

gadol<strong>in</strong>ium, lanthanum or manganese alloys. The real challenge <strong>in</strong> magnetic refrigeration is to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

the temperature span of the refrigeration cycle. A key <strong>in</strong>novation has been the creation of a regenerative<br />

cool<strong>in</strong>g cycle, which extends the span of a magnetic refrigerator. In work package 5, Camfridge are<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g magnetic refrigeration for domestic and commercial refrigerators with the help of Arcelik and<br />

Costan.<br />

Air cycle refrigeration<br />

LSBU are work<strong>in</strong>g to develop air cycle refrigeration for rapid freez<strong>in</strong>g applications. Us<strong>in</strong>g air as the<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g refrigerant has considerable potential or low temperature freez<strong>in</strong>g applications. Air is a benign<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g fluid and does not harm the environment or has the safety implications that are associated with<br />

other refrigerants. There is considerable potential to develop air cycle systems based on optimised and<br />

balanced components that would be suitable for demonstration <strong>in</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry. The ma<strong>in</strong> areas<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated will be fast freez<strong>in</strong>g potentially comb<strong>in</strong>ed with heat<strong>in</strong>g of hot water or food cook<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Nanoparticle refrigeration optimisation<br />

With<strong>in</strong> the project Cemagref will work on develop<strong>in</strong>g nanofluids for refrigeration system optimisation.<br />

Nanofluids are eng<strong>in</strong>eered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles (1-100 nm) <strong>in</strong> a base fluid that are used<br />

to enhance heat transfer <strong>in</strong> conventional refrigeration. Large <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> heat transfer coefficients have<br />

been observed by us<strong>in</strong>g only a low concentration of highly conductivity particles (carbon nanotubes).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Technologies with<strong>in</strong> work package 5 will be used together with technologies from earlier work packages<br />

as part of the demonstration and dissem<strong>in</strong>ation activities where optimised cold cha<strong>in</strong>s for pork, salmon,<br />

apples, sp<strong>in</strong>ach and ice cream will be promoted.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n°<br />

245288.<br />

2252

The potential for Superchill<strong>in</strong>g to enable safe, high quality and long term storage of foods<br />

I. C. Claussen<br />

SINTEF Energy Research, Kolbjørn Hejes vei 1D, NO-7465 Trondheim, Norway<br />

(<strong>in</strong>grid.c.claussen@s<strong>in</strong>tef.no)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g is a concept where the temperature is reduced 1-2 °C below the <strong>in</strong>itial freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t of the product. This results <strong>in</strong> a so-called ‘shell freez<strong>in</strong>g’, where a th<strong>in</strong> layer of ice is<br />

produced on the product surface dur<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g. The small amount of ice formed with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

product serves as a heat s<strong>in</strong>k, elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the need for ice dur<strong>in</strong>g storage and transport. As an<br />

illustration, chilled haddock fillets have approximately 30 % higher environmental impact<br />

potential than superchilled fillets due to the need for ice dur<strong>in</strong>g storage and transport [1].<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, the ice distribution equalizes and the product obta<strong>in</strong>s a uniform temperature<br />

and the product appears as fresh. Consumer market analysis gives superchilled products as<br />

good as or better quality score compared with chilled products.<br />

The superchill<strong>in</strong>g concept is not a new <strong>in</strong>vention, and was described as early as 1920 by Le<br />

Danois. Later, <strong>in</strong> the 1970’s and 1980’s, superchill<strong>in</strong>g was ma<strong>in</strong>ly studied for transportation of<br />

fish at sea. For the last 10-20 years the concept has been under cont<strong>in</strong>uous development.<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g can be performed by means of several methods, RSW chill<strong>in</strong>g (refrigerated sea<br />

water), air chill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> blast tunnels and contact chill<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g among the most used. The<br />

Norwegian food <strong>in</strong>dustry is currently tak<strong>in</strong>g on the superchill<strong>in</strong>g concept. In the meat <strong>in</strong>dustry,<br />

superchill<strong>in</strong>g is used ‘<strong>in</strong>-house’ <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustrial plant to expand the shelf life of the product,<br />

ease the production and storage plann<strong>in</strong>g and to extend the sales period for fresh meat. In the<br />

fish <strong>in</strong>dustry, superchill<strong>in</strong>g of fillets <strong>in</strong>creases the product yield and quality, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> more<br />

of the raw material be<strong>in</strong>g sold as fresh fillets rather than frozen. For both <strong>in</strong>dustries,<br />

superchilled conditions are applied only for the process<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>e and <strong>in</strong>itial storage and the<br />

advantages related to prolonged shelf life is to this day not fully exploited.<br />

The objective of this work is to po<strong>in</strong>t out the ma<strong>in</strong> advantages and potential for the<br />

superchill<strong>in</strong>g concept to enable safe, high quality and long term storage of foods.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

Several superchill<strong>in</strong>g experiments have been performed on different food products to<br />

demonstrate the extended shelf life of superchilled products. The extended sheld life consider<br />

both the microbiological and physical changes dur<strong>in</strong>g superchill<strong>in</strong>g and storage of superchilled<br />

products. A calorimetric method for measur<strong>in</strong>g ice fraction has been established, and an onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

near-<strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopy (NIR) method for measur<strong>in</strong>g ice fraction is validated for prediction<br />

of superchilled salmon [2]. The microbiological growth, by means of CFU (colony form<strong>in</strong>g<br />

units) is measured by method NMKL 96 [3]. Other physical changes such as drip loss, water<br />

hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity and texture are measured by means of standardised methods <strong>in</strong> order to verify<br />

quality changes <strong>in</strong> superchilled food products compared to chilled products.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2253

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The shelf life of a food product is ma<strong>in</strong>ly def<strong>in</strong>ed based on a quality limit of 10 7 CFU/g, above<br />

which food is regarded as unfit for human consumption. Figure 1 is based on several<br />

experiments on superchilled and chilled food products and summarises the average shelf life<br />

for the specific products due to the quality limit of 10 7 CFU/g.<br />

Figure 1. Differences <strong>in</strong> shelf life of superchilled and chilled chicken, salmon and cod.<br />

Figure 1 reveals that the shelf life of superchilled chicken and salmon is 50 % longer compared<br />

to chilled product, while superchilled cod obta<strong>in</strong> 46 % longer shelf life compared to chilled<br />

product. S<strong>in</strong>ce previous and ongo<strong>in</strong>g research have already shown that superchill<strong>in</strong>g of food<br />

products does <strong>in</strong>crease the shelf life and give high quality end-products, the ma<strong>in</strong> challenge<br />

today is an efficient implementation and optimization of the superchill<strong>in</strong>g process<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong><br />

the different food <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />

CONCLUSION<br />

Superchill<strong>in</strong>g enable safe, high quality and long term storage of foods. The ma<strong>in</strong> advantage is<br />

the approximate doubl<strong>in</strong>g of shelf life for superchilled products compared to chilled products,<br />

high product quality, higher yield and the potential for reduced environmental impacts<br />

(approximately 30 %) when chang<strong>in</strong>g from chilled to superchilled value cha<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The research lead<strong>in</strong>g to these results has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />

European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n°<br />

245288.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Claussen I.C., Indergård, E. & Gr<strong>in</strong>de M. 2011. Comparative life cucle assessment (LCA) of production and<br />

transport of chilled versus superchilled Haddock fillets from Norway to France. <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

and <strong>Food</strong>, Athens, Greece, 22-26 May, 2011. To be published. [2] Stevik A.M., Duun, A.S., Rustad, T., O’Farrell M.,<br />

Schulerud, H. & Ottestad S. 201. Ice fraction assessment by near-<strong>in</strong>frared spectroscopy enhanc<strong>in</strong>g automated<br />

superchill<strong>in</strong>g process l<strong>in</strong>es. Journal of <strong>Food</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 100(2010), 169-177. [3] Nordic Committee on <strong>Food</strong><br />

Analysis. 2003. NMKL Method 96. Bacterial Exam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>in</strong> Fresh and Frozen Seafoods, third ed. [4] Stevik A.M., &<br />

Claussen I.C. 2011. Industrial superchill<strong>in</strong>g. A practical approach. <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong>,<br />

Athens, Greece, 22-26 May, 2011. To be published.<br />

2254

CAFÉ : Computer-Aided <strong>Food</strong> processes for control <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

Docha<strong>in</strong> Denis a , Alonso Antonio b<br />

a<br />

CESAME, Université catholique de Louva<strong>in</strong>, Louva<strong>in</strong>-la-Neuve, Belgium<br />

(denis.docha<strong>in</strong>@uclouva<strong>in</strong>.be)<br />

b<br />

CSIC, Vigo, Spa<strong>in</strong> (antonio@iim.csic.es)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The food <strong>in</strong>dustry is well established and many processes <strong>in</strong> operation nowadays are the<br />

subject of <strong>in</strong>tensive work with regard to the ways of devis<strong>in</strong>g better operation modes <strong>in</strong> terms<br />

of product quality and safety (how to operate <strong>in</strong> order to ensure quality and comply with<br />

safety constra<strong>in</strong>ts) as well as <strong>in</strong> terms of operation costs and environmental impact. There is<br />

also an <strong>in</strong>tensive development work aimed at respond<strong>in</strong>g to consumer demands by design<strong>in</strong>g<br />

new products and design<strong>in</strong>g and operat<strong>in</strong>g the more appropriate comb<strong>in</strong>ation of unit<br />

operations needed to produce them.<br />

However and despite the fact that the essential physical, biochemical and microbiological<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>ciples are reasonably well understood, foods are complex systems with properties that<br />

because are connected with quality and safety are usually very difficult to measure, estimate<br />

or even represent through reliable models. Such properties may <strong>in</strong>clude physico-chemical<br />

parameters associated to quality such as nutrient content, texture, colour or rheology, or<br />

microbiological characteristics usually connected with food safety.<br />

In addition, and from a <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> perspective, the food <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong>tegrates a rich<br />

variety of apparently very diverse processes and technologies thus hamper<strong>in</strong>g the search for<br />

unify<strong>in</strong>g paradigms useful for deal<strong>in</strong>g with different yet analogous processes. Such processes<br />

have only recently been classified <strong>in</strong>to a reasonably small number of categories, namely<br />

bioconversion, separation, preservation and structur<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The objective of the CAFÉ project is to provide new paradigms for the smart control of food<br />

processes, on the basis of four typical processes <strong>in</strong> the areas of bioconversion, separation,<br />

preservation and structur<strong>in</strong>g. The novelty of the project lies <strong>in</strong> the capacity of comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g PAT<br />

(<strong>Process</strong> Analytical Technology) and sens<strong>in</strong>g devices with models and simulation<br />

environment with the follow<strong>in</strong>g objectives:<br />

1) to extract as much as possible <strong>in</strong>formation from the process/plant <strong>in</strong> the form of<br />

precise estimations of unmeasured variables def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> particular, product quality,<br />

and of physical parameters chang<strong>in</strong>g as the process dynamics does or difficult to<br />

know beforehand;<br />

2) to save and encode <strong>in</strong> a reliable and usable way, basically via physical/determ<strong>in</strong>istic<br />

models;<br />

3) to develop control methods to keep uniform quality and production despite the<br />

variability <strong>in</strong> the raw material and/or to respond to sudden changes <strong>in</strong> the demand.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2255

The <strong>in</strong>tegration concept of CAFÉ<br />

The four selected case studies are: w<strong>in</strong>e mak<strong>in</strong>g (bioconversion), microfiltration of food<br />

beverages (separation), freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g of lactic acid bacteria (preservation), and ice cream<br />

crystallization (structur<strong>in</strong>g).<br />

The notion of paradigm is central <strong>in</strong> the CAFÉ project and serves as an <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>e<br />

for most of the research activities with<strong>in</strong> the project.<br />

The consortium consists of sixteen organisations from seven member states. Due to the<br />

ambitious technical nature of the project, five members of the consortium are universities<br />

(UCL, APT, UTOV, WUR, UNIMAN) and three are research establishments (INRA, CSIC,<br />

Cemagref), br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g to the consortium complementary skills, <strong>in</strong>ternationally recognised<br />

expertise and a wealth of experience <strong>in</strong> European Union funded projects. The research<br />

establishments also provide the l<strong>in</strong>k between academia and <strong>in</strong>dustry. One company (SPES)<br />

gives the support for the development of the hardware sensors and for the hardware<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegration of the project results. One company (Telstar) <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the production of freezedryers<br />

is participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the implementation and evaluation of the tools developed <strong>in</strong> CAFÉ.<br />

One company (PMS) <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> freeze-dry<strong>in</strong>g products provides the<br />

necessary expertise and facilities as end-users for the evaluation of the tools developed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

framework of the present project. Three companies (C-Tech, Alctra, Norit) <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> sensor<br />

development and commercialisation complement the sensor development activity and further<br />

contribute to the <strong>in</strong>tegration and demonstration activities of the project. One company (BIV<br />

Trace) provides expertise <strong>in</strong> traceability and quality management. And one company<br />

(PSUTec) provides the necessary support for project management.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

http://www.cafe-project.org/<br />

2256

Design and development of REAlistic food Models with well-characterised micro- and<br />

macro-structure and composition: DREAM<br />

Monique Axelos<br />

Head of the Science and <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> of Agricultural Products division<br />

Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)<br />

INRA Nantes, France (monique.axelos@nantes.<strong>in</strong>ra.fr)<br />

DREAM is aimed at develop<strong>in</strong>g realistic, physical and mathematical food models with wellcharacterised<br />

structures, for use as standards to be exploited across all major food categories to<br />

facilitate development of common approaches to risk/benefit assessment and nutritional quality<br />

<strong>in</strong> food research and <strong>in</strong>dustry. These models will enhance the knowledge on process-structureproperty<br />

relationships from molecular to macroscopic levels. They will favour the creation of<br />

generic food matrices, based on tailored microstructure to assess functional and nutritional<br />

properties.<br />

In terms of composition and structure, foods are very complex systems. Although scientists<br />

have a good grasp of the former, the control of food structure rema<strong>in</strong>s difficult. But<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g food structure is the key to understand<strong>in</strong>g the effect of food on the human<br />

health. There is an urgent need to improve our current knowledge on: i) the relationships<br />

among food composition, process<strong>in</strong>g, end-product structure and result<strong>in</strong>g material properties;<br />

ii) the impact of these environment changes on nutriments and toxicants bioavailability as well<br />

as on the microbial foodborne population and conversely, iii) the effect of the food microbiota<br />

on the various food matrices.<br />

The development of standard food models represent<strong>in</strong>g each a major food categories will make<br />

it easier for public and private research partners to pool their knowledge and to enable partners<br />

of the food <strong>in</strong>dustry, especially SME's, to benefit from models that are both generic and<br />

realistic enough to optimize their exist<strong>in</strong>g processes or to come up with new ones. Scientists<br />

also need generic but as realistic as possible models that can mimic food structure complexity.<br />

Such models would make it much easier to assess the impact of a change <strong>in</strong> composition or of<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g conditions on the nutritional and health properties of foods and to help for<br />

quantitative risk assessment studies.<br />

To address the broadest possible range of food products and take <strong>in</strong>to account their high<br />

variability, foods will be classified <strong>in</strong> four generic structure groups:<br />

· Filled cellular Solid (fruit and vegetables)<br />

· Prote<strong>in</strong>ous cellular network (meat);<br />

· Comb<strong>in</strong>ed gelled/dispersed/aerated systems (dairy products such as yogurts, creams and<br />

cheeses)<br />

· Open solid foam (cereal products such as bread).<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2257

With<strong>in</strong> these groups, the most relevant types of food products will be chosen us<strong>in</strong>g criteria<br />

encompass<strong>in</strong>g structural characteristics, <strong>in</strong>dustrial needs, and societal demands. In this way,<br />

risks/benefits (food safety, nutritional aspects), economic weight and susta<strong>in</strong>ability will be<br />

taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration. The fact that these four groups are based on structure rather than<br />

specific products (open solid foam rather than bread for <strong>in</strong>stance) will facilitate dissem<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

and promotion activities through specific <strong>in</strong>dustry-sector associations, and encourage the<br />

extension of the models to other food commodities.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>novation brought by DREAM consists <strong>in</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g cognitive science to <strong>in</strong>tegrate knowhow<br />

<strong>in</strong>to scientific knowledge to the development of model foods and their standard operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

procedures (SOPs) for use by food <strong>in</strong>dustries, an up until now unprecedented approach.<br />

Industrial partners (SOREDAB and UB) and five <strong>in</strong>dustry-oriented organizations (ADRIA,<br />

CCFRA, CCHU, ACTILAIT and TIFN) are <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to the project, contribut<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

specification, provid<strong>in</strong>g validation feedback for overall improvement and standardisation.<br />

The applicability of the model foods and food models will be assessed before transferr<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

protocols and dissem<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the ga<strong>in</strong>ed knowledge to <strong>in</strong>dustry and other stakeholders<br />

(EFFoST, The European "<strong>Food</strong> for Life" platform and national platforms, the CIAA and<br />

national federations, EFSA and national regulatory bodies).<br />

For each of these categories, three types of models will be developed:<br />

_ Generic Model <strong>Food</strong>s (GMFs) are realistic physical models <strong>in</strong> which several parameters can<br />

be varied, lead<strong>in</strong>g to a series of well def<strong>in</strong>ed samples for each given type of foods; GMF<br />

fabrication protocols will be established; GMFs’ structure and chemical composition will be<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed and relationships between structure and chemical composition and functional<br />

properties will be characterised.<br />

_ Basic Knowledge Models (BKMs) are elementary food models describ<strong>in</strong>g specific aspects<br />

of GMFs, through heuristic or mathematical approaches; for example, BKMs describe the role<br />

played by temperature, pressure, chemical composition, etc. <strong>in</strong> a GMF’s structure and result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

material properties.<br />

_ Integrated Knowledge Models (IKMs) are dynamic networks - software systems –<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g the operat<strong>in</strong>g rules of BKMs, technical expert knowledge, food properties and food<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g data from the GMFs. Results from <strong>in</strong>itial experiments and simulations will be used<br />

to improve IKMs’ mathematical models to reveal key parameters and material behaviour and<br />

help ref<strong>in</strong>e GMFs: this iterative approach will optimise the food model concept prior to the<br />

pilot stage.<br />

Project website 1 address: http://dream.aaeuropae.org/<br />

1 The home page of the website should conta<strong>in</strong> the generic European flag and the FP7 logo which are<br />

available <strong>in</strong> electronicz format at the Europa website (logo of the European flag:<br />

http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/<strong>in</strong>dex_en.htm logo of the 7th<br />

FP: http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/<strong>in</strong>dex_en.cfm?pg=logos). The area of activity of the project should<br />

also be mentioned.<br />

2258

Innovative technologies from Animal-by Products bioconversion<br />

European project PROSPARE<br />

Prof. Arnaldo Dossena a , Prof. Vladimir Popov b<br />

a<br />

Depts.Organic and <strong>Food</strong> Chemistry University of Parma, Parma, Italy (arnaldo.dossena@unipr.it)<br />

b<br />

A.N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia<br />

(vpopov@<strong>in</strong>bi.ras.ru)<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

PROSPARE -PROgress <strong>in</strong> Sav<strong>in</strong>g Prote<strong>in</strong>s and Recovery of Energy (www.prospare.eu) is<br />

a jo<strong>in</strong>t European-Russian research project, f<strong>in</strong>anced under the 7th Framework Programme (N.<br />

212696, 2008 - 2011) for a total budget of 3.7M€ and an EU contribution of 2.7M€, committed<br />

to the recovery of poultry <strong>in</strong>dustry leftovers <strong>in</strong>to valuable end products. The PROSPARE<br />

consortium <strong>in</strong>cludes eight research groups: four from the EU (two from Italy and two from<br />

Belgium) and four from the Russian Federation. The consortium is coord<strong>in</strong>ated by the<br />

University of Parma (Italy), Department of Organic and Industrial Chemistry. The Russian<br />

partners are coord<strong>in</strong>ated by Bach Institute of Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences<br />

(INBI).<br />

The project worked at convert<strong>in</strong>g a problem <strong>in</strong>to an added value bio-opportunity. In the<br />

production of meat for human consumption, up to 50% of the animal weight is discharged, as<br />

leftover [1]. This enormous mass from the meat <strong>in</strong>dustry has still raw materials rich <strong>in</strong> prote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

and lipids. Although this potentiality, most of this material is <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>erated - only 22% is<br />

converted <strong>in</strong>to feed and barely 3% can become food [2].<br />

The traditional render<strong>in</strong>g technologies, based on prolonged heat<strong>in</strong>g of the leftovers, ensure<br />

microbial safety and <strong>in</strong>crease digestibility, but use enormous amounts of energy and cause the<br />

degradation of components of high biological value, at the same time <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g the formation of<br />

compounds with undesired sensory properties and potentially harmful. Therefore, PROSPARE<br />

project is aimed at development of complex technological platform for conversion of poultry<br />

process<strong>in</strong>g by-products <strong>in</strong>to value added prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates and biodiesel.<br />

MATERIALS & METHODS<br />

The technologies for process<strong>in</strong>g the raw materials (feathers, bones, carcasses etc.) have been<br />

developed by the Russian State Research Institute <strong>in</strong> Poultry <strong>Process</strong><strong>in</strong>g Industry (VNIIP) and<br />

Symbol Ltd.. Technology of conversion of poultry meat &bone residues <strong>in</strong>to functional animal<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> (FAP) is based on enzymatic hydrolysis of raw materials with enzyme blend under mild<br />

pH (7.0) and temperature (about 55°C) conditions. The technology was optimized by<br />

multifactor methodology with soluble prote<strong>in</strong> recovery as key parameter monitored.<br />

The Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO) developed a suitable procedure for<br />

the transformation of lipids <strong>in</strong> biodiesel. Fat and tallow obta<strong>in</strong>ed after the hydrolysis were<br />

subjected for biodiesel production by compact catalytic HTPM-process. The quality and<br />

composition of fat fraction were compared to that of rendered chicken fat and rapeseed oil.<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2259

Optimal conditions of biodiesel production (temperature, duration, specific surface of catalyst)<br />

were def<strong>in</strong>ed from multifactor experiment.<br />

Unique high temperature short term (HTST) feather process<strong>in</strong>g technology <strong>in</strong>to feed raw<br />

material – functional feather prote<strong>in</strong> (FFP) was elaborated. The conditions of HTST treatment<br />

were optimized aim<strong>in</strong>g at maximal digestibility of FFP. In order to improve the solubility and<br />

digestibility of FFP it was further subjected for enzymatic treatment. A.N. Bakh <strong>in</strong>stitute of<br />

Biochemistry (INBI) and the group at the Department of Organic and Industrial Chemistry of<br />

University of Parma have collaborated <strong>in</strong> the characterization of molecular composition (am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

acid composition, peptide profile, composition of volatile fraction) and functional (antioxidant,<br />

antihypertensive, bifidogenic, antimicrobial) [3, 4] properties of the products and ensured their<br />

safety concerns.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>tegrated approach of the project was completed by the two partners as potential endusers<br />

of the new technology: the Russian Mobitek-M, which develops food products from<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates, and the Italian Agricola Tre Valli, <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> produc<strong>in</strong>g high<br />

digestibility feather hydrolyzates, for the pet-food <strong>in</strong>dustry. The consortium is completed by<br />

CORE Biotech, a Belgian SME company specialized <strong>in</strong> functional prote<strong>in</strong>s, contribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

dissem<strong>in</strong>ation and demonstration of the project results to potential <strong>in</strong>dustry sectors, for the<br />

market exploitation of the new technologies across the EU and beyond.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The FAP- Functional Animal Prote<strong>in</strong> multi-phase process developed under PROSPARE<br />

Project, <strong>in</strong>creases the peptides production to 85% high-quality peptide output from a poultry<br />

post-slaughter<strong>in</strong>g process; +42% of the current technology. The optimized technological<br />

protocol developed provides >70% recovery of potentially available prote<strong>in</strong> from poultry<br />

leftovers Mild conditions of enzymatic hydrolysis ensure high retention of labile biologically<br />

active compounds (e.g. thermo labile am<strong>in</strong>o and fatty acids). The new FAP specific equipment<br />

(follow up of the pilot system) can be <strong>in</strong>stalled as post-processor to the slaughter<strong>in</strong>g production<br />

l<strong>in</strong>e, with overall hi-profitability assured by hi-capacity and quality of the process and its<br />

automation.<br />

FAP is ma<strong>in</strong>ly composed of peptides and free am<strong>in</strong>o acids (30%). FAP was characterised by<br />

valuable am<strong>in</strong>o acid composition with high content of lys<strong>in</strong>e and tryptophan. Some, nonproteolytic<br />

low molecular weight nitrogen-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g compounds that are characteristic for<br />

meat products (anser<strong>in</strong>e, carnos<strong>in</strong>e, guan<strong>in</strong>e, guanos<strong>in</strong>e, adenos<strong>in</strong>e, creat<strong>in</strong>e, creat<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e) were<br />

also identified <strong>in</strong> FAP. Volatile fraction of FAP, that is essential for sensory properties, is<br />

composed of fatty acids and different diketopiperas<strong>in</strong>es. FAP exhibits a wide spectrum of<br />

biological effects, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g antioxidant (TEAC and ORAC values around 650 and 320 mol<br />

TE/g) and antihypertensive (IC50- ) and growth stimulat<strong>in</strong>g activity with respect to<br />

lactobacilli.<br />

FAP was characterised with low fat content (

Optimal conditions of biodiesel production (temperature, duration, specific surface of catalyst)<br />

were def<strong>in</strong>ed from multifactor experiment.<br />

Unique high temperature short term (HTST) feather process<strong>in</strong>g technology <strong>in</strong>to feed raw<br />

material – functional feather prote<strong>in</strong> (FFP) was elaborated. The conditions of HTST treatment<br />

were optimized aim<strong>in</strong>g at maximal digestibility of FFP. In order to improve the solubility and<br />

digestibility of FFP it was further subjected for enzymatic treatment. A.N. Bakh <strong>in</strong>stitute of<br />

Biochemistry (INBI) and the group at the Department of Organic and Industrial Chemistry of<br />

University of Parma have collaborated <strong>in</strong> the characterization of molecular composition (am<strong>in</strong>o<br />

acid composition, peptide profile, composition of volatile fraction) and functional (antioxidant,<br />

antihypertensive, bifidogenic, antimicrobial) [3, 4] properties of the products and ensured their<br />

safety concerns.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>tegrated approach of the project was completed by the two partners as potential endusers<br />

of the new technology: the Russian Mobitek-M, which develops food products from<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> hydrolysates, and the Italian Agricola Tre Valli, <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> produc<strong>in</strong>g high<br />

digestibility feather hydrolyzates, for the pet-food <strong>in</strong>dustry. The consortium is completed by<br />

CORE Biotech, a Belgian SME company specialized <strong>in</strong> functional prote<strong>in</strong>s, contribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

dissem<strong>in</strong>ation and demonstration of the project results to potential <strong>in</strong>dustry sectors, for the<br />

market exploitation of the new technologies across the EU and beyond.<br />

RESULTS & DISCUSSION<br />

The FAP- Functional Animal Prote<strong>in</strong> multi-phase process developed under PROSPARE<br />

Project, <strong>in</strong>creases the peptides production to 85% high-quality peptide output from a poultry<br />

post-slaughter<strong>in</strong>g process; +42% of the current technology. The optimized technological<br />

protocol developed provides >70% recovery of potentially available prote<strong>in</strong> from poultry<br />

leftovers Mild conditions of enzymatic hydrolysis ensure high retention of labile biologically<br />

active compounds (e.g. thermo labile am<strong>in</strong>o and fatty acids). The new FAP specific equipment<br />

(follow up of the pilot system) can be <strong>in</strong>stalled as post-processor to the slaughter<strong>in</strong>g production<br />

l<strong>in</strong>e, with overall hi-profitability assured by hi-capacity and quality of the process and its<br />

automation.<br />

FAP is ma<strong>in</strong>ly composed of peptides and free am<strong>in</strong>o acids (30%). FAP was characterised by<br />

valuable am<strong>in</strong>o acid composition with high content of lys<strong>in</strong>e and tryptophan. Some, nonproteolytic<br />

low molecular weight nitrogen-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g compounds that are characteristic for<br />

meat products (anser<strong>in</strong>e, carnos<strong>in</strong>e, guan<strong>in</strong>e, guanos<strong>in</strong>e, adenos<strong>in</strong>e, creat<strong>in</strong>e, creat<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e) were<br />

also identified <strong>in</strong> FAP. Volatile fraction of FAP, that is essential for sensory properties, is<br />

composed of fatty acids and different diketopiperas<strong>in</strong>es. FAP exhibits a wide spectrum of<br />

biological effects, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g antioxidant (TEAC and ORAC values around 650 and 320 mol<br />

TE/g) and antihypertensive (IC50- ) and growth stimulat<strong>in</strong>g activity with respect to<br />

lactobacilli.<br />

FAP was characterised with low fat content (

REFERENCES<br />

[1] Arvanitoyannis I.S. & Ladas, D. 2008. Meat waste treatment methods and potential uses.<br />

<strong>International</strong> Journal of <strong>Food</strong> Science and Technology, 43, 543-559.<br />

[2] Lui D.-C. Better utilization of by-products from meat <strong>in</strong>dustry ROC 2002-10-01.<br />

[3] Wu H. C., Pan B. S., Chang C. L., Shiau C. Y. 2005, Low-molecular Weight Peptides as<br />

related to antioxidant Properties of Chicken essence. J. of <strong>Food</strong> and Drug Analysis, 13, 176-<br />

183<br />

[4] Eu Project SEAFOODplus 6 th FP<br />

2262<br />

Optimization of FFP enzymatic hydrolysis conditions

The Animal by Product (AB-P): challeng<strong>in</strong>g problem and resource<br />

W. De Roover<br />

GePro member of AVEC<br />

Approach and objectives of the PROSPARE project<br />

O. Koroleva<br />

Bakh Inst. Biochemistry, Russian Academy Science, Moscow<br />

Innovative methodology and process technologies<br />

O. Koroleva<br />

Bakh Inst. Biochemistry, Russian Academy Science, Moscow<br />

Molecular composition and Functional Properties of Poultry Hydrolyzates obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

the PROSPARE Project<br />

Arnaldo Dossena<br />

University of Parma, Italy<br />

<strong>Food</strong> & feed market exploitation and nutrition<br />

Virgilio Guardiani<br />

<strong>International</strong> nutrition consultancy<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 2263

2264

AUTHORSINDEX<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-1

AbKadir,M.O. 213,259,1697<br />

Abakarov,A. 1399,1403,1523,1525<br />

Abavi,A. 1885<br />

Abbaszadeh,R. 1779<br />

AbdElGader,S. 653<br />

AbdalaGomide,C. 1179<br />

Abdellaoui,H. 415<br />

Abdellatief,A. 93<br />

AbdulMajid,A.M.S. 213,259,1697<br />

Abdullah,A. 153,1119<br />

Abdullah,N. 387<br />

AboSalah,K.M. 1697<br />

Abreu,M. 1647<br />

Aburatan,M. 1935<br />

Acevedo,C.A. 1259<br />

Acevedo,F. 829,2185<br />

Achaerandio,I. 651<br />

Achir,N. 689<br />

Adachi,S. 927,1351<br />

Adamiak,A. 1763<br />

Adamopoulos,K.G. 571,1955,1957<br />

AdlerNissen,J. 269,517<br />

Afshari,M. 1907<br />

Agalioti,M. 2087<br />

Aghili,S.R. 1245<br />

Agoulon,A. 1615<br />

AguedaCastro,M. 1251<br />

Agüero,M.V. 1709,1811<br />

Aguilar,L. 1637<br />

Aguilera,J.M. 67,115,193,279,289,781,<br />

921,929,935,985,1231,<br />

1753<br />

Ahmad,R. 653<br />

Ahmad,U. 547<br />

AhmadTarmizi,A. 655<br />

Ahmadi,H. 1779<br />

Ahrné,L. 783,1975<br />

Akc<strong>in</strong>,A. 1891<br />

AkemiMakiyama,P. 1527<br />

Akgun,A. 1891,1893<br />

Akllolu,G. 1807<br />

Akp<strong>in</strong>ar,O. 2051<br />

Akterian,S. 1599<br />

Alakali,J.S. 239<br />

AlamillaBeltrán,L. 1163,1287,1393<br />

Albano,K.M. 225<br />

Albers,D. 2224<br />

Albertsson,P.Å. 2047<br />

Albors,A. 41<br />

Albuquerque,C.L.C. 2113<br />

AlcaideMarzal,J. 661<br />

Alcañiz,M. 1483<br />

Alcântara,L.A.P. 1705<br />

Aldoomy,H. 653<br />

Alegria,C. 1647<br />

Alex,R. 415,955<br />

Alexandrakis,Z. 1683<br />

Alexandre,E.M.C. 1625<br />

Alexopoulos,A. 1013,2029<br />

Ali,I. 1207<br />

Ali,M.F. 887<br />

Aligiannis,N. 2215<br />

Alku<strong>in</strong>o,L.D. 1929<br />

Allen,P. 237,1631<br />

Almada,C.A. 1195<br />

I-2<br />

Almeida,H. 1227<br />

Almeida,I. 1263<br />

Almeida,P.I.F. 327<br />

AlmeidaPorciuncula,B.D. 579<br />

Almonacid,S.F. 529,541,1407,1521,<br />

1815,1973,1977<br />

AlMuhtaseb,A.H. 253<br />

Alonso,A.A. 281,805,1409,1531,<br />

1537<br />

AlRawi,S.S. 213,259,1697<br />

Alsaed,A.K. 653<br />

Alsaffar,A.A. 43<br />

AlSaidi,G. 153,1119<br />

AlSanabani,A. 1089,1981<br />

AlstromMoore,A. 467<br />

Altan,A. 901,1155<br />

AltenhofendaSilva,M. 1007,1017<br />

Alvarenga,N.B. 1181<br />

Alvarez,G. 55,523,535,595,<br />

1531,1841,2241,<br />

2245,2247,2251<br />

Alvarez,I. 325,1529<br />

Álvarez,K. 2103<br />

AlvarezQu<strong>in</strong>tero,R. 2015<br />

AlvarezJubete,L. 1773<br />

Alves,C.C.O. 1693<br />

Alves,V. 2061<br />

Alves,V.D. 103,1023<br />

Alzamora,S.M. 1251,1311,1629,<br />

1635,1795<br />

Amante,E.R. 1085,1839,2181<br />

Amendola,D. 165,377<br />

Ammar,J.B. 909<br />

Amorim,E.O.C. 1733<br />

AmorimRamos,V. 939<br />

Anan<strong>in</strong>gsih ,V.K. 647<br />

Anantheswaran,R. 105<br />

Andés,A. 445<br />

Andoa,H. 1901<br />

Andrade,P. 1861<br />

Andrade,R.D. 1325<br />

AndradeMahecha,M.M. 1009<br />

André,S. 1181<br />

Andrés,A. 1993,1995<br />

Andresen,T. 315,1539<br />

Andrianyta,H. 457<br />

Andrieux,J.C. 243,1137<br />

Anelauskait,E. 1271<br />

Anese,M. 177<br />

Anestis,S. 1103,1923,2147<br />

Àngel,B. 1277<br />

Angelidis,A.S. 1797<br />

Angelov,M. 1451<br />

Ángulo,M. 2109<br />

Anguy,Y. 1463<br />

Anjum,F.M. 1117<br />

Antelo,L.T. 805<br />

Antonio,A. 2255<br />

AntôniodeMoraisJrc,M. 2137<br />

Antoniou,K.D. 231,1301,1307<br />

AparecidadeCarvalho,R. 37,861,1179<br />

AparecidaGuaraldoGonçalves,L. 1047,1049,1293<br />

AparecidaMaieves,H. 1085<br />

Aparicio,G. 959<br />

Apostolidi,S. 1337

Araki,T. 455,1281<br />

Arango,P. 167<br />

Arapaki,S. 1831<br />

Araujo,E.A.F. 1227,1233<br />

Araus,K. 443<br />

Aravena,R. 1717<br />

ArayaFarias,M. 1723,1735<br />

Arballo,J.R. 1441<br />

Arellano,M. 55,523,1531<br />

ArenasOcampo,M.L. 1287<br />

Argyropoulos,D. 819,955<br />

AriasMendez,A. 281<br />

Arisseto,A.P. 1875,1877<br />

ArjonaRomán,J.L. 417,1129,1221<br />

Arnault,I. 1223<br />

Arnold,M. 1417<br />

Arratia,C. 1075<br />

Arrieche,L.S. 1821<br />

Arshad,A. 1117<br />

Arshad,M.U. 1117<br />

Arsianti Y. 29<br />

Artíguez,M.L. 353,741<br />

ArzateVazquez,I. 1045,1753<br />

Arzeni,C. 407<br />

Aschenbrenner,M. 149,957<br />

Ascheri,J.L.R. 2151<br />

Aspé,E. 2101,2103<br />

Assifaoui,A. 875<br />

Asteriadou,K. 711,1555<br />

Astruc,T. 1855<br />

AtaçMogol,B. 1581,1807<br />

Atarés,L. 857,859<br />

Athes,V. 807<br />

Atoniuk,A. 843,2227<br />

Atungulu,G. 795<br />

Atuonwu,J.C. 1607<br />

Aubourg,S. 1737<br />

Auger,J. 1223<br />

August<strong>in</strong>,W. 701,703,705<br />

Augusto,P.E.D. 1299,1911<br />

AvalloneBueno,L. 2085,2137<br />

Avel<strong>in</strong>oPasa,A. 953<br />

Avérous,L. 111<br />

Axelos,M. 1547,2257<br />

Ay,N. 2225<br />

Ayadi,F. 597<br />

Ayalla,J.V. 1953<br />

AytaAkc<strong>in</strong>,T. 1891<br />

Azevedo,S. 971<br />

Azuara,E. 1639,2097<br />

Babahmetovi,L. 867<br />

Bacelos,M.S. 327<br />

Bach,S. 109<br />

BadanRibeiro,A.P. 1047,1049,1065,1293<br />

Badeka,A.V. 1209<br />

Bader,S. 589<br />

Bae,Y. 1145<br />

Baez,O. 1369<br />

Baeza,S. 1087<br />

Bai,J.W. 2013<br />

Baier,D. 355,357<br />

Baier,M. 393,1643<br />

Bakalis,S. 49,147,265,329,533,621,<br />

817,887,913,915,1511,<br />

1543,1887<br />

Bakrc,F. 851<br />

Baks,T. 725<br />

Balaban,M.O. 425,1453,1455<br />

Balabanova,T. 2159<br />

Balagué,C.E. 973<br />

Balasubramaniam(Bala),V.M. 345<br />

Balestra,F. 221<br />

Balian,S.C. 1181<br />

BalsaCanto,E. 281,1531<br />

Bambicha,A.R. 613<br />

Baquero,R. 1325<br />

Baranda,A. 741<br />

Baranowski,Piotr 1759<br />

Barao,C. 917<br />

Barat,J.M 181,1483<br />

BarbadeAlba,L.R. 1027<br />

Barbier,C. 1579<br />

BarbosaNeto,A.M. 2003<br />

BarbosaCanovas,G.V. 801<br />

Barla,F. 2119<br />

Barón,P.J. 1395<br />

Barreiro,P. 245,845,1477,2231<br />

Barreto,I.M.A. 1097<br />

Barrio,Y. 1655<br />

Barrios,S. 1005<br />

BarryRyana,C. 453<br />

Barta,J. 2213<br />

Bartolomeoli,I. 1731<br />

Baša,L. 1547,1849<br />

Basch,C. 979<br />

Basios,A. 1273<br />

Bass<strong>in</strong>ello,P.Z. 1421,2129,2151<br />

Bassirou,B. 85<br />

Basso,L.C. 2107<br />

Batista,E.A.C. 1037,1125,1389,<br />

1391<br />

Batista,F.R.M. 1389,1391,1405<br />

Batu,A. 2117<br />

Baudrit,C. 323<br />

Baysal,A.H. 219<br />

Baz<strong>in</strong>et,L. 1723,1735<br />

Beatty,E. 1943<br />

Beaulieu,L. 1723<br />

Beck,M. 885<br />

Becker,T. 25,79,233,885,1473,<br />

1513<br />

Bednáriková,A. 1881<br />

Bedoui,I.D. 415<br />

Behsnilian,D. 21<br />

BeiraghiToosi,S. 1497,1499<br />

BeirãodaCosta,L. 873<br />

BeirãodaCosta,M.L. 673,793<br />

BeirãodaCosta,S. 673,793<br />

Belagardi,M. 1709<br />

Belessi,C.I.A. 1829,1831<br />

Beletsiotis,E. 495,1765<br />

Bellalta,P. 921<br />

Bellmann,C. 707<br />

BelloPérez,L.A. 1315<br />

BelšakCvitanovi,A. 865,867,2039<br />

BenNama,M.M. 213,259<br />

Benavides,S. 113<br />

Benezech,T. 713,715,1557<br />

Bengtsson,H. 223<br />

Benites,C.I. 2063<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-3

Benkhelifa,H. 55,523,1531<br />

Benn<strong>in</strong>g,R. 569<br />

Bergenståhl,B. 587,1169,1305<br />

Berg<strong>in</strong>,D. 507<br />

Berista<strong>in</strong>,C.I. 1639,2097<br />

Bernardo,C. 1085<br />

Bernardos,A. 181<br />

Bernáškova,J. 1165<br />

Bernat,N. 217,1335<br />

Berski,W. 1255<br />

Besbes,E. 1205<br />

Betz,M. 675,1687<br />

Bez,J. 589<br />

Bezirtzoglou,E. 1013,2029<br />

Bhattacharya,S. 273<br />

Biau,N. 201<br />

Bibb<strong>in</strong>sMartínez,M.D. 1587,2021<br />

Bicas,J.L. 1727<br />

Bilbao,A. 1783<br />

Biliaderis,C.G. 33,101,129,143,879,1055,<br />

2207<br />

B<strong>in</strong>drich,U. 569<br />

Bird,M. 603<br />

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Bitti,M.T. 1571<br />

Blahovec,J. 39,163<br />

Blank,I. 845,2231<br />

Blel,W. 713,1557<br />

Bobe,U. 687,2211<br />

Bod<strong>in</strong>i,R.B 883<br />

Bogicevi,B. 825<br />

BoguzsJr,S. 2179<br />

Bohuon,P. 481,689,1349<br />

Bolouri,B. 95,997,999,1497,1499<br />

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Bonazzi,C. 481,483,1805,1867<br />

Bongaers,E. 843,2227<br />

Bonilla,J. 857,859<br />

BonillaReyna,B. 837<br />

Bonnier,F. 1773<br />

Bonomo,P. 1487<br />

Bonomo,R.C.F. 1487<br />

Boom,R. 65,203,719,725<br />

Boons,K. 501<br />

BorgesLaur<strong>in</strong>do,J. 579,953<br />

Bornhorst,G.M. 251,631<br />

Boros,D. 2149<br />

Borralho,E. 1181<br />

Borr<strong>in</strong>,T.R. 19<br />

Boscarioli,M.P.M. 2093<br />

Bouchon,P. 123,1073,1077,1079,1365<br />

Boudouvis,A.G. 97<br />

Bouhallab,S. 561,1149<br />

Boulekou,S. 359<br />

Bouraia,M. 731<br />

Bourbon,A.I. 293,673,1015<br />

Bourgaux,C. 119<br />

Bourke,P. 409<br />

Boushey,C. 187<br />

Boxler,C. 705<br />

Boz,Z. 1485<br />

Brambilla,A. 2075<br />

BrancoSh<strong>in</strong>agawab,F. 2085<br />

Brand,J. 397<br />

Brandão,T.R.S. 479,1625<br />

I-4<br />

Braun,S. 765<br />

Brennan,C. 1651,2157<br />

Brianceau,S. 1735<br />

Briassoulis,D. 849<br />

BrionesLabarca,V. 1675<br />

Broeze,J. 301<br />

Bronlund,J.E. 337,633,1153,1429<br />

Brooker,A.D.M. 709<br />

Brown,T. 2245,2249,2251<br />

Broyart,B. 483,1867,1921<br />

Bruyn<strong>in</strong>ckx,W. 499<br />

Bubník,Z. 1165,1695,1707<br />

Buckow,R. 335,469,1417,1535<br />

Bucur,A. 1095<br />

Budiastra,I.W. 457,477<br />

BuenodaSilva,J. 2107<br />

Buera,P. 151<br />

Buffa,M. 1467<br />

Bugarski,B. 173<br />

Bui,V.A. 557<br />

Bult,J.H.F. 611<br />

Bulut,S. 1627<br />

Bund,R. 87,727,779,1213<br />

Bunya,M. 1721<br />

Burmester,K. 1989<br />

Bustamante,A. 1717<br />

Bustamante,J. 541<br />

Bustos,N. 1815<br />

Bustos,R. 1087<br />

Butler,F. 473,497,507,1819<br />

Byrne,E. 427<br />

Byrne,H. 1773<br />

C.Jurkiewicz,C. 2093<br />

Cabral,F. 2071<br />

Cabral,L.M.C. 551,1641,1967,2203<br />

Cabral,R.A.F. 1347<br />

Cadioli,M.G.B. 1375<br />

Calado,V. 1879<br />

CaldasFonseca,S. 971<br />

Calderon,M. 1603<br />

Calderón,J. 1777<br />

CalderónDomínguez,G. 1045<br />

Califano,A.N. 137<br />

Calligaris,S. 177<br />

Callon,C. 1947<br />

Calvimontes,A. 707<br />

Camitan,N.O. 1929<br />

Campanella,O.H. 135,1321<br />

Campañone,L.A. 1441<br />

Canada,J.S.B. 1181<br />

Candal,R.J. 923<br />

Cano,C.J.C. 389<br />

CanoSarmiento,C. 1163<br />

Canut,A. 1563<br />

Cao,X. 1659<br />

Cao,Y. 1985<br />

Cappuyns,A.M 471,475,499,1789<br />

Carareto,N.D.D. 1131,1133<br />

Caravelli,A.H. 743<br />

Carballo,S. 1305<br />

Cárcel,J.A. 1951,1997<br />

Cardenas,F. 615<br />

Cardoso,C. 827<br />

Cardoso,L.P. 19<br />

Cardoso,V.L. 1711

CardosoDeOliveira,D. 1085<br />

CardosoReis,R. 2031<br />

CardosoTramonte,K. 2181<br />

Carignano,M.A. 135<br />

Cariso,A.R. 1929<br />

Carle,R. 617<br />

CarmelloGuerreiro,S.M 1067<br />

Carmona,P.A.O. 1269<br />

Carneiro,H.C.F. 1387<br />

Carola,T. 1181<br />

Carpenco,J. 979<br />

Carr,A. 185<br />

Carrer,C.C. 1329<br />

Carretero,C. 1239,1241<br />

Carrion,F.P. 1143<br />

CarvajalMillán,E. 2011<br />

CarvajalRondanelli,P.A. 615<br />

Carvalho,A.V. 1421,2129,2151<br />

Carvalho,J.M.P. 27<br />

Carvalho,M. 275<br />

Carvalho,R.A. 883,1033,1143<br />

Carvalho,R.N. 2151<br />

Castelló,R. 1023<br />

Casteran,C. 243,1137<br />

Castillo,M. 317,1467,1469<br />

CastilloHernandez,D. 1587<br />

Castro,A. 1305<br />

Castro,D. 1777<br />

Castro,E. 1971<br />

CavalcanteBarros,F.F. 739<br />

CavalcanteFai,A.E. 401,2107<br />

CavalcanteMaciel,T. 657<br />

Cavalcanti,R.N. 2167,2189<br />

Cavallieri,Â.L.F. 933<br />

Cavella,S. 1211,2069<br />

Cavicchioli,B. 739<br />

Cayot,P. 875<br />

Celis,D. 1159<br />

Cenard,S. 267<br />

Cerecero,R. 1603<br />

Ceriani,R. 1419,1953<br />

Cernela,J. 1921<br />

Cerqueira,M.A. 1015<br />

CésarDacanal,G. 2095<br />

Cevoli,C. 1423<br />

ChacanaOjeda,M. 1675<br />

Chacko,J. 105<br />

Chafer,M. 217,1335<br />

Chaiwanichsiri,S. 677,1613<br />

Challois,S. 125<br />

Challou,F. 533<br />

Chambi,H. 1139,1179<br />

Chammem,N. 2211<br />

Chamorro,M.C. 1477<br />

Chang,K.S. 1461,1565,1567<br />

Chang,Y.H. 1461,1565,1567<br />

Changli,H. 2037<br />

Chanier,L. 133,1113<br />

ChanonaPérez,J.J. 623,1753,1045,1999<br />

Chantoiseau,E. 295,1493,1495<br />

Chanvrier,H. 245,843,845,1175,2227,<br />

2229,2231<br />

ChaparroGonzalez,M.P. 1197<br />

Char,C. 1827<br />

Charalambides,M.N. 189,191,1275<br />

Charalampopoulos,D. 679,1793<br />

Charbonnel,R. 721<br />

Char<strong>in</strong>panitkul,T. 255,519,2171<br />

Charlemagne,N. 85<br />

Charoenre<strong>in</strong>,S. 1063,1127<br />

Chassagne,D. 373<br />

ChassagneBerces,S. 245,843,845,1175,<br />

2227,2229,2231<br />

Chatziantoniou,S. 1317,1865<br />

Chatzikyriakidou,K. 1845<br />

Chaudhuri,S. 379<br />

Chaves,M.A. 1097,1397,1487,<br />

2031<br />

ChávezMontes,E. 649<br />

Cheison,S. 2099<br />

Cheison,S.C. 397<br />

Chen,S.H. 1913<br />

CherrezMaríaJosé,P. 1197<br />

Chesterton,A. 835<br />

Chevallier,S. 199,1545<br />

Chew,J. 603<br />

Chew,Y.M.J. 709,1559<br />

Chida,K. 2223<br />

ChihM<strong>in</strong>g,C. 1065<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>elate,G.C.B. 2155<br />

Chiralt,A. 41,217,857,859,871,<br />

1335<br />

Chiron,H. 133,1113<br />

Chiumarelli,M. 853<br />

Cho,Y.J. 823,1459<br />

Choi,W. 435<br />

Chombeau,M. 1455<br />

Chranioti,C. 1291,1775<br />

Christakopoulos,P. 2215<br />

Ciccarone,R. 371<br />

Ciesarová,Z. 1591,1881,1965<br />

Cieslak,B. 1889<br />

Cifuentes,N. 1229<br />

Cipriano,A. 1753<br />

Crban,D. 1453,1455<br />

Citeau,M. 1215<br />

Clark,J.P. 3,543<br />

ClarodaSilva,R. 1047<br />

Claussen,I.C. 511,1905,2245,2251,<br />

2253<br />

Cobos,A. 985<br />

Cocan,I. 1909<br />

Cocci,E. 221<br />

Cocco,D. 2205<br />

Cocco,G. 2205<br />

Cocol<strong>in</strong>,L. 2211<br />

Coelho,M.T. 1647,2061<br />

Coelhoso,I.M. 1023<br />

Cohen,R. 117<br />

Cole,P. 711<br />

Collignan,A. 689,1349<br />

Comaposada,J. 1415<br />

Condori,J.L. 193<br />

Connelly,R.K. 727<br />

Connolly,J. 427<br />

Cont<strong>in</strong>i,C. 1001<br />

Cook,M.T. 679<br />

Coral,D.F 1135<br />

Cordeiro,C. 103<br />

CordeiroCardoso,J. 2131<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-5

CordeiroManc<strong>in</strong>i,M. 2001<br />

Córdova,A. 1479,1813<br />

Cornacchia,L. 925<br />

Cornet,I. 499<br />

CoronadoJorge,M.F. 37,861<br />

Coronel,C.P. 1791<br />

Correa,E.C. 1477<br />

CorreaMendonç,A. 2065<br />

CorreaMoreiraRocha,D.G. 2001<br />

Corredig,M. 421<br />

Correia,P. 873,1949<br />

Corrieu,G. 1947<br />

Cortell<strong>in</strong>,G. 987,1577,1937<br />

Cortés,M. 1971<br />

Cortés,P. 1365<br />

Costa,E. 1263<br />

Costa,M.C. 1131,1133,1701<br />

Costa,N. 1023<br />

Costa,P.A. 1329<br />

Costa,R. 769,771,773,1553,1861<br />

CostaLima,Rui 665<br />

CostaSilva,M. 1553,1861<br />

Cotillon,C. 2241<br />

Courel,M. 483,489,1805,1867<br />

Courtois,F. 311<br />

Cout<strong>in</strong>ho,J.A.P. 1703<br />

Cox,P. 533<br />

Cox,P.W. 1043<br />

Craig,A.P. 1761<br />

Crisostomo,J. 1087<br />

CristianaNunes,M. 873<br />

Cristian<strong>in</strong>i,M. 1299,1661,1663,1733,<br />

1911<br />

Crist<strong>in</strong>a,I. 37<br />

Crist<strong>in</strong>apetry,F. 1161<br />

Crivellari,G.P. 1445<br />

Croguennec,T. 1149<br />

Crost<strong>in</strong>aCorrea,E. 845,2231<br />

CruzXimenes,G. 2137<br />

Cuadros,T. 1231<br />

Cude,L. 1201<br />

Cuellas,A. 1691<br />

Cuevas,M.S. 1701<br />

Cullen,P.J. 285,409,427,1465,1651<br />

Cunha,L.M. 665,971<br />

Cunha,R.L. 1069,1071<br />

Cunn<strong>in</strong>gham,D. 229<br />

Curet,S. 1433<br />

CuretPloqu<strong>in</strong>,S. 1545<br />

CurveloPereira,N. 1235<br />

Cutolo,R.S. 1747<br />

Cuvelier,G. 195,201<br />

Cuvelier,M.E. 47<br />

Cybulska,J. 1053<br />

DaCosta,R.L. 1727<br />

DaCruzFrancisco,J. 1169<br />

DaMatta,V.M. 1437<br />

DaPenhaPiccoloRamos,M. 1823<br />

DaPieve,S. 177,1731<br />

DaRochaFerreira,E.H. 1879<br />

DaSilva,A.B. 333,1489<br />

DaSilva,J.N. 1397<br />

DaSilva,M.A. 1747<br />

DaSilvaArrieche,L. 275<br />

Dab<strong>in</strong>aBicka,I. 563<br />

I-6<br />

Dagà,I. 1241<br />

Dalay,O. 169<br />

DallaRosa,M. 221,565,771,797,<br />

1011,1423<br />

Dalmol<strong>in</strong>,I. 1037,1125<br />

DanMironescu,I. 1377<br />

Danao,M.G. 317<br />

Danilov,N.P. 663<br />

DapeviHadnaev,T. 1109,2141<br />

DaraeiGarmakhany,A. 1751<br />

Datta,A.K. 291,305,1449,1401,<br />

1507<br />

Datta,C. 379<br />

Daud<strong>in</strong>,J.D. 965,1855<br />

David,T. 1817<br />

Davies,C.E. 51<br />

DeA.Bezerra,R.R. 2155<br />

DeAlmeida,A.R.F. 333,1489<br />

DeAndrade,C.J. 1589<br />

DeAndradeMattietto,R. 1437<br />

DeAraujoMantovani,R. 933<br />

DeAssisPerrechil,F. 939<br />

DeBaerdemaeker,J. 209,1057<br />

DeBonis,M.V. 1945<br />

DeCarvalho,D.S. 2179<br />

DeCesaro,A.M. 1037<br />

DeFátimaFonseca,M. 2085,2137<br />

DeFaveri,D.M. 165<br />

DeGregorio,C. 743<br />

DeJesúsPereaFlores,M. 1999<br />

DeJong,P. 723<br />

DelaFuente,J.C. 443,1363<br />

DelaFuente,L. 1289<br />

DelaLlera,A.A. 193<br />

DelaTorreR.Rene,R. 445,1619,2021<br />

DeLamoCastellví,S. 2193<br />

DeLandeta,M.C. 1195<br />

DeMoura,S.C.S.R. 1799<br />

DeMouraGuimarães,P.C. 2153<br />

DeO.Rios,A. 1421,2129<br />

DeOliveir,C.M. 1085<br />

DeOliveira,A.L. 1671<br />

DeOliveiraP<strong>in</strong>to,C.L. 1823<br />

DeOliveiraRomeraa,C. 953<br />

DePilli,T. 1933,179<br />

DeP<strong>in</strong>ho,S.C. 747<br />

DeRoode,M. 723<br />

DeRoover,W. 2263<br />

DeSouza,L.L. 1669<br />

DeSouzaCastro,P. 1527<br />

DeSouzaFerreira,J. 1747<br />

DeSouzaSantana,R.S. 747<br />

DeVito,F. 889<br />

DeVries,R. 11,1041<br />

Debeaufort,F. 373<br />

Defraeye,T. 2233<br />

Dehghannejad,N. 1297<br />

Dejmek,P. 59,515<br />

Dekker,M. 505<br />

DelCarmenAltamiranoFortoul,R. 199<br />

DelToro,G.V. 623<br />

DelValle,G. 133,1113,1427<br />

DelValle,J.M. 443,1363,1715,1717,<br />

1719<br />

Delgado,A. 521,569

Delshad,M. 1779<br />

Delwiche,M. 795<br />

Demarchi,S.M. 2041<br />

DemertziAkrida,K. 1013<br />

Demertzis,P.G. 1013,1301<br />

DenBesten,H.M.W. 493<br />

Denis,N’dri 85<br />

Depypere,F. 2233<br />

Dermesonluoglu,E. 1853<br />

Dermiki,M. 377<br />

Derossi,A. 179,1933<br />

Dervisoglu,M. 1295,1891,1893<br />

DesMarchais,L.P. 1261,2033<br />

Descours,E. 1919<br />

Desjard<strong>in</strong>s,Y. 1735<br />

Despotovi,S. 2057<br />

Dessev,T. 199<br />

Destandau,E. 809<br />

Devlieghere,F. 475<br />

Dewett<strong>in</strong>ck,K. 2233<br />

DeyaniraVegaMéndez,D. 1111<br />

Dhall,A. 291,1401,1507<br />

Dhamole,P.B. 1699<br />

Dheeman,D.S. 2209<br />

DiScala,K. 2049<br />

Dias,J.M. 1181<br />

DiasDeCastanhoAmboni,R. 2181<br />

Diaz,O. 985<br />

Díaz,A.I. 1783<br />

Díaz,J. 1777<br />

Díaz,P. 1075<br />

DíazNarváez,G.C. 1027,1963<br />

DíazCarvajal,D. 2021<br />

Dima,J.B. 1395<br />

Dimitreli,G. 231,693,1307<br />

Dimitrijevi,S. 825<br />

Dimou,A. 341<br />

Dionísio,A.P. 1725,1727,2179<br />

Diosady,L. 667,759<br />

Djordjevic,R. 2143<br />

DoAmaralSobral,P.J. 37,861,1009,1179<br />

DoCarmoFerreira,M. 1327,1359<br />

DoPrado,M.M. 1367<br />

Docha<strong>in</strong>,D. 2255<br />

Dodd,C. 467<br />

Doehner,I. 355<br />

Dogan,H. 1151<br />

Dogenski,M. 23<br />

Doki,L. 881<br />

Dom<strong>in</strong>gues,C. 1949<br />

Dom<strong>in</strong>gues,R. 1711<br />

DongChen ,X. 297,1505<br />

Donsì,F. 165,349,681<br />

Donsì,G. 1657,1729<br />

Dorantes,L. 959<br />

DorantesAlvareza,L. 961<br />

DorantesNieto,A. 2021<br />

Dornier,M. 481<br />

Dorofejev, K. 1199<br />

DosReis,C. 941<br />

DosReis,R.C. 1725<br />

DosSantos,R. 2107,2179<br />

DosSantos ,S.B. 1703<br />

DosSantosSilva,V.L. 735<br />

Dossena,A. 2263<br />

Dostálová,J. 1165<br />

Douania,I. 267<br />

Doursat,C. 125,295,1435,1443,<br />

1493,1495<br />

Doval,V.C. 1733<br />

Dowl<strong>in</strong>g,D.P. 1001<br />

Downey,G. 911<br />

Doxastakis,G. 1243<br />

Doyen,A. 1723<br />

Drakakis,K. 451<br />

Dros<strong>in</strong>os,E.H. 1829,1885<br />

Druon,C. 415<br />

Drusch,S. 63<br />

Du,Z.L. 2013<br />

Duarte,C. 673<br />

Duarte,C.M.M. 673<br />

Dubey,B.N. 643<br />

Dubois,C. 197<br />

Ducept,F. 195<br />

Dueik,V. 1073<br />

Dukalska,L. 1199<br />

Dumoul<strong>in</strong>,E. 47,1463<br />

Dupuy,A. 807<br />

DuránPáramo,E. 623<br />

Dushkova,M. 1083<br />

DustedMendoza,J.C. 1739<br />

Dutheil,E. 1651<br />

Duthoit,M. 1647<br />

Dutta,A. 379<br />

Dutta,D. 379<br />

Duxenneuner,M.R. 643<br />

East,A.R. 1153,1873<br />

EbrahimzadehMousavi,S.M.A. 95,997,999<br />

Echegaray,E. 1971<br />

Edris,A.E. 175<br />

Efraim,P. 1799,2145<br />

Efremov,G. 491<br />

Eggers,R. 601,1715,1989<br />

Egito,A.S. 1641<br />

Ehlbeck,J. 1643<br />

Eisner,P. 589,617<br />

Ekiz,H.I. 585<br />

Elfakir,C. 809<br />

Elfawakhry ,H. 233<br />

ElitaLópez,M. 1289<br />

ElMasry,G. 237,1631<br />

ElSamahy,S. 607,1089,1091,1979,<br />

1981<br />

Emadzadeh,B. 1093<br />

EmamDjomeh,Z. 271,893<br />

EmanuelssonPatterson,E. 211<br />

Emek,S.C. 2047<br />

EncisoChavez,B. 1587<br />

Enomoto,T. 1935,2119<br />

Enrione,J. 141,1075,1087,1159,<br />

1183<br />

Erabit,N. 535,595<br />

Erdogdu,S.B. 585<br />

Erdodu,F. 331,1411,1485<br />

Erk<strong>in</strong>baev,C. 139,1057,2239<br />

ErlansonAlbertsson,C. 2047<br />

Escalona,V. 1827<br />

Eschenhagen,U. 707<br />

EscobedoAvellaneda,Z. 1671,2139<br />

Escola,H. 1181<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-7

Eshraghi,E. 1497,1499<br />

Esmaiili,M. 241,1167,1713<br />

Espigulé,E. 1239,1241<br />

Esp<strong>in</strong>osa,L. 201<br />

Esquerre,C. 911<br />

Estrade,P. 843,2227,2233<br />

Esvelda,E. 303<br />

Eur<strong>in</strong>g,F. 1481<br />

Evageliou,V. 863,1273,2055<br />

Evans,J. 2241,2245,2249,2251<br />

Exarhopoulos,S. 693<br />

Eze,S.O. 239<br />

Fabbri,A. 1423<br />

FabelaMorón,M.F. 1287<br />

Faber,T.J. 53<br />

Fabiano,L. 2133<br />

Faille,C. 1557,715<br />

Falguera,V. 1299<br />

Fang,B. 1333<br />

Fang,F. 449<br />

Farfán,M. 1079<br />

Farhoosh,R. 903,1093<br />

Faria,J.T. 1107<br />

FariaSoares,C.M. 2131<br />

Farias,C. 1977<br />

FariasdeFarias,D. 1161<br />

Farid,M. 1601<br />

Far<strong>in</strong>a,A. 895,1177,2237<br />

Farroni,A. 151<br />

Fasseas,K. 2105<br />

Fatnassi,S. 965<br />

Faulstich,M. 757<br />

FavaroTr<strong>in</strong>dade,C.S. 23,883,2165<br />

Favier,R. 965<br />

Fayolle,F. 713,1249<br />

FazaniCavallieri,Â.L. 933,1309<br />

Fazheng,R. 2037<br />

Fazli,F.A. 1609<br />

Fazli,N.A. 1609<br />

Fehaili,S. 483,1805<br />

Felipe,A.M.P.F. 1019<br />

FelixdeSantana,R. 2131<br />

Fencl,J. 1591<br />

Fenelon,M.A. 577<br />

Feng,H. 411,1699<br />

Fereshteh,D.N. 1509<br />

Feriotti,D.G. 1583<br />

FernandaZotarelli,M. 579<br />

Fernandes,A. 103<br />

Fernandes,F.A.N. 1987<br />

FernandesNassar,S. 861<br />

Fernandez,A. 31,1237<br />

Fernández,K. 2101,2103<br />

FernándezMuñoz,J.L. 417<br />

FernándezSalguero,J. 2025,2027<br />

FernándezSegovia,I. 1483<br />

FernándezValle,M.E. 245<br />

Ferng,L.H. 1913<br />

Ferragut,V. 429,1193,1767<br />

Ferrando,M. 651,2193<br />

Ferrari,G. 165,349,371,681,1657,<br />

1729<br />

Ferreira,A.R. 1023<br />

Ferreira,N.J. 1669<br />

Ferreira,R.G. 2093<br />

I-8<br />

Ferrent<strong>in</strong>o,G. 425<br />

Ferret,E. 1919<br />

Ferrua,M.J. 513,619,629<br />

Fessas,D. 89<br />

Fevzioglu,M. 1321<br />

Fica,X. 1719<br />

Ficzek,G. 1115<br />

FidelGutiérrezLópez,G. 1045,1393,1999<br />

Filipovi,J.S. 1897<br />

Filipovi,N.K. 1897<br />

Filipovi,V.S. 1897<br />

Filliol,C. 649<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ardiFilho,F. 1757<br />

Fitry,I. 1373<br />

Fleurot,O. 2223<br />

Flick,D. 55,125,295,523,535,<br />

595,1435,1443,1493,<br />

1495,1531,1841,<br />

2247<br />

Flores,S. 979<br />

Floros,J. 105<br />

Foerst,P. 1801<br />

Foisy,M. 1261,2033<br />

Fokialakis,N. 2215<br />

Follegatti–Romero,L.A. 1389,1391<br />

Fonseca,F. 267,561<br />

Fonseca,I.M. 1023<br />

Fonseca,J. 1553<br />

Fonseca,M. 793<br />

Fontan,R.C.I. 1487<br />

Forsberg,F. 593<br />

Först,P. 149,957<br />

Föste,H. 701,703<br />

Foster,K.D. 633<br />

Foucquier,J. 323<br />

Fougère,L. 809<br />

Fox,M. 723<br />

Fragkiadakis,G.A. 1835,1837<br />

Fragoso,E. 1817<br />

Franca,A.S. 1693,1761<br />

Franchi,M.A. 1661,1663<br />

Franke,K. 569<br />

Franke,S. 731<br />

Fras,A. 2149<br />

FraschMelnik,S. 695<br />

Freire,C.M.A. 1019<br />

Freire,F.B. 333,1353,1361,1489,<br />

1569,1571<br />

Freire,J.T. 333,1353,1361,1489,<br />

1569,1571,2005<br />

Freitas,D.DeG. 1225,1967,2151<br />

Freitas,O. 2165<br />

FreitasMoraes,I.C. 861,1179<br />

Frías,J.M. 285,453,773,1465,<br />

1773,2209<br />

Fröhl<strong>in</strong>g,A. 393,1643<br />

Fruilo,M. 349<br />

Frydenlund,F. 1539<br />

Fryer,P.J. 49,147,265,329,533,<br />

621,697,711,913,<br />

915,1511,1543,1555<br />

Fuchigami,M. 1665,1667,1679,<br />

2019<br />

Fuchs,L. 587<br />

Fuentealba,C. 627

Fuentes,A. 1483<br />

FuentesBerrio,L. 1219,2017<br />

Fujihara,E. 2119<br />

Fujii,T. 369<br />

Fujita,K. 455,1281,1883<br />

Fukuoka,M. 319,1917,1925<br />

Fundo,J.F. 963<br />

Furtado,A.A.L. 1225<br />

Furuta,T. 7,907<br />

Fyll<strong>in</strong>gJensen,Ø. 2223<br />

Gabas,A.L. 735<br />

Gabsoo,D.O. 1145<br />

Galán,E. 2025,2027<br />

Galanaki,P. 863<br />

Galanakis,C.M. 737,1501,1579<br />

Galier,S. 385<br />

Galoburda,R. 563,1199,1201,1217,2199<br />

Galúcio,C.S 2063<br />

Galvez,C. 167,1677<br />

Gamboa,O.Diaz 2197<br />

Gao,Z.J. 2013<br />

Garbelotti,M.L. 1189,1375<br />

Garcia,A.O. 2145<br />

Garcia,L.C. 839,841<br />

Garcia,M.R. 281<br />

GarcíaMelón,M. 661<br />

GarcíaPérez,J.V. 1951,1997<br />

Garczarek,U. 505<br />

GaribayFebles,V. 1999<br />

GaridoFernandez,A. 2211<br />

Gaspar,A. 1595<br />

GasparMoreno,J. 747<br />

Gaston,E. 285,1465,1959<br />

Gatellier,P. 1855<br />

Gaucel,S. 323<br />

Gaukel,V. 949<br />

Ge,Z. 1123<br />

Gebhardt,R. 13<br />

Gedrovica,I. 2149<br />

Geeraerd,A.H. 475,2241,2245,2249,2251<br />

Gekas,V. 737,1501,2207<br />

Gelaw,T.K. 2193<br />

GélvezOrdóñez,V.M. 1219,2017<br />

Georgantelis,D. 1209<br />

Georgiadou,M. 163<br />

Gerkema,E. 249<br />

Gerolemou,A. 1273<br />

Geyer,M. 1643<br />

Ghai,G. 529<br />

Gharachorloo,M. 1297<br />

Ghiaus,A.G. 1899<br />

Ghikas,D. 495,1765<br />

Ghiselli,G. 401<br />

Giampaoli,P. 47,483,1805<br />

Gianfrancesco,A. 243,1137,1801<br />

Giann<strong>in</strong>i,A.N. 2077<br />

Giannoglou,M.N. 1851<br />

Giannopoulos,D. 849<br />

Giannou,V. 1775<br />

Giannoulis A. 849<br />

Giardiello,M. 243,1137<br />

Gibis,D. 1003<br />

Gil,B. 1459<br />

Gil,M. 1941<br />

G<strong>in</strong>er,S.A. 549,2041<br />

Gioielli,L.A. 1047<br />

Giovanis,T. 1847<br />

Giuliani,R. 1933<br />

Gloria,M.B.A. 1781,2065,2111<br />

Gobbi,S. 1577<br />

Gochangco,M.U. 1929<br />

Godoy,H.T. 2179<br />

Godoy,S. 2101<br />

Gogou,E. 1653<br />

Gohari,A.R. 893<br />

Gök,S.B. 791<br />

Gökmen,V. 485,1039,1581,1755,<br />

1807,1825<br />

Gold<strong>in</strong>g,M. 185<br />

Goli,T. 1349<br />

GoliMovahhed,G. 1907<br />

Golota,V.I. 575<br />

Gomes,A. 665<br />

Gomes,D. 1941<br />

Gomes,F.S. 1641,2203<br />

Gomes,G.V.L. 19<br />

Gomes,M.Z.V. 1549<br />

Gomes,S. 665<br />

Gomez,P.L. 1635<br />

GómezGal<strong>in</strong>do,F. 515<br />

Gomide,C.A. 1179,1329<br />

Goncalves,E. 1033,1647<br />

Gonçalves,C. 2151<br />

Gonçalves,J.C. 2061<br />

Göncüolu,N. 1825<br />

Gondek,E. 1147,1385,2235<br />

Goñi,S.M. 1425,1803<br />

GonzalesBarron,U. 473,497,1819<br />

Gonzalez,J.E. 523<br />

González,K. 961<br />

González,R. 1277,2027<br />

GonzálezMariaPatricia,C. 1197<br />

GonzalezMartínez,C. 217,1335,1963<br />

Goodman,P.A. 1593<br />

Goossens,J. 475<br />

Gordon,P.W. 709<br />

Gorgen,M. 1643<br />

Goto,C. 2201<br />

Goto,K. 91,127,1541<br />

Goto,M. 691.2201<br />

Gougeon,R. 373<br />

Gougouli,M. 1787<br />

Goujot,D. 311,1867<br />

Goula,A.M. 571,1517,1809,1957<br />

GoulartMachado,V. 2095<br />

Goulas,V. 1501<br />

Gounadaki,A.S. 1829,1831<br />

Gowen,A.A. 285,911<br />

Graciela,A. 2249<br />

Graef,V. 21,121<br />

GramChristensen,M. 269<br />

Gramat<strong>in</strong>a,I. 563<br />

Gras,M.L. 2089,2091<br />

Grassi,M. 895,1177,2237<br />

Grauwet,T. 351,367<br />

GrayStuart,E.M. 337<br />

Gre<strong>in</strong>er,R. 21,121<br />

Grenier,D. 125,1435,1443<br />

Grigoroudis,E. 1869<br />

Grimaldi,R. 1047,1049,1293<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-9

Gr<strong>in</strong>de,M. 511<br />

Grob,F. 569<br />

Groeneveld,R. 2225<br />

Grogan,H. 1773<br />

Grogg,P. 1637<br />

Gross,D. 2233<br />

Grossiord,J.L. 1249<br />

Grosso,C. 1139<br />

Grosso,C.R.F. 1267,1387<br />

Grosso,R.C. 2197<br />

Grupa,U. 1481<br />

Gruzdien,D. 1271<br />

Gryz,K. 1255<br />

Gryz,S. 1253,1255<br />

Grzegorzewski,F. 423<br />

Grzesik,M. 1251<br />

GuadalupeSosaHerrera,M. 837<br />

GuadarramaFernández,L. 1045<br />

Gualdron,L. 1173<br />

Guamis,B. 429,1193,1467,1767<br />

Guanoquiza,M. 1677<br />

Guardiani,V. 2263<br />

GuastaferroSeravalli,E.Ap. 1757<br />

GuedesdeP<strong>in</strong>ho,P. 1861<br />

Güell,C. 651,2193<br />

Gümü,B. 1453,1455<br />

GuenterKieckbusch,T. 1007,1017,1047,1049,<br />

1065,1293<br />

GuerraRodríguez,M.E. 1413<br />

Guerrero,S.N. 1311,1629,1795<br />

Gueven,A. 391,1151<br />

Guignon,B. 205<br />

Guillem<strong>in</strong>,H. 1947<br />

Gu<strong>in</strong>é,R. 1263,1265<br />

Guizani,N. 153,1119<br />

Gul,O. 1295<br />

Gulzar,M. 1149<br />

Gumy,J.C. 57,649,845,2231<br />

Guney,F. 1597<br />

Gupta,M. 1651<br />

Gustafsson,K. 2047<br />

Gut,J.A.W. 1347,1439,1445<br />

GutiérrezdePiñeresc,C. 2109<br />

GutierrezdePieresRocha,C. 2107<br />

GutiérrezLópez,G.F. 1045,1163,1287,1753,<br />

1999<br />

GutierrezUribe,J.A. 2045<br />

Guven,G. 581,1931<br />

Guzman,F. 615<br />

Gwanpua,S.G. 2245<br />

GmezGal<strong>in</strong>do,F. 565<br />

Haas,K. 1551<br />

HaddadKhodaparast,M.H. 1509,1689<br />

Hadnaev,M. 881,1109,2141<br />

Hadnaev,T.D. 881,1109,2141<br />

Hadwiger,K. 765<br />

Hafner,A. 1203<br />

Hagiwara,T. 313,525,1561<br />

Hagura,Y. 155,1121,1303<br />

Håkansson,A. 587<br />

Halik,M. 1253<br />

Hamada,N. 1917<br />

Hamaker,B.R. 1321<br />

Hamanaka,D. 1859<br />

Hamberg,L. 539<br />

I-10<br />

Hampel,R. 649<br />

Hamzaliolu,A. 485<br />

Han,Q. 993,1983<br />

Han,Wu 1673<br />

Hancocks,R.D. 1745<br />

Hannesschläger,G. 1175,2229<br />

Hansriwijit,S. 533<br />

Hardacre,A. 669<br />

Harnkarnsujarit,N. 1127<br />

HarrardeDienes,A. 661<br />

Harsa,. 219,1039,2043<br />

Hartel,R. 87,727,779,1213<br />

Hashimoto,A. 1863<br />

Hashitani,N. 1721<br />

Hashizume,K. 127<br />

Hassan,M.A. 233<br />

Hassanzadeh,A. 241<br />

Hauser,C. 107<br />

Havet,M. 339<br />

Hayakawa,S. 91<br />

Hayashi,M. 369<br />

Hazizaj,A. 421<br />

He,J. 779,1213<br />

Hebb<strong>in</strong>k,G.A. 51<br />

Hedreira,J. 2109<br />

HeiluFayissa,A. 269<br />

He<strong>in</strong>emann,R.J.B. 23,2165<br />

He<strong>in</strong>z,V. 569<br />

Heldman,D.R. 251,307<br />

Hellenas,K.E. 1217<br />

Hendrickx,M. 351,361,367<br />

Henehan,G.T.M. 2209<br />

Henke,S. 1695,1707<br />

Henriques,F. 1265<br />

Henriques,M. 1941<br />

Heo,S. 2073<br />

Heredia,A. 1993,1995<br />

Hernández,H.M. 1999<br />

Hernández ,H. 445<br />

HernándezPezzani,C. 1195<br />

HernándezSánchez,H. 445,1163,1393<br />

HernándezBrenes,C. 2045<br />

HernándezHerrero,M. 429,1193<br />

Hernando,I. 1621<br />

Herppich,W.B. 1643<br />

Herremans,E. 139,209,843,1175,<br />

2227,2229,2239<br />

Herrera,M.L. 923<br />

HerreraPérez,L. 1221<br />

Heyd,B. 1921<br />

Hicsasmaz,Z. 1151<br />

H<strong>in</strong>kova,A. 1695,1707<br />

H<strong>in</strong>ojosa,A. 1827<br />

Hiraiwab,Y. 1191<br />

Hirano,M. 1033<br />

Hoang,M. 1841,2247<br />

Hodara,K. 1251<br />

Höfler,J. 731<br />

Hogan,S.A. 1379<br />

Hojjatoleslamy,M. 1297<br />

Holah,J. 467<br />

Holzmüller,W. 13<br />

Hong,S.I. 989<br />

Hook,B. 229<br />

Hooley,P. 1043

Horabik,J. 1759<br />

Hori,M. 1187<br />

Horzi,D. 865,867,2039<br />

Hosono,M. 1743<br />

Hotrum,N. 723<br />

Houška,M. 639,1165<br />

Hsu,C.L. 1461,1565,1567<br />

Hsu,K.C. 2009<br />

Hu,H. 441<br />

Hu,W. 439<br />

Hu,X. 1617,1659<br />

Huang,Q. 947<br />

Huang,S.L. 2125<br />

Huang,T.S. 1871<br />

Hub<strong>in</strong>ger,M.D. 839,841,853,1067,1267,<br />

1269,1387,1991,2001,<br />

2187<br />

HuckIriart,C. 923<br />

Hui,Z. 29<br />

Hult<strong>in</strong>,H.O. 1955<br />

Hultman,E. 593<br />

Humpfer,E. 2233<br />

Hung,Y.C. 405<br />

Hurtado,S. 1239,1241<br />

Husse<strong>in</strong>,H.F. 531<br />

Husse<strong>in</strong>,M.A. 1473,1513<br />

Hut<strong>in</strong>,A. 1443<br />

Iamanaka,B.T. 1747<br />

Ibarz,A. 1299<br />

Ibrahim,A.H. 213,259,1697<br />

IgnacioAzocar,M. 1159<br />

Igoumenidis,P.E. 1341,2175<br />

Iguti,A.M. 1583,2059,2133,2135<br />

Ilg,Y. 99<br />

Il<strong>in</strong>á,A. 389,1739<br />

Illanes,A. 1239<br />

Indergård,E. 511,2241,2245,2249,2251<br />

Inès,B.A. 489<br />

Ingram,A. 265,1543<br />

Inn<strong>in</strong>gs,F. 539,587,593<br />

Isaji,E. 1541<br />

Ishida,N. 15,441,1051<br />

Ishii,K. 1665,1667,2019<br />

Ishiwatari,N. 1917<br />

Isleroglu,H. 581,1931<br />

ItoMorioka,L.R. 2137<br />

Ivanov,S.V. 847,1081<br />

Jablonka,O. 2149<br />

JacobKurtz,D. 1839<br />

Jacolot,P. 415<br />

Jaeger,H. 419,431,437,607<br />

Jagus,R.J. 833,979,1691<br />

Jahanb<strong>in</strong>,K. 893<br />

JaimeFonsecaa,M.R. 621<br />

Jakab,D. 2213<br />

Jakubczyk,E. 843,1147,1385,2227,2235<br />

James,B. 211,247,1035,1601<br />

James,C. 527,729,1903<br />

James,S.J. 527,729,1903<br />

JanvanderGoot,A. 203,719<br />

JaneteAngeloniMarcon,M. 1839<br />

Jang,H.D. 1461,1565,1567<br />

Jangam,S. 555<br />

Janssen,A.E.M. 719<br />

Jao,C.L. 2009,2125<br />

Jaques,A. 1521<br />

Jaques,D. 1521<br />

Jara,F. 1141<br />

JaramilloFlores,M.E. 961,1163<br />

Jardim,D.C.P. 1799,2145<br />

Jauregi,P. 377,395<br />

Jay,F. 2249<br />

JeLee,S. 1153<br />

JeanPierre,P. 489<br />

Jeelani,S.A.K. 635<br />

Jekle,M. 25,79,885<br />

Jelicich,A. 1381<br />

Jianu,C. 1909<br />

Jianu,I. 1909<br />

Jibu,Y. 1665,1667,1679,<br />

2019<br />

Jiménez,A. 871<br />

Jiménez,E. 1639<br />

Jiménez,M. 1603,1639,2097<br />

Jiménez,M.T. 1791<br />

Jiménez,N. 481<br />

JiménezAguilar,D.M. 2045<br />

JimenezAparicio,A. 1163<br />

JiménezAparicio,A.R. 1287<br />

JimenezJunca,C. 57<br />

J<strong>in</strong>,X. 249,1607<br />

J<strong>in</strong>We,K. 1099<br />

JoãoBarroca,M. 1265<br />

Johnsen,S.O 471<br />

Jones,J.R. 337<br />

Jordan,K. 1829<br />

JosédoAmaralSobral,P. 37,861,883,1009,<br />

1033,1143,1179,<br />

1329<br />

JoseMazz<strong>in</strong>iSartori,D. 275,1367<br />

JoséRodríguez,M. 2049<br />

Juan,B. 1767<br />

Juhász,R. 2213<br />

Jun,S. 435<br />

Jung,J. 1099<br />

Jury,V. 199,1205<br />

JustoAlonso,M. 1539<br />

Kabbani,D. 1959<br />

Kadlec,P. 1165,1695<br />

Kadoyanagi,T. 1859<br />

Kajiwara,K. 1901<br />

Kakali,F. 1843<br />

Kakuda,P.M. 2187<br />

Kalantzi,K. 495,1765<br />

Kalogeropoulos,N. 2177<br />

Kaltsa,O. 69<br />

Kaluševi,A. 173,2057,2143<br />

Kameoka,T. 1863<br />

Kamil,R. 309<br />

Kammerer,D.R. 617<br />

Kanchanatawee,S. 385<br />

Kang,C.G. 1575<br />

Kang,S. 1771<br />

Kang,T. 1123<br />

Kapetanakou,A.E. 1885<br />

Karapantsios,T.D. 537,919,1243,1927<br />

Karásková,P. 1483<br />

Karathanos,V.T. 257,583,813,1341,<br />

2123,2175,2177<br />

Karatzas,K.A.G. 409,427<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-11

Karbowiak,T. 373<br />

Kargar,M. 61<br />

Karipoglou,C. 1843<br />

Karkl<strong>in</strong>a,D. 1217,2149,2183<br />

Karp<strong>in</strong>ski,K. 469<br />

Karvela,E. 2177<br />

Karwe,M.V. 363,1681<br />

Kasahara,I. 1229,1637<br />

Kasuya,S. 1187<br />

Katapodis,P. 1683<br />

Katayama,T. 369<br />

Katikou,P. 1209<br />

Kat<strong>in</strong>a,K. 1331,113<br />

Katsanidis,E. 1845<br />

Katsaros,G. 1683,2243,2245<br />

Katsikogianni,M.G. 1001<br />

Kaufmann,S.F.M. 637<br />

Kawabta,M. 1541<br />

Kawagoe,Y. 1901<br />

Kawai,H. 121,1551<br />

Kawai,K. 155,1121,1303<br />

Kawanishi,H. 1145<br />

Kawashima,M. 2119<br />

KayaCeliker,H. 169<br />

KaymakErtek<strong>in</strong>,F. 581,1931<br />

Ke,X. 1895<br />

Kechichian,V. 1445<br />

Keener,K. 427<br />

Kehlenbeck,V. 803<br />

Kelkar,S. 187<br />

Kemerli,T. 581,1931<br />

Kerasiotis,T. 1021<br />

Kerjean,C. 1749<br />

Kerry,J.P. 1943,1961<br />

Khan,M.A. 81,967,1207,1975,2195<br />

Khayat,S. 1249<br />

Kholodova,E.A. 575<br />

Khosravi,A.R. 1245<br />

Khutoryanskiy,V.V. 679<br />

Kiani,H. 521,1319<br />

Kieckbusch,T.G. 1007,1017,1047,1049,<br />

1065,1293,1747<br />

Kihara,F.S. 1747<br />

Kim,C.J. 823<br />

Kim,C.T. 823,1459<br />

Kim,E. 247<br />

Kim,E.H.J. 633<br />

Kim,M.S. 1771<br />

Kim,N. 823,1459<br />

Kim,S.W. 1099<br />

Kim,T.E. 1459<br />

Kim,Y.J. 1575<br />

Kimura,C.Y.C.S. 1131<br />

Kimura,Y. 1665,1667,2019<br />

Kiosseoglou,V. 129,879<br />

Kirs,E. 1343<br />

Klaus,A. 1383<br />

Klocke,S. 393<br />

Knight,G. 469<br />

Knoerzer,K. 335,1417,1535<br />

Knorr,D. 355,357,391,393,419,431,<br />

437,607,777,877,891,<br />

1633,1643<br />

Ko,S. 831,1099,1575<br />

Ko,W.C. 2009<br />

I-12<br />

Koakuzu,S.N. 2151<br />

Kobayashi,I. 73,573,937<br />

Kobayashi,T. 1351<br />

Kocadal,T. 1581<br />

Kohda,J. 283,1457<br />

Köhler,H. 707<br />

Köhler,K. 591<br />

Kokawa,M. 455,1281<br />

Kok<strong>in</strong>i,J.L. 5,45,889<br />

Kokk<strong>in</strong>aki,A. 1835,1837<br />

Kokk<strong>in</strong>akis,E. 1835,1837<br />

Kole,A.P.W. 505<br />

Komaitis,M. 745,863,1273<br />

Komen,G. 219<br />

Komes,D. 865,867,2039<br />

Kometani,T. 1191<br />

Kondjoyan,A. 1855<br />

Kondo,S. 2201<br />

Kong,F. 1381<br />

Konstanta,M.A. 1341<br />

Konteles,S.J. 583<br />

Kontom<strong>in</strong>as,M.G. 1209<br />

Koroleva,O. 2261<br />

Koronaki,E.D. 97<br />

Kostoglou,M. 919,1927<br />

Kostov,G. 1451<br />

Kotlar,C.E. 1709<br />

Koudou,M . 1935<br />

Koulis,M. 2029<br />

Koulouris,A. 1605<br />

Kout<strong>in</strong>as,A. 399,745<br />

Koutsoumanis,K. 101,463,1787,1788<br />

KovaeviGani,K. 2039<br />

Kovacs,A. 499<br />

Koyanagi,T. 1935<br />

Kozarski,M. 1383<br />

Krahenbühl,M.A. 1131<br />

KrauseBierhalz,A.C. 1007,1017<br />

Kreicbergs,V. 2199<br />

Kreyenschmidt,J. 99<br />

Kreyenschmidt,M. 99<br />

Kristo,E. 421<br />

Kroh,L.W. 423,607<br />

Krokida,M. 257,1331,2077,2087,<br />

2123<br />

Krstonoši,V. 881<br />

Kruma,Z. 563,2183<br />

Kucera,P. 639<br />

Kudra,T. 491<br />

Kühnl,W. 375<br />

Kukurová,K. 1591,1881,1965<br />

Kulozik,U. 13,149,375,381,397,<br />

675,685,957,1687,<br />

1801,2099<br />

Kumagai,H. 2119<br />

Kumar,Y. 1207<br />

KumarMallikarjunan,P. 169<br />

Kunigk,L. 2093<br />

Kunkulberga,D. 1889<br />

KuoChiang,H. 2125<br />

Kurenda,A. 1763<br />

Kurozawa,L.E. 1991<br />

Kushiro,M. 1883<br />

Kusztal,R. 843,2227<br />

Kuwada,H. 665,1667,1679,2019

Kviesis,J. 1199<br />

Kyriakidis,G. 1835,1837<br />

LaPenna,M.P. 179<br />

Laackmann,J. 63<br />

Labropoulos,A. 1921,1947<br />

Labuza,T.P. 75,775<br />

Lacenlotti,F. 1521<br />

Lafosse,M. 809<br />

Lagarón,J.M. 2249,2251<br />

Laghi,L. 797<br />

Lagorio,G. 151<br />

Lagrange,L.F. 733<br />

Laguerre,J.C. 415<br />

Laguerre,O. 1841,2247<br />

Lalechou,A. 1847<br />

Lalpuria,M. 105<br />

Lamardo,L.C.A. 1181,1189<br />

Lamr<strong>in</strong>i,B. 171,1427<br />

Lancellotti,F. 541<br />

LandiFranco,C.M. 225<br />

Langwoski,H.C. 731<br />

Lanoisellé,J.L. 909,1939<br />

Lanza,M. 1389,1391<br />

Laohasongkram,K. 677,1613<br />

Laos,K. 1343<br />

Laparra,J.M. 217<br />

LaraGuzmán,O. 2015<br />

Laridon,Y. 125,1443<br />

Larue,O. 1215<br />

Lasagabaster,A. 353,741<br />

LatorreSalamanca,L.E. 1027<br />

Lauhon,R. 195<br />

Lavenson,D.M. 901<br />

Lazarides,H.N. 753,789,1517<br />

Lazaridou,A. 143,2207<br />

Lazou,A. 2123<br />

LeGot,A. 633<br />

LeLouët,L. 1855<br />

LePage,J.F. 965<br />

LeRévérend,B.J.L. 147,915,1887<br />

LealJr.,W.F. 1967<br />

Leaungvongpaisan,G. 659<br />

LeBail,A. 199,1205<br />

Lebesi,D. 1345,1775,1783<br />

Lebovka,N. 403,909,1623<br />

Leducq,D. 523,1531,2241,2245,2249,<br />

2251<br />

Lee,C. 1833<br />

Lee,H. 411<br />

Lee,H.H. 989<br />

Lee,I. 1099<br />

Lee,J.W. 411<br />

Lee,K. 1771<br />

Lee,P.S. 831<br />

Lee,S. 1575<br />

Lee,S.H. 435<br />

Lee,S.M. 2073<br />

Lee,W. 717<br />

Leeb,E. 397,685,2099<br />

Legentilhomme,P. 713<br />

Leht<strong>in</strong>en,P. 2105<br />

Leiq<strong>in</strong>g,P. 1123<br />

LeiteMittererDaltoé,M. 1161<br />

Leitner,M. 845,1175,2229,2231<br />

Leiva,G. 279,289<br />

Leiva,M. 1737<br />

Leloup,M. 1355,1357<br />

Lema,P. 1005<br />

LemusMondaca,R. 1491<br />

Lenas,D. 1843,1865<br />

Lentzou,D. 1337<br />

Leray,D. 199<br />

Leskošekukalovi,I. 2057<br />

Lesmes,U. 625<br />

Lewis,W. 603<br />

Li,L.T. 931<br />

Li,S. 993,1983,1985<br />

Li,W. 2157<br />

Li,X. 795<br />

Li,Y. 411,993,1983<br />

Lianou,A. 1787<br />

Liao,X. 439,1659,1617<br />

Liapis,A.I. 77<br />

Lienemann ,K. 2225<br />

LiewAbdullah,A.G. 387<br />

Lijun,C. 2037<br />

Lim,J.G. 1575,1771<br />

Lima,Á.S. 1703,2131<br />

L<strong>in</strong>,T. 1123<br />

L<strong>in</strong>,Y.A. 1913<br />

L<strong>in</strong>gTsai,C. 1281<br />

L<strong>in</strong>k,M. 449<br />

Lioumbas,J.S. 537,1927<br />

LirenyGuaraldoGonçalves,A. 2197<br />

Lite,Li 1895<br />

Littlejohn,K.A 1043<br />

Liu,D. 459,1939<br />

Liu,L. 287<br />

Liu,S. 319<br />

Liu,Y. 383<br />

Livney,Y.D. 683<br />

Llave,Y. 313<br />

Llorca,I. 1563<br />

Llorens,A. 31,1237<br />

Lloret,E. 31,1237<br />

Lo,Y.M. 567<br />

Locatelli,G. 2085<br />

Log<strong>in</strong>ova,K. 1623<br />

Londoño,J. 1777,2015<br />

LoonNeoh ,T. 7,907,991<br />

LopesdaCunha,R. 933,937,941,1309<br />

López,J. 2049<br />

López,J.A. 399,745<br />

LopezGarcia,I. 399,745<br />

LópezMa.Reyna,R. 445,689,1617<br />

LópezCervantes,J. 1157,2011<br />

LópezMalo,A. 1791<br />

LópezQuiroga,E. 805,1409<br />

LoredoGarcia,A.B. 1311<br />

Lorén,N. 783<br />

Lorenz,R. 99<br />

Lorenzo,G. 137<br />

Loss,R.D. 1447<br />

Lou,Z. 2013<br />

Loukianou,M. 1851<br />

Louppis,A.P. 1209<br />

Lourenço,L.H. 1227,1233<br />

Loures,M.M.R. 1107<br />

Loveday,S.M. 131<br />

Lu,P. 431<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-13

Lucas,T. 125,199,227,1435,1443,<br />

1475<br />

Luccas,V. 1293<br />

LucenaBarbosa,J. 2001<br />

Lule,I. 501<br />

Luna,G. 1369,1603,1639<br />

LunaSolano,G. 2097<br />

Lund,D.B. 751,767<br />

Lustre,A.O. 1929<br />

Lutton,E. 325,1529<br />

Luyten,J.M.J.G. 53<br />

Lykidou,A. 693<br />

Ma,J. 993,1983<br />

Ma,X.X. 211<br />

Machmudah,S. 691,2201<br />

Mack,S. 1513<br />

Madrona,G. 1711<br />

Maeda,A. 1721<br />

Maeda,Ryo 1743<br />

Maeng,J.S. 1459<br />

Maffi,D. 2075<br />

MagañaBarajas,E. 1157<br />

Magee,T.R.A. 235,253<br />

Maghsoudlou,Y. 1497,1499<br />

Mahadevan,S. 1681<br />

Mahajan,P.V. 971,1699,1741<br />

Mahamaktudsanee,T. 677<br />

Mahjoob,M. 1779<br />

Mai,L. 2157<br />

Maifreni,M. 1731<br />

Majschak,J.P. 701,703,707<br />

Makhon<strong>in</strong>a,M. 1081<br />

Mak<strong>in</strong>oc,Y. 1901<br />

Makishi,F. 735<br />

Makita,G.T. 1725<br />

Makri,E. 1853<br />

Makris,D.P. 2177<br />

Malacrida,C.R. 2173<br />

MalikOthman,A. 1555<br />

Mallides,K. 359<br />

Malone,C.R. 175<br />

Mandala,I. 69,947,2055,2105<br />

Manios,S.G. 1769,1847<br />

Mank,V. 1059<br />

Manojlovic,V. 173<br />

Manzocco,L. 177,1731<br />

MarangonideOliveira,G. 1065<br />

Marasch<strong>in</strong>,M. 1839,2179<br />

Marciano,E. 1375<br />

Maresca,P. 371,1657<br />

Margas,E. 467<br />

MariaZan<strong>in</strong>,G. 1235<br />

Mariano,J. 649<br />

MariuszPieczywek,P. 9<br />

Markaki,A. 1835,1837<br />

Markman,G. 683<br />

Marková,L. 1591,1881,1965<br />

Markovi,K. 2039<br />

Maroulis,Z.B. 813<br />

Marques,D. 2085,2137<br />

Marques,L.G. 2003,2005,2007<br />

Marra,F. 629,1005,1945<br />

Marshall,S.H. 615<br />

Marson,G.C. 2145<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>,C. 229<br />

I-14<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>,P.J. 229,1061<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>Belloso,O. 2217,2219<br />

MartínTorrezIrigoyen,R. 549<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>ez,P. 1655<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>ez,R. 961<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>ez,V. 1563<br />

Martínez,C.L. 1257,2115<br />

Martínez,E. 2049<br />

Martínez,H.J.L. 389<br />

Martínez,J.L. 1739<br />

MartínezdeMarañón,I. 353,741,1475<br />

MartínezPadilla,L.P. 837,1111<br />

MartínezBustos,F. 2011<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>ezManez,R. 181<br />

MartínezRivas,A. 1045<br />

MartínezVelarde,R. 1287<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>s,E. 1161<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>s,J.T. 293,1015<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>s,V.M. 1161<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>sJac<strong>in</strong>thoBarbosa,M.I. 2001<br />

Martverk,K. 1343<br />

Mary,G. 195<br />

Mascheroni,R.H. 613,1441<br />

Masi,P. 263,1211,2069<br />

Masot,R. 1483<br />

Mastrocola,D. 2205<br />

Mathilde,C. 489<br />

Mathys,A. 355,357<br />

Matiacevich,S. 141,1087,1159,1183<br />

Matser,A. 367<br />

Matsuda,A. 441<br />

Matsui,H. 2119<br />

Matta,V.M. 1437,1641,1967<br />

Mauermann,M. 707<br />

Maureira,H. 1675<br />

Mavragani ,I. 863<br />

Mawatari,T. 1303<br />

Mazloumi,M.T. 981,1185<br />

Mazutti,M.A. 1037,1125<br />

McCarthy,K.L. 277,855,899,901,<br />

1155<br />

McCarthy,M.J. 277,855,901,1155<br />

McClements,D.J. 625,929<br />

McHugh,T.H. 215,795<br />

McKenna,B. 605,787<br />

MedeirosHirata,T.A. 2095<br />

Med<strong>in</strong>a,V. 1977<br />

Med<strong>in</strong>a,W.T. 193<br />

Mediouni,H. 681<br />

Mehryar,L. 241,1713<br />

Meijer,H.E.H. 53<br />

Me<strong>in</strong>ders,M. 303<br />

Meireles,M.A.A. 821,1037,1125,1519,<br />

2113,2167,2189,<br />

2191<br />

Meirelles,A.J.A. 1131,1133,1389,<br />

1391,1405,1419,<br />

1701,1953<br />

Mekhloufi,G. 1249<br />

Melado,A. 245,845,2231,2233<br />

MeléndezPérez,R. 1129,1221<br />

Mello,B.C.B.S. 2187<br />

Melnyk,O. 1059<br />

Mendes,R. 827<br />

MendesdeFigueiredo,H. 2153

MendesdeFigueiredoJúnior,A. 2153<br />

Mendez,S. 1289<br />

Mendo,S. 1879<br />

Mendoza,J. 1325<br />

MendozaMadrigal,A.G. 623<br />

MendozaPérez,J.A. 1999<br />

Meneau,F. 119<br />

Menegalli,F.C. 1009,2095<br />

Meneses,N. 437<br />

Menkov,N. 1083<br />

MerazTorres,L.S. 1163,1393<br />

MercadoMárquez,C. 1129<br />

Mercer,D.G. 751,755,767,1371,1593<br />

Mercier,S. 1261,2033<br />

Merkouri,S.I. 1829<br />

Mery,D. 279,289,1753<br />

Mescher,A. 63<br />

Mesmoudi,S. 325,1529<br />

Mession,J.L. 875<br />

Meyer,X.M. 311,483,1867<br />

Meza,B.E. 835<br />

Mezdour,S. 195<br />

Mgaidi,A. 681<br />

Michel,M. 687,2211<br />

Michihata,T. 1935,2119<br />

Michon,C. 69,227,1443<br />

Mihailov,M. 1451<br />

Milczarek,R.R. 215<br />

MillánCarrillo,J. 1157<br />

Mills,T. 817<br />

Milut<strong>in</strong>ovi,M. 2057<br />

M<strong>in</strong>,B. 1575<br />

M<strong>in</strong>emoto,Y. 1191<br />

M<strong>in</strong>g,L. 1123<br />

M<strong>in</strong>im,L.A. 1107,1705<br />

M<strong>in</strong>im,V.P.R. 1107,1705<br />

M<strong>in</strong>tzas,D. 693<br />

Mirade,P.S. 965,1947<br />

Miranda,G. 1277<br />

Miranda,M. 1677,2049<br />

Miri,T. 49,913<br />

Mirkovi,N. 2083<br />

Mironescu l,D. 1105<br />

Mironescu,M. 1105,1377<br />

Mistriotis,A. 849<br />

Mitrea,D. 1401<br />

MiwaIguti ,A. 1757<br />

Miyawaki,O. 1969<br />

Mizuno,T. 1721<br />

Möd<strong>in</strong>ger,L.I. 1715<br />

Moerkens,A. 203<br />

Moggridge ,G. 835<br />

Moghaddam,T.M. 1279<br />

Mogol,B.A. 1825<br />

Mohamad,N.L. 387<br />

MohammadiMoghaddam,T. 1247<br />

Mohammed,I.K. 191<br />

Mohammed,M.A.P. 189,1275<br />

Mohebbat,M. 1509<br />

Mohebbi,M. 1279<br />

Mo<strong>in</strong>i,S. 893<br />

Mokhtar,A. 1473<br />

MoldãoMart<strong>in</strong>s,M. 673,793,1647,2061<br />

Mol<strong>in</strong>a,G. 1725,1727<br />

Mol<strong>in</strong>a,J.I. 281<br />

Mol<strong>in</strong>a,P. 141<br />

Monahan,F.J. 1001<br />

Mondor,M. 2033<br />

Mondragón,G. 279,289<br />

MonroyVillagrana,A. 1163<br />

MonspartSényi,J. 2213<br />

Monteau,J.Y. 1205<br />

Monteiro,F.S. 551<br />

MonteiroAndradeBarreto,I. 2031<br />

Montel,M.C. 1947<br />

Montes,E. 1325<br />

Montes,F.J.M. 1619<br />

Montoya,D. 761<br />

Moongnarm,A. 337<br />

Moraes,F. 37,917<br />

Moraes,I.C.F. 1033,1329<br />

Moraes,I.V.M. 1641<br />

Moraes,M. 27<br />

Moraga,N.O. 1491<br />

Morales,E. 829<br />

MoralesdelaPena,M. 2217,2219<br />

MoralesRosas,I. 2011<br />

Moreau,M. 1615<br />

MoreiraDutraAlbuquerqueE.Silva,I. 2181<br />

Moreno,C. 1073<br />

Moreno,J. 1973<br />

Moreno,M.C. 123,1077<br />

MorenoLucas,B. 1477<br />

Morgernstern,M.P. 247,337,633<br />

Mosca,A.C. 611<br />

Moschakis,T. 129,143,879,1055<br />

Moscovici,A.M. 183<br />

Mosnier,J.P. 427<br />

Motallebi,A.A. 981,1185<br />

Mott<strong>in</strong>Demiate,I. 1839<br />

Moughan,P. 631<br />

Mourão,C.A. 1705<br />

Mourtz<strong>in</strong>os,I. 2175<br />

Mousavi,S.M.E. 951,1319,1751<br />

Mousavi,Z.E. 1319<br />

MoussaAyoub,T.E. 607,1091,1979<br />

Mousset,S. 2257<br />

Moutsatsou,P. 1021,1775<br />

Moya,S. 1475<br />

Moz<strong>in</strong>a,S.S. 769<br />

Müller,J. 819,955<br />

MüllerBuschbaum,P. 13<br />

MujicaPaz ,H. 2139<br />

Mujumdar,A. 555<br />

Mulet,A. 1277,1951,1997<br />

Muniz,E.P. 1447<br />

Muñoz,I. 1415<br />

Muñoz,K. 1777<br />

Muñoz,L.A. 985<br />

Muñoz,O. 627<br />

Muranyi,P. 699,1551<br />

Murata,L.K.Y. 1439<br />

Murata,N. 2119<br />

Murniece,I. 1217<br />

Murphy,E.G. 577<br />

Murray,A. 733<br />

Mussida,A. 473<br />

Mustafa,L. 653<br />

MustapaKamal,S.M. 387<br />

Muthukumarappan,K. 597<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-15

Mytil<strong>in</strong>aki,E. 1629<br />

N’guessanGeorges,A. 85<br />

Nabetani,H. 455<br />

Nabizadeh,F. 1167<br />

Nagano,H. 1187<br />

Nahar,S. 635<br />

NairneNegrãoMurakami,A. 2181<br />

Nakagawa,K. 519,2171<br />

Nakai,T. 1925<br />

Nakajim,M. 931<br />

Nakajima,E. 1191<br />

Nakajima,K. 369<br />

Nakajima,M. 73,937<br />

Nakamura,K. 1665,1679<br />

Nakamura,S. 1935,2119<br />

Nakano,L.A. 1967<br />

Nakano,Y. 283,1457<br />

Nanasaki,Y. 1561<br />

Nara<strong>in</strong>,N. 2007<br />

Nascimento,L.A.S. 1703<br />

NascimentoeSantos,D. 1669<br />

NassiriMahallati,M. 1093<br />

Nasution,D.A. 477<br />

Nathanailides,C. 1843,1865<br />

Natividad,A.C. 1929<br />

NavaGalicia,S.B. 1587<br />

Nazir,A. 65<br />

Ndoye,F.T. 295,535,1493<br />

Nedovi,V. 173,825,2057,2143<br />

Neidhart,S. 617<br />

Neill,G. 235,253<br />

Nemeth,A. 1175,2229<br />

Neri,L. 2205<br />

Neves,M.A. 73,937<br />

Ngadi,M.O. 239,287<br />

Nguyen,H.H. 831<br />

Nguyen,L.T. 435<br />

Nguyen,M.H. 557<br />

NguyenDoTrong,N. 139,209,1057,2239<br />

Niazmand,R. 903,951<br />

Nicolaï,B.M. 139,843,1057,2227,2239,<br />

2245,2249,2257<br />

Nicolau,N. 1467<br />

NicolettiTelis,V.R. 225,2173<br />

Nicoli,M.C. 177<br />

Nicorescu,I. 1615<br />

Nielsen,B. 1533<br />

Nieto,A. 1251<br />

Nieto,G. 1469<br />

Niksic,,M. 1383<br />

N<strong>in</strong>ios,A.I. 2105<br />

Niranjan,K. 57,655,1431<br />

Nishi,M. 2119<br />

Nishimoto,N. 519<br />

Nishizu,T. 91,127,1541<br />

Nitschke,M. 1549<br />

Nitz,M. 2135<br />

Niwata,E. 15,1051<br />

Noguchi,A. 441<br />

Nojiri,Y. 1191<br />

Nord<strong>in</strong>Ibrahim,M. 309<br />

Nordlund,E. 2105<br />

NorneWidell,K. 1539<br />

Norton,A.B. 645<br />

I-16<br />

Norton,I.T. 35,61,645,695,817,<br />

1745,1887<br />

Norton,T. 2157<br />

Nót<strong>in</strong>,B. 1115,2213<br />

Nounesis,G. 1683<br />

Nualkaekul,S. 1793<br />

Numthuam,S. 995<br />

Nunes,L. 827,1595<br />

Nuñez,H. 1407,1973,1977<br />

Núñez,G.A. 1715<br />

NúñezSantiago,M.C. 1315<br />

NurHanani,Z.A. 1943,1961<br />

Nychas,G.J.E. 461<br />

O´Connell,C.P. 285<br />

O’Callaghan,D.J. 1379,1467<br />

O’Donnell,C. 911,1651<br />

O’Gorman,A. 453<br />

O’Neill,F.T. 1001<br />

O’Sullivan,M. 1001<br />

Obiedz<strong>in</strong>ski,M. 1889<br />

Occh<strong>in</strong>o,E. 1621<br />

Oehlke,K. 121<br />

Ogawa,T. 1351<br />

Ognean,C.F. 1095<br />

Ognean,M. 1095<br />

Ograsici,E. 1627<br />

Oh,S.M. 823<br />

Ohmoto,E. 525<br />

Oikawa,S. 1303<br />

Oikonomopoulou,V.P. 257<br />

Oikonomou,N.A. 1331<br />

Okabe,S. 1541<br />

Okai,K. 2201<br />

Okai,Y. 2201<br />

Okos,M.R. 717<br />

Okos,M. 187<br />

Oliveira,A.C. 2165<br />

Oliveira,A.L. 809<br />

Oliveira,F. 1741<br />

Oliveira,J. 1975<br />

Oliveira,J.V. 1037,1125<br />

Oliveira,L.S. 1693,1761<br />

Oliveira,N. 1703<br />

OliveiradeFariña,L. 1823<br />

OliveiradeMoraesa,J. 953<br />

Olivera,D.F. 1785<br />

Olivier,K. 85<br />

OlivieradosSantos,A. 1049<br />

Olsen,A. 897<br />

Olsen,Ø. 471<br />

Oprean,L. 1105<br />

Orange,N. 1615<br />

Oreopoulou,V. 1585,1783,2053<br />

ØrnholtZammit,G. 517<br />

Orse,A.G. 1799<br />

Ortega,J.A.A. 1619<br />

Ortiz,J. 1737<br />

Ortiz,M.E. 1079<br />

Ortiz,S. 1795<br />

OrtizPortilla,S. 1675<br />

Oshitac,S. 1901<br />

Osorio,E. 1777<br />

Osorio,F. 67,141,905,935,<br />

1075,1087,1183<br />

Osp<strong>in</strong>o,H. 1817

OuldAhmedou,S.A. 339<br />

Ozcakmak,S. 1891,1893<br />

Ozdestan,O. 581,1931<br />

Ozerov,O. 1645<br />

Ozol<strong>in</strong>a,V. 1889<br />

Oztop,M. 855<br />

Ozuna,C. 1951,1997<br />

Ozyurt,B. 581,1931<br />

P.S<strong>in</strong>gh,R. 251,513,619<br />

Paez,M. 1159<br />

Pagani,M.M 2203<br />

Paik,S.Y.R. 831<br />

Pa<strong>in</strong>ter,P. 889<br />

PaivaMart<strong>in</strong>s,F. 917<br />

Palazoglu,K. 1755<br />

Paleologos,E.K. 1209<br />

Pall,R. 1343<br />

Palma,B. 2185<br />

Palou,E. 1791<br />

Palzer,S. 197,637<br />

Pan,Z. 795<br />

Panagou,E.Z. 461,2211<br />

Panarese,V. 797<br />

Panayotov,P. 2159<br />

Pangloli,P. 405<br />

Pani,P. 1937<br />

Panopoulos,S. 1843<br />

Papadaki,I. 1783<br />

Papadakis,S.E. 583,2175<br />

Papadimitriou,V. 2127<br />

Papadopoulos,T. 1683<br />

Papadopoulou,O.S. 461<br />

Papanikolaou,S. 745<br />

Papaspyridi,L.M. 2215<br />

Papathanassiou,M. 891<br />

Papavergou,E.J. 1857<br />

Papoti,V.T. 1243<br />

Pappa,A. 2087<br />

Pappas,C. 2055<br />

Parada,J. 781<br />

Parada,L. 961<br />

Paramera,E.I. 583<br />

Parés,D. 1239,1241<br />

Park,K.J. 1991<br />

Pascual,A. 1563<br />

PassaroCarvalho,C. 2015<br />

Passot,S. 267,561<br />

Pastore,G.M. 401,739,1589,1725,1727,<br />

2107,2179<br />

Pastukhov,A. 1431<br />

Pataro,G. 349,1729<br />

Paterson,A.H.J. 51,815,1283,1373,1429<br />

Patil,S. 409<br />

PatriciaMartínezPadilla,L. 837,1111<br />

Patsioura,A. 2207<br />

Paunovi,D. 2083<br />

Paviani,L. 2071<br />

PavieCardoso,L. 1049<br />

Payne,F. 317,509,1469<br />

Paz,J.E. 299,1515<br />

Pazir,F. 791<br />

Pecic,S. 2143<br />

Pedreschi,F. 67,905,935<br />

Pedroso,D.L. 23<br />

Peglow,M. 649<br />

Pe<strong>in</strong>ado,I. 1993,1995<br />

Pelissari,F.M. 1009<br />

Penbunditkul,P. 255<br />

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Pénicaud,C. 1867<br />

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Peralta,J.M. 709<br />

Perazz<strong>in</strong>i,H. 1569,1571<br />

Pereira,A.C.I. 2133<br />

Pereira,A.G.M. 1367<br />

Pereira,A.L.F. 657<br />

Pereira,C. 1941<br />

Pereira,L.M. 1067<br />

Pereira,R.N. 413<br />

PereiraQuadros,C. 2083<br />

Peresichnyi,M.I. 2035<br />

PeretAlmeida,L. 2111<br />

Pérez,L.M. 973<br />

Pérez,O.A. 1325<br />

Pérez,O.E. 407<br />

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PerezEsteve,E. 181<br />

PérezGonzález,J. 1025<br />

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Peres,C. 2211 <br />

Perone,N. 1211<br />

Perret,B. 1947<br />

Perrot,N. 321,323,325,1427,<br />

1529<br />

Perunovi,M. 1285,2083<br />

Petermeier,H. 731<br />

Petrovi,T. 825<br />

Petruši,M. 2083<br />

Phan,V.A. 505<br />

Phoon,P.Y. 515<br />

Piazza,L. 599<br />

Piccone,P. 2081<br />

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Picque,D. 1947<br />

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Pigh<strong>in</strong>,A. 1195<br />

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Pimentel,J.D.R. 2007<br />

Pimentel,M.R. 1725<br />

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P<strong>in</strong>heiro,J. 1647<br />

P<strong>in</strong>ho,C.R.G. 1661,1663<br />

P<strong>in</strong>ho,S.C. 19,27,747<br />

P<strong>in</strong>o,A. 2025<br />

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P<strong>in</strong>to,M. 541,1521<br />

P<strong>in</strong>toKempka,A. 1573<br />

Pirani,M. 2249<br />

Pittia,P. 1621,2081<br />

PlanaFattori,A. 295,1493,1495<br />

PlattLucero,L.C. 2011<br />

Plessas,S. 1013,2029<br />

Poliseli,F. 429,1193<br />

Polissiou,M. 2055<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-17

Polovka,M. 1171<br />

Polychniatou,V. 943,1775<br />

Pontes,D.F. 2153<br />

Poonnakasem,N. 1613<br />

Popov,V. 2261<br />

PorrasParral,G. 49,913<br />

Porto,P.S.S. 1447<br />

Portsch,A. 35<br />

Potes,N. 157,785<br />

Pouliot,Y. 1723<br />

Pour,V. 1695,1707<br />

Poutanen,K. 133,1113,2105<br />

Prado,G.H.C. 1453<br />

Prado,J.M. 821,1519<br />

Prado,M.M. 1367,2003,2005,2007<br />

Prakashb,B. 593<br />

Prazeres,P. 1949<br />

Preechathammawong,N. 1063<br />

Pretti,A.A. 747<br />

Prieto,W.H. 2135<br />

Prokopiou,P. 1809<br />

Promeyrat ,A. 1855<br />

Proshlyakov,A. 163<br />

Protonotariou,S.V. 2055<br />

Provesi,J.G. 2181<br />

Proveti,J.R.C. 1447<br />

Psaroudaki,A. 1869<br />

Psimouli,V. 2053<br />

Psodorov,D.B. 1897<br />

Psomas,A. 1769<br />

Psomas,E. 1301<br />

PsonkaAntonczyk,K.M. 1053<br />

Ptaszek,A. 1253,1255,1313<br />

Ptaszek,P. 1253,1313<br />

Puente,L. 1737,1971<br />

Puligundla,P. 831<br />

Pullawan,J. 2079<br />

Purchas,R. 1373<br />

Purroy,F. 365,1685<br />

Purwadaria,H.K. 457,477,547<br />

Purwanti,N. 203<br />

Putier,F. 1355,1357<br />

Putranto,A. 297,1505<br />

Qid<strong>in</strong>g,Z. 1123<br />

Q<strong>in</strong>ghua,H. 1673<br />

Quarta,B. 177<br />

Queiroz,M.I. 1161<br />

QueirozZepka,L. 1161<br />

Quevedo,J.M. 1767<br />

Quezada,C. 1813<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>ta,A. 37<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>taBarbosaBittante,A.M. 861,1179<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>tanillaCarvajal,M.X. 1163,1393<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>tas,D.A.C. 293<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>tas,M.A.C. 293,963,1069<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>teroRuiz,N.A. 2041<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>teroRamos,A. 2011<br />

Qu<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>o,A. 2085<br />

Quispe,I. 2049<br />

QuispeCondori,S. 2169<br />

RabeloTorres,E. 2131<br />

Radi,D. 825<br />

Radulovi,Z. 825,2083<br />

Rafe,A. 1689,1907<br />

Raffell<strong>in</strong>i,S. 1795<br />

I-18<br />

Rafiee,M. 265,1543<br />

Rahman,N.N.Ab. 213,259,1697<br />

Rajabipour,A. 1779<br />

Rakcejeva,T. 1199,1201<br />

Rakesh,V. 1449<br />

Ramane,K. 2199<br />

Ramaswamy,H.S. 261,531<br />

Ramírez,A. 959,1739<br />

Ramírez,C. 2109<br />

RamírezWong,B. 1157,2011<br />

Ramos,M.G.M. 1619<br />

RamosRiver,D. 1135<br />

Rao,M.A. 131,811<br />

Raphaelides,S.N. 693,1031<br />

Rasburn,J. 191<br />

Rashevska,T.O. 2023<br />

Rashevskaya,T. 1081<br />

Rashevskaya,T.A. 847<br />

Raspor,P. 503,1547,1849<br />

Rastelli,S.L. 2081<br />

Raviyan,P. 411<br />

Rayner,M. 59,2047,2079<br />

Razavi,S.M.A. 903,951,1093,1247,<br />

1611,1689<br />

Razborskaya,O. 1645<br />

Rega,B. 483,1805<br />

Reg<strong>in</strong>aKuhn,K. 1309<br />

Reg<strong>in</strong>atto,V. 1839<br />

Reid,D. 185<br />

Re<strong>in</strong>eke,K. 355,419,777,877,<br />

891<br />

Reis,I.A.O. 1703<br />

Reis,M.H.M. 1711<br />

ReisdaCosta,S.R. 1595<br />

Rejo,A. 477<br />

Relk<strong>in</strong>,P. 119<br />

Remédio,L.N. 1143<br />

Remillard,P.A. 1593<br />

Renard,C.M.G.C. 201<br />

RendónVillalobos,J.R. 1025,1339<br />

Rennie,T.J. 1371<br />

Requerre,A.L. 133,1113<br />

ResendeSimiqueli,A.P. 401,739,1589<br />

Reuillon,R. 325,1529<br />

Revithi,A. 163<br />

Revstedt,J. 587<br />

Rey,I. 205<br />

Rey,J.F. 1173,1257,2115<br />

Reyes,J.E. 113,1677<br />

ReyesMoreno,C. 1157<br />

Rezvani,E. 71<br />

Rhim,J.W. 989<br />

Riaublanc,A. 323<br />

Ribeiro,A.P.B. 1047,1049,1065,<br />

1293<br />

Ribeiro,C.M. 1181<br />

Ribeiro,E.P. 2059,2093,2133<br />

Ribeiro,R. 747<br />

Ribeiro,S.C.A. 1227,1233<br />

Ricci,J. 1349<br />

Richardson,M. 609,1833<br />

Riebl<strong>in</strong>ger,K. 1003<br />

Riekst<strong>in</strong>aDolge,R. 2183<br />

Rigo,A.A. 1125<br />

R<strong>in</strong>con,C. 167

Ripberger,G. 815,1283<br />

Risum,J. 1533<br />

Rivas,D. 1537<br />

Rivera,W. 167<br />

Rizzolo,A. 895,987,1177,2075,2237<br />

Robb<strong>in</strong>s,P.T. 711,1555<br />

Robert,P. 443,1717<br />

Rob<strong>in</strong>,F. 197<br />

RoblesDelaTorre,R.R. 2021<br />

RoblesLópez,R. 2021<br />

Rocculi,P. 565,797,1011<br />

Rodas,M.A.B. 1189,1375<br />

Rodrigues,C.E.C. 1701<br />

Rodrigues,D. 1941<br />

Rodrigues,E. 1397<br />

Rodrigues,S. 657,1987<br />

Rodrigues,DeMassaguerP. 1879<br />

Rodríguez,A. 613<br />

Rodríguez,J. 1739<br />

Rodríguez,R. 1475<br />

RodríguezGarcía,M.E. 1135<br />

RodríguezMarín,M.L. 1315<br />

RodríguezS<strong>in</strong>obas,L. 245<br />

Roeckel,M. 2101,2103<br />

Rohn,S. 423,607<br />

RoisAnwar,N.Z. 147,915<br />

Rojas,J. 1463<br />

RojasdeGante,C. 2121<br />

RojasGrau,Ma.A 2217,2219<br />

Rolemberg ,M.P. 1131<br />

Romani,S. 565,1011,1423<br />

Romano,A. 2069<br />

Romero,S. 1817<br />

Roos,Y.H. 145,157,577,785,925,<br />

1943,1961<br />

Rosa,E. 1993,1995<br />

Rosales,A. 167<br />

RosalesRiver,A. 1135<br />

Rosas,A. 1369<br />

RosasMendoza,M.E. 417,1129<br />

Rosell,C. 199<br />

Rosen,J. 1217<br />

Rosenberg,M. 855<br />

Rosenthal,A. 1879<br />

Rosentrater,K.A. 597<br />

Rosnes,J.T. 471,1789<br />

Rouaud,O. 1433,1545<br />

Roura,S.I. 1709,1811<br />

RouxdeBalmann,H. 385<br />

Roversi,T. 599<br />

Rózek,A. 651<br />

Rozos,G. 1013<br />

Rubilar,M. 829,2185<br />

Rubiolo,A.C. 973,975<br />

Ruiz,C. 2109<br />

RuízCabello,J. 245<br />

Ruktanonchai,U. 255<br />

Rumpf,I. 1203<br />

Rumsey,T.R. 899<br />

Rungchang ,S. 995<br />

Rungrodnimitchai,S. 659<br />

Ruocco,G. 1945<br />

Russ,W. 731,757,1481<br />

Rustad,T. 897<br />

Rutherfurd ,S.M. 631<br />

Saavedra,J. 1479,1813<br />

Sabanc,S. 2051<br />

Sabanis,D. 1775<br />

Sabarez,H.T. 1503<br />

Sabovics,M. 563<br />

Sacchetti,G. 2205<br />

Sacoda,P. 2071<br />

Sadd,P. 835<br />

Sadecka,J. 1965<br />

Saeleaw,M. 869<br />

SáenzColl<strong>in</strong>s,C. 2121<br />

Saeys,W. 139,209,1057,2245,<br />

2239<br />

Safonova,O. 969,575,1645<br />

Saghy,A. 1175,2229<br />

Sagis,L. 29,641<br />

Sagis,L.M.C. 11,1041<br />

Salam,D. 11,1041<br />

Saguer,E. 1239,1241<br />

Saguy,S.I. 763,2217<br />

Saito,E. 2071<br />

Sakai,N. 319,1917,1925<br />

Sakejha,H. 653<br />

Sak<strong>in</strong>Yilmazer,M. 581,1931<br />

Sakiyama,T. 313,525,1561<br />

Sako,H. 127<br />

Salazar,K. 1719<br />

Saldaña,M.D.A. 2169<br />

SaleenaTaip,F. 309<br />

Saleh,D. 653<br />

Salehi,F. 1611<br />

Salmanian,B. 1245<br />

Salmeron,I. 1793<br />

Salova,A. 1695,1707<br />

Salta,F.N. 1341<br />

Salvadori,V.O. 1425,1785,1803<br />

Salvatori,D.M. 1635<br />

SalviaTrujillo,L. 2217,2219<br />

Sampaio,K.A. 1419,1953<br />

SanJuan,E.M. 1929<br />

Sanabani,Al 1089,1981<br />

Sanchez,M.M. 1407<br />

Sánchez,H. 445,1163,1393<br />

Sánchez,J. 1739<br />

SánchezMachado,D. 1157,2011<br />

Sancho,A. 1655<br />

Sanow,C. 1655<br />

Santacatal<strong>in</strong>a,J.V. 1951,1997<br />

Santagapita,P. 797<br />

Santana,I.Ap. 1757,2059<br />

SantanaCastro,E. 2131<br />

SantéLhoutellier,V. 1855<br />

Santos,A.L. 1225<br />

Santos,C.T. 1097,1487<br />

Santos,C.V. 2067<br />

Santos,D.C. 1227<br />

Santos,D.T. 2113,2191<br />

Santos,I.P. 1447<br />

Santos,J.S. 1189<br />

Santos,P.H.S. 135<br />

Santos,S.D. 2067<br />

Sanz,P.D. 205<br />

Sanz,Y. 217<br />

Sanzana,S. 2089<br />

Sapci,B. 2051<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-19

Saraiva,J. 1879<br />

Sargh<strong>in</strong>i,F. 263<br />

Sartori,D.J.M. 1367<br />

Sasaki,M. 691,2201<br />

Sasaki,T. 1935<br />

Sastry,S.K. 433,1973<br />

Satake,T. 995<br />

Sato,A.C.K. 1069,1071<br />

Saucier,L. 1723<br />

Saurel,R. 875<br />

Savoire,R. 1939<br />

Sbaite,P. 2063<br />

Schäfer,H. 449,2233<br />

Scharnhorst,K. 983<br />

Schiavo,L. 461<br />

Schiraldi,A. 89<br />

Schirmer,M. 79<br />

Schle<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,G. 71,869<br />

Schlüter,O. 393,419,423,1633,1643<br />

Schmitz,I. 1801<br />

Schoessler,K. 419<br />

Schöler,M. 701,703<br />

Scholl,S. 701,703,705<br />

Schreurs,P.J. 53<br />

Schröder,J. 63,949<br />

Schroeder,B. 1655<br />

Schroën,K. 65<br />

Schubert,H. 1<br />

Schuchmann,H.P. 1,197,591,949<br />

Schütz,B. 449<br />

Schulz,M. 431<br />

Schvartzman,S. 1829<br />

Schwartzberg,H. 159<br />

Schwarz,K. 63<br />

Segl<strong>in</strong>a,D. 2183<br />

Segura,L.A. 299,1365,1515<br />

Seifzadeh,M. 981,1185<br />

Semrau,J. 335<br />

Semyonov,D. 17<br />

Sengl<strong>in</strong>gLacerda,R. 1179<br />

Sepulcre,F. 1959<br />

Sepúlveda,A. 1973<br />

Seraf<strong>in</strong>iPereira,C. 739<br />

Seravalli,E.A.G. 1757,2135<br />

Serfert,Y. 63<br />

SermentMoreno,V. 1671,2139<br />

Serna,R. 1777<br />

Serra,A.T. 673<br />

Sessa,M. 165,681<br />

Set<strong>in</strong>ova,I. 639<br />

Seuvre,A.M. 373,1919<br />

Sever<strong>in</strong>i,C. 179,1933<br />

Seyis,F. 1891<br />

Sfakianakis,P. 1649,1775<br />

Shaffer,K. 51<br />

ShafiurRahman,M. 153,1119<br />

Shahabi,I. 1751<br />

ShahidiNoghabi,M. 903,951<br />

Shalbart,P. 2249<br />

Shamaei,S. 271<br />

Sharma,A. 487<br />

Shatta,A. 1089,1979,1981<br />

Shene,C. 829,2185<br />

Sher,A. 57<br />

Shibata,M. 455,1281<br />

I-20<br />

Shigematsu,T. 369<br />

Shimoni,E. 17,117,183<br />

Shimoyamada,M. 1187<br />

Sh<strong>in</strong>zato,R.E. 1701<br />

Shleik<strong>in</strong>,A.G. 663<br />

Shoji,A.S. 2165<br />

Shokohi,T. 1245<br />

Shukat,R. 119<br />

Shukla,R.N. 81,967<br />

Shynkaryk,M. 433<br />

Sibakov,J. 2105<br />

Siddiqui,M. 2195<br />

Siddiqui,S.W. 945<br />

Siegert,N. 685<br />

Signorelli,M. 89<br />

Sikes,A. 1833<br />

Silano,A. 263<br />

Silva,A.M. 2067<br />

Silva,C.L.M. 479,771,963,1625<br />

Silva,C.R. 27<br />

Silva,E. 641,2181<br />

Silva,F.C.N.N. 1823<br />

Silva,F.F. 1781<br />

Silva,F.V.M. 1601<br />

Silva,L.F.M. 1641<br />

Silva,L.R. 1861<br />

Silva,M.C. 1553,1861<br />

Silva,P. 1183<br />

Silva,R.A.F. 2133<br />

Silva,S.M. 1419,1953<br />

Silva,T.C.A. 1821<br />

SilvaLima,Á. 1703<br />

Silveira,A.M. 1353,1361<br />

SilveiraJr,V. 1527<br />

Simmons,M. 533<br />

Simplício,I.A.S. 19<br />

Simpson,R.J. 541,1407,1521,1973,<br />

1977<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gh,H. 131<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gh,R.P. 161,251,513,619,<br />

629,631,799,1381<br />

Siracusa,V. 1011<br />

Sjöholm,I. 2079<br />

Sjolm,I. 1169<br />

Sjöö,M. 59<br />

Skaltsounis,A.L. 2215<br />

Skandamis,P.N. 1769,1829,1831,<br />

1847,1885<br />

Skåra,T. 471,1789<br />

Skondras,D. 1021<br />

Skudra,I. 563<br />

Skurtys,O. 141,905,1087,1231<br />

Smith,B. 247<br />

Smith,J. 185,669<br />

Soares,C.M.F. 1703,2131<br />

Soazo,M. 975<br />

Šobaji,S. 1285<br />

Sobral,P.J.A. 37,861,883,1009,<br />

1033,1143,1179,<br />

1329<br />

Solliec,C. 1355,1357<br />

SolorzaFeria,J. 1025,1339<br />

Soma,P.K. 567<br />

Somavat,R. 433<br />

Sommier,A. 1463

Soottitantawat,A. 171,192,2555<br />

SosaHerrera,M.G. 837,1111<br />

Sotiroudis,T.G. 2127<br />

Soto,A. 1753<br />

Soto,C. 2163<br />

Souchon,I. 807<br />

Sousa,I. 103<br />

SousaGallagher,M. 1741<br />

Souza,A.L.R. 2203<br />

Souza,C. 2137<br />

Souza,D.S. 2007<br />

Souza,R.A. 2063<br />

Sowasod,N. 519,2171<br />

Soysal,A. 2251<br />

Sozer,N. 45<br />

Spiess,W.E.L. 749,751<br />

Spigno,G. 165,377<br />

Sp<strong>in</strong>elli,L. 895,987,1177,2243<br />

Spraul,M. 449,2235<br />

Spyropoulos,F. 35,61,645,695,1745<br />

Stahl,M.A. 2063<br />

Stahl,V. 2245<br />

Staji,S. 1285,2083<br />

StåleNordtvedt,T. 1203<br />

Stavrakakis,E.K. 1957<br />

Stavropoulou,E. 1013<br />

Stavros,F. 1683<br />

Steele,R. 1749<br />

Stefanakis,A.G. 1957<br />

StégerMáté,M. 1115,2213<br />

Ste<strong>in</strong>er,I. 983<br />

Ste<strong>in</strong>hauer,T. 375<br />

Stella,S. 187<br />

Stenby,M. 1533<br />

Stephan,M.P. 1225<br />

Stevik,A.M. 1905<br />

Stieger,M. 207,611<br />

Stoeber,M. 757<br />

Stoeva,D. 1451<br />

Stoforos,N.G. 341,359,1797,1809<br />

Stokke,B.T. 1053<br />

Storrø,I. 897<br />

Strati,I.F. 1585<br />

Strautniece,E. 1201<br />

Strixner,T. 1687<br />

Stroeb<strong>in</strong>ger,N. 631<br />

Strohalm,J. 1165<br />

Ströher,R. 1235<br />

Su,D. 1985<br />

Suehara,K.I. 1863<br />

Sugimoto,Y. 1863<br />

Sugiyama,J. 455,1281,1883<br />

Suhaj,M. 1171<br />

Suhil,M. 547<br />

Sui,Q. 335<br />

Sun,D.W. 237,447,451,521,1631<br />

Suntudprom,J. 1153,1873<br />

Surel,C. 323<br />

Surowsky,B. 1633<br />

Susukio,T. 1191<br />

Suthiluk,P. 995<br />

Suzuki,T. 1187,1901<br />

Svanberg,L. 783<br />

Svidlo,K.V. 2035<br />

Swartzel,K.R. 545<br />

Sylla,Y. 715,1557<br />

Symoneaux,R. 201<br />

Szerman,N. 1195,1655<br />

SzymaskaChargot,M. 1053<br />

TabatabaeeYazdi,F. 1509<br />

TabiloMunizaga,G. 1677<br />

Tabuchi,M. 1665,2019<br />

Tad<strong>in</strong>i,C.C. 111,1445<br />

Taherian,A.R. 71<br />

Taip<strong>in</strong>a,M.S. 1181,1189,1375<br />

Taitano,L.Z. 161<br />

Takahashi,C. 573<br />

Takahashi,H. 1303<br />

Takatsu,K. 1541<br />

Take,H. 2119<br />

Takeiti,C.Y. 2151<br />

Talens,P. 871<br />

Tambor,K. 1385<br />

Tan,J.H. 1601<br />

Tan,X.H. 1873<br />

Tanaka,F. 1859<br />

Tanaka,M. 691<br />

Tang,J. 459<br />

Taniguchi,H. 1935<br />

Tanthapanichakoon,W. 519,2171<br />

Tao,N. 383<br />

Taoukis,P.S. 359,559,891,1653,<br />

1683,1851,1853,<br />

2241,2243,2245<br />

Tarantili,P.A. 977<br />

Tarantilis,P.A. 2055<br />

Tarhan,Ö. 1039<br />

Tarleton,E. 189,1275<br />

Tashiro,M. 127<br />

Tassou,C.C. 461,2211<br />

TecanteCoronel,A. 1963<br />

Tedesco,J.C.G. 19<br />

Teixeira,A.A. 529,541,1407<br />

Teixeira,J.A. 413<br />

Teixeira,J. 1741<br />

TeixeiraCarvalho,O. 111<br />

TeixeiraFreire,J. 1359<br />

Tejada,A.W. 1929<br />

Teles,A.S.C. 1641<br />

Telis,V.R.N. 1347<br />

TelisRomero,J. 1347<br />

Temelli,F. 443<br />

Teramoto,A. 1665,1667,1679,<br />

2019<br />

Ternovskoy,G.V. 663<br />

TerrésRojas,E. 623,1999<br />

Terzi,S.C. 1641<br />

Tessier,F.J. 415<br />

Teymurova,A. 969<br />

Tfouni,S.A.V. 1877<br />

Thaiudom,S. 1101<br />

Thomareis,A.S. 1317<br />

Thomaz<strong>in</strong>i,M. 23,2165<br />

Thompson,C. 509<br />

Thuault,D. 2245<br />

Thürl<strong>in</strong>g,K. 109<br />

Thussu,S. 305 <br />

Timgren,A. 59<br />

TiqueRaice,R. 1169<br />

Tiwari,B. 1651,2157<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-21

Tjahjohutomo,R. 547<br />

To,N. 201<br />

Tob<strong>in</strong>,J.T. 577<br />

Tobolková,B. 1171<br />

Toepfl,S. 347<br />

Tokizawa,K. 525<br />

Tokuda,K. 1935<br />

Toldrà,M. 1239,1241<br />

Toledo,M.C.F. 1875,1877<br />

Tommaso,G. 747<br />

Tonello,C. 365,1685<br />

Tonon,R.V. 839,1267,1269,1387<br />

Topalidou,S. 1307<br />

Torbica,A. 881,1109,2139<br />

Tornberg,E. 223,737,1305,1579<br />

Torreggiani,D. 1577,1937<br />

Torres,P.I. 1157<br />

Torres,R. 1325<br />

TorresChávezb,P.I. 2011<br />

Torricelli,A. 895,987,1177,2237<br />

Torrieri,E. 1211,2069<br />

Tóth,M. 1115<br />

Trägårdh,C. 587<br />

Tréléa,I.C. 267,321,1427<br />

Trent<strong>in</strong>,A. 2193<br />

Trezzani,I. 689<br />

Triantafillou,D. 1865<br />

Tribst,A.A.L. 1661,1663<br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>dade,M.A. 2165<br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>h,L. 1061<br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>quet,F. 2249<br />

Troncoso,E. 921,929<br />

Trujillo,A.J. 1767<br />

TrujillodeSantiago,G. 2121<br />

Trystram,G. 171,227,321,689,1349,<br />

1427,1435,1915<br />

Tryvittayasil,V. 1859<br />

Tsatsaragou,K. 1851<br />

Tsavali,G. 1307<br />

Tsekoura,F. 745<br />

Tsimogiannis,D. 1853<br />

Tsironi,T.N. 559,1851<br />

Tsotsas,E. 553<br />

Tsuta,M. 139,209,455,1057,1281,<br />

1883,2239<br />

Tubeileh,A. 1371<br />

Tucker,G. 1431<br />

Türköz,G. 851<br />

Turchiuli,C. 47<br />

Turp<strong>in</strong>,A.S. 1615<br />

Tuta,S. 1755<br />

Tylewicz,U. 515,565,797,1011<br />

Tyrovouzis,N.A. 1797<br />

Tys,J. 1759<br />

Tzia,C. 943,1021,1291,1345,1649,<br />

1775<br />

Tzoumaki,M.V. 129,1055<br />

Uch<strong>in</strong>o,T. 1859<br />

Uemura,K. 73,573,937<br />

Ünalengör,G.F. 1453<br />

Ueno,M.S. 1875,1877<br />

Ueno,S. 369,1145<br />

Uhl,C. 1551<br />

Umeda,M. 9<br />

Umpuch,C. 385<br />

I-22<br />

Uquiche,E. 1719<br />

Uren,A. 581,1931<br />

Uresti,D.N. 389<br />

Ureta,M.M. 1785<br />

Uribe,E. 2049<br />

Urrea,A. 1257,2115<br />

Urrea,G.R. 1369<br />

Urrego,F.A. 1363<br />

Uyar,R. 1411<br />

Uysal,R.S. 2051<br />

Uzelac,G. 2057<br />

Vaillant,F. 481<br />

Valance,N. 1919<br />

ValdezFragoso,A. 2139<br />

Valdramidis,V.P. 409,427,471,1789<br />

Valencia,D. 429,1193<br />

Valencia,P. 1815<br />

Valentão,P. 1861<br />

Valous,N.A. 451<br />

VanAs,H. 249,303<br />

VanAsselt,A. 723<br />

VanBoekel ,M.A.J.S. 505<br />

VanBoxtel,A.J.B. 249,1607<br />

VanDalenc ,G. 303<br />

VanDamme,I. 229<br />

VandeVelde,F. 611<br />

VandeWalle,D. 2233<br />

VanderGoot,A.J. 203,719<br />

VanderPlancken,I. 351,367,2225<br />

VanderSluis,S. 2245,2249<br />

VanderSman,R. 303,343<br />

VanderSman,R.G.M. 249,301<br />

VanDerl<strong>in</strong>den,E. 11,641,1041,471,<br />

475,499,501,1789<br />

VanDeventer,H.C. 1607<br />

VanDuynhoven,J. 303<br />

VanHecke,E. 909<br />

VanImpe,J.F.M. 465,471,475,499,<br />

501,1789<br />

VanLoey,A. 351,367<br />

VanStraten,G. 1607<br />

Vanaga,I. 2199<br />

Van<strong>in</strong>,F.M. 37,227,861,1033,<br />

1143,1435<br />

Vanoli,M. 895,987,1177,2237<br />

Vanzo,A. 841<br />

Varas,F. 1537<br />

Varas,J. 1289<br />

Vareltzis,P.K. 1955,1957<br />

Vargas,M. 41,857,859<br />

Varzakas,T. 1103,1923,2147<br />

VasconcelosPereira,A. 1327,1359<br />

Vasheka, O.M. 2023<br />

Vasilescu,C. 1899<br />

Vásquez,C. 1075<br />

VásquezForttes,F.A. 2091<br />

Vaudagna,S.R. 1655<br />

VazPires,P. 827<br />

Vázquez,M. 1413<br />

VázquezSolorio,S.C. 1111<br />

Vega,R. 2161<br />

VegaGalvez,A. 1677,2049<br />

Veggi,P.C. 2167,2189,2191<br />

Velasco,X. 167<br />

Velasquez,P. 905

VelázquezCastillo,R.R. 1129,1221<br />

VelézRivera,N. 1753<br />

Velickova,E. 515<br />

Veljovi,M. 2057,2143<br />

Velliou,E.G. 475<br />

Velloso,M.A.C. 1233<br />

Veloso,C.M. 1097<br />

VenegasCubillos,G. 1675<br />

Venema,P. 11,1041<br />

Ventura,S.P.M. 1703<br />

Veras,A.O.M. 1353,1361<br />

Verasztó,B. 2213<br />

Verboven,P. 139,843,1057,2227,2231,<br />

2239,2245,2249,2251<br />

Verd<strong>in</strong>i,R.A. 973,975<br />

Vergeldt,F.J. 249<br />

Verhé,R. 1953<br />

Verhoelst,E. 139,2239<br />

Verl<strong>in</strong>den,B.E. 843,1175,1177,2227,2229,<br />

2237,2245,2249<br />

VernonCarter,J. 2097<br />

Vervoort,L. 351,367<br />

Veytsman,B. 889<br />

Vicente,A.A. 293,413,673,1015,1069<br />

Vicente,E. 1875,1877<br />

Vicente,S. 1251<br />

VidalBrotóns,D. 2089,2091<br />

Vidigal,M.C.T.R. 1107<br />

Vieira,G.S. 1067<br />

Vignolle,M. 1463<br />

Vilas,C. 281,1409,1531,1537<br />

Villaf<strong>in</strong>,M. 281<br />

VillalobosCarvajal,R. 113<br />

Villalón,M. 1079<br />

Villar,M.A. 399,745<br />

Villarroel,M. 829<br />

Villena,P. 1827<br />

Villeneuve,S. 1261,2033<br />

Viotto,L.A. 551<br />

Vlahavas,G. 1301<br />

Vodyanova,I.V. 897<br />

Voidarou,C. 1013<br />

Voigt,T. 731<br />

Voilley,A. 373,1919<br />

Vollebregt,M. 343<br />

vonStaszewski,M. 833<br />

Vorobiev,E. 403,909,1215,1623,1939<br />

Vosw<strong>in</strong>kel,L. 381<br />

Vrani,D. 1285<br />

Vuataz,G. 243,1137<br />

Wada,Y. 73<br />

Wagner,J.R. 1691<br />

Walker,A. 229<br />

Walker,S. 609,1833<br />

Walnum,H.T. 315<br />

Walz,E. 21,121<br />

Wang,J. 993<br />

Wang,J.C. 77<br />

Wang,L.H. 2013<br />

Wang,P. 931<br />

Wang,W. 83<br />

Wang,X. 383<br />

Wang,Y. 795<br />

Warn<strong>in</strong>g,A. 1401<br />

Wasser,I. 773<br />

Watanabe,H. 1561<br />

Watanabe,T. 369<br />

Watanabe,Y. 927<br />

Watté, R. 139,2239<br />

Wedek<strong>in</strong>d,J. 1959<br />

Weese,J. 1871<br />

Weich,H. 877<br />

Weisz,G.M. 617<br />

Welderufael,F.T. 395<br />

Welt,B. 93<br />

WeltiChanes,J. 1671,2045,2139<br />

Werkmeister,R. 757<br />

Werner,F. 949<br />

Wess<strong>in</strong>k,E. 2245,2249,2251<br />

Weyandt,A.J. 1595<br />

Widell,K. 315<br />

Widell,S. 565<br />

Wilke,W. 1481<br />

Wilk<strong>in</strong>son,B. 1373<br />

Willems,D. 2225<br />

Williams,J.G. 189,191,1275<br />

Williams,P.D. 567<br />

Wilson,A. 247<br />

Wilson,D.I. 709,835,1559<br />

Wilson,N. 2251<br />

W<strong>in</strong>dhab,E.J. 635,643,671,783<br />

W<strong>in</strong>dtb,C. 303<br />

Wiss<strong>in</strong>k,E. 2241<br />

Witekb,M. 303<br />

WolfMaciel,M.R. 2063<br />

Wong,S.Y. 727<br />

WounTan,L. 309<br />

Wu,S.C. 2125<br />

Wunderlich,J. 107,699,1551<br />

Xanthopoulos,G. 97,1337<br />

Xenakis,A. 2127<br />

Xiao,H.W. 2013<br />

Xiong,Y. 1469<br />

Xotlanihua,C.E. 1603<br />

Xu,Z. 439,1031<br />

Yahya,F. 329,1511<br />

Yamada,H. 1859<br />

Yamamoto,C. 7,907<br />

Yamamoto ,S. 1743<br />

Yaman,D.B. 851<br />

Yamazaki,H. 15,1051<br />

Yang,B. 1983,1985<br />

Yang,S.C. 831<br />

Yang,S.W. 1035<br />

Yanniotis,S. 69,163,341,399,<br />

1337,1885,2055<br />

Yano,T. 283,1457<br />

Yavuzdurmaz,H. 2043<br />

Yeganeh,R. 171,1915<br />

Y<strong>in</strong>,L.J. 931<br />

Yonezawa,Y. 441<br />

Yoo,J. 2073<br />

Yoo,S.H. 2073<br />

York,D.W. 709<br />

Yoshii,H. 7,255,907,991<br />

Yoshimoto,N. 1743<br />

Yotsuynagi ,K. 2145<br />

Youb<strong>in</strong>,Z. 1673<br />

Young,A. 247<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-23

Youssef,K. 1089,1091,1979,1981<br />

Yuferov,V. 1645<br />

Yunchuan,Z. 1673<br />

Zahedi,A. 1297<br />

Zaidi,S. 81,967,1207<br />

Zan<strong>in</strong>,G.. 917,1235<br />

Zaritzky,N.E. 137,743,1395<br />

Zdunek,A. 9,1053,1763<br />

Zelem,M.C. 2251<br />

Zerbe,J. 99<br />

Zhang,L. 91,185,211<br />

Zhang,Y. 439,1617,1659<br />

Zhang,Z. 411,521,711<br />

Zhao,D. 993,1983<br />

Zhao,F. 1985<br />

Zhao,Q. 1985<br />

ZhengRen,F. 1333<br />

Zhenghe,X. 1123<br />

Zhong,Q. 13<br />

Zhou,B. 411<br />

Zhou,L. 439,1617<br />

Zhou,M. 383<br />

Zhou,W. 83,487,647<br />

Zhu,P. 459<br />

Zidová,P. 1695,1707<br />

Zieliska,D. 1881<br />

Zieliski,H. 1881<br />

Zietz,M. 423<br />

Zikas,A. 1273<br />

Z<strong>in</strong>oviadou,K.G. 101,879<br />

Zivkovi,D. 1285,2083<br />

Zogzas,N.P. 2077,2123<br />

Zoldan,V.C. 953<br />

Zülicke,F. 1633<br />

ZulianiStroppa,V.L. 1293<br />

Zúñiga,R.N. 67,921,935<br />

ZúnigaHansenm,M.E. 2161<br />

Zwieter<strong>in</strong>g,M.H. 493<br />

I-24

<strong>International</strong>Associationfor<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>and<strong>Food</strong><br />

<br />

LISTOFCOUNTRYDELEGATES<br />

<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-25

1.PASTIAEFPRESIDENTS(Retired)<br />

JeanJ.Bimbenet(France)<br />

Ronald.Jowitt(UK)<br />

PekkaL<strong>in</strong>ko(F<strong>in</strong>land)<br />

MarcLeManguer(Canada)<br />

WalterSpiess(Germany)<br />

2.APPOINTEDDELEGATES<br />

Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Asociac<strong>in</strong>Argent<strong>in</strong>adeTecnlogosAlimentarios(AATA)<br />

StellaM.Alzamoraalzamora@<strong>in</strong>dust.di.fcen.uba.ar<br />

<br />

Australia<br />

Australian<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>Association(AFEA)<br />

M<strong>in</strong>hNguyenM<strong>in</strong>h.Nguyen@newcastle.edu.au<br />

<br />

Brazil<br />

SociedadeBrasileiradeC<strong>in</strong>ciaeTecnologiadeAlimentos<br />

PauloSobralpjsobral@usp.br<br />

<br />

Canada<br />

<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>DivisionoftheCanadianInstituteof<strong>Food</strong>ScienceandTechnology(CIFST)<br />

MicheleMarcottemarcotte@agr.gc.ca<br />

<br />

CzechRepublic<br />

CzechSocietyofChemical<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

MilanHouskamilan.houska@vupp.cz<br />

<br />

Chile<br />

InstitutoChilenodeIngenieraparalosAlimentos(IChIA)<br />

JoseM.Aguilerajmaguile@<strong>in</strong>g.puc.cl<br />

<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>eseMechanical<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>Society(CMES)<br />

ShujunLilisj@caams.org.cn<br />

<br />

France<br />

AssociationdesChimistes,IngnieursetCadresdesIndustriesAgricolesetAlimentaries<br />

(ACIA)<br />

GillesTrystramTrystram@ensia.<strong>in</strong>ra.fr<br />

SocieteFrancaisedeGeniedesProcedes,SFGP<br />

JosephBoudrantjoseph.boudrant@ensaia.<strong>in</strong>plnancy.fr<br />

<br />

<br />

I-26

Germany<br />

Chemical<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>Division(GVC)oftheGermanAssociationofEng<strong>in</strong>eers(VDI)<br />

HelmarSchuberthelmar.schubert@kit.edu<br />

<br />

Greece<br />

TechnicalChamberofGreece(TCG)<br />

GeorgeD.Saravacosgsaravac@otenet.gr<br />

<br />

Ireland<br />

InstitutionofEng<strong>in</strong>eersofIreland<br />

DaWenSundawen.sun@ucd.ie<br />

<br />

Italy<br />

AssociazioneItalianadiIngegneriaChimica(AIIC)<br />

MauroMoresimmoresi@unitus.it<br />

<br />

Japan<br />

JapanSocietyfor<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>(JSFE)<br />

OsatoMiyawakiosato@ishikawapu.ac.jp<br />

<br />

Korea<br />

KoreanSocietyforIndustrial<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>(KSIFE)<br />

YegHeeChoiyhechoi@knu.ac.kr<br />

<br />

Mexico<br />

InstitutoMexicanodeIngenierosMexicanos(IMIQ)<br />

JorgeWeltiChannesjwelti@mail.udlap.mx<br />

<br />

Netherlands<br />

DutchInstituteofEng<strong>in</strong>eers<br />

RemkoBoomRemko.Boom@wur.nl<br />

<br />

NewZealand<br />

<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>AssociationofNewZealand<br />

MohammedFaridm.farid@auckland.ac.nz<br />

<br />

Russia<br />

AllRussianResearchandTechnologyAssociationofDistillationandAlcoholicBeverages<br />

Industries(ARRTADABI)<br />

V.I.Tuzhilk<strong>in</strong>tuzhilk<strong>in</strong>@mgupp.ru<br />

<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gapore<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gaporeInstituteof<strong>Food</strong>ScienceandTechnology(SIFST)<br />

WeibiaoZhouchmzwb@nus.edu.sg<br />

<br />

<strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> - Athens, Greece, 2011 I-27

SouthAfrica<br />

SouthAfricanAssociationof<strong>Food</strong>ScienceandTechnology(SAAFoST)orSAInstituteof<br />

AgriculturalEng<strong>in</strong>eers(SAIAE)<br />

AndrewMurrayamurray@pixie.co.za<br />

<br />

Spa<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>Food</strong>Work<strong>in</strong>gPartyoftheEuropeanFederationofChemical<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

PedroFitopfito@tal.upv.es<br />

<br />

Sweden<br />

SwedishSocietyof<strong>Food</strong>Technology(SSFT)<br />

PeterDejmekPetr.Dejmek@food.lth.se<br />

<br />

Thailand<br />

<strong>Food</strong>ScienceandTechnologyAssociationofThailnd<br />

SakamonDevahast<strong>in</strong>sakamon.dev@kmutt.ac.th<br />

<br />

UnitedK<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />

InstitutionofChemicalEng<strong>in</strong>eers(IChemE)<br />

PeterFryerp.j.fryer@bham.ac.uk<br />

InstitutionofMechanicalEng<strong>in</strong>eers<br />

DonIvesdon@ivesconsultants.demon.co.uk<br />

SocietyforChemicalIndustry(SCI)<br />

K.Niranjanafsniran@read<strong>in</strong>g.ac.uk<br />

<br />

UnitedStates<br />

AmericanInstitutionofChemicalEng<strong>in</strong>eers(AIChE)<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>Okosokos@purdue.edu<br />

AmericanSocietyofAgriculturalEng<strong>in</strong>eers(ASAE)<br />

DennisHeldmandrheldman@earthl<strong>in</strong>k.net<br />

<strong>Food</strong><strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>DivisionoftheInstituteof<strong>Food</strong>Technologists(IFT)<br />

R.PaulS<strong>in</strong>ghrps<strong>in</strong>gh@ucdavis.edu<br />

<br />

3.RETIREDDELEGATES<br />

<br />

F<strong>in</strong>land<br />

<strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>AssociationofF<strong>in</strong>land(EAF)<br />

PekkaL<strong>in</strong>kopl<strong>in</strong>ko@cc.hut.fi<br />

<br />

Portugal<br />

ColigioNacionaldeEngenhariaQumica(CNEQ)<br />

AugustoG.Med<strong>in</strong>aspiporto@spi.pt<br />

<br />

I-28

<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> a Chang<strong>in</strong>g W orld<br />

<strong>Food</strong> Eng<strong>in</strong>eers meet every 3-4 years at ICEF, the <strong>International</strong><br />

Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong>, established as the major<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational event <strong>in</strong> the field. By decision of the <strong>International</strong><br />

Association on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong> (IAEF) delegates, Greece<br />

organized the <strong>11th</strong> <strong>International</strong> Congress on <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> and <strong>Food</strong><br />

(ICEF11), <strong>in</strong> Athens, May 22-26, 2011.<br />

The The ma<strong>in</strong> objectives of ICEF11 were to provide the forum for<br />

presentation and discussion of research results and new scientific<br />

knowledge, promote personal contact and synergism, advance<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction between academia and <strong>in</strong>dustry and facilitate exchange<br />

of <strong>in</strong>formation on new processes and equipment.<br />

The The Theme of ICEF11 was “<strong>Food</strong> <strong>Process</strong> <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> a Chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>World</strong>”. It explored how food science and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g can contribute<br />

to the solution of vital problems <strong>in</strong> a world of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g population<br />

and complexity, under severe constra<strong>in</strong>ts of limited resources of raw<br />

materials, energy and environment.<br />

The President of IAEF and ICEF11<br />

George Saravacos<br />

Copyright © NTUA, School of Chemical <strong>Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, Athens 2011<br />

SET ISBN: 978-960-89789-6-6<br />

ISBN: 978-960-89789-5-9<br />

<strong>International</strong> Congres<br />

on Eng<strong>in</strong>er<strong>in</strong>g and Fod<br />

2-26, May 201<br />

Athens, Grece

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