10 INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DEALING WTITI ET.IWR ... - Saarc

Institutions 

10 

INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DEALING WTITI 

ET.IWR ONMENTAL PROBLEMS 

During the last decade a variety of environmental institutions have evolved in the SAARC region and perhaps the 

most important institutional development has been the emergence of high level environmental agencies within 

different governments. 

In Balglades\ with the promulgation of the Environment Pollution Control Ordinance, a new department called the 

Department of Environment Pollution Control n 1977 was formed under the Ministry of l-ocal Government, Rural 

Development and Cooperatives. It worked as an arm for monitoring and control of environmental pollution. The 

Department of Environment Pollution Control was later reconstituted as the Department of Environment and placed 

under the new Ministry of Environment and Forests in August 1989. The department at present has broader 

objectives for environmental protection and management and its activities are not limited to pollution control. The 

department has its head office in Dhaka and four divisional offices in different parts of the country. The Department 

of Environment has a paucity of staff, money, and logistical support, though it is expected that it will enjoy greater 

power in the near future. 

Besides the Department of Environmootr other government organisslions and ministries responsible for environmental 

matters are the Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of lrrigation, Water Development and Flood Control; Directorate 

of Fisheries; Department of Public Health Engineering; Ministry of Industries; Ministry of Labour and Manpower; 

and, Ministry of Health and Population Control. At local levels, municipal bodies look after some of the 

environmental problems. There are also various NGOs working on environmental issues. Their focus is on creation 

of public awareness for envirottmental preservation. Their contribution is, however, not yet significant. 

In Bhutan, there is as yet no specific government agency dealing with environment. There is no institutional 

nllangement which can provide an integrated and coordinated approach to environmental protection and 

management. There are, however, several government agencies which deal with specific aspects of the environment. 

The Department of Forestry manages the country's forests; regulates access to and utilisation of forest resources; and, 

enforces restrictions and collects taxes and dues. All logging operations have been nationalised and made a major 

function of the department. This responsibility was later transferred to the newly established Bhutan L,ogging 

Corporation. 

The Department of Agriculture undertakes land development as one of its major programmes. The department 

encourages terracing contour bunding and drainage activities to ensure proper land and soil management and to 

improve the productivity of the limited agricultural lands of the country. It also seeks to convert as much of the tsheri 

cultivation area into permanent dryland farms. The Department of Animal Husbandry performs pasture development 

and rangeland management activities. The Department of Health Senrices is responsible for water quality and 

surveillance of water supply schemes. The department provides health education through its "health schools" and the 

National Institute of Family Hedth. While the existing structure of government ministries and departments treats 

environment issues sectorally, an integrated approach to deal with environmental problems is evolving and developing 

steadily. This is reflected in the government's recent initiative to prepare a National Environmental Strategy (NES) 

for Bhutan for which a National Environmental Committee (NEC) was instituted. The setting up of the NEC will 

provide an institutional mechanism for an integrated and coordinated environmental protection programme. The role 

of NGOs in assisting and supplementing governmental efforts in coping with environmental issues is recogrised by 

the government of Bhutan. Nature conservation issues, for instance, are being addressed by the Royal Society for the 

Protection of Nature (RSPN). 

Although India has a long history of forest institutions, it was only in the 190s and 1980s that institutions dealing 

with modern environmental concerns were established. A separate Department of Environment was created by the 

Central government in 1980. After a series of administrative adjustments, a separate Ministry of Environment and 

Forests (MOEF) was created in 1985 to formulate national policies, make laws, and advise and assist state 

governments in environmental protection measures. The MOFF was declared a 'scientific ministry' in 1987, giving 

it flexibility. Its staff is largely made up of scientific personnel from a wide range of diseiplines, and of forest officers. 

It also draws upon the available scientific and technical expertise in the country through expert committees. However, 

r21

the ministry is involved in implementation of laws and regulations only to a limiteri extent because the Constitution 

places the main responsibilityfor most sectors of the envhonment on state governments (for exanple, forests, wildlife, 

air and water pollution" land management, urban development etc). 

The Central Pollution Control Board is an autonomous body uniler the MOEF, which basically plap the role of an 

adviser to the Central government and the state pollution control boards in matters relating to air and water pollution. 

In the Union Territories, the Central Pollution Control Board performs the role of the state pollution control boards. 

The Ganga/Ganges Project Directorate was established as a part of the Ministry in 1985 to formulate, inplement 

(through state agencies), and monitor the Ganga Action Plan, an ambitious scheme to restore the water qudity of 

the Ganga/Ganges. The National Wastelands Development Board was also established in 1985 as a paft of the 

qinistry to provide an impetus to afforestation programmes. The Ministry has a large nunber of other subordinate 

institutions, such as the Indian Council of Forest Research and Education, Forestry Research Institute, Indira Gandhi 

National Forest Academy, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Forest Survey of India, Zoologicd Survey of India, 

Botanical Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of Indiq Nationd Zoological Parlq G.B.Pant Institute of Himalayan 

Environment and Development, and Selim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History. In addition, the ministry 

provides finanaal assistance to a number of autonomous institutions for environmental education, awareness and 

research. 

The other ministries and agencies of the governrnent which undertake activities with a direct or indirect bearing on 

the environment, function in consultation with the MOEF. However, long and medium term policies in agriculture, 

irrigation, rural development, eners/ and communications do not as yet fully take environmental factors into account 

and greater coordination in this respect is needed. Since the primary responsibility for forgst management lies with 

state governments, they all have separate forest departments. Most states have their own training institutions for 

different levels of forest officials, while the Indian Forest Service officers are trained at the Indira Gandhi National 

Forest Academy in Dehradun. Some of the larger states also have facilities for research, although they are severely 

hampered by resource constraints. The lack of adequate training and research at the state level is an acknowledged 

weakness.Most states have by now established separate departments of environment, often combining them with 

others such as energy, forests, science and technology, or urban development. There is no uniformity in their structure 

or administrative jurisdiction over subordinate, field level agencies responsible for implementing environment related 

rules and regulations. The Central government has initiated schemes to strengthen state environment agencies like 

pollution control boards with both technical and financial assistance, so that they can enforce the laws enacted in 

recent years. 

India has seen a burgeoning of voluntary environment organisations in recent years. A recent survey shows that there 

are over 500 organisations, chiefly involved in education and awareness, afforestation, low cost sanitation, appropriate 

technologies (in rural and small scale sectors), energl efficiency, women's participatio4 family welfare and healt\ 

and rural water supply. Some of them are playing a useful role in highlighting environmental problemg and even 

bringing offenders before the courts. Both the Union and state governments extend support to voluntary organisations. 

The labour of voluntary organisations is truly meaningful when it results in models which ca' be emulated elsewhere. 

Maldives gives higb priority to the preservation of its unique environment. At the national level, the government has 

assigred this responsibility to the \ifinistry of Planning and Environment. To bring about coordination among all the 

important ministries, tle government has established a National Commission for the Protection of the Environment 

to examine dl policy issues and make recommendations to the President. At the regional level the atoll 

administration is responsible to implement the decisions of the government. At the local level, the island chief reports 

matters connected with environment to the atoll chief and helps in enforcing regulations. Recently, a few NGOs have 

also started participating in environmental issues by creating awareness and educating the people throrgh the mass 

media. 

In Nepal, it was only after 1950 that some consideration was given to the need to develop an infrastructure for 

environmental management. Among the premier national institutions that have been established are the KMTNC, 

RECAST, RONAST, and the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management in the Ministry of 

Forests and Environment. Recently, His Majesty's Government of Nepal formed CCNCR and Environment Division 

at NPC. There is also a policy to establish Environment Unit in all line agencies. A few NGOs are also active in the 

management of environnent. RECAST, IAAS (Rampur), and the Engineering Institute of Tribhuvan University have 

been conducting research in a few areas of environmental technology. 

In Pabstan, the Federal government is responsible for formulating National Economic Development Plans (five year 

plans and annual development plans) and preparing and implementing projects relating to large scale manufacturing, 

power generation and distribution, highwap, wator resouroes development, flood protection and telecommunications. 

Sectors like agriculture, medium andsmall scale units, education, health, housing drinkingwater supply and sanitation 

are provincial subjects. Local agencies, including development authorities, municipal corporations, municipal

committees, town committees, district councils and union councils are responsible for the provision and maintenance 

of basic utility services. The entire development and planning system is a part of the five-year and annual plans 

formulated by the planning comnission. The slatem, represents a good degree of inter-agency consultations in project 

processing and decision making which is an important element of environment impact assessment (EIA). The 

planaing institutions provide an opportunity for undertaking the additional burden ofEIA procedures by strengthening 

their technical capacities and rearranging the project processing mechanism. In other words, the administrative cost 

of ELA introduction in Pakistan is marginal compared to the e:rpected benefits in economic and ecological terms. The 

federal ministry responsible for issues relating to the environment is the Environment and Urban Affairs Division 

of Ministry of Housing and Works. The subject of enviro"rnent is being handled by this division since 1972. The 

orgenisslioas in the provinces are different. Generally this funetion has been assigned to the housing and physicat 

planning departments. 

filtfisrrgh Sri r -nka has had a well developed administrative setup there was no infrastructure to ded with 

environmental problems. The responsibility for environmental protection and management was scattered among 

several ministries and government institutions. The situation began to change after global interest in environment 

increased. During the 1970s, the need for a central aryrency to deal with environmental matters was stressed at various 

seminars and by foreign missions and NGOs. As a result, the National Environmental Act of 1980 was enacted, which 

established the Central Environmental Authority in 1981 under the Ministry of L-ocal Government, Housing and 

Construction. The CEA was initially not given any regulatory powers, and remained only a policy making body 

focusing on research and awareness programmes. However, after observing the trend in environmental degradation, 

the government amended the National Environmental Act, which strengthened thc powers and functions of the CEA 

to control pollution and mitigate adverse impacts of development activities by introducing legally binding procedures. 

The authority consists of three members, including a chairperson appointed by the President.The National 

Environmental Act has constituted an environmental council as an advisory body to the authority. The council 

comprises of senior officers of development ministries, NGO representatives, and environmental experts. The 

coordination with other implementing ministries and agencies is done mainly through the council. Under the aegis 

of the National Environmental Act, District Environnental Agencies have been set up. Each DEA consists of 12 to 

14 members representing agencies involved in environmental activities and leading NGOs of the district. The DEA 

deals with ecological implications of new projects in the district. Stfps have been taken to strengthen the activities 

of the DEAs. 

Recently as\r, lvfinistry for Environment and ParliamsplaryAffairs has been set up in Sri I-anka. The CEA ls6ains 

the statutory 

" 

focal point for environment and the nodal agenq for the coordination and implementation of 

environmental matters. Other new public institutions have also been established in recent years to ded with specific 

environmental areas, namely, the Department of Coast Conservation (1981), National Aquatic Resources Agency 

(1981), and" Urban Development Authority (1987). There are a number of agencies - roughly about 75 in number 

-- involved in environmental activities. The scattered nature of the institutional framework requires a high degree of 

coordination to deal with environmental problems. Apart from the various councils, such as the Environmental 

Council and the National Health Council, coordination is largely done through ad hoc committees. 

Successful protection of the environment ultimately depends on the commitment of the people. NGOs play a vital 

role in mobilising people in acting as nratchdop tad change agents. In Sri l-anka there is an impressive list of 80 

national level NGOs active in environrnental protection, with a proven track record. They were able to take action 

against activities that threatened the environment; for instance, logging in the Singharaja forest, one of the richest 

ecosystems in the world" had to be stopped because of NGO pressure. tn addition, NGOs have helped to create 

environmental awareness among people and mobilise their active participation. NGOs in Sri Lanka have now formed 

an umbrella orgenisation called the Sri t anka Environment Congress (SLEC). Apart from national NGOq local and 

rural NGOs are also rapidly increasing. There are about Z)0 local and rural NGOs. Lack of financial and other 

resoluoes have limited the role of NGOs in somE specific areas. They are criticised for being urban based and, hence, 

reflect views of the urban intelligentsia. Government iirtitutions view NGOs as biased towards conservation and 

unnecessarily critical of development activities. NGOs are nowworking in close collaboration with CFiA with financial 

assistance from external donor agencies. 

I e-islation and policy 

The Environment Pollution Control Ordinance of lW is the only effective law on environment pollution control in 

Baqdadcsh, tho'gh there are some environment related provisions in a few other acts. This ordinance provides for 

pollution controf and it covers air, water and soil pollution. The earlier law, the Water Pollution Control Ordinance 

of L93, has been repealed. To make the l9Tl ordinance more comprehensive and the penalties more stringent, a 

revised ordinance has been under consideration. Other laws relating to protection of environmental health include 

local government laws with responsibilities for sanitation, water supply, public bathing places, and control and

administration of public water courses. The Bangladesh Municipal Act of 1932 deals with problems of sanitation, 

water supply, conservancy service (including solid waste dispo6al), and other activities related to environmental health. 

As environmental problems are predominant in urban areasr municipalities have been given elaborate responsibilities 

to deal with various aspects of environmental health. The Town Improvement Act of 1953 and the Factories Act of 

1965 have provisions for health and sanitary measures for the protection of workers. The latter also gives pow€rs to 

the Chief Inspector of Factories to manage use and disposal of toxic and other pollutants. The Pesticides Ordinance 

of 1971. provides for the regulation of import, manufacture, formulation, sale, distribution and use of pesticides to 

prevent injury to public health. The Bengal Motor Vehicle Act of 1939 and the Motor Vehicles Rules 1940, modified 

in 1983, provides for the prevention of undue noise or of emission of harmfuI gases and other substances. The 

Banglxdesf, Penal Code of 1Jb0 has provisions for punishnents for acts which cause directly or indirectly environment 

pollution and these provisions can be utilized by the civil adminisllslien to handle critical situations of pollution.Laum 

for conservation of natural and culturd resources include the Forest Act of 197; Rules to regulate huntin& shooting 

and fishing within the controlled and vested forests 1959; Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973; East Bengal 

Protection and Conservation of Fish Act, 1950; Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983; Territorial Water and Maritime 

Tnnes AcL, L974; and Antiquities Act, 1!)68. 

The EIA process is yet not a part of any present legislation. But the proposed Bargladesh Environment Preservation 

Ordinance has provisions for EIA related matters. Sangladesh also does not yet have a complete set of approved 

environmental quality standards. However, a draft of standards has been prepared and it is hoped that it will be 

approved in due course. Presently, there is a tentative set of standards for water quality and for certain categories 

of industrial effluents. 

Bhrtan has several major sectoral laws and policies relating to the countr/s environment. In the forestry sector, the 

management and utilisation of forest resources is regulated by the Bhutan Forest Act of 1!)69, the National Forest 

Policy of 1974, the draft Forest Act and Forest Policy of 1985, and the charter establishing the Bhutan I-ogging 

Corporation in 1984. The Forest Act of 1969 consolidated numerous directives relating to forest rights, forest 

products, and royalties. To protect the countrt's forestg the act declared all lands over which no one had a 

permanent, heritable, and transferable right of use and occupancy as govemrnent reserved forests. Hunting fishing 

felling of trees, and setting of forest fires by shifting cultivators in forest reserves, national parks or wildlife sanctuaries 

has been banned and penalties laid doum for violators. Fe[ing of trees and grazing rights on forest lands has been 

brought under the control of the Forestry Department. The National Forest Policy of 1974 orplicitly directs that 60 

per cent of the countr/s total land area should remain under forest cover. To restrict encroachment, the policy atlows 

free entry into the forests to collect fuelwood only upon presentation of permits issued by the DOF. Commercial 

loeging has been prohibited and all logging activities will be carried out by the department's contractors in approved 

areas, subject to palments of royalties and contractors'licence fees. From 1979, however, the DOF had been assigrred 

the task to undertake direct export, in the government's attempt to minirnise overexploitation. This responsibility was 

later transferred to the Bhutan I-ogging Corporation created for the pupose. 

A major policy shift took place by the tine the Fifth Plan was introduced in 1980. Forests are now regarded primarily 

as a renewable resource that needs to be scientifically managed and conserved rather than as a souroe of revenue. 

The government recognised the need for a phased extraction progrzmme together with s,,stematic afforestation of 

overexploited forests in areas dose to roads and populated areas. These new policy directions have been incorporated 

in the new Draft National Forest Policy of 1985. In the enimal husbandry sector, a draft National Pasture Policy has 

been prepared. The Bhutan government has decided to implement the potcy in 35 development blocks on a trial 

basis. 

Under the Constitution of India, it is the duty of both the state and the citizen to protect and improve the 

envirounent. This duty was included in the statutes lnLn6. However, the first specific environment related legislation 

was enacted n lnz, namely, the Wildlife (Protection) Act. The other specific acts which followed are the Water 

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) AcI.1n4 to protbct the quality of water; the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 

to prevent diversion of forest land for other purposes except where unaroidable; the Air (Prevention and Control and 

Pollution) Act, 1984 to restrict air pollution; and, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 as an umbrella lefrslation 

to enable government to deal with environrnental offenders of any kind. These acts, except for the Forest 

Conservation Act, are administered by the state governments and their agencies. This leads to a variation in 

implementation and procedures but uniformity is brought about by establishing national standards. The laws are 

reviewed periodically and if necessary amended to make them more effective. Rules have recently been ratifiednnder 

the Environmental Protection Act of 1986 for handling of hezerdous substances. Similarly, guidelines for controlling 

the release of genetically engineered microorganisms have also been issued under the act. 

Apart from Central laws specifically dealing with environment, a host of other enactments have a direct bearing on 

specific aspects. The Factories Act of 1948, for example, has provisions for ensuring industrial safety and control of 

effluents and emissions. The handling of toxic insecticides and pesticides is regulated by separate laws. The Explosives

Act, Boilers Act, Motor Vehicles Act, Drugs and Cosmetics Act etc. have provisions based on environrnental 

considerations. Many state level acts are also powerful instlrrmsals for environment management. For example, 

legislation related to land seeks to control land use. Toum and country plenning acts are effective tools for regulating 

urban and regional development. Municipal acts have numerous clauses relevant to environmental concerns. 

Administrative procedures have also been used to deal with environmentd issues. In 1985 the Union government 

notified 22typs of highly polluting industries which would require environnental clearance from state governments 

before being granted a license or registration. Public sector investments, which are potentially damaging to the 

environrnent, are now scrutinised by MOEF before clearance. This is in addition to the clearances required under 

the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, the Air and Water Pollution Control Acts, and other statutes and regulations. 

This environmental assessment procedure is useful for appropriate siting planning and design of new, large projects. 

Since the environrnent issue is so large, there is a6 5ingle, comprehensive environmentd policy statement of the 

government. A national conservation strategy is now under preparation by a group of eminent experts. The national 

forest policy was revised in 1988, and reiterates the goal of a 33 per cent forest cover for the country. There are also 

separate national policies on land use and water. 

ffus ]e{inistry of Planning and Environment in Maldirrs formulates policies based on the recommendations of the 

National Commission after their approvd by the President. Various ministries have their representatives as members 

of the commission. Environmental legislation has been formulated in 20 vitd areas, including coral and sand nining 

jetty construction, causewaln, water and air, sewage and solid waste disposaf bridge and breakwater construction" and 

use of fertilizers and pesticides. Legislative measiures for the protection of the environnent include prohibition on 

catching of certain undersized turtles, tortoises and lobsters, and nining of coral and sand in the vicinity of Male' 

atoll and the house reef of all islands and fringing reefs of the atolls. The Housing Code, aimed at ensuring proper 

sanitary and hygienic conditions in Male', was introduced in 198?. Under law, no major government or private 

development project c."tt be undertaken without submitting an environment impact statement. However, major gaps 

are the lack of trained personnel lack of data'and lack of fast transport benveen islands. 

In Nepat there are legislative provisions that deal with environmental issues and disasters: for example the Soil and 

Watershed Conservation Act of 1982, amended in 1!E9, wf,ish s6atein( legal provisions for soil and watershed 

conservation; an4 the Natural Calamities (Relief) Act 19f32, amended in 1989, which corntains various directives and 

mechanisms developed and adopted for effectively dealing with disasters. His Majestt's Government of Nepal has 

endorsed National Conservation Strategy for Nepal and various policies related to environment management have 

been incorporated in the long-term plan. 

In Palistan, a substantial legislative cover is available for dealing with most important environmental issues like 

forests, health" substances dangerous to human healtb use of water, soils and lands. I-aws also cover agencies dsaling 

with environmental issues, for instance, local bodies responsible for planning development and management of urban 

and rural settlements.There are several laws currently available in Pakistan for protection of the environment like 

the Punjab l-and Preservation Act, 1900; the Canal and Drainage Act,lVT3; the Sindh lnigation Act, 1879; the 

Greater l,ahore Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Ordinance, 1967; National Calamities (Prevention and Relief) 

Rules, 1!)69; Forests AcI, LWi the Punjab Wild Birds and Wild Aninals Protection Act, 1955; Punjab Wildlife 

(Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Ordinance,1972; and 

West Pakistan Regulation and Control of Ludspeakers and Sound Amplifiers Ordinance, llb5.Besides these acts, 

Pakistan has pronulgated a specific law on environnent, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983. 

This law provides for a Pakistan Enviro"mental Protection Council headed by the President of Pakistan to ensure 

enforcement 6f this ordinance; establish a comprehensive national environmentd polisy; give appropriate directions 

to conserve renewable and expendable resouroes; ensure that envhonmental considerations are interweaved into 

national development plans and policies; and, ensurd enforcetoe-nt of national environmentd qualig standards. The 

council was established in 19&4 and its current membership is 33. Members include government offrcials, technical 

erperts and NGO representatives. The law also proides for the setting up of a National Environmental'Protection 

Agency. As per provisions of the Ordinance, environmental protection agencies have also been established at the 

central and provincial levels. The ordinance has delegated po$'ers to provincial environmental protection agencies 

to enable them to implement the ordinance at the provincial level. Other laws dealing with environment are the local 

government and municipal laws rvhich have specific provisions for pollution control in rural and urban communities. 

Sri I rntr has a number of laws dealing with various aspects of envirorrmental protection and management. However, 

in the present context of developnent, most of these laws have proved inadequate. The early laws of the 1fth century 

were not enacted primarily to protect the environment. Many of these laws were enacted during the colonial regime 

and were oriented towards e4ploitation of natural resources, revenue collection and maintenance of law and order. 

The 1980s witnessed greater emphasis on environmental management. This new attitude is reflected in the 

r25

environmental laws enacted during this period. Environmental management in Sri l-anka as a govemmental activity 

is fairly recent. The need for enviro"mental protection and management is duly recognised and stressed in the 19?8 

Constitution of Sri l-anka as a fundamental right, obligation aod respoosiUitity of the St"t" and the people. The 

environmental policy of Sri l,anka has been evolving on the basis of this commitment of the state to protect and 

manage the environment. 

The national law on environment, National Environmental Act of 1980, came into operation in 1981. It was amended 

in 1988 to introduce a licensi'g procedure and give legislative backing to EIA procedures for development projects. 

The arnendment also required new water, soil, air and noise pollution control standards. The amendments hive given 

clear authority to the Central Environmental Authority to require an EIA of any project which would hive a 

significant impact on the environment. Sri l,anka has a nr"rber of other ordinances, laun, actg regulations and 

byelaws related to environment, which cover a wide area and variety of situations. t egislation on the aquatic 

environrnent includes legislation on water resouroes, water supply, water for irrigation, water pollution, and supply 

of energy. Energ5l laws regulate the generation" transmissiog trensfelaation" distribution, supply and use of electiical 

energy. I-egislation on forests, wildlife and nature protection includes flora and fauna protection, protection of wildlife, 

wilderness areas, forest management, botanical gardens, water weeds like water hyacint\ and preservation of urban 

trees and woodlands. Irgislation on the marine environment includes laws on hsheries and other marine life, coast 

conservation and pollution control. In addition to laws on the control of air pollution" there are laws dealing with 

pesticides, dangerous drugs, tea, coconut, rubber, and plant protection. 

Environmental education and training 

All countries of South Asia have been undertaking programmes 

to promote environmental education and training. 

In Bangladesh, there is a growing necessity of environmental education. The present curricula for the primary school 

includes environment related subjects. There are some te:(books for the pupils on this subject as well as guidelines 

for the teachers. A programme entitled'Muktangan Siksha' or open air education was launched as a pilot project in 

1976, under which children were encouraged to learn directly from their environment and not from teldbooks. At the 

secondary level there is no separate subject on environment but environment related topics such as population growth 

and the natural environmgll are taught. Unfortunately, teachers' tlnining institutions have no subject on environment. 

ffis Nrnglsdesh University of E"gtteering and Technology conducts postgaduate courses in environmental 

engineering and at the graduate level in civil e"glneering. A number of students have at least one environmental 

sngineering related subject. In other universitieg students of chemistry study some water pollutibn and air pollution 

aspects. Arrangements have been made to include environmental legislation in the syllabi of the law faculties. A 

nonformal environmental training progremme has also been initiated for both the young and the old with the help 

of the mass media. 

In Bhutan, the Education Department has initiated an environment education programme under which resouroe 

materials and a syllabus for environmental education to be taught throughoul Bhutan's school system has been 

developed. A series of workshops to train teachers in the new syllabus is currently being planned. At the primary 

school level, a new curriculum called a New Approach to Primary Education (NAPE) is currently being introduced 

in 36 sclools thronghout Bhutan. This curriculum includes a major component called Environmental Studies (EVS). 

At the college level, a similar EVS programme is being developed at Sherubtse College, Bhutan's only higher learning 

institution. The college is starting a natural history and conservation section and a library for books as well as video 

filns. 

In ldia the National Council of Educational Research aad fleining (NCERT) has included environmental education 

in school curricula. In the curriculun reorganizationof 1975, NCERI had made an attempt to make educational 

material environment based. Currently, children in Clms I and II rardergo composite courses known as environment 

studies (ENVS), which includes both the natural and social environment. For helping teachers, a guidebook has been 

developed. A wider orientation is attempted in the higher primary classes, using the students, own environinent. At 

the middle and higher levels (dass 6 upwards), environrnental concern such as conservation of renewable resources, 

pollution and soil conservation have been built into the curricula. However, a lot remains to be done for 

environmental education at the school level. The NCERT curricula and textbooks have so far been adopted only by 

a few centrally administered schools. Secondly, NCERT modules have yet to be satisfactorily adapted to iegional and 

local situations. Thirdly, teachers themselves have not been imparted sufficient awareness and skills. 

Education in environmental sciences have only recently been introduced in some Indian universities, although ecology 

has been taught for some time as'a part of zoologl and botany. In 1975, a School of Environmental Sciences *u. 

established at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. This was followed by similar departments in Andhra University 

at Waltair, and Cochin University. The Wildlife Institute of India has developed both graduate and postgraduate 

L26

courses in wildlife management. Over 35 institutions in India offer specialised graduate and postgraduate courses and 

research facilities in environmental sciences and engineering. Nevertheless, a vast gap still le6ains in the availability 

of qualified personnel in specialised environmental fields. The existing teaching facilities do not attract many students 

since career development prospects are uncertain. Apart from public health engineering there is no area in which 

slntematic professional llaining is imparted. A beginning has been made by the governrnent by giving support to 

siiort-term exposure progrzmmes for plannerg civil servants and other categories of serving personnel, for example, 

in the Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad. Efforts are now being made to establish training institutions for 

pollution control operators, managerq and inspectors at the state level. One area which has not yet been tackled is 

ihe training of legal personnel -- lawyers and judges - to deal with the increasingly complex issues of environmental 

litigation. 

In Maldires, education at all levels incorporates a study of the environment. At the primary leve! chapters on natural 

science include environnental aspects. At the secondary level" fisheries science contains a considerable amount of 

information on the environment. There are, however, no teachers' training courses. I-ack of legal education and 

education at higher levels are existing gaps in the educational field in Maldives. 

In Nepat environmental education is not imparted either at the school or college levels. Formal education is in any 

case a part time activity for a sizeable number of students, especially in rural areas. Furthermore, teachers are not 

trained or exhorted to impart environmental consciousness. The absence of environmental education is due to the 

lack of demand for such specialisation as a vocational form. The absence of ecologists in the educational sptem and 

the lack of sufficient institutions at the national level to absorb environmental specialists has prevented the demand 

for environmental professionals.While the impediments to alter the educational system to incorporate environmental 

concerns is considirable, the :mcial role of environmental conscioirsness has been realized and a modest beginning 

has been made towards creati"g it. Several programmes are broadcast over the radio to strengthen grassroots 

perception of environmental issues. A major contribution has come from the Nepal Forurn of Environmental 

Communicators which has spared no effort to promote the broadcasting of such proglammes. 

In Patistan, the Coordinated Environmental Education Programme was jointly prepared in 1985 by the Ministry of 

Education and the Environment and Urban Atrairs Division of the Ministry of Housing and Works to introduce 

environmental education in the country. Under this project, a teacher's guide on environmental education has been 

developed for primary, middle and secondary school levels. Six training workshops were held in 1987-88 in which 

around 400 educationists were trained as nmaster trainers" on environnental education. Under the project, a 

curriculutn on environmental education was also developed and environmental concepts and ideas incorporated into 

existing school textbooks on social studies and general science for middle and secondary school levels throughout the 

country. 

University education in Pakistan does not have environment as a subject, althougb environment related subjects like 

public health e"gl.eering; forestry soil consenration and water managem€nt are a part of the regular curriculum of 

most of the universities. A full fledged Department on Environmel6l planning and Management for postgraduate 

studies has been established in Peshawar University and NED University of Karachi. 

The Pakistan government has also sponsored programmes to build environmental awareness by using both the print 

and the electronic media. Efforts have also been made to carry out a comprehensive survey of hazardous wastes and 

other environmental problems in Pakistan. Simultaneously, the Environrnent and Urban Atrairs Division is scanning 

all laws from 1&37 onwards to identi! laws and enactments related to environment. This is a massive exercise but 

some relevant laws have already been identified. Pakistan is also playing a vital role through international cooperation 

progremmes in dsiling with environmental problems. Support has been received for the establishment of an Institute 

of Environmental Training, Research and Managenent; development of a national conservation strategy; and, a 

coastal environmental management plan study. 

11 gii I qnta, several steps have been taken to promote environmental education and create awareness amongst 

citizens. Environmental education has been included in the curricula at all levels of school education. The'primary 

level curriculum is interdisciplinary in nature and takes children out ofthe classroom to give them personal experience 

of the outside environment. At the secondary lerref environmental education has been integrated in different subject 

areas such as science, social studies, health, physical education and aesthetic studies, and is not treated as a separate 

discipline. At the college level too, environment is taught under various subjects such as biologt, zoologr, chemistry 

botany, geography, sociolog5r, economics and agriculture. In additiog ecology has been introduced recently as a 

separate subject. All the nine universities in Sri l-anka provide environmental education. The basics of ecologl and 

the foundations of environmental education are taught during the first two years. At the postgraduate level, increasing 

attention is being paid to environmental themes in several universities. 

Efforts to reach specific target goup6 are reflected in the training programmes undertaken for the public sector. They 

1:r 

127

ange from environmental sErvice staff college to sectoral 6eining and research institutions. Various training 

institutions such as agriculturd training institutions of the Department of Agriculture and the Tea Research Institute, 

Rubber Research Institute, Coconut Research Institute, National Institute of Plantation Management, and the 

Agrarian Research and Traiqing Institute are involved in the dissemination of environmental information relevant 

to their field. Trainees are expected to act as catalpts in their respective fields. Environmental str€rms have also been 

introduced ln &s tmining programmes of public officers at the Sri l-anka Institute of Development Administration 

(SLIDA). Various attempts have also been made to integrate environment studies into professional training 

progrrmmes during the last two decades. At the National Institute of Business Management (MBM), specific treinid 

modules have been introduced to incorporate environmental concerns into their professional training courses. More 

than 3,000 participants employed in the public and private sector enrol at the NIBM annually. 

A*arcness and public participation 

The problem of environmental degradation in Bangladesh carne into the forefront in the mid-190s. Natural scientists 

and planners were pioneers in this field who showed an awareness of the issues concerned. In the last one and a half 

decades, attempts have been made through seminars and workshops to create mass awareness of the problem. In an 

attempt to educate the general masses, 

'Paribesh Parichiti' or 'know your environment' was introduced as a subject 

in the curriculum of primary and secondary classes. But education is still very limited and the greater section of the 

people are not conscious about the problem. The recent plan to involve the public in the upazilla afforestation 

programme should create mass awareness of the degradation caused by deforestation. 

Bhutan has launched a number of environmental awareness and public participation progrzmmes aimed at promoting 

a broad understanding of environmental issues and enlisting support and participation in the government,s 

environqent programmes. In commemoration of the coronation of the King of Bhutan, June 2 hL been also 

celebrated as Social Forestry Day since 1985. The dat's celebration involves several schools with teachers and 

students; government offices and private sector companies; the Royal Bhutan Army, Police, and Bodlguards; and, 

the villagers in a nationwide mass tree planting activity. Irctures and slide shows are organised in various schools.The 

Department of Forestry through its publicity and e$easion programng, has initiated an essay competition related 

to nature conservation. Other activities include radio and video programmes. The DOF has also recently published 

Tsendeq a journal named after Bhutan's national tree, to ."*i forum for sharing information and ideas on 

forestry, wildlife and other environmental concerns. The Royal Society ".-" for the Protection of Nature has also initiated 

various environmental awareness projects. 

Environmental awareness progremmes in rryli- are supported targely by the government through training 

programmes, seminars, worksf,gps, ecoclubs and environment camps. A National Environment Awareness Campaign 

(NEAC) is being conducted annually since 1986, and November 19 to December 18 every year is observed ai the 

National Environment Month. Worlshopg public meetings, camps, rallies, audiovisual shows, fiLns, plays and essay 

competitions are organised to disseminate the environnental message as widely as possible. The Naiional Museum 

of Natural History in Delhi is devoted to non-formal environrnental education. A regional museum is also being 

established at Mlaore. The centres for environment education at Ahmedabad and Madras receive financial support 

from the Central government for developing non-formal education and awareness material for different medii and 

communicatisn 6a1s1ials to address specific problems such as fluorosis and alternative energy sources for rural areas. 

The Indian government extends support for organizing seminars on various technical environmental topics by colleges, 

universities, NGOs and professional bodies. Indian television regularly telecasts environment progt"--e.. Further 

steps to increase public participation in environ-ent protection include provisions for public inlereit litigation in the 

Air and Water Pollution Control Acts, and the Environment Protection Act of 1986. Some imporiant judicial 

pronouncements -- for exanple, for stopping limssl6ag mining in the ecologically sensitive Doon Valley -- -have 

in 

fact resulted from privately initiated litigation. 

Maldives has been taking action to create awareness ,mong people and encourage them to participate in environment 

matters. In 1981,, the President of Maldives called upon every, Maldivian to plant a coconut tree. An afforestation 

calpaign began in 1983. In 1985, the President inaugurated another tree planting campaign and called upon the 

nation to plant two trees for every tree felled. 

To create awareness among people, weekly programmes on radio and monthly programmes on television are 

organised. A forum of "Writers on Environment (Maldives)' knonm as "WE Maldives' was formed in 19gg, which 

publishes a weekly page in one of the daily newspapers. The forum has been organising various activities for creating 

public awareness about environment. A monthly newspaper Veshi (Our Environment) is being published and sent 

free to all the islands and interested people in the country. 

t28

Despite the limited outreach of development programmes, there are specific components embedded in the desigrr 

of national programmes in N€pal for enhancing ecological consciousness. All the IRDPs in Nepal contain 

environmental programmes in recognition of the importance of the ecological balance. NGOs engaged in rural 

development also have a substantial conservation component. However, a major weakness in this area is evident in 

the absence of camps for students, althougb efforts have been made recently through the Nepal Press Institute and 

the KMTNC to conduct environmental camps for schoolchil&en. The involvernent of the public has been encouraged 

through the media and other instruments but efforts in this area are extremely limited. 

During the last few years, press, radio and television in Palistan have started covering environmental issues and 

events. Environmental issues are an important subject on radio and TV and are included in different scientiFrc 

progremmes, documentaries, drrmas and children's progra'nmes. The time allocated on TV to environment is 

substantial. Radio Pakistan has developed a progremme for broadcasling environmentally related mcssages and 

programmes regularly. 

NGOs have been rather slow in their growth and development in Pakistan. However, they have been a major source 

of innovative thinking about how natural resourc,es should be managed. They serve both as early warning slntems and 

a sourse of information about alternate development approaches. A large number of local NGOs have grown up 

during the past couple of years. Their charter and functions range from safe drinking water to organising walks and 

seminars for the protection of environ'nent. Some committed individuals have for many years identified local and 

national environmental issues. The pollution problem of Kasur from the waste of its tanneries was highlighted during 

a field trip of some members of the Lahore Consenntion Society. IUCN is supporting the development of the 

National Conservation Strategy for Pakistan. The government has s€t up a high level steering committee headed by 

the deputy chairman of the Planning Commission to oversee the development and preparation of this strates/. 

Women's organisations run into hundreds in Pakistan although their size and reach may vary. Several organisations 

with a large reach address themselves to environmental issues with particular reference to the role of women. In rural 

areas, no major established network of women is working except the women's wing of the Sindh Rural Workers 

Cooperative Organisation. 

Since the beginning of the 1980s, the Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanta has launched a special public 

awareness progremme. Ttis programme pays special attention to problems relating to soil erosion, deforestation, 

water pollution and biomass management. The mass media in Sri Lanka has been increasingly involved in 

disseminating environmental news and creating public awareness on environmental issues. In addition to general 

environmental news and feature articles, some newspapers issue weekly supplements on environment. Since 1985, the 

radio has been broadcasting weekly progrzmmes on environment. The Sri knka TV telecasts environmental news. 

Environmental considerations are getting gradually integrated into tele-dramas, school dramas, concerts, exhibitions, 

competitions and news progrrmmes. Activities are being carried out with people's participation to mark various events 

of environnental significance such as the World Environmental Day, Earth Day, Tree Planting Day etc.. National, 

regional and rural NGOs are actively participating in various programmes aimed at enhancing public awarene^ss on 

environment. The mass media and NGOs play a vital role in mobilising public opinion against activities that may 

degrade the environment. 

The Pioneer Brigade Programme which was launched in Sri l-anka schools in 1984, now plans to set up environmental 

brigades comprising of about 50 students between 12-15 years aimed at mobilising students' participation and 

commitment towards the preservation of the environment. About 100 such brigades have been established so far and 

they have carried out projects within and around school premises. In addition, environmental societies and clubs are 

being set up in most urban and rural schools to undertake environment promotional activities such as seminars, 

exhibitions, quiz programmes, competitions, songs and dramas. Environmental activities have also been undetaken 

by the National lnstitute of Youth established by the govsrnment to look after the interests of youthAlthough 

environmental education has been incorporated in the ctrricula .at various levels in Sri I-ankan schools, 

irnplenentation appears to be not very satisfactory. Environmental$unfavourable attitudes, lack of training facilities, 

equipment and resources, lack of awareness, qualified teachers and teaching materials contribute to the weak 

implementation of this programme. 

Enviroment technologt 

In Banglafuh, environment technologies for resource conservation, pollution control, deforestation, soil conservation, 

and low waste and non-waste techriologies for indugries are not readily available. The country lacks expertise in such 

technologies. The EIA proc€ss is not yet practised though there is a possibility that it will be made compulsory for 

all major development projects very soon. There is still no environment accounting system in the country and 

information is inadequate.

For resource conservation, the most important concern in Bhutan relates to preventing deforestation and promoting 

afforestationi preventing soil erosion; and, conserving wildlife. The Bhutan government is tryrng to achieve its 

objectives by increasing the supply of fuelwood and timber for domestic consunption through afforestation 

progr:rmmes. 

India has suffrcient technical and scientific expertise to develop environrnentally sound methods to exploit natural 

resouroes, and is trying to further improve these methods thro'tgh bilateral assistance fron developcd countries. The 

government is trying to ensure that new, large scale projects include adequate measures 16 6inirni56 adrarse 

environmental effects. Problems arise on four counts: the environmental 'backlog' of activities such as mining which 

have created ecological damage in the past but which is now difficult to correct; the enormous resouroes needed to 

change process and equipment used in ongoing activities; the need for greater information and awareness among 

planners, administrators and managers; and, the adverse economics of several technological solutions. One example 

is the utilisation of flyash generated by thermal power plants. The technology to use flyash for manufacture of building 

material such as bricks is fairly well known. But it has not resulted in financially viable projects so far. 

The problems of air and water pollution are easier to address. Both private and public sector industries are being 

driven by the Indian government, by local pressure, and by their oum growing awareness into installing and using 

pollution control equipment. In case of technological gaps, the governmeDt attempts to procure technolqgy from 

developed countries for demonsration. One aspect which is gaining wide acceptability in India is that pollution 

control, especially where it involves process change, waste reduction and resource recovery can often improve 

productivity and, therefore, the financial performance of a unit. It is for this purpose that demonstration plants 

become an important tool in developing awareness. However, while installing pollution control equipment is relatively 

easy, chonges in process technologl are difticult. One more area of concern is the pollution caused by small scale 

industries. Examples are tanneries and dye and dyestuff units. Thesd units have neither the technical knowhow nor 

the resources to treat the effluents discharged. Individual efforts to control pollution would destroy the economic 

viability of the units themselves. The answer obviously lies in common pollution control and treatment facilities and 

subsidised, if necessary. A beqinning has been made in some industrial areas in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, but 

a great 4[sal lgmains to be done. 

Waste utilisation has not yet been attempted in an organised manner so far in India. In rural areas, there is traditional 

wisdom of recycling agricultural 31d anirn{ wastes, aided now by modern technology through activities such as biogas 

production. Some private enterprises have embarked on recovery and utilisation of chemical wastes. The government 

is establishing a mechanism to collect data about the enormous rynount of agricultural urban and industrial waste 

generated in the country. This data will be made available to entrepreneurs and it could lead tb waste exchange 

ar"ang€ments. Technological gaps in utilising particular wastes could be identified for research and development or 

technology transfer. 

Technologias appropriate to ecological conditions prevailing in Maldives have to be evolved, adapted or irnported 

under the charge of respective ministries. As environmental awareness grows, new technologies will evolve. This 

proc€ss has already started in the areas of drinking water, sanitation, waste disposd, coastal defence, harbour 

development, and construction of jetties. Maldives is keen to acquire new technologies which can help in the 

protection and preservation of its environment. 

For certain key environ-ental sectors of Nepal appropriate technologies haw been imported and, in some cases, 

even developed within the country. One example is the improved'chulo' which was developed by a Nepalese innovator 

in l946.In the absence of national institutions, the bulk of innovations have been made by individuals. But now 

RECAST can help to develop appropriate technologies. There are other environmental technologies that havc been 

introduced in Nepal. A concerted attempt is being made to promote biogas units. Solar technologr has been 

introduced but the escalating costs of items which are made entirely of imported raw materials has placed them 

beyond the reach of the ordinary consumer.In the sanitation field; an engineering firm has been promoting low:cost 

toilets referred to as the 'sulabh sauchalaya'. A Swiss organization is currently building low-cost, environmentally 

sensitive 'green roads' in the rural areas that cost 20 per cent to 33 per cent less than the standard road building 

techniques. 

$ri I rrka's civilization dates back to more than 2"500 years. There is eno"gh evidence to support the fact that during 

this period, self sufticient and sustainable forms of agriculture, simple living patterns and the inlluence of Buddhism, 

helped to develop traditional technologies which maintained harmony between humans, and their environment. They 

developed agricultural practices that were appropriate to the physical environment. Although the knowledge of 

pollution control technology as well as dean technology is available, the main constraint in Sri L,anka is the 

mobilisation of financial resources and technical knowhow. Most pollution control technologies need extensive capital 

investments and technological capabilities. I-ack of simple and appropriate technologies for small and medium scale 

industries is another major constraint.

Environmental plsmiog 

[lyfuenmental problems in naryldcsh are bth due to development and lack of development. The majority of the 

people live in absolute poverty, suffer from hunger, disease and malnutrition, and lack dothing and shelter. The htgh 

population g'olvth is adrling fuel to this orplosive situation. In this perspective, Bangladesh needs developmont to 

inprove the quality of life. But to undertake derrelopment due consideration should be given to cause minimuLm of 

environmental disturbance.The nation's priority development issues have been identified as checking excessive 

population growth, attainrnent of food autonomy, flood control, rapid industrial growth, health and sanitation, 

iducation and humanpower tlaining. The land-person ratio of Ba"gladesh is one of the lowest in the world. Forest 

and other natural resources are shrinking rapidly at an alarming rate. Surface water resources are also uncertain due 

to diversion of rivers. Indiscriminate and unplanned sinking of tubewells to extract groundwater is lowering the water 

table rapidly. Extraction of timber and wood from the forests to feed the paper mills and meet household and general 

use is shrinking the forest areas continually. The afforestation programme is not able to cope with the rate of 

deforestation. Soil erosion and sedinentation is continually sfoanging the river morphology and the environment. 

There are innumerable ways in which the environment and the ecosystem is being damaged. Planners have to be very 

careful while taking into account the impact of development and include measures to reduce the adverse effects to 

a minimurn. 

With the gfowing awareness of environmental impacts on development, all government agencies are now conscious 

of this. In the past three decades many flood control and irrigation projects have been taken up and implemented. 

These projects did not take adequate consideration of the environment, as a result there has been a tremendous 

impact on fisheries, especially due to flood control projects. Fish wealth has dramatically reduced and some of the 

species are now extinct. Planners now foresee that instead oftotal flobd control, controlled nood is the answer. Future 

development projects are now being shaped and oriented in this direction. Planners in Bangladesh are also realising 

that most resource uses affect other resources and people. These impacts may be adverse or beneficial. Therefore, 

a methodology has been adopted to survey the inpacts of development. Environmental specialists produce a list of 

beneficial and adverse effects for the ultimate decision maker. There is increased awareness about the need for 

environmental preservation amongst the Educated masses. How€ver, most people, in general, are not educated enough 

or conscious in this regard. Petty self interests and lack of farsigbtedness are some of the malaise afflicting the people 

at the hetn of affairs. 

Through its successive development plens, Bhutan has taken several major initiatives aimed at integrating 

environmental concerns into the policies and plenning of its development sectors. The conservation policy adopted 

by its forestry sector stresses that forest exploitation and development should not be pursued at the cost of irreversible 

damage to this major resource.In agriculture, prograrnmes to attain improved output have included the adoption of 

land development, watershed management and soil conservation measures to ensure sustainable production and yield. 

The animalhusbandry sector has begUn to pursue environmental issues through its area development projects based 

on pasture development. In the health sector, the national plan for the drinking water supply and sanitation decade 

ainl to reduce water and filthborne diseases.Taking note of the need for -a more comprehensive view of 

environnental issues, the Bhutan government has decided to establish a National Environmental Strategy (NES) for 

explicit environmental policies, plans and action progrtrnmes to be integrated with the countr/s Seventh plan. The 

strategy will give a sharper focus to the countrt's priority requirements for environ-ental protection, raise the level 

of environmental awareness, and stimulate appropriate actions. A notable feature of the NES being proposed is the 

inclusion of EIAs of development projects. The development of an appropriate EIA methodology for Bhutan will be 

one of the major responsibilities of the Nationd Environmental Secretariat, which will soon be established within the 

national Planning Commission. 

Since the late 1970s, the Governnent of India has paid special attention to the incorporation of environmental 

concerns in the plrnning of major development activities. Environmental Impact Assessment (ELA) procedures are 

now applied to all major development projects in the public sector, befoie final clearancns;T. tlpes of hazardous 

industries, before licensing and registration; and, any activity which seek to divert forest land for non-forest 

purposes.The EIA statement prepared by the project proponent is scrutinized in MOEF with advice from leading 

r"i"otirtr and technical experts. Where some ecological disturbance is inevitable, conditional clearances are given and, 

if possible, the proponenti are asked to prepare environment management plans (EMP) for the project duration. It 

has, however, been observed that in a number of cases the stipulations indicated in the clearance W MOEF have not 

been complied with. Since this makes the entire exercise 6saningless, government is now considering stringent steps 

to ensure compliance with the conditions laid down. 

One difficulty is the lack of an accurate data base at the microlevel. When this data gap is combined with a lack of 

scientific and technical expertise, the net result is delay in clearance ofthe project. In the past few years, the situation 

has improved because of the awareness and expertise which managers and planners in sectors such as water 

,".our.L., thermal power generation and mining have developed. There has also been an increase in the number of

private sector consulting firms which can undertake EIA exercises. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has 

drawn up guidelines for EIAs for projects dealing with river valley development, thermal power, mining siting of 

industries, ports and harbours, and development of beaches. These guidelines broadly deal with environmental aspects 

that need to be considered during plenning and implementation of the projects. They provide lists of ecologically 

or otherwise sensitive areas which should be avoided for siting of industries. The MOEF is now preparing guidelines 

for the transp,ortation, tourism and communications sectors. While preparing such guidelines, full use is made of the 

experience, knowledge and expertise not only of scientists and technical personnel, but also of the agencies concerned 

with each sector. The MOEF has also taken steps to ensure the proper planning of activities in fragile ecosystems. 

One example is the management of coastal areas, where no construction activity is permitted within 500 m of the high 

tide line. In one particular area" ltration of any industry within one km of the coastline has been prohibited under 

the Environment Protection Act. Similarly, development activities in the ecologically fragile Doon Valley of Uttar 

Pradesh is regulated by a board chaired by the Union Minister of Environment and Forests. Land use in this area 

has been controlled through a notification under the Environment Protection Act. Another exarnple is the setting up 

of an Island Development Authority, chaired by the Prime Minister, to formulate environmentally sound policies and 

programmes for the development of India's islands. MOEF has also set up an expert group for determining 

ecologically fragrle areas which need special handling in future development programmes. 

Despite growing enviqonmental awareness among decision makers, there is still much work to be done before 

environrnental concerns are built into the entire plenning prosess, and not just into individual projects. Apart from 

the forestry sector, where the policy is to check deforestation and promote afforestation, other natural resources do 

not receive adequate attention. Examples are land and agriculture, cattle population, surface and groundwater, urban 

land use and energy sources. Secondly, the'environmental backlog'itself is so great that corrective action takes up 

most of the government's resources. Thirdly, the pace of development required to satisS an increasing population 

is so hectic that events tend to overtake the planning process. 

Maldives has commissioned several studies on various aspects of its environment with the help of experts from 

different countries. The recommendations of these studies were considered to evolve a national action plan on 

environment. The principal aim of the plan is to help the government improve the environment, including the marine 

area within the exclusive economic zone. Its directive principles include continuous assessment of the environment; 

development and implementatio4 of management methods to enhance the environmental quality and sustainable 

utilisation of resources; preparation of comprehensive legislation and participation in the international agreements; 

strengthening of national capabilitieq and institutional and financial arrangenents; and, consideration to the potential 

impacts of climate change and sea level rise. 

In Nepal after the nationalisation of forests in 1959 and the subsequent enactment of legal provisions for nature 

conservation and environrnental protection, the first major step to incorporate ecological concerns into planning has 

been the creation of a special wing for the environment witbin tbe Planning Commission. The purpose of the wing 

is to ensure the conpatibility of development plans with ecological considerations. The wing has come into being very 

recently and it is only in the forthcoming plan that thE value of such an institution wil be known, though the creation 

of the wing is indeed a laudable role. Ministry of Forests and Environment has been established. Environment Units 

have also been established in other line agencies. 

Environmental planning is a new concept in Sri | -nke However, guidelines were issued by the government in 1981, 

when the Central Environment Authority was established, to incorporate environmental considerations into 

development programmes. Traditional technologies for natural resources management have been pushed to the 

background with the peneFation of Western influence and commercial agriculture. New and imported agricultural 

practices were introduced, especially to the plantation sector, which generated acute environmental problems such 

as intensified soil erosion" depletion of soil fertility, landslides, floods and drought, water pollution, and depletion of 

biomass. Very little work has been done so far to introduce environnentally sound technology to the agricultural 

sector. However, environmentally sound technologies are'now being introduced in the forestry and fisheries sectors. 

After 1980, the problem of treating industrial wastes was considered carefully in Sri Lanka. After the establishrnent 

of the Industrial Processing Zone, common effluent treatment plants were constructed. l,ack of pollution control 

facilities have created acute environmental problems in all indusffial areas such as Ratmalana, Moratuwa and Ekala, 

as well as in rural areas where large scale industries are located- Most of these industries were established without 

adopting any sort of pollution control particularly waste disposal methods. About 80 per cent of the industries located 

within the Colombo netropolitan area have not been equipped with proper pollution control technolog5r-A,tnost all 

large scale industrial plants located in rural areas, which have generated environmental problems, are owned by the 

government. 

With the introduction of a licensing procedure by the CEA to control industrial pollution, a new trend has emerged 

seeking environmental technologies 

to reduce pollution. According to the new legislation no one can discharge 

732

effluents or wastes without obtaining a license from the CEA. Treatment technology is being considered for existing 

industries and clean technology for new industries. Most urban areas have a centralised sewage collecting and 

treatment system. In Colombo, iewage is treated and discharged into the deep sea and also the Kelani river' For solid 

wastes, theie is no special disposal system, other than durnps in reclamation areas. L,ow waste technologies based on 

recycling are used i" .o.e s"ciorr such as the coconut industry, and food and beverage industry. Incineration 

""fv 

of wastes is also done to a limited extent. 

Since 1990, much work has been done to establish environmental planning at various administrative levels but no 

concerted efforts have been made to incorpordte environmental considerations in national economic planning. 

Environmental tools such as environmental risk management, environmental accounting and environmental auditing 

are not practised at any level, though EIAs of projects have now become mandatory. Simple plenning techniques have 

to be developed to deal with enviroqmental issues at regional and village levels. 

Environmental informatim and rescarch 

Information and a well established data base on environment are vital for environmental management. 

The Department df Environment Pollution Control in Bandadesh used to collect samples and analyse pollution 

problems, including the impact of water pollution on fisheries and pisciculture. However, the unit has been dealing 

ivith water, air and-noise poilution only. Information on areas like forest, wildlife and mines needs updating. Research 

has been carried out in liangladesh to exploit organic wastes. There are how some 20 biogas centres running in the 

countrY. 

There has so far been a low level of environmental monitoring activities in Bhutan as the country lacks resouroes. 

No systematic water quality monitoring efforts have been made although plans are underway to establish a three-tier 

,,,ooitoring structureA number of basii environment-related research projects have been undertaken or are currently 

being con-

carry out research' on specific environment related subjects. In addition, there is a large amount of ongoing research 

in Indian universities and institutes of technology. Useful work is also being done by some NGOs. 

Research in forestry and wildlife is almost entirely coordinated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests with some 

support by state governments. The apex body for forestry research is the Indian Council of Forestry n"."arci arrd 

Education, Dehradun. The premier research body under it is the Forest Research Institute, Dehiadun. Wildlife 

research is conducted by the Wildlife lnstitute of Indiq Dehradun. MOEF has also developed centres of exceltence 

in the fields of environmental education, ecological researcb,miningenvironrnent, and ornithblogy and natural history 

and provides them with financial support in priority areas of research. In addition" the Govind Ballabh pant Institute 

for Himalayan Environment and Development has recently been established to coordinate and promote research 

in India's Himalayan regions. 

Maldives has designated specific areas for the assessment of environment. These areas are coral reefs; marine 

pollution; marine fish stocks; aquifers; coastal erosion; fir1u1e climxte patterns; wind and tidal patterns;environrnental 

impact assessment; terrestrial resouroes; energy consumption patterni; nrlnerability of human settlements to episodic 

natural disasters; energy efficient building materials and building designs; and environmental implicatibns of 

inter-island transport development. 

In Nepat the need to.-develop a data base on environment has been realised very recently. The institutions established 

for the purpose are, however, inadequate. With the establishment of the Tribhuvan University, ecological problems 

have been taken up for research in the Department of Life Sciences. The engineeri4g institutes of the iniu"iSty t 

also been cqncentrating on environmental protection research. Several other institutions such as REC"A,ST, RoNAST, "u" 

ICIMOD' LAAS (Rampur), and KMTNC are also engaged in or are spo_nsoring environmental research. Owing to 

the rudimentary nature of environmental plaqning in Nepal and its difficult tirrain, it is difficult to monitor the 

environment. Resource limitations and lack of knowhow have not permined this. One major consequence of this is 

that there is no national plan for environment management. At another level, while the current design permits 

percolation of some information to the grassroots, it does not contribute to the creation of a formj 6Ji of 

professionals. Environmental science taught as an academic discipline is conspicuously absent in the educational 

curriculum. There is a critical need to establish professional centreJfor environmenta pianning. The distortions that 

have emanated from the imposition of elcernat analytical models on Nepali problemi have limited the creation of 

indigenous perceptions' Furthermore, there is no system to monitor and uiilise the research conducted by individual 

agencies in the country. A.s'4stem to transfer knowledge is absent. 

A number of organisations in Patistan carry out research and development work which is directly related to 

conservation and environmental issues. These organisations operate in areas of agriculture, forestry fisheries, 

irrigation, ener5f, industry wildlife, information dissemination and environrnental plaining. 

[a $f l-anlra, CEA has emphasised the establishment of an information network on environment as one of its major 

responsibilities. Since 198a CEA has initiated a large number of studies and research programmes for collecting 

information and developing a data base. A status report on soil erosion, detailed itudies oo *ate, pollution in the 

lower Kelani river, collection of information on stationary pollution sources and development projects to implement 

the EIA procedures and research on highly polluted industrial areag have been undertaken. An assessment of the 

natural resource base was carried out to prepare the National Conservation Strategt. In addition" coastal resources 

were studied in detail for the preparation of a Coastal Zoq Management Plan. Iiasic information has also been 

collected for the compilation of a series of directories and inientoriei. es a first step towards the establishment of 

an environmental data base and a reference contre, various steps such as the strengthening of the environmental 

library in CEA and setting up of district environmental libraries have been undertakln. 

LY

v2 

E 

o 

z 

a 

.'| 

tr 

c) 

E E 

'5 

tr 

c) 

!'t 

00 

E 

(t 

c) 

x 

,ll 

o 

a 

E Jfr 

d G 

,& E 

: 

EI 

-!E 

:JA 

gE 

6 

F ,li 

F i.r 

! tr 

G 

E 

I 

r)1 

a 

E 

t) 

E!0 

.E 

t!F 

b 

r- 

€ tr 

a! 

E 

|rt 

z's 

q 

8 

'6 

80 

EI 

o 

E 

I 

EI 

z 

3 

) 

a 

.E 

h 

E 

ft( 

:E 

fr Hg: 

rs ii e 

e!!b,E 

EaEE* 

AEF:.8" 

r'i i =; 

igiE€ 

EBE gi 

iEtsii.giil 

6 

E 

iiiiigiia9 

{ 

t 

() 

d 

€ 

E 

0 

G 

:eE;;;I€;gE€ 

x 

q 

E 

iii:iEliiii,:'*-'*iii 

tt 

FEY 

gl:lgg:a.;i:r;iiiii 

g* 

c) 

Ee -E 

.9, 

Ed 

o! c 

tE2 

z 

s 

i gEb€E* 

6;EeSs€ 

:FiH;sF 

rBsxi;i 

fEE3 EEi 

:8E'"5[E 

o 

z oa 

gEffg$F 

c q 

60 

g 

E.9 

-gE 

>s 

.u" 

P -o 

EE6 

6.n C 

aE€ 

G'E 

E3:f 

is& 

H ET 

.gg 

o6E 

5t9 

o 

o 

(, 

o 

' 

.5 

!0 

EE 

-l.E 

.Et qE 

Eo 

SE 

2E 

>(, 

.9P 

Eq h 

EE€E€3, 

cv.Y 

cc= 

FEE 

!€ii$.EE 

E€' 

E! E 

e! g 

isE 

giti:EgE aftr 

.? .e, x 

c: 

E 

135 

SE€E 

0 

c 

oE 

.g€ 

o6 

:E

E.!EEEEff 

EeI:BE? 

;€g:iEE 

Es:; AS? 

s F?*:Egit 

€ n€EEi€x'E 

E -1*,EES;: 

EFE 

E;:. 

:EE o '5: 

e6e 

E iffig;*E 

g$E 

;-5 E_ 

: F$,c: 

E=FEg 

ggEFi 

; € e?€ gE if iiEBilg ;u 

iE !-Ifi, Eia: EgEgE:: iE 

$! ;gi!;i :iii: !iiEEEai sE 

F- q E 

sg gE 

:€:ir 

EH €€g 

x€ $E!" 

X: Sr Q 

Y..? < F€ 

EE O 

O ct 

E Er.' 

E yle 

E €E E 

qJ 

. PE 

E i 3s 

g 'E 

E EBE 

r F.E-: 

3 F5 3 E 

E tso5E 

5 E€ E T 

q.9 

EE 

G 

z a 

;;EgEg 

icsiit 

E 

;g;*EgE 

g 

t 

o 

136

o 

.E Eq(! 

F 

d 

F 

I FE 

6 

- cnt 

il 

I 

E 

6 

F 

.I 

!t E 

E q 

E 

E 

t 

E 

s 

F 

i 

I 

a 

g 

d 

c 

t 

E 

F 

't E 

s 

F 

': ! 

.9 E 

F 

,9 

= 

E F 

a 

g c6 

' 

b 

t 

HE E: E€ 

AE Efi EE 

.9u .=> 

"H ha B:! B€ 

rZ e&E ,? 

i; FEF E: 

;! Escl 

iE 

Eg ;EH 

i.j) 

"? r8i ?Ef 

*i s:i ilEt 

E: =IE. qFP 

EE xE-? aEE 

Et 5Ei 8EE 

E H. 

E:EE{ 

E sE Ei;EE 

; €E* ;=EiE 

: :EE lrtib 

: EEF ' IE;FE 

-: 

E;E E"t:E 

Z i:E t;El! 

:- F;: iEi:€ 

:B iEe ?E;s* 

:i F5: ;:€ig 

'Es=i 

:: Eu E;a1; 

Fg 

so 

ET 

!Ek 

oX 

>d i :g 

igE€iiEE 

si\ 

.Etg 

sg 

90 

e E E 

9U 

uE q .- Z A'E 

ri, Et igEE 

LO 

o 

:.3 dG 

$ i, E 

" lqF 

qd 

b 3E 

H EE 

E;iiiiEEg 

! Yil E 

6rr F 

..Y 

.FE 

.:6.=9 -r.E ts Hi: 

E s 

.FE Eg ;E B3E 

-c9 bEE 

Eiga€;[gii?-a,g 

!r E 

4 r:xc00i;3 

:E:f,E:E;:;3;ggei:gi 

o-_E 

4 g"a E, 

P s 8.9 

!gEE 

3Ai€ giia E:€igEg ili: Fi 

!eEs 

Iusg 

Fe € E 

Eg ;: EaEFis 

EE?: il tii 

PEc€iE39E:s 

lill iig ere 

EEE :gr :i: 

!a;:!EE[is iat;i:gt,i€e 

o 

bo 

o 

r3',l 

0 

z 

x 

I 

.F 

v)

10 INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DEALING WTITI ET.IWR ... - Saarc

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?