9-CCNDPPE-Chapter V - Biological Diversity.pdf - Saarc

5 

BIOI.OGICAL DTVERSITY 

Tte region is c*remely ri€h in biodiwrsity. India, for instancq enoompasses s uniqu€ dfttenity of regions ranging 

from snow-cap'pcd mountains, hot deserts and crcrgreen forests to coastd mangrovcs. Lyin& as it doeq at the 

confluence of the Ethiopian, Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan biological realms, India possesses a nu"rber of intcresting 

components from each of thcse realms as well as several spccies endemic to the country. 

Apart from lower plant gloups and invertebrateq the plant and aninal diversity of India is relatively well 

docunented. About 15,000 spccics of flowering plants har,e been described. Estimates of other docunented plants 

include 5,000 species of algae, 1,600 licheng Z),000 fungi, 2,ru bryophytes and 600 pteridophytes. There are about 

75,000 species of animals including 50,000 insects, 4,fi)0 molluscq 4000 fish, 140 arnphibians, 420 reptiles, 1,200 birds 

(with 2,100 species and subspecies), and 340 mammals and other invertebrates. Further cxploration of the 

invcrtebrates may increase the totd to about 150,000 animal species. Thug about 200,000 species of living 

organisms may be present in the country. 

Because of habitat dcstruction and other factors, a number of plants and animals are in the endangered list. Two 

species of mammals - Indian cheetah and lesser Indian rhinoceros - and two species of birds -- pink headed duck 

and mountain quail -are known to have become e*inct in this century alone. Eigirty one species of mammalg 47 

species of birds, 15 species of reptiles and threb amphibians are in the threatened category. Among these are the 

tiger, leopar4 Asiatic elephant and all three species of Indian crocodiles. About 1J00 of species of plants, 

acoounting for 10 per cent of the angiospenns, are endangered. 

The exact classification of biogeographic regions of the country is still not defined. Recently, the Wildlife Institutc 

of India has done an extensive study and identified nine biogeographic regions and 25 biotic provinces. The nine 

biogeographic regions are Hinialaya desert, semi-arid region, Western Ghats, Deccan" Gangetic plainso Northeast 

India, islands and coastd areas Most of these rcgions are oommon to one or more of the seven SAARC countries 

and India can be taken as a tairly representative nation as far as biological characteristics are concerned. 

Hisorically, the natural vegetation corrcr of India has been dcpleted primarily by the oqpansion of agriculture to feed 

the burgeoning human population. About 44 Wr cent of India's land area is cultivated. Traditionally, permanent 

agriculture of food crops was confined mainly to the Indo'Gangetic plains and the Deccan plateau and coastal belts. 

Since the latter part of the 18th century, tea and coffee plantations invaded the moist forest regions of the Western 

Ghats and eastern Hinalaya. This has been accompanied by plantations of teak, eucalyptus, wattle and rubber. Thc 

area under te4 coffee and rubber in the Western Ghats of Keral4 Karnataka and Tamil Nadu alone is 460,000 

hectares. This has resulted in a loss- of the natural cvergreen and moist deciduous forest correr. Teak, eucalyptug 

wattlEand certain other softwood plantations occupy 10 per to 15 per cent of the forest area in the Western Ghats. 

Shifting cultirntion is a major cause of forest loss in certain eastern states such as Orissa, Meghalayq Arunachal 

Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura In these states betcrccn 25 per cent and 50 per cent of thc forest 

land is under shifting cultivation or in fallow. Short rotation cycles have depleted soil fertility and kept the vegetation 

arrested in early successional stagcs with only grasscs and crceds. Unlike other states in the country, only a minor 

proportion of the forests varying from 24 per cent in Anrnachal to 9 per cent in Meghalap, in these predominantly 

tribal states are government resenrc forests, the rest being village forestg printely owned forests of unclassed state 

forests belonging to district councils. 

Developmentd projects like irrigation and hydroelectric dams and nining hare also depleted the biological resourses. 

In 1979, there were l$Salatge dams in thc country. Bctwpen 1951 and 19Q about 400,000 hectares of forest land 

were submerged by dan projects Enmples of forest dernstation caused by mining are Kundremukh in the Western 

Ghats and Amarkanta& in ccntral India" Tb,s Forcst Protection Act of 19B0 has largely put a stop to this type of 

deforestation. Water and air pollutioa arc growing pro6lems in India But sufficient information is not available on 

their impact on the natural vegetatioa of the oountry or oo the fauna. 

Poaching continues to be a scriow tbrcat to tbe sunival of numerous vtrteb'rat€s. A lucrative illegal trade continues 

in ivory (elephants), horns (rhino), fun (snon,leopar4 tiger, panther, lyrur, etc.), skins (snakes), musk (musk deer) 

and feathers (peacock). The trade iir fauna is mainly in birds such as hill mynahs. The export of primates for use in 

medical research was halted in 1!t8. Orchids are especialty sought after. India signed the convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Ftora and Fauna (CITES) tn ln6. Under the Wildlife Protection Ao,,69 species 

of mammalg ,10 birds ar.dn amphibians and reptiles are lised as highly endangered or rare. 

The great Indus rirrcr and its drainage basin forms the dominant physiographic feature of Pakistan. Most of the 

regions in the north and the west of the Indus are rocky and mountainou and the flood plain lies east of the Indus 

in the central and southern parts. The fauna, flora and wildlife habitats in Pakistan are ofgreat variety and richness. 

There :re about 5,700 plant species of which over 5,000 are wild and 372 of thesc occur exclusively in Pakistan. 

The rich and raried fauna in Pakistan is affinities with the three biological regidns of the world like India. Ten of 

the 18 mammalian orders are found in Pakistan, including the world's smallest surviving E'nnalr the mediterranean 

pigny shrew (Suncus etuscan), and in the coastal waterg the largest ma'omal eVer known to exist, the blue ufralc. 

Endemism is not high but a number of texa includi"g Indus Dolpbin, Chiltan Markhor and Suleman Markhor are 

endemic to Pakistan. Of the world's d100 mammal species, 188 hart been reported in Pakistan, that is, 63 type.s of 

rodents, 38 typ€s of batg 25 types of hoofed rnirns\ 39 type of carnivoreg 11 types of insectivor€s, one of pholidola, 

three types of primates and nine types of aquatic mo-mals beloaging to catacea. Of the over $600 spccies of birds 

in the world" 666 species of migratory and local are found in Pakistan Endemism at the species level h not known. 

Out of 8J00 species of reptiles in the world" 174 species are found in Pakistan. Only 14 marine and 12 terrestrial 

snake species are poisonous. Pakistan has the fascinating marine green turtle nesting on beaches at Sandspit, Hawls 

Bay, Ormara, Jewanir, and Astola Island. A small number of Olive Ridley Turtles also nest on Sandspit and Hawk 

Bay beaches. About 400 species of marine fish and 125 species of fresh water fish are found in Pakistan. Only 40 

marine fish species are considered of economic importance. Some species owe their existence to both marine and 

fresh water, for instance, the hilsa (Palola), Pakistan;s insect life forms comprise at least 20,m0 species. 

Like India the landscapc and the habitats of Pakistan are diverse and inctude islands, marine, coastaf warm and sandy 

beacheg cliffg bay, mud flatg mud volcanog mangrove forestg estuarieg delta, lakes, reservoirg deserts, cultivated 

flood pl"in\ rivers rockey mountain$ glacie, rs and various tpes of forests. Although most parts of Pakistan are arid 

or semi-arid, fir,e major rivers flow through the country. There is an extensiw network of wetlands. Pakistan is one 

of the principal wintering grounds for migrating birds. But this e:densive biodiversity is today seriously threatened (see 

table 5.1). 

The human population has been increasing rapidly in Pakistan. As a result, cities and towns have been expanding 

taking up village and forest land. Consequently, wild life habitats, species of animals and plants and the ecosystems 

have suffered. Disposal of solid wastes by urban settlements has also given rise to pollution and destruction of 

habitats. Scattered housing projects are gowing in the country. New townships have been putting pressure on scarce 

forest resources. The €xpansi6a of housing and tourism in the fragile mountain ecos),stem is affecting biological 

diversity. 

Wildlife habitats in Pakistan are also threatened by agriculture, deforestation, monoculture aflorestation of eucallptus, 

drainage of wetland and marshes; pollution" water engineering workq mineral extractions : settlements and 

orercxploitation of rangelands by domestic livestockvnd other derrelopment activities. 

Agricultual practices like cultivation on stcep slopes and marginal landq pesticides and fertilizers, mechanisation, 

irrigation and cropping patt€rns, hara also afrected the animst habitat. Construction of damg barrageg and headworks 

on rirrcrs in Pakistan has changed the landscape of the country. Wildlife and frsh habitats upstream and doumstreams 

have changed. Qlzzinr of livestock on jungle lands in competition with wildlife has also depleted biodiversity. 

Powerlineg highways, roads, airfields, ca"als have also had their impact. Wild mamnals, birds, reptiles and fishes are 

also being hunted for economic and recreational reasons. Snowleopard markhor and ibcx figure prominently in the 

endangered list. There is no ban in the hunting of game birds The angling of non-game and game frsh is also 

becoming very popular in Pakistan. Mahseer and Rainbow trout in mountain streams are being killed indiscrininately. 

Crab fishing is done by foreipers in coastal n'aters near Karacii. birdS include duckg partridge, ram chokor, chokor, 

see-sse, quail rock pigeon, dove and waders. The angling of non-game and game fish is also becoming rary popular 

in Pakistan. Mahseer and Rainbow trout in mountain streams are being killed indiscriminately. Crab fishing is done 

by foreipers in coastal waters near l(arachi. 

Uke India and Pakistan Bangladarh abounds in floral and faunal wealth. Girrcn the regional differences in rainfall 

patterns, there are different types of vegetatioq namcly, grasslands, deciduoug mixed evergreen and errcrgreen. 

Besides two other plant comnunitieg naoely, halophytes and hydrophytes are also found. Mango, banana and 

bamboo are very qommon. Madar (Erytfuka voiegae vw Orientialis) and Hijol (Baningnnia acatangulo) arc also 

common near water sourcos. In the coastal belt, coconut and betelnut palms grow in abundance. Difrerent plants of 

the mangrove family predominate it the Sundarbang the principal ones being Sundari (Huiteia fomes), gewa 

(Exroeia agalluha), keora (Sonnemta apetala), garan (Ceiops rwberyiona), and golpata (Nypa futicans). There is 

a lunriant growth of evergreen and mixed el€rgreen trees in the Chittagong forests. The dominant trees are chaplish

(Artocarpus chaplasha), Telsur (Hopea odomta), garjan (Dipteruaryus ailbinatus), jarul (I-age6tqemia Speciosa), 

mahogany (Swiaaia mehapni), bamboo, cane, kadam (Anheephaless Cfunba),karci (Albizia lebbeck), gamar 

(Gmelina oftona), kamdeb (Colophyllum po;yotthum),chattim (Alstoia scholais) and shimul (Bomb& ceiba) besides 

a host of others. Segun (Teaona grandis), an exotic tree is now widely planted. The Madhupur forest is almost 

entirely covered by nl (Shorea rcbusta), a decidous which has a luxuriant growth. 

Besides the above, there are also two other minor areas of forestg one in Sylhet, where mostly deciduous and 

evergreen varieties trees groq and the other is in Dinajpur, which is characterised by sd. 

Various tlpes of halophytas can be found here and there all along the coastal belt. Water plants like shapla 

(Nynphoea nouchali), neel kamal (Nymphoea stellata), topa pana (Pistia straiotes) and kalmi (Ipomoea aEtatica) and 

a variety of reeds and long grasses such as kash (Socchantm spontaneus), khagra (Phogmites ko*a) and ulu (Imperata 

qlindrica) naturally grow in the haor (depression) areas of Sylhet and in the marshy areas of Faridpur, Kushtia, and 

rajshahi. 

gangladesh is a natural habitat for rich fauna with many interesting species. Accordi"g to early explorers and 

nnturalistg there was onoe a wonderful fauna within the territory of former uadivided Bengal. Regrettably, some of 

the animals like rhinoceroE buffalo, antelope, seroq pinkhead duclq Nukta duclq whitewinged wood duck and peafowl 

are efinct or ncarly so and the number of many other species in the country has been greatly reduced. Ignorance 

an4 abow all, indifference to wildlife and the wilful action of many different agencies is largely thE cause of the 

disappearance of many species. 

The fishery potential of Bangladesh, particularly of fresh water, has a special relevance. As an economic activity the 

inland fisheries ranks only next to agriculture, contributing more than 90 per cent of the total fish landings. Few areas 

in the world excel in such vast inland fishery resources. Fish production is done through exploitation of wild stocks 

in open waterwa)4s (rivers and streams) and standing bodies (bils and swamps) and, in a small measure, through the 

cultivation of stocks in flooded rice fields. The waters, in general, are rich in prawn, shrimps and lobsters. Marine 

lisheries are just as important as the inland fisheries in Bangladesh. More than 107 species of fish belonging to 30 

families from fresh waters and LT species belonging to 35 families from the estuaries of the Bay of Bengal have been 

noted. More than 25 species of prawns have been collected. There are also numerous tortoises and turtles which are 

edible. 

The other Himalayan kingdom in the SAARC region, Bhutan, also possesses an impressive list of flora and fauna. 

Its rich natural heritage can be attributed to its unique geographic location in the eaitern Himalaya, extending 

through both the Indo-Malayan (Oriental) and the Palaearctic biogeographic realms; its annual rainfall which is 

considerably higher that in the Central and Western Himalaya; its altitude which varies from 2fi) metres on the 

southern border with India to over 7,0(X) metres in the enreme north, the corresponding variation in climatic 

conditions; an4 its rich forest resource, covering over 60 per cent of its total land area. 

Along Bhutan's southern border, the narrow tropical and subtropical belt contains Asiatic elements, including leopard, 

gaur, greater one horned rhinoceros, hog deer, hornbill, tiger, trogon, wild water buffalo and other lndo-Malayan 

species of mammals and birds. Only 150 km to the north are found high Himalayan fauna, which include blue sheep, 

takin, musk deer, snow leopard, wolves, lammergeiers, and other species characteristic of the Palaearctic realm. 

Between these two extreme regions are species which are adaptable to both tropical and temperate conditions. These 

include the Himalayan black bear, leopard, wild dog, sambar, barking deer, serow, wild boar and languor. 

Bhutan has a variety of mammal species which are threatened with extinction such as the Asiatic elephant, greater 

one-horned rhinoceros, tiger, leopard snow leopard, wolf, Asiatic wild dog gaur, musk deer, pygmy hog and hispid 

hare. Threatened bird species include Blyth's tragopan, Scalter's monal pheasant, the black-necked crane and the 

peregrine falcon. Two reptiles are also endangered that is, the lndian python and gharial (1). Unfortunately, 

information on the status of these species is severely limited as there has been no survey of Bhutan's wildlife except 

that which is being conducted by the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (RSPhD involving the black-necked 

crane. As regards its flora specieg Bhutan's five main ecofloristic zones, support a wide variety of vegetation. 

Bhutan's wildlife resources are being increasingly threatened by encroachments into forests and wildlife sanctuaries. 

In Manas Wildlife Sanctuary for instance, about 100 ha of forest area near its northern boundary has been cteared 

for agriculture and settlement. At its western end, a sugarcane plantation has also been started. The problem of 

erosion due to overgrazing has badly degraded some alpine and subalpine grasslands. Organised poaching is another 

major problem, particularly in the south. This involves fish dynamiting setting snares for bears, clouded leopard, and 

asiatic leopard (usually because of atlacks on livestock), and shooting of deer, gaur, water buffalo and rhinoceros for 

their skin. Poaching problems include stealing of agar wood which is used in traditional medicine and the 

manufacture of incense and perfume.

In Nepal, dramatic changes in elevation from 60 m to 8848 m within a limited width of 150 km has induced climatic 

variations from the sub-tropical to the arctic. Proportionally, more than 25 per cent of the land is above 3,000 m, with 

0.3 million hectare perpetually icebound. A major consequence of these e)Cremc variations is reflected in the 

biological index of Nepal. In Nepal, 35 forest types have been identified of which more than ?5 arc confined to 

mountain parks and reserves. On the other hand, the parks and reserves located in the terai contain samples of the 

Indo-Gangetic flora. The forest type.s peculiar to the middle mountains, which includes the Mahabharat range, have 

protected areas. Because the distribution of some major species is limited complete coverage cannot be achieved 

simply in terms of the physiographic zones, even within a few subdivisions. For example, lhe Cedrus deodota does 

not occur east of the Karnali zone; the eastern limit of the Cupressus torulosa is the Kali-Gandaki; and,, Quercus 

dilnata e:dends till the Manang Valley. Lithocarpw fenastratus is confined to the Arun Valley. Other interesting taxa 

occur only in limited areas. The Rft ododendron tricholadum has been observed only in the Arun. Observations indicate 

that the central Hirnalaya is rich in flora. Tbe Narayani basin constitutes the meeting point between the two 

extremities of the western and eastern Himalaya. 

The Langtang National Park in the central Himalaya lies in the eastern floristic region, and contains more than 1,000 

species of flowering plants and ferns. These include substantial medicinal herbg some of which are on the verge of 

extinction. More than 20 plant species of this ffi, and the Larix nepalensis are conserved in this part, which contains 

13 of Nepal's 35 forest types. Mododendron conanium and Mododendron loudensii are endemic to the park while 

Piceo smithiona is also represented here. Sagarmatha National park falls in the eastern Himalayan region. This park 

is rich in rhododendrons, with 10 of the 32 species found in Nepal represented here. Mododendron nivale is found 

at the higbest limit of 5,200 m. Shey Phokundo National Park and Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve lie at the boundary 

of the eastern and western Himalayan floristic regions. The former, dominated by steppe vegetation of Caragana and 

Lonicera, contains more than Z) species of plants endemic to Nepal, as also several hundred species of high plateau 

flora. A variety of central Asiatic species can also be found in abundance. Khaptad and Rara National Parks lie in 

the western Himalayan floristic region. The former extends down into the middle mountains. Although Rara is the 

smallest among the national parks, it has the distinction of being the only area that contains Cedrus deodara and 

Cupressus torulosa, along with Picea smithiana. About 16 forest tlpes and 20 endemic plants are found in the Rara 

park. Khaptad National Park is known for its highland meadows and coniferous forests, as well as its oaks and 

rhododendrons. Taruacum nepalensis, a rare flower, was first discovered in this park. Some medicinal plants like 

Paris pofuhylla, Aconitum, Swertiq and Rheum species are represented along with Daphne glacialls and Arundinaria. 

Forests of. Abies pindrow, Quercus incana and Quercus lanuginose are found in abundance. The Terai is richer in 

mammal species than the Himalaya. Generally, most of the fauna belong to the Indo-Malayan realm and some to 

the Paleartic realn. About 100 mammals, 850 birds and three large reptile species are found in Nepal. Of particular 

note are the abundant snake varieties, as well as a vast representation of aquatic fauna such as Frsh and turtles. 

Twenty five mammal, nine bird and three reptile species, listed in the Red Data Book, are totally protected in Nepal 

because of their low populations (see table 5.4). 

Certain animals and birds classified as'game' are open to legal hunting. Supplementary licenses are needed to hunt 

the common leopard, Himalayan black bear, blue sheep, Himalayan tahr, sambar, serow and goral. General hunting 

licenses can be used to hunt the chital, barking deer, hog deer, wild boar and the Indian hare. Hunting licenses for 

birds cover the peafowl, Kalij pheasAnt, black partridge, brahminy duck, water hen, blue rock pigeons, doves, chukor 

partridge, snipe, common pigeon and quail. 

There is no consolidated information available about the land- based flora and fauna of Maldives except for that 

mentioned in studies carried out by expeditions passing through the islands. No organised research establishment 

exists in the country to carry out such studies. However, plenty of information is available about the marine flora 

and fauna that exists in the lagoons, reefs and open sea. Some 163 species ofred algae,23 species of green algae, 

21 species of blue-green algae and 18 species of brown algae have been reported from the waters of the Maldives. 

Out of these, a new species of Dictyurus has also been reported. Information about sea grasses is very scanty. A study 

of lV77 reported that the flats of Cymodocea and Thalassina arb rare and sparse in all the islands. Sea grasses 

occur mostly on seaward reefs or adjacent to channels crossing the atoll rims. 

Maldives has the distinction of possessing some of the best coral reef formations in the world. While all the coral 

reefs have yet to be fully investigated, several of them have been studied by many scientists. There has been no 

systematic study of coral reefs. Except for the northernmost Addu atoll, most of the atolls of Maldives remain to 

be studied. A 1976 work described the geographic distribution of 143 species of hermatypic corals belonging to three 

genera collected in 1957, especially from the reefs of Addu atoll. 

Maldives has vast resources of shellfish, sponges and other species of invertebrate.. Molluscan shells and red coral 

products have even constituted sbme of the major exports of Maldives. However, again, there has been no 

systematic biological study of their diversity and geographical distribution. Four species of turtles have been reported 

to be breeding in the Male' atoll. Maldives is considered to be an irnportant breeding ground for marine turtles in

the tndian Ocean region. A 1958 work recorded 63 species of birds in the Maidives. Of these 15 species were 

described as resident breeders and two species of terns as visiting breeders. Some species of oceanic birds are 

reported to colonisc and nest on some of the uninhabited islands. The islanders eat any bird that has webbed or 

semi-webbed feet. No scientific study has so far been undertaken on the bird colonies or the marine turtles. 

A large variety of reef fish is found in the Maldives. During a recent study on the effects of environmental 

degradation on local reef fishery in the Maldives, 152 species of reef hsh were investigated. Investigations on the 

biology of tuna bait Fshes of Maldives arc being undertaken in collaboration with scientists of Australia and 

Solomon Islands. The Canccr Research Institute (Arizona State University, USA), expedition f986-1989 collected 300 

species of marine plants and animals and terrestrial plants to evaluate them for anti-cancer properties. Skipjaclq 

yellow fin tuna and other tuna related species and reef fishes constitute an important part of the countr/s trade, 

which dominated in tuna fishing for a long time. But the fishing efforts of countries like Seychelles, Japan, Kore4 

Taiwan and Sri lanka are likely to affect the Maldivian fishery. There is no report on extinct or threatened species 

in the Maldives. However, the growing population in Male', increasing mining of reefs for building material (coral 

rock and coral sand) has adversely affected coral beds. An ESCAP report on coral reefs in the South Asian Region 

has reported that coral mining and souvenir collection are the major causes of coral reef degradation in the Maldives. 

The impact of recreational activities on coral reefs are also beginning to be felt around the island resorts. With 

increasing construction work in Male' and the development of tourist centres in South Male' and Alifu atollg there 

will be a continued and increasing demand for construction material. Coral mining reduces the topographical 

complexity of the reef flats and, hence, the biomass and reef fish are affected. Since relatively few commercially 

important reef fish dwell on the reef flat, the effects of such degradation are not apparent among species identified 

as important in the aquarium trade and as bait fish for tuna industry. Although the effects of coral mining on reef 

fishery appear to be minimal, the importance of actively growing reef flats as active barriers against island erosion 

cannot be underestimated. As coral miners mov€ to outer areas in order to find a ready supply of coral rock, their 

stripping of these reefs could have serious consequences for islands situated behind them. In socioeconomic terms, 

a relatirrely small proportion of income of households who are involved in reef fishing is derived from this source. 

But there is a potential for developing reef fishery given favourable markets and incentives. 

According to reports, spear fishing was indiscriminately practised by tourists until it was recently banned. Sporadig 

unlawful use of explosives for.catching fish has been reported on some islands. Some private parties are also 

collecting ornamental fish for exports. According to unconfirmed reports, some species of ornamental hsh are now 

depleted due to indiscriminate fishing. Investigations have been made to understand the effects of degradation of 

the environment on local reef fisheries. 

Sri l-anka also has a rich diversity of plant and animal life and a high degree of endemism within its varied 

ecosystems. Both climate and geology have shaped the wide biological diversity of the country. The ecoslntems of Sri 

Lanka in terms of floristic formations, are wet evergreen forests or tropical rainforests (in the low and mid country 

wet zone), intermediate evergreen forests (in the low and mid country intermediate zone), dry mixed evergreen forest 

(in the dry zone), and the thorn forest (in the arid zone). Over much of the mountain intermediate zone, grasslands 

are found with smdl patches of forest in sheltered pockets. In this region, forests were probably more widespread 

in the past but today the dry mountain glassland is the dominant type of vegetation. 

The dry zone (including the arid region) covers two-thirds of the country and in this area none of the forests are 

strictly primary, except perhaps on some isolated mountains. Irrigated agriculture spread to all parts of the dry zone 

some time in the history of the country. From the 14th century, with the decline of Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilization, 

natural succession restored the natural ecosystems to near primeval form. Beginning from about the mid-19th century, 

the dry zone forests were exploited for timber. The increasing pace of exploitation led to a sharp reduction in the 

area of forest cover and a severe degradation of the remaining forests. 

In the low and mid country wet zone, deforestation stalted arouhd the 14th century. It increased in magnitude and 

spread to the hill country from the mid-l9th century as plantations of coffee (followed by tea and rubber) began to 

be raised. At presenf the natural forests in the country are estimated to cover 24 per cent of the land area, and many 

of these forests have been subject to overexploitation. 

There are about 1900 indigenous species of angiosperms, and the number of endemic species among them is 

extraordinarily high. Endemic angiosperm species number 845 or nearly 30 per cent of the total. Among the 

pteridophytes, 18 per cent of the 314 recorded indigenous species are endernic. In the lower groups, 575 species of 

mosses, 190 of species of fungi have been recorded. Some 110 indigenous species of Telptremataceae, a family of 

lichens. have been identified, and 39 of them are endemic. 

By far the larger number of indigenous endemic species (92 per cent) are found in the wet southwest part of the 

country. Unfortunately it is the wet southwest region that has suffered heaviest from deforestation. Records show a 

61

forest cover of nine per cent of the land area in the low and mid elevation wet zone, and a somewhat higher 

percentage in the montane wet zone. And, worse, even the few renaining natural forests are, for the most part, 

heavily degraded due to overexploitatioq illicit felling and scarrenging for fuelwood. Fortunately, extinction of many 

species has not yet taken place though they have become endangered. The primeval or near-primeval forests of the 

wet zone are remarkable for their floristic richness. Most of the endemics in these forests are tree species in the 

canopy or subcanopy level, and, collectirrely, they are often the dominant species in the forest. Taking t'he individual 

species' the population densities are often low, with only a few individuals per hectare. Another feature is that many 

of them show restricted distribution within the zone. For example, 57 endemic species are restricted to the headwaters 

of the Gin Ganga/Ganges and Bentota Ganga/Ganges, and 35 are confined to the foothills of the Peak Witderness 

Forest Reserve. Among the endemics in the Peak Wilderness Reserve are several species of the endemic dipterocarp 

genus Stemonoporus, occuring at a higher elevation than any other dipterocarp in Sri l-anka or elsewhere in the 

world. 

One of the interesting floristic features of the dry zone is that many of Sri Lanka's prized timbers come from the 

natural forests of this part of the country. Satinwood (Chlororylon swietenia), Trincomalec wood (Berrya cordifolia) 

and ebony are typically dry zone species, while milla (Vitex pinnata) is found in both dry and wet zones. These speciei 

have been very heavily exploited in the past, and are now very scarce. 

Isolated hills and hill ranges in both the dry zone and the wet zone possess interesting flora. The dry zone consisting 

mainly of a broad plain at a little over sea level, has several inselbergs rising up to several hundred metres above thi 

lowland plains. One of these, Ritigalakanda, has from early times been recognised as a place of rare medicinal plants. 

The level of floristic diversity there was found to be much higher than in the surrounding area. The Knuckles is an 

isolated range of mountains separated from the central massil. Within a small area of 15,000 ha, there is a sequence 

of vegetation types ranging from dry mixed evergreen forest to the wet evergreen montane forest, including pltches 

of a unique pygrty forest, with small, much branched trees, seldom exceeding one metre in height. In the Knuckles 

ridge, over 100 ferns and allied species have been recorded, as against 314 for Sri Lanka as a whote and 600 for India. 

There are 559 recorded vertebrates (excluding marine fish and migrant birds) in Sri Lanka. They comprise 59 species 

of fish" 39 amphibianq 162 reptiles, 227 birds, and 86 mammals. The pattern of endemism among the vertebrates is 

similar to that of the angiosperm flora. There is a high degree of endemism -- 25 per cent of the vertebrate species 

" and by far the larger proportion of the endemic species are found in the wet southwest portion of the island. 

Whereas among the angiosperm flora there is about an equal level of endemism in the mountain forests and the rain 

forests at lower elevations, among the fauna there is a significantly higher level of endemism in the mountain region. 

About a third of the indigenous species of fish are endemic. Among the amphibians, one genus (Nanophrya) with 

three species, and 1.6 other species are endemic. Many of the endemic species of frogs occupy very special habitats 

and have a n:urow geographic range. For example, the three species of Nanophrya are found separately in the central 

massd the Knuckles range, and the southern hill range. The endemic amphibians include three species of lcthyophis 

(linbless amphibians). Among the reptiles, as many as 60 per cent of the species are endemig and, like the 

amphibia"s, many of them have a restricted geographic distribution. 

In Sri l-ank4 390 species of birds have been recorded of which 169 species are migrant. The endemic species number 

?n and the majority of them are found only in the wet parts of the country and that, too, only in the existing natural 

forests. Out of all the indigenous species of birds, as many as 57 are rnrlnerable or threatened. The 86 indigenous 

species of mammals consist of 30 species of batg 23 rodents, 14 carnivores, seven artiodactyls, six shrews, four 

primates and one each of the elephant and pangolin. Twelve of the mammalian species are endemiq four shrews, 

five rodentg one carnivore, and two primates. The distribution of indigenous mammalian fauna follows very closely 

the distribution of the natural vegetation types. The highest diversity is seen in the low and mid country wet zone, 

and the low percentage of forest cover in this region threatens the survival of many mammalian species. among the 

large mammals in Sri Lank4 perhaps the best known,is the elephant. Today it is found only in the dry zone. Even 

within this zone the clearing of forests for agriculture and settlement has reduced their numbers, and crude estimates 

have put the present population at 2,500 to 3,000. Action is being taken by the Department of Wildlife Conservation 

to preserve adequate areas of natural forests, strategically located, for protecting elephants. Other mammalian species 

indigenous to Sri I-anka include several species of deer, bear and leopard and other species of the cat famity. 

ln the oceens surrounding Sri Lanka 37 species of cetacea have been recorded, and these include the sperm and blue 

whales which are found in large numbers near the Trincomalee coast. There is one very rare species of dugong off 

the Kalpitiya coast in the northwest. Among the invertebrates, too, there is a rich diversity of species. The freshwater 

zooplankton form a well documented group, and most of the species are cosmopolitan or tropicopolitan. Some 201 

species of crabs, over 400 species of spiders, and 265 species of land snails haVe been recorded. 

Besides the climax ecosystems, there are several localised ecosystems, which are of biological interest. The inland 

62

aquatic ecosystems support many species of fish and invertebrates. The inland wetlands occur in the floodplains of 

rivers and in shallow depressions in the dry zone, and the largest areas are in the flood plains of the Mahaweli. The 

vegetation consists of grass (wet villu grassland) with scattered shrubs and bushy vegetation. These flood plains 

support the greatest animd biomass density of all the ecosystems found in Sri I-anka. Over 6fi) elephants (or one 

fifth of the island's wild elephant population) frequent these floodplains and adjacent areas. The wetlands are also 

the habitats of other wild life such as deer and birds (including migrant species). With the impounding of water in 

the irrigation reservoirs upstream, the ecolog5r of the wetlands is bound to ba affected, but no scientific study of these 

effects has yet been made. 

Swamp forests are found cheek by jowl with the wet villu grasslands in the dry zone. In the wet zone, swamp forests 

have mostly been cleared, and the few patches that remain are of great scientilic interest. A small patch of swamp 

forest in the floodplains of the Kaluganga, near Bulathisinghala, was found to be the last shelter of trvo rare endemic 

plant species, Stemonoporus moonii and Mesua stylosa. The wet montane grasslands at Horton Plains and the 

surrounding montane forests are situated in the highest plateau at an elevation of 2,100 to 2,200 metres. 

Hydrologically, this area is of considerable importance as tributaries of two major rivers originate here. Floristically, 

the grasslands and adjoining forests have a rich diversity of species with many endemics. Faunistic diversity is also 

at a high level. 

The coastal ecos)ttems of Sri Lanka include strand and littoral comrhunities, salt marshes, estuaries (including 

mangrove vegetation), and coral reefs. Estuaries, with their sea-grass beds and mangrove vegetation, are not extensive 

in Sri Lanka, but they are the breeding grounds of fish and other marine organisms. These ecosystems are threatened 

by overfishing which destroys the sea grass beds and severely depletes the fish population, cutting of mangroves for 

firewood and other purposes, and land lilling of mangrove marshes. A conservation management plan for the 

mangrove areas of Sri Lanka is being prepared by the forest department. Coral reefs which fringe the coast are 

highly productive ecosystems. Some 171 species of stony corals have been recorded in Sri Lanka. The mining of 

corals for obtaining lime not only destrop these highly productive and delicate ecosystems but also exposes the coast 

to erosion. 

Mcasurcs tatcn 

All countries of the SAARC region have taken steps to protect their rich biodiversity. 

Under the existing Wildlife Act of Bangladesh there are three kinds of protected natural areas. Wildlife sanctuaries 

and national parks of Bangladesh fall, respectively, in the category II and IV of the UN's list of protected areas. The 

'game 

reserve' of Bangladesh does not fall in any category of UN protected areas, At present there are 15 natural 

protected areas in Bangladesh. All these have been established for protection of rare and threatened species. Of 

these, three wildlife sanctuaries are yet to be notified in the gazette. Except for the proposed Hail Haors Wildlife 

Sanctuary, all the others are situated in the forest areas. The total area covered by them is 101,21t6 ha which is about 

4.55 per cent of the total forest area or 0.7 per cent of the total territory of the country. 

Hunting and shooting of wildlife can be allowed on special permit in the 'game reserve'. But in the lone game 

reserve situated in the Teknaf reserved forests, shooting has not yet been practised. All activities harmful to wildlife 

are prohibited in the reserve. Protected areas in forests cover all kinds of ecological habitats. But as wetlands are 

not under the control of the Agriculture Ministry, it is proving difficult to declare protected areas in the wetlands. 

As a first step towards conserving its rich wildlife resources, Bhutan has notified 12 protected areas which include 

one national park, three wildlife sanctuaries, four wildlife reserves and four reserved forests. They cover more than 

Z) per cent of the countr/s total land area. For administration, a Wildlife Division has been set up within the 

Department of Forestry. A management plan has been prepared for the Manas National Park which is to be managed 

as a wildlife corridor stretching across Bhutan's southern border contiguous with the Manas Witdlife Reserve of India. 

Under an Integrated Forest Management and Conservation Project currently underway, Bhutan government's 

capability in the field of nature conservation is to be strengthened. Initial activities already undertaken under the 

project include staff training in wildlife behaviour and habitat observations. To discourage poaching of witd animals, 

including those classified as endangered, the Bhutan government has recently issued r schedule of fines to be imposed 

on poachers. 

To check further degradation of the forest area in the southern belt of the country along the Indo-Bhutan border, 

and given the recogrrition of its important role as a wildlife corridor facilitating free movement of wildlife, particularly 

elephants, the Bhutan government has declared existing forests upto two km from the Indo-Bhutan boundary as 

reserved forests. All activities such as human encroachment, cattle grazing and forest fires have been banned. The 

Bhutanese and Indian governments have agreed on bilateral efforts for conservation of the transborder forests. Both 

63

governments have decided to set up an Indo-Bhutan Committee for the Conservation of Transborder Forests to serve 

as wildlife corridors. The committee's mandate is to identify, implement and monitor special measures to be taken 

to conserve the transborder forests. lnitial efforts will be made along the West Bengal- Samchi border areas. 

India's first national park (now called Corbett National Park) was set up in 1936. At that time, the rulers of the 

former princely states had their own hunting preserves. Some of these such as Gir and Bandipur are important 

national parks today. After independence, the Indian Board for Wildlife was constituted in,1952. However, the 

earlier nexus between hunting and conservation meant that the majority of protected areas, under the modern legal 

fra-ework, were set up in deciduous forests where large mammalian herbivores and carnivores occur at high 

densities. The initial emphasis was also on endangered and endemic mammals such as the rhino (Kaziranga and 

Manas sanctuaries), hangul deer (Dachigam) and Asiatic lion (Gir). A few preserves for water birds were also 

created, notably Bharatpur, Ranganthitoo, Vedanthangal and Point Calimere sanctuaries. ln 1973, the Indian 

government launched Project Tiger to save this species which had declined to an estimated 1,800 animals from 40,000 

at the beginning of the century. The 1986 estimate is about 4,000 tigers. The project has been successful in saving 

India's national animal from immediate extinction. 

In 1980, there were 17 national park and 95 wildlife sanctuaries in India. ln 1990, there are 69 national parks and 

399 sanctuaries covering 12.93 million hectares or four per cent of India's land area or 15.82 per cent of India's forest 

area. According to a study of the Wildlife Institute of India, the protected areas are not distributed equally within 

the states or biogeographic regions. Many biotic provinces are poorly protected. Certain ecosystems and species have 

inadequate conservation; for example, the dry grassland biome, and animals like Indian wild ass, markhor, Phayre's 

leaf eating monkey and rusty spotted cat. The report suggests that the total protected area network should increase 

to 651 totalling 15.13 million hectare or 4.6 per cent of the country. 

In India, the areas protected for large mammals have helped to conserve other components of the ecosystem. But 

the emphasis on deciduous forests and grasslands has meant a general neglect of other biomes and of the overall 

biological diversity of the country. There are a few exceptions. For example, the Sunderbans Tiger Reserve has 

a significant proportion of the mangrove habitat. During 1970s, the importance of conserving the entire spectrum 

of biological diversity was realised. The result was the introduction of a programme for setting up biosphere reserves 

to preserve genetic diversity in representative biogeographic areas. The first biosphere reserves was set up in 1985 

in Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Subsequently, 7 more biosphere reserves have been added, namely, 

Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Manas, Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar and Great Nicobar. 

Maldives is extremely concerned about its marine environment, and has taken several steps to obtain expert opinion 

on the subject. At the request of the Maldivian government in 1983, UNESCO commissioned a brief study of the 

conservation status of the marine environment of Maldives, with particular regard to the possible establishment of 

biosphere reserves under the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The study recommended legislation 

and management by creation of zone plans. 

In 1984, the government constituted a Council for the Protection and Preservation of the Matdives Environmenr, 

which is now under the Ministry of Planning and Environment. The council advises the government on environmental 

matters, particularly the environmental impacts of development projects. In 1986, when cracks were discovered in the 

MaIe'reef, the government engaged a British firm, to undertake a geological, geotechnical and ecological study of 

selected atolls. Research on reef degradation and its effects on reef fish and bait fish has also been conducted and 

on the recent outbreak of crown of thorns, which is extremely damaging to coral rcefs. 

Yet another report was prepared in 1989 at the request of the government regarding sea level rise. The government 

also made a request to the Netherlands government and the United Nations Development Programme to depute a 

mission to prepare a report on the global sea level rise and suggest sglutions through design engineering. 

There have been two sets of forces threatening biological diversity in Nepal: population movements from the hills 

to the terai and the expansion of agriculture. Less perceptible perhaps, have been the secondary effects of forest fires 

and widespread livestock grazing, which has suppressed the process ofnatural regeneratipn ofexotic and rare flora. 

In 1959, the Fauna Preservation Society recommended the creation of a National Park in Chitwan, and a rhino 

sanctuary further to the south. In 1961, the Rhino Patrolling Unit was reorganised to protect this animal from 

poachers. In 1.968, the Trisuli Watershed Development Project was requested by the government to assess 

conservation issues. The Wildlife Protection Act of 1969 led to the creation of six hunting reserves in the Terai and 

one in mountains. However, various managerial and technical deficiencies have prevented the effective implementation 

of the Act. In L970, the creation'of the Chitwan and Langtang parks constituted a milestone in the area of 

conservation.ln 1972, a National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Section was established under the Department of 

Forests, specifically to manage protected zones. In t973, a comprehensive conservation scheme was drawn up and 

64

a separate office for National Parks and Wildlife Conservation was established. In the same year, a committee was 

set up to coordinate conservation policies. The National Parks and Wildlife and Conservation Act was promulgated. 

The government was empowered to reserve any area for protection. In 1974, the Act was amended, and the National 

Park and Wildlife Conservation Regulations were issued in 1975. 

In Nepaf four national parks and three wildlife reserves covering representative ecosystems had been established by 

1973. ln 1975, the army replaced the forest guards for law enforcement in .parks. ln I9'Tl, Wildlife Reserve 

Regulations were passed, followed in 1979 with the Himalayan Parks Regulations. In 1982' the National Parks and 

Wildlife Conservation Act was again amended. At the end of this period, there were 26 species of protected animals, 

nine species of protected birds, and three species of protected reptiles. In 1982, the Bardia National Park was 

e:rtended eastward. Ttvo new national parks -- Shey Phoksundo, and Khapad -- and thE Parsa Wildlife Reserve were 

created in 1984. The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office was elevated to the level of a department in 

1980. 

Special wildlife areas have been seated in Pakistan to preserve the fauna and flora of the country. Seven national 

park,72 wildlife sanctuaries and 76 game reserves have been established so far. Additional high mountain national 

parks are being planned. Lal Sonhara National Park has also been desipated as a Man and Biosphere Reserve 

under UNESCO's MAB programme. Getting the Indus Dolphin habitat, Kalash Valley, Chitral Gol National Park 

and Khujerab National Park included in the World Heritage List of natural areas is under consideration. Three 

wetlands of Pakistan are now included as international wetlands under the convention on international wetlands, 

especially as waterfowl habitats. Most protected areas are, however, being managed without management plans. 

In Sri Lanka, the Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation together control a vast area of 

the country. The areas under the Forest Department are the forest reserves, proposed forest reserves, "other state 

forests", and the forest plantations. The Biosphere reserves which are under the control of the Forest Department 

are really parts of forest reserves or proposed forest reserves. The Sinharaja biosphere reserve, a primeval rain forest 

of 8,900 h4 has been declared a national heritage under the National Heritage Wilderness Act. 

Perc$ions of srengths and weahsses 

Bangladesh has done very limited study in biodiversity. The cell working on wildlife under the Department of Forests, 

conducted two studies on frogs and wetland animals. The Department of Zoology, Dhaka University has conducted 

a few surveys. The have detected certain species which are already extinct or on the verge of eKinction. In March 

L973, the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, was passed. This order later enacted and amended, into the 

Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation (Amendment) Act 19'14. The government constituted the Bangladesh Wildlife 

Advisory Board n tg77 and appointed 24 honourary wildlife officers in 1987. In 1973, a wildlife circle in the forpst 

department was created. The territorial forest officers are also responsible for wildlife activities. In 1983, the wildlife 

circle was abolished. The post of senior research officer (wildlife) still exists in the forest department. However, 

given the miserable situation since 1983 of wildlife conservatioq a programme is under active consideration by the 

Bangladesh government for appropriate institutional arrangements. The forest department has a plan to include 

wildlife preservation programmes and give due importance to it in a course to be arranged by the Forest Academy. 

While substantial information on Bhutan's flora and vegetation types is available, the same cannot be said of the 

countqy's fauna. Except for the black necked crane on which a status survey was undertaken in 1987, there have been 

no studies on other wildlife species in the country. Studies of the country's wildlife species, particularly those 

threatened with extinction, remain a major area of concern for Bhutan. Priority species are the golden languor, 

takin, Asiatic elephant, tiger, clouded leopard and agar wood. 

Inspite of a full recogrrition of the need for nature Conservatiori, the Bhutan government has so far been able to 

provide only a skelet on staff to the Department of Forestry's wildlife division, which administers the 12 protected 

areas. Bhutan is currently preparing an outline of the institutional needs of the wildlife division. Under the system 

of protected areas, an area of about 20 per cent of Bhutan's total land area has been demarcated for protection. 

Unfortunately, owing to severe limitations in personnel equipment and transport. as well as the lack of accurate 

boundary demarcation, many of the areas are protected only on paper. Only three of these areas have permanent 

field staff -- the Royal Manas National Park, the adjoining Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Reserve, and the Mochu 

Reserve Forest. Many of the protected areas have suffered from degradation due to encroachment, shifting cultivation 

and other forms of disturbances. Even the three protected areas have some village settlements and other damaging 

activities within their boundaries. A management plan for only one protected area, the Royal Manas National Park, 

has been formulated. Till 1983,'monitoring of wildlife management activities was undertaken by the territorial 

divisions of the forestry department. This responsibility was taken over by two wildlife circles - the northern and 

southern wildlife circles -- in April 1984. Lack of resources have severely constrained the performance of the circles. 

65

Evaluation of the management of protected areas is currently being undertaken under the Integrated Forest 

Conservation and Management Project. 

ln Indi4 the agencies involved in the study and research of the countr/s biological diversity include government 

organisations like the Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India, as well as NGOs. The Botanical 

Survey of India surveys the plant resouroes of the country, lists endangered species, and prepare a national data base. 

It is also carrying out studies on selected critical ecosystems. So far it has surveyed over five per cent of the country. 

The balance is to be completed by 2000. The BSI have brought out three volumes of Red Data Book cnveing622 

species. An inventory of all the endangered species is to be completed by the early 1990s. Multiplication of 

endangered species is being taken up under a scheme of captive breeding. The herbaria of the BSI has about three 

million plant specimens. The T,nr,lagtclil Survey of India surveys the faunal resources, lists endangered species, and 

maintains the national zoological collection. Certain priority areas have been identifiid like the Himalayan ecosystem, 

desert ecosystem, marine island ecosystems and tropical rainforests for sunrey. Other institutions include Indian 

Institute of Science, Wildlife Institute of India, Kerala Forest Research Institute and the Bombay Natural History 

Socieg. Salim Ali School of Ecology, a c€ntre of excellence in the field of ornithology and natural history has been 

set up in Pondicherry UniversitY. 

Given India's diverse flora and fauna, numerous biomes and vast land area, the available infrastructure for study and 

tr3ining can hardly be considered adequate. There is need formore population and community level studies. Modern 

ecolog5r, incorporating principles of evolutionary biology, population genetics and population ecolog5r, has emerged 

as a frontier science during the past three decades. This in turn has given rise to disciplines like conservation biolog5l 

which have practical relevance to the management of biological diversity. Apart from a few institutions, study and 

research in these frontier areas of ecolog5t are inadequate in the country. More training programmes are needed for 

the large contingent of teachers and students in traditional disciplines like botany and zoolog;t and for administrators 

(especially of forests) who are guardians of the countr/s biological wealth. Monitoring of India's biological diversity 

is inadequate and needs improvement in most regions. A good biodiversity information system needs to be introduced. 

While the Maldivian government is keen to protect its marine environment, it has an inadequate institutional 

infrastructure to carry out scientific investigations. It has to resort to commissioning of ad hoc studies from time to 

time. Maldives also has to find a way for regular surveillance and enforcement of its policies. 

Nepal's management of biological diversity have so far weighed heavily in favour of creating the necessary 

infrastructure. In view of Nepal's inexperience with modern institutions, considerable time and resources have been 

lost in the constant restructuiing of departments and sections. Conservation institutions with well defined procedures 

and jurisdiction are still in the process of formation. Within the existing system, attention must also be paid to 

creating linls beween local communitiEs and conservation managers. While this has been recognised in principle, 

implementation has been extremely difficult. The imperatives of planned conservation usually results in considerable 

encroachment on traditional systems of resource use, which often becomes a point of conflict, and the alienation of 

rural communities. A number of measures may be considered for enhancing the performance of conservation 

programmes. First, a more concerted campaign could be launched through the media. There is little or no awareness 

at the grassroots of the importance of conservation exercises conducted by central agencies. Second, affected villages 

should be identified and community development programmes launched to change the patterns of resource 

consumption. As a first step, this would involve oeating inventories of affected resources and possible alternatives. 

Conservation efforts can be facilitated by linking them with other development programmes, or by initiating new 

projects especially through the NGOs. 

In Pakistan, the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (NCCW) is the federal organisation responsible for 

policy and economic planning provincial coordination, collaboration with NGOs and liaison with international 

agencies for nature conservation. Separate wildlife wings have been established in Punjab and Sindh provinces. 

Elsewhere in Pakistaq wildlife staff is part of forestry dbpartments.B'aluchistan, with vast resources of wildlife, seems 

most deficient. Similarly, the Northern Areas and Federal Territory of Islamabad need to develop their wildlife 

organisations. Most of the staff ig however, untrained, immobile, low paid and, thus, handicapped. lntroductory fish 

and wildlife management courses have been introduced in the Forestry curricula of Pakistan Forest Institute. Three 

weeks in-service training course is arranged every year for identification, survey and management of wildlife. All the 

provincial governments, North0rn Areas and Federal Capital Territory have enacted wildlife protection and 

management laws in the 1970s which are a great improvement over past laws but they still have deficiencies and a 

model law is being developed by the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. 

Wildlife management boards have been constitqted for advice and public participation. The Sindh Wildlife 

Management Board has been very'active followed by those of Punjab and NWFP. Islamabad Wildlife Management 

Board has not yet started its activities whereas the boards in Baluchistan, Kashmir and Northern Areas have remained 

inactive. WWF-Pakistan is the most active NGO. Others being World Pheasan: Association, Pakistan Wildlife

Conservation Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Society of Pakistan, and Wildlife, Fish and Environment Society of 

Pakistan. Television and press have helped to create public awareness on wildlife. Stamps have been issued by the 

postal department. 

The Zoological Survey Department of Pakistan is responsible for surveys of wild fauna. Pakistan Forest Institute, 

Peshwar, has also undertaken surveys although its responsibilities are education and research. Federal and provincial 

organisations are handicapped in carrying out survey and research because of lack of trained personnel and resources. 

Survey and research work of academic nature has, however, been done on marine fauna by the Zoological Survey 

Department. Waterfowl counts are taken regularly by wildlife organisations. Status and biological studies on Indus 

Dolphin, marine turtles, snow leopard, cranes, pheasants, Sindh ibex, urial, chimkaara and markhor have been carried 

out by local and foreign scientists. 

With a view to seek international cooperation, Pakistan became a member of the Convention on International Trade 

in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Pakistan is a party to the Convention on Wetlands. 

International cooperation in Man and Biosphere Programme and natural areas under World Heritage Convention 

has not been mea'ingfu[ perhaps owing to the long channel of communication in Pakistan. The Ministry of Education 

is the focal point for UNESCO but natural areas and MAB reserves are the responsibility of the Food and 

Agriculture Division. 

Some extinct and endangered fauna have obtained a new lease of life because of captive breeding programmes. Cheer 

pheasant and blackbucks have been reintroduced in the Margalla hills and I-alsohanra National Park, respectively. 

Korean king-beaked pheasant is being multiplied for release in non-pheasant areas. Unfortunately, more emphasis 

has been given to captive breeding of this exotic bird than it deserves. Endemic pheasants have received less attention 

from wildlife organisations. Jallo Park near Lahore has made a breakthrough in captive breeding of many endangered 

animals. A pair of one-horned rhinoceros had been kept in Lalsohanra National Park for introduction. Excessive 

export of wild fauna has resulted in eKinction of certain species. The situation is being reviewed to consider a ban 

on their export. 

Current commitments appear to be inadequate to conserve the wild species and their habitats. Pressure on resources 

will further mount owing to an increase in population, and the aspirations of the people to raise their standard of 

living resulting in overexploitation of natural resources. There is no indication of a policy to reduce the large number 

of cattle on wild lands. Development activities in the country are likely to pollute soil, water and air. Consequently, 

species and habitats are bound to be damaged rapidly. There are no incentives for the people living in the vicinity 

of national parks and protected areas and for those who could help in protecting wildlife. The local people cannot 

get a share out of hunting fees. Adequate incentives are also not available for captive breeding programmes in the 

private sector. 

Nature conservation is a new area in Pakistan. Forr4al training, exclusively in wildlife management is not yet provided 

in the country. As a result, trained personnel are not presently available for wildlife survey, research, education, 

protection, management, conservation and planning, Most national parks and protected areas are being managed 

without management plans. The conservation objectives are not known to the staff or the people having a direct or 

indirect interest. 

67

Table 5.1 

Biogeographic regions of India 

Trans-Himalaya: The vegetation is sparse in the alpine steppe with a high degree of endemism in the regioq which 

eKends into the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayan-Tibetan region has the richest wild sheep and goat community in 

the world. Those seen in the Indian portion include urial, argali, bharal, wild yak, ibex and rnarkhor. Tibetan antelope 

and Tibetan gazs,lle are found seasonally. Notable carnivores here are the snow leopard, Tibetan wolf, Pallas' cat, 

marbled pole cat, pika and marmot. The rare black necked crane is a migratory bird seen in the north Himalaya. 

Ifimalaya The Himalaya by virtue of its location at the boundary of many biogeographical regions is one of the 

richest areas of India in terms of habitat and species. Elements of five major biogeographic regions come together 

here, namely, Palaearctic (for example, hippohae, Tibetan ass), Mediterrane:rn (for example, deodar, ibex), 

Indo-Chinese (for example, rhododendron, Takin), Indo-Malayan (for example, dipterocarpus, sun bear, gibbon), 

and Peninsular India (for example euphorbia, jungle fowl). The Himalaya has a high proportion of its own endemic 

tax4 for example, 60 species of balsams and Himalayan tahr. 

Several ecological groupings can be recogrised within the latitudinal and longitudinal range of the Himalaya. In 

altitudinal terms, these include the lower sub-tropical foothills, which typically have mixed deciduous trees merging 

into chir pine and then banj oak. Iarger fauna may have some affinity to the peninsula. The area is densely settled 

and poorly protected at present. Next come the temperate areas, below 3,500 metres. This zone has a complex 

mixture of vegetation with broad leaf mesophyll forest species, for example, maples and walnuts, sclerophylls such 

as moru and karshu oak, and a variety of conifers like deodar, blue pine, spruce and fir, in an altitudinal sequence, 

Typical large fauna are musk deer and serow, with koklas and monal pheasants. These forests are also wintering areas 

for higher altitude fauna such as tahr. Then there is sub-alpine region, which has a forest and then scrub vegetation 

of birch and rhododendrons interspersed with meadows or herb rich grasslands. These areas merge into the alpine 

regions, which have a sparser cover over 5,000 m, where rock and snow dominate. Here musk deer, serow and tahr 

share the lower ranges with bharal and, in the west, with ibex, which are more common at higher levels. The 

pheasants of the wooded areas give ways to the snowcock. The panther gives way to the snow leopard and wolf. The 

black bear is replaced by the brown bear. 

In longitudinal terms, that is, on an east-west axis, again several characteristic communities can be defined. These 

are: 

- The wcstern drier zone with deodar and blue pine, with larger and more grassy meadows. A species rich bovid 

fauna is rypical -- bharal, ibex, markhor, geral, scrow and tahr. The hangul, a distinct subspecies of red de9r, 

is restricted to this region. 

- The entral zone is poorer in large herbivores, missing the ibex, markhor and hangul. The Sikkim stag is now 

considered extinct in Indian territory. 

- The eastern zone does not have the brown bear, bharal and tahr but it has the Mishmi takin as a large herbivore. 

The tree line is higher and arboreal forest animals are found at higher altitudes. The binturong, red panda and 

lesser cats are conspicuous as eastern faunal elements. There is a profusion of orchids and the alpine areas have 

an abundance of shrubby elements such as dwarf rhododendrons. 

Endemism is high in nearly all groups of animals and plants. Some species are widespread along the Himalaya, others 

have tiny restricted ranges. Many large mammals are on the endangerqd species lists. The Sikkim stag may be already 

lost from Indian territory, and the tahr may have gon'e from Kashmir as also the western tragopan. Populations of 

markhor, tahr have reached serow are at very low densities. The hangul stag is restricted to one protected area. 

Desert region: The hot arid desert belt in the northwest extends along the border with Pakistan, in the Indian states 

of Rajasthan, Punjab and Gujarat. Vegetation is mainly shrubby with species of Calligonum, Prosopis, Salvadora, 

Capparis and Euphorbia. Exterrsive grasslands occur in Jaisalmer and Bikaner. Di'rersity is relatively low with only 

550 species of flowering plants having been recorded. The vegetation over the interior Aravali hills and Gir hills is 

of dry deciduous forests. Characteristic mammals of this region are the antelopes (chinkara, four-headed antelope, 

blackbuck and nilgai), hyaena, wolf and various rodents. The wild ass is endemic to the Rann of Kutch, while only 

200-300 Asiatic lions survive in the Gir forests of Gujarat. The Great Indian bustard is a highly endangered bird. The 

overall bird diversity is high. Over 300 species of resident and migratory birds have been recorded in the wetlands 

of the famous Bharatpur sanctuary in Rajasthan. Forty three species of reptiles have also been listed in the desert 

belt. 

68

Scmi-arid regior This area of lndia has strong biological links with western Asia (from Pakistan and lran to Middle 

East) and northern Africa. Many of the plant groups are of African affinity like Acacia, Anogeissus, Balanites. 

Capparis and Grewia. The larger herbivores are bovidae, for example blackbuck, chowsingha, gazelle and nilgai. The 

cervids, sambar and chital, are more restricted to the better wooded hills and moist valley areas, respectively. The 

carnivores -- lion (now restricted to a small area in Gujarat), cheetah (now extinct), caracal, jackal and wolf have 

analogues in North Africa. 

One notable community of this regton rs the almost pure Anogeissus pendula forest on the gentler slopes of the 

Aravali and associated hill ranges. This forest is virtually restricted to this zone and, where it does occur outside, it 

rs rn a modified form, such as mixed with teak in north Madhya Pradesh. This is a transitional zone from the true 

desert of the west and the extensive Deccan communities of peninsular India of the south and east. There are rwo 

separate biotic provinces within this area -- the Punjab plains and the more heterogenous areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat 

and west Madhya Pradesh termed Gujarat' Rajwara. 

We$ern Ghats The Western Ghats and associated hills of the peninsula are second to N E India in biological 

diversity. Although the forest cover over the ghats in Maharashtra has depleted, a good proportion of the range in 

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu is still well forested. There are two major vegetation divisions in the Western 

Ghats -- a western portion enjoyrng very hrgh rainfall and covered with evergfeen forest, while the eastern belt in the 

rain shadow consists largely of deciduous forests. The evergteen forests are dominated by Mesu4 Palaquium. 

C)ullenia, Hopea, Dipterocarpus, Persea, Holigarna, Diospyros, Memecylon and Syzygium. The upper reaches of the 

ghats, above 1,500 m, usually have grassland and stunted montaine evergreen forest patches known as sholas. The 

dominant trees in the deciduous forests are Tectona, Terminalia spp.. Lagerstroemia and Anogeissus. Typically, the 

evergreen sub-types contain 1,500- 2,000 species each, while the deciduous types have 700-1,000 species. The Western 

Ghats. as a whole, harbour about 4,000 angiosperm species from about 200 families. Of the 57 genera and 2,100 

species endemic to peninsular India most are confined to the Western (ihats. The level of endemism is highest in 

the Agasthyamalai-Ashambu hills in the extreme south. The three most common families are Poaceae (400 species), 

Leguminosae (320 spp.) and Orchidaceae (250 spp. out of 1000 in India) The region is also rich in pteridophytes (1'A 

spp. in Palani hills alone) and bryophytes. The fauna is diverse. with many species endemic to this zone. Two 

primates (Nilgiri languor and lion-tailed monkey) are endemic to the Western Ghats. Other species here are Nilgiri 

tahr. Nilgiri marten and Malabar civet, while the only viable population of grizzled giant squirrel is found in the 

Srivilliputhur hills. The Western Ghats also harbour relatively large populations of elephant, gaur, sambar, wild dog, 

leopard, tiger and sloth bear. About 580 species and subspecies of birds are seen here with 57 endemic forms. A 

family (uropeltidae) and seven genera of reptiles as well as five genera of amphibians occur only in the Western 

Ghats 

Deccan region: The Deccan plateau lying in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats is a semi-arid region with 

vegetation consisting largely of dry thorn and deciduous forests, dominated by Acacia, Anogeissus, Tectona, 

Hardwickia and Albizia. Certain associated hills of the plateau to the east may have patches of moist deciduous forest. 

The climax vegetation in the Deccan has almost completely disappeared. Less than 500 species of angiosperms have 

been recorded in this region. Fauna tpically includes blackbuck, sambar, gaur (in wetter belts), wolf, hyaena, sloth 

bear, leopard and tiger. The girzz/red giant squirrel survives in the dry forests along the Cauvery river in the Eastern 

Ghats. 

Gangpticplaios Natural vegetation has been depleted over most of the Gangetic plains. The wetlands and rivers have 

crocodiles (muggar and gharial), small numbers of Gangetic dolphin and over 20 species of freshwater turtles. The 

plains are also rich in water birds. The Terai belt along the Himalayan foothills retains some natural vegetation and 

typical Indo-Malayan fauna. 

Northeast Indic The eastern Himalaya eKending over north Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradpsh and Assam, along 

with the associated hills of the Northeastern states is one of the richest regions in biological diversity The entire 

range of vegetation typ€s seen in the western Himalaya, from deciduous forest to alpine steppes, is also found here. 

Because of the higher rainfall and lower latitude, vegetation is more tropical and more diverse than in the western 

Himalaya. The floristic richness of the eastern Himalayan region can be gauged from the fact that over 50 per cent 

species described for the whole of India in certain plant taa such as orchids (650 out of l,lfi) types) bamboos (58 

out of lff)), and ferns (more than'500 out of 1,100) are found here. An estimate of 3,000 endemic dicot plants in 

the Himalayan region has been made, of which a major proportion would be found in the east. This region is also 

one of the major centres in the world for the origin of cultivated plants. Wild relatives of banana, citrus, pepper and 

cucurbits are seen here. The primate fauna of this region includes hoolock gibbon (which is India's only ape), golden 

languor. capped languor, Phayre's leaf monkey, Assamese macaque, stump tail macaque, pigtail macaque and slow 

loris The one-horned rhinoceros and thamin deer are endemic, while the largest population of wild buffalos is seen 

here Takin, markhor and urial are found at higher altitudes. 536 species of birds have been listed in the eastern 

Himalayas. 

69

Islands The two major groups of islands are the Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands in the Bay of Be'gd. In the Andanan and Nicobar Islands, the coastal belt has mangrove vegetation and 

coral reefs, while the islands themselves possess some of the best preserrred evergreen forests of the country. Over 

1,000 species of flowering plants, including 220 endemicg arrd V12 species and subspecies of birds including the 

Narcandom hornbill and Nicobar pigeon, are found here. 

C-Gtal rqgims The Indian coastline from Gujarat to West Bengal is about 5,500 km long. Only small fragments of 

the natural vegetation of the coastal tracts remain today. Remnants of the dry evergreen forest tlpical ol the east 

coast can be seen in Tamil Nadtl" where balckbuck are found. Mangrove vegetation, characteristic of estuarine 

tracts, is seen at Pichavaram and a portion of the Sunderbans. The coastd belt is rich in bird fauna. The Rnnn of 

Kutch on the west coast is an impo(ant breeding ground for flamingoes. Along the east coast, Point Calimere, pulicat 

lake and Chilka lake attract a large number of shore birds. Coral reefs are seen in the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of 

Mannar. Among the phytoplankton are 55 species of dinoflagellateg 35 diatoms and 100 cynanophytes and other 

flagellates in the Indian Ocean. Many sea turtles nest along the coastal belt. Special mention -ust be made of the 

dugong which can be seen in the Gulfs of Mannar and Kutch. 

Tabb 52 

E*inct, threatered and vnlneraHe species in Pakistan 

The Wildlife Enquiry Committee Report,'has assessed that 31 species of mammals, 20 of birds, and five of reptiles 

are threatened in Pakistan -- to name a few, Marcopolo sheep, Urtial chimkaara" neelgae all pheasants, all cats, 

cranes, lizards and some species of ducks. 

Eilind : cheetah, Asiatic wild dog; tiger, black buck, cheer pheasant ar:e elmorst e{inct. Snow leopard, leopard cat, 

fuli"g cat, lyq hill fo:g desert fo4 common otter, Indian smooth otter, stone marten, smaller kashmir flying quirrel, 

Indian wild ass, marsh crocodile etc., are xls6 laching ercinction. 

Thrcdened : Western tragopan, cheer pheasant, Great Indian bustard, Siberian white crane, Indus dolphin, snow 

leopar{ wolf, Olive Ridley, green turtle, gavial, Central Asian cobra are under constant threat of erinition. 

Vuherable: Dalmation pelica4 white tail eaglq peregrine falcon" leopard Asiatic wild ass, markhor, muggar and 

other turtles, Central Asian grey monitor, Indian python etq, are very wlnerable. 

Regarding plant species,Ulmus wallichiana is on the ruCN endangered list in the Red Data Book. About 500 species 

of plants are likely to be candidates for listing in the Red Data Book of Pakistan as the work on the status of phnt 

species progresses in Pakistani uaiversities. Saassrca lapp (Cad;ls - kutch) is listed in Appendix-l of CITES and 

cannot be exported for commercial purposes. Obhan (Poptthts enphomtica), Acacia senegal, Acacia catechv, Wan 

(Salvadora oloides), Tuus baccata and Umus wallichiana arc also tnduded rn the hst of endangered srycres.

Tablc 53 

Vegptation of Bhutan 

Main Ecofloristic Zones Bioclimatic Criteria Main Vegetation Types 

Tsne I 

Very moist tropical zone at low 

altitude 

(1,000 m) 

Zone II (a) 

Very moist sub-tropical zone, 

(1,000 to 2,000 m) 

Zone II @) 

Sub-tropical zone 

(1,000 to 2,000 m) 

Tnne III 

Montane zone 

(2,000 to 3,000 m) 

TnneIY 

Highest montane 

zone, 

(3,000 to 4,000 m) 

7.one Y 

Alpine zone 

Table 5.4 

Proteded species in Nepat 

sub-alpine 

Mean annual rainfall and more 

than 2,000 mm in southern 

(east-west) Bhutan; no. of dry 

months less than 3 months; mean 

temperature of the coldest month 

less than 2IPC 

Mean annual rainfall less than 

2,000 mm; no. of rainy days 

100-150 per year; 3 to 5 months 

dry mean temperature of coldest 

month about 15oC 

Mean annual rainfall less than 

1",000 mm; no. of rainy days 

100-150 per year; 4 to 6 dry 

months and mean temperature of 

the dominant coldest month 

10-2fc 

Mean annual rainfall 1,000-2,000 

mm; no. of rainy days 100-120 

per yeari mean annual 

temperature lfC temperature of 

the coldest month less than 5'C; 

tl-5 dry months 

Mean annual rainfall 1,000 to 

1,500 mm; of characterised by 

snow precipitation and winter 

forest; mean annual temperature 

1fC;3-5 dry months 

Climatic data lacking. very long 

dry period; long frost period 3-6 

months (perpetual snow line 

between 4,800-5,000 m) 

Moist dense evergreen a 

semievergreen forests, woodland 

plantations, degraded forestg 

mosaic cf cultivation and trees 

and shrubs 

Dense moist evergreen and 

semievergreen forestg open 

woodland, degraded forest areas 

of shifting cultivation, mosaic of 

cultivation 

Open woodlands and Savannas 

Dense evergreen oak forests, 

areas of shifting cultivation, blue 

pine forest, degraded blue pine, 

grassland 

Coniferous forests, bamboo 

thickets Arundinaria 

Shrubby vegetation 

In Nepal, 26 tpes of mammalso nine species of birds and three types of reptiles are in the protected list. 

Mammals : One-horned rhinoceros, red panda, swamp deer, gaur, wild water buffalo, wild elephant, wild yak, hispid 

hare, musk deer, great Tibetan sheep, tiger, snow leopard, clouded leopard, four-horned antelope, blue buck, lynx, 

striped hyen4 Tibetan antelope, brown bear, pygny hog Assamese monkey, wolf, lingsang leopard cat, pangolin, 

and Gangetic dolphin. 

Birds Impeyan pheasant (danphe), crimson-horned pheasant (rnonal), Bengal florican (khar mujur), great pied 

hornbill (raj dhanesh), black stort, white stork, sarus crane, cheer pheasant, and lesser florican. 

Reptiles: Pyhon, gbarial crocodiles, and golden lizard.

Table 55 

Pereptims of strengtbs and *patnesscs 

Colntry Stneogths Weaknesses 

langl6dss[ 

Bhutan 

India 

Maldives 

Nepal 

Pakistan 

) 

1. 

) 

1. Substantial information on floral and 

vegetation 

types 

3. 

1. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Extensive inventories on flora and 

faunal resources 

Government and non government 

research institutions 

Captive breeding of endangered species 

being undertaken 

Establishment of Marine Research 

Section and Environment Research 

Unit. 

Establishment of wildlife management 

and conservation institutions, enactment 

of wildlife protection and management 

laws and information on flora and 

fauna. 

Wildlife management and conservation 

institutional infrastructure developed at 

the federal level and in some provinces 

Availability of new training courses in 

fish and wildlife management 

Enactment of wildlife protection and 

management laws 

Surveys of wild fauna undertaken 

Captive breeding and reintroduction of - 

some wildlife species 

72 

1. 

2. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

1. 

a L. 

1. 

) 

1. 

L 

3. 

4. 

.5. 

6. 

7. 

No appropriate institutional 

arrangements 

Limited research 

Insufficient information on fauna 

Understalfed wildlife division 

Shortage of equipment and transport 

facilities 

I-ack of accurate boundary demarcation 

of protected areas 

Protection of park only on paper 

Insufficient management plans for 

protected areas 

Lack of resources 

Inadequate infrastructure for research 

and training 

Lack of training in disciplines like 

conservation biologSl, evolutionary 

biolog5r, population genetics and 

ecolog/, for teachers and students of the 

traditional disciplines and for forest 

administrators 

Lack of regular surveillance and 

enforcement of policies 

Lack of conservation institutions with 

well defined procedures and jurisdiction 

Little or no awareness at the grassroots 

Untrained, immobile and poorly paid 

staff 

Inadequate attention paid to captive 

breeding of some endemic pheasants 

Inadequate commitments to conserve 

wild species and their habitats 

Lack of formal training exclusively in 

wildlife management 

Lack of trained personnel for wildlife 

surveys, research, education, 

management, protection" conservation 

and planning 

Lack of incentives for local people to 

protect wildlife 

Inadequate incentives for captive 

breeding programmes in the private 

sector

Sri Lanka L. Identification of 15 floristic regions l. 

7 

5. 

Identification of 91 Protected Areas 

Establishment of a gene bank ex-situ ) 

and in-situ 

J. 

4. Keen interest of NGO - Nature Wildlife 

Protection Societies 

4. 

NA : Not Available 

SBI IANI(A 

Bioclimatic Zones of Sri Lanka 

5. 

6. 

Ef*, end mid country Wet Zone 

Lll t)ry Zone 

l9 to* and mid country Intermediatc Zono 

I gli/tontane Wct Zone 

I f_l Montane Intormediate Zone 

i F lArid Zone 

(Reproduced from 

Qlgate and Naturar vegetation of Sri Lanka by 

Iu.onn.. Wiie-s in ghe (Sinhale publication); friario lnrtituiu, --' 

Colombo: 1984) 

t5 

Lack of sufficient funds to improve 

institutional strengths 

Insufficient staff 

Lack of trained personnel for 

administration and research 

Insuflicient people's participation in 

protection measures 

Illicit poaching and felling disrupting 

natural ecosystems 

Conflicting development activities.

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